text
stringlengths 791
228k
| parts
listlengths 6
567
|
|---|---|
Parish history
--------------
Dominicans first came to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") in 1850 when Bishop [Joseph Sadoc Alemany](/wiki/Joseph_Sadoc_Alemany "Joseph Sadoc Alemany") and Fr Sadoc Francis Vilarrasa and Mary Goemere arrived from [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") via several other appointments in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Bishop Alemany, who in 1840 completed his studies in sacred theology in Rome at the College of St. Thomas (the future [Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas "Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas")), had been appointed [Bishop of Monterey](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Monterey_in_California "Roman Catholic Diocese of Monterey in California") and invited Vilarrasa to accompany him to [California](/wiki/California "California"). The [Archdiocese of San Francisco](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_San_Francisco "Archdiocese of San Francisco") was created in 1853 and Archbishop Alemany was its first incumbent.
The first Dominican [priory](/wiki/Priory "Priory") in San Francisco was established in 1863 at Van Ness and Broadway to provide a center for the friars who were given charge of the new parish of Saint Brigid. The Dominicans served there until 1875 when it was transferred to diocesan clergy. During this time, Dominicans served the parishes of St. Francis of Assisi and [Notre Dame des Victoires](/wiki/Notre-Dame-des-Victoires%2C_San_Francisco "Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, San Francisco") as well.
In 1863, the [Dominican Order](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") paid $6,000 for the city block bounded by Steiner, Bush, Pierce and Pine Streets. During 1872 and 1873, Fr. Vilarrasa and the Provincial Council approved the expenditure of $25,000 to build a priory and a church. The first Saint Dominic's, a small church at the corner of Bush and Steiner Streets, was blessed on June 29, 1873\. The [Priory of Saint Dominic](/wiki/Priory_of_Saint_Dominic "Priory of Saint Dominic") was formally established in 1876\.
By 1880, it was apparent that the church was too small for its rapidly growing congregation. Plans were drawn for a much larger church to be built of brick on the same site. The first church was moved to a location on Pine Street where it served as a parish hall. Although the cornerstone of the second church was laid in 1883, years of financial hardship followed and the church did not open until 1887 and was not completed for several years after. It served the parish until April 18, 1906\.
During the months following the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake "1906 San Francisco earthquake"), parishioners gathered for [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") outdoors until, in October 1906, a wooden church opened on the Pierce Street side of the block. This "temporary" Saint Dominic's was to remain in use as a church until 1928 and as a parish hall until the 1960s.
Work did not begin on the fourth Saint Dominic's until 1923\. After construction was finished in 1928, the new church, designed by Mr. Arnold Constable, was blessed by Archbishop Hanna. Even then, work continued for many years as the building we know now was brought to completion at the time of Saint Dominic's centennial celebration in 1973\.
The current, gothic\-style church shows both English \& French influences in its design and construction, leaning more towards the English. One of the most notable extant French influences is the semi\-circular [apse](/wiki/Apse "Apse") at the western end of the church.
The [Loma Prieta earthquake](/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake "Loma Prieta earthquake") of 1989 destroyed another of the primary French features: the beautiful octagonal "lantern" of Saint Dominic's tower. The tower itself was severely damaged, but was repaired and strengthened during the two months the church was closed. Much of the decorative work on the ceiling beams of the church fell during the quake and the remainder was removed for the safety of the parishioners.
As early as 1984, engineering tests had determined that the church was seismically unstable. Work began immediately to find a solution and a way to pay for it. The Saint Dominic's Preservation and Restoration Project began its work in 1986\. By June 1991, sufficient funds had been raised to begin the construction of nine [flying buttresses](/wiki/Flying_buttresses "Flying buttresses") that rise from concrete piers deep underground and soar to connect at a ring beam that girdles the church at the roof line. This [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") concept was found to be the best solution to a late 20th\-century problem. But the cost was in 1992 dollars: $6\.6 million. Parishioners and friends from around the world confirmed the importance of this Church by raising all the needed funds.
Construction was completed in July 1992, and Archbishop [John R. Quinn](/wiki/John_R._Quinn "John R. Quinn") of San Francisco dedicated the new Saint Dominic's Church on August 1, 1992\.
|
[
"Parish history\n--------------",
"Dominicans first came to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") in 1850 when Bishop [Joseph Sadoc Alemany](/wiki/Joseph_Sadoc_Alemany \"Joseph Sadoc Alemany\") and Fr Sadoc Francis Vilarrasa and Mary Goemere arrived from [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") via several other appointments in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Bishop Alemany, who in 1840 completed his studies in sacred theology in Rome at the College of St. Thomas (the future [Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas \"Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas\")), had been appointed [Bishop of Monterey](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Monterey_in_California \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Monterey in California\") and invited Vilarrasa to accompany him to [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). The [Archdiocese of San Francisco](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_San_Francisco \"Archdiocese of San Francisco\") was created in 1853 and Archbishop Alemany was its first incumbent.",
"The first Dominican [priory](/wiki/Priory \"Priory\") in San Francisco was established in 1863 at Van Ness and Broadway to provide a center for the friars who were given charge of the new parish of Saint Brigid. The Dominicans served there until 1875 when it was transferred to diocesan clergy. During this time, Dominicans served the parishes of St. Francis of Assisi and [Notre Dame des Victoires](/wiki/Notre-Dame-des-Victoires%2C_San_Francisco \"Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, San Francisco\") as well.",
"In 1863, the [Dominican Order](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") paid $6,000 for the city block bounded by Steiner, Bush, Pierce and Pine Streets. During 1872 and 1873, Fr. Vilarrasa and the Provincial Council approved the expenditure of $25,000 to build a priory and a church. The first Saint Dominic's, a small church at the corner of Bush and Steiner Streets, was blessed on June 29, 1873\\. The [Priory of Saint Dominic](/wiki/Priory_of_Saint_Dominic \"Priory of Saint Dominic\") was formally established in 1876\\.",
"By 1880, it was apparent that the church was too small for its rapidly growing congregation. Plans were drawn for a much larger church to be built of brick on the same site. The first church was moved to a location on Pine Street where it served as a parish hall. Although the cornerstone of the second church was laid in 1883, years of financial hardship followed and the church did not open until 1887 and was not completed for several years after. It served the parish until April 18, 1906\\.",
"During the months following the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake \"1906 San Francisco earthquake\"), parishioners gathered for [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") outdoors until, in October 1906, a wooden church opened on the Pierce Street side of the block. This \"temporary\" Saint Dominic's was to remain in use as a church until 1928 and as a parish hall until the 1960s.",
"Work did not begin on the fourth Saint Dominic's until 1923\\. After construction was finished in 1928, the new church, designed by Mr. Arnold Constable, was blessed by Archbishop Hanna. Even then, work continued for many years as the building we know now was brought to completion at the time of Saint Dominic's centennial celebration in 1973\\.",
"The current, gothic\\-style church shows both English \\& French influences in its design and construction, leaning more towards the English. One of the most notable extant French influences is the semi\\-circular [apse](/wiki/Apse \"Apse\") at the western end of the church.",
"The [Loma Prieta earthquake](/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake \"Loma Prieta earthquake\") of 1989 destroyed another of the primary French features: the beautiful octagonal \"lantern\" of Saint Dominic's tower. The tower itself was severely damaged, but was repaired and strengthened during the two months the church was closed. Much of the decorative work on the ceiling beams of the church fell during the quake and the remainder was removed for the safety of the parishioners.",
"As early as 1984, engineering tests had determined that the church was seismically unstable. Work began immediately to find a solution and a way to pay for it. The Saint Dominic's Preservation and Restoration Project began its work in 1986\\. By June 1991, sufficient funds had been raised to begin the construction of nine [flying buttresses](/wiki/Flying_buttresses \"Flying buttresses\") that rise from concrete piers deep underground and soar to connect at a ring beam that girdles the church at the roof line. This [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") concept was found to be the best solution to a late 20th\\-century problem. But the cost was in 1992 dollars: $6\\.6 million. Parishioners and friends from around the world confirmed the importance of this Church by raising all the needed funds.",
"Construction was completed in July 1992, and Archbishop [John R. Quinn](/wiki/John_R._Quinn \"John R. Quinn\") of San Francisco dedicated the new Saint Dominic's Church on August 1, 1992\\.",
""
] |
Franchise history
-----------------
### Mercury heating up (1997–1998\)
With a cast that included hall\-of\-famer [Nancy Lieberman](/wiki/Nancy_Lieberman "Nancy Lieberman"), and future hall\-of\-famers [Michele Timms](/wiki/Michele_Timms "Michele Timms") of [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), and [Jennifer Gillom](/wiki/Jennifer_Gillom "Jennifer Gillom"), hyper\-active star [Bridget Pettis](/wiki/Bridget_Pettis "Bridget Pettis"), and outspoken coach [Cheryl Miller](/wiki/Cheryl_Miller "Cheryl Miller"), the Mercury quickly established itself as a major franchise. In the first WNBA season, the Mercury posted a 16–12 record and reached the first WNBA playoffs. The Mercury lost to the [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty "New York Liberty"), though, in those playoffs.
In 1998, the Mercury again qualified for the playoffs, posting a 19–11 record. The Mercury defeated the [Cleveland Rockers](/wiki/Cleveland_Rockers "Cleveland Rockers") to reach the WNBA Finals for the first time. In a hard\-fought series, the Mercury fell 2 games to 1 to the defending champion [Houston Comets](/wiki/Houston_Comets "Houston Comets").
### Mercury in retrograde (1999–2003\)
In 1999, the Mercury missed the playoffs, posting a 15–17 record. In 2000, the Mercury finished 20–12, but got swept by the [Los Angeles Sparks](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks "Los Angeles Sparks"). The team descended into turmoil after the season, as coach Miller left and the original core group of players broke up, via retirement or trades, and the team stopped being a playoff contender.
From 2001 to 2004, the Mercury were at the bottom of the WNBA. Fielding miserable teams, the Mercury were never competitive. The Mercury went through coach after coach, and nothing worked. During the lean years, the franchise remained in the news as [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 "Forward (basketball)") [Lisa Harrison](/wiki/Lisa_Harrison "Lisa Harrison") would become a sex symbol. [Playboy Magazine](/wiki/Playboy_%28magazine%29 "Playboy (magazine)") offered her money to pose in their magazine. She would decline the offer.{{Cite web\|date\=\|title\=WNBA Player to Decide on Playboy\|url\=https://apnews.com/article/36cecf3080a31e5545c59c633cfa5beb\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25\|website\=The Associated Press\|language\=en}}
### Diana Taurasi joins the WNBA (2004–2005\)
After a horrible 2003 season, in which the Mercury posted an 8–26 record, the Mercury won the \#1 overall choice in the 2004 WNBA Draft, and select coveted former [UConn](/wiki/University_of_Connecticut "University of Connecticut") star [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi "Diana Taurasi"). Taurasi went on to win the [WNBA Rookie of the Year Award](/wiki/WNBA_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award "WNBA Rookie of the Year Award") in the 2004 season, as the Mercury posted a better 17–17 record. The Mercury posted a 16–18 record in 2005, missing the playoffs again.
### Bringing back "Paul Ball" (2006–2007\)
Former [NBA](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association "National Basketball Association") coach [Paul Westhead](/wiki/Paul_Westhead "Paul Westhead") became the Mercury's head coach prior to the 2006 season and brought his up\-tempo style to Phoenix. Westhead was the first WNBA coach to have won a previous NBA championship (1980 [LA Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers "Los Angeles Lakers")). The Mercury also drafted [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter "Cappie Pondexter") with the \#2 overall selection in the 2006 WNBA Draft. The addition provided Taurasi with a solid \#2 player. Westhead's run and gun offense quickly became The Mercury's trademark and the franchise would soon set new league records for points scored.
The 2006 season was a positive one for the Mercury, as they posted a winning record for the first time since 2000, at 18–16\. The Mercury competed for the playoffs all year, but fell just short of a postseason berth.
As the 2007 season came, the Mercury were poised and hungry for a deep playoff run. The Mercury would run away with the Western Conference, posting their best record in franchise history at 23–11, as well as clinching the \#1 seed. The Mercury set a record by averaging 89\.0 points in a season during 2007\.Sports Illustrated, September 24, 2007, p. 67 In their first playoffs since 2000, the Mercury made quick work of the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm "Seattle Storm") in the first round, blowing them out in two games (Game 1: 101–84, Game 2: 95–89\). In the Western Finals, the Mercury swept the [San Antonio Silver Stars](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars "San Antonio Silver Stars") in a closer series (Game 1: 102–100, Game 2: 98–92\), advancing to the WNBA Finals for the first time in nine years. In the Finals, the Mercury faced the defending 2006 champions [Detroit Shock](/wiki/Detroit_Shock "Detroit Shock"). The two teams split the first two games in Detroit. Coming back home, the Mercury suffered a letdown in game 3, losing 88–83\. Down 2–1, the Mercury had to win game 4 or lose. Game 4 came down to the final seconds, but the Mercury edged out the Shock 77–76, with Cappie Pondexter scoring 26 points, and forced a Game 5 in Detroit. In Game 5, Phoenix won by a score of 108–92\. [Penny Taylor](/wiki/Penny_Taylor "Penny Taylor") scored a game high 30 points in Game 5, and went 18\-for\-18 from the line. The Mercury won the series and their first championship with a 108–92 Game 5 victory, becoming the first WNBA team to win a championship on the road. [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter "Cappie Pondexter") was named the WNBA Finals MVP, and averaged 22\.0 points and 5\.6 assists in the series. On November 7, 2007, The Mercury announced the hiring of [Corey Gaines](/wiki/Corey_Gaines "Corey Gaines") as head coach to replace the departing [Paul Westhead](/wiki/Paul_Westhead "Paul Westhead").
### Mercury fall, Mercury rise (2008–2011\)
In 2008, the Mercury started slowly and never really found a groove, finishing the season with a disappointing record of 16–18, well out of the playoff picture in a tough Western Conference. The Mercury became the first team in WNBA history with the dubious honor of failing to qualify for the playoffs after winning the WNBA Finals the year before.
However, a year later, the Mercury were back to what they were two years before. The Mercury clinched the top spot in the playoffs along with the number one seed in the Western Conference. The Mercury defeated the 2008 conference champion [San Antonio Silver Stars](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars "San Antonio Silver Stars") in the first round, winning the very exciting series 2–1 after losing the first game on the road. The Mercury then defeated the Los Angeles Sparks in the conference finals, winning 2–1 in a series that ended Lisa Leslie's career. The Mercury then went on to beat the [Indiana Fever](/wiki/Indiana_Fever "Indiana Fever") 3–2 in the best of 5 series to capture the second title in their franchise history. [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi "Diana Taurasi") captured the [WNBA Finals MVP Award](/wiki/WNBA_Finals_MVP_Award "WNBA Finals MVP Award"). All\-star guard [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter "Cappie Pondexter") was traded to the [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty "New York Liberty") amid some controversy in the offseason; All\-Star [Candice Dupree](/wiki/Candice_Dupree "Candice Dupree") joined the duo of Taurasi and [Penny Taylor](/wiki/Penny_Taylor "Penny Taylor") as the Mercury looked to repeat in 2010\.
It was not easy, however, as the Mercury faced a few bad losing streaks throughout the 2010 season. The team managed to finish 15–19, good for second place in the Western Conference. Phoenix swept [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars "San Antonio Silver Stars") in the first round of the Playoffs, but lost to the eventual champion [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm "Seattle Storm") in the conference finals.
After a hectic offseason for [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi "Diana Taurasi"), most of the Mercury team was rested and ready to play. The team started the 2011 season with a surprising 0–3 record, but flew back into playoff contention, entering the [All\-Star break](/wiki/2011_WNBA_All-Star_Game "2011 WNBA All-Star Game") with a 10–5 record. Ultimately, they recovered to gain the third seed in the [2011 WNBA Playoffs](/wiki/2011_WNBA_Playoffs "2011 WNBA Playoffs"), and upset the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm "Seattle Storm") in the opening round, closing an 18\-point deficit to win on Seattle's home floor, allowing the Mercury to reach its third straight conference finals. Unfortunately, for the team, they came up short against the top\-seeded [Minnesota Lynx](/wiki/Minnesota_Lynx "Minnesota Lynx"), losing in two games.
### Brittney Griner arrives (2013–present)
[thumb\|300px\|Phoenix Mercury at the White House to honor 2014 Championship](/wiki/File:Phoenix_Mercury_at_the_White_House_to_honor_2014_Championship.JPG "Phoenix Mercury at the White House to honor 2014 Championship.JPG")
Coming off the 2012 WNBA season in which the Phoenix Mercury franchise finished with the second worst record in the WNBA, a 7–27 mark, Phoenix received the 2013 WNBA draft lottery and secured the top overall pick. Once the [2013 WNBA draft](/wiki/2013_WNBA_draft "2013 WNBA draft") arrived in April 2013, the Mercury used the top overall pick on two time Women's College Basketball Wooden award winner [Brittney Griner](/wiki/Brittney_Griner "Brittney Griner"). However, the Mercury lost to the Lynx in the Conference round of the playoffs.
The following season the Mercury under the guidance of new coach [Sandy Brondello](/wiki/Sandy_Brondello "Sandy Brondello") went on to set an all time WNBA record for wins in a season, with 29, and breezed through the 2014 playoffs to claim their 3rd WNBA Championship.
On February 3, 2015, [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi "Diana Taurasi") announced that she would sit out the 2015 WNBA season at the request of her Russian Premier League team, UMMC Ekaterinburg. The team offered Taurasi to pay her more than her WNBA salary to skip the 2015 WNBA season. For the 2014 WNBA season, Taurasi made just under the league maximum of $107,000\. But she makes 15 times that \- approximately $1\.5 million \- playing overseas.
In [2016](/wiki/2016_WNBA_Playoffs "2016 WNBA Playoffs"), the WNBA switched to a playoff format involving single elimination games in the first two rounds. The eighth\-seeded Mercury upset the [Indiana Fever](/wiki/Indiana_Fever "Indiana Fever") in the First Round and [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty "New York Liberty") in the Second Round to reach the Semifinals. However, they lost the Semifinals to the [Minnesota Lynx](/wiki/Minnesota_Lynx "Minnesota Lynx").{{cite web \|url\=http://mercury.wnba.com/schedule/\#?season\=2016\&seasontype\=04 \|title\=2016 WNBA playoff results \|website\=\[\[WNBA.com]] \|access\-date\=3 October 2016}}
In [2017](/wiki/2017_WNBA_Playoffs "2017 WNBA Playoffs"), the Mercury once again sailed through the first two rounds of the playoffs, winning their games against the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm "Seattle Storm") and [Connecticut Sun](/wiki/Connecticut_Sun "Connecticut Sun"). Again, they lost in the Semifinals, this time to the [Los Angeles Sparks](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks "Los Angeles Sparks").
[2018](/wiki/2018_WNBA_Playoffs "2018 WNBA Playoffs") saw the Mercury win both single\-elimination playoff games for the third year in a row with victories against the [Dallas Wings](/wiki/Dallas_Wings "Dallas Wings") and [Connecticut Sun](/wiki/Connecticut_Sun "Connecticut Sun"), giving [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi "Diana Taurasi") a 13–0 record in winner\-take\-all elimination games in her career. In the semifinals, the Mercury came up short against the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm "Seattle Storm") in the decisive fifth game, giving Taurasi her first ever loss in a winner\-take\-all elimination game.
### Uniform sponsor
In June 2009 the Mercury and WNBA announced a [sponsorship](/wiki/Sponsor_%28commercial%29 "Sponsor (commercial)") agreement with [identity theft](/wiki/Identity_theft "Identity theft") protection service [LifeLock](/wiki/LifeLock "LifeLock") to place that company's logo on their jerseys through the 2013 season, making the Mercury among the first non\-soccer franchises in the major leagues of North America to place a company logo on their uniforms.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wnba.com/mercury/news/lifelock\_release\_090601\.html \|title\=MERCURY: Mercury, LifeLock Break New Ground with Partnership \|publisher\=Wnba.com \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-22}} For the 2014 season and going forward, the Mercury will wear jerseys sponsored by [Casino Arizona](/wiki/Casino_Arizona "Casino Arizona") and [Talking Stick Resort](/wiki/Talking_Stick_Resort "Talking Stick Resort").
|
[
"Franchise history\n-----------------",
"### Mercury heating up (1997–1998\\)",
"With a cast that included hall\\-of\\-famer [Nancy Lieberman](/wiki/Nancy_Lieberman \"Nancy Lieberman\"), and future hall\\-of\\-famers [Michele Timms](/wiki/Michele_Timms \"Michele Timms\") of [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), and [Jennifer Gillom](/wiki/Jennifer_Gillom \"Jennifer Gillom\"), hyper\\-active star [Bridget Pettis](/wiki/Bridget_Pettis \"Bridget Pettis\"), and outspoken coach [Cheryl Miller](/wiki/Cheryl_Miller \"Cheryl Miller\"), the Mercury quickly established itself as a major franchise. In the first WNBA season, the Mercury posted a 16–12 record and reached the first WNBA playoffs. The Mercury lost to the [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty \"New York Liberty\"), though, in those playoffs.",
"In 1998, the Mercury again qualified for the playoffs, posting a 19–11 record. The Mercury defeated the [Cleveland Rockers](/wiki/Cleveland_Rockers \"Cleveland Rockers\") to reach the WNBA Finals for the first time. In a hard\\-fought series, the Mercury fell 2 games to 1 to the defending champion [Houston Comets](/wiki/Houston_Comets \"Houston Comets\").",
"### Mercury in retrograde (1999–2003\\)",
"In 1999, the Mercury missed the playoffs, posting a 15–17 record. In 2000, the Mercury finished 20–12, but got swept by the [Los Angeles Sparks](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks \"Los Angeles Sparks\"). The team descended into turmoil after the season, as coach Miller left and the original core group of players broke up, via retirement or trades, and the team stopped being a playoff contender.",
"From 2001 to 2004, the Mercury were at the bottom of the WNBA. Fielding miserable teams, the Mercury were never competitive. The Mercury went through coach after coach, and nothing worked. During the lean years, the franchise remained in the news as [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 \"Forward (basketball)\") [Lisa Harrison](/wiki/Lisa_Harrison \"Lisa Harrison\") would become a sex symbol. [Playboy Magazine](/wiki/Playboy_%28magazine%29 \"Playboy (magazine)\") offered her money to pose in their magazine. She would decline the offer.{{Cite web\\|date\\=\\|title\\=WNBA Player to Decide on Playboy\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/36cecf3080a31e5545c59c633cfa5beb\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25\\|website\\=The Associated Press\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Diana Taurasi joins the WNBA (2004–2005\\)",
"After a horrible 2003 season, in which the Mercury posted an 8–26 record, the Mercury won the \\#1 overall choice in the 2004 WNBA Draft, and select coveted former [UConn](/wiki/University_of_Connecticut \"University of Connecticut\") star [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi \"Diana Taurasi\"). Taurasi went on to win the [WNBA Rookie of the Year Award](/wiki/WNBA_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award \"WNBA Rookie of the Year Award\") in the 2004 season, as the Mercury posted a better 17–17 record. The Mercury posted a 16–18 record in 2005, missing the playoffs again.",
"### Bringing back \"Paul Ball\" (2006–2007\\)",
"Former [NBA](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association \"National Basketball Association\") coach [Paul Westhead](/wiki/Paul_Westhead \"Paul Westhead\") became the Mercury's head coach prior to the 2006 season and brought his up\\-tempo style to Phoenix. Westhead was the first WNBA coach to have won a previous NBA championship (1980 [LA Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers \"Los Angeles Lakers\")). The Mercury also drafted [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter \"Cappie Pondexter\") with the \\#2 overall selection in the 2006 WNBA Draft. The addition provided Taurasi with a solid \\#2 player. Westhead's run and gun offense quickly became The Mercury's trademark and the franchise would soon set new league records for points scored.",
"The 2006 season was a positive one for the Mercury, as they posted a winning record for the first time since 2000, at 18–16\\. The Mercury competed for the playoffs all year, but fell just short of a postseason berth.",
"As the 2007 season came, the Mercury were poised and hungry for a deep playoff run. The Mercury would run away with the Western Conference, posting their best record in franchise history at 23–11, as well as clinching the \\#1 seed. The Mercury set a record by averaging 89\\.0 points in a season during 2007\\.Sports Illustrated, September 24, 2007, p. 67 In their first playoffs since 2000, the Mercury made quick work of the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm \"Seattle Storm\") in the first round, blowing them out in two games (Game 1: 101–84, Game 2: 95–89\\). In the Western Finals, the Mercury swept the [San Antonio Silver Stars](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars \"San Antonio Silver Stars\") in a closer series (Game 1: 102–100, Game 2: 98–92\\), advancing to the WNBA Finals for the first time in nine years. In the Finals, the Mercury faced the defending 2006 champions [Detroit Shock](/wiki/Detroit_Shock \"Detroit Shock\"). The two teams split the first two games in Detroit. Coming back home, the Mercury suffered a letdown in game 3, losing 88–83\\. Down 2–1, the Mercury had to win game 4 or lose. Game 4 came down to the final seconds, but the Mercury edged out the Shock 77–76, with Cappie Pondexter scoring 26 points, and forced a Game 5 in Detroit. In Game 5, Phoenix won by a score of 108–92\\. [Penny Taylor](/wiki/Penny_Taylor \"Penny Taylor\") scored a game high 30 points in Game 5, and went 18\\-for\\-18 from the line. The Mercury won the series and their first championship with a 108–92 Game 5 victory, becoming the first WNBA team to win a championship on the road. [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter \"Cappie Pondexter\") was named the WNBA Finals MVP, and averaged 22\\.0 points and 5\\.6 assists in the series. On November 7, 2007, The Mercury announced the hiring of [Corey Gaines](/wiki/Corey_Gaines \"Corey Gaines\") as head coach to replace the departing [Paul Westhead](/wiki/Paul_Westhead \"Paul Westhead\").",
"### Mercury fall, Mercury rise (2008–2011\\)",
"In 2008, the Mercury started slowly and never really found a groove, finishing the season with a disappointing record of 16–18, well out of the playoff picture in a tough Western Conference. The Mercury became the first team in WNBA history with the dubious honor of failing to qualify for the playoffs after winning the WNBA Finals the year before.",
"However, a year later, the Mercury were back to what they were two years before. The Mercury clinched the top spot in the playoffs along with the number one seed in the Western Conference. The Mercury defeated the 2008 conference champion [San Antonio Silver Stars](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars \"San Antonio Silver Stars\") in the first round, winning the very exciting series 2–1 after losing the first game on the road. The Mercury then defeated the Los Angeles Sparks in the conference finals, winning 2–1 in a series that ended Lisa Leslie's career. The Mercury then went on to beat the [Indiana Fever](/wiki/Indiana_Fever \"Indiana Fever\") 3–2 in the best of 5 series to capture the second title in their franchise history. [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi \"Diana Taurasi\") captured the [WNBA Finals MVP Award](/wiki/WNBA_Finals_MVP_Award \"WNBA Finals MVP Award\"). All\\-star guard [Cappie Pondexter](/wiki/Cappie_Pondexter \"Cappie Pondexter\") was traded to the [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty \"New York Liberty\") amid some controversy in the offseason; All\\-Star [Candice Dupree](/wiki/Candice_Dupree \"Candice Dupree\") joined the duo of Taurasi and [Penny Taylor](/wiki/Penny_Taylor \"Penny Taylor\") as the Mercury looked to repeat in 2010\\.",
"It was not easy, however, as the Mercury faced a few bad losing streaks throughout the 2010 season. The team managed to finish 15–19, good for second place in the Western Conference. Phoenix swept [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio_Silver_Stars \"San Antonio Silver Stars\") in the first round of the Playoffs, but lost to the eventual champion [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm \"Seattle Storm\") in the conference finals.",
"After a hectic offseason for [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi \"Diana Taurasi\"), most of the Mercury team was rested and ready to play. The team started the 2011 season with a surprising 0–3 record, but flew back into playoff contention, entering the [All\\-Star break](/wiki/2011_WNBA_All-Star_Game \"2011 WNBA All-Star Game\") with a 10–5 record. Ultimately, they recovered to gain the third seed in the [2011 WNBA Playoffs](/wiki/2011_WNBA_Playoffs \"2011 WNBA Playoffs\"), and upset the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm \"Seattle Storm\") in the opening round, closing an 18\\-point deficit to win on Seattle's home floor, allowing the Mercury to reach its third straight conference finals. Unfortunately, for the team, they came up short against the top\\-seeded [Minnesota Lynx](/wiki/Minnesota_Lynx \"Minnesota Lynx\"), losing in two games.",
"### Brittney Griner arrives (2013–present)",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Phoenix Mercury at the White House to honor 2014 Championship](/wiki/File:Phoenix_Mercury_at_the_White_House_to_honor_2014_Championship.JPG \"Phoenix Mercury at the White House to honor 2014 Championship.JPG\")\nComing off the 2012 WNBA season in which the Phoenix Mercury franchise finished with the second worst record in the WNBA, a 7–27 mark, Phoenix received the 2013 WNBA draft lottery and secured the top overall pick. Once the [2013 WNBA draft](/wiki/2013_WNBA_draft \"2013 WNBA draft\") arrived in April 2013, the Mercury used the top overall pick on two time Women's College Basketball Wooden award winner [Brittney Griner](/wiki/Brittney_Griner \"Brittney Griner\"). However, the Mercury lost to the Lynx in the Conference round of the playoffs.\nThe following season the Mercury under the guidance of new coach [Sandy Brondello](/wiki/Sandy_Brondello \"Sandy Brondello\") went on to set an all time WNBA record for wins in a season, with 29, and breezed through the 2014 playoffs to claim their 3rd WNBA Championship.",
"On February 3, 2015, [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi \"Diana Taurasi\") announced that she would sit out the 2015 WNBA season at the request of her Russian Premier League team, UMMC Ekaterinburg. The team offered Taurasi to pay her more than her WNBA salary to skip the 2015 WNBA season. For the 2014 WNBA season, Taurasi made just under the league maximum of $107,000\\. But she makes 15 times that \\- approximately $1\\.5 million \\- playing overseas.",
"In [2016](/wiki/2016_WNBA_Playoffs \"2016 WNBA Playoffs\"), the WNBA switched to a playoff format involving single elimination games in the first two rounds. The eighth\\-seeded Mercury upset the [Indiana Fever](/wiki/Indiana_Fever \"Indiana Fever\") in the First Round and [New York Liberty](/wiki/New_York_Liberty \"New York Liberty\") in the Second Round to reach the Semifinals. However, they lost the Semifinals to the [Minnesota Lynx](/wiki/Minnesota_Lynx \"Minnesota Lynx\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mercury.wnba.com/schedule/\\#?season\\=2016\\&seasontype\\=04 \\|title\\=2016 WNBA playoff results \\|website\\=\\[\\[WNBA.com]] \\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2016}}",
"In [2017](/wiki/2017_WNBA_Playoffs \"2017 WNBA Playoffs\"), the Mercury once again sailed through the first two rounds of the playoffs, winning their games against the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm \"Seattle Storm\") and [Connecticut Sun](/wiki/Connecticut_Sun \"Connecticut Sun\"). Again, they lost in the Semifinals, this time to the [Los Angeles Sparks](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks \"Los Angeles Sparks\").",
"[2018](/wiki/2018_WNBA_Playoffs \"2018 WNBA Playoffs\") saw the Mercury win both single\\-elimination playoff games for the third year in a row with victories against the [Dallas Wings](/wiki/Dallas_Wings \"Dallas Wings\") and [Connecticut Sun](/wiki/Connecticut_Sun \"Connecticut Sun\"), giving [Diana Taurasi](/wiki/Diana_Taurasi \"Diana Taurasi\") a 13–0 record in winner\\-take\\-all elimination games in her career. In the semifinals, the Mercury came up short against the [Seattle Storm](/wiki/Seattle_Storm \"Seattle Storm\") in the decisive fifth game, giving Taurasi her first ever loss in a winner\\-take\\-all elimination game.",
"### Uniform sponsor",
"In June 2009 the Mercury and WNBA announced a [sponsorship](/wiki/Sponsor_%28commercial%29 \"Sponsor (commercial)\") agreement with [identity theft](/wiki/Identity_theft \"Identity theft\") protection service [LifeLock](/wiki/LifeLock \"LifeLock\") to place that company's logo on their jerseys through the 2013 season, making the Mercury among the first non\\-soccer franchises in the major leagues of North America to place a company logo on their uniforms.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wnba.com/mercury/news/lifelock\\_release\\_090601\\.html \\|title\\=MERCURY: Mercury, LifeLock Break New Ground with Partnership \\|publisher\\=Wnba.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-22}} For the 2014 season and going forward, the Mercury will wear jerseys sponsored by [Casino Arizona](/wiki/Casino_Arizona \"Casino Arizona\") and [Talking Stick Resort](/wiki/Talking_Stick_Resort \"Talking Stick Resort\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Randolfo Pacciardi was born in [Giuncarico](/wiki/Giuncarico "Giuncarico"), in the [province of Grosseto](/wiki/Province_of_Grosseto "Province of Grosseto"), in southern [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany"). In 1915 he became a member of the Italian Republican Party. A supporter of [Italy's participation in World War I](/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I "Italian entry into World War I"), he enrolled in the officers' school of the [Italian Army](/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army "Royal Italian Army") and took part in the hostilities, receiving two [Silver Medals](/wiki/Silver_Medal_of_Military_Valor "Silver Medal of Military Valor") and one [Bronze Medal of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor "Bronze Medal of Military Valor"), as well as a British [Military Cross](/wiki/Military_Cross "Military Cross") and a French *[Croix de guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre "Croix de Guerre")*.{{Cite web \|title\=Archivio Randolfo Pacciardi (1919 aprile 22 \- 1991 aprile 16\). Profilo storico\-biografico \|url\=https://archivio.camera.it/inventari/profilo/fondo\-randolfo\-pacciardi \|website\=Archivio storico della Camera dei Deputati \|language\=it}}
### Resistance to Fascism and exile
In 1921 he received a law degree from the [University of Siena](/wiki/University_of_Siena "University of Siena"), and later collaborated with the local newspaper *L'Etruria Nuova*. He moved to Rome the following year. He was a staunch opponent of the growing violence of [Fascist squads](/wiki/Squadrismo "Squadrismo") and in 1923 established [Italia Libera](/wiki/Italia_Libera_%28anti-fascist_organization%29 "Italia Libera (anti-fascist organization)"), an anti\-fascist [veterans' organization](/wiki/Veterans%27_organization "Veterans' organization").{{Cite web \|last\=Polese Remaggi \|first\=Luca \|date\=2014 \|title\=PACCIARDI, Randolfo in "Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani" \|url\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/randolfo\-pacciardi\_(Dizionario\-Biografico)/ \|access\-date\=28 October 2022 \|website\=\[\[Treccani]]}} Italia Libera would be one of the few groups to plan for armed resistance to [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") in the wake of the assassination of Socialist deputy [Giacomo Matteotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti "Giacomo Matteotti"), and one of the first opposition group to be banned by the government, in January 1925\.{{Cite book \|last\=Zani \|first\=Luciano \|title\=Italia libera, il primo movimento antifascista clandestino (1923\-1925\) \|publisher\=\[\[Editori Laterza\|Laterza]] \|year\=1975 \|location\=Bari \|language\=it}}{{Cite book \|last\=Acquarone \|first\=Alberto \|title\=L'organizzazione dello Stato totalitario \|publisher\=\[\[Giulio Einaudi editore\|Einaudi]] \|year\=1965 \|location\=Turin \|pages\=48 \|language\=it}} As a lawyer he successfully defended the party newspaper *La Voce Repubblicana* against a defamation lawsuit, after an article had accused high\-ranking Fascist [Italo Balbo](/wiki/Italo_Balbo "Italo Balbo") of having ordered the assassination of anti\-fascist priest [Giovanni Minzoni](/wiki/Giovanni_Minzoni "Giovanni Minzoni").
When the Fascists outlawed all rival parties in November 1926, Pacciardi was sentenced to five years of internal exile, but was able to escape to Austria and then to [Lugano](/wiki/Lugano "Lugano"), Switzerland, with the help of Ernesta Battisti, the widow of Italian patriot [Cesare Battisti](/wiki/Cesare_Battisti_%28politician%29 "Cesare Battisti (politician)"). While in Switzerland he maintained contacts with the *[Giustizia e libertà](/wiki/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0 "Giustizia e Libertà")* group and offered logistical support to various anti\-fascists, including [Sandro Pertini](/wiki/Sandro_Pertini "Sandro Pertini"), to whom he procured a counterfeit passport, and Giovanni Bassanesi and Gioacchino Dolci, who flew over [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") in July 1930 to throw propaganda leaflets.
In 1933 the Italian government pressured Switzerland to expel all anti\-fascist refugees, forcing Pacciardi to relocate to [Mulhouse](/wiki/Mulhouse "Mulhouse"), in the [Alsace](/wiki/Alsace "Alsace") region of France.
### Participation in the Spanish Civil War
With the outbreak of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") he helped organize and took the command of the Italian Legion, later renamed [Garibaldi Battalion](/wiki/Garibaldi_Battalion "Garibaldi Battalion") and integrated in the [International Brigades](/wiki/International_Brigades "International Brigades"), a unit of Italian volunteers fighting in support of the [Spanish Republic](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic "Second Spanish Republic"). Pacciardi's original intent was to organize a non\-political volunteer group at direct disposal of the [Popular Front](/wiki/Popular_Front_%28Spain%29 "Popular Front (Spain)") government, on the model of the [Garibaldi Legion](/wiki/Garibaldi_Legion_%28Foreign_Legion%29 "Garibaldi Legion (Foreign Legion)") which had helped France in the early phases of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Through the good offices of other exiled anti\-fascists like Socialist [Pietro Nenni](/wiki/Pietro_Nenni "Pietro Nenni") and Communist [Luigi Longo](/wiki/Luigi_Longo "Luigi Longo") he received a hearing from [Francisco Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero "Francisco Largo Caballero") in early September 1936, but the Spanish Prime Minister wasn't interested in the proposal and only changed his mind when the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International") decided to establish the more sizeable and better\-funded International Brigades. On 27 October the representatives of the main anti\-fascist parties in the exile signed an agreement in the Paris for the establishment of the Garibaldi Battalion. The choice of commander fell on Pacciardi largely due to his military qualifications and a desire to project an image of unity through reliance on a non\-Marxist with impeccable anti\-fascist credentials.{{Cite book \|last\=Richardson \|first\=R. Dan \|title\=Comintern Army: The International Brigades and the Spanish Civil War \|publisher\=University Press of Kentucky \|year\=1982 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8131\-5446\-6 \|location\=Lexington Kentucky}}
With the Garibaldi Battalion he took part in the [defense of Madrid](/wiki/Siege_of_Madrid "Siege of Madrid"), the [battle of Jarama](/wiki/Battle_of_Jarama "Battle of Jarama") \- where he was wounded \- and the final stages of the [battle of Guadalajara](/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalajara "Battle of Guadalajara"), and he was considered a successful commander and respected by his men.Richardson, p. 64 The battle of Guadalajara, which saw Republicans defeat [Italian troops](/wiki/Corpo_Truppe_Volontarie "Corpo Truppe Volontarie") sent by [Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini"), was the first instance of Italians taking part on opposite side of an engagement during the civil war.
While the International Brigades were Communist\-dominated, having been organized by the Comintern and strictly supervised by [political commissars](/wiki/Political_commissar "Political commissar"), in the months of Pacciardi's leadership the Garibaldi Battalion (later Garibaldi Brigade) developed a reputation for political tolerance, hosting communists, socialists, and republicans.{{Cite journal \|last\=Zimmer \|first\=Kenyon \|date\=Fall 2016 \|title\=The Other Volunteers: American Anarchists and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.14321/jstudradi.10\.2\.0019 \|journal\=Journal for the Study of Radicalism \|volume\=10 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=31, 37–38 \|doi\=10\.14321/jstudradi.10\.2\.0019 \|jstor\=10\.14321/jstudradi.10\.2\.0019 \|s2cid\=159515808 \|via\=JSTOR}} It was also the only unit within the Brigades to have a substantial number of anarchists. In May 1937, when the "Garibaldi" was asked to suppress [anarchist](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica "Federación Anarquista Ibérica") and [POUM](/wiki/POUM "POUM") fighters in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona") as part of internal purges of the Republican camp, Pacciardi instructed acting commander Carlo Penchienati to refuse. His persistent refusal to accept discipline within the normal chain of command, including the authority of political commissars over the appointment of subordinates, and frequent criticism of his superiors, exacerbated differences and fueled attempts to remove him from command or otherwise prevent contacts with his subordinates. Pacciardi also showed little interest in the mixed\-nationality nature of most International Brigades, having always preferred a self\-sufficient all\-Italian unit to "the anonymity of internationalism". Lamenting the lack of autonomy in the face of the integration of all International Brigades in the regular [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Republican_Army "Spanish Republican Army") he requested a temporary leave for all Italian volunteers to give them the opportunity to go abroad and recruit among members among Italian emigrants in France and elsewhere, but this was rejected.
During a brief absence Communists tried to engineer his replacement with political commissar [Ilio Barontini](/wiki/Ilio_Barontini "Ilio Barontini"), but couldn't find enough support within the Spanish government to do so. They also offered him a promotion to division staff, which he turned down. Finally, at the urging of Penchienati and Nenni, Pacciardi accepted the post of vice divisional commander for the duration of the next offensive, as a gesture to improve the unity and morale of the brigade. He finally left Spain for good in October 1937\.
Sources more sympathetic to the Communist point of view have also blamed his departure on his adherence to traditional models of military leadership, like the separation between officers' and troops' quarters, as well as the leave request, which has been interpreted as unviable in the context of the war effort or even as an outright proposal to dissolve the brigade rather than accept a reduction of personal authority.{{Cite web \|last\=Disoteo \|first\=Maurizio \|date\=13 December 2019 \|title\=Guerra di Spagna: la storia della Brigata Garibaldi \|url\=https://contropiano.org/news/cultura\-news/2019/12/13/guerra\-di\-spagna\-la\-storia\-della\-brigata\-garibaldi\-0121937 \|access\-date\=31 October 2022 \|website\=Contropiano \|language\=it}}{{Cite book \|last\=Pesce \|first\=Giovanni \|title\=Senza tregua. La guerra dei GAP \|publisher\=\[\[Feltrinelli (publisher)\|Feltrinelli]] \|year\=1967 \|edition\=2nd \|location\=Milan \|language\=it \|quote\=Pacciardi aveva sostenuto la tesi d'inviare in licenza in Francia tutti i garibaldini affinché facessero opera di proselitismo e di reclutamento fra gli immigrati italiani. Era stato aspramente criticato dai comunisti i quali consideravano follia abbandonare la lotta proprio nel momento in cui la Spagna attraversava un periodo estremamente critico. \[...] Purtroppo le tesi di Pacciardi avevano generato una certa atmosfera di sfiducia nei combattenti politicamente meno preparati. \|author\-link\=Giovanni Pesce}}
### World War II
Moving to Paris he founded a weekly magazine, *La Giovine Italia* (named after the [Young Italy](/wiki/Young_Italy "Young Italy") movement established by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini "Giuseppe Mazzini") in the 19th century). Between March and May 1938 he also held a round of lectures in the United States about anti\-fascism, with the goal of raising funds for the Spanish Republic.
Forced to flee by the [German invasion of France](/wiki/German_invasion_of_France_%281940%29 "German invasion of France (1940)"), he and his wife finally reached New York aboard the liner *[Serpa Pinto](/wiki/RMS_Ebro "RMS Ebro")* on 26 December 1941, after traveling through [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers"), [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca "Casablanca") and [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") with false documents. In the United States Pacciardi supported the unsuccessful efforts of the Italian\-American [Mazzini Society](/wiki/Mazzini_Society "Mazzini Society"), of which he had been a member since its founding in 1939, to organize volunteer groups to take part in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") on the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") side. He also tried to contact [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle"), via [Pierre Mendès\-France](/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s-France "Pierre Mendès-France"), to ask him to attach the prospective units to the [Free French Forces](/wiki/Free_France "Free France").{{cite speech \|title\=Franche parole agli Alleati \|trans\-title\=Frank Words to the Allies \|author\=Randolfo Pacciardi \|date\=16 October 1943 \|location\=\[\[Carnegie Hall]] \|url\=https://archivio.camera.it/resources/pu01/allegati/pacciardi.pdf\#page\=20 \|access\-date\=30 October 2022 \|language\=it}} Plans for an Italian Legion however were seriously hampered by recruitment difficulties: the Mazzini Society couldn't count on the same base as De Gaulle, who enjoyed the loyalty of a part of the French military and controlled territory in some French colonies; nor it could hope to recruit most Italian Americans, who would be drafted in the US Armed Forces. Despite his growing dislike of Communism, during this time Pacciardi pursued a line of cooperation and unity between all anti\-fascist forces, which was a cause of friction with the rest of the Society and ultimately prompted him to resign his membership.{{Cite news \|date\=27 December 1941 \|title\=Guadalajara hero plans 'Free Italy' \|page\=8 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\= https://www.nytimes.com/1941/12/27/archives/guadalajara\-hero\-plans\-free\-italy\-antifascist\-leader\-arrives\-on.html \|access\-date\=29 October 2022}}{{Cite book \|last\=Richet \|first\=Isabelle \|title\=Women, Antifascism and Mussolini's Italy: The Life of Marion Cave Rosselli \|publisher\=Tauris Academic Studies \|year\=2018 \|page\=214}}
### Return to Italy
[thumb\|upright\|Pacciardi in 1945\.](/wiki/File:Randolfo_Pacciardi_1945.jpg "Randolfo Pacciardi 1945.jpg")
He returned to Italy in June 1944, after the [liberation of Rome](/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio "Battle of Anzio"), immediately becoming a member of the leadership of the re\-established PRI. He supported [Giovanni Conti](/wiki/Giovanni_Conti_%28politician%29 "Giovanni Conti (politician)")'s hardline opposition to any form of cooperation with the Italian monarchy, which put Republicans at odds with the other anti\-fascist parties, who were organized in the [National Liberation Committee](/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee "National Liberation Committee") and held ministries in the royal government. When pro\-monarchist parties withdrew their support from the [Parri Cabinet](/wiki/Parri_Cabinet "Parri Cabinet") he tried to persuade Parri to remain as Prime Minister, but unsuccessfully. He became national secretary of PRI in 1945 and was elected to the [Constituent Assembly of Italy](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy "Constituent Assembly of Italy") the following year. With the [end of the Italian monarchy](/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum "1946 Italian institutional referendum") the Republican Party entered a coalition government for the first time, with [Cipriano Facchinetti](/wiki/Cipriano_Facchinetti "Cipriano Facchinetti") serving as [Minister of War](/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_War "Italian Minister of War") in the [De Gasperi II Cabinet](/wiki/De_Gasperi_II_Cabinet "De Gasperi II Cabinet").
During the [May 1947 government crisis](/wiki/May_1947_crises "May 1947 crises"), when [De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi "Alcide De Gasperi") removed the [Communist](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party "Italian Communist Party") (PCI) and [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party") (PSI) parties from the cabinet, at first the PRI withheld support from the new government. The party was actually split between Pacciardi, who advocated continuing cooperation with PCI in line with his beliefs in anti\-fascist unity, and Conti and Facchinetti, who blamed Communists for government inefficiency. Initially, the former approach prevailed.{{Cite web \|last\=Caridi \|first\=Paola \|date\=1994 \|title\=FACCHINETTI, Cipriano in "Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani" \|url\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/cipriano\-facchinetti\_%28Dizionario\-Biografico%29/ \|access\-date\=4 November 2022 \|website\=Treccani \|language\=it}} By December 1947, however, Pacciardi changed his position due to a growing perception of the Soviet threat, and became deputy Prime Minister along with [Liberal](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party "Italian Liberal Party") [Luigi Einaudi](/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi "Luigi Einaudi") and [Social Democrat](/wiki/Italian_Democratic_Socialist_Party "Italian Democratic Socialist Party") [Giuseppe Saragat](/wiki/Giuseppe_Saragat "Giuseppe Saragat"). After the approval of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy "Constitution of Italy") he was elected to Parliament in [1948](/wiki/1948_Italian_general_election "1948 Italian general election") and was [Defense Minister](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Italy%29 "Ministry of Defence (Italy)") from 1948 to 1953, supporting Italian membership in [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") despite resistance from factions within his own party. Despite the initial distrust from senior officers, many of whom had fought on the [Nationalist side](/wiki/Nationalist_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 "Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)") in Spain, he also oversaw Italian rearmament, sought to keep most wartime professionals, re\-established a military intelligence service with the creation of [SIFAR](/wiki/SIFAR "SIFAR"), and took a number of symbolic measures to enhance the prestige of the Armed Forces that survive to this day, such as the introduction of a yearly [military parade](/wiki/Military_parade "Military parade") on [Republic Day](/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica "Festa della Repubblica") and the opening of barracks to the public on [National Unity and Armed Forces Day](/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day "National Unity and Armed Forces Day").{{Cite conference \|last\=De Leonardis \|first\=Massimo \|date\=1997 \|editor\-last\=Pizzigallo \|editor\-first\=Matteo \|editor2\-last\=Alberini \|editor2\-first\=Paolo \|title\=Forze Armate, partiti politici e opinione pubblica \|url\=https://www.difesa.it/Area\_Storica\_HTML/editoria/1997/Forze\_Armate\_scelta\_repubblicana\_part\_atlantica/Documents/Atti\_1997\_FA\_scelta\_Repubblicana\_partecipazione\_Atlantica.pdf \|conference\=Convegno di Studi tenuto a Roma nella Sala del Cenacolo il 27 novembre 1997 \|publisher\=Commissione Italiana di Storia Militare \|page\=49}}
He was also an early supporter of [European federalism](/wiki/European_integration "European integration").{{Cite journal \|last\=Pacciardi \|first\=Randolfo \|date\=Spring 1945 \|title\=La politica estera della nuova Italia \|trans\-title\=The Foreign Policy of the New Italy \|url\=https://archivio.camera.it/resources/pu01/allegati/pacciardi.pdf\#page\=40 \|journal\=Politica Estera \|language\=it \|volume\=II \|issue\=2 \|via\=Archivio Storico della Camera dei Deputati}}
### Presidentialism and coup allegations
In the 1950s Pacciardi became aggressively [anti\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism"). In 1954, during a meeting with US ambassador to Italy [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce "Clare Boothe Luce") he suggested that the government should have provoked the Communists into using violence to find a pretext to outlaw them. He also became supportive of a presidential system of government, which he believed would be the solution to the instability of Italian politics. After the [May 1958 crisis in France](/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France "May 1958 crisis in France") he started advocating in private, on several occasions, for a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "Coup d'état") that would bypass Parliament and install a government with the task of writing a new, presidentialist Constitution. In July 1959 he met with Luce's successor [James Zellerbach](/wiki/James_David_Zellerbach "James David Zellerbach") and told him that he thought that Italy needed an authoritarian government, with a president with powers modeled on the [French Fifth Republic](/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic "French Fifth Republic"). He also said that he was contemplating launching a movement to "save democracy" in the country, and that his views were supported by some high\-ranking members of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") like Genoa cardinal [Giuseppe Siri](/wiki/Giuseppe_Siri "Giuseppe Siri").{{Cite book \|last\=Flamini \|first\=Gianni \|title\=L'Italia dei colpi di stato \|publisher\=Newton Compton \|year\=2007 \|isbn\=978\-88\-541\-0968\-1 \|edition\=1st \|location\=Roma \|pages\=34–35 \|language\=it}} In 1963, when [Christian Democratic](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 "Christian Democracy (Italy)") leader [Aldo Moro](/wiki/Aldo_Moro "Aldo Moro") set up a [cabinet](/wiki/Moro_I_Cabinet "Moro I Cabinet") that included PSI ministers for the first time in sixteen years, Pacciardi voted against it in dissent with his own party and was expelled from PRI.
[left\|thumb\|Randolfo Pacciardi and [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion") in [Sde Boker](/wiki/Sde_Boker "Sde Boker"), 1958\|250x250px](/wiki/File:Ben-Gurion_-_Randolfo_Pacciardi_-_Sde_Boker_1958.jpg "Ben-Gurion - Randolfo Pacciardi - Sde Boker 1958.jpg")
After his expulsion from PRI he founded a new party with a Gaullist\-inspired platform, the [Democratic Union for the New Republic](/wiki/Democratic_Union_for_the_New_Republic "Democratic Union for the New Republic") (UDNR), and the newspaper *La Folla*. However, his ideas met with little popular support. The [1968 election](/wiki/1968_Italian_election "1968 Italian election") proved to be a failure for the UDNR, which received just 0\.20% of votes nationwide, and elected none of its members to Parliament.{{Cite web \|title\=Camera 19/05/1968 \- Area Italia \|url\=https://elezionistorico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel\=C\&dtel\=19/05/1968\&es0\=S\&tpa\=I\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&ms\=S\&tpe\=A \|access\-date\=29 October 2022 \|website\=elezionistorico.interno.gov.it}} While the former Defense Minister could enjoy many connections within political, military and diplomatic circles these were often deemed insufficient to launch an effective takeover.Flamini, p. 76\-77\. His suggestion that anti\-fascist political rhetoric was no longer relevant and should be dropped also attracted the sympathies of a small number of neo\-fascists.
His political advocacy continued in the 1970s, as it seemed possible that PCI might enter into a government coalition with the Christian Democrats as a consequence of [Enrico Berlinguer](/wiki/Enrico_Berlinguer "Enrico Berlinguer")'s [historic compromise](/wiki/Historic_Compromise "Historic Compromise") strategy. In August 1974 prosecutor [Luciano Violante](/wiki/Luciano_Violante "Luciano Violante") accused him of plotting a coup attempt, the so called *[golpe bianco](/wiki/White_Coup "White Coup")*, with [Edgardo Sogno](/wiki/Edgardo_Sogno "Edgardo Sogno"), a diplomat and former Resistance fighter.{{cite journal \|journal\=Panorama\|volume\= XII\|issue\= 140\|date\=26 September 1974\|pages\= 44–46}} Violante claimed that the plan would have seen Pacciardi lead an emergency program which would have dissolved Parliament, established a single legal trade union, abolished [parliamentary immunity](/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity "Parliamentary immunity"), banned left\- and far\-right parties and set up concentration camps and special tribunals for high\-profile politicians.{{Cite news \|date\=7 May 1976 \|title\=Il piano di Sogno per abbattere la democrazia \|language\=it \|pages\=5 \|work\=\[\[l'Unità]] \|url\=https://archivio.unita.news/assets/main/1976/05/07/page\_005\.pdf \|access\-date\=2 November 2022}} While charges were dropped in 1978, in 2000 Sogno admitted on his deathbed that that he and Pacciardi did actually plan a "liberal coup" against "the moderate coalition, the intellectuals, the main economic\-financial forces and the left\-wing Church". According to Sogno, Pacciardi had personally helped him with the planning and worked on recruiting some contacts within the military and the police, including former Army Chief of Staff [Giorgio Liuzzi](/wiki/Giorgio_Liuzzi "Giorgio Liuzzi"). With military support they would have persuaded President [Giovanni Leone](/wiki/Giovanni_Leone "Giovanni Leone") to appoint an emergency cabinet led by Pacciardi as Prime Minister, with the goal of preventing the entry of Communist ministers into the government. In its promoters' view, while PCI and the neo\-fascist [Italian Social Movement](/wiki/Italian_Social_Movement "Italian Social Movement") would have been outlawed, the government would have been overall respectful of civil liberties and only held power for a limited time, something that has been questioned by commentators like political philosopher [Norberto Bobbio](/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio "Norberto Bobbio"), who had exchanged numerous letters with Sogno in previous years.{{Cite book \|last1\=Sogno \|first1\=Edgardo \|title\=Testamento di un anticomunista: dalla Resistenza al golpe bianco \|last2\=Cazzullo \|first2\=Aldo \|publisher\=\[\[Arnoldo Mondadori Editore\|Mondadori]] \|year\=2020 \|language\=it \|orig\-date\=2000}}{{Cite book \|last1\=Bobbio \|first1\=Norberto \|title\=Dialogo intorno alla repubblica \|last2\=Viroli \|first2\=Maurizio \|publisher\=Laterza \|year\=2001 \|location\=Roma\-Bari \|page\=35 \|language\=it}} Other participants in the plot have criticized the truthfulness of Sogno's "confession".Agenzia A (ISSN 0998\-447X) «Rettifica al falso Testamento di un anticomunista» by Luigi Cavallo, February 2001 Conservative journalist [Indro Montanelli](/wiki/Indro_Montanelli "Indro Montanelli") dismissed the accusations as [libelous](/wiki/Defamation "Defamation"), spread by the left against a political opponent,{{Cite news \|last\=Montanelli \|first\=Indro \|date\=21 August 2000 \|title\=Il mio amico Edgardo Sogno \|language\=it \|pages\=31 \|work\=\[\[Il Corriere della Sera]]}} and supporters have suggested that the actions of the former PRI leader were always meant to be within the framework of the [Italian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy "Constitution of Italy").{{Cite book \|last\=Di Muccio de Quattro \|first\=Pietro \|title\=Il golpe bianco di Edgardo Sogno \|publisher\=Liberlibri \|year\=2013 \|language\=it}} These events contributed to Pacciardi's marginalization in Italian politics, and created a controversial legacy.
### Final years
In 1979 he asked to be readmitted to the PRI, which happened the following year. In 1981 he founded a new magazine, *L'Italia del popolo*, of which he was also director. In the final years of his life he was supportive of Prime Minister [Bettino Craxi](/wiki/Bettino_Craxi "Bettino Craxi").
Pacciardi died from a stroke on 14 April 1991, in Rome, aged 92\. On request from President [Francesco Cossiga](/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga "Francesco Cossiga") he was granted a [state funeral](/wiki/State_funeral "State funeral"). He is buried in the municipal cemetery of [Grosseto](/wiki/Grosseto "Grosseto").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Randolfo Pacciardi was born in [Giuncarico](/wiki/Giuncarico \"Giuncarico\"), in the [province of Grosseto](/wiki/Province_of_Grosseto \"Province of Grosseto\"), in southern [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\"). In 1915 he became a member of the Italian Republican Party. A supporter of [Italy's participation in World War I](/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I \"Italian entry into World War I\"), he enrolled in the officers' school of the [Italian Army](/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army \"Royal Italian Army\") and took part in the hostilities, receiving two [Silver Medals](/wiki/Silver_Medal_of_Military_Valor \"Silver Medal of Military Valor\") and one [Bronze Medal of Military Valor](/wiki/Bronze_Medal_of_Military_Valor \"Bronze Medal of Military Valor\"), as well as a British [Military Cross](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\") and a French *[Croix de guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre \"Croix de Guerre\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Archivio Randolfo Pacciardi (1919 aprile 22 \\- 1991 aprile 16\\). Profilo storico\\-biografico \\|url\\=https://archivio.camera.it/inventari/profilo/fondo\\-randolfo\\-pacciardi \\|website\\=Archivio storico della Camera dei Deputati \\|language\\=it}}",
"### Resistance to Fascism and exile",
"In 1921 he received a law degree from the [University of Siena](/wiki/University_of_Siena \"University of Siena\"), and later collaborated with the local newspaper *L'Etruria Nuova*. He moved to Rome the following year. He was a staunch opponent of the growing violence of [Fascist squads](/wiki/Squadrismo \"Squadrismo\") and in 1923 established [Italia Libera](/wiki/Italia_Libera_%28anti-fascist_organization%29 \"Italia Libera (anti-fascist organization)\"), an anti\\-fascist [veterans' organization](/wiki/Veterans%27_organization \"Veterans' organization\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Polese Remaggi \\|first\\=Luca \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=PACCIARDI, Randolfo in \"Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani\" \\|url\\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/randolfo\\-pacciardi\\_(Dizionario\\-Biografico)/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Treccani]]}} Italia Libera would be one of the few groups to plan for armed resistance to [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") in the wake of the assassination of Socialist deputy [Giacomo Matteotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti \"Giacomo Matteotti\"), and one of the first opposition group to be banned by the government, in January 1925\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Zani \\|first\\=Luciano \\|title\\=Italia libera, il primo movimento antifascista clandestino (1923\\-1925\\) \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Editori Laterza\\|Laterza]] \\|year\\=1975 \\|location\\=Bari \\|language\\=it}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Acquarone \\|first\\=Alberto \\|title\\=L'organizzazione dello Stato totalitario \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Giulio Einaudi editore\\|Einaudi]] \\|year\\=1965 \\|location\\=Turin \\|pages\\=48 \\|language\\=it}} As a lawyer he successfully defended the party newspaper *La Voce Repubblicana* against a defamation lawsuit, after an article had accused high\\-ranking Fascist [Italo Balbo](/wiki/Italo_Balbo \"Italo Balbo\") of having ordered the assassination of anti\\-fascist priest [Giovanni Minzoni](/wiki/Giovanni_Minzoni \"Giovanni Minzoni\").",
"When the Fascists outlawed all rival parties in November 1926, Pacciardi was sentenced to five years of internal exile, but was able to escape to Austria and then to [Lugano](/wiki/Lugano \"Lugano\"), Switzerland, with the help of Ernesta Battisti, the widow of Italian patriot [Cesare Battisti](/wiki/Cesare_Battisti_%28politician%29 \"Cesare Battisti (politician)\"). While in Switzerland he maintained contacts with the *[Giustizia e libertà](/wiki/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0 \"Giustizia e Libertà\")* group and offered logistical support to various anti\\-fascists, including [Sandro Pertini](/wiki/Sandro_Pertini \"Sandro Pertini\"), to whom he procured a counterfeit passport, and Giovanni Bassanesi and Gioacchino Dolci, who flew over [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") in July 1930 to throw propaganda leaflets.",
"In 1933 the Italian government pressured Switzerland to expel all anti\\-fascist refugees, forcing Pacciardi to relocate to [Mulhouse](/wiki/Mulhouse \"Mulhouse\"), in the [Alsace](/wiki/Alsace \"Alsace\") region of France.",
"### Participation in the Spanish Civil War",
"With the outbreak of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") he helped organize and took the command of the Italian Legion, later renamed [Garibaldi Battalion](/wiki/Garibaldi_Battalion \"Garibaldi Battalion\") and integrated in the [International Brigades](/wiki/International_Brigades \"International Brigades\"), a unit of Italian volunteers fighting in support of the [Spanish Republic](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic \"Second Spanish Republic\"). Pacciardi's original intent was to organize a non\\-political volunteer group at direct disposal of the [Popular Front](/wiki/Popular_Front_%28Spain%29 \"Popular Front (Spain)\") government, on the model of the [Garibaldi Legion](/wiki/Garibaldi_Legion_%28Foreign_Legion%29 \"Garibaldi Legion (Foreign Legion)\") which had helped France in the early phases of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). Through the good offices of other exiled anti\\-fascists like Socialist [Pietro Nenni](/wiki/Pietro_Nenni \"Pietro Nenni\") and Communist [Luigi Longo](/wiki/Luigi_Longo \"Luigi Longo\") he received a hearing from [Francisco Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero \"Francisco Largo Caballero\") in early September 1936, but the Spanish Prime Minister wasn't interested in the proposal and only changed his mind when the [Comintern](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\") decided to establish the more sizeable and better\\-funded International Brigades. On 27 October the representatives of the main anti\\-fascist parties in the exile signed an agreement in the Paris for the establishment of the Garibaldi Battalion. The choice of commander fell on Pacciardi largely due to his military qualifications and a desire to project an image of unity through reliance on a non\\-Marxist with impeccable anti\\-fascist credentials.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Richardson \\|first\\=R. Dan \\|title\\=Comintern Army: The International Brigades and the Spanish Civil War \\|publisher\\=University Press of Kentucky \\|year\\=1982 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8131\\-5446\\-6 \\|location\\=Lexington Kentucky}}",
"With the Garibaldi Battalion he took part in the [defense of Madrid](/wiki/Siege_of_Madrid \"Siege of Madrid\"), the [battle of Jarama](/wiki/Battle_of_Jarama \"Battle of Jarama\") \\- where he was wounded \\- and the final stages of the [battle of Guadalajara](/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalajara \"Battle of Guadalajara\"), and he was considered a successful commander and respected by his men.Richardson, p. 64 The battle of Guadalajara, which saw Republicans defeat [Italian troops](/wiki/Corpo_Truppe_Volontarie \"Corpo Truppe Volontarie\") sent by [Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\"), was the first instance of Italians taking part on opposite side of an engagement during the civil war.",
"While the International Brigades were Communist\\-dominated, having been organized by the Comintern and strictly supervised by [political commissars](/wiki/Political_commissar \"Political commissar\"), in the months of Pacciardi's leadership the Garibaldi Battalion (later Garibaldi Brigade) developed a reputation for political tolerance, hosting communists, socialists, and republicans.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Zimmer \\|first\\=Kenyon \\|date\\=Fall 2016 \\|title\\=The Other Volunteers: American Anarchists and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.14321/jstudradi.10\\.2\\.0019 \\|journal\\=Journal for the Study of Radicalism \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=31, 37–38 \\|doi\\=10\\.14321/jstudradi.10\\.2\\.0019 \\|jstor\\=10\\.14321/jstudradi.10\\.2\\.0019 \\|s2cid\\=159515808 \\|via\\=JSTOR}} It was also the only unit within the Brigades to have a substantial number of anarchists. In May 1937, when the \"Garibaldi\" was asked to suppress [anarchist](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica \"Federación Anarquista Ibérica\") and [POUM](/wiki/POUM \"POUM\") fighters in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") as part of internal purges of the Republican camp, Pacciardi instructed acting commander Carlo Penchienati to refuse. His persistent refusal to accept discipline within the normal chain of command, including the authority of political commissars over the appointment of subordinates, and frequent criticism of his superiors, exacerbated differences and fueled attempts to remove him from command or otherwise prevent contacts with his subordinates. Pacciardi also showed little interest in the mixed\\-nationality nature of most International Brigades, having always preferred a self\\-sufficient all\\-Italian unit to \"the anonymity of internationalism\". Lamenting the lack of autonomy in the face of the integration of all International Brigades in the regular [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Republican_Army \"Spanish Republican Army\") he requested a temporary leave for all Italian volunteers to give them the opportunity to go abroad and recruit among members among Italian emigrants in France and elsewhere, but this was rejected.",
"During a brief absence Communists tried to engineer his replacement with political commissar [Ilio Barontini](/wiki/Ilio_Barontini \"Ilio Barontini\"), but couldn't find enough support within the Spanish government to do so. They also offered him a promotion to division staff, which he turned down. Finally, at the urging of Penchienati and Nenni, Pacciardi accepted the post of vice divisional commander for the duration of the next offensive, as a gesture to improve the unity and morale of the brigade. He finally left Spain for good in October 1937\\.",
"Sources more sympathetic to the Communist point of view have also blamed his departure on his adherence to traditional models of military leadership, like the separation between officers' and troops' quarters, as well as the leave request, which has been interpreted as unviable in the context of the war effort or even as an outright proposal to dissolve the brigade rather than accept a reduction of personal authority.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Disoteo \\|first\\=Maurizio \\|date\\=13 December 2019 \\|title\\=Guerra di Spagna: la storia della Brigata Garibaldi \\|url\\=https://contropiano.org/news/cultura\\-news/2019/12/13/guerra\\-di\\-spagna\\-la\\-storia\\-della\\-brigata\\-garibaldi\\-0121937 \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2022 \\|website\\=Contropiano \\|language\\=it}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Pesce \\|first\\=Giovanni \\|title\\=Senza tregua. La guerra dei GAP \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Feltrinelli (publisher)\\|Feltrinelli]] \\|year\\=1967 \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=Milan \\|language\\=it \\|quote\\=Pacciardi aveva sostenuto la tesi d'inviare in licenza in Francia tutti i garibaldini affinché facessero opera di proselitismo e di reclutamento fra gli immigrati italiani. Era stato aspramente criticato dai comunisti i quali consideravano follia abbandonare la lotta proprio nel momento in cui la Spagna attraversava un periodo estremamente critico. \\[...] Purtroppo le tesi di Pacciardi avevano generato una certa atmosfera di sfiducia nei combattenti politicamente meno preparati. \\|author\\-link\\=Giovanni Pesce}}",
"### World War II",
"Moving to Paris he founded a weekly magazine, *La Giovine Italia* (named after the [Young Italy](/wiki/Young_Italy \"Young Italy\") movement established by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini \"Giuseppe Mazzini\") in the 19th century). Between March and May 1938 he also held a round of lectures in the United States about anti\\-fascism, with the goal of raising funds for the Spanish Republic.",
"Forced to flee by the [German invasion of France](/wiki/German_invasion_of_France_%281940%29 \"German invasion of France (1940)\"), he and his wife finally reached New York aboard the liner *[Serpa Pinto](/wiki/RMS_Ebro \"RMS Ebro\")* on 26 December 1941, after traveling through [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\"), [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca \"Casablanca\") and [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") with false documents. In the United States Pacciardi supported the unsuccessful efforts of the Italian\\-American [Mazzini Society](/wiki/Mazzini_Society \"Mazzini Society\"), of which he had been a member since its founding in 1939, to organize volunteer groups to take part in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") on the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") side. He also tried to contact [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\"), via [Pierre Mendès\\-France](/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s-France \"Pierre Mendès-France\"), to ask him to attach the prospective units to the [Free French Forces](/wiki/Free_France \"Free France\").{{cite speech \\|title\\=Franche parole agli Alleati \\|trans\\-title\\=Frank Words to the Allies \\|author\\=Randolfo Pacciardi \\|date\\=16 October 1943 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Carnegie Hall]] \\|url\\=https://archivio.camera.it/resources/pu01/allegati/pacciardi.pdf\\#page\\=20 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2022 \\|language\\=it}} Plans for an Italian Legion however were seriously hampered by recruitment difficulties: the Mazzini Society couldn't count on the same base as De Gaulle, who enjoyed the loyalty of a part of the French military and controlled territory in some French colonies; nor it could hope to recruit most Italian Americans, who would be drafted in the US Armed Forces. Despite his growing dislike of Communism, during this time Pacciardi pursued a line of cooperation and unity between all anti\\-fascist forces, which was a cause of friction with the rest of the Society and ultimately prompted him to resign his membership.{{Cite news \\|date\\=27 December 1941 \\|title\\=Guadalajara hero plans 'Free Italy' \\|page\\=8 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\= https://www.nytimes.com/1941/12/27/archives/guadalajara\\-hero\\-plans\\-free\\-italy\\-antifascist\\-leader\\-arrives\\-on.html \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2022}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Richet \\|first\\=Isabelle \\|title\\=Women, Antifascism and Mussolini's Italy: The Life of Marion Cave Rosselli \\|publisher\\=Tauris Academic Studies \\|year\\=2018 \\|page\\=214}}",
"### Return to Italy",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Pacciardi in 1945\\.](/wiki/File:Randolfo_Pacciardi_1945.jpg \"Randolfo Pacciardi 1945.jpg\")\nHe returned to Italy in June 1944, after the [liberation of Rome](/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio \"Battle of Anzio\"), immediately becoming a member of the leadership of the re\\-established PRI. He supported [Giovanni Conti](/wiki/Giovanni_Conti_%28politician%29 \"Giovanni Conti (politician)\")'s hardline opposition to any form of cooperation with the Italian monarchy, which put Republicans at odds with the other anti\\-fascist parties, who were organized in the [National Liberation Committee](/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee \"National Liberation Committee\") and held ministries in the royal government. When pro\\-monarchist parties withdrew their support from the [Parri Cabinet](/wiki/Parri_Cabinet \"Parri Cabinet\") he tried to persuade Parri to remain as Prime Minister, but unsuccessfully. He became national secretary of PRI in 1945 and was elected to the [Constituent Assembly of Italy](/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy \"Constituent Assembly of Italy\") the following year. With the [end of the Italian monarchy](/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum \"1946 Italian institutional referendum\") the Republican Party entered a coalition government for the first time, with [Cipriano Facchinetti](/wiki/Cipriano_Facchinetti \"Cipriano Facchinetti\") serving as [Minister of War](/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_War \"Italian Minister of War\") in the [De Gasperi II Cabinet](/wiki/De_Gasperi_II_Cabinet \"De Gasperi II Cabinet\").",
"During the [May 1947 government crisis](/wiki/May_1947_crises \"May 1947 crises\"), when [De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi \"Alcide De Gasperi\") removed the [Communist](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party \"Italian Communist Party\") (PCI) and [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\") (PSI) parties from the cabinet, at first the PRI withheld support from the new government. The party was actually split between Pacciardi, who advocated continuing cooperation with PCI in line with his beliefs in anti\\-fascist unity, and Conti and Facchinetti, who blamed Communists for government inefficiency. Initially, the former approach prevailed.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Caridi \\|first\\=Paola \\|date\\=1994 \\|title\\=FACCHINETTI, Cipriano in \"Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani\" \\|url\\=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/cipriano\\-facchinetti\\_%28Dizionario\\-Biografico%29/ \\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2022 \\|website\\=Treccani \\|language\\=it}} By December 1947, however, Pacciardi changed his position due to a growing perception of the Soviet threat, and became deputy Prime Minister along with [Liberal](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party \"Italian Liberal Party\") [Luigi Einaudi](/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi \"Luigi Einaudi\") and [Social Democrat](/wiki/Italian_Democratic_Socialist_Party \"Italian Democratic Socialist Party\") [Giuseppe Saragat](/wiki/Giuseppe_Saragat \"Giuseppe Saragat\"). After the approval of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy \"Constitution of Italy\") he was elected to Parliament in [1948](/wiki/1948_Italian_general_election \"1948 Italian general election\") and was [Defense Minister](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Italy%29 \"Ministry of Defence (Italy)\") from 1948 to 1953, supporting Italian membership in [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") despite resistance from factions within his own party. Despite the initial distrust from senior officers, many of whom had fought on the [Nationalist side](/wiki/Nationalist_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 \"Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)\") in Spain, he also oversaw Italian rearmament, sought to keep most wartime professionals, re\\-established a military intelligence service with the creation of [SIFAR](/wiki/SIFAR \"SIFAR\"), and took a number of symbolic measures to enhance the prestige of the Armed Forces that survive to this day, such as the introduction of a yearly [military parade](/wiki/Military_parade \"Military parade\") on [Republic Day](/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica \"Festa della Repubblica\") and the opening of barracks to the public on [National Unity and Armed Forces Day](/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day \"National Unity and Armed Forces Day\").{{Cite conference \\|last\\=De Leonardis \\|first\\=Massimo \\|date\\=1997 \\|editor\\-last\\=Pizzigallo \\|editor\\-first\\=Matteo \\|editor2\\-last\\=Alberini \\|editor2\\-first\\=Paolo \\|title\\=Forze Armate, partiti politici e opinione pubblica \\|url\\=https://www.difesa.it/Area\\_Storica\\_HTML/editoria/1997/Forze\\_Armate\\_scelta\\_repubblicana\\_part\\_atlantica/Documents/Atti\\_1997\\_FA\\_scelta\\_Repubblicana\\_partecipazione\\_Atlantica.pdf \\|conference\\=Convegno di Studi tenuto a Roma nella Sala del Cenacolo il 27 novembre 1997 \\|publisher\\=Commissione Italiana di Storia Militare \\|page\\=49}}",
"He was also an early supporter of [European federalism](/wiki/European_integration \"European integration\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Pacciardi \\|first\\=Randolfo \\|date\\=Spring 1945 \\|title\\=La politica estera della nuova Italia \\|trans\\-title\\=The Foreign Policy of the New Italy \\|url\\=https://archivio.camera.it/resources/pu01/allegati/pacciardi.pdf\\#page\\=40 \\|journal\\=Politica Estera \\|language\\=it \\|volume\\=II \\|issue\\=2 \\|via\\=Archivio Storico della Camera dei Deputati}}",
"### Presidentialism and coup allegations",
"In the 1950s Pacciardi became aggressively [anti\\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\"). In 1954, during a meeting with US ambassador to Italy [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce \"Clare Boothe Luce\") he suggested that the government should have provoked the Communists into using violence to find a pretext to outlaw them. He also became supportive of a presidential system of government, which he believed would be the solution to the instability of Italian politics. After the [May 1958 crisis in France](/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France \"May 1958 crisis in France\") he started advocating in private, on several occasions, for a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"Coup d'état\") that would bypass Parliament and install a government with the task of writing a new, presidentialist Constitution. In July 1959 he met with Luce's successor [James Zellerbach](/wiki/James_David_Zellerbach \"James David Zellerbach\") and told him that he thought that Italy needed an authoritarian government, with a president with powers modeled on the [French Fifth Republic](/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic \"French Fifth Republic\"). He also said that he was contemplating launching a movement to \"save democracy\" in the country, and that his views were supported by some high\\-ranking members of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") like Genoa cardinal [Giuseppe Siri](/wiki/Giuseppe_Siri \"Giuseppe Siri\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Flamini \\|first\\=Gianni \\|title\\=L'Italia dei colpi di stato \\|publisher\\=Newton Compton \\|year\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=978\\-88\\-541\\-0968\\-1 \\|edition\\=1st \\|location\\=Roma \\|pages\\=34–35 \\|language\\=it}} In 1963, when [Christian Democratic](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 \"Christian Democracy (Italy)\") leader [Aldo Moro](/wiki/Aldo_Moro \"Aldo Moro\") set up a [cabinet](/wiki/Moro_I_Cabinet \"Moro I Cabinet\") that included PSI ministers for the first time in sixteen years, Pacciardi voted against it in dissent with his own party and was expelled from PRI.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Randolfo Pacciardi and [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\") in [Sde Boker](/wiki/Sde_Boker \"Sde Boker\"), 1958\\|250x250px](/wiki/File:Ben-Gurion_-_Randolfo_Pacciardi_-_Sde_Boker_1958.jpg \"Ben-Gurion - Randolfo Pacciardi - Sde Boker 1958.jpg\")",
"After his expulsion from PRI he founded a new party with a Gaullist\\-inspired platform, the [Democratic Union for the New Republic](/wiki/Democratic_Union_for_the_New_Republic \"Democratic Union for the New Republic\") (UDNR), and the newspaper *La Folla*. However, his ideas met with little popular support. The [1968 election](/wiki/1968_Italian_election \"1968 Italian election\") proved to be a failure for the UDNR, which received just 0\\.20% of votes nationwide, and elected none of its members to Parliament.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Camera 19/05/1968 \\- Area Italia \\|url\\=https://elezionistorico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel\\=C\\&dtel\\=19/05/1968\\&es0\\=S\\&tpa\\=I\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&ms\\=S\\&tpe\\=A \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2022 \\|website\\=elezionistorico.interno.gov.it}} While the former Defense Minister could enjoy many connections within political, military and diplomatic circles these were often deemed insufficient to launch an effective takeover.Flamini, p. 76\\-77\\. His suggestion that anti\\-fascist political rhetoric was no longer relevant and should be dropped also attracted the sympathies of a small number of neo\\-fascists.",
"His political advocacy continued in the 1970s, as it seemed possible that PCI might enter into a government coalition with the Christian Democrats as a consequence of [Enrico Berlinguer](/wiki/Enrico_Berlinguer \"Enrico Berlinguer\")'s [historic compromise](/wiki/Historic_Compromise \"Historic Compromise\") strategy. In August 1974 prosecutor [Luciano Violante](/wiki/Luciano_Violante \"Luciano Violante\") accused him of plotting a coup attempt, the so called *[golpe bianco](/wiki/White_Coup \"White Coup\")*, with [Edgardo Sogno](/wiki/Edgardo_Sogno \"Edgardo Sogno\"), a diplomat and former Resistance fighter.{{cite journal \\|journal\\=Panorama\\|volume\\= XII\\|issue\\= 140\\|date\\=26 September 1974\\|pages\\= 44–46}} Violante claimed that the plan would have seen Pacciardi lead an emergency program which would have dissolved Parliament, established a single legal trade union, abolished [parliamentary immunity](/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity \"Parliamentary immunity\"), banned left\\- and far\\-right parties and set up concentration camps and special tribunals for high\\-profile politicians.{{Cite news \\|date\\=7 May 1976 \\|title\\=Il piano di Sogno per abbattere la democrazia \\|language\\=it \\|pages\\=5 \\|work\\=\\[\\[l'Unità]] \\|url\\=https://archivio.unita.news/assets/main/1976/05/07/page\\_005\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2022}} While charges were dropped in 1978, in 2000 Sogno admitted on his deathbed that that he and Pacciardi did actually plan a \"liberal coup\" against \"the moderate coalition, the intellectuals, the main economic\\-financial forces and the left\\-wing Church\". According to Sogno, Pacciardi had personally helped him with the planning and worked on recruiting some contacts within the military and the police, including former Army Chief of Staff [Giorgio Liuzzi](/wiki/Giorgio_Liuzzi \"Giorgio Liuzzi\"). With military support they would have persuaded President [Giovanni Leone](/wiki/Giovanni_Leone \"Giovanni Leone\") to appoint an emergency cabinet led by Pacciardi as Prime Minister, with the goal of preventing the entry of Communist ministers into the government. In its promoters' view, while PCI and the neo\\-fascist [Italian Social Movement](/wiki/Italian_Social_Movement \"Italian Social Movement\") would have been outlawed, the government would have been overall respectful of civil liberties and only held power for a limited time, something that has been questioned by commentators like political philosopher [Norberto Bobbio](/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio \"Norberto Bobbio\"), who had exchanged numerous letters with Sogno in previous years.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Sogno \\|first1\\=Edgardo \\|title\\=Testamento di un anticomunista: dalla Resistenza al golpe bianco \\|last2\\=Cazzullo \\|first2\\=Aldo \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Arnoldo Mondadori Editore\\|Mondadori]] \\|year\\=2020 \\|language\\=it \\|orig\\-date\\=2000}}{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Bobbio \\|first1\\=Norberto \\|title\\=Dialogo intorno alla repubblica \\|last2\\=Viroli \\|first2\\=Maurizio \\|publisher\\=Laterza \\|year\\=2001 \\|location\\=Roma\\-Bari \\|page\\=35 \\|language\\=it}} Other participants in the plot have criticized the truthfulness of Sogno's \"confession\".Agenzia A (ISSN 0998\\-447X) «Rettifica al falso Testamento di un anticomunista» by Luigi Cavallo, February 2001 Conservative journalist [Indro Montanelli](/wiki/Indro_Montanelli \"Indro Montanelli\") dismissed the accusations as [libelous](/wiki/Defamation \"Defamation\"), spread by the left against a political opponent,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Montanelli \\|first\\=Indro \\|date\\=21 August 2000 \\|title\\=Il mio amico Edgardo Sogno \\|language\\=it \\|pages\\=31 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Il Corriere della Sera]]}} and supporters have suggested that the actions of the former PRI leader were always meant to be within the framework of the [Italian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy \"Constitution of Italy\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Di Muccio de Quattro \\|first\\=Pietro \\|title\\=Il golpe bianco di Edgardo Sogno \\|publisher\\=Liberlibri \\|year\\=2013 \\|language\\=it}} These events contributed to Pacciardi's marginalization in Italian politics, and created a controversial legacy.",
"### Final years",
"In 1979 he asked to be readmitted to the PRI, which happened the following year. In 1981 he founded a new magazine, *L'Italia del popolo*, of which he was also director. In the final years of his life he was supportive of Prime Minister [Bettino Craxi](/wiki/Bettino_Craxi \"Bettino Craxi\").",
"Pacciardi died from a stroke on 14 April 1991, in Rome, aged 92\\. On request from President [Francesco Cossiga](/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga \"Francesco Cossiga\") he was granted a [state funeral](/wiki/State_funeral \"State funeral\"). He is buried in the municipal cemetery of [Grosseto](/wiki/Grosseto \"Grosseto\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
A native of the north of France, Louvion studied flute at the {{ill\|Conservatoire à rayonnement régional de Douai\|fr}}, with [Raymond Guiot](/wiki/Raymond_Guiot "Raymond Guiot"), [Philippe Pierlot](/wiki/Philippe_Pierlot_%28flautist%29 "Philippe Pierlot (flautist)") and [Vincent Lucas](/wiki/Vincent_Lucas "Vincent Lucas"). She also studied mathematics and physics. She studied further at the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris "Conservatoire de Paris"), in the [transverse flute](/wiki/Transverse_flute "Transverse flute") classes of [Alain Marion](/wiki/Alain_Marion "Alain Marion")'s and Sophie Cherrier, and in [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music"). She was accepted to further studies after graduation.
She has been invited to international festivals, such as the [MIDEM](/wiki/MIDEM "MIDEM") of Cannes in 2000, in the framework of the "classical revelations" of the {{ill\|ADAMI\|fr}}. She has been invited to festivals such as the [Pablo Casals Festival](/wiki/Pablo_Casals_Festival "Pablo Casals Festival") in Prades, to the [Weilburger Schlosskonzerte](/wiki/Weilburger_Schlosskonzerte "Weilburger Schlosskonzerte") in Germany, and to the International Festival of [Colmar](/wiki/Colmar "Colmar"), where she premiered [Guillaume Connesson](/wiki/Guillaume_Connesson "Guillaume Connesson")'s Flute Sonata which he dedicated to her.
Since 2002, Louvion has been principal flautist of the Orchestra of the [Frankfurt Opera](/wiki/Frankfurt_Opera "Frankfurt Opera"), the [Frankfurter Opern\- und Museumsorchester](/wiki/Frankfurter_Opern-_und_Museumsorchester "Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester"). She has played with the [hr\-Sinfonieorchester](/wiki/Hr-Sinfonieorchester "Hr-Sinfonieorchester"), the orchestra of the [WDR](/wiki/Westdeutscher_Rundfunk "Westdeutscher Rundfunk") Köln, the [Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Bavarian_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra "Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra"), the Munich Opera Orchestra, the [Bamberg Symphony](/wiki/Bamberg_Symphony "Bamberg Symphony"), the [Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France](/wiki/Orchestre_philharmonique_de_Radio_France "Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France"), the [Orchestre National de France](/wiki/Orchestre_National_de_France "Orchestre National de France"), and the Orchestre de l’Opéra de Lyon, among others.
She performed as a soloist with the Frankfurter Opern\- und Museumsorchester, the {{ill\|Toulouse Chamber Orchestra\|fr\|Orchestre de chambre de Toulouse}}, the [Orchestre national d'Île\-de\-France](/wiki/Orchestre_national_d%27%C3%8Ele-de-France "Orchestre national d'Île-de-France"), the [Pasdeloup Orchestra](/wiki/Pasdeloup_Orchestra "Pasdeloup Orchestra"), the Orchestre de chambre Amadeus, the Douai Orchestra, the [Tokyo Ensemble](/wiki/Tokyo_Ensemble "Tokyo Ensemble"), and the [Moscow Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Moscow_Chamber_Orchestra "Moscow Chamber Orchestra"), among others. After playing Bach's [Orchestral Suite in B minor](/wiki/Orchestral_suites_%28Bach%29 "Orchestral suites (Bach)") at the Frankfurt [Alte Oper](/wiki/Alte_Oper "Alte Oper") in December 2011, she played in February 2012 in Lisbon, Mozart's [Concerto for Flute, Harp, and Orchestra](/wiki/Concerto_for_Flute%2C_Harp%2C_and_Orchestra_%28Mozart%29 "Concerto for Flute, Harp, and Orchestra (Mozart)"), alongside harpist [Xavier de Maistre](/wiki/Xavier_de_Maistre_%28harpist%29 "Xavier de Maistre (harpist)"), with the [Gulbenkian Orchestra](/wiki/Gulbenkian_Orchestra "Gulbenkian Orchestra") conducted by [Bertrand de Billy](/wiki/Bertrand_de_Billy "Bertrand de Billy").
Her partners in recitals are the pianist [Delphine Bardin](/wiki/Delphine_Bardin "Delphine Bardin"), and the harpist Françoise Friedrich. Numerous engagements have taken her regularly to Asia, where she has also given [master classes](/wiki/Master_class "Master class").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"A native of the north of France, Louvion studied flute at the {{ill\\|Conservatoire à rayonnement régional de Douai\\|fr}}, with [Raymond Guiot](/wiki/Raymond_Guiot \"Raymond Guiot\"), [Philippe Pierlot](/wiki/Philippe_Pierlot_%28flautist%29 \"Philippe Pierlot (flautist)\") and [Vincent Lucas](/wiki/Vincent_Lucas \"Vincent Lucas\"). She also studied mathematics and physics. She studied further at the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris \"Conservatoire de Paris\"), in the [transverse flute](/wiki/Transverse_flute \"Transverse flute\") classes of [Alain Marion](/wiki/Alain_Marion \"Alain Marion\")'s and Sophie Cherrier, and in [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\"). She was accepted to further studies after graduation.",
"She has been invited to international festivals, such as the [MIDEM](/wiki/MIDEM \"MIDEM\") of Cannes in 2000, in the framework of the \"classical revelations\" of the {{ill\\|ADAMI\\|fr}}. She has been invited to festivals such as the [Pablo Casals Festival](/wiki/Pablo_Casals_Festival \"Pablo Casals Festival\") in Prades, to the [Weilburger Schlosskonzerte](/wiki/Weilburger_Schlosskonzerte \"Weilburger Schlosskonzerte\") in Germany, and to the International Festival of [Colmar](/wiki/Colmar \"Colmar\"), where she premiered [Guillaume Connesson](/wiki/Guillaume_Connesson \"Guillaume Connesson\")'s Flute Sonata which he dedicated to her.",
"Since 2002, Louvion has been principal flautist of the Orchestra of the [Frankfurt Opera](/wiki/Frankfurt_Opera \"Frankfurt Opera\"), the [Frankfurter Opern\\- und Museumsorchester](/wiki/Frankfurter_Opern-_und_Museumsorchester \"Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester\"). She has played with the [hr\\-Sinfonieorchester](/wiki/Hr-Sinfonieorchester \"Hr-Sinfonieorchester\"), the orchestra of the [WDR](/wiki/Westdeutscher_Rundfunk \"Westdeutscher Rundfunk\") Köln, the [Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Bavarian_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra \"Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra\"), the Munich Opera Orchestra, the [Bamberg Symphony](/wiki/Bamberg_Symphony \"Bamberg Symphony\"), the [Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France](/wiki/Orchestre_philharmonique_de_Radio_France \"Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France\"), the [Orchestre National de France](/wiki/Orchestre_National_de_France \"Orchestre National de France\"), and the Orchestre de l’Opéra de Lyon, among others.",
"She performed as a soloist with the Frankfurter Opern\\- und Museumsorchester, the {{ill\\|Toulouse Chamber Orchestra\\|fr\\|Orchestre de chambre de Toulouse}}, the [Orchestre national d'Île\\-de\\-France](/wiki/Orchestre_national_d%27%C3%8Ele-de-France \"Orchestre national d'Île-de-France\"), the [Pasdeloup Orchestra](/wiki/Pasdeloup_Orchestra \"Pasdeloup Orchestra\"), the Orchestre de chambre Amadeus, the Douai Orchestra, the [Tokyo Ensemble](/wiki/Tokyo_Ensemble \"Tokyo Ensemble\"), and the [Moscow Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Moscow_Chamber_Orchestra \"Moscow Chamber Orchestra\"), among others. After playing Bach's [Orchestral Suite in B minor](/wiki/Orchestral_suites_%28Bach%29 \"Orchestral suites (Bach)\") at the Frankfurt [Alte Oper](/wiki/Alte_Oper \"Alte Oper\") in December 2011, she played in February 2012 in Lisbon, Mozart's [Concerto for Flute, Harp, and Orchestra](/wiki/Concerto_for_Flute%2C_Harp%2C_and_Orchestra_%28Mozart%29 \"Concerto for Flute, Harp, and Orchestra (Mozart)\"), alongside harpist [Xavier de Maistre](/wiki/Xavier_de_Maistre_%28harpist%29 \"Xavier de Maistre (harpist)\"), with the [Gulbenkian Orchestra](/wiki/Gulbenkian_Orchestra \"Gulbenkian Orchestra\") conducted by [Bertrand de Billy](/wiki/Bertrand_de_Billy \"Bertrand de Billy\").",
"Her partners in recitals are the pianist [Delphine Bardin](/wiki/Delphine_Bardin \"Delphine Bardin\"), and the harpist Françoise Friedrich. Numerous engagements have taken her regularly to Asia, where she has also given [master classes](/wiki/Master_class \"Master class\").",
""
] |
Battles
-------
The unit moved from Pittman's Ferry in northeast Arkansas to Kentucky. In October 1861, General [Albert Sidney Johnston](/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston "Albert Sidney Johnston") assumed command of [Army of Central Kentucky](/wiki/Army_of_Central_Kentucky "Army of Central Kentucky"), and Brigadier General Hardee was promoted to major general and given command of a division, which included the 2nd Arkansas.Col. John M. Harrell, Confederate Military History, a library of Confederate States Military History: Volume 10\.2, Arkansas
Clement Anselm Evans, Ed., page Colonel Hindman was reassigned to brigade command.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 7\., Book, 1882; digital images, ([http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154610/m1/858/?q\=Army](http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154610/m1/858/?q=Army) of Mississippi : accessed June 27, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas. When Hindman was promoted to brigadier general on September 28, 1861, and the command of the regiment fell to Lieutenant Colonel Bocage.United States. War Department. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 4\., book, 1893; Washington D.C.. (texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154607/m1/497/?q\=second%20arkansas%20infantry: accessed October 27, 2016\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, texashistory.unt.edu; crediting UNT Libraries Government Documents Department. Lieutenant Colonel Bocage resigned on November 23, 1861\. The unit was involved in an engaged at [Rowlett's Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Rowlett%27s_Station "Battle of Rowlett's Station"), Kentucky, on December 17, 1861\.{{cite book\|url\=http://maxkade.iupui.edu/peake/\|title\=Indiana's German Sons: A History of the 1st German, 32nd Regiment Indiana Volunteer Infantry. Baptism of Fire: Rowlett's Station, 1861\|last\=Peake\|first\=Michael A.\|date\=1999\|publisher\=Max Kade German\-American Center, Indiana University\-Purdue University Indianapolis and Indiana German Heritage Society, Inc.\|isbn\=1880788136\|volume\=13\|location\=Indianapolis\|page\=11\|access\-date\=2015\-08\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104444/http://maxkade.iupui.edu/peake/\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-04\|url\-status\=dead}}
After the losses of [Fort Henry](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Henry "Battle of Fort Henry") and [Fort Donelson](/wiki/Fort_Donelson "Fort Donelson") in February 1862, Confederate General [Albert Sidney Johnston](/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston "Albert Sidney Johnston") withdrew his forces into western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama to reorganize. On March 29, 1862, the Army of Central Kentucky was merged into the [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi "Army of Mississippi") in preparation for the [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh").Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: McKay, 1959; revised 1988\. {{ISBN\|0\-8129\-1726\-X}}, Page 445\.
Assigned to Hindman's (later Liddell's) brigade, [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi "Army of Mississippi") in March, 1862 where it participated in the [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh") on April 6–7, 1862 and in the Corinth Campaign from April through June of that year. As a result of losses in the Battle of Shiloh, Companies C and E were disbanded and consolidated with other companies. A new Company C was recruited from Marianna, Arkansas and a new Company E was formed from members of the [11th Arkansas Infantry Regiment](/wiki/11th_Arkansas_Infantry_Regiment "11th Arkansas Infantry Regiment") who had escaped capture at the fall of [Island Number Ten](/wiki/Island_Number_Ten "Island Number Ten").
In early May 1862 the Confederate forces underwent an army\-wide reorganization due to the passage of the Conscription Act by the Confederate Congress in April 1862\.{{Cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2\-tGAQAAIAAJ\&dq\=Confederate\+conscription\+law\+reorganization\+regiment\&pg\=PA471 \|title\=Congressional Serial Set \|date\=1912 \|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office \|language\=en}} All twelve\-month regiments had to re\-muster and enlist for two additional years or the duration of the war; a new election of officers was ordered; and men who were exempted from service by age or other reasons under the Conscription Act were allowed to take a discharge and go home.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 10, In Two Parts. Part 2, Correspondence, etc., Book, 1884; digital images, ([http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154614/m1/500/?q\=Army](http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154614/m1/500/?q=Army) of Mississippi : accessed June 17, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas. Officers who did not choose to stand for re\-election were also offered a discharge. The reorganization was accomplished among all the Arkansas regiments in and around Corinth, Mississippi, following the Battle of Shiloh.
In the reorganization of Confederate forces before the start of the Kentucky Campaign, the 2nd Arkansas, now under the command of Colonel [Daniel C. Govan](/wiki/Daniel_C._Govan "Daniel C. Govan") was assigned to Brigadier General [St. John Richardson Liddell](/wiki/St._John_Richardson_Liddell "St. John Richardson Liddell")'s 1st Brigade of Major General [Simon Bolivar Buckner](/wiki/Simon_Bolivar_Buckner "Simon Bolivar Buckner")'s 3rd Division of Major General [William Joseph Hardee](/wiki/William_Joseph_Hardee "William Joseph Hardee")'s Corps of the [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi "Army of Mississippi"). The regiment participated in [Battle of Perryville](/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville "Battle of Perryville"), Kentucky, in October 1862\.
In November 1862, following the Kentucky Campaign, General Bragg united his Army of Mississippi and General [Kirby Smith](/wiki/Kirby_Smith "Kirby Smith")'s[Army of Kentucky](/wiki/Army_of_Kentucky "Army of Kentucky") to create the [Army of Tennessee](/wiki/Army_of_Tennessee "Army of Tennessee"). In the reorganization, Liddell's brigade of Arkansas troops was assigned to Cleburne's Division and fought in the [Battle of Stones River](/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River "Battle of Stones River"), December 31, 1862 – January 3, 1863\. The regiment lost 15 killed, 94 wounded, and 9 missing at Murfreesboro.
The regiment took part in the [Tullahoma Campaign](/wiki/Tullahoma_Campaign "Tullahoma Campaign") in June, 1863; and the [Battle of Liberty Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Gap "Battle of Liberty Gap"), June 24–26, 1863\. According to the report Brigadier General St. John R. Liddell, the regiment lost its colors during the fighting at Liberty Gap.
{{Blockquote\|
. . . I had previously ordered up the Sixth and Seventh Arkansas Regiments (which were held in reserve) to the support of the Second, where Colonel Govan informed me that his ammunition was nearly exhausted. I instructed him to try to hold his place until I could get the reserve into position and the ammunition of this regiment could be brought up. There was some difficulty, however, in getting the ammunition, on account of the boggy nature of the ground, caused by so much rain.
Meanwhile the Sixth and Seventh had become hotly engaged. Two color\-bearers of the Second \[Arkansas] were killed, and the third, standing on the declivity of the hill, was fatally struck, and falling forward headlong, cast his colors toward the base, in close proximity to the line of the enemy. The colors were not missed until the regiment had retired over the crest of the hill, and having now no ammunition, it was useless to renew the attack for their recovery. This is a source of great mortification to the regiment as well as the brigade. . . .OFFICIAL RECORDS: Series 1, vol 23, Part 1 (Tullahoma Campaign) Page 590 KY., MID. AND E. TENN., N. ALA., AND SW. VA. Chapter XXXV. }}
The Thirty\-eighth Illinois captured the colors of the Second Arkansas Infantry, and were given credit for breaking the Confederate line and forcing their retreat.OFFICIAL RECORDS: Series 1, vol 23, Part 1 (Tullahoma Campaign) Page 590 KY., MID. AND E. TENN., N. ALA., AND SW. VA. Chapter XXXV. p. 479\-480
In September 1863, the 2nd was consolidated with the [15th Arkansas](/wiki/15th_Arkansas_Infantry_Regiment_%28Josey%27s%29 "15th Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Josey's)"), and the consolidated regiment participated in the [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga "Battle of Chickamauga"), September 19–20, 1863\. {{cite web \|title\=2nd Regiment, Arkansas Infantry \|url\=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/search\-battle\-units\-detail.htm?battleUnitCode\=CAR0002RI02 \|publisher\=National Park Service \|access\-date\=20 July 2023}}
In December 1863, the 24th Arkansas Infantry was added to the consolidated 2nd/15th Arkansas and the 2nd/15th/24th totaled 295 men and 202 arms in December 1863\. On December 29, 1863, Colonel [Daniel Govan](/wiki/Daniel_Govan "Daniel Govan") of the 2nd Arkansas was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brig._Gen._%28CSA%29 "Brig. Gen. (CSA)").Wright, Marcus J., General Officers of the Confederate Army, J. M. Carroll \& Co., 1983, {{ISBN\|0\-8488\-0009\-5}}, p. 117\. The consolidated unit participated in all the battles of the [Chattanooga\-Ringgold Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign "Chattanooga Campaign") including the [Siege of Chattanooga](/wiki/Siege_of_Chattanooga "Siege of Chattanooga") September to November 1863; [Battle of Chattanooga](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chattanooga "Second Battle of Chattanooga"), the [Battle of Ringgold Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Ringgold_Gap "Battle of Ringgold Gap").{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/stream/warofrebellion312unit\#page/754/mode/2up\|title\=The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=Government Printing Office\|year\=1880\|series\=Series I\|volume\=XXXI (Part II)\|pages\=755\|chapter\=Operations in Kentucky, Southwest Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Alabama, and North Georgia\|access\-date\=5 April 2019}}
When General [Joseph E. Johnston](/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston "Joseph E. Johnston") assumed command of the Army of Tennessee to oppose General Sherman's [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign "Atlanta Campaign"), Govan's Brigade was reorganized and only the 2nd and 24th were united. The 2nd/24th Arkansas participated in the battles of Dalton, Resaca, New Hope Church, Kennesaw Mountain, Atlanta, and the [Siege of Atlanta](/wiki/Siege_of_Atlanta "Siege of Atlanta"). The consolidated 2nd/24th Arkansas reported 130 casualties during the campaign.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 38, In Five Parts. Part 3, Reports., Book, 1891; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154634/> : accessed June 26, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.
The regiment and it colors were captured, along with much of Govan's Brigade at the [Battle of Jonesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesboro "Battle of Jonesboro"), Georgia, on Sept. 1, 1864\. Due to a special cartel between Union General [Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman "William Tecumseh Sherman") and Confederate General [John B. Hood](/wiki/John_B._Hood "John B. Hood"), the unit was quickly paroled and exchanged for Union prisoners held at [Andersonville Prison](/wiki/Andersonville_National_Historic_Site "Andersonville National Historic Site"). The regiment re\-entered service approximately a month later.
The 2nd Arkansas and the rest of Govan's Brigade were released and exchanged just in time to participate in General [John B. Hood](/wiki/John_B._Hood "John B. Hood")'s disastrous [Franklin\-Nashville Campaign](/wiki/Franklin-Nashville_Campaign "Franklin-Nashville Campaign"). Due to the appalling losses suffered by Govan's Brigade during the Atlanta Campaign, the 1st/15th, 5th/13th and 2nd/24th Arkansas Regiments were consolidated into one regiment, which was commanded by Colonel Peter Green of the 5th/13th (specifically of the 5th). The other officers of the consolidated regiment were Major Alexander T. Meek, of the 2nd/24th Arkansas, Captain Mordecai P. Garrett and Sergeant Major Thomas Benton Moncrief of the 15th Arkansas. The consolidated regiment fought under the colors of the consolidated 5th/13th Arkansas Regiment, because this was one of the only colors not captured when Govan's Brigade was overrun at the Battle of Jonesboro. The flag of the combined 5th/13th Arkansas was issued in March 1864 and was captured by Benjamin Newman of the 88th Illinois Infantry at the battle of Franklin.Wernick, John. "Re: 5th Arkansas Infantry", The Civil War Flags Message Board, Posted 10 January 2008, Accessed 15 February 2012, [http://history\-sites.com/cgi\-bin/bbs53x/cwflags/webbbs\_config.pl?read\=5234](http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/cwflags/webbbs_config.pl?read=5234) The consolidated regiment numbered just 300 rifles and sustained 66% casualties during the Battle of Franklin.White, Lee "[Re: Govan's Brigade at Franklin](https://archive.today/20121210190905/http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/arcwmb/arch_config.pl?read=8306)", Arkansas in the Civil War Message Board, Posted 28 August 2004, Accessed 26 June 2012, Archived from [the original](http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/arcwmb/arch_config.pl?read=8306%5B%5D){{Dead link\|date\=September 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} on 10 December 2012\.
The remnants of Govan's Brigade that survived the Tennessee Campaign remained with the Army of Tennessee through its final engagements in the 1865 [Carolinas Campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_Campaign "Carolinas Campaign").Sikakis, Stewart, Compendium of the Confederate Armies, Florida and Arkansas, Facts on File, Inc., 1992, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8160\-2288\-5}}, page 71 The 2nd Arkansas Infantry took part in the following engagements:
* + [Battle of Rowlett's Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Rowlett%27s_Station "Battle of Rowlett's Station"), Kentucky, December 17, 1861\.
+ [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh"), Tennessee, April 6–7, 1862\.
+ [Siege of Corinth](/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth "Siege of Corinth"), April to June 1862\.
+ [Kentucky Campaign](/wiki/Kentucky_Campaign "Kentucky Campaign"), Kentucky, August–October, 1862\.
- [Battle of Perryville](/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville "Battle of Perryville"), Kentucky, October 8, 1862\.
+ [Battle of Murfreesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Murfreesboro "Battle of Murfreesboro"), Tennessee, December 31, 1862, to January 3, 1863\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 20, In Two Parts. Part 1, Reports., Book, 1887; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154629> : accessed February 06, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.
+ [Tullahoma Campaign](/wiki/Tullahoma_Campaign "Tullahoma Campaign"), June 1863\.
- [Battle of Liberty Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Gap "Battle of Liberty Gap"), Tennessee, June 24–26, 1863\.
+ [Chickamauga Campaign](/wiki/Chickamauga_Campaign "Chickamauga Campaign"), Georgia, August–September, 1863\.
- [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga "Battle of Chickamauga"), Georgia, September 19–20, 1863\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 30, In Four Parts. Part 1, Reports., Book, 1890; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth152978/> : accessed June 27, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.
+ [Chattanooga Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign "Chattanooga Campaign"), September to November 1863\.
- [Battle of Missionary Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Missionary_Ridge "Battle of Missionary Ridge"), Tennessee, November 25, 1863\.
- [Battle of Ringgold Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Ringgold_Gap "Battle of Ringgold Gap"), Georgia, November 27, 1863\.
+ [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign "Atlanta Campaign"), May to September 1864\.
- [Battle of Rocky Face Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Rocky_Face_Ridge "Battle of Rocky Face Ridge"), Georgia, May 5–11, 1864\.
- [Battle of Resaca](/wiki/Battle_of_Resaca "Battle of Resaca"), Georgia, May 14–15, 1864\.
- [Battle of New Hope Church](/wiki/Battle_of_New_Hope_Church "Battle of New Hope Church"), Georgia, May 25–June 4, 1864\.
- [Battle of Kennesaw Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain "Battle of Kennesaw Mountain"), Georgia, June 27, 1864\.
- [Battle of Peachtree Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek "Battle of Peachtree Creek"), Georgia, July 20, 1864\.
- [Siege of Atlanta](/wiki/Siege_of_Atlanta "Siege of Atlanta"), Georgia, July 22, 1864\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 38, In Five Parts. Part 3, Reports., Book, 1891; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154634/> : accessed June 27, 2012\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.
- [Battle of Jonesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesboro "Battle of Jonesboro"), Georgia, August 31–September 1, 1864\.
+ [Franklin–Nashville Campaign](/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_Campaign "Franklin–Nashville Campaign"), Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee, September 18–December 27, 1864\.
- [Battle of Spring Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Spring_Hill "Battle of Spring Hill"), Tennessee, November 29, 1864\.
- [Battle of Franklin](/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_II "Battle of Franklin II"), Tennessee, November 30, 1864\.
- [Battle of Nashville](/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville "Battle of Nashville"), Tennessee, December 15–16, 1864\.
+ [Carolinas Campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_Campaign "Carolinas Campaign"), February–April 1865\.
- [Battle of Bentonville](/wiki/Battle_of_Bentonville "Battle of Bentonville"), North Carolina, March 19–21, 1865\.
|
[
"Battles\n-------",
"The unit moved from Pittman's Ferry in northeast Arkansas to Kentucky. In October 1861, General [Albert Sidney Johnston](/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston \"Albert Sidney Johnston\") assumed command of [Army of Central Kentucky](/wiki/Army_of_Central_Kentucky \"Army of Central Kentucky\"), and Brigadier General Hardee was promoted to major general and given command of a division, which included the 2nd Arkansas.Col. John M. Harrell, Confederate Military History, a library of Confederate States Military History: Volume 10\\.2, Arkansas \n Clement Anselm Evans, Ed., page Colonel Hindman was reassigned to brigade command.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 7\\., Book, 1882; digital images, ([http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154610/m1/858/?q\\=Army](http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154610/m1/858/?q=Army) of Mississippi : accessed June 27, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas. When Hindman was promoted to brigadier general on September 28, 1861, and the command of the regiment fell to Lieutenant Colonel Bocage.United States. War Department. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 4\\., book, 1893; Washington D.C.. (texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154607/m1/497/?q\\=second%20arkansas%20infantry: accessed October 27, 2016\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, texashistory.unt.edu; crediting UNT Libraries Government Documents Department. Lieutenant Colonel Bocage resigned on November 23, 1861\\. The unit was involved in an engaged at [Rowlett's Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Rowlett%27s_Station \"Battle of Rowlett's Station\"), Kentucky, on December 17, 1861\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://maxkade.iupui.edu/peake/\\|title\\=Indiana's German Sons: A History of the 1st German, 32nd Regiment Indiana Volunteer Infantry. Baptism of Fire: Rowlett's Station, 1861\\|last\\=Peake\\|first\\=Michael A.\\|date\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Max Kade German\\-American Center, Indiana University\\-Purdue University Indianapolis and Indiana German Heritage Society, Inc.\\|isbn\\=1880788136\\|volume\\=13\\|location\\=Indianapolis\\|page\\=11\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104444/http://maxkade.iupui.edu/peake/\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"After the losses of [Fort Henry](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Henry \"Battle of Fort Henry\") and [Fort Donelson](/wiki/Fort_Donelson \"Fort Donelson\") in February 1862, Confederate General [Albert Sidney Johnston](/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston \"Albert Sidney Johnston\") withdrew his forces into western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama to reorganize. On March 29, 1862, the Army of Central Kentucky was merged into the [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi \"Army of Mississippi\") in preparation for the [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\").Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: McKay, 1959; revised 1988\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8129\\-1726\\-X}}, Page 445\\.",
"Assigned to Hindman's (later Liddell's) brigade, [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi \"Army of Mississippi\") in March, 1862 where it participated in the [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\") on April 6–7, 1862 and in the Corinth Campaign from April through June of that year. As a result of losses in the Battle of Shiloh, Companies C and E were disbanded and consolidated with other companies. A new Company C was recruited from Marianna, Arkansas and a new Company E was formed from members of the [11th Arkansas Infantry Regiment](/wiki/11th_Arkansas_Infantry_Regiment \"11th Arkansas Infantry Regiment\") who had escaped capture at the fall of [Island Number Ten](/wiki/Island_Number_Ten \"Island Number Ten\").",
"In early May 1862 the Confederate forces underwent an army\\-wide reorganization due to the passage of the Conscription Act by the Confederate Congress in April 1862\\.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2\\-tGAQAAIAAJ\\&dq\\=Confederate\\+conscription\\+law\\+reorganization\\+regiment\\&pg\\=PA471 \\|title\\=Congressional Serial Set \\|date\\=1912 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office \\|language\\=en}} All twelve\\-month regiments had to re\\-muster and enlist for two additional years or the duration of the war; a new election of officers was ordered; and men who were exempted from service by age or other reasons under the Conscription Act were allowed to take a discharge and go home.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 10, In Two Parts. Part 2, Correspondence, etc., Book, 1884; digital images, ([http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154614/m1/500/?q\\=Army](http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154614/m1/500/?q=Army) of Mississippi : accessed June 17, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas. Officers who did not choose to stand for re\\-election were also offered a discharge. The reorganization was accomplished among all the Arkansas regiments in and around Corinth, Mississippi, following the Battle of Shiloh.",
"In the reorganization of Confederate forces before the start of the Kentucky Campaign, the 2nd Arkansas, now under the command of Colonel [Daniel C. Govan](/wiki/Daniel_C._Govan \"Daniel C. Govan\") was assigned to Brigadier General [St. John Richardson Liddell](/wiki/St._John_Richardson_Liddell \"St. John Richardson Liddell\")'s 1st Brigade of Major General [Simon Bolivar Buckner](/wiki/Simon_Bolivar_Buckner \"Simon Bolivar Buckner\")'s 3rd Division of Major General [William Joseph Hardee](/wiki/William_Joseph_Hardee \"William Joseph Hardee\")'s Corps of the [Army of Mississippi](/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi \"Army of Mississippi\"). The regiment participated in [Battle of Perryville](/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville \"Battle of Perryville\"), Kentucky, in October 1862\\.",
"In November 1862, following the Kentucky Campaign, General Bragg united his Army of Mississippi and General [Kirby Smith](/wiki/Kirby_Smith \"Kirby Smith\")'s[Army of Kentucky](/wiki/Army_of_Kentucky \"Army of Kentucky\") to create the [Army of Tennessee](/wiki/Army_of_Tennessee \"Army of Tennessee\"). In the reorganization, Liddell's brigade of Arkansas troops was assigned to Cleburne's Division and fought in the [Battle of Stones River](/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River \"Battle of Stones River\"), December 31, 1862 – January 3, 1863\\. The regiment lost 15 killed, 94 wounded, and 9 missing at Murfreesboro.",
"The regiment took part in the [Tullahoma Campaign](/wiki/Tullahoma_Campaign \"Tullahoma Campaign\") in June, 1863; and the [Battle of Liberty Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Gap \"Battle of Liberty Gap\"), June 24–26, 1863\\. According to the report Brigadier General St. John R. Liddell, the regiment lost its colors during the fighting at Liberty Gap.",
"{{Blockquote\\|\n. . . I had previously ordered up the Sixth and Seventh Arkansas Regiments (which were held in reserve) to the support of the Second, where Colonel Govan informed me that his ammunition was nearly exhausted. I instructed him to try to hold his place until I could get the reserve into position and the ammunition of this regiment could be brought up. There was some difficulty, however, in getting the ammunition, on account of the boggy nature of the ground, caused by so much rain.",
"Meanwhile the Sixth and Seventh had become hotly engaged. Two color\\-bearers of the Second \\[Arkansas] were killed, and the third, standing on the declivity of the hill, was fatally struck, and falling forward headlong, cast his colors toward the base, in close proximity to the line of the enemy. The colors were not missed until the regiment had retired over the crest of the hill, and having now no ammunition, it was useless to renew the attack for their recovery. This is a source of great mortification to the regiment as well as the brigade. . . .OFFICIAL RECORDS: Series 1, vol 23, Part 1 (Tullahoma Campaign) Page 590 KY., MID. AND E. TENN., N. ALA., AND SW. VA. Chapter XXXV. }}",
"The Thirty\\-eighth Illinois captured the colors of the Second Arkansas Infantry, and were given credit for breaking the Confederate line and forcing their retreat.OFFICIAL RECORDS: Series 1, vol 23, Part 1 (Tullahoma Campaign) Page 590 KY., MID. AND E. TENN., N. ALA., AND SW. VA. Chapter XXXV. p. 479\\-480",
"In September 1863, the 2nd was consolidated with the [15th Arkansas](/wiki/15th_Arkansas_Infantry_Regiment_%28Josey%27s%29 \"15th Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Josey's)\"), and the consolidated regiment participated in the [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga \"Battle of Chickamauga\"), September 19–20, 1863\\. {{cite web \\|title\\=2nd Regiment, Arkansas Infantry \\|url\\=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/search\\-battle\\-units\\-detail.htm?battleUnitCode\\=CAR0002RI02 \\|publisher\\=National Park Service \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2023}}",
"In December 1863, the 24th Arkansas Infantry was added to the consolidated 2nd/15th Arkansas and the 2nd/15th/24th totaled 295 men and 202 arms in December 1863\\. On December 29, 1863, Colonel [Daniel Govan](/wiki/Daniel_Govan \"Daniel Govan\") of the 2nd Arkansas was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brig._Gen._%28CSA%29 \"Brig. Gen. (CSA)\").Wright, Marcus J., General Officers of the Confederate Army, J. M. Carroll \\& Co., 1983, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8488\\-0009\\-5}}, p. 117\\. The consolidated unit participated in all the battles of the [Chattanooga\\-Ringgold Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign \"Chattanooga Campaign\") including the [Siege of Chattanooga](/wiki/Siege_of_Chattanooga \"Siege of Chattanooga\") September to November 1863; [Battle of Chattanooga](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chattanooga \"Second Battle of Chattanooga\"), the [Battle of Ringgold Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Ringgold_Gap \"Battle of Ringgold Gap\").{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/stream/warofrebellion312unit\\#page/754/mode/2up\\|title\\=The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=Government Printing Office\\|year\\=1880\\|series\\=Series I\\|volume\\=XXXI (Part II)\\|pages\\=755\\|chapter\\=Operations in Kentucky, Southwest Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Alabama, and North Georgia\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2019}}",
"When General [Joseph E. Johnston](/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston \"Joseph E. Johnston\") assumed command of the Army of Tennessee to oppose General Sherman's [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign \"Atlanta Campaign\"), Govan's Brigade was reorganized and only the 2nd and 24th were united. The 2nd/24th Arkansas participated in the battles of Dalton, Resaca, New Hope Church, Kennesaw Mountain, Atlanta, and the [Siege of Atlanta](/wiki/Siege_of_Atlanta \"Siege of Atlanta\"). The consolidated 2nd/24th Arkansas reported 130 casualties during the campaign.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 38, In Five Parts. Part 3, Reports., Book, 1891; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154634/> : accessed June 26, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.",
"The regiment and it colors were captured, along with much of Govan's Brigade at the [Battle of Jonesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesboro \"Battle of Jonesboro\"), Georgia, on Sept. 1, 1864\\. Due to a special cartel between Union General [Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman \"William Tecumseh Sherman\") and Confederate General [John B. Hood](/wiki/John_B._Hood \"John B. Hood\"), the unit was quickly paroled and exchanged for Union prisoners held at [Andersonville Prison](/wiki/Andersonville_National_Historic_Site \"Andersonville National Historic Site\"). The regiment re\\-entered service approximately a month later.",
"The 2nd Arkansas and the rest of Govan's Brigade were released and exchanged just in time to participate in General [John B. Hood](/wiki/John_B._Hood \"John B. Hood\")'s disastrous [Franklin\\-Nashville Campaign](/wiki/Franklin-Nashville_Campaign \"Franklin-Nashville Campaign\"). Due to the appalling losses suffered by Govan's Brigade during the Atlanta Campaign, the 1st/15th, 5th/13th and 2nd/24th Arkansas Regiments were consolidated into one regiment, which was commanded by Colonel Peter Green of the 5th/13th (specifically of the 5th). The other officers of the consolidated regiment were Major Alexander T. Meek, of the 2nd/24th Arkansas, Captain Mordecai P. Garrett and Sergeant Major Thomas Benton Moncrief of the 15th Arkansas. The consolidated regiment fought under the colors of the consolidated 5th/13th Arkansas Regiment, because this was one of the only colors not captured when Govan's Brigade was overrun at the Battle of Jonesboro. The flag of the combined 5th/13th Arkansas was issued in March 1864 and was captured by Benjamin Newman of the 88th Illinois Infantry at the battle of Franklin.Wernick, John. \"Re: 5th Arkansas Infantry\", The Civil War Flags Message Board, Posted 10 January 2008, Accessed 15 February 2012, [http://history\\-sites.com/cgi\\-bin/bbs53x/cwflags/webbbs\\_config.pl?read\\=5234](http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/cwflags/webbbs_config.pl?read=5234) The consolidated regiment numbered just 300 rifles and sustained 66% casualties during the Battle of Franklin.White, Lee \"[Re: Govan's Brigade at Franklin](https://archive.today/20121210190905/http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/arcwmb/arch_config.pl?read=8306)\", Arkansas in the Civil War Message Board, Posted 28 August 2004, Accessed 26 June 2012, Archived from [the original](http://history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs53x/arcwmb/arch_config.pl?read=8306%5B%5D){{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} on 10 December 2012\\.",
"The remnants of Govan's Brigade that survived the Tennessee Campaign remained with the Army of Tennessee through its final engagements in the 1865 [Carolinas Campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_Campaign \"Carolinas Campaign\").Sikakis, Stewart, Compendium of the Confederate Armies, Florida and Arkansas, Facts on File, Inc., 1992, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8160\\-2288\\-5}}, page 71 The 2nd Arkansas Infantry took part in the following engagements:",
"* + [Battle of Rowlett's Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Rowlett%27s_Station \"Battle of Rowlett's Station\"), Kentucky, December 17, 1861\\.\n\t+ [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\"), Tennessee, April 6–7, 1862\\.\n\t+ [Siege of Corinth](/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth \"Siege of Corinth\"), April to June 1862\\.\n\t+ [Kentucky Campaign](/wiki/Kentucky_Campaign \"Kentucky Campaign\"), Kentucky, August–October, 1862\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Perryville](/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville \"Battle of Perryville\"), Kentucky, October 8, 1862\\.\n\t+ [Battle of Murfreesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Murfreesboro \"Battle of Murfreesboro\"), Tennessee, December 31, 1862, to January 3, 1863\\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 20, In Two Parts. Part 1, Reports., Book, 1887; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154629> : accessed February 06, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.\n\t+ [Tullahoma Campaign](/wiki/Tullahoma_Campaign \"Tullahoma Campaign\"), June 1863\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Liberty Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Gap \"Battle of Liberty Gap\"), Tennessee, June 24–26, 1863\\.\n\t+ [Chickamauga Campaign](/wiki/Chickamauga_Campaign \"Chickamauga Campaign\"), Georgia, August–September, 1863\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga \"Battle of Chickamauga\"), Georgia, September 19–20, 1863\\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 30, In Four Parts. Part 1, Reports., Book, 1890; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth152978/> : accessed June 27, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.\n\t+ [Chattanooga Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign \"Chattanooga Campaign\"), September to November 1863\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Missionary Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Missionary_Ridge \"Battle of Missionary Ridge\"), Tennessee, November 25, 1863\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Ringgold Gap](/wiki/Battle_of_Ringgold_Gap \"Battle of Ringgold Gap\"), Georgia, November 27, 1863\\.\n\t+ [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign \"Atlanta Campaign\"), May to September 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Rocky Face Ridge](/wiki/Battle_of_Rocky_Face_Ridge \"Battle of Rocky Face Ridge\"), Georgia, May 5–11, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Resaca](/wiki/Battle_of_Resaca \"Battle of Resaca\"), Georgia, May 14–15, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of New Hope Church](/wiki/Battle_of_New_Hope_Church \"Battle of New Hope Church\"), Georgia, May 25–June 4, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Kennesaw Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain \"Battle of Kennesaw Mountain\"), Georgia, June 27, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Peachtree Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek \"Battle of Peachtree Creek\"), Georgia, July 20, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Siege of Atlanta](/wiki/Siege_of_Atlanta \"Siege of Atlanta\"), Georgia, July 22, 1864\\.United States. War Dept. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union And Confederate Armies. Series 1, Volume 38, In Five Parts. Part 3, Reports., Book, 1891; digital images, (<http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth154634/> : accessed June 27, 2012\\), University of North Texas Libraries, The Portal to Texas History, <http://texashistory.unt.edu>; crediting UNT Libraries, Denton, Texas.\n\t\t- [Battle of Jonesboro](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesboro \"Battle of Jonesboro\"), Georgia, August 31–September 1, 1864\\.\n\t+ [Franklin–Nashville Campaign](/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_Campaign \"Franklin–Nashville Campaign\"), Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee, September 18–December 27, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Spring Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Spring_Hill \"Battle of Spring Hill\"), Tennessee, November 29, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Franklin](/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_II \"Battle of Franklin II\"), Tennessee, November 30, 1864\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Nashville](/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville \"Battle of Nashville\"), Tennessee, December 15–16, 1864\\.\n\t+ [Carolinas Campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_Campaign \"Carolinas Campaign\"), February–April 1865\\.\n\t\t- [Battle of Bentonville](/wiki/Battle_of_Bentonville \"Battle of Bentonville\"), North Carolina, March 19–21, 1865\\."
] |
Recreation
----------
No fresh water is provided at any of the islands.
### Kayaking
The islands are popular with kayakers, with some paddling all the way from New York City. Tidal currents are gentle, the mainland is always visible and the electric power plant on [Manresa Island](/wiki/Manresa_Island "Manresa Island") helps with navigation (although if fog hits it can cause sudden and complete disorientation). Public boat launches and beaches are nearby, and some businesses in Norwalk rent kayaks.
The South Western Regional Planning Agency published a brochure for kayakers describing a "Norwalk Islands Canoe and Kayak Trail" showing full\-day and half\-day loops. Guided tours are also available by kayak.
### Fishing, clamming and hunting
Striped bass, bluefish, fluke, flounder, false albacore, bonito, trout, and dogfish can be caught off the islands. Some clamming beds off the islands are seeded.
In duck\-hunting season, hunters may hunt below the mean high\-tide line. Deer can be hunted on the privately owned islands with the owner's permission.
### Bird watching
Rookeries were previously on many of the islands, but now most are on Cockenoe. Herons, egrets, black cormorants can be seen on Cockenoe.
|
[
"Recreation\n----------",
"No fresh water is provided at any of the islands.",
"### Kayaking",
"The islands are popular with kayakers, with some paddling all the way from New York City. Tidal currents are gentle, the mainland is always visible and the electric power plant on [Manresa Island](/wiki/Manresa_Island \"Manresa Island\") helps with navigation (although if fog hits it can cause sudden and complete disorientation). Public boat launches and beaches are nearby, and some businesses in Norwalk rent kayaks.",
"The South Western Regional Planning Agency published a brochure for kayakers describing a \"Norwalk Islands Canoe and Kayak Trail\" showing full\\-day and half\\-day loops. Guided tours are also available by kayak.",
"### Fishing, clamming and hunting",
"Striped bass, bluefish, fluke, flounder, false albacore, bonito, trout, and dogfish can be caught off the islands. Some clamming beds off the islands are seeded.",
"In duck\\-hunting season, hunters may hunt below the mean high\\-tide line. Deer can be hunted on the privately owned islands with the owner's permission.",
"### Bird watching",
"Rookeries were previously on many of the islands, but now most are on Cockenoe. Herons, egrets, black cormorants can be seen on Cockenoe.",
""
] |
Largest islands
---------------
### Chimon Island
At {{convert\|59\|acre\|ha}} Chimon is the largest of the islands and is located in the middle of the group and a bit less than a mile to the southeast of the entrance to [Norwalk Harbor](/wiki/Norwalk_Harbor "Norwalk Harbor"). The island is part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge.
The north and west coasts of the island are gravelly, and boulders are strewn along the south and east coasts. Although boaters may land at the three\-acre beach at the northwest shore during the day, year round, access to the rest of the island is restricted from April 1 to August 15 each year (bird\-nesting season). No overnight camping is allowed. Chimon Island is at {{coord\|41\.065\|\-73\.39\|region:US\_type:isle\|display\=inline\|name\=Chimon Island}}.
### Cockenoe Island
Owned by the Westport town government, the island (Pronounced "koh\-KEE\-nee" or "kuh\-KEE\-nee") has almost all the bird rookeries in the chain. Herons, egrets, black cormorants can be seen on Cockenoe. The cormorants' guano, which leaves some of the rocks white, is toxic to the trees and kills them off after the birds nest in a spot for less than a year. Overnight camping is allowed by the town Conservation Department, but for only four parties per night. Cockenoe Island is at {{coord\|41\.085\|\-73\.355\|region:US\_type:isle\|display\=inline\|name\=Cockenoe Island}}. It is named after the prominent Indian translator, [Cockenoe](/wiki/Cockenoe "Cockenoe").
#### History
An early rumor about the island was that [William Kidd](/wiki/William_Kidd "William Kidd") buried a treasure there. In the 19th century, the island was a working farm with a farmhouse, barn, and livestock. The business eventually turned into a whisky distillery, which the federal government raided in 1870\. In the 1960s, [The United Illuminating Company](/wiki/The_United_Illuminating_Company "The United Illuminating Company") planned to build a [nuclear power plant](/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant "Nuclear power plant") on Cockenoe. Due to concerned local residents and the threat of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain "Eminent domain"), Westport bought the island for $200,000 in 1967\.{{Cite web\|url \= http://blog.ctnews.com/kantor/2011/04/27/cockenoe\-island\-farm\-distillery\-power\-plant\-buried\-treasure/\|title \= Cockenoe Island: Farm? Distillery? Power plant? Buried Treasure?\|date \= April 27, 2011\|accessdate \= July 25, 2013\|first \= Matt\|last \= Kanaga}}
### Shea Island
Once called "Ram Island", the {{convert\|45\|acre\|ha}} isle was renamed after [Daniel Shea](/wiki/Daniel_J._Shea "Daniel J. Shea"), a Congressional [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") recipient from Norwalk who died in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"). Owned by Norwalk city government, the island is just northeast of Sheffield Island and about {{convert\|4000\|yd}} south of Manressa Island.
Along with Grassy Island, Shea is open to the public from May through Columbus Day, and campers with a permit can stay overnight. Two solar\-powered restrooms are available in season, and there are 16 campsites. The entire shoreline is strewn with rocks and boulders, making it a more difficult place to approach by boat. Shea Island is at {{coord\|41\.0595\|\-73\.402\|region:US\_type:isle\|display\=inline\|name\=Shea/Ram Island}}.
### Sheffield Island
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Sheffield Island as seen from the west](/wiki/File:NorwalkCTSheffieldIslandInNorwalkIslands08112007.JPG "NorwalkCTSheffieldIslandInNorwalkIslands08112007.JPG")
At {{convert\|51\|acre\|ha}}, Sheffield is the second largest island in the group, and the most southerly, located about {{convert\|1500\|yd}} from the Norwalk coast and just southwest of Shea Island. The entire shoreline is strewn with rocks and boulders.
Many bird species nest on the island. Sheffield is also one of the best places to see seals. The [Maritime Aquarium at Norwalk](/wiki/Maritime_Aquarium_at_Norwalk "Maritime Aquarium at Norwalk") organizes boat trips circling the islands, including a cruise to see the fall foliage and a winter cruise to see harbor seals and waterfowl (see *Wildlife* section for more information).
Part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge, the island is controlled by the [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service "U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service"), which closes it to the public most of the year in order to protect the bird nesting areas, The public is usually restricted to the {{convert\|3\.5\|acre\|ha}} around the [Sheffield Island Light](/wiki/Sheffield_Island_Light "Sheffield Island Light"), which the [Norwalk Seaport Association](http://www.seaport.org) maintains, although a {{convert\|2000\|yd\|adj\=on}} trail has been created to allow the public controlled access. In the summer, the association arranges tours for people to visit the lighthouse and picnic there. On Thursday nights, [clambakes](/wiki/Clambake "Clambake") and on Friday nights, sunset cruises are held. The lighthouse, built in 1868, was a navigational aid until about 1900\. Sheffield Island is at {{coord\|41\.052\|\-73\.415\|region:US\_type:isle\|display\=inline\|name\=Sheffield Island}}.
|
[
"Largest islands\n---------------",
"### Chimon Island",
"At {{convert\\|59\\|acre\\|ha}} Chimon is the largest of the islands and is located in the middle of the group and a bit less than a mile to the southeast of the entrance to [Norwalk Harbor](/wiki/Norwalk_Harbor \"Norwalk Harbor\"). The island is part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge.",
"The north and west coasts of the island are gravelly, and boulders are strewn along the south and east coasts. Although boaters may land at the three\\-acre beach at the northwest shore during the day, year round, access to the rest of the island is restricted from April 1 to August 15 each year (bird\\-nesting season). No overnight camping is allowed. Chimon Island is at {{coord\\|41\\.065\\|\\-73\\.39\\|region:US\\_type:isle\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Chimon Island}}.",
"### Cockenoe Island",
"Owned by the Westport town government, the island (Pronounced \"koh\\-KEE\\-nee\" or \"kuh\\-KEE\\-nee\") has almost all the bird rookeries in the chain. Herons, egrets, black cormorants can be seen on Cockenoe. The cormorants' guano, which leaves some of the rocks white, is toxic to the trees and kills them off after the birds nest in a spot for less than a year. Overnight camping is allowed by the town Conservation Department, but for only four parties per night. Cockenoe Island is at {{coord\\|41\\.085\\|\\-73\\.355\\|region:US\\_type:isle\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Cockenoe Island}}. It is named after the prominent Indian translator, [Cockenoe](/wiki/Cockenoe \"Cockenoe\").",
"#### History",
"An early rumor about the island was that [William Kidd](/wiki/William_Kidd \"William Kidd\") buried a treasure there. In the 19th century, the island was a working farm with a farmhouse, barn, and livestock. The business eventually turned into a whisky distillery, which the federal government raided in 1870\\. In the 1960s, [The United Illuminating Company](/wiki/The_United_Illuminating_Company \"The United Illuminating Company\") planned to build a [nuclear power plant](/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant \"Nuclear power plant\") on Cockenoe. Due to concerned local residents and the threat of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain \"Eminent domain\"), Westport bought the island for $200,000 in 1967\\.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://blog.ctnews.com/kantor/2011/04/27/cockenoe\\-island\\-farm\\-distillery\\-power\\-plant\\-buried\\-treasure/\\|title \\= Cockenoe Island: Farm? Distillery? Power plant? Buried Treasure?\\|date \\= April 27, 2011\\|accessdate \\= July 25, 2013\\|first \\= Matt\\|last \\= Kanaga}}",
"### Shea Island",
"Once called \"Ram Island\", the {{convert\\|45\\|acre\\|ha}} isle was renamed after [Daniel Shea](/wiki/Daniel_J._Shea \"Daniel J. Shea\"), a Congressional [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") recipient from Norwalk who died in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"). Owned by Norwalk city government, the island is just northeast of Sheffield Island and about {{convert\\|4000\\|yd}} south of Manressa Island.",
"Along with Grassy Island, Shea is open to the public from May through Columbus Day, and campers with a permit can stay overnight. Two solar\\-powered restrooms are available in season, and there are 16 campsites. The entire shoreline is strewn with rocks and boulders, making it a more difficult place to approach by boat. Shea Island is at {{coord\\|41\\.0595\\|\\-73\\.402\\|region:US\\_type:isle\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Shea/Ram Island}}.",
"### Sheffield Island",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Sheffield Island as seen from the west](/wiki/File:NorwalkCTSheffieldIslandInNorwalkIslands08112007.JPG \"NorwalkCTSheffieldIslandInNorwalkIslands08112007.JPG\")\nAt {{convert\\|51\\|acre\\|ha}}, Sheffield is the second largest island in the group, and the most southerly, located about {{convert\\|1500\\|yd}} from the Norwalk coast and just southwest of Shea Island. The entire shoreline is strewn with rocks and boulders.",
"Many bird species nest on the island. Sheffield is also one of the best places to see seals. The [Maritime Aquarium at Norwalk](/wiki/Maritime_Aquarium_at_Norwalk \"Maritime Aquarium at Norwalk\") organizes boat trips circling the islands, including a cruise to see the fall foliage and a winter cruise to see harbor seals and waterfowl (see *Wildlife* section for more information).",
"Part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge, the island is controlled by the [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service \"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service\"), which closes it to the public most of the year in order to protect the bird nesting areas, The public is usually restricted to the {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|acre\\|ha}} around the [Sheffield Island Light](/wiki/Sheffield_Island_Light \"Sheffield Island Light\"), which the [Norwalk Seaport Association](http://www.seaport.org) maintains, although a {{convert\\|2000\\|yd\\|adj\\=on}} trail has been created to allow the public controlled access. In the summer, the association arranges tours for people to visit the lighthouse and picnic there. On Thursday nights, [clambakes](/wiki/Clambake \"Clambake\") and on Friday nights, sunset cruises are held. The lighthouse, built in 1868, was a navigational aid until about 1900\\. Sheffield Island is at {{coord\\|41\\.052\\|\\-73\\.415\\|region:US\\_type:isle\\|display\\=inline\\|name\\=Sheffield Island}}.",
""
] |
Construction
------------
Construction of the line commenced in the mid\-1870s from both the southern and northern ends. The line was completed when the two ends met between [Hāwera](/wiki/H%C4%81wera "Hāwera") and [Manutahi](/wiki/Manutahi "Manutahi") in 1885\.
### Southern end: Marton–Manutahi
The southern portion of the line was conceived as part of the Foxton and Wanganui Railway, which was intended to link the two ports of [Foxton](/wiki/Foxton%2C_New_Zealand "Foxton, New Zealand") and [Wanganui](/wiki/Wanganui "Wanganui") with hinterland settlements such as Marton and [New Plymouth](/wiki/New_Plymouth "New Plymouth"), and form the first portion of a trunk route between Wellington and Taranaki.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} A [tramway](/wiki/Tramway_%28industrial%29 "Tramway (industrial)") had originally been considered for the [Rangitikei District](/wiki/Rangitikei_District "Rangitikei District"), but this plan was abandoned in 1872 and surveys for a railway undertaken in 1873\. Contracts were awarded the next year for construction, but mass sickness caused work to slow in 1875{{sfn\|Leitch\|Scott\|1995\|p\=32}} and the collapse of a girder during the construction of a bridge over the [Whanganui River](/wiki/Whanganui_River "Whanganui River") in 1876 compounded the delays.["Collapse of the Girder of the Wanganui Railway Bridge"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=9&cl=search&d=EP18760922.2.17&e=-------en--1----2%22Wanganui+railway%22-all), *Evening Post* 14(72\) \[ 22 September 1876 ]: 2\.
The line from [Wanganui](/wiki/Whanganui_railway_station "Whanganui railway station") to [Aramoho](/wiki/Aramoho "Aramoho") opened on 21 January 1878; this became the [Wanganui Branch](/wiki/Wanganui_Branch "Wanganui Branch"), with Aramoho the junction station on the MNPL.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, fourth edition, edited by John Yonge (Essex: Quail Map Company, 1993\), 11\. The first section of what became the MNPL opened on 17 May 1877, with a rugged line through the valleys of the [Whangaehu River](/wiki/Whangaehu_River "Whangaehu River") and [Turakina River](/wiki/Turakina_River "Turakina River") to [Turakina](/wiki/Turakina%2C_New_Zealand "Turakina, New Zealand"). The route had been chosen due to its cheapness to construct, but its alignment and torturous grades attracted criticism from the day it opened.{{sfn\|Leitch\|Scott\|1995\|p\=32}} The next section, through easier terrain, opened to Marton on 4 February 1878\. The remainder of the route of the Foxton and Wanganui Railway became the NIMT from Marton through Palmerston North to [Longburn](/wiki/Longburn "Longburn") and the [Foxton Branch](/wiki/Foxton_Branch "Foxton Branch") from Longburn to Foxton.
With the completion of the line south of Wanganui, attention was focused on the line to the north. The section from Aramoho to [Kai Iwi](/wiki/Kai_Iwi "Kai Iwi"), including the Westmere Bank, opened on 28 June 1879\. The Westmere Bank's grade is 1 in 35 (with a peak grade of 1 in 28\) and it remains the line's ruling gradient.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} From Kai Iwi, [Waitotara](/wiki/Waitotara "Waitotara") was reached on 20 September 1880, [Waverley](/wiki/Waverley%2C_Taranaki "Waverley, Taranaki") on 23 March 1881, and Manutahi via [Patea](/wiki/Patea "Patea") on 28 August 1883\.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, ed. Yonge, 9\. From this point, construction proceeded to complete the small gap between the southern and northern sections.
### Northern end: New Plymouth–Manutahi
Like the southern end, the first portion of the northern section was built as part of a different railway. Construction of what became the [Waitara Branch](/wiki/Waitara_Branch "Waitara Branch") began on 21 August 1873, with the line finished on 14 October 1875\. The next year, construction began on the MNPL south from [Sentry Hill](/wiki/Sentry_Hill "Sentry Hill") after [John Brogden and Sons](/wiki/John_Brogden_and_Sons "John Brogden and Sons") were awarded the contract for the first section in January.["New Plymouth"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=11&cl=search&d=EP18760108.2.8.5&e=----03-1878--en--11----0Wanganui+railway-all), *Evening Post* 13(6\) \[ 8 January 1876 ]: 2\. Until 1908, the Waitara line was the through route to New Plymouth with the MNPL branching at Sentry Hill, but in that year the junction was moved slightly south to [Lepperton](/wiki/Lepperton "Lepperton") and the MNPL became the through route.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=137}} The first portion of the line south opened on 30 November 1877 to [Inglewood](/wiki/Inglewood_railway_station%2C_New_Zealand "Inglewood railway station, New Zealand"), followed by an extension to Stratford on 17 December 1879\.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, ed. Yonge, 10\.
Short stages of the line were opened over the next two years, including to [Eltham](/wiki/Eltham%2C_New_Zealand "Eltham, New Zealand") on 7 February 1881\. On 1 August 1881 the first train from New Plymouth reached Hawera, carrying 300 passengers,["Railway Extension to Hawera"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=17&cl=search&d=WT18810802.2.12.3&e=-------en--11----0New+Plymouth+railway-all), *Waikato Times* 17(1417\) \[ 2 August 1881 ]: 2\. although the line was not handed over to the Railways Department from the [Public Works Department](/wiki/New_Zealand_Ministry_of_Works "New Zealand Ministry of Works") until 20 October 1881\. The final section of approximately 16 kilometres from Hawera to Manutahi passed through rugged country and required viaducts over the [Tangahoe](/wiki/Tangahoe_River "Tangahoe River") and [Manawapou Rivers](/wiki/Manawapou_River "Manawapou River"). Due to wet weather, [surveying](/wiki/Surveying "Surveying") took longer than expected, and in 1882, contracts had still not been let despite the imminent completion of the southern portion to Manutahi. The Wellington Chamber of Commerce applied pressure on the Public Works Department to prioritise the section's approval, fearing that its construction was in jeopardy and any failure to link the two railheads would be considerably detrimental to both the profitability of the existing railway network and to the wider economy.Wellington Chamber of Commerce, ["The Foxton\-Taranaki Railway: Memorial from the Chamber of Commerce"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=27&cl=search&d=EP18820623.2.21&e=-------en--21----0Wanganui+Foxton+railway-all), *Evening Post* 23(145\) \[ 23 June 1882 ]: 3\. The final section was subsequently granted approval and it was not until 23 March 1885 that construction was finished and the through line from Marton to New Plymouth was open for revenue service.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}}
Manawapou viaduct was swept away by a flood on 2 March 1966\.{{Cite web \|date\=3 March 1966 \|title\=RAILWAY VIADUCT SWEPT AWAY Press \|url\=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP19660303\.2\.21 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz}} A {{Convert\|169\|ft\|abbr\=on}} temporary trestle viaduct replaced it on 6 April.{{Cite web \|date\=7 May 1966 \|title\=QUICK RESTORATION. Press \|url\=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP19660507\.2\.227 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz}} A permanent viaduct opened in November 1969\.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2016\-04\-28 \|title\=Arthur Fryer: South Taranaki's railway viaducts are rarely seen memorials \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\-daily\-news/lifestyle/79410008/arthur\-fryer\-south\-taranakis\-railway\-viaducts\-are\-rarely\-seen\-memorials \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=Stuff \|language\=en}}
### Turakina deviation
The criticism of the difficult Turakina route south from Wanganui voiced at the opening of the line progressively increased over the years. By the mid\-1930s it had become a severe bottleneck and the Railways Department decided to construct a deviation. In 1937 construction began on a new 16\-km route to replace 23 km of the original route. It included significant tunnelling work and had a ruling gradient of 1 in 70 rather than 1 in 35\. The old route also had "severe" curves of 5 chain (100m) radius. Due to the project's importance, work continued throughout [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), with only a brief pause in 1942 at the height of fears of a Japanese invasion. Defects with the tunnels caused delays in completion, and the deviation opened on 7 December 1947\. On the old route, [AB class](/wiki/NZR_Ab_class "NZR Ab class") [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive "Steam locomotive") were capable of hauling 175 [tons](/wiki/Ton "Ton"); on the new deviation they could handle up to 420 tons. The [formation](/wiki/Track_bed "Track bed") of the old route remains for much of its length, and is used as O'Leary Road near [Fordell](/wiki/Fordell%2C_New_Zealand "Fordell, New Zealand"); a couple of platform edges at old station sites also remain.{{sfn\|Leitch\|Scott\|1995\|p\=32}}
### Kai Iwi deviation
By the start of the 21st century the narrow [loading gauge](/wiki/Loading_gauge "Loading gauge") in the 70\-m long No.4 tunnel south of Kai Iwi was posing limitations on the growth of freight traffic with [containers](/wiki/Containerisation "Containerisation") no greater than 2\.6 m in height being able to pass through the tunnel. In September 2007 [ONTRACK](/wiki/ONTRACK "ONTRACK") announced plans for a deviation, and in December a contract worth [NZ$](/wiki/New_Zealand_dollar "New Zealand dollar")2\.8 million was let to Hurlstone Earth Moving for a 992\-m deviation to eliminate the tunnel, with trains now able to carry 2\.9 m high cube containers. The deviation also eliminated a time\-consuming permanent speed restriction of 15 km/h in the area.Simon Wood, ["Full Steam Ahead on Wanganui\-Stratford Line"](http://www.wanganuichronicle.co.nz/localnews/storydisplay.cfm?storyid=3757988&thesection=localnews&thesubsection=&thesecondsubsection=), *Wanganui Chronicle* (11 December 2007\), accessed 11 December 2007\.
|
[
"Construction\n------------",
"Construction of the line commenced in the mid\\-1870s from both the southern and northern ends. The line was completed when the two ends met between [Hāwera](/wiki/H%C4%81wera \"Hāwera\") and [Manutahi](/wiki/Manutahi \"Manutahi\") in 1885\\.",
"### Southern end: Marton–Manutahi",
"The southern portion of the line was conceived as part of the Foxton and Wanganui Railway, which was intended to link the two ports of [Foxton](/wiki/Foxton%2C_New_Zealand \"Foxton, New Zealand\") and [Wanganui](/wiki/Wanganui \"Wanganui\") with hinterland settlements such as Marton and [New Plymouth](/wiki/New_Plymouth \"New Plymouth\"), and form the first portion of a trunk route between Wellington and Taranaki.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} A [tramway](/wiki/Tramway_%28industrial%29 \"Tramway (industrial)\") had originally been considered for the [Rangitikei District](/wiki/Rangitikei_District \"Rangitikei District\"), but this plan was abandoned in 1872 and surveys for a railway undertaken in 1873\\. Contracts were awarded the next year for construction, but mass sickness caused work to slow in 1875{{sfn\\|Leitch\\|Scott\\|1995\\|p\\=32}} and the collapse of a girder during the construction of a bridge over the [Whanganui River](/wiki/Whanganui_River \"Whanganui River\") in 1876 compounded the delays.[\"Collapse of the Girder of the Wanganui Railway Bridge\"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=9&cl=search&d=EP18760922.2.17&e=-------en--1----2%22Wanganui+railway%22-all), *Evening Post* 14(72\\) \\[ 22 September 1876 ]: 2\\.",
"The line from [Wanganui](/wiki/Whanganui_railway_station \"Whanganui railway station\") to [Aramoho](/wiki/Aramoho \"Aramoho\") opened on 21 January 1878; this became the [Wanganui Branch](/wiki/Wanganui_Branch \"Wanganui Branch\"), with Aramoho the junction station on the MNPL.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, fourth edition, edited by John Yonge (Essex: Quail Map Company, 1993\\), 11\\. The first section of what became the MNPL opened on 17 May 1877, with a rugged line through the valleys of the [Whangaehu River](/wiki/Whangaehu_River \"Whangaehu River\") and [Turakina River](/wiki/Turakina_River \"Turakina River\") to [Turakina](/wiki/Turakina%2C_New_Zealand \"Turakina, New Zealand\"). The route had been chosen due to its cheapness to construct, but its alignment and torturous grades attracted criticism from the day it opened.{{sfn\\|Leitch\\|Scott\\|1995\\|p\\=32}} The next section, through easier terrain, opened to Marton on 4 February 1878\\. The remainder of the route of the Foxton and Wanganui Railway became the NIMT from Marton through Palmerston North to [Longburn](/wiki/Longburn \"Longburn\") and the [Foxton Branch](/wiki/Foxton_Branch \"Foxton Branch\") from Longburn to Foxton.",
"With the completion of the line south of Wanganui, attention was focused on the line to the north. The section from Aramoho to [Kai Iwi](/wiki/Kai_Iwi \"Kai Iwi\"), including the Westmere Bank, opened on 28 June 1879\\. The Westmere Bank's grade is 1 in 35 (with a peak grade of 1 in 28\\) and it remains the line's ruling gradient.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} From Kai Iwi, [Waitotara](/wiki/Waitotara \"Waitotara\") was reached on 20 September 1880, [Waverley](/wiki/Waverley%2C_Taranaki \"Waverley, Taranaki\") on 23 March 1881, and Manutahi via [Patea](/wiki/Patea \"Patea\") on 28 August 1883\\.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, ed. Yonge, 9\\. From this point, construction proceeded to complete the small gap between the southern and northern sections.",
"### Northern end: New Plymouth–Manutahi",
"Like the southern end, the first portion of the northern section was built as part of a different railway. Construction of what became the [Waitara Branch](/wiki/Waitara_Branch \"Waitara Branch\") began on 21 August 1873, with the line finished on 14 October 1875\\. The next year, construction began on the MNPL south from [Sentry Hill](/wiki/Sentry_Hill \"Sentry Hill\") after [John Brogden and Sons](/wiki/John_Brogden_and_Sons \"John Brogden and Sons\") were awarded the contract for the first section in January.[\"New Plymouth\"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=11&cl=search&d=EP18760108.2.8.5&e=----03-1878--en--11----0Wanganui+railway-all), *Evening Post* 13(6\\) \\[ 8 January 1876 ]: 2\\. Until 1908, the Waitara line was the through route to New Plymouth with the MNPL branching at Sentry Hill, but in that year the junction was moved slightly south to [Lepperton](/wiki/Lepperton \"Lepperton\") and the MNPL became the through route.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=137}} The first portion of the line south opened on 30 November 1877 to [Inglewood](/wiki/Inglewood_railway_station%2C_New_Zealand \"Inglewood railway station, New Zealand\"), followed by an extension to Stratford on 17 December 1879\\.*New Zealand Railway and Tramway Atlas*, ed. Yonge, 10\\.",
"Short stages of the line were opened over the next two years, including to [Eltham](/wiki/Eltham%2C_New_Zealand \"Eltham, New Zealand\") on 7 February 1881\\. On 1 August 1881 the first train from New Plymouth reached Hawera, carrying 300 passengers,[\"Railway Extension to Hawera\"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=17&cl=search&d=WT18810802.2.12.3&e=-------en--11----0New+Plymouth+railway-all), *Waikato Times* 17(1417\\) \\[ 2 August 1881 ]: 2\\. although the line was not handed over to the Railways Department from the [Public Works Department](/wiki/New_Zealand_Ministry_of_Works \"New Zealand Ministry of Works\") until 20 October 1881\\. The final section of approximately 16 kilometres from Hawera to Manutahi passed through rugged country and required viaducts over the [Tangahoe](/wiki/Tangahoe_River \"Tangahoe River\") and [Manawapou Rivers](/wiki/Manawapou_River \"Manawapou River\"). Due to wet weather, [surveying](/wiki/Surveying \"Surveying\") took longer than expected, and in 1882, contracts had still not been let despite the imminent completion of the southern portion to Manutahi. The Wellington Chamber of Commerce applied pressure on the Public Works Department to prioritise the section's approval, fearing that its construction was in jeopardy and any failure to link the two railheads would be considerably detrimental to both the profitability of the existing railway network and to the wider economy.Wellington Chamber of Commerce, [\"The Foxton\\-Taranaki Railway: Memorial from the Chamber of Commerce\"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=27&cl=search&d=EP18820623.2.21&e=-------en--21----0Wanganui+Foxton+railway-all), *Evening Post* 23(145\\) \\[ 23 June 1882 ]: 3\\. The final section was subsequently granted approval and it was not until 23 March 1885 that construction was finished and the through line from Marton to New Plymouth was open for revenue service.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}}",
"Manawapou viaduct was swept away by a flood on 2 March 1966\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=3 March 1966 \\|title\\=RAILWAY VIADUCT SWEPT AWAY Press \\|url\\=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP19660303\\.2\\.21 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz}} A {{Convert\\|169\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} temporary trestle viaduct replaced it on 6 April.{{Cite web \\|date\\=7 May 1966 \\|title\\=QUICK RESTORATION. Press \\|url\\=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP19660507\\.2\\.227 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz}} A permanent viaduct opened in November 1969\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-28 \\|title\\=Arthur Fryer: South Taranaki's railway viaducts are rarely seen memorials \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\\-daily\\-news/lifestyle/79410008/arthur\\-fryer\\-south\\-taranakis\\-railway\\-viaducts\\-are\\-rarely\\-seen\\-memorials \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=Stuff \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Turakina deviation",
"The criticism of the difficult Turakina route south from Wanganui voiced at the opening of the line progressively increased over the years. By the mid\\-1930s it had become a severe bottleneck and the Railways Department decided to construct a deviation. In 1937 construction began on a new 16\\-km route to replace 23 km of the original route. It included significant tunnelling work and had a ruling gradient of 1 in 70 rather than 1 in 35\\. The old route also had \"severe\" curves of 5 chain (100m) radius. Due to the project's importance, work continued throughout [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), with only a brief pause in 1942 at the height of fears of a Japanese invasion. Defects with the tunnels caused delays in completion, and the deviation opened on 7 December 1947\\. On the old route, [AB class](/wiki/NZR_Ab_class \"NZR Ab class\") [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\") were capable of hauling 175 [tons](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\"); on the new deviation they could handle up to 420 tons. The [formation](/wiki/Track_bed \"Track bed\") of the old route remains for much of its length, and is used as O'Leary Road near [Fordell](/wiki/Fordell%2C_New_Zealand \"Fordell, New Zealand\"); a couple of platform edges at old station sites also remain.{{sfn\\|Leitch\\|Scott\\|1995\\|p\\=32}}",
"### Kai Iwi deviation",
"By the start of the 21st century the narrow [loading gauge](/wiki/Loading_gauge \"Loading gauge\") in the 70\\-m long No.4 tunnel south of Kai Iwi was posing limitations on the growth of freight traffic with [containers](/wiki/Containerisation \"Containerisation\") no greater than 2\\.6 m in height being able to pass through the tunnel. In September 2007 [ONTRACK](/wiki/ONTRACK \"ONTRACK\") announced plans for a deviation, and in December a contract worth [NZ$](/wiki/New_Zealand_dollar \"New Zealand dollar\")2\\.8 million was let to Hurlstone Earth Moving for a 992\\-m deviation to eliminate the tunnel, with trains now able to carry 2\\.9 m high cube containers. The deviation also eliminated a time\\-consuming permanent speed restriction of 15 km/h in the area.Simon Wood, [\"Full Steam Ahead on Wanganui\\-Stratford Line\"](http://www.wanganuichronicle.co.nz/localnews/storydisplay.cfm?storyid=3757988&thesection=localnews&thesubsection=&thesecondsubsection=), *Wanganui Chronicle* (11 December 2007\\), accessed 11 December 2007\\.",
""
] |
Operation
---------
[thumb\|right\|[Waverley](/wiki/Waverley%2C_Taranaki "Waverley, Taranaki") railway station in April 2006\.](/wiki/File:Waverley_Railway_Station%2C_Taranaki%2C_New_Zealand.jpg "Waverley Railway Station, Taranaki, New Zealand.jpg")
### Passenger services
Not long after the completion of the [Wellington–Manawatu Line](/wiki/Wellington%E2%80%93Manawatu_Line "Wellington–Manawatu Line") by the [Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company](/wiki/Wellington_and_Manawatu_Railway_Company "Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company") (WMR) on 3 November 1886, the [New Plymouth Express](/wiki/New_Plymouth_Express "New Plymouth Express") was introduced, jointly operated by the WMR and NZR. However, upon its introduction in December, its timetable was the subject of protests. The service stopped at only the larger towns, prompting indignation from residents of smaller towns who felt that the line's wayside traffic was being sacrificed so that through passengers could save an hour's travel time.["The Foxton\-Wanganui Railway Time\-table"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=4&cl=search&d=EP18861208.2.26&e=-------en--1----2%22Wanganui+railway%22-all), *Evening Post* 32(174\) \[ 8 December 1886 ]: 2\. Local traffic was primarily catered for by slow [mixed trains](/wiki/Mixed_train "Mixed train"). The Express initially operated twice weekly, with connections to [Onehunga](/wiki/Onehunga "Onehunga") in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") by steamer. In 1901 the express began operating daily; in 1908, with the incorporation of the WMR into the NZR, the service was run by a single government operator; and from 1909, the steamer connections ceased as direct expresses between Wellington and Auckland began operating on the newly opened NIMT.{{sfn\|Mahoney\|1982\|p\=71}}
In 1926, the [Taranaki Flyer](/wiki/Taranaki_Flyer "Taranaki Flyer") passenger train was introduced between Wanganui and Palmerston North, replacing one mixed train. Two additional mixed trains ran south from New Plymouth daily.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=133}} The opening of the [SOL](/wiki/Stratford%E2%80%93Okahukura_Line "Stratford–Okahukura Line") in 1933 saw the introduction of the [New Plymouth Night Express](/wiki/New_Plymouth_Night_Express "New Plymouth Night Express") between Auckland and New Plymouth, using the MNPL between New Plymouth and Stratford. It ran thrice weekly, with extra trains at peak periods.{{sfn\|Mahoney\|1982\|p\=67}} In 1938, the [RM class](/wiki/NZR_RM_class "NZR RM class") [Standard](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%28Standard%29 "NZR RM class (Standard)") [railcars](/wiki/Railcar "Railcar") entered service and they operated an evening service between Wellington and Palmerston North to complement the Express.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} In a test run, one of these railcars completed the journey in 6\.5 hours. However, difficulties on the 1 in 35 grades of the original Turakina route and Westmere Bank meant that the railcars had to have different gears installed, reducing their top speed from 120 km/h to 105 km/h.David Jones, *Where Railcars Roamed: The Railcars Which Have Served New Zealand Railways* (Wellington: Wellington Tramway Museum, 1999\), 18\.
Increasing competition from road and air led to a decline in passengers after World War II. The New Plymouth Express and Taranaki Flyer ran for the last time on 31 October 1955 and were replaced by Standard and [88\-seater](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%2888_seater%29 "NZR RM class (88 seater)") railcars.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} The New Plymouth Night Express was similarly replaced by 88\-seater railcars the next year.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=141}} The railcar substitute for the Taranaki Flyer ran for the last time on 7 February 1959,Tony Hurst, *Farewell to Steam: Four Decades of Change on New Zealand Railways* (Auckland: HarperCollins, 1995\), 74\. but the other services survived into the 1970s. From 1968, the sole services operated by the Standard railcars were those on the MNPL and SOL; they were finally displaced from these services in late 1972\.
The 88\-seater railcars were replaced by "[Blue Streak](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%2888_seater%29%23Blue_Streaks "NZR RM class (88 seater)#Blue Streaks")" refurbished 88\-seater railcars, displaced from the NIMT by the introduction of the [Silver Fern](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%28Silver_Fern%29 "NZR RM class (Silver Fern)") railcars. The Blue Streaks were introduced to the Wellington to New Plymouth morning service. The evening service, which by then ran solely on Fridays and Sundays, had been the final domain of the Standard railcars, but they too were replaced by the 88\-seaters after the last run of an 88\-seater on the morning service on 17 December 1972\.Hurst, *Farewell to Steam*, 71\. The 88\-seaters were ageing and plagued by reliability problems, and on 30 July 1977 all passenger trains between Wellington and New Plymouth were cancelled, thus ending passenger service between Marton and Stratford.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} The railcars replacing the New Plymouth Night Express had ceased to operate the Auckland\-[Taumarunui](/wiki/Taumarunui "Taumarunui") section since 1971, and when they were withdrawn after 11 February 1978, a [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_locomotive "Diesel locomotive")\-hauled carriage train was introduced on the New Plymouth to Stratford and Taumarunui run. It ran for the last time on 21 January 1983 and was the last regular passenger train to operate on any part of the MNPL. Since this time, the only passenger services have been excursions.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=141}}
### Freight
In the early years of the line, freight was primarily local and the railway served as a link between ports and their hinterland. Long\-distance freight progressively developed over the course of the 20th century, aided by the decline of coastal shipping and the need to carry freight to ports in other regions.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}}
Freight services using the full length of the line fell as low as a single service each weekday, with services to and from the north routed via the SOL and then the NIMT. Three daily services transported products along the Hāwera–New Plymouth section from the [Fonterra](/wiki/Fonterra "Fonterra") factory at Whareroa until Fonterra elected to shift its container traffic to the Ports of Auckland and Tauranga.
Nowadays the line sees two\-weekday freight services between Palmerston North (departing 2350 and 0355\) and New Plymouth (departing 1530 and 1815\) and up to three daily return services between Palmerston North and Whareroa, carrying milk from the Manawatu and Hawkes Bay (via a facility at Oringi and rail from there) to the Fonterra plant and empty milk tankers and containerised products on the return trip through most of the year. Other services include regular services along the [Kapuni Branch](/wiki/Kapuni_Branch "Kapuni Branch") for urea, and with the opening of an inland port facility in Wanganui in 2010 by Open Dairy a daily service exists to/from Palmerston North via the [Wanganui Branch](/wiki/Wanganui_Branch "Wanganui Branch") and the reopened [Castlecliff Branch](/wiki/Castlecliff_Branch "Castlecliff Branch").
[Passing loops](/wiki/Passing_loop "Passing loop") are at Ruatangata (near [Turakina](/wiki/Turakina%2C_New_Zealand "Turakina, New Zealand")), [Whanganui](/wiki/Aramoho "Aramoho"), [Kai Iwi](/wiki/Kai_Iwi "Kai Iwi"), [Waitotara](/wiki/Waitotara "Waitotara") and [Patea](/wiki/Patea "Patea").{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=17 November 2002\|title\=Report 02\-127 express freight Train 526 track warrant overrun Waitotara\|url\=https://www.taic.org.nz/sites/default/files/inquiry/documents/02\-127\.pdf\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=\|website\=Transport Accident Investigation Commission}}
The mothballing of the SOL in 2010 now means all northbound freight must transition through Marton.
### Motive power
[Steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive "Steam locomotive") were the primary motive power on the MNPL until the early 1960s. [Tank locomotives](/wiki/Tank_locomotive "Tank locomotive") were prevalent until the 1920s. At the start of the 20th century, [WB class](/wiki/NZR_Wb_class "NZR Wb class") locomotives were based in Wanganui, [WA](/wiki/NZR_Wa_class "NZR Wa class") and [WF](/wiki/NZR_Wf_class "NZR Wf class") locomotives from Palmerston North were used on the line, and [M](/wiki/NZR_M_class "NZR M class") and [double Fairlie](/wiki/Fairlie_locomotive "Fairlie locomotive") [E](/wiki/NZR_E_class_%281872%29 "NZR E class (1872)") class locomotives were based in New Plymouth. [Tender locomotives](/wiki/Tender_locomotive "Tender locomotive") only gained precedence in the 1920s with the introduction of the [AB class](/wiki/NZR_Ab_class "NZR Ab class"), though WF locomotives continued to assist over the difficult grades out of Aramoho.{{sfn\|Mahoney\|1982\|p\=72}} [WW class](/wiki/NZR_Ww_class "NZR Ww class") tanks were also used on the MNPL in this era. After World War II, [K](/wiki/NZR_K_class_%281932%29 "NZR K class (1932)") and [KA](/wiki/NZR_Ka_class "NZR Ka class") locomotives were introduced, the most powerful steam power used on the line.{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} and from the mid\-1950s a variety of railcars were introduced for the passenger services.
In the early 1960s [DA class](/wiki/New_Zealand_DA_class_locomotive "New Zealand DA class locomotive") diesel locomotives began taking over most freight duties, with steam locomotive workings ceasing in 1966\. When introduced in 1972, the [DX class](/wiki/New_Zealand_DX_class_locomotive "New Zealand DX class locomotive") were not common on the MNPL largely owing to the need to strengthen bridges to accommodate their weight. As the DA class were phased out in the 1980s, DX class locomotives became frequently used on the line. During the 1990s and early 2000s, the dominant locomotive classes at the time ([DC](/wiki/New_Zealand_DC_class_locomotive "New Zealand DC class locomotive"), [DFT](/wiki/New_Zealand_DF_class_locomotive_%281979%29 "New Zealand DF class locomotive (1979)"), DX) operated on the line,{{sfn\|Churchman\|Hurst\|2001\|p\=132}} usually in multiple and with a DX class unit usually present on all services due to the power advantage they have when climbing the Westmere Bank. The peak season milk trains, for instance, were usually hauled by a pair of DX units owing to the weight of these services. The [DL class locomotives](/wiki/New_Zealand_DL_class_locomotive "New Zealand DL class locomotive") have been used on MNPL services following their introduction to the lower North Island in 2011\.
With the withdrawal of the DC class and the relocation of the DX and relevant subclasses to the South Island, the DL class is the dominant locomotive class on the MNPL. Motive power on the line regularly consists of pairs of DLs or DFs or mixed with other motive power subject to availability.
|
[
"Operation\n---------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Waverley](/wiki/Waverley%2C_Taranaki \"Waverley, Taranaki\") railway station in April 2006\\.](/wiki/File:Waverley_Railway_Station%2C_Taranaki%2C_New_Zealand.jpg \"Waverley Railway Station, Taranaki, New Zealand.jpg\")",
"### Passenger services",
"Not long after the completion of the [Wellington–Manawatu Line](/wiki/Wellington%E2%80%93Manawatu_Line \"Wellington–Manawatu Line\") by the [Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company](/wiki/Wellington_and_Manawatu_Railway_Company \"Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company\") (WMR) on 3 November 1886, the [New Plymouth Express](/wiki/New_Plymouth_Express \"New Plymouth Express\") was introduced, jointly operated by the WMR and NZR. However, upon its introduction in December, its timetable was the subject of protests. The service stopped at only the larger towns, prompting indignation from residents of smaller towns who felt that the line's wayside traffic was being sacrificed so that through passengers could save an hour's travel time.[\"The Foxton\\-Wanganui Railway Time\\-table\"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&srpos=4&cl=search&d=EP18861208.2.26&e=-------en--1----2%22Wanganui+railway%22-all), *Evening Post* 32(174\\) \\[ 8 December 1886 ]: 2\\. Local traffic was primarily catered for by slow [mixed trains](/wiki/Mixed_train \"Mixed train\"). The Express initially operated twice weekly, with connections to [Onehunga](/wiki/Onehunga \"Onehunga\") in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") by steamer. In 1901 the express began operating daily; in 1908, with the incorporation of the WMR into the NZR, the service was run by a single government operator; and from 1909, the steamer connections ceased as direct expresses between Wellington and Auckland began operating on the newly opened NIMT.{{sfn\\|Mahoney\\|1982\\|p\\=71}}",
"In 1926, the [Taranaki Flyer](/wiki/Taranaki_Flyer \"Taranaki Flyer\") passenger train was introduced between Wanganui and Palmerston North, replacing one mixed train. Two additional mixed trains ran south from New Plymouth daily.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=133}} The opening of the [SOL](/wiki/Stratford%E2%80%93Okahukura_Line \"Stratford–Okahukura Line\") in 1933 saw the introduction of the [New Plymouth Night Express](/wiki/New_Plymouth_Night_Express \"New Plymouth Night Express\") between Auckland and New Plymouth, using the MNPL between New Plymouth and Stratford. It ran thrice weekly, with extra trains at peak periods.{{sfn\\|Mahoney\\|1982\\|p\\=67}} In 1938, the [RM class](/wiki/NZR_RM_class \"NZR RM class\") [Standard](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%28Standard%29 \"NZR RM class (Standard)\") [railcars](/wiki/Railcar \"Railcar\") entered service and they operated an evening service between Wellington and Palmerston North to complement the Express.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} In a test run, one of these railcars completed the journey in 6\\.5 hours. However, difficulties on the 1 in 35 grades of the original Turakina route and Westmere Bank meant that the railcars had to have different gears installed, reducing their top speed from 120 km/h to 105 km/h.David Jones, *Where Railcars Roamed: The Railcars Which Have Served New Zealand Railways* (Wellington: Wellington Tramway Museum, 1999\\), 18\\.",
"Increasing competition from road and air led to a decline in passengers after World War II. The New Plymouth Express and Taranaki Flyer ran for the last time on 31 October 1955 and were replaced by Standard and [88\\-seater](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%2888_seater%29 \"NZR RM class (88 seater)\") railcars.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} The New Plymouth Night Express was similarly replaced by 88\\-seater railcars the next year.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=141}} The railcar substitute for the Taranaki Flyer ran for the last time on 7 February 1959,Tony Hurst, *Farewell to Steam: Four Decades of Change on New Zealand Railways* (Auckland: HarperCollins, 1995\\), 74\\. but the other services survived into the 1970s. From 1968, the sole services operated by the Standard railcars were those on the MNPL and SOL; they were finally displaced from these services in late 1972\\.",
"The 88\\-seater railcars were replaced by \"[Blue Streak](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%2888_seater%29%23Blue_Streaks \"NZR RM class (88 seater)#Blue Streaks\")\" refurbished 88\\-seater railcars, displaced from the NIMT by the introduction of the [Silver Fern](/wiki/NZR_RM_class_%28Silver_Fern%29 \"NZR RM class (Silver Fern)\") railcars. The Blue Streaks were introduced to the Wellington to New Plymouth morning service. The evening service, which by then ran solely on Fridays and Sundays, had been the final domain of the Standard railcars, but they too were replaced by the 88\\-seaters after the last run of an 88\\-seater on the morning service on 17 December 1972\\.Hurst, *Farewell to Steam*, 71\\. The 88\\-seaters were ageing and plagued by reliability problems, and on 30 July 1977 all passenger trains between Wellington and New Plymouth were cancelled, thus ending passenger service between Marton and Stratford.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} The railcars replacing the New Plymouth Night Express had ceased to operate the Auckland\\-[Taumarunui](/wiki/Taumarunui \"Taumarunui\") section since 1971, and when they were withdrawn after 11 February 1978, a [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_locomotive \"Diesel locomotive\")\\-hauled carriage train was introduced on the New Plymouth to Stratford and Taumarunui run. It ran for the last time on 21 January 1983 and was the last regular passenger train to operate on any part of the MNPL. Since this time, the only passenger services have been excursions.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=141}}",
"### Freight",
"In the early years of the line, freight was primarily local and the railway served as a link between ports and their hinterland. Long\\-distance freight progressively developed over the course of the 20th century, aided by the decline of coastal shipping and the need to carry freight to ports in other regions.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}}",
"Freight services using the full length of the line fell as low as a single service each weekday, with services to and from the north routed via the SOL and then the NIMT. Three daily services transported products along the Hāwera–New Plymouth section from the [Fonterra](/wiki/Fonterra \"Fonterra\") factory at Whareroa until Fonterra elected to shift its container traffic to the Ports of Auckland and Tauranga.",
"Nowadays the line sees two\\-weekday freight services between Palmerston North (departing 2350 and 0355\\) and New Plymouth (departing 1530 and 1815\\) and up to three daily return services between Palmerston North and Whareroa, carrying milk from the Manawatu and Hawkes Bay (via a facility at Oringi and rail from there) to the Fonterra plant and empty milk tankers and containerised products on the return trip through most of the year. Other services include regular services along the [Kapuni Branch](/wiki/Kapuni_Branch \"Kapuni Branch\") for urea, and with the opening of an inland port facility in Wanganui in 2010 by Open Dairy a daily service exists to/from Palmerston North via the [Wanganui Branch](/wiki/Wanganui_Branch \"Wanganui Branch\") and the reopened [Castlecliff Branch](/wiki/Castlecliff_Branch \"Castlecliff Branch\").",
"[Passing loops](/wiki/Passing_loop \"Passing loop\") are at Ruatangata (near [Turakina](/wiki/Turakina%2C_New_Zealand \"Turakina, New Zealand\")), [Whanganui](/wiki/Aramoho \"Aramoho\"), [Kai Iwi](/wiki/Kai_Iwi \"Kai Iwi\"), [Waitotara](/wiki/Waitotara \"Waitotara\") and [Patea](/wiki/Patea \"Patea\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=17 November 2002\\|title\\=Report 02\\-127 express freight Train 526 track warrant overrun Waitotara\\|url\\=https://www.taic.org.nz/sites/default/files/inquiry/documents/02\\-127\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=\\|website\\=Transport Accident Investigation Commission}}",
"The mothballing of the SOL in 2010 now means all northbound freight must transition through Marton.",
"### Motive power",
"[Steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\") were the primary motive power on the MNPL until the early 1960s. [Tank locomotives](/wiki/Tank_locomotive \"Tank locomotive\") were prevalent until the 1920s. At the start of the 20th century, [WB class](/wiki/NZR_Wb_class \"NZR Wb class\") locomotives were based in Wanganui, [WA](/wiki/NZR_Wa_class \"NZR Wa class\") and [WF](/wiki/NZR_Wf_class \"NZR Wf class\") locomotives from Palmerston North were used on the line, and [M](/wiki/NZR_M_class \"NZR M class\") and [double Fairlie](/wiki/Fairlie_locomotive \"Fairlie locomotive\") [E](/wiki/NZR_E_class_%281872%29 \"NZR E class (1872)\") class locomotives were based in New Plymouth. [Tender locomotives](/wiki/Tender_locomotive \"Tender locomotive\") only gained precedence in the 1920s with the introduction of the [AB class](/wiki/NZR_Ab_class \"NZR Ab class\"), though WF locomotives continued to assist over the difficult grades out of Aramoho.{{sfn\\|Mahoney\\|1982\\|p\\=72}} [WW class](/wiki/NZR_Ww_class \"NZR Ww class\") tanks were also used on the MNPL in this era. After World War II, [K](/wiki/NZR_K_class_%281932%29 \"NZR K class (1932)\") and [KA](/wiki/NZR_Ka_class \"NZR Ka class\") locomotives were introduced, the most powerful steam power used on the line.{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} and from the mid\\-1950s a variety of railcars were introduced for the passenger services.",
"In the early 1960s [DA class](/wiki/New_Zealand_DA_class_locomotive \"New Zealand DA class locomotive\") diesel locomotives began taking over most freight duties, with steam locomotive workings ceasing in 1966\\. When introduced in 1972, the [DX class](/wiki/New_Zealand_DX_class_locomotive \"New Zealand DX class locomotive\") were not common on the MNPL largely owing to the need to strengthen bridges to accommodate their weight. As the DA class were phased out in the 1980s, DX class locomotives became frequently used on the line. During the 1990s and early 2000s, the dominant locomotive classes at the time ([DC](/wiki/New_Zealand_DC_class_locomotive \"New Zealand DC class locomotive\"), [DFT](/wiki/New_Zealand_DF_class_locomotive_%281979%29 \"New Zealand DF class locomotive (1979)\"), DX) operated on the line,{{sfn\\|Churchman\\|Hurst\\|2001\\|p\\=132}} usually in multiple and with a DX class unit usually present on all services due to the power advantage they have when climbing the Westmere Bank. The peak season milk trains, for instance, were usually hauled by a pair of DX units owing to the weight of these services. The [DL class locomotives](/wiki/New_Zealand_DL_class_locomotive \"New Zealand DL class locomotive\") have been used on MNPL services following their introduction to the lower North Island in 2011\\.",
"With the withdrawal of the DC class and the relocation of the DX and relevant subclasses to the South Island, the DL class is the dominant locomotive class on the MNPL. Motive power on the line regularly consists of pairs of DLs or DFs or mixed with other motive power subject to availability.",
""
] |
Themes
------
### Surface/depth
There are two important moments in the novel that we come across the tension between surfaces and depths. Indeed, the novel opens with such a tension: upon the sight of the castle by the lake, Henry Dancey asks: "Is that castle bona fide?"ET,6 The grandiose appearance of the castle makes Henry feel like there is something unrealistic and inauthentic about the spectacular façade of the castle. In the second moment of Eva's privileging superficiality, she is commenting on the artworks exhibited in the National Portrait Gallery. Eva rejects the view that depths make people's life more real than that of the portraits.
> \[T]hey were all "pictures." Images. "Nothing but a deck of cards"?–not quite, but nearly enough to defeat Eva. ...They were on show only. Lordily suffering themselves to be portrayed, they'd presented a cool core of resistance even to the most penetrating artist. ... Nothing was to be learned from them (if you excepted learning that nothing was to be learned). In so far as they had an effect on the would\-be student, it was a malign one: every soul Eva knew became no longer anything but a portrait. There was no "real life"; no life was more real than this. This she had long suspected. She now was certain.ET,216
Eva's renunciation of depths, however, does not prevent her from developing unique relationships with other characters. Given that Bowen never makes a facial description of Eva, the novel showcases Eva's continuous attempts to have a face of her own in her "superficial" and non\-identitarian way.
### Communication
#### Verbal communication
Communication (verbal and non\-verbal) lies at the heart of this novel. Lis Christenson claims that the novel is about the "limits and possibilities of communication."Christenson,75 The novel's main character, Eva, style of conversation is described as being "outlandish, cement\-like" that was "set" by the time she was sixteen years old and her English teacher, Iseult, met her.
Rev. Dancey is another character who has trouble communicating due to his constant sneezing and hay fever which renders his speech uncomfortable for him and those who hear him as:
> his anxiety was his voice, which had taken into varying in volume as uncontrollably as though a poltergeist were fiddling with the controls,
> sometimes coming out of the sudden boom or roar, sometimes fading till off the air.ET,23
Eric Arble and Iseult have problems communication as their conversations are either interrupted by the arrival of Eva or by each other's overwhelmingly emotional reaction to what the other had said. In one instance of misunderstanding, Eric exclaimed to Iseult "that's what comes out of attempting to talk. Can anybody wonder why I keep my mouth shut?"ET,28
When Constantine, Eva's guardian, requests that Mr. and Mrs. Arble join him in London to discuss the matter of Eva's desire to move out of the Arble's household, instances of verbal mis\-communication occur between Iseult and Constantine. The first instance was when Iseult asked about Eva's mother:
> "What was her mother like?"
>
> "Cissie? She was delightful."
>
> "Oh?"
>
> "Yes, indeed—dear Cissie. Such enchanting girlish ways, so charming so often. So deliciously"—his eye skated lifelessly over his guest—"dressed, always. One was devoted to her."
>
> "She does not sound very like Eva."
>
> "Not superficially.—Yes, in her day Cissie played quite a part."
>
> "Oh... Mrs. Arble?"
>
> "Her death."ET,34
The second instance of mis\-communication was when they were ordering food:
> "\[Y]ou would not say 'no' to oysters?"
>
> "No."
>
> "No?" asked he, assuming a tragic air.
>
> "I mean, no; I would not say 'no.'"ET,34
The novel also showcases instances of the failure of spoken language whereby communication fails and meaning falls through the cracks of language and the instability of the voice to carry out meaning. Bowen expresses a sense of ambivalence towards the "garlands of affection" that the characters bestow upon one another, as language can easily be used to guise, misguide and confuse individuals or hold clandestine meanings. Eva, whose linguistic skills are lacking due to being raised by non\-native speakers of English, asks about the meaning of the words that she does not understand and this manner, she unmasks the artificiality lurking behind language.
#### Non\-verbal communication
Jeremy, Eva's adopted deaf son's ability to communicate with his mother is described as 'extra\-sensory.' However, when communication breaks down, Jeremy's angelic behaviour is disrupted by a type of "possession". Jeremy is able to communicate through lip\-reading as well as reading faces and expressions of those around him. In the US, Eva and Jeremy would spend hours watching silent movies, and this interest helps them develop their own silent language.
### Sexuality
Sexuality is one of the most crucial aspects of the novel inasmuch as both heterosexual and homosexual desire is exercised on different levels and sometimes towards the same people. First of all, Eva Trout, as a young girl, does not look so feminine physically. In the castle, a student asks her if she is a hermaphrodite.ET,48 Later, in the English boarding school, Eva's relationship with Elsinore goes beyond an intimate friendship. As Elsinore has to spend all her time in the room as part of her recovery treatment, the bond between them gets even stronger because of the close proximity they find themselves in.
> What made Eva visualise this as a marriage chamber? As its climate intensified, all grew tender. To repose a hand on the blanket covering Elsinore was to know in the palm of the hand a primitive tremor—imagining the beating of that other heart, she had passionately solicitous sense of this other presence. Nothing forbad love. This deathly yet living stillness, together, of two beings, this unapartness, came to be the requital of all longing.ET,54
Despite Eva's fragmentary memory, when she comes across Elsinore in Chicago many years later, Eva's memories of her affection for Elsinore is still very lucid:
> The town room in the castle, the piteous breathing. The blinded window, the banished lake. The dayless and nightless watches, the tent of cobwebs. The hand on the blanket, the beseeching answering beating heart. The dark: the unseen distance, the known nearness. Love: the here and the now and the nothing\-but. The step on the stairs. Don't take her away, DON'T take her away. She is all I am. We are all there is.ET,142
Eva's extreme attachment to Iseult in the school also has sexual undertones but this affection later evolves into a plotted revenge when Eva, in a conversation with Iseult, does all she can to mislead Iseult into thinking that she and Iseult's husband had a sexual affair.
> "You have no notion how Eric misses you. For instance—couldn't you possibly come to us for Christmas? Like you once used to do; I think very happily. And even Christmas seems very far ahead, far too ahead for Eric. Why, if you do come then, it will have been seven—no, eight, nine?—months since he's seen you. A long time."
>
> "Nine," said Eva, looking up at the evergreen.
>
> "Then at least, Christmas?"
>
> "Christmas is in December?"
>
> "It is usually.—Why? Is there anything else you think of doing?"
>
> "In December I shall be having a little child."ET,128
When Eva comes back from the US, she is a mother and she devotes most of her time to Jeremy's treatment. Meanwhile, she falls in love with Henry Dancey whom she has always had an admiration for since Henry's childhood. There is also a series of homosexual relationships that determine the course of the novel. Willy Trout's love for Constantine as well as Constantine's interest in Kenneth in the first section and the priest Tony Clavering\-Haight in the second, helps Bowen juxtapose and compare heterosexual and homosexual relationships. Although the negative effect of Eva's father's selfish love for Constantine on Eva makes several critics suspicious of homophobic proclivities on Bowen's part, the heterosexual relationships in the novel are as negatively portrayed.Coates, 65
### Education
As a socially awkward girl, Eva needs special attention in her adolescence. But her father's decision as to which school she should go reflects his own concerns rather than hers. After buying a big castle by the lake, he asks his lover Constantine's friend Kenneth to be the administrator. The main aim of this offer, however, is to separate Constantine from Kenneth whom Willy regards as a threat for their relationship. In this school, what interests Eva the most is to watch the dawn in her curtainless room that she shares with Elsinore. Eva's love for Elsinore is profound but they get separated and don't see each other for a long time after Elsonore's mother comes over and takes Elsinore away from the castle. In fact, the school itself closes shortly after Elsinor's departure due to a series of unfortunate incidents including theft, poisoning and arson.ET,54 After two years, Eva tells her father that she wants to enroll in an English boarding school. In this boarding school, Eva meets Iseult Smith whom she would admire enormously.
> Supremacy set apart this wonderful teacher. She could have thought anything.Her dark suit might have been the habit of an Order. ... The intellectual beauty of her sentences was informed by a glow; words she spoke sounded new\-minted, unheard before.ET,56
Her admiration for Iseult Smith gradually fades away as she feels abandoned and betrayed. Iseult ends up doing more harm to Eva than she initially intends to. In fact, Eva never forgives Iseult for her betrayal. Rather than affirming the institution of education in and of itself, Bowen problematises the concept of help as such insofar as most of the attempts to help others in the novel go wrong, or they don't provide the helpers with the psychic comfort they sought in the first place.
### Parenting
Parenting is another central theme in the novel insofar as we are introduced to a number of individuals who fail to take responsibility for their charges. Eva's father, Willy Trout, fails in his duty as a father when he ignores his daughter's education as well as her emotional needs and carries her around the world like baggage. Eva's mother also fails as a parent when she leaves her husband and daughter behind upon discovering the truth about Willy's homosexuality and his relationship with Constantine. Elsinore's mother who sends her daughter off to the co\-educational boarding school to separate her from her the Japanese butler's boy only shows up days after Elsinore attempts to commit suicide by walking into the lake. Her inquiry into her daughter Elsinore's health upon first arriving to take her
back home, "How's my darling?" is to haunt Eva for the rest of her life. Incidentally, Elsinore is the first person whom Eva provides with care and affection. With a motherly gesture, Eva insists on staying with Elsinore during her days of illness.
Constantine, the prototype of the evil stepfather, ignores Eva completely until she is to inherit Willy's wealth. His character as well as manner of speech is rather insidious. It is suggested that Willy was mistrustful of Constantine and suspected that he and Kenneth might have had an affair, a matter that could have led to Willy Trout's depression and ultimately his suicide. He is thus neither a good parent to Eva nor a faithful partner.
In spite of his distant relationship with Eva, Constantine regards himself as an authority figure and questions her about her plans about Jeremy's future in Jeremy's presence by asking her:
> "What are you going to do about that boy?...His future, his schooling. His disability.—He's your heir, I suppose?"ET,189
Constantine is also critical of Eva's over\-protectiveness of Jeremy as he accuses her of being negligent in treating Jeremy's deafness and dealing with it.
> "\[I]t would do the child no harm to see something of the East End: its realities. You keep him in cellophane. You make a plaything of him; at best, a playmate. He may well go on hugging his disability, it's a form of immunity. He does well with it—you make life too charming for him: an Eden. High time he was cast forth from it; as things are, that could only be done across your dead body...what's to come of him when you're gone?"ET, 192
In fact, Eva's parenting skills with Jeremy surpass the care and parenting her own parents gave her inasmuch as she devotes her time either playing, entertaining, or educating him.
Another parent\-like figure is Iseult, who teaches Eva English language and poetry when she was in the English boarding school for girls and takes over the charge of improving Eva's speech and linguistic abilities, yet gives up after a while. The care and interest that Iseult shows for her pupil makes Eva fall in love with her as:
> "\[t]ill Iseult came, no human being had ever turned upon Eva their full attention—an attention which could seem to be love. Eva know nothing of love but that it existed—that, she should know, having looked on at it. Her existence had gone by under a shadow: the shadow of Willy Trout's total attachment to Constantine."ET,10
The fallout between Eva and Iseult results from Eva's great disappointment at her former teacher's abandonment of her as she explains to the priest, father Tony Clavering\-Haight:
> "She desisted from teaching me. She abandoned my mind. She betrayed my hopes, having led them on. She pretended love, to make me show myself to
> her—then, thinking she saw all, turned away. She\-\-"
>
> "—Wait a minute; what were your hopes?"
>
> "To learn," said Eva. A long\-ago tremble shook her. " To be to become—I had never been," she added "I was beginning to be."
>
> He remarked, with enthusiasm, "A gifted teacher."
>
> "Yes. Then she sent me back."
>
> "Sent you away?"
>
> "No; sent me back again—to be nothing."ET, 203
So it stands to reason that Mr. and Mrs. Arble's interest in having Eva stay at their house was because they didn't have a child as well as they needed her money and this tension results in their sterility and not being able to make her happy. However, there is a positive representation of parenting in the novel and that is within the Danceys' household. In spite of having major character flaws in the eyes of Eva and being depicted as caricature, the Danceys are among the happiest among the novel's characters.
|
[
"Themes\n------",
"### Surface/depth",
"There are two important moments in the novel that we come across the tension between surfaces and depths. Indeed, the novel opens with such a tension: upon the sight of the castle by the lake, Henry Dancey asks: \"Is that castle bona fide?\"ET,6 The grandiose appearance of the castle makes Henry feel like there is something unrealistic and inauthentic about the spectacular façade of the castle. In the second moment of Eva's privileging superficiality, she is commenting on the artworks exhibited in the National Portrait Gallery. Eva rejects the view that depths make people's life more real than that of the portraits.",
"",
"> \\[T]hey were all \"pictures.\" Images. \"Nothing but a deck of cards\"?–not quite, but nearly enough to defeat Eva. ...They were on show only. Lordily suffering themselves to be portrayed, they'd presented a cool core of resistance even to the most penetrating artist. ... Nothing was to be learned from them (if you excepted learning that nothing was to be learned). In so far as they had an effect on the would\\-be student, it was a malign one: every soul Eva knew became no longer anything but a portrait. There was no \"real life\"; no life was more real than this. This she had long suspected. She now was certain.ET,216",
"Eva's renunciation of depths, however, does not prevent her from developing unique relationships with other characters. Given that Bowen never makes a facial description of Eva, the novel showcases Eva's continuous attempts to have a face of her own in her \"superficial\" and non\\-identitarian way.",
"### Communication",
"#### Verbal communication",
"Communication (verbal and non\\-verbal) lies at the heart of this novel. Lis Christenson claims that the novel is about the \"limits and possibilities of communication.\"Christenson,75 The novel's main character, Eva, style of conversation is described as being \"outlandish, cement\\-like\" that was \"set\" by the time she was sixteen years old and her English teacher, Iseult, met her.",
"Rev. Dancey is another character who has trouble communicating due to his constant sneezing and hay fever which renders his speech uncomfortable for him and those who hear him as:",
"",
"> his anxiety was his voice, which had taken into varying in volume as uncontrollably as though a poltergeist were fiddling with the controls,\n> sometimes coming out of the sudden boom or roar, sometimes fading till off the air.ET,23",
"Eric Arble and Iseult have problems communication as their conversations are either interrupted by the arrival of Eva or by each other's overwhelmingly emotional reaction to what the other had said. In one instance of misunderstanding, Eric exclaimed to Iseult \"that's what comes out of attempting to talk. Can anybody wonder why I keep my mouth shut?\"ET,28",
"When Constantine, Eva's guardian, requests that Mr. and Mrs. Arble join him in London to discuss the matter of Eva's desire to move out of the Arble's household, instances of verbal mis\\-communication occur between Iseult and Constantine. The first instance was when Iseult asked about Eva's mother:",
"",
"> \"What was her mother like?\" \n> \n> \"Cissie? She was delightful.\" \n> \n> \"Oh?\" \n> \n> \"Yes, indeed—dear Cissie. Such enchanting girlish ways, so charming so often. So deliciously\"—his eye skated lifelessly over his guest—\"dressed, always. One was devoted to her.\" \n> \n> \"She does not sound very like Eva.\" \n> \n> \"Not superficially.—Yes, in her day Cissie played quite a part.\" \n> \n> \"Oh... Mrs. Arble?\" \n> \n> \"Her death.\"ET,34",
"The second instance of mis\\-communication was when they were ordering food:",
"",
"> \"\\[Y]ou would not say 'no' to oysters?\" \n> \n> \"No.\" \n> \n> \"No?\" asked he, assuming a tragic air. \n> \n> \"I mean, no; I would not say 'no.'\"ET,34",
"The novel also showcases instances of the failure of spoken language whereby communication fails and meaning falls through the cracks of language and the instability of the voice to carry out meaning. Bowen expresses a sense of ambivalence towards the \"garlands of affection\" that the characters bestow upon one another, as language can easily be used to guise, misguide and confuse individuals or hold clandestine meanings. Eva, whose linguistic skills are lacking due to being raised by non\\-native speakers of English, asks about the meaning of the words that she does not understand and this manner, she unmasks the artificiality lurking behind language.",
"#### Non\\-verbal communication",
"Jeremy, Eva's adopted deaf son's ability to communicate with his mother is described as 'extra\\-sensory.' However, when communication breaks down, Jeremy's angelic behaviour is disrupted by a type of \"possession\". Jeremy is able to communicate through lip\\-reading as well as reading faces and expressions of those around him. In the US, Eva and Jeremy would spend hours watching silent movies, and this interest helps them develop their own silent language.",
"### Sexuality",
"Sexuality is one of the most crucial aspects of the novel inasmuch as both heterosexual and homosexual desire is exercised on different levels and sometimes towards the same people. First of all, Eva Trout, as a young girl, does not look so feminine physically. In the castle, a student asks her if she is a hermaphrodite.ET,48 Later, in the English boarding school, Eva's relationship with Elsinore goes beyond an intimate friendship. As Elsinore has to spend all her time in the room as part of her recovery treatment, the bond between them gets even stronger because of the close proximity they find themselves in.",
"",
"> What made Eva visualise this as a marriage chamber? As its climate intensified, all grew tender. To repose a hand on the blanket covering Elsinore was to know in the palm of the hand a primitive tremor—imagining the beating of that other heart, she had passionately solicitous sense of this other presence. Nothing forbad love. This deathly yet living stillness, together, of two beings, this unapartness, came to be the requital of all longing.ET,54",
"Despite Eva's fragmentary memory, when she comes across Elsinore in Chicago many years later, Eva's memories of her affection for Elsinore is still very lucid:",
"",
"> The town room in the castle, the piteous breathing. The blinded window, the banished lake. The dayless and nightless watches, the tent of cobwebs. The hand on the blanket, the beseeching answering beating heart. The dark: the unseen distance, the known nearness. Love: the here and the now and the nothing\\-but. The step on the stairs. Don't take her away, DON'T take her away. She is all I am. We are all there is.ET,142",
"Eva's extreme attachment to Iseult in the school also has sexual undertones but this affection later evolves into a plotted revenge when Eva, in a conversation with Iseult, does all she can to mislead Iseult into thinking that she and Iseult's husband had a sexual affair.",
"",
"> \"You have no notion how Eric misses you. For instance—couldn't you possibly come to us for Christmas? Like you once used to do; I think very happily. And even Christmas seems very far ahead, far too ahead for Eric. Why, if you do come then, it will have been seven—no, eight, nine?—months since he's seen you. A long time.\" \n> \n> \"Nine,\" said Eva, looking up at the evergreen. \n> \n> \"Then at least, Christmas?\" \n> \n> \"Christmas is in December?\" \n> \n> \"It is usually.—Why? Is there anything else you think of doing?\" \n> \n> \"In December I shall be having a little child.\"ET,128",
"When Eva comes back from the US, she is a mother and she devotes most of her time to Jeremy's treatment. Meanwhile, she falls in love with Henry Dancey whom she has always had an admiration for since Henry's childhood. There is also a series of homosexual relationships that determine the course of the novel. Willy Trout's love for Constantine as well as Constantine's interest in Kenneth in the first section and the priest Tony Clavering\\-Haight in the second, helps Bowen juxtapose and compare heterosexual and homosexual relationships. Although the negative effect of Eva's father's selfish love for Constantine on Eva makes several critics suspicious of homophobic proclivities on Bowen's part, the heterosexual relationships in the novel are as negatively portrayed.Coates, 65",
"### Education",
"As a socially awkward girl, Eva needs special attention in her adolescence. But her father's decision as to which school she should go reflects his own concerns rather than hers. After buying a big castle by the lake, he asks his lover Constantine's friend Kenneth to be the administrator. The main aim of this offer, however, is to separate Constantine from Kenneth whom Willy regards as a threat for their relationship. In this school, what interests Eva the most is to watch the dawn in her curtainless room that she shares with Elsinore. Eva's love for Elsinore is profound but they get separated and don't see each other for a long time after Elsonore's mother comes over and takes Elsinore away from the castle. In fact, the school itself closes shortly after Elsinor's departure due to a series of unfortunate incidents including theft, poisoning and arson.ET,54 After two years, Eva tells her father that she wants to enroll in an English boarding school. In this boarding school, Eva meets Iseult Smith whom she would admire enormously.",
"",
"> Supremacy set apart this wonderful teacher. She could have thought anything.Her dark suit might have been the habit of an Order. ... The intellectual beauty of her sentences was informed by a glow; words she spoke sounded new\\-minted, unheard before.ET,56",
"Her admiration for Iseult Smith gradually fades away as she feels abandoned and betrayed. Iseult ends up doing more harm to Eva than she initially intends to. In fact, Eva never forgives Iseult for her betrayal. Rather than affirming the institution of education in and of itself, Bowen problematises the concept of help as such insofar as most of the attempts to help others in the novel go wrong, or they don't provide the helpers with the psychic comfort they sought in the first place.",
"### Parenting",
"Parenting is another central theme in the novel insofar as we are introduced to a number of individuals who fail to take responsibility for their charges. Eva's father, Willy Trout, fails in his duty as a father when he ignores his daughter's education as well as her emotional needs and carries her around the world like baggage. Eva's mother also fails as a parent when she leaves her husband and daughter behind upon discovering the truth about Willy's homosexuality and his relationship with Constantine. Elsinore's mother who sends her daughter off to the co\\-educational boarding school to separate her from her the Japanese butler's boy only shows up days after Elsinore attempts to commit suicide by walking into the lake. Her inquiry into her daughter Elsinore's health upon first arriving to take her\nback home, \"How's my darling?\" is to haunt Eva for the rest of her life. Incidentally, Elsinore is the first person whom Eva provides with care and affection. With a motherly gesture, Eva insists on staying with Elsinore during her days of illness.",
"Constantine, the prototype of the evil stepfather, ignores Eva completely until she is to inherit Willy's wealth. His character as well as manner of speech is rather insidious. It is suggested that Willy was mistrustful of Constantine and suspected that he and Kenneth might have had an affair, a matter that could have led to Willy Trout's depression and ultimately his suicide. He is thus neither a good parent to Eva nor a faithful partner.",
"In spite of his distant relationship with Eva, Constantine regards himself as an authority figure and questions her about her plans about Jeremy's future in Jeremy's presence by asking her:",
"",
"> \"What are you going to do about that boy?...His future, his schooling. His disability.—He's your heir, I suppose?\"ET,189",
"Constantine is also critical of Eva's over\\-protectiveness of Jeremy as he accuses her of being negligent in treating Jeremy's deafness and dealing with it.",
"",
"> \"\\[I]t would do the child no harm to see something of the East End: its realities. You keep him in cellophane. You make a plaything of him; at best, a playmate. He may well go on hugging his disability, it's a form of immunity. He does well with it—you make life too charming for him: an Eden. High time he was cast forth from it; as things are, that could only be done across your dead body...what's to come of him when you're gone?\"ET, 192",
"In fact, Eva's parenting skills with Jeremy surpass the care and parenting her own parents gave her inasmuch as she devotes her time either playing, entertaining, or educating him.",
"Another parent\\-like figure is Iseult, who teaches Eva English language and poetry when she was in the English boarding school for girls and takes over the charge of improving Eva's speech and linguistic abilities, yet gives up after a while. The care and interest that Iseult shows for her pupil makes Eva fall in love with her as:",
"",
"> \"\\[t]ill Iseult came, no human being had ever turned upon Eva their full attention—an attention which could seem to be love. Eva know nothing of love but that it existed—that, she should know, having looked on at it. Her existence had gone by under a shadow: the shadow of Willy Trout's total attachment to Constantine.\"ET,10",
"The fallout between Eva and Iseult results from Eva's great disappointment at her former teacher's abandonment of her as she explains to the priest, father Tony Clavering\\-Haight:",
"",
"> \"She desisted from teaching me. She abandoned my mind. She betrayed my hopes, having led them on. She pretended love, to make me show myself to\n> her—then, thinking she saw all, turned away. She\\-\\-\" \n> \n> \"—Wait a minute; what were your hopes?\" \n> \n> \"To learn,\" said Eva. A long\\-ago tremble shook her. \" To be to become—I had never been,\" she added \"I was beginning to be.\" \n> \n> He remarked, with enthusiasm, \"A gifted teacher.\" \n> \n> \"Yes. Then she sent me back.\" \n> \n> \"Sent you away?\" \n> \n> \"No; sent me back again—to be nothing.\"ET, 203",
"So it stands to reason that Mr. and Mrs. Arble's interest in having Eva stay at their house was because they didn't have a child as well as they needed her money and this tension results in their sterility and not being able to make her happy. However, there is a positive representation of parenting in the novel and that is within the Danceys' household. In spite of having major character flaws in the eyes of Eva and being depicted as caricature, the Danceys are among the happiest among the novel's characters.",
""
] |
### Parenting
Parenting is another central theme in the novel insofar as we are introduced to a number of individuals who fail to take responsibility for their charges. Eva's father, Willy Trout, fails in his duty as a father when he ignores his daughter's education as well as her emotional needs and carries her around the world like baggage. Eva's mother also fails as a parent when she leaves her husband and daughter behind upon discovering the truth about Willy's homosexuality and his relationship with Constantine. Elsinore's mother who sends her daughter off to the co\-educational boarding school to separate her from her the Japanese butler's boy only shows up days after Elsinore attempts to commit suicide by walking into the lake. Her inquiry into her daughter Elsinore's health upon first arriving to take her
back home, "How's my darling?" is to haunt Eva for the rest of her life. Incidentally, Elsinore is the first person whom Eva provides with care and affection. With a motherly gesture, Eva insists on staying with Elsinore during her days of illness.
Constantine, the prototype of the evil stepfather, ignores Eva completely until she is to inherit Willy's wealth. His character as well as manner of speech is rather insidious. It is suggested that Willy was mistrustful of Constantine and suspected that he and Kenneth might have had an affair, a matter that could have led to Willy Trout's depression and ultimately his suicide. He is thus neither a good parent to Eva nor a faithful partner.
In spite of his distant relationship with Eva, Constantine regards himself as an authority figure and questions her about her plans about Jeremy's future in Jeremy's presence by asking her:
> "What are you going to do about that boy?...His future, his schooling. His disability.—He's your heir, I suppose?"ET,189
Constantine is also critical of Eva's over\-protectiveness of Jeremy as he accuses her of being negligent in treating Jeremy's deafness and dealing with it.
> "\[I]t would do the child no harm to see something of the East End: its realities. You keep him in cellophane. You make a plaything of him; at best, a playmate. He may well go on hugging his disability, it's a form of immunity. He does well with it—you make life too charming for him: an Eden. High time he was cast forth from it; as things are, that could only be done across your dead body...what's to come of him when you're gone?"ET, 192
In fact, Eva's parenting skills with Jeremy surpass the care and parenting her own parents gave her inasmuch as she devotes her time either playing, entertaining, or educating him.
Another parent\-like figure is Iseult, who teaches Eva English language and poetry when she was in the English boarding school for girls and takes over the charge of improving Eva's speech and linguistic abilities, yet gives up after a while. The care and interest that Iseult shows for her pupil makes Eva fall in love with her as:
> "\[t]ill Iseult came, no human being had ever turned upon Eva their full attention—an attention which could seem to be love. Eva know nothing of love but that it existed—that, she should know, having looked on at it. Her existence had gone by under a shadow: the shadow of Willy Trout's total attachment to Constantine."ET,10
The fallout between Eva and Iseult results from Eva's great disappointment at her former teacher's abandonment of her as she explains to the priest, father Tony Clavering\-Haight:
> "She desisted from teaching me. She abandoned my mind. She betrayed my hopes, having led them on. She pretended love, to make me show myself to
> her—then, thinking she saw all, turned away. She\-\-"
>
> "—Wait a minute; what were your hopes?"
>
> "To learn," said Eva. A long\-ago tremble shook her. " To be to become—I had never been," she added "I was beginning to be."
>
> He remarked, with enthusiasm, "A gifted teacher."
>
> "Yes. Then she sent me back."
>
> "Sent you away?"
>
> "No; sent me back again—to be nothing."ET, 203
So it stands to reason that Mr. and Mrs. Arble's interest in having Eva stay at their house was because they didn't have a child as well as they needed her money and this tension results in their sterility and not being able to make her happy. However, there is a positive representation of parenting in the novel and that is within the Danceys' household. In spite of having major character flaws in the eyes of Eva and being depicted as caricature, the Danceys are among the happiest among the novel's characters.
|
[
"### Parenting",
"Parenting is another central theme in the novel insofar as we are introduced to a number of individuals who fail to take responsibility for their charges. Eva's father, Willy Trout, fails in his duty as a father when he ignores his daughter's education as well as her emotional needs and carries her around the world like baggage. Eva's mother also fails as a parent when she leaves her husband and daughter behind upon discovering the truth about Willy's homosexuality and his relationship with Constantine. Elsinore's mother who sends her daughter off to the co\\-educational boarding school to separate her from her the Japanese butler's boy only shows up days after Elsinore attempts to commit suicide by walking into the lake. Her inquiry into her daughter Elsinore's health upon first arriving to take her\nback home, \"How's my darling?\" is to haunt Eva for the rest of her life. Incidentally, Elsinore is the first person whom Eva provides with care and affection. With a motherly gesture, Eva insists on staying with Elsinore during her days of illness.",
"Constantine, the prototype of the evil stepfather, ignores Eva completely until she is to inherit Willy's wealth. His character as well as manner of speech is rather insidious. It is suggested that Willy was mistrustful of Constantine and suspected that he and Kenneth might have had an affair, a matter that could have led to Willy Trout's depression and ultimately his suicide. He is thus neither a good parent to Eva nor a faithful partner.",
"In spite of his distant relationship with Eva, Constantine regards himself as an authority figure and questions her about her plans about Jeremy's future in Jeremy's presence by asking her:",
"",
"> \"What are you going to do about that boy?...His future, his schooling. His disability.—He's your heir, I suppose?\"ET,189",
"Constantine is also critical of Eva's over\\-protectiveness of Jeremy as he accuses her of being negligent in treating Jeremy's deafness and dealing with it.",
"",
"> \"\\[I]t would do the child no harm to see something of the East End: its realities. You keep him in cellophane. You make a plaything of him; at best, a playmate. He may well go on hugging his disability, it's a form of immunity. He does well with it—you make life too charming for him: an Eden. High time he was cast forth from it; as things are, that could only be done across your dead body...what's to come of him when you're gone?\"ET, 192",
"In fact, Eva's parenting skills with Jeremy surpass the care and parenting her own parents gave her inasmuch as she devotes her time either playing, entertaining, or educating him.",
"Another parent\\-like figure is Iseult, who teaches Eva English language and poetry when she was in the English boarding school for girls and takes over the charge of improving Eva's speech and linguistic abilities, yet gives up after a while. The care and interest that Iseult shows for her pupil makes Eva fall in love with her as:",
"",
"> \"\\[t]ill Iseult came, no human being had ever turned upon Eva their full attention—an attention which could seem to be love. Eva know nothing of love but that it existed—that, she should know, having looked on at it. Her existence had gone by under a shadow: the shadow of Willy Trout's total attachment to Constantine.\"ET,10",
"The fallout between Eva and Iseult results from Eva's great disappointment at her former teacher's abandonment of her as she explains to the priest, father Tony Clavering\\-Haight:",
"",
"> \"She desisted from teaching me. She abandoned my mind. She betrayed my hopes, having led them on. She pretended love, to make me show myself to\n> her—then, thinking she saw all, turned away. She\\-\\-\" \n> \n> \"—Wait a minute; what were your hopes?\" \n> \n> \"To learn,\" said Eva. A long\\-ago tremble shook her. \" To be to become—I had never been,\" she added \"I was beginning to be.\" \n> \n> He remarked, with enthusiasm, \"A gifted teacher.\" \n> \n> \"Yes. Then she sent me back.\" \n> \n> \"Sent you away?\" \n> \n> \"No; sent me back again—to be nothing.\"ET, 203",
"So it stands to reason that Mr. and Mrs. Arble's interest in having Eva stay at their house was because they didn't have a child as well as they needed her money and this tension results in their sterility and not being able to make her happy. However, there is a positive representation of parenting in the novel and that is within the Danceys' household. In spite of having major character flaws in the eyes of Eva and being depicted as caricature, the Danceys are among the happiest among the novel's characters.",
""
] |
Domestic policy
---------------
{{more citations needed\|section\|date\=January 2020}}
After living in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands "Spanish Netherlands") in the early years of his reign,Parker, Geoffrey, *The Dutch Revolt* (1977, rev. ed. 1985\). London: Penguin, p. 41\. Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The [Spanish Empire](/wiki/Spanish_Empire "Spanish Empire") was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a [personal union](/wiki/Personal_union "Personal union") of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg"). In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.Parker, *The Dutch Revolt*, p. 42\.
Philip carried [several titles](/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Heir_Apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne%23Titles_held_by_the_heir_apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne "List of titles and honours of the Heir Apparent to the Spanish Throne#Titles held by the heir apparent to the Spanish Throne") as [heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire](/wiki/List_of_heirs_to_the_Spanish_throne "List of heirs to the Spanish throne"), including [Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias "Prince of Asturias"). The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was [Upper Navarre](/wiki/Upper_Navarre "Upper Navarre"), a realm invaded by [Ferdinand II of Aragon](/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon "Ferdinand II of Aragon") mainly with Castilian troops (1512\), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513\). [War across Navarre](/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre "Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre") continued until the 1528 ([Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai](/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_%281526%29%23Madrid "Treaty of Madrid (1526)#Madrid")). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King [Henry II of Navarre](/wiki/Henry_II_of_Navarre "Henry II of Navarre")—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, [Jeanne III of Navarre](/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre "Jeanne III of Navarre"). The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre (Upper and [Lower](/wiki/Lower_Navarre "Lower Navarre")) and a prince of the independent [Béarn](/wiki/Viscounty_of_B%C3%A9arn "Viscounty of Béarn"), as well as lord of part of southwestern France. However, the French nobility under [Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France") opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541\.
[thumb\|left\|Philip, in the prime of his life, by [Anthonis Mor](/wiki/Anthonis_Mor "Anthonis Mor")](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg "Philip II of Spain by Antonio Moro.jpg")
In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (*Cortes*, *The Three States*) and the *Diputación* for breach of the [realm specific laws (fueros)](/wiki/Fueros_of_Navarre "Fueros of Navarre")—violation of the *pactum subjection is* as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.
In [November 1592](/wiki/Cortes_of_Tarazona_%281592%29 "Cortes of Tarazona (1592)"), the Parliament (*Cortes*) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm\-specific laws, so the Attorney General (*Justicia*) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his [secretary](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28Ancient_Regime_in_Spain%29 "Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)") [Antonio Pérez](/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_%28statesman%29 "Antonio Pérez (statesman)") taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in [Pamplona](/wiki/Pamplona "Pamplona") at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the [Santa Maria Cathedral](/wiki/Pamplona_Cathedral "Pamplona Cathedral"). A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
[thumb\|Philip II wearing the [order of the garter](/wiki/Order_of_the_garter "Order of the garter") by [Jooris van der Straeten](/wiki/Jooris_van_der_Straeten "Jooris van der Straeten"), {{c.}} 1554](/wiki/File:Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg "Jooris van der Straeten - Portrait of Philip II of Spain.jpg")
Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large [Morisco](/wiki/Morisco "Morisco") population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the [Morisco Revolt](/wiki/Morisco_Revolt "Morisco Revolt") broke out in the southern [Kingdom of Granada](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada_%28Crown_of_Castile%29 "Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)") in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.
Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France"), for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.
Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "[Spanish Golden Age](/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age "Spanish Golden Age")", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was [Sofonisba Anguissola](/wiki/Sofonisba_Anguissola "Sofonisba Anguissola"), who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist.
|
[
"Domestic policy\n---------------",
"{{more citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=January 2020}}\nAfter living in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands \"Spanish Netherlands\") in the early years of his reign,Parker, Geoffrey, *The Dutch Revolt* (1977, rev. ed. 1985\\). London: Penguin, p. 41\\. Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The [Spanish Empire](/wiki/Spanish_Empire \"Spanish Empire\") was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a [personal union](/wiki/Personal_union \"Personal union\") of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\"). In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.Parker, *The Dutch Revolt*, p. 42\\.",
"Philip carried [several titles](/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Heir_Apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne%23Titles_held_by_the_heir_apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne \"List of titles and honours of the Heir Apparent to the Spanish Throne#Titles held by the heir apparent to the Spanish Throne\") as [heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire](/wiki/List_of_heirs_to_the_Spanish_throne \"List of heirs to the Spanish throne\"), including [Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias \"Prince of Asturias\"). The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was [Upper Navarre](/wiki/Upper_Navarre \"Upper Navarre\"), a realm invaded by [Ferdinand II of Aragon](/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon \"Ferdinand II of Aragon\") mainly with Castilian troops (1512\\), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513\\). [War across Navarre](/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre \"Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre\") continued until the 1528 ([Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai](/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_%281526%29%23Madrid \"Treaty of Madrid (1526)#Madrid\")). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King [Henry II of Navarre](/wiki/Henry_II_of_Navarre \"Henry II of Navarre\")—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, [Jeanne III of Navarre](/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre \"Jeanne III of Navarre\"). The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre (Upper and [Lower](/wiki/Lower_Navarre \"Lower Navarre\")) and a prince of the independent [Béarn](/wiki/Viscounty_of_B%C3%A9arn \"Viscounty of Béarn\"), as well as lord of part of southwestern France. However, the French nobility under [Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\") opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Philip, in the prime of his life, by [Anthonis Mor](/wiki/Anthonis_Mor \"Anthonis Mor\")](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg \"Philip II of Spain by Antonio Moro.jpg\")",
"In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (*Cortes*, *The Three States*) and the *Diputación* for breach of the [realm specific laws (fueros)](/wiki/Fueros_of_Navarre \"Fueros of Navarre\")—violation of the *pactum subjection is* as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.",
"In [November 1592](/wiki/Cortes_of_Tarazona_%281592%29 \"Cortes of Tarazona (1592)\"), the Parliament (*Cortes*) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm\\-specific laws, so the Attorney General (*Justicia*) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his [secretary](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28Ancient_Regime_in_Spain%29 \"Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)\") [Antonio Pérez](/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_%28statesman%29 \"Antonio Pérez (statesman)\") taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in [Pamplona](/wiki/Pamplona \"Pamplona\") at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the [Santa Maria Cathedral](/wiki/Pamplona_Cathedral \"Pamplona Cathedral\"). A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.",
"[thumb\\|Philip II wearing the [order of the garter](/wiki/Order_of_the_garter \"Order of the garter\") by [Jooris van der Straeten](/wiki/Jooris_van_der_Straeten \"Jooris van der Straeten\"), {{c.}} 1554](/wiki/File:Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg \"Jooris van der Straeten - Portrait of Philip II of Spain.jpg\")",
"Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large [Morisco](/wiki/Morisco \"Morisco\") population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the [Morisco Revolt](/wiki/Morisco_Revolt \"Morisco Revolt\") broke out in the southern [Kingdom of Granada](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada_%28Crown_of_Castile%29 \"Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)\") in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.",
"Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\"), for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.",
"Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the \"[Spanish Golden Age](/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age \"Spanish Golden Age\")\", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was [Sofonisba Anguissola](/wiki/Sofonisba_Anguissola \"Sofonisba Anguissola\"), who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist.",
""
] |
Foreign policy
--------------
Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") and against the forces of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation"). He never relented from his fight against [heresy](/wiki/Heresy "Heresy"), defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories.As Philip wrote in 1566 to [Luis de Requesens](/wiki/Luis_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens "Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens"): "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." {{Harvnb\|Pettegree\|2002\|p\=214}}. These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the [Revolt of the Netherlands](/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Netherlands "Revolt of the Netherlands") in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the [Cologne War](/wiki/Cologne_War "Cologne War"). This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement and focus in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.
[thumb\|Personal guidon of Philip II](/wiki/File:Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg "Guidon of King Philip II of Spain.svg")
In 1588, the English defeated Philip's [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada"), thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But [war with England](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 "Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)") continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries "Low Countries"). It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at [Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_%281571%29 "Battle of Lepanto (1571)") in 1571, with the allied fleet of the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 "Holy League (1571)"), which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"). He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of [Portugal](/wiki/Iberian_Union "Iberian Union").
The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called [relaciones geográficas](/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas "Relaciones geográficas"). These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively.
### Italy
{{Main\|Italian Wars}}
Charles V abdicated the [throne of Naples](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples "Kingdom of Naples") to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially a Papal fief) on 2 October by [Pope Julius III](/wiki/Pope_Julius_III "Pope Julius III"). The date of Charles' abdication of the [throne of Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily "Kingdom of Sicily") is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom on 18 November 1554 by Julius.[Fernand Braudel](/wiki/Fernand_Braudel "Fernand Braudel"), *The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II*, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995\), 935–936 and notes. In 1556, Philip decided to invade the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States "Papal States") and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV "Pope Paul IV")'s anti\-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the [Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church").
In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, [Francisco de Vargas](/wiki/Francisco_de_Vargas_y_Mexia "Francisco de Vargas y Mexia") wrote:
{{quote\|I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the \[\[Holy See\|Apostolic See]], in whose name, and that of the \[\[College of Cardinals]], his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve!{{cite web\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/cal\-state\-papers/spain/vol13/pp275\-280\|title\=Spain: September 1556\|editor\=Royall Tyler \|publisher\=Institute of Historical Research\|year\=1954\|work\=Calendar of State Papers, Spain \|volume\=Vol. 13: 1554–1558\|access\-date\=19 April 2013}}}}
In response to the invasion, [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV "Pope Paul IV") called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, [Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba "Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba"), Viceroy of Naples met Cardinal [Carlo Carafa](/wiki/Carlo_Carafa "Carlo Carafa") and signed the Treaty of [Cave](/wiki/Cave%2C_Lazio "Cave, Lazio") as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States "Papal States") and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.{{cite web\|url\=http://www2\.fiu.edu/\~mirandas/bios1555\-ii.htm\|access\-date\=21 April 2010\|title\=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church\|author\=Salvador Miranda\|year\=2010\|publisher\=\[\[Florida International University]]\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175609/http://www2\.fiu.edu/\~mirandas/bios1555\-ii.htm\|url\-status\=dead}}
Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars "Italian Wars"). A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the [Battle of St. Quentin (1557\)](/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_%281557%29 "Battle of St. Quentin (1557)"). The French were defeated again at the [Battle of Gravelines (1558\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_%281558%29 "Battle of Gravelines (1558)"). The resulting [Treaty of Cateau\-Cambrésis](/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis "Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis") in 1559 secured [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont") to the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy"), and [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica "Corsica") to the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa"). Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's control over [Milan](/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan "Duchy of Milan"), Naples, Sicily, and [Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia "Kingdom of Sardinia"). Therefore, all of southern Italy was under Spanish rule as part of the [Crown of Aragon](/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon "Crown of Aragon"). In the north, Milan was a duchy of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire") held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the [State of Presidi](/wiki/State_of_Presidi "State of Presidi") in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Duchy of Siena to the new [Grand Duchy of Tuscany](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany "Grand Duchy of Tuscany"), ensured it would remain a Spanish ally. The [Council of Italy](/wiki/Council_of_Italy "Council of Italy") was set up by Philip in order to co\-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60\-year [Franco\-Habsburg wars](/wiki/French-Habsburg_rivalry "French-Habsburg rivalry") for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re\-emerged.
By the end of the wars in 1559, [Habsburg Spain](/wiki/Habsburg_Spain "Habsburg Spain") had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France "Henry II of France") was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15\-year\-old son [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France "Francis II of France"), who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion") that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second\-rate powers, with Spain dominating the peninsula. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois "Elisabeth of Valois"), later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia "Isabella Clara Eugenia").
### France
{{main\|French Wars of Religion}}
The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598\) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the [House of Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon") and [House of Guise](/wiki/House_of_Guise "House of Guise"), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from [Constantine I](/wiki/Constantine_I "Constantine I") and [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"), justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose [Henry IV of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France "Henry IV of France").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lV9Xdn3c6IoC\&pg\=PA135\|page\=135\|title\=Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain\|author\=Richard L. Kagan\|date\=2009\|publisher\=JHU Press\|isbn\=978\-1421401652 }}
Philip signed the [Treaty of Vaucelles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vaucelles "Treaty of Vaucelles") with Henry II of France in 1556\. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of [Franche\-Comté](/wiki/County_of_Burgundy "County of Burgundy") in [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy "Burgundy") was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau\-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche\-Comté.
During the [War of the Portuguese Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession "War of the Portuguese Succession"), the pretender [António](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio%2C_Prior_of_Crato "António, Prior of Crato") fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores"), he sailed there with a large Anglo\-French fleet under [Filippo Strozzi](/wiki/Filippo_di_Piero_Strozzi "Filippo di Piero Strozzi"), a [Florentine](/wiki/Florence "Florence") exile in the service of France. The naval [Battle of Terceira](/wiki/Battle_of_Terceira "Battle of Terceira") took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off [São Miguel Island](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island "São Miguel Island"), as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the [Anglo\-Spanish War (1585–1604\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 "Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)"). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo\-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV").Jan Glete p. 156
[thumb\|A [marble](/wiki/Marble "Marble") [bust](/wiki/Bust_%28sculpture%29 "Bust (sculpture)") of Philip II of Spain by [Pompeo Leoni](/wiki/Pompeo_Leoni "Pompeo Leoni"), [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art")](/wiki/File:PhilipIIbust.JPG "PhilipIIbust.JPG")
The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the [Battle of the Azores](/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores "Conquest of the Azores") between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish\-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz "Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz"). Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of [Portugal into the Spanish Empire](/wiki/Iberian_Union "Iberian Union").Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p. 122
Philip financed the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)") during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598\), ordering [Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma "Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma") into France in an effort to unseat [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France "Henry IV of France"), and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia "Isabella Clara Eugenia"), on the French throne. [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois "Elisabeth of Valois"), Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip and in France the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law "Salic law") remained in effect. However, the [Parlement of Paris](/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris "Parlement of Paris"), in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's [siege of Paris](/wiki/Siege_of_Paris%2C_1590 "Siege of Paris, 1590") in 1590 and the [siege of Rouen](/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_%281591%29 "Siege of Rouen (1591)") in 1592—contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.
In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco\-Spanish Catholic forces.Knecht, *French Civil Wars* p. 272
French victory at the [Battle of Fontaine\-Française](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontaine-Fran%C3%A7aise "Battle of Fontaine-Française") in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands "Spanish Netherlands"). They captured [Ham](/wiki/Ham%2C_Belgium "Ham, Belgium") and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2020}} The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking [Doullens](/wiki/Siege_of_Doullens "Siege of Doullens"), [Cambrai](/wiki/Cambrai "Cambrai"), and [Le Catelet](/wiki/Siege_of_Le_Catelet_%281595%29 "Siege of Le Catelet (1595)"); at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.{{cite book \|last\=Goubert \|first\=Pierre \|title\=The Course of French History \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Routledge \|page\=103}} On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also [conquered Calais](/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_%281596%29 "Siege of Calais (1596)"). Following the Spanish capture of [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens "Amiens") in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to [reconquer Amiens](/wiki/Siege_of_Amiens_%281597%29 "Siege of Amiens (1597)") from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597\. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, with the [Peace of Vervins](/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins "Peace of Vervins") in May 1598\.
The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau\-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes "Edict of Nantes"), which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.
### Mediterranean
{{further\|Ottoman–Habsburg wars}}
[thumb\|[Titian](/wiki/Titian "Titian"); after the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, Philip offers his short\-lived heir [Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias "Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias") to Glory in this [allegory](/wiki/Allegory "Allegory").](/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg "Felipe IV offers Ferdinand to Glory.jpg")
[thumb\|[Standard](/wiki/Standard_%28flag%29 "Standard (flag)") of the {{lang\|es\|\[\[tercio]]s morados}} of the Spanish army under Philip II](/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg "Tercio - Morados Viejos.svg")
In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") under [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent "Suleiman the Magnificent"). Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.
In 1558, Turkish admiral [Piyale Pasha](/wiki/Piyale_Pasha "Piyale Pasha") captured the [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands "Balearic Islands"), especially inflicting great damage on [Menorca](/wiki/Menorca "Menorca") and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa "Hayreddin Barbarossa") in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice"), became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.
In 1560, Philip II organised a *Holy League* between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa"), the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States "Papal States"), the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy") and the [Knights of Malta](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller"). The joint fleet was assembled at [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina") and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of [Giovanni Andrea Doria](/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria "Giovanni Andrea Doria"), nephew of the famous Genoese admiral [Andrea Doria](/wiki/Andrea_Doria "Andrea Doria").
On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of [Djerba](/wiki/Djerba "Djerba"), which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya "Tripoli, Libya"). As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560\. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and [Turgut Reis](/wiki/Turgut_Reis "Turgut Reis") (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the [Battle of Djerba](/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba "Battle of Djerba"). The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. [Álvaro de Sande](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande "Álvaro de Sande"), attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.
In 1563, capitalizing on the political climate, the [Regency of Algiers](/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers "Regency of Algiers") launched the [sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir](/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir "Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir") in a large scale attempt to dislodge the major Spanish positions in Northern Africa, but the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then [conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera](/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera "Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera") the following year. The Ottomans sent a [large expedition to Malta](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%281565%29 "Siege of Malta (1565)"), which laid siege to several forts on the island and took some of them, but the Spanish sent a relief force under D. [García de Toledo](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo_y_Osorio "García Álvarez de Toledo y Osorio") and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.
The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, by the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 "Holy League (1571)") under the command of Philip's half brother, Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"), and Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz "Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz"). A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, [reconquered Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281573%29 "Conquest of Tunis (1573)") from the Ottomans in 1573\. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 [Uluç Ali Reis](/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis "Uluç Ali Reis") managed to [recapture Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281574%29 "Conquest of Tunis (1574)") with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.{{Citation needed\|reason\=The name of this treaty?\|date\=May 2024}}
### Strait of Magellan
{{further\|Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan}}
[left\|thumb\|200px\|Armour of Philip II](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_armor_DSC02246.JPG "Philip II of Spain armor DSC02246.JPG")
During Philip's reign Spain considered the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") a *[mare clausum](/wiki/Mare_clausum "Mare clausum")*—a sea closed to other naval powers— as the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan "Strait of Magellan") was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non\-Spanish ships.{{Citation
\| last \= Lytle Schurz
\| first \= William
\| title \= The Spanish Lake
\| journal \= The Hispanic American Historical Review
\| volume \= 5
\| issue \= 2
\| year \= 1922
\| pages \= 181–194
\| doi \= 10\.1215/00182168\-5\.2\.181
\| jstor \= 2506024
\| doi\-access\= free
}}
To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy [Francisco de Toledo](/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo "Francisco de Toledo") ordered [Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa](/wiki/Pedro_Sarmiento_de_Gamboa "Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa") to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.{{Cite journal\| url \=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3\-article\-641\.html
\| title \= Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes
\| journal \= Memoria Chilena
\| publisher \= \[\[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]
\| access\-date \= 30 September 2014
\| language \= es
}}
In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: [Nombre de Jesús](/wiki/Nombre_de_Jes%C3%BAs_%28Patagonia%29 "Nombre de Jesús (Patagonia)"), and [Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe](/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre "Puerto del Hambre"). The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105\.htm\|title\=Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes\|language\=es\|quote\=Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532\. Julio Guillén—el marino\-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares.\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922103737/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105\.htm\|archive\-date\=22 September 2008\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book \|last\=Sarmiento de Gamboa \|first\=Pedro \|others\=Translated by Clements R. Markham \|title\=Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan \|location\=London \|publisher\=Hakluyt Society \|year\=1895 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/narrativesofvoya00sarm }} The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife.{{sfn\|Martinic\|1977\|p\=119}} A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. {{sfn\|Martinic\|1977\|p\=119}} This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.{{sfn\|Martinic\|1977\|p\=119}} Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.{{sfn\|Martinic\|1977\|p\=121}}
In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation.{{cite web\|url\=https://blogpatagonia.australis.com/history\-strait\-of\-magellan/\|title\=History of the Strait of Magellan\|access\-date\=25 October 2019\|date\=7 April 2017}} When Sir [Thomas Cavendish](/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish "Thomas Cavendish") landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement.{{cite book \|last\=Wilson \|first\=Derek \|title\=A Brief History of Circumnavigators \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=Little, Brown Book Group \|isbn\=978\-1\-4721\-1329\-0 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XDGeBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT40 \|language\=en \|chapter\=3\. The Triumph of Desire}} The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused [Chiloé Archipelago](/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9_Archipelago "Chiloé Archipelago") to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.{{cite journal \|last\=Urbina C. \|first\=M. Ximena \|date\=2013 \|title\=Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial \|language\=es \|url\=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid\=S0718\-22442013000200002\&script\=sci\_arttext\&tlng\=pt \|journal\=\[\[Magallania]] \|volume\=41 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=51–84 \|doi\= 10\.4067/S0718\-22442013000200002\|access\-date\=27 January 2016\|doi\-access\=free }} [Valdivia](/wiki/Valdivia "Valdivia") and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.{{cite journal \|last\=Urbina C.\|first\=María Ximena \|date\=2017 \|title\=La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares \|trans\-title\=John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares \|url\=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script\=sci\_arttext\&pid\=S0718\-22442017000200011\&lng\=en\&nrm\=iso\&tlng\=es \|journal\=\[\[Magallania]] \|volume\=45 \|issue\=2 \|pages\= 11–36\|doi\=10\.4067/S0718\-22442017000200011 \|access\-date\=27 December 2019\|doi\-access\=free }}
### Revolt in the Netherlands
{{Main\|Eighty Years' War}}
[thumb\|Philip II berating William of Orange, by [Cornelis Kruseman](/wiki/Cornelis_Kruseman "Cornelis Kruseman")](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg "Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent Prince of Orange by Cornelis Kruseman.jpg")
Philip's rule in the [Seventeen Provinces](/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces "Seventeen Provinces") known collectively as the [Netherlands](/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands "Habsburg Netherlands") faced many difficulties, leading to [open warfare](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War "Eighty Years' War") in 1568\. He appointed his half\-sister [Margaret of Parma](/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma "Margaret of Parma") as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of [Cardinal Granvelle](/wiki/Cardinal_Granvelle "Cardinal Granvelle"), who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant [persecution](/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands "Inquisition of the Netherlands") of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti\-clerical riots known as the [Iconoclast Fury](/wiki/Dutch_Revolt%231566_%E2%80%94_Iconoclasm_and_repression "Dutch Revolt#1566 — Iconoclasm and repression"); in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba "Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba") went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had [Lamoral, Count of Egmont](/wiki/Lamoral%2C_Count_of_Egmont "Lamoral, Count of Egmont") and [Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn](/wiki/Philip_de_Montmorency%2C_Count_of_Horn "Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn") executed in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels")' [central square](/wiki/Grand-Place "Grand-Place"), further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in [Mechelen](/wiki/Spanish_Fury_at_Mechelen "Spanish Fury at Mechelen"),[Henk van Nierop](/wiki/Henk_van_Nierop "Henk van Nierop"), *Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt* (Princeton University Press, 2009\), 69–70\. [Naarden](/wiki/Massacre_of_Naarden "Massacre of Naarden"),Henk van Nierop, *Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt* (Princeton University Press, 2009\), 177\. [Zutphen](/wiki/Zutphen "Zutphen") and [Haarlem](/wiki/Haarlem "Haarlem"). In 1571, Alba erected at [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted\-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the [Battle of Jemmingen](/wiki/Battle_of_Jemmingen "Battle of Jemmingen") in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron [Saint James "the Moorslayer"](/wiki/James_Matamoros "James Matamoros") riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed.{{cite book \|last\=Goodwin \|first\=Robert \|title\=Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682 \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|pages\=179–180}}
In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent "William the Silent"), [Prince of Orange](/wiki/Prince_of_Orange "Prince of Orange"), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, [Holland](/wiki/County_of_Holland "County of Holland") and [Zeeland](/wiki/County_of_Zeeland "County of Zeeland"). Because of the Spanish repulse in the [Siege of Alkmaar](/wiki/Siege_of_Alkmaar "Siege of Alkmaar") (1573\) led by his equally brutal son [Fadrique](/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_4th_Duke_of_Alba "Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba"), Alba resigned his command, replaced by [Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga](/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga "Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga"). Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,{{Cite web\|url\=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm\#Ne1566\|title\=Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count\|website\=necrometrics.com}} in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people "Flemish people") victims can not have fallen short of 50,000\.{{cite book \|last\=Sharp Hume \|first\=Martín Andrew \|title\=The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence \|page\=372}} Under Requesens, the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders "Army of Flanders") reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying [Louis of Nassau](/wiki/Louis_of_Nassau "Louis of Nassau")'s German mercenary army at the [Battle of Mookerheyde](/wiki/Battle_of_Mookerheyde "Battle of Mookerheyde") on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother [Henry of Nassau\-Dillenburg](/wiki/Henry_of_Nassau-Dillenburg "Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg").
Rampant inflation and the loss of [treasure fleets](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet "Spanish treasure fleet") from the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so\-called [Spanish Fury](/wiki/Spanish_Fury "Spanish Fury") at [Antwerp](/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp "Sack of Antwerp") in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.Henry Kamen, *Philip of Spain* (Yale University Press, 1997\), 160\. Philip sent in [Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma "Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma"), as Governor\-General of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands "Spanish Netherlands") from 1578 to 1592\. Farnese defeated the rebels at the [Battle of Gembloux (1578\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_%281578%29 "Battle of Gembloux (1578)"),James Tracy, *The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588* (Oxford University Press, 2008\), 141\. and he captured many rebel towns in the south: [Maastricht](/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_%281579%29 "Siege of Maastricht (1579)") (1579\), [Tournai](/wiki/Tournai "Tournai") (1581\), [Oudenaarde](/wiki/Oudenaarde "Oudenaarde") (1582\), [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") (1583\), [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges") (1584\), [Ghent](/wiki/Siege_of_Ghent_%281583%E2%80%931584%29 "Siege of Ghent (1583–1584)") (1584\), and [Antwerp](/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp "Fall of Antwerp") (1585\).{{cite book \|last\=Black \|first\=Jeremy \|title\=The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792\|volume \=2 \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0521470339 \|page\=58}}
[thumb\|Reward letter of Philip II to the family of [Balthasar Gerards](/wiki/Balthasar_Gerards "Balthasar Gerards"), assassin of [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent "William the Silent"), 1590](/wiki/File:Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards%2C_1590.jpg "Beloningsbrief van koning Filips II van Spanje aan Balthasar Gerards, 1590.jpg")
The [States General](/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands "States General of the Netherlands") of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 [Union of Utrecht](/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht "Union of Utrecht"), passed an [Act of Abjuration](/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration "Act of Abjuration") in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The [southern Netherlands](/wiki/Southern_Netherlands "Southern Netherlands") (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent "William the Silent") was assassinated by [Balthasar Gérard](/wiki/Balthasar_G%C3%A9rard "Balthasar Gérard"), after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son [Maurice of Nassau](/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau "Maurice of Nassau"), who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585\. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an [end in 1648](/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia "Peace of Westphalia"), when the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent. The eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered [war crimes](/wiki/War_crime "War crime").{{cite web\|title\=Victimario Histórico Militar\|url\=http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9\.htm}}
|
[
"Foreign policy\n--------------",
"Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") and against the forces of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\"). He never relented from his fight against [heresy](/wiki/Heresy \"Heresy\"), defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories.As Philip wrote in 1566 to [Luis de Requesens](/wiki/Luis_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens \"Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens\"): \"You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics.\" {{Harvnb\\|Pettegree\\|2002\\|p\\=214}}. These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the [Revolt of the Netherlands](/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Netherlands \"Revolt of the Netherlands\") in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the [Cologne War](/wiki/Cologne_War \"Cologne War\"). This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement and focus in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.",
"[thumb\\|Personal guidon of Philip II](/wiki/File:Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg \"Guidon of King Philip II of Spain.svg\")",
"In 1588, the English defeated Philip's [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\"), thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But [war with England](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 \"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)\") continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries \"Low Countries\"). It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at [Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_%281571%29 \"Battle of Lepanto (1571)\") in 1571, with the allied fleet of the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 \"Holy League (1571)\"), which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"). He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of [Portugal](/wiki/Iberian_Union \"Iberian Union\").",
"The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called [relaciones geográficas](/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas \"Relaciones geográficas\"). These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively.",
"### Italy",
"{{Main\\|Italian Wars}}\nCharles V abdicated the [throne of Naples](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples \"Kingdom of Naples\") to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially a Papal fief) on 2 October by [Pope Julius III](/wiki/Pope_Julius_III \"Pope Julius III\"). The date of Charles' abdication of the [throne of Sicily](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily \"Kingdom of Sicily\") is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom on 18 November 1554 by Julius.[Fernand Braudel](/wiki/Fernand_Braudel \"Fernand Braudel\"), *The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II*, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995\\), 935–936 and notes. In 1556, Philip decided to invade the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States \"Papal States\") and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV \"Pope Paul IV\")'s anti\\-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the [Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\").",
"In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, [Francisco de Vargas](/wiki/Francisco_de_Vargas_y_Mexia \"Francisco de Vargas y Mexia\") wrote:\n{{quote\\|I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the \\[\\[Holy See\\|Apostolic See]], in whose name, and that of the \\[\\[College of Cardinals]], his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve!{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/cal\\-state\\-papers/spain/vol13/pp275\\-280\\|title\\=Spain: September 1556\\|editor\\=Royall Tyler \\|publisher\\=Institute of Historical Research\\|year\\=1954\\|work\\=Calendar of State Papers, Spain \\|volume\\=Vol. 13: 1554–1558\\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2013}}}}",
"In response to the invasion, [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV \"Pope Paul IV\") called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, [Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba \"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba\"), Viceroy of Naples met Cardinal [Carlo Carafa](/wiki/Carlo_Carafa \"Carlo Carafa\") and signed the Treaty of [Cave](/wiki/Cave%2C_Lazio \"Cave, Lazio\") as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States \"Papal States\") and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www2\\.fiu.edu/\\~mirandas/bios1555\\-ii.htm\\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2010\\|title\\=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church\\|author\\=Salvador Miranda\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Florida International University]]\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175609/http://www2\\.fiu.edu/\\~mirandas/bios1555\\-ii.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the [Italian Wars](/wiki/Italian_Wars \"Italian Wars\"). A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the [Battle of St. Quentin (1557\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_%281557%29 \"Battle of St. Quentin (1557)\"). The French were defeated again at the [Battle of Gravelines (1558\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_%281558%29 \"Battle of Gravelines (1558)\"). The resulting [Treaty of Cateau\\-Cambrésis](/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis \"Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis\") in 1559 secured [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\") to the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\"), and [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica \"Corsica\") to the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\"). Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's control over [Milan](/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan \"Duchy of Milan\"), Naples, Sicily, and [Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia \"Kingdom of Sardinia\"). Therefore, all of southern Italy was under Spanish rule as part of the [Crown of Aragon](/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon \"Crown of Aragon\"). In the north, Milan was a duchy of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\") held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the [State of Presidi](/wiki/State_of_Presidi \"State of Presidi\") in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Duchy of Siena to the new [Grand Duchy of Tuscany](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany \"Grand Duchy of Tuscany\"), ensured it would remain a Spanish ally. The [Council of Italy](/wiki/Council_of_Italy \"Council of Italy\") was set up by Philip in order to co\\-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60\\-year [Franco\\-Habsburg wars](/wiki/French-Habsburg_rivalry \"French-Habsburg rivalry\") for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re\\-emerged.",
"By the end of the wars in 1559, [Habsburg Spain](/wiki/Habsburg_Spain \"Habsburg Spain\") had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France \"Henry II of France\") was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15\\-year\\-old son [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France \"Francis II of France\"), who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\") that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second\\-rate powers, with Spain dominating the peninsula. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois \"Elisabeth of Valois\"), later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia \"Isabella Clara Eugenia\").",
"### France",
"{{main\\|French Wars of Religion}}\nThe French Wars of Religion (1562–1598\\) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the [House of Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\") and [House of Guise](/wiki/House_of_Guise \"House of Guise\"), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from [Constantine I](/wiki/Constantine_I \"Constantine I\") and [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"), justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose [Henry IV of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France \"Henry IV of France\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lV9Xdn3c6IoC\\&pg\\=PA135\\|page\\=135\\|title\\=Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain\\|author\\=Richard L. Kagan\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=JHU Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1421401652 }}",
"Philip signed the [Treaty of Vaucelles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vaucelles \"Treaty of Vaucelles\") with Henry II of France in 1556\\. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of [Franche\\-Comté](/wiki/County_of_Burgundy \"County of Burgundy\") in [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy \"Burgundy\") was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau\\-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche\\-Comté.",
"During the [War of the Portuguese Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession \"War of the Portuguese Succession\"), the pretender [António](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio%2C_Prior_of_Crato \"António, Prior of Crato\") fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\"), he sailed there with a large Anglo\\-French fleet under [Filippo Strozzi](/wiki/Filippo_di_Piero_Strozzi \"Filippo di Piero Strozzi\"), a [Florentine](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") exile in the service of France. The naval [Battle of Terceira](/wiki/Battle_of_Terceira \"Battle of Terceira\") took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off [São Miguel Island](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island \"São Miguel Island\"), as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the [Anglo\\-Spanish War (1585–1604\\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 \"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)\"). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo\\-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\").Jan Glete p. 156",
"[thumb\\|A [marble](/wiki/Marble \"Marble\") [bust](/wiki/Bust_%28sculpture%29 \"Bust (sculpture)\") of Philip II of Spain by [Pompeo Leoni](/wiki/Pompeo_Leoni \"Pompeo Leoni\"), [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"Metropolitan Museum of Art\")](/wiki/File:PhilipIIbust.JPG \"PhilipIIbust.JPG\")",
"The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the [Battle of the Azores](/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores \"Conquest of the Azores\") between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish\\-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz \"Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz\"). Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of [Portugal into the Spanish Empire](/wiki/Iberian_Union \"Iberian Union\").Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p. 122",
"Philip financed the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\") during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598\\), ordering [Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma \"Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma\") into France in an effort to unseat [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France \"Henry IV of France\"), and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia \"Isabella Clara Eugenia\"), on the French throne. [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois \"Elisabeth of Valois\"), Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip and in France the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law \"Salic law\") remained in effect. However, the [Parlement of Paris](/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris \"Parlement of Paris\"), in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was \"the legitimate sovereign\" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's [siege of Paris](/wiki/Siege_of_Paris%2C_1590 \"Siege of Paris, 1590\") in 1590 and the [siege of Rouen](/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_%281591%29 \"Siege of Rouen (1591)\") in 1592—contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.",
"In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco\\-Spanish Catholic forces.Knecht, *French Civil Wars* p. 272",
"French victory at the [Battle of Fontaine\\-Française](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontaine-Fran%C3%A7aise \"Battle of Fontaine-Française\") in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands \"Spanish Netherlands\"). They captured [Ham](/wiki/Ham%2C_Belgium \"Ham, Belgium\") and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2020}} The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking [Doullens](/wiki/Siege_of_Doullens \"Siege of Doullens\"), [Cambrai](/wiki/Cambrai \"Cambrai\"), and [Le Catelet](/wiki/Siege_of_Le_Catelet_%281595%29 \"Siege of Le Catelet (1595)\"); at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.{{cite book \\|last\\=Goubert \\|first\\=Pierre \\|title\\=The Course of French History \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|page\\=103}} On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also [conquered Calais](/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_%281596%29 \"Siege of Calais (1596)\"). Following the Spanish capture of [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens \"Amiens\") in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to [reconquer Amiens](/wiki/Siege_of_Amiens_%281597%29 \"Siege of Amiens (1597)\") from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597\\. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, with the [Peace of Vervins](/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins \"Peace of Vervins\") in May 1598\\.",
"The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau\\-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes \"Edict of Nantes\"), which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.",
"### Mediterranean",
"{{further\\|Ottoman–Habsburg wars}}\n[thumb\\|[Titian](/wiki/Titian \"Titian\"); after the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, Philip offers his short\\-lived heir [Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias \"Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias\") to Glory in this [allegory](/wiki/Allegory \"Allegory\").](/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg \"Felipe IV offers Ferdinand to Glory.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Standard](/wiki/Standard_%28flag%29 \"Standard (flag)\") of the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[tercio]]s morados}} of the Spanish army under Philip II](/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg \"Tercio - Morados Viejos.svg\")",
"In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") under [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent \"Suleiman the Magnificent\"). Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.",
"In 1558, Turkish admiral [Piyale Pasha](/wiki/Piyale_Pasha \"Piyale Pasha\") captured the [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands \"Balearic Islands\"), especially inflicting great damage on [Menorca](/wiki/Menorca \"Menorca\") and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa \"Hayreddin Barbarossa\") in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of \"Turkish invincibility\" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.",
"In 1560, Philip II organised a *Holy League* between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\"), the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States \"Papal States\"), the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\") and the [Knights of Malta](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\"). The joint fleet was assembled at [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\") and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of [Giovanni Andrea Doria](/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria \"Giovanni Andrea Doria\"), nephew of the famous Genoese admiral [Andrea Doria](/wiki/Andrea_Doria \"Andrea Doria\").",
"On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of [Djerba](/wiki/Djerba \"Djerba\"), which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya \"Tripoli, Libya\"). As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560\\. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and [Turgut Reis](/wiki/Turgut_Reis \"Turgut Reis\") (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the [Battle of Djerba](/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba \"Battle of Djerba\"). The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. [Álvaro de Sande](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande \"Álvaro de Sande\"), attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.",
"In 1563, capitalizing on the political climate, the [Regency of Algiers](/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers \"Regency of Algiers\") launched the [sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir](/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir \"Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir\") in a large scale attempt to dislodge the major Spanish positions in Northern Africa, but the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then [conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera](/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera \"Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera\") the following year. The Ottomans sent a [large expedition to Malta](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%281565%29 \"Siege of Malta (1565)\"), which laid siege to several forts on the island and took some of them, but the Spanish sent a relief force under D. [García de Toledo](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo_y_Osorio \"García Álvarez de Toledo y Osorio\") and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.",
"The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, by the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 \"Holy League (1571)\") under the command of Philip's half brother, Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"), and Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz \"Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz\"). A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, [reconquered Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281573%29 \"Conquest of Tunis (1573)\") from the Ottomans in 1573\\. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 [Uluç Ali Reis](/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis \"Uluç Ali Reis\") managed to [recapture Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281574%29 \"Conquest of Tunis (1574)\") with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=The name of this treaty?\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"### Strait of Magellan",
"{{further\\|Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Armour of Philip II](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_armor_DSC02246.JPG \"Philip II of Spain armor DSC02246.JPG\")\nDuring Philip's reign Spain considered the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\") a *[mare clausum](/wiki/Mare_clausum \"Mare clausum\")*—a sea closed to other naval powers— as the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan \"Strait of Magellan\") was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non\\-Spanish ships.{{Citation\n\\| last \\= Lytle Schurz\n\\| first \\= William\n\\| title \\= The Spanish Lake\n\\| journal \\= The Hispanic American Historical Review\n\\| volume \\= 5\n\\| issue \\= 2\n\\| year \\= 1922\n\\| pages \\= 181–194\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.1215/00182168\\-5\\.2\\.181\n\\| jstor \\= 2506024\n\\| doi\\-access\\= free\n}}",
"To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy [Francisco de Toledo](/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo \"Francisco de Toledo\") ordered [Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa](/wiki/Pedro_Sarmiento_de_Gamboa \"Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa\") to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.{{Cite journal\\| url \\=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3\\-article\\-641\\.html\n\\| title \\= Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes\n\\| journal \\= Memoria Chilena\n\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]\n\\| access\\-date \\= 30 September 2014\n\\| language \\= es\n}}",
"In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: [Nombre de Jesús](/wiki/Nombre_de_Jes%C3%BAs_%28Patagonia%29 \"Nombre de Jesús (Patagonia)\"), and [Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe](/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre \"Puerto del Hambre\"). The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105\\.htm\\|title\\=Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes\\|language\\=es\\|quote\\=Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532\\. Julio Guillén—el marino\\-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares.\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922103737/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=22 September 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Sarmiento de Gamboa \\|first\\=Pedro \\|others\\=Translated by Clements R. Markham \\|title\\=Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Hakluyt Society \\|year\\=1895 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/narrativesofvoya00sarm }} The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife.{{sfn\\|Martinic\\|1977\\|p\\=119}} A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. {{sfn\\|Martinic\\|1977\\|p\\=119}} This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.{{sfn\\|Martinic\\|1977\\|p\\=119}} Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.{{sfn\\|Martinic\\|1977\\|p\\=121}}",
"In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or \"Port Famine\". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://blogpatagonia.australis.com/history\\-strait\\-of\\-magellan/\\|title\\=History of the Strait of Magellan\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2019\\|date\\=7 April 2017}} When Sir [Thomas Cavendish](/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish \"Thomas Cavendish\") landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=Derek \\|title\\=A Brief History of Circumnavigators \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Little, Brown Book Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4721\\-1329\\-0 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XDGeBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT40 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=3\\. The Triumph of Desire}} The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused [Chiloé Archipelago](/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9_Archipelago \"Chiloé Archipelago\") to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Urbina C. \\|first\\=M. Ximena \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial \\|language\\=es \\|url\\=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid\\=S0718\\-22442013000200002\\&script\\=sci\\_arttext\\&tlng\\=pt \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Magallania]] \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=51–84 \\|doi\\= 10\\.4067/S0718\\-22442013000200002\\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2016\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} [Valdivia](/wiki/Valdivia \"Valdivia\") and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Urbina C.\\|first\\=María Ximena \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares \\|trans\\-title\\=John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares \\|url\\=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script\\=sci\\_arttext\\&pid\\=S0718\\-22442017000200011\\&lng\\=en\\&nrm\\=iso\\&tlng\\=es \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Magallania]] \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\= 11–36\\|doi\\=10\\.4067/S0718\\-22442017000200011 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2019\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Revolt in the Netherlands",
"{{Main\\|Eighty Years' War}}\n[thumb\\|Philip II berating William of Orange, by [Cornelis Kruseman](/wiki/Cornelis_Kruseman \"Cornelis Kruseman\")](/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg \"Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent Prince of Orange by Cornelis Kruseman.jpg\")\nPhilip's rule in the [Seventeen Provinces](/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces \"Seventeen Provinces\") known collectively as the [Netherlands](/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands \"Habsburg Netherlands\") faced many difficulties, leading to [open warfare](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War \"Eighty Years' War\") in 1568\\. He appointed his half\\-sister [Margaret of Parma](/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma \"Margaret of Parma\") as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of [Cardinal Granvelle](/wiki/Cardinal_Granvelle \"Cardinal Granvelle\"), who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant [persecution](/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands \"Inquisition of the Netherlands\") of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti\\-clerical riots known as the [Iconoclast Fury](/wiki/Dutch_Revolt%231566_%E2%80%94_Iconoclasm_and_repression \"Dutch Revolt#1566 — Iconoclasm and repression\"); in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba \"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba\") went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had [Lamoral, Count of Egmont](/wiki/Lamoral%2C_Count_of_Egmont \"Lamoral, Count of Egmont\") and [Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn](/wiki/Philip_de_Montmorency%2C_Count_of_Horn \"Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn\") executed in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\")' [central square](/wiki/Grand-Place \"Grand-Place\"), further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in [Mechelen](/wiki/Spanish_Fury_at_Mechelen \"Spanish Fury at Mechelen\"),[Henk van Nierop](/wiki/Henk_van_Nierop \"Henk van Nierop\"), *Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt* (Princeton University Press, 2009\\), 69–70\\. [Naarden](/wiki/Massacre_of_Naarden \"Massacre of Naarden\"),Henk van Nierop, *Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt* (Princeton University Press, 2009\\), 177\\. [Zutphen](/wiki/Zutphen \"Zutphen\") and [Haarlem](/wiki/Haarlem \"Haarlem\"). In 1571, Alba erected at [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted\\-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the [Battle of Jemmingen](/wiki/Battle_of_Jemmingen \"Battle of Jemmingen\") in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron [Saint James \"the Moorslayer\"](/wiki/James_Matamoros \"James Matamoros\") riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed.{{cite book \\|last\\=Goodwin \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682 \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|pages\\=179–180}}",
"In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent \"William the Silent\"), [Prince of Orange](/wiki/Prince_of_Orange \"Prince of Orange\"), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, [Holland](/wiki/County_of_Holland \"County of Holland\") and [Zeeland](/wiki/County_of_Zeeland \"County of Zeeland\"). Because of the Spanish repulse in the [Siege of Alkmaar](/wiki/Siege_of_Alkmaar \"Siege of Alkmaar\") (1573\\) led by his equally brutal son [Fadrique](/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_4th_Duke_of_Alba \"Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba\"), Alba resigned his command, replaced by [Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga](/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga \"Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga\"). Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm\\#Ne1566\\|title\\=Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count\\|website\\=necrometrics.com}} in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people \"Flemish people\") victims can not have fallen short of 50,000\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Sharp Hume \\|first\\=Martín Andrew \\|title\\=The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence \\|page\\=372}} Under Requesens, the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders \"Army of Flanders\") reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying [Louis of Nassau](/wiki/Louis_of_Nassau \"Louis of Nassau\")'s German mercenary army at the [Battle of Mookerheyde](/wiki/Battle_of_Mookerheyde \"Battle of Mookerheyde\") on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother [Henry of Nassau\\-Dillenburg](/wiki/Henry_of_Nassau-Dillenburg \"Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg\").",
"Rampant inflation and the loss of [treasure fleets](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet \"Spanish treasure fleet\") from the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so\\-called [Spanish Fury](/wiki/Spanish_Fury \"Spanish Fury\") at [Antwerp](/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp \"Sack of Antwerp\") in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.Henry Kamen, *Philip of Spain* (Yale University Press, 1997\\), 160\\. Philip sent in [Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma \"Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma\"), as Governor\\-General of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands \"Spanish Netherlands\") from 1578 to 1592\\. Farnese defeated the rebels at the [Battle of Gembloux (1578\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_%281578%29 \"Battle of Gembloux (1578)\"),James Tracy, *The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588* (Oxford University Press, 2008\\), 141\\. and he captured many rebel towns in the south: [Maastricht](/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_%281579%29 \"Siege of Maastricht (1579)\") (1579\\), [Tournai](/wiki/Tournai \"Tournai\") (1581\\), [Oudenaarde](/wiki/Oudenaarde \"Oudenaarde\") (1582\\), [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") (1583\\), [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\") (1584\\), [Ghent](/wiki/Siege_of_Ghent_%281583%E2%80%931584%29 \"Siege of Ghent (1583–1584)\") (1584\\), and [Antwerp](/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp \"Fall of Antwerp\") (1585\\).{{cite book \\|last\\=Black \\|first\\=Jeremy \\|title\\=The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792\\|volume \\=2 \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521470339 \\|page\\=58}}",
"[thumb\\|Reward letter of Philip II to the family of [Balthasar Gerards](/wiki/Balthasar_Gerards \"Balthasar Gerards\"), assassin of [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent \"William the Silent\"), 1590](/wiki/File:Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards%2C_1590.jpg \"Beloningsbrief van koning Filips II van Spanje aan Balthasar Gerards, 1590.jpg\")\nThe [States General](/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands \"States General of the Netherlands\") of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 [Union of Utrecht](/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht \"Union of Utrecht\"), passed an [Act of Abjuration](/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration \"Act of Abjuration\") in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The [southern Netherlands](/wiki/Southern_Netherlands \"Southern Netherlands\") (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent \"William the Silent\") was assassinated by [Balthasar Gérard](/wiki/Balthasar_G%C3%A9rard \"Balthasar Gérard\"), after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a \"pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race\". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son [Maurice of Nassau](/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau \"Maurice of Nassau\"), who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585\\. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an [end in 1648](/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia \"Peace of Westphalia\"), when the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent. The eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered [war crimes](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Victimario Histórico Militar\\|url\\=http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9\\.htm}}",
""
] |
### Mediterranean
{{further\|Ottoman–Habsburg wars}}
[thumb\|[Titian](/wiki/Titian "Titian"); after the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, Philip offers his short\-lived heir [Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias "Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias") to Glory in this [allegory](/wiki/Allegory "Allegory").](/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg "Felipe IV offers Ferdinand to Glory.jpg")
[thumb\|[Standard](/wiki/Standard_%28flag%29 "Standard (flag)") of the {{lang\|es\|\[\[tercio]]s morados}} of the Spanish army under Philip II](/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg "Tercio - Morados Viejos.svg")
In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") under [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent "Suleiman the Magnificent"). Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.
In 1558, Turkish admiral [Piyale Pasha](/wiki/Piyale_Pasha "Piyale Pasha") captured the [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands "Balearic Islands"), especially inflicting great damage on [Menorca](/wiki/Menorca "Menorca") and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa "Hayreddin Barbarossa") in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice"), became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.
In 1560, Philip II organised a *Holy League* between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa"), the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States "Papal States"), the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy") and the [Knights of Malta](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller"). The joint fleet was assembled at [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina") and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of [Giovanni Andrea Doria](/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria "Giovanni Andrea Doria"), nephew of the famous Genoese admiral [Andrea Doria](/wiki/Andrea_Doria "Andrea Doria").
On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of [Djerba](/wiki/Djerba "Djerba"), which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya "Tripoli, Libya"). As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560\. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and [Turgut Reis](/wiki/Turgut_Reis "Turgut Reis") (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the [Battle of Djerba](/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba "Battle of Djerba"). The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. [Álvaro de Sande](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande "Álvaro de Sande"), attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.
In 1563, capitalizing on the political climate, the [Regency of Algiers](/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers "Regency of Algiers") launched the [sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir](/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir "Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir") in a large scale attempt to dislodge the major Spanish positions in Northern Africa, but the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then [conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera](/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera "Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera") the following year. The Ottomans sent a [large expedition to Malta](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%281565%29 "Siege of Malta (1565)"), which laid siege to several forts on the island and took some of them, but the Spanish sent a relief force under D. [García de Toledo](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo_y_Osorio "García Álvarez de Toledo y Osorio") and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.
The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, by the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 "Holy League (1571)") under the command of Philip's half brother, Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"), and Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz "Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz"). A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, [reconquered Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281573%29 "Conquest of Tunis (1573)") from the Ottomans in 1573\. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 [Uluç Ali Reis](/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis "Uluç Ali Reis") managed to [recapture Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281574%29 "Conquest of Tunis (1574)") with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.{{Citation needed\|reason\=The name of this treaty?\|date\=May 2024}}
|
[
"### Mediterranean",
"{{further\\|Ottoman–Habsburg wars}}\n[thumb\\|[Titian](/wiki/Titian \"Titian\"); after the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, Philip offers his short\\-lived heir [Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias \"Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias\") to Glory in this [allegory](/wiki/Allegory \"Allegory\").](/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg \"Felipe IV offers Ferdinand to Glory.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Standard](/wiki/Standard_%28flag%29 \"Standard (flag)\") of the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[tercio]]s morados}} of the Spanish army under Philip II](/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg \"Tercio - Morados Viejos.svg\")",
"In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") under [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent \"Suleiman the Magnificent\"). Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.",
"In 1558, Turkish admiral [Piyale Pasha](/wiki/Piyale_Pasha \"Piyale Pasha\") captured the [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands \"Balearic Islands\"), especially inflicting great damage on [Menorca](/wiki/Menorca \"Menorca\") and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa \"Hayreddin Barbarossa\") in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of \"Turkish invincibility\" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.",
"In 1560, Philip II organised a *Holy League* between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\"), the [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States \"Papal States\"), the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\") and the [Knights of Malta](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\"). The joint fleet was assembled at [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\") and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of [Giovanni Andrea Doria](/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria \"Giovanni Andrea Doria\"), nephew of the famous Genoese admiral [Andrea Doria](/wiki/Andrea_Doria \"Andrea Doria\").",
"On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of [Djerba](/wiki/Djerba \"Djerba\"), which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya \"Tripoli, Libya\"). As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560\\. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and [Turgut Reis](/wiki/Turgut_Reis \"Turgut Reis\") (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the [Battle of Djerba](/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba \"Battle of Djerba\"). The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. [Álvaro de Sande](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande \"Álvaro de Sande\"), attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.",
"In 1563, capitalizing on the political climate, the [Regency of Algiers](/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers \"Regency of Algiers\") launched the [sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir](/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir \"Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir\") in a large scale attempt to dislodge the major Spanish positions in Northern Africa, but the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then [conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera](/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera \"Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera\") the following year. The Ottomans sent a [large expedition to Malta](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%281565%29 \"Siege of Malta (1565)\"), which laid siege to several forts on the island and took some of them, but the Spanish sent a relief force under D. [García de Toledo](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo_y_Osorio \"García Álvarez de Toledo y Osorio\") and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.",
"The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, by the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 \"Holy League (1571)\") under the command of Philip's half brother, Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"), and Don [Álvaro de Bazán](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n%2C_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz \"Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz\"). A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, [reconquered Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281573%29 \"Conquest of Tunis (1573)\") from the Ottomans in 1573\\. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 [Uluç Ali Reis](/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis \"Uluç Ali Reis\") managed to [recapture Tunis](/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_%281574%29 \"Conquest of Tunis (1574)\") with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=The name of this treaty?\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
""
] |
Relations with England and Ireland
----------------------------------
### King of England and Ireland
[thumb\|Titian's [portrait](/wiki/Philip_II_in_Armour "Philip II in Armour") of Philip as prince (1551\), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour](/wiki/File:Philip_II.jpg "Philip II.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Irish [groat](/wiki/Groat_%28coin%29 "Groat (coin)") with Philip's and Mary's initials and portraits](/wiki/File:Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg "Philip & Mary Irish groat 602446.jpg")
Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37\-year\-old Queen [Mary I of England](/wiki/Mary_I_of_England "Mary I of England"), Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem"), to him. Their [marriage](/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain "Wedding of Mary I of England and Philip of Spain") at [Winchester Cathedral](/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral "Winchester Cathedral") on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor [Stephen Gardiner](/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner "Stephen Gardiner") and the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England "House of Commons of England") petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring [Edward Courtenay](/wiki/Edward_Courtenay%2C_1st_Earl_of_Devon "Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon").
Under the terms of the [Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain](/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain "Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain"), Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including [Acts of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament "Act of Parliament"), were to be dated with both their names, and [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_England "Parliament of England") was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions".{{cite book \|editor\-last1\=Adams \|editor\-first1\=George Burton \|editor\-last2\=Stephens \|editor\-first2\=H. Morse \|chapter\=An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain \|title\=Select Documents of English Constitutional History \|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/stream/documentsofengli00adamiala\#page/282/mode/2up \|date\=1901 \|publisher\=MacMillan \|page\=284 \|via\=Internet Archive}} In other words, Philip was to co\-reign with his wife.Louis Adrian Montrose, *The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation*, University of Chicago Press, 2006{{Cite book \|last\=Berenguer \|first\=Gonzalo Velasco \|url\=https://brill.com/display/title/56814 \|title\=Habsburg England: Politics and Religion in the Reign of Philip I (1554–1558\) \|date\=2023 \|publisher\=Brill \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-53621\-0 \|language\=en}} As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.A. F. Pollard, *The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603\)*, Read Books, 2007Wim de Groot, *The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557\)*, Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005
[thumb\|left\|Philip and Mary I of England, 1558](/wiki/File:Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg "Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor.jpg")
Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed by the [Parliament of Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland")Robert Dudley Edwards, *Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno\-Norman civilisation*, Taylor \& Francis, 1977 and England.[Treason Act 1554](/wiki/Treason_Act_1554 "Treason Act 1554") Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together. The [coat of arms of England](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England "Coat of arms of England") was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; *British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800*; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978*The Numismatist*, American Numismatic Association, 1971 During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the [loss of Calais](/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_%281558%29 "Siege of Calais (1558)"), England's last remaining possession in France.
Philip's wife had succeeded to the [Kingdom of Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland"), but the title of [King of Ireland](/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542 "Crown of Ireland Act 1542") had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII "Henry VIII"), after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV "Pope Paul IV") rectified this by issuing a [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull "Papal bull") recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.{{cite web\|author\=Francois Velde\|url\=http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/ireland\_docs.htm\#bull1555\|title\=Text of 1555 Bull\|publisher\=Heraldica.org\|date\=25 July 2003\|access\-date\=22 August 2012}} [King's County](/wiki/County_Offaly "County Offaly") and [Philipstown](/wiki/Daingean "Daingean") in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556\. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: *Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol*.
However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman [Catholic Church in England](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England "Catholic Church in England"). With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient [English claims to the French throne](/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne "English claims to the French throne")) and ceased to be king of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.
Philip's great\-grandson, [Philippe I, Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Philippe_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Philippe I, Duke of Orléans"), married [Princess Henrietta of England](/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_England "Princess Henrietta of England") in 1661; in 1807, the [Jacobite](/wiki/Jacobitism "Jacobitism") claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child [Anne Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans "Anne Marie d'Orléans").
### After Mary I's death
{{further\|Anglo\-Spanish War (1585–1604\)}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.6\|Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581](/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg "Dominios de Felipe II.svg")
Upon Mary's death, the throne went to [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England"). Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois "House of Valois") alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII "Henry VIII") and [Anne Boleyn](/wiki/Anne_Boleyn "Anne Boleyn"). This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots "Mary, Queen of Scots"), the Catholic great\-granddaughter of [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England "Henry VII of England"), was the rightful monarch.
For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of [privateering](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the [Treaty of Nonsuch](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch "Treaty of Nonsuch") signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti\-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's [Treaty of Joinville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville "Treaty of Joinville") with the [Catholic League of France](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)"), Philip considered it an act of war by England.
The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada"), to rendezvous with the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders "Army of Flanders") and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel"), already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"); it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),{{cite book \|last\=Grant \|first\=R. G. \|title\=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History \|date\=2017 \|page\=296}} but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.{{cite book \|last\=Tucker \|first\=Spencer \|title\=Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|page\=183}} However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a [counter\-armada](/wiki/English_Armada "English Armada") the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972\). *Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.* Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51 Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although [Cádiz was sacked](/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz "Capture of Cádiz") by an Anglo\-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the [Dunkirkers](/wiki/Dunkirkers "Dunkirkers"), who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.
Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597\. The [1596 Armada](/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada "2nd Spanish Armada") was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The [1597 Armada](/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada "3rd Spanish Armada") was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This [Anglo\-Spanish War (1585–1604\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 "Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)") would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598\) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603\) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.
|
[
"Relations with England and Ireland\n----------------------------------",
"### King of England and Ireland",
"[thumb\\|Titian's [portrait](/wiki/Philip_II_in_Armour \"Philip II in Armour\") of Philip as prince (1551\\), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour](/wiki/File:Philip_II.jpg \"Philip II.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Irish [groat](/wiki/Groat_%28coin%29 \"Groat (coin)\") with Philip's and Mary's initials and portraits](/wiki/File:Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg \"Philip & Mary Irish groat 602446.jpg\")\nPhilip's father arranged his marriage to 37\\-year\\-old Queen [Mary I of England](/wiki/Mary_I_of_England \"Mary I of England\"), Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\"), to him. Their [marriage](/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain \"Wedding of Mary I of England and Philip of Spain\") at [Winchester Cathedral](/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral \"Winchester Cathedral\") on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor [Stephen Gardiner](/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner \"Stephen Gardiner\") and the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England \"House of Commons of England\") petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring [Edward Courtenay](/wiki/Edward_Courtenay%2C_1st_Earl_of_Devon \"Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon\").",
"Under the terms of the [Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain](/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain \"Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain\"), Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including [Acts of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament \"Act of Parliament\"), were to be dated with both their names, and [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_England \"Parliament of England\") was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he \"shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions\".{{cite book \\|editor\\-last1\\=Adams \\|editor\\-first1\\=George Burton \\|editor\\-last2\\=Stephens \\|editor\\-first2\\=H. Morse \\|chapter\\=An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain \\|title\\=Select Documents of English Constitutional History \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/stream/documentsofengli00adamiala\\#page/282/mode/2up \\|date\\=1901 \\|publisher\\=MacMillan \\|page\\=284 \\|via\\=Internet Archive}} In other words, Philip was to co\\-reign with his wife.Louis Adrian Montrose, *The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation*, University of Chicago Press, 2006{{Cite book \\|last\\=Berenguer \\|first\\=Gonzalo Velasco \\|url\\=https://brill.com/display/title/56814 \\|title\\=Habsburg England: Politics and Religion in the Reign of Philip I (1554–1558\\) \\|date\\=2023 \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-53621\\-0 \\|language\\=en}} As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.A. F. Pollard, *The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603\\)*, Read Books, 2007Wim de Groot, *The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557\\)*, Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Philip and Mary I of England, 1558](/wiki/File:Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg \"Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor.jpg\")",
"Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed by the [Parliament of Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland \"Parliament of Ireland\")Robert Dudley Edwards, *Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno\\-Norman civilisation*, Taylor \\& Francis, 1977 and England.[Treason Act 1554](/wiki/Treason_Act_1554 \"Treason Act 1554\") Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together. The [coat of arms of England](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England \"Coat of arms of England\") was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; *British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800*; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978*The Numismatist*, American Numismatic Association, 1971 During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the [loss of Calais](/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_%281558%29 \"Siege of Calais (1558)\"), England's last remaining possession in France.",
"Philip's wife had succeeded to the [Kingdom of Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland \"Kingdom of Ireland\"), but the title of [King of Ireland](/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542 \"Crown of Ireland Act 1542\") had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII \"Henry VIII\"), after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, [Pope Paul IV](/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV \"Pope Paul IV\") rectified this by issuing a [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.{{cite web\\|author\\=Francois Velde\\|url\\=http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/ireland\\_docs.htm\\#bull1555\\|title\\=Text of 1555 Bull\\|publisher\\=Heraldica.org\\|date\\=25 July 2003\\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2012}} [King's County](/wiki/County_Offaly \"County Offaly\") and [Philipstown](/wiki/Daingean \"Daingean\") in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556\\. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: *Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol*.",
"However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman [Catholic Church in England](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England \"Catholic Church in England\"). With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient [English claims to the French throne](/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne \"English claims to the French throne\")) and ceased to be king of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.",
"Philip's great\\-grandson, [Philippe I, Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Philippe_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Philippe I, Duke of Orléans\"), married [Princess Henrietta of England](/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_England \"Princess Henrietta of England\") in 1661; in 1807, the [Jacobite](/wiki/Jacobitism \"Jacobitism\") claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child [Anne Marie d'Orléans](/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans \"Anne Marie d'Orléans\").",
"### After Mary I's death",
"{{further\\|Anglo\\-Spanish War (1585–1604\\)}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.6\\|Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581](/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg \"Dominios de Felipe II.svg\")",
"Upon Mary's death, the throne went to [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\"). Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois \"House of Valois\") alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII \"Henry VIII\") and [Anne Boleyn](/wiki/Anne_Boleyn \"Anne Boleyn\"). This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots \"Mary, Queen of Scots\"), the Catholic great\\-granddaughter of [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England \"Henry VII of England\"), was the rightful monarch.",
"For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of [privateering](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the [Treaty of Nonsuch](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch \"Treaty of Nonsuch\") signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti\\-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's [Treaty of Joinville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville \"Treaty of Joinville\") with the [Catholic League of France](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\"), Philip considered it an act of war by England.",
"The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\"), to rendezvous with the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders \"Army of Flanders\") and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\"), already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"); it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),{{cite book \\|last\\=Grant \\|first\\=R. G. \\|title\\=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History \\|date\\=2017 \\|page\\=296}} but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.{{cite book \\|last\\=Tucker \\|first\\=Spencer \\|title\\=Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|page\\=183}} However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.",
"The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a [counter\\-armada](/wiki/English_Armada \"English Armada\") the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972\\). *Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.* Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51 Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although [Cádiz was sacked](/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz \"Capture of Cádiz\") by an Anglo\\-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the [Dunkirkers](/wiki/Dunkirkers \"Dunkirkers\"), who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.",
"Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597\\. The [1596 Armada](/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada \"2nd Spanish Armada\") was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The [1597 Armada](/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada \"3rd Spanish Armada\") was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This [Anglo\\-Spanish War (1585–1604\\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 \"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)\") would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598\\) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603\\) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.",
""
] |
### After Mary I's death
{{further\|Anglo\-Spanish War (1585–1604\)}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.6\|Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581](/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg "Dominios de Felipe II.svg")
Upon Mary's death, the throne went to [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England"). Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois "House of Valois") alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII "Henry VIII") and [Anne Boleyn](/wiki/Anne_Boleyn "Anne Boleyn"). This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots "Mary, Queen of Scots"), the Catholic great\-granddaughter of [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England "Henry VII of England"), was the rightful monarch.
For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of [privateering](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the [Treaty of Nonsuch](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch "Treaty of Nonsuch") signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti\-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's [Treaty of Joinville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville "Treaty of Joinville") with the [Catholic League of France](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)"), Philip considered it an act of war by England.
The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada"), to rendezvous with the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders "Army of Flanders") and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel"), already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"); it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),{{cite book \|last\=Grant \|first\=R. G. \|title\=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History \|date\=2017 \|page\=296}} but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.{{cite book \|last\=Tucker \|first\=Spencer \|title\=Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|page\=183}} However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a [counter\-armada](/wiki/English_Armada "English Armada") the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972\). *Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.* Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51 Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although [Cádiz was sacked](/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz "Capture of Cádiz") by an Anglo\-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the [Dunkirkers](/wiki/Dunkirkers "Dunkirkers"), who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.
Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597\. The [1596 Armada](/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada "2nd Spanish Armada") was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The [1597 Armada](/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada "3rd Spanish Armada") was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This [Anglo\-Spanish War (1585–1604\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 "Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)") would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598\) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603\) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.
|
[
"### After Mary I's death",
"{{further\\|Anglo\\-Spanish War (1585–1604\\)}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.6\\|Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581](/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg \"Dominios de Felipe II.svg\")",
"Upon Mary's death, the throne went to [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\"). Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois \"House of Valois\") alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII \"Henry VIII\") and [Anne Boleyn](/wiki/Anne_Boleyn \"Anne Boleyn\"). This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots \"Mary, Queen of Scots\"), the Catholic great\\-granddaughter of [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England \"Henry VII of England\"), was the rightful monarch.",
"For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of [privateering](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the [Treaty of Nonsuch](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch \"Treaty of Nonsuch\") signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti\\-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's [Treaty of Joinville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville \"Treaty of Joinville\") with the [Catholic League of France](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\"), Philip considered it an act of war by England.",
"The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\"), to rendezvous with the [Army of Flanders](/wiki/Army_of_Flanders \"Army of Flanders\") and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\"), already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"); it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),{{cite book \\|last\\=Grant \\|first\\=R. G. \\|title\\=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History \\|date\\=2017 \\|page\\=296}} but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.{{cite book \\|last\\=Tucker \\|first\\=Spencer \\|title\\=Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|page\\=183}} However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.",
"The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a [counter\\-armada](/wiki/English_Armada \"English Armada\") the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972\\). *Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.* Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51 Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although [Cádiz was sacked](/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz \"Capture of Cádiz\") by an Anglo\\-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the [Dunkirkers](/wiki/Dunkirkers \"Dunkirkers\"), who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.",
"Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597\\. The [1596 Armada](/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada \"2nd Spanish Armada\") was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The [1597 Armada](/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada \"3rd Spanish Armada\") was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This [Anglo\\-Spanish War (1585–1604\\)](/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_%281585%E2%80%931604%29 \"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)\") would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598\\) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603\\) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.",
""
] |
Legacy
------
{{Main\|Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|Philip's dominions in 1598](/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png "Philip II's realms in 1598.png")
Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation"), he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,{{citation needed\|date\=October 2013}} but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century antipathy for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics."{{YouTube\|id\=qhlAqklH0do\#t\=21m27s\|title\=The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition}} (at 21:27 – 21:40\). BBC.
As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition "Spanish Inquisition"), students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. In addition to the banning of books, Philip II authorized the burning of at least 70,000 volumes.{{Cite book \|last\=Murray \|first\=Stuart \|title\=The library: an illustrated history \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=Skyhorse Pub \|isbn\=978\-1\-60239\-706\-4 \|location\=New York, NY}} Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop [Bartolome Carranza](/wiki/Bartolome_Carranza "Bartolome Carranza") of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.
Although he was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he collected forbidden books for his own royal library at the El Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several thousand manuscripts. The banned books were protected in a room on an upper floor of the library. He was passionate about rare books he personally collected from far and wide and researched and recorded information about previous owners.
The [School of Salamanca](/wiki/School_of_Salamanca "School of Salamanca") flourished under his reign. [Martín de Azpilcueta](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta "Martín de Azpilcueta"), highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his *Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium* (Rome, 1568\), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.
[Francisco Suárez](/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez "Francisco Suárez"), generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after [Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas "Thomas Aquinas") and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585\), where [Pope Gregory XIII](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII "Pope Gregory XIII") attended the first lecture that he gave. [Luis de Molina](/wiki/Luis_de_Molina "Luis de Molina") published his *De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia* (1588\), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the [omniscience](/wiki/Omniscience "Omniscience") of God with human [free will](/wiki/Free_will "Free will") that came to be known as [Molinism](/wiki/Molinism "Molinism"), thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the *de facto* [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by [William Lane Craig](/wiki/William_Lane_Craig "William Lane Craig") and [Alvin Plantinga](/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga "Alvin Plantinga"), among others.
[upright\|thumb\|Statue of Philip II at the [Sabatini Gardens](/wiki/Sabatini_Gardens "Sabatini Gardens") in Madrid ([F. Castro](/wiki/Felipe_de_Castro "Felipe de Castro"), 1753\)](/wiki/File:Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg "Felipe II de España 01.jpg")
Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo*. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. {{ISBN\|84\-239\-9736\-7}} In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject.Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo* (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. {{ISBN\|84\-239\-9736\-7}}. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction. Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.Kamen, Henry. *Felipe de España*, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997\. Cultural depictions of the King are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the King. This dichotomy, further developed into the so\-called [Spanish Black Legend](/wiki/Spanish_Black_Legend "Spanish Black Legend") and [White Legend](/wiki/White_Legend "White Legend"), was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died.Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo*. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. {{ISBN\|84\-239\-9736\-7}}. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life. Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious [secretary](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28Ancient_Regime_in_Spain%29 "Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)") [Antonio Pérez](/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_%28statesman%29 "Antonio Pérez (statesman)"), who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Pérez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged.Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. *Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época*. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo. That way, the popular image of the King that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation"). This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.authorama.com/ten\-great\-events\-in\-history\-8\.html \|title\=Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada \|first\=James \|last\=Johonnot \|publisher\=Authorama.com \|access\-date\=22 August 2012}}
However, some historians classify this anti\-Spanish analysis as part of the [Black Legend](/wiki/Black_Legend "Black Legend"). In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in *[Fire Over England](/wiki/Fire_Over_England "Fire Over England")* (1937\) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co\-monarchy there.
Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,Hume, Martin. *Philip II of Spain*, London, 1897\. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his *Filip of Spanien* (Koebenhaven, 1909\). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in *Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo*, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively. that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish\-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the King's inflexible Catholicism.In *Felipe II* (Madrid, 1943\), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in *España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna* (Salamanca, 1979\), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign. English\-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster,Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 *El Cardenal Granvela*. minimising his military victories ([Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_%281571%29 "Battle of Lepanto (1571)"), [Battle of Saint Quentin](/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_%281557%29 "Battle of St. Quentin (1557)"), etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the [Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada")Cabrera de Córdoba, *Felipe II rey de España*, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re\-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I "Elizabeth I") and the Dutch [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent "William the Silent"), who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold\-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments.{{NoteTag\|This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897\), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.}}
He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the [Ottoman Navy](/wiki/Ottoman_Navy "Ottoman Navy").
Historian [Geoffrey Parker](/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_%28historian%29 "Geoffrey Parker (historian)") offers a management\-psychological explanation, as summarized by [Tonio Andrade](/wiki/Tonio_Andrade "Tonio Andrade") and William Reger:
> One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard\-working man, and being the head of Western Europe's wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn't. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that's how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip's tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God's work and that heaven would support him with miracles.[Tonio Andrade](/wiki/Tonio_Andrade "Tonio Andrade") and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in *The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker* (Routledge, 2016\), p. xxiii.
|
[
"Legacy\n------",
"{{Main\\|Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|Philip's dominions in 1598](/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png \"Philip II's realms in 1598.png\")",
"Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\"), he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2013}} but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century antipathy for religious heterodoxy; he said, \"Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics.\"{{YouTube\\|id\\=qhlAqklH0do\\#t\\=21m27s\\|title\\=The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition}} (at 21:27 – 21:40\\). BBC.",
"As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition \"Spanish Inquisition\"), students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. In addition to the banning of books, Philip II authorized the burning of at least 70,000 volumes.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Murray \\|first\\=Stuart \\|title\\=The library: an illustrated history \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Skyhorse Pub \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60239\\-706\\-4 \\|location\\=New York, NY}} Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop [Bartolome Carranza](/wiki/Bartolome_Carranza \"Bartolome Carranza\") of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.",
"Although he was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he collected forbidden books for his own royal library at the El Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several thousand manuscripts. The banned books were protected in a room on an upper floor of the library. He was passionate about rare books he personally collected from far and wide and researched and recorded information about previous owners.",
"The [School of Salamanca](/wiki/School_of_Salamanca \"School of Salamanca\") flourished under his reign. [Martín de Azpilcueta](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta \"Martín de Azpilcueta\"), highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his *Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium* (Rome, 1568\\), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.",
"[Francisco Suárez](/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez \"Francisco Suárez\"), generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after [Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\") and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585\\), where [Pope Gregory XIII](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII \"Pope Gregory XIII\") attended the first lecture that he gave. [Luis de Molina](/wiki/Luis_de_Molina \"Luis de Molina\") published his *De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia* (1588\\), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the [omniscience](/wiki/Omniscience \"Omniscience\") of God with human [free will](/wiki/Free_will \"Free will\") that came to be known as [Molinism](/wiki/Molinism \"Molinism\"), thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the *de facto* [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by [William Lane Craig](/wiki/William_Lane_Craig \"William Lane Craig\") and [Alvin Plantinga](/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga \"Alvin Plantinga\"), among others.",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|Statue of Philip II at the [Sabatini Gardens](/wiki/Sabatini_Gardens \"Sabatini Gardens\") in Madrid ([F. Castro](/wiki/Felipe_de_Castro \"Felipe de Castro\"), 1753\\)](/wiki/File:Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg \"Felipe II de España 01.jpg\")",
"Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo*. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. {{ISBN\\|84\\-239\\-9736\\-7}} In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject.Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo* (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. {{ISBN\\|84\\-239\\-9736\\-7}}. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction. Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.Kamen, Henry. *Felipe de España*, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997\\. Cultural depictions of the King are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the King. This dichotomy, further developed into the so\\-called [Spanish Black Legend](/wiki/Spanish_Black_Legend \"Spanish Black Legend\") and [White Legend](/wiki/White_Legend \"White Legend\"), was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died.Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. *Felipe II y su tiempo*. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. {{ISBN\\|84\\-239\\-9736\\-7}}. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life. Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious [secretary](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28Ancient_Regime_in_Spain%29 \"Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)\") [Antonio Pérez](/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_%28statesman%29 \"Antonio Pérez (statesman)\"), who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Pérez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged.Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. *Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época*. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo. That way, the popular image of the King that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\"). This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.authorama.com/ten\\-great\\-events\\-in\\-history\\-8\\.html \\|title\\=Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Johonnot \\|publisher\\=Authorama.com \\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2012}}",
"However, some historians classify this anti\\-Spanish analysis as part of the [Black Legend](/wiki/Black_Legend \"Black Legend\"). In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in *[Fire Over England](/wiki/Fire_Over_England \"Fire Over England\")* (1937\\) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co\\-monarchy there.",
"Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,Hume, Martin. *Philip II of Spain*, London, 1897\\. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his *Filip of Spanien* (Koebenhaven, 1909\\). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in *Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo*, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively. that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish\\-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the King's inflexible Catholicism.In *Felipe II* (Madrid, 1943\\), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in *España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna* (Salamanca, 1979\\), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign. English\\-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster,Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 *El Cardenal Granvela*. minimising his military victories ([Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_%281571%29 \"Battle of Lepanto (1571)\"), [Battle of Saint Quentin](/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_%281557%29 \"Battle of St. Quentin (1557)\"), etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the [Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\")Cabrera de Córdoba, *Felipe II rey de España*, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re\\-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I \"Elizabeth I\") and the Dutch [William the Silent](/wiki/William_the_Silent \"William the Silent\"), who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold\\-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments.{{NoteTag\\|This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work (\"Philip II of Spain\", London 1897\\), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.}}",
"He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the [Ottoman Navy](/wiki/Ottoman_Navy \"Ottoman Navy\").",
"Historian [Geoffrey Parker](/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_%28historian%29 \"Geoffrey Parker (historian)\") offers a management\\-psychological explanation, as summarized by [Tonio Andrade](/wiki/Tonio_Andrade \"Tonio Andrade\") and William Reger:\n> One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard\\-working man, and being the head of Western Europe's wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn't. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that's how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip's tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God's work and that heaven would support him with miracles.[Tonio Andrade](/wiki/Tonio_Andrade \"Tonio Andrade\") and William Reger, eds., \"Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History\" in *The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker* (Routledge, 2016\\), p. xxiii.",
"",
""
] |
Family
------
Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long\-term relationships with [Isabel Osorio](/wiki/Isabel_Osorio "Isabel Osorio") and [Eufrasia de Guzmán](/wiki/Eufrasia_de_Guzm%C3%A1n "Eufrasia de Guzmán").
File:Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal and Asturias \- El Prado.jpg\|\[\[Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal\|Maria Manuela of Portugal]] (1527–1545\)
File:Anthonis Mor 001\.jpg\|\[\[Mary I of England]] (1516–1558\), by \[\[Antonis Mor]]
File:Isabel de Valois2\..jpg\|\[\[Elisabeth of Valois]] (1545–1568\), by \[\[Juan Pantoja de la Cruz]]
File:La reina Ana de Austria, por Sofonisba Anguissola.jpg\|\[\[Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain\|Anna of Austria]] (1549–1580\), by \[\[Sofonisba Anguissola]]
### First marriage
Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, [Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal](/wiki/Maria_Manuela%2C_Princess_of_Portugal "Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal"). She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, [John III of Portugal](/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal "John III of Portugal"), and paternal aunt, [Catherine of Austria](/wiki/Catherine_of_Austria%2C_Queen_of_Portugal "Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal"). They were married at [Salamanca](/wiki/Salamanca "Salamanca") on 12 November 1543\. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:
* [Carlos, Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Carlos%2C_Prince_of_Asturias "Carlos, Prince of Asturias") (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568\), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.
### Second marriage
Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen [Mary I of England](/wiki/Mary_I_of_England "Mary I of England"). The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at [Winchester Cathedral](/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral "Winchester Cathedral"), was political. By this marriage, Philip became *[jure uxoris](/wiki/Jure_uxoris "Jure uxoris")* [King of England](/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs "List of English monarchs") and [Ireland](/wiki/King_of_Ireland "King of Ireland"), although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a [false pregnancy](/wiki/False_pregnancy "False pregnancy"), and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.
### Third marriage
Philip's third wife was [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois "Elisabeth of Valois"), the eldest daughter of [Henry II of France](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France "Henry II of France") and [Catherine de' Medici](/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici "Catherine de' Medici"). The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba "Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba") standing in for Philip) at [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris "Notre Dame de Paris") prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in [Guadalajara](/wiki/Guadalajara_%28province%29 "Guadalajara (province)") upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568\) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:
* Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564\)
* [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia "Isabella Clara Eugenia") (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67\), married [Albert VII, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Albert_VII%2C_Archduke_of_Austria "Albert VII, Archduke of Austria")
* [Catherine Michaela](/wiki/Catalina_Micaela_of_Spain "Catalina Micaela of Spain") (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30\), married [Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy "Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy"), and had issue
* Joan (3 October 1568\) died shortly after birth.
### Fourth marriage
Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, [Anna of Austria](/wiki/Anna_of_Austria%2C_Queen_of_Spain "Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain"). Pope Pius V initially refused to grant Philip the dispensation needed to marry Anna, citing biblical prohibitions and the danger of birth defects. The pope reluctantly gave his permission when Philip threatened to abandon the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 "Holy League (1571)") in their fight against the Ottoman Turks.{{cite book \|last\=Parker \|first\=Geoffrey \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=na4SDQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA232 \|title\=Great Strategic Rivalries: From the Classical World to the Cold War \|date\=2016 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0190620462 \|editor\-last\=Lacey \|editor\-first\= Jim \|edition\=illustrated, reprint \|page\=232 \|chapter\=6 Incest, Blind Faith, and Conquest: The Spanish Hapsburgs and Their Enemies}}{{cite book \|last\=Parker \|first\=Geoffrey \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9OquBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA164 \|title\=Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|isbn\=978\-0300196535 \|edition\=unabridged \|page\=164}} By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580\) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580\.{{cn\|date\=April 2023}}
Their children were:
* [Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias "Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias") (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six)
* Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one)
* [Diego Félix](/wiki/Diego%2C_Prince_of_Asturias "Diego, Prince of Asturias") (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven)
* [Philip III of Spain](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain "Philip III of Spain") (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42\)
* Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).
File:Cenotafio de Felipe II y su familia.jpg\|Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at \[\[El Escorial]]
File:Sánchez Coello Royal feast.jpg\|Philip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by \[\[Alonso Sánchez Coello]]
|
[
"Family\n------",
"Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long\\-term relationships with [Isabel Osorio](/wiki/Isabel_Osorio \"Isabel Osorio\") and [Eufrasia de Guzmán](/wiki/Eufrasia_de_Guzm%C3%A1n \"Eufrasia de Guzmán\").",
"File:Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal and Asturias \\- El Prado.jpg\\|\\[\\[Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal\\|Maria Manuela of Portugal]] (1527–1545\\)\nFile:Anthonis Mor 001\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Mary I of England]] (1516–1558\\), by \\[\\[Antonis Mor]]\nFile:Isabel de Valois2\\..jpg\\|\\[\\[Elisabeth of Valois]] (1545–1568\\), by \\[\\[Juan Pantoja de la Cruz]]\nFile:La reina Ana de Austria, por Sofonisba Anguissola.jpg\\|\\[\\[Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain\\|Anna of Austria]] (1549–1580\\), by \\[\\[Sofonisba Anguissola]]",
"### First marriage",
"Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, [Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal](/wiki/Maria_Manuela%2C_Princess_of_Portugal \"Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal\"). She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, [John III of Portugal](/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal \"John III of Portugal\"), and paternal aunt, [Catherine of Austria](/wiki/Catherine_of_Austria%2C_Queen_of_Portugal \"Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal\"). They were married at [Salamanca](/wiki/Salamanca \"Salamanca\") on 12 November 1543\\. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:\n* [Carlos, Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Carlos%2C_Prince_of_Asturias \"Carlos, Prince of Asturias\") (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568\\), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.",
"### Second marriage",
"Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen [Mary I of England](/wiki/Mary_I_of_England \"Mary I of England\"). The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at [Winchester Cathedral](/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral \"Winchester Cathedral\"), was political. By this marriage, Philip became *[jure uxoris](/wiki/Jure_uxoris \"Jure uxoris\")* [King of England](/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs \"List of English monarchs\") and [Ireland](/wiki/King_of_Ireland \"King of Ireland\"), although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a [false pregnancy](/wiki/False_pregnancy \"False pregnancy\"), and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.",
"### Third marriage",
"Philip's third wife was [Elisabeth of Valois](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois \"Elisabeth of Valois\"), the eldest daughter of [Henry II of France](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France \"Henry II of France\") and [Catherine de' Medici](/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici \"Catherine de' Medici\"). The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Alba \"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba\") standing in for Philip) at [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris \"Notre Dame de Paris\") prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in [Guadalajara](/wiki/Guadalajara_%28province%29 \"Guadalajara (province)\") upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568\\) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:\n* Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564\\)\n* [Isabella Clara Eugenia](/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia \"Isabella Clara Eugenia\") (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67\\), married [Albert VII, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Albert_VII%2C_Archduke_of_Austria \"Albert VII, Archduke of Austria\")\n* [Catherine Michaela](/wiki/Catalina_Micaela_of_Spain \"Catalina Micaela of Spain\") (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30\\), married [Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy](/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I%2C_Duke_of_Savoy \"Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy\"), and had issue\n* Joan (3 October 1568\\) died shortly after birth.",
"### Fourth marriage",
"Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, [Anna of Austria](/wiki/Anna_of_Austria%2C_Queen_of_Spain \"Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain\"). Pope Pius V initially refused to grant Philip the dispensation needed to marry Anna, citing biblical prohibitions and the danger of birth defects. The pope reluctantly gave his permission when Philip threatened to abandon the [Holy League](/wiki/Holy_League_%281571%29 \"Holy League (1571)\") in their fight against the Ottoman Turks.{{cite book \\|last\\=Parker \\|first\\=Geoffrey \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=na4SDQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA232 \\|title\\=Great Strategic Rivalries: From the Classical World to the Cold War \\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0190620462 \\|editor\\-last\\=Lacey \\|editor\\-first\\= Jim \\|edition\\=illustrated, reprint \\|page\\=232 \\|chapter\\=6 Incest, Blind Faith, and Conquest: The Spanish Hapsburgs and Their Enemies}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Parker \\|first\\=Geoffrey \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9OquBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA164 \\|title\\=Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0300196535 \\|edition\\=unabridged \\|page\\=164}} By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580\\) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580\\.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2023}}",
"Their children were:\n* [Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Prince_of_Asturias \"Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias\") (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six)\n* Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one)\n* [Diego Félix](/wiki/Diego%2C_Prince_of_Asturias \"Diego, Prince of Asturias\") (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven)\n* [Philip III of Spain](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain \"Philip III of Spain\") (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42\\)\n* Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).",
"",
"File:Cenotafio de Felipe II y su familia.jpg\\|Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at \\[\\[El Escorial]]\nFile:Sánchez Coello Royal feast.jpg\\|Philip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by \\[\\[Alonso Sánchez Coello]]",
"",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Jasper Treverton, a wealthy landowner, is dying. He summons his nephew and only living relative, John Treverton, who he has never met, to Hazlehurst Manor, his estate in [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon"), where he lives with his adopted daughter, Laura Malcolm, the orphan of his late friend Stephen. After Jasper dies, his will reveals an unusual bequest: he leaves his entire estate to his nephew John, on the condition that John and Laura be married before the end of one calendar year; if this is not fulfilled, the estate will be donated to found a hospital, leaving John with nothing and Laura with a small trust.
John travels back and forth between London and Hazlehurst, wooing Laura (despite alluding repeatedly to a dark and awful past) and eventually marrying her on New Year's Eve, just in time to fulfill the conditions of the will. Despite gaining a vast estate and lovely wife, he is morose, and disappears shortly after the wedding "on business," after secretly creating a legal settlement that grants the entire Hazlehurst estate to Laura.
Meanwhile, in London, the beautiful French dancer La Chicot, recently moved from Paris, has become the latest sensation. She is married to an Englishman named Jack, who is so subordinate to his wife that he takes her name and is known as Jack Chicot. The couple is unhappy; La Chicot drinks too much and flies into rages, while Jack has fallen out of love with his wife and has failed as a painter, making a poor living selling caricatures to comic journals.
Although Jack has fallen out of love with La Chicot, she has gained the attention of two other men: Joseph Lemuel, a millionaire, and George Gerard, a poor but dedicated doctor. Jack disappears on a mysterious errand and puts his wife in the care of Mr. Desrolles, a degraded gentleman lodging upstairs.
In Jack's absence, La Chicot is injured in an accident on stage and nursed back to health by George Gerard; she is also plied with expensive gifts by Mr. Lemuel, who has secretly enrolled Desrolles as an ally in wooing her. After Jack returns, Mr. Lemuel gives La Chicot a necklace of enormous diamonds, which she hides from him, and is known only to Desrolles. Edward Clare, an aspiring poet from Hazlehurst who moved to London to seek his fortune, has a chance encounter with Jack Chicot, who he noticed has an exact likeness with John Treverton.
In the middle of the night, La Chicot is stabbed to death. Jack flees the scene of the crime and goes missing, and the newspapers quickly assume he is the killer. A mysterious man brings some loose diamonds to a merchant, who identifies them as fakes.
John reappears in Hazlehurst and seems strangely relieved. He takes Laura to an isolated village called [Camelot](/wiki/Camelot "Camelot") to be secretly married a second time. Edward, meanwhile, believes Jack Chicot and John Treverton to be the same person, and therefore suspects John of murdering his wife in order to marry Laura and inherit his uncle's estate. Before he can accuse him publicly, however, John reveals his past to both his wife and the former trustees of the estate.
John now faces arrest for the murder of La Chicot, but also the loss of the estate, because his first marriage to Laura occurred when La Chicot was still alive, and is therefore invalid due to the legal proscription of [bigamy](/wiki/Bigamy "Bigamy"). His only hope is to prove that his marriage to La Chicot was itself invalid.
John recalls an episode in Paris when La Chicot reacted strongly to the accidental death of a sailor from her home town, and suspects that she may have been married to him. He travels to France with his lawyer, Mr. Sampson, and finds evidence that La Chicot was indeed married to the sailor, meaning that John's marriage to her was never legal and therefore that the terms of the will were fulfilled.
On their return to England, John is arrested for murder, but is exonerated thanks to the acuity of his lawyer and the testimony of Mrs. Evitt, the landlady of the Chicots and Desrolles, who discovered grey hair in the victim's fist and a bloody gown in Desrolles's closet.
John thus secures his freedom and control of his estate, while Desrolles is tracked down in Paris and killed in a fight with the police.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Jasper Treverton, a wealthy landowner, is dying. He summons his nephew and only living relative, John Treverton, who he has never met, to Hazlehurst Manor, his estate in [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\"), where he lives with his adopted daughter, Laura Malcolm, the orphan of his late friend Stephen. After Jasper dies, his will reveals an unusual bequest: he leaves his entire estate to his nephew John, on the condition that John and Laura be married before the end of one calendar year; if this is not fulfilled, the estate will be donated to found a hospital, leaving John with nothing and Laura with a small trust.",
"John travels back and forth between London and Hazlehurst, wooing Laura (despite alluding repeatedly to a dark and awful past) and eventually marrying her on New Year's Eve, just in time to fulfill the conditions of the will. Despite gaining a vast estate and lovely wife, he is morose, and disappears shortly after the wedding \"on business,\" after secretly creating a legal settlement that grants the entire Hazlehurst estate to Laura.",
"Meanwhile, in London, the beautiful French dancer La Chicot, recently moved from Paris, has become the latest sensation. She is married to an Englishman named Jack, who is so subordinate to his wife that he takes her name and is known as Jack Chicot. The couple is unhappy; La Chicot drinks too much and flies into rages, while Jack has fallen out of love with his wife and has failed as a painter, making a poor living selling caricatures to comic journals.",
"Although Jack has fallen out of love with La Chicot, she has gained the attention of two other men: Joseph Lemuel, a millionaire, and George Gerard, a poor but dedicated doctor. Jack disappears on a mysterious errand and puts his wife in the care of Mr. Desrolles, a degraded gentleman lodging upstairs.",
"In Jack's absence, La Chicot is injured in an accident on stage and nursed back to health by George Gerard; she is also plied with expensive gifts by Mr. Lemuel, who has secretly enrolled Desrolles as an ally in wooing her. After Jack returns, Mr. Lemuel gives La Chicot a necklace of enormous diamonds, which she hides from him, and is known only to Desrolles. Edward Clare, an aspiring poet from Hazlehurst who moved to London to seek his fortune, has a chance encounter with Jack Chicot, who he noticed has an exact likeness with John Treverton.",
"In the middle of the night, La Chicot is stabbed to death. Jack flees the scene of the crime and goes missing, and the newspapers quickly assume he is the killer. A mysterious man brings some loose diamonds to a merchant, who identifies them as fakes.",
"John reappears in Hazlehurst and seems strangely relieved. He takes Laura to an isolated village called [Camelot](/wiki/Camelot \"Camelot\") to be secretly married a second time. Edward, meanwhile, believes Jack Chicot and John Treverton to be the same person, and therefore suspects John of murdering his wife in order to marry Laura and inherit his uncle's estate. Before he can accuse him publicly, however, John reveals his past to both his wife and the former trustees of the estate.",
"John now faces arrest for the murder of La Chicot, but also the loss of the estate, because his first marriage to Laura occurred when La Chicot was still alive, and is therefore invalid due to the legal proscription of [bigamy](/wiki/Bigamy \"Bigamy\"). His only hope is to prove that his marriage to La Chicot was itself invalid.",
"John recalls an episode in Paris when La Chicot reacted strongly to the accidental death of a sailor from her home town, and suspects that she may have been married to him. He travels to France with his lawyer, Mr. Sampson, and finds evidence that La Chicot was indeed married to the sailor, meaning that John's marriage to her was never legal and therefore that the terms of the will were fulfilled.",
"On their return to England, John is arrested for murder, but is exonerated thanks to the acuity of his lawyer and the testimony of Mrs. Evitt, the landlady of the Chicots and Desrolles, who discovered grey hair in the victim's fist and a bloody gown in Desrolles's closet.",
"John thus secures his freedom and control of his estate, while Desrolles is tracked down in Paris and killed in a fight with the police.",
""
] |
Site excavations
----------------
The importance of El Paraíso as the "largest and earliest example of monumental architecture in the New World", has not resulted in a significant amount of archaeological investigation. The first mention of the site was in the 1950s when Louis Stumer surveyed the Chillón valley and includes it in his report. He initially named it *Chuquitanta*, after a local [hacienda](/wiki/Hacienda "Hacienda"), however this name was later changed to El Paraíso by Fréderick Engel.
Early work suggested to excavators that the site was Preceramic, a fact that was later confirmed by [radio carbon dating](/wiki/Radio_carbon_dating "Radio carbon dating") done by Jeffrey Quilter, who placed it in the latter part of the Preceramic.
There have been two independent excavation projects. The first excavations were done in the early and mid\-1960s by Engel. This was followed up in the early to mid\-1980s by Quilter, who headed a multi\-year, multi\-discipline orientated research project in the lower Chillon valley, *El Proyecto Bajo Valle del Chillón*. After a more regional focus in the first year, he concentrated subsequent efforts on El Paraíso itself.
There has been some uncertainty over the number of buildings on the site, primarily due to recent surface [disturbance](/wiki/Disturbance_%28archaeology%29 "Disturbance (archaeology)"). For example, Unit VI appears to have been transected by a tractor since the 1960s when Patterson first reported it as a complete structure. In 1983, a surface survey determined that there were eleven buildings in total, seven of which were still free standing structures; though archaeologists are uncertain if more buildings once stood on the site.
### Excavation work by Engel
Excavation work begun by Engel was concentrated on Unit I who also eventually partially rebuilt some of the walls. This building was revisited by Quilter in 1984, who also conducted excavations in Units II and IV, as well as several locations outside structures.
A variety of artifactual material has been recovered from the various excavation work detailing a wide array of subsistence, social and ideological insight. There are five burials associated with the site, all found by Engel.Quilter 1985; 1991
An adult (burial 2\) and the remains of an infant (burial 3\) were found next to the south exterior wall of Unit I; the infant was wrapped in textiles dated to the Ceramic Period. Another adult (burial 1\) was found on the west side of Unit I and a young infant (burial 4\) was found at the base of the south wall of the west wing of Unit I. The final adult (burial 5\) was found on the north side of Unit V.
The burials generally appear to intrude into occupation midden deposits, and researchers have determined it difficult to make particular inferences from them; only noting that in later Andean periods, child burials were often associated with fertility rituals.
Unit II produced a variety of remains, including cloth and textile fragments, and other domestic refuse. Unit IV produced almost exclusively food remains, and no other artifacts of consequence were found.
It appears that the inhabitants of El Paraíso buried most of their [garbage](/wiki/Garbage "Garbage") in pits, either outside and often in association with structures, being either behind or beside buildings, or inside as room fill.Quilter 1991
### Textiles
Textile fragments consisted primarily of cotton yarns that were in natural shades, from white to dark brown, but others were colored in deep reds and two shades of blue. Other centers at this time revealed that dying cotton was not uncommon as yellow, red, bright emerald green and orange dyed textile remains have been found in such Preceramic sites as [Huaca Prieta](/wiki/Huaca_Prieta "Huaca Prieta"), Los Gavilanes, [La Galgada](/wiki/La_Galgada_%28archaeological_site%29 "La Galgada (archaeological site)") and Asia (Peru).Quilter85
As well, two objects were found with an inlay of dark blue stone, resembling lapis lazuli. Other items recovered during [excavation](/wiki/Excavation_%28archaeology%29 "Excavation (archaeology)") work include mats, looped bags, nets, wood and bone artifacts, [grinding stones](/wiki/Grinding_stones "Grinding stones"), stone beads, spindle whorls, crude [bifaces](/wiki/Bifaces "Bifaces"), a polished stone mirror, and figurine fragments.
### Avian remains
Perhaps one of the more interesting discoveries were the avian remains found in Unit II. The skeletal remains of an immature sea bird was found, careful positioned with small fish and crab remains, in association with a right handprint pressed into a large piece of mortar. Another bird skeleton was found along with carefully arranged sticks parallel to one another. Two more sets of avian related materials were found: a large amount of bird [guano](/wiki/Guano "Guano") and a scattering of bird down.
The bird guano was found in Room 2W in Unit II. In the same room there was also found colourful bird down and feathers, with a minimum of two species represented.
The remains of bird nesting boxes, special feed mix and stone bowls were found in the Preceramic site of [Casa Grande, Peru](/wiki/Casa_Grande%2C_Peru "Casa Grande, Peru"); researchers suggest this was an aviary where birds were raised for use in sacrifices.
While it is impossible to say that birds were being raised at El Paraíso, it does indicate that they were being brought into the rooms, possibly for ceremonial purposes.
The room at El Paraíso also contained cotton and wood remains, including needles, suggesting that this may have been a place where feathers were incorporated into textile manufacture for ritual and prestige items.
Finally, Room 1, closely situated to Room 2W, had a scattering of colored down on the floor, similar to a scattering found at the Preceramic site of La Galgada.
Other evidence of ritual was found inside a wall in Unit I; a large stone offering resembling an [Inka](/wiki/Inca_civilization "Inca civilization") *[huacas](/wiki/Huacas "Huacas")* (rock or other natural object believed to represent ancestral corporate groups). It was covered in red pigment, wrapped in cotton cloth and found in association with [gourds](/wiki/Gourds "Gourds") containing food remains and a miniature schicra, a bag normally filled with stones but in this case filled with white ovoid [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 "Lime (material)") cakes wrapped in leaves (possibly {{transl\|qu\|\[\[Inga feuilleei\|pacay]]}}). This suggests that leaf chewing with lime is an old tradition and reminiscent of the later adoption of coca use.
### Ceramics
While there is a surface scattering of ceramics, dating from the early Initial or Ceramic period, this appears to have been an ephemeral occupation. There is no indication that it was linked with any significant activity, rather continued sporadic or even squatter\-type use.
### Early temple remains discovered (2013\)
A news report in February 2013 of an expedition led by Mark Guillen stated that the remains of a temple had been found in the right wing of the main pyramid. Preliminary dating suggests that this could date to as early as 3000 BC. Built of stone, it measures {{convert\|6\.82\|by\|8\.04\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} and its yellow clay walls still show traces of red paint. Commenting on a hearth found in the centre of the temple, Mark Guillen said ""The main characteristic of their religion was the use of fire, which burnt in the centre...The smoke allowed the priests to connect with their gods."{{cite news\|title\=Peru archaeologists find ancient temple in El Paraiso\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-latin\-america\-21436513\|access\-date\=14 February 2013\|newspaper\=BBC News\|date\=12 February 2013}}
### Latest discoveries
In the last Research, Conservation and Value enhancement Project of the El Paraiso Monumental Archaeological Zone, in 2016, a 4,000\-year\-old cactus was found, possibly of the hallucinogenic species [San Pedro](/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi "Echinopsis pachanoi") (*Echinopsis pachanoi*), about 30 centimeters long, in perfect condition.[https://rpp.pe/ciencia/arqueologia/cactus\-milenario\-sorprende\-a\-arqueologos\-en\-templos\-prehispanicos\-de\-lima\-noticia\-990174/2\#prev](https://rpp.pe/ciencia/arqueologia/cactus-milenario-sorprende-a-arqueologos-en-templos-prehispanicos-de-lima-noticia-990174/2#prev) Cactus milenario sorprende a arqueólogos en templo prehispánico de Lima That same year, archaeologist Dayanna Carbonel made another important discovery in Unit IV, a funerary bundle of approximately 3,700 years old, with a woman baptized as Eva Lucia,[Así era Eva Lucía, una importante tejedora de hace 4\.000 años](https://www.elespanol.com/mujer/mujeres-historia/20201228/eva-lucia-importante-tejedora-murio-forma-misteriosa/545696359_0.html) The Lady of El Paraíso,[La "dama de El Paraíso" desvela su rostro, oculto por 3 700 años en Perú](https://rpp.pe/peru/actualidad/la-dama-de-el-paraiso-desvela-su-rostro-oculto-por-3-700-anos-en-peru-noticia-1311258?ref=rpp) apparently belonging to a high social status, due to the funerary context in which it was found.
|
[
"Site excavations\n----------------",
"The importance of El Paraíso as the \"largest and earliest example of monumental architecture in the New World\", has not resulted in a significant amount of archaeological investigation. The first mention of the site was in the 1950s when Louis Stumer surveyed the Chillón valley and includes it in his report. He initially named it *Chuquitanta*, after a local [hacienda](/wiki/Hacienda \"Hacienda\"), however this name was later changed to El Paraíso by Fréderick Engel.",
"Early work suggested to excavators that the site was Preceramic, a fact that was later confirmed by [radio carbon dating](/wiki/Radio_carbon_dating \"Radio carbon dating\") done by Jeffrey Quilter, who placed it in the latter part of the Preceramic.",
"There have been two independent excavation projects. The first excavations were done in the early and mid\\-1960s by Engel. This was followed up in the early to mid\\-1980s by Quilter, who headed a multi\\-year, multi\\-discipline orientated research project in the lower Chillon valley, *El Proyecto Bajo Valle del Chillón*. After a more regional focus in the first year, he concentrated subsequent efforts on El Paraíso itself.",
"There has been some uncertainty over the number of buildings on the site, primarily due to recent surface [disturbance](/wiki/Disturbance_%28archaeology%29 \"Disturbance (archaeology)\"). For example, Unit VI appears to have been transected by a tractor since the 1960s when Patterson first reported it as a complete structure. In 1983, a surface survey determined that there were eleven buildings in total, seven of which were still free standing structures; though archaeologists are uncertain if more buildings once stood on the site.",
"### Excavation work by Engel",
"Excavation work begun by Engel was concentrated on Unit I who also eventually partially rebuilt some of the walls. This building was revisited by Quilter in 1984, who also conducted excavations in Units II and IV, as well as several locations outside structures.",
"A variety of artifactual material has been recovered from the various excavation work detailing a wide array of subsistence, social and ideological insight. There are five burials associated with the site, all found by Engel.Quilter 1985; 1991",
"An adult (burial 2\\) and the remains of an infant (burial 3\\) were found next to the south exterior wall of Unit I; the infant was wrapped in textiles dated to the Ceramic Period. Another adult (burial 1\\) was found on the west side of Unit I and a young infant (burial 4\\) was found at the base of the south wall of the west wing of Unit I. The final adult (burial 5\\) was found on the north side of Unit V.",
"The burials generally appear to intrude into occupation midden deposits, and researchers have determined it difficult to make particular inferences from them; only noting that in later Andean periods, child burials were often associated with fertility rituals.",
"Unit II produced a variety of remains, including cloth and textile fragments, and other domestic refuse. Unit IV produced almost exclusively food remains, and no other artifacts of consequence were found.",
"It appears that the inhabitants of El Paraíso buried most of their [garbage](/wiki/Garbage \"Garbage\") in pits, either outside and often in association with structures, being either behind or beside buildings, or inside as room fill.Quilter 1991",
"### Textiles",
"Textile fragments consisted primarily of cotton yarns that were in natural shades, from white to dark brown, but others were colored in deep reds and two shades of blue. Other centers at this time revealed that dying cotton was not uncommon as yellow, red, bright emerald green and orange dyed textile remains have been found in such Preceramic sites as [Huaca Prieta](/wiki/Huaca_Prieta \"Huaca Prieta\"), Los Gavilanes, [La Galgada](/wiki/La_Galgada_%28archaeological_site%29 \"La Galgada (archaeological site)\") and Asia (Peru).Quilter85",
"As well, two objects were found with an inlay of dark blue stone, resembling lapis lazuli. Other items recovered during [excavation](/wiki/Excavation_%28archaeology%29 \"Excavation (archaeology)\") work include mats, looped bags, nets, wood and bone artifacts, [grinding stones](/wiki/Grinding_stones \"Grinding stones\"), stone beads, spindle whorls, crude [bifaces](/wiki/Bifaces \"Bifaces\"), a polished stone mirror, and figurine fragments.",
"### Avian remains",
"Perhaps one of the more interesting discoveries were the avian remains found in Unit II. The skeletal remains of an immature sea bird was found, careful positioned with small fish and crab remains, in association with a right handprint pressed into a large piece of mortar. Another bird skeleton was found along with carefully arranged sticks parallel to one another. Two more sets of avian related materials were found: a large amount of bird [guano](/wiki/Guano \"Guano\") and a scattering of bird down.",
"The bird guano was found in Room 2W in Unit II. In the same room there was also found colourful bird down and feathers, with a minimum of two species represented.",
"The remains of bird nesting boxes, special feed mix and stone bowls were found in the Preceramic site of [Casa Grande, Peru](/wiki/Casa_Grande%2C_Peru \"Casa Grande, Peru\"); researchers suggest this was an aviary where birds were raised for use in sacrifices.",
"While it is impossible to say that birds were being raised at El Paraíso, it does indicate that they were being brought into the rooms, possibly for ceremonial purposes.",
"The room at El Paraíso also contained cotton and wood remains, including needles, suggesting that this may have been a place where feathers were incorporated into textile manufacture for ritual and prestige items.",
"Finally, Room 1, closely situated to Room 2W, had a scattering of colored down on the floor, similar to a scattering found at the Preceramic site of La Galgada.",
"Other evidence of ritual was found inside a wall in Unit I; a large stone offering resembling an [Inka](/wiki/Inca_civilization \"Inca civilization\") *[huacas](/wiki/Huacas \"Huacas\")* (rock or other natural object believed to represent ancestral corporate groups). It was covered in red pigment, wrapped in cotton cloth and found in association with [gourds](/wiki/Gourds \"Gourds\") containing food remains and a miniature schicra, a bag normally filled with stones but in this case filled with white ovoid [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 \"Lime (material)\") cakes wrapped in leaves (possibly {{transl\\|qu\\|\\[\\[Inga feuilleei\\|pacay]]}}). This suggests that leaf chewing with lime is an old tradition and reminiscent of the later adoption of coca use.",
"### Ceramics",
"While there is a surface scattering of ceramics, dating from the early Initial or Ceramic period, this appears to have been an ephemeral occupation. There is no indication that it was linked with any significant activity, rather continued sporadic or even squatter\\-type use.",
"### Early temple remains discovered (2013\\)",
"A news report in February 2013 of an expedition led by Mark Guillen stated that the remains of a temple had been found in the right wing of the main pyramid. Preliminary dating suggests that this could date to as early as 3000 BC. Built of stone, it measures {{convert\\|6\\.82\\|by\\|8\\.04\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} and its yellow clay walls still show traces of red paint. Commenting on a hearth found in the centre of the temple, Mark Guillen said \"\"The main characteristic of their religion was the use of fire, which burnt in the centre...The smoke allowed the priests to connect with their gods.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Peru archaeologists find ancient temple in El Paraiso\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-latin\\-america\\-21436513\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2013\\|newspaper\\=BBC News\\|date\\=12 February 2013}}",
"### Latest discoveries",
"In the last Research, Conservation and Value enhancement Project of the El Paraiso Monumental Archaeological Zone, in 2016, a 4,000\\-year\\-old cactus was found, possibly of the hallucinogenic species [San Pedro](/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi \"Echinopsis pachanoi\") (*Echinopsis pachanoi*), about 30 centimeters long, in perfect condition.[https://rpp.pe/ciencia/arqueologia/cactus\\-milenario\\-sorprende\\-a\\-arqueologos\\-en\\-templos\\-prehispanicos\\-de\\-lima\\-noticia\\-990174/2\\#prev](https://rpp.pe/ciencia/arqueologia/cactus-milenario-sorprende-a-arqueologos-en-templos-prehispanicos-de-lima-noticia-990174/2#prev) Cactus milenario sorprende a arqueólogos en templo prehispánico de Lima That same year, archaeologist Dayanna Carbonel made another important discovery in Unit IV, a funerary bundle of approximately 3,700 years old, with a woman baptized as Eva Lucia,[Así era Eva Lucía, una importante tejedora de hace 4\\.000 años](https://www.elespanol.com/mujer/mujeres-historia/20201228/eva-lucia-importante-tejedora-murio-forma-misteriosa/545696359_0.html) The Lady of El Paraíso,[La \"dama de El Paraíso\" desvela su rostro, oculto por 3 700 años en Perú](https://rpp.pe/peru/actualidad/la-dama-de-el-paraiso-desvela-su-rostro-oculto-por-3-700-anos-en-peru-noticia-1311258?ref=rpp) apparently belonging to a high social status, due to the funerary context in which it was found.",
""
] |
### Avian remains
Perhaps one of the more interesting discoveries were the avian remains found in Unit II. The skeletal remains of an immature sea bird was found, careful positioned with small fish and crab remains, in association with a right handprint pressed into a large piece of mortar. Another bird skeleton was found along with carefully arranged sticks parallel to one another. Two more sets of avian related materials were found: a large amount of bird [guano](/wiki/Guano "Guano") and a scattering of bird down.
The bird guano was found in Room 2W in Unit II. In the same room there was also found colourful bird down and feathers, with a minimum of two species represented.
The remains of bird nesting boxes, special feed mix and stone bowls were found in the Preceramic site of [Casa Grande, Peru](/wiki/Casa_Grande%2C_Peru "Casa Grande, Peru"); researchers suggest this was an aviary where birds were raised for use in sacrifices.
While it is impossible to say that birds were being raised at El Paraíso, it does indicate that they were being brought into the rooms, possibly for ceremonial purposes.
The room at El Paraíso also contained cotton and wood remains, including needles, suggesting that this may have been a place where feathers were incorporated into textile manufacture for ritual and prestige items.
Finally, Room 1, closely situated to Room 2W, had a scattering of colored down on the floor, similar to a scattering found at the Preceramic site of La Galgada.
Other evidence of ritual was found inside a wall in Unit I; a large stone offering resembling an [Inka](/wiki/Inca_civilization "Inca civilization") *[huacas](/wiki/Huacas "Huacas")* (rock or other natural object believed to represent ancestral corporate groups). It was covered in red pigment, wrapped in cotton cloth and found in association with [gourds](/wiki/Gourds "Gourds") containing food remains and a miniature schicra, a bag normally filled with stones but in this case filled with white ovoid [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 "Lime (material)") cakes wrapped in leaves (possibly {{transl\|qu\|\[\[Inga feuilleei\|pacay]]}}). This suggests that leaf chewing with lime is an old tradition and reminiscent of the later adoption of coca use.
|
[
"### Avian remains",
"Perhaps one of the more interesting discoveries were the avian remains found in Unit II. The skeletal remains of an immature sea bird was found, careful positioned with small fish and crab remains, in association with a right handprint pressed into a large piece of mortar. Another bird skeleton was found along with carefully arranged sticks parallel to one another. Two more sets of avian related materials were found: a large amount of bird [guano](/wiki/Guano \"Guano\") and a scattering of bird down.",
"The bird guano was found in Room 2W in Unit II. In the same room there was also found colourful bird down and feathers, with a minimum of two species represented.",
"The remains of bird nesting boxes, special feed mix and stone bowls were found in the Preceramic site of [Casa Grande, Peru](/wiki/Casa_Grande%2C_Peru \"Casa Grande, Peru\"); researchers suggest this was an aviary where birds were raised for use in sacrifices.",
"While it is impossible to say that birds were being raised at El Paraíso, it does indicate that they were being brought into the rooms, possibly for ceremonial purposes.",
"The room at El Paraíso also contained cotton and wood remains, including needles, suggesting that this may have been a place where feathers were incorporated into textile manufacture for ritual and prestige items.",
"Finally, Room 1, closely situated to Room 2W, had a scattering of colored down on the floor, similar to a scattering found at the Preceramic site of La Galgada.",
"Other evidence of ritual was found inside a wall in Unit I; a large stone offering resembling an [Inka](/wiki/Inca_civilization \"Inca civilization\") *[huacas](/wiki/Huacas \"Huacas\")* (rock or other natural object believed to represent ancestral corporate groups). It was covered in red pigment, wrapped in cotton cloth and found in association with [gourds](/wiki/Gourds \"Gourds\") containing food remains and a miniature schicra, a bag normally filled with stones but in this case filled with white ovoid [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 \"Lime (material)\") cakes wrapped in leaves (possibly {{transl\\|qu\\|\\[\\[Inga feuilleei\\|pacay]]}}). This suggests that leaf chewing with lime is an old tradition and reminiscent of the later adoption of coca use.",
""
] |
Site
----
Approximately two kilometers inland on the Rio Chillón flood plain, El Paraiso is surrounded by over 90 hectares of arable land and 150 hectares of lowlands capable of sustaining [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation") supported agriculture.Moseley 1975
It is just one of the six Preceramic sites in the Ancón\-Chillón Valley, which also include the site of *Pampa de los Perros*, and *Buena Vista*.Benfer et al. 2007; Cornejo 2012; Silva 1996
[Ancon (archaeological site)](/wiki/Ancon_%28archaeological_site%29 "Ancon (archaeological site)") is another important site in the area.
El Paraiso is located just north of the other Preceramic and Ceramic sites, such as *La Florida*, which is situated in the nearby Rimac and Lurin valley river systems.Moseley 1975; Pozorski and Pozorski 2008
### Dating
The occupation of El Paraiso is dated from 3790 BP to 3065 BP, which would date the site to the Preceramic Period.Quilter 1985, p.280 The oldest dates come from Unit 4, with calibrated dates coming from wood charcoal as late as 2540 B.C.
Unit 1, which was excavated and reconstructed by Frederic Engal, features arguably the most defining structure within El Paraiso. Dates from Unit 1 range from 2320 B.C. to 1105 B.C.Quilter 1985, p.281 Most samples come from room 2, which is believed to be the oldest and largest room in the Unit.
Most [radiocarbon](/wiki/Radiocarbon "Radiocarbon") dates come from wood charcoal samples from midden, though there are two samples of reed fragments from pit 3 in Unit 4\.
Thin layers of much later material have also been found on several sites within El Paraiso. These have been dated to belong to the Early Intermediate Period about 200 B.C. to 550 A.D.Quitter et al, 1991, p.279 These remains show a short term use of the site during this time and can be easily separated from Preceramic materials, although they demonstrate that the abandoned site was revisited in later times.
### Architecture
#### Site plan
Architecture has been the subject of considerable focus at El Paraíso. In 1965, Engle identified seven major structures and designated them Units I\-VII. This naming convention was continued by Quilter's research team when five more structures were identified in the 1983 survey of the site. Unfortunately for archaeologists, modern machinery, roads, and irrigation canals have disturbed the ground in the immediate vicinity of the features, especially in the western half of the site. Because of this, the exact nature of the relationship between Units III and IX is unknown; additionally, Quilter has speculated that Unit III, a structure identified as a rubble pile, may in fact be two structures that have collapsed on themselves. In the eastern part of the site, a brick storage yard has been constructed on the remains of Unit VI, one of the two largest structures at the site; preliminary investigation suggests that the structure once extended under the brick yard.
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.7\|Huaca El Paraíso](/wiki/File:Huaca_Para%C3%ADso.JPG "Huaca Paraíso.JPG")
Comparing the general layout of the site to other pre\-ceramic sites in the region, such as Aspero and Rio Seco, reveals some interesting dissimilarities. Those sites are organized in a typical "U\-shape," with monumental structures forming the sides and bottom of the "U". The structure at that bottom of the "U" is the largest in area and height, and creates a focus for the site at one end. At El Paraíso, the structure at the bottom of the "U" is neither the largest nor tallest. Instead the structures forming the sides of the U are larger than those at the bottom of the "U," and are roughly the same in height and length.
The geographic position of El Paraíso is also different from the other Preceramic period Peruvian sites. Those sites are situated overlooking the largest fields in the area, and with a view of the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, the view of the ocean at El Paraíso is blocked by hills, and the site does not overlook the largest adjacent fields. Coprolites from El Paraíso indicate a higher riverine component to the diet at the site; the positioning of the site farther from the ocean, and with no view shed coupled with the dietary data may suggest an inland focus at this site but this hypothesis is untested.Quilter 1985; Quilter 1991
#### Unit I
The structure referred to as Unit I is located at the southern extremity of the site. It is built of rough trimmed stones quarried from a nearby hill side, assembled with coarse fill and mortar, and then covered in plaster. The unit consists of four tiered levels, corresponding to between four and six building phases. Direct corroboration of the phases of construction has been hampered by reconstruction during the excavations in the 1960s. Consecutive construction phases saw rooms filled in with fibre bags filled rocks, or *shicra*. Internal doorways and stairways within the multi\-room structure indicate a changing pattern of use throughout the occupation.
Room 2 is the oldest in this complex, and an 80 x 80 cm excavation unit located in the north east corner contained four distinct floors, each separated by black midden deposits. Three dates are associated with this room, the earliest level is date to 2,185 to 1,685 cal BC and the upper most level is dated to 1,420–1,105 cal BC. The last phase suggests ceremonial use; the most notable finding in this building was the ritual offering placed inside one of the walls.
Quilter has suggested that there is a complex dynamic of control of space at this site. The northwest rooms of Unit I are accessed easily from the outside of the structure with wide staircases, but the rooms making up the southern half of the complex can only be accessed through a single staircase on the east side or through long narrow hallways along the western side of the structure.
#### Unit II
Like Unit I, multiple plaster floors and evidence of multiple construction phases is found at Unit II. The upper level of the excavation revealed a clay floor, with ceramic dating to the Intermediate period. Deeper in the excavation, two parallel lines of stone (possibly walls or foundations) were encountered. Unique engaged columns were found in two of the walls of one of the smaller rooms in the northwest quadrant of Unit II. Features like these have not been observed at other preceramic sites on the Peruvian coast.
Room 1, a 5 m square room was also excavated. The upper levels revealed ceramic sherds, cloth fragments, and domestic refuse suggesting a mixed use during occupation. A small central hearth was found beneath. One of the rooms had two short pillars or columns conjoined to opposite walls. A skeleton of an immature bird, small fish vertebrae, and crab were found as well. A large quantity of bird guano, avian skeletal material, and feathers were found in the lower layers but no associated remains of nesting boxes or other structures indicating aviculture. However, the abundance does indicate that birds were important at this site in either a ritual, production or consumption context. Other artifacts found in this room also included cotton, wool, needles and nine adobe bricks. The mix of artifact types suggests multiple activity patterns.Quilter 1985; ; Quilter 1991; Quilter et al 1991
#### Unit IV
Unit IV is a single storied structure that showed evidence of looting. An excavation unit was placed immediately adjacent to that pit. This unit produced a clay floor, and a large amount of faunal material. Rather than an occupation site, Quilter speculates that this Unit may be a feasting site associated with Unit I.
### 2013 damage
{{Update section\|date\=January 2021\|reason\=Needs to be updated as to whether criminal charges were filed or not}}
In late June,{{cite news \|author\=Robert Kozak \|url\=https://www.wsj.com/article/BT\-CO\-20130701\-711136\.html?mod\=googlenews\_wsj \|title\=Construction Company Destroys Ancient Pyramid in Peru – Culture Ministry \|publisher\=Wall Street Journal \|date\=1 July 2013 \|access\-date\=5 July 2013 }}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} 2013, one of the pyramids at El Paraíso complex was completely destroyed.{{cite news\|date \= 3 July 2013\|title\= Developers destroy ancient Peru pyramid \|url\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-latin\-america\-23173628\|agency\=BBC News\|access\-date\=4 July 2013}} Property developers used bulldozers to knock\-down the building, then set the remains ablaze. Police prevented the destruction of another 11 pyramids at the site. Prior to its destruction, the pyramid had a footprint of approximately 2,500 square meters and was 6 meters high.{{cite news\|last\=Quigley\|first\=John\| date \= 3 July 2013\|title\= Bulldozer Destroys Pyramid at 5,000\-Year\-Old Site in Peru\|url\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\-07\-02/bulldozer\-destroys\-pyramid\-at\-5\-000\-year\-old\-site\-in\-peru.html\|agency\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=4 July 2013}} Criminal charges will be lodged against the companies associated to this incident, identified as Alisol and Provelanz.{{cite web \|date\=3 July 2013 \|title\=Officials say developers destroyed Peru pyramid \|publisher\=\[\[The Associated Press]] \|website\=\[\[Phys.org]] \|access\-date\=5 July 2019 \|url\=https://phys.org/news/2013\-07\-peru\-pyramid.html}}
|
[
"Site\n----",
"Approximately two kilometers inland on the Rio Chillón flood plain, El Paraiso is surrounded by over 90 hectares of arable land and 150 hectares of lowlands capable of sustaining [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\") supported agriculture.Moseley 1975",
"It is just one of the six Preceramic sites in the Ancón\\-Chillón Valley, which also include the site of *Pampa de los Perros*, and *Buena Vista*.Benfer et al. 2007; Cornejo 2012; Silva 1996",
"[Ancon (archaeological site)](/wiki/Ancon_%28archaeological_site%29 \"Ancon (archaeological site)\") is another important site in the area.",
"El Paraiso is located just north of the other Preceramic and Ceramic sites, such as *La Florida*, which is situated in the nearby Rimac and Lurin valley river systems.Moseley 1975; Pozorski and Pozorski 2008",
"### Dating",
"The occupation of El Paraiso is dated from 3790 BP to 3065 BP, which would date the site to the Preceramic Period.Quilter 1985, p.280 The oldest dates come from Unit 4, with calibrated dates coming from wood charcoal as late as 2540 B.C.",
"Unit 1, which was excavated and reconstructed by Frederic Engal, features arguably the most defining structure within El Paraiso. Dates from Unit 1 range from 2320 B.C. to 1105 B.C.Quilter 1985, p.281 Most samples come from room 2, which is believed to be the oldest and largest room in the Unit.",
"Most [radiocarbon](/wiki/Radiocarbon \"Radiocarbon\") dates come from wood charcoal samples from midden, though there are two samples of reed fragments from pit 3 in Unit 4\\.",
"Thin layers of much later material have also been found on several sites within El Paraiso. These have been dated to belong to the Early Intermediate Period about 200 B.C. to 550 A.D.Quitter et al, 1991, p.279 These remains show a short term use of the site during this time and can be easily separated from Preceramic materials, although they demonstrate that the abandoned site was revisited in later times.",
"### Architecture",
"#### Site plan",
"Architecture has been the subject of considerable focus at El Paraíso. In 1965, Engle identified seven major structures and designated them Units I\\-VII. This naming convention was continued by Quilter's research team when five more structures were identified in the 1983 survey of the site. Unfortunately for archaeologists, modern machinery, roads, and irrigation canals have disturbed the ground in the immediate vicinity of the features, especially in the western half of the site. Because of this, the exact nature of the relationship between Units III and IX is unknown; additionally, Quilter has speculated that Unit III, a structure identified as a rubble pile, may in fact be two structures that have collapsed on themselves. In the eastern part of the site, a brick storage yard has been constructed on the remains of Unit VI, one of the two largest structures at the site; preliminary investigation suggests that the structure once extended under the brick yard.\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.7\\|Huaca El Paraíso](/wiki/File:Huaca_Para%C3%ADso.JPG \"Huaca Paraíso.JPG\")\nComparing the general layout of the site to other pre\\-ceramic sites in the region, such as Aspero and Rio Seco, reveals some interesting dissimilarities. Those sites are organized in a typical \"U\\-shape,\" with monumental structures forming the sides and bottom of the \"U\". The structure at that bottom of the \"U\" is the largest in area and height, and creates a focus for the site at one end. At El Paraíso, the structure at the bottom of the \"U\" is neither the largest nor tallest. Instead the structures forming the sides of the U are larger than those at the bottom of the \"U,\" and are roughly the same in height and length.",
"The geographic position of El Paraíso is also different from the other Preceramic period Peruvian sites. Those sites are situated overlooking the largest fields in the area, and with a view of the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, the view of the ocean at El Paraíso is blocked by hills, and the site does not overlook the largest adjacent fields. Coprolites from El Paraíso indicate a higher riverine component to the diet at the site; the positioning of the site farther from the ocean, and with no view shed coupled with the dietary data may suggest an inland focus at this site but this hypothesis is untested.Quilter 1985; Quilter 1991",
"#### Unit I",
"The structure referred to as Unit I is located at the southern extremity of the site. It is built of rough trimmed stones quarried from a nearby hill side, assembled with coarse fill and mortar, and then covered in plaster. The unit consists of four tiered levels, corresponding to between four and six building phases. Direct corroboration of the phases of construction has been hampered by reconstruction during the excavations in the 1960s. Consecutive construction phases saw rooms filled in with fibre bags filled rocks, or *shicra*. Internal doorways and stairways within the multi\\-room structure indicate a changing pattern of use throughout the occupation.",
"Room 2 is the oldest in this complex, and an 80 x 80 cm excavation unit located in the north east corner contained four distinct floors, each separated by black midden deposits. Three dates are associated with this room, the earliest level is date to 2,185 to 1,685 cal BC and the upper most level is dated to 1,420–1,105 cal BC. The last phase suggests ceremonial use; the most notable finding in this building was the ritual offering placed inside one of the walls.",
"Quilter has suggested that there is a complex dynamic of control of space at this site. The northwest rooms of Unit I are accessed easily from the outside of the structure with wide staircases, but the rooms making up the southern half of the complex can only be accessed through a single staircase on the east side or through long narrow hallways along the western side of the structure.",
"#### Unit II",
"Like Unit I, multiple plaster floors and evidence of multiple construction phases is found at Unit II. The upper level of the excavation revealed a clay floor, with ceramic dating to the Intermediate period. Deeper in the excavation, two parallel lines of stone (possibly walls or foundations) were encountered. Unique engaged columns were found in two of the walls of one of the smaller rooms in the northwest quadrant of Unit II. Features like these have not been observed at other preceramic sites on the Peruvian coast.",
"Room 1, a 5 m square room was also excavated. The upper levels revealed ceramic sherds, cloth fragments, and domestic refuse suggesting a mixed use during occupation. A small central hearth was found beneath. One of the rooms had two short pillars or columns conjoined to opposite walls. A skeleton of an immature bird, small fish vertebrae, and crab were found as well. A large quantity of bird guano, avian skeletal material, and feathers were found in the lower layers but no associated remains of nesting boxes or other structures indicating aviculture. However, the abundance does indicate that birds were important at this site in either a ritual, production or consumption context. Other artifacts found in this room also included cotton, wool, needles and nine adobe bricks. The mix of artifact types suggests multiple activity patterns.Quilter 1985; ; Quilter 1991; Quilter et al 1991",
"#### Unit IV",
"Unit IV is a single storied structure that showed evidence of looting. An excavation unit was placed immediately adjacent to that pit. This unit produced a clay floor, and a large amount of faunal material. Rather than an occupation site, Quilter speculates that this Unit may be a feasting site associated with Unit I.",
"### 2013 damage",
"{{Update section\\|date\\=January 2021\\|reason\\=Needs to be updated as to whether criminal charges were filed or not}}\nIn late June,{{cite news \\|author\\=Robert Kozak \\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/article/BT\\-CO\\-20130701\\-711136\\.html?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj \\|title\\=Construction Company Destroys Ancient Pyramid in Peru – Culture Ministry \\|publisher\\=Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=1 July 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2013 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} 2013, one of the pyramids at El Paraíso complex was completely destroyed.{{cite news\\|date \\= 3 July 2013\\|title\\= Developers destroy ancient Peru pyramid \\|url\\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-latin\\-america\\-23173628\\|agency\\=BBC News\\|access\\-date\\=4 July 2013}} Property developers used bulldozers to knock\\-down the building, then set the remains ablaze. Police prevented the destruction of another 11 pyramids at the site. Prior to its destruction, the pyramid had a footprint of approximately 2,500 square meters and was 6 meters high.{{cite news\\|last\\=Quigley\\|first\\=John\\| date \\= 3 July 2013\\|title\\= Bulldozer Destroys Pyramid at 5,000\\-Year\\-Old Site in Peru\\|url\\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013\\-07\\-02/bulldozer\\-destroys\\-pyramid\\-at\\-5\\-000\\-year\\-old\\-site\\-in\\-peru.html\\|agency\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=4 July 2013}} Criminal charges will be lodged against the companies associated to this incident, identified as Alisol and Provelanz.{{cite web \\|date\\=3 July 2013 \\|title\\=Officials say developers destroyed Peru pyramid \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Associated Press]] \\|website\\=\\[\\[Phys.org]] \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2019 \\|url\\=https://phys.org/news/2013\\-07\\-peru\\-pyramid.html}}",
""
] |
### Architecture
#### Site plan
Architecture has been the subject of considerable focus at El Paraíso. In 1965, Engle identified seven major structures and designated them Units I\-VII. This naming convention was continued by Quilter's research team when five more structures were identified in the 1983 survey of the site. Unfortunately for archaeologists, modern machinery, roads, and irrigation canals have disturbed the ground in the immediate vicinity of the features, especially in the western half of the site. Because of this, the exact nature of the relationship between Units III and IX is unknown; additionally, Quilter has speculated that Unit III, a structure identified as a rubble pile, may in fact be two structures that have collapsed on themselves. In the eastern part of the site, a brick storage yard has been constructed on the remains of Unit VI, one of the two largest structures at the site; preliminary investigation suggests that the structure once extended under the brick yard.
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.7\|Huaca El Paraíso](/wiki/File:Huaca_Para%C3%ADso.JPG "Huaca Paraíso.JPG")
Comparing the general layout of the site to other pre\-ceramic sites in the region, such as Aspero and Rio Seco, reveals some interesting dissimilarities. Those sites are organized in a typical "U\-shape," with monumental structures forming the sides and bottom of the "U". The structure at that bottom of the "U" is the largest in area and height, and creates a focus for the site at one end. At El Paraíso, the structure at the bottom of the "U" is neither the largest nor tallest. Instead the structures forming the sides of the U are larger than those at the bottom of the "U," and are roughly the same in height and length.
The geographic position of El Paraíso is also different from the other Preceramic period Peruvian sites. Those sites are situated overlooking the largest fields in the area, and with a view of the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, the view of the ocean at El Paraíso is blocked by hills, and the site does not overlook the largest adjacent fields. Coprolites from El Paraíso indicate a higher riverine component to the diet at the site; the positioning of the site farther from the ocean, and with no view shed coupled with the dietary data may suggest an inland focus at this site but this hypothesis is untested.Quilter 1985; Quilter 1991
#### Unit I
The structure referred to as Unit I is located at the southern extremity of the site. It is built of rough trimmed stones quarried from a nearby hill side, assembled with coarse fill and mortar, and then covered in plaster. The unit consists of four tiered levels, corresponding to between four and six building phases. Direct corroboration of the phases of construction has been hampered by reconstruction during the excavations in the 1960s. Consecutive construction phases saw rooms filled in with fibre bags filled rocks, or *shicra*. Internal doorways and stairways within the multi\-room structure indicate a changing pattern of use throughout the occupation.
Room 2 is the oldest in this complex, and an 80 x 80 cm excavation unit located in the north east corner contained four distinct floors, each separated by black midden deposits. Three dates are associated with this room, the earliest level is date to 2,185 to 1,685 cal BC and the upper most level is dated to 1,420–1,105 cal BC. The last phase suggests ceremonial use; the most notable finding in this building was the ritual offering placed inside one of the walls.
Quilter has suggested that there is a complex dynamic of control of space at this site. The northwest rooms of Unit I are accessed easily from the outside of the structure with wide staircases, but the rooms making up the southern half of the complex can only be accessed through a single staircase on the east side or through long narrow hallways along the western side of the structure.
#### Unit II
Like Unit I, multiple plaster floors and evidence of multiple construction phases is found at Unit II. The upper level of the excavation revealed a clay floor, with ceramic dating to the Intermediate period. Deeper in the excavation, two parallel lines of stone (possibly walls or foundations) were encountered. Unique engaged columns were found in two of the walls of one of the smaller rooms in the northwest quadrant of Unit II. Features like these have not been observed at other preceramic sites on the Peruvian coast.
Room 1, a 5 m square room was also excavated. The upper levels revealed ceramic sherds, cloth fragments, and domestic refuse suggesting a mixed use during occupation. A small central hearth was found beneath. One of the rooms had two short pillars or columns conjoined to opposite walls. A skeleton of an immature bird, small fish vertebrae, and crab were found as well. A large quantity of bird guano, avian skeletal material, and feathers were found in the lower layers but no associated remains of nesting boxes or other structures indicating aviculture. However, the abundance does indicate that birds were important at this site in either a ritual, production or consumption context. Other artifacts found in this room also included cotton, wool, needles and nine adobe bricks. The mix of artifact types suggests multiple activity patterns.Quilter 1985; ; Quilter 1991; Quilter et al 1991
#### Unit IV
Unit IV is a single storied structure that showed evidence of looting. An excavation unit was placed immediately adjacent to that pit. This unit produced a clay floor, and a large amount of faunal material. Rather than an occupation site, Quilter speculates that this Unit may be a feasting site associated with Unit I.
|
[
"### Architecture",
"#### Site plan",
"Architecture has been the subject of considerable focus at El Paraíso. In 1965, Engle identified seven major structures and designated them Units I\\-VII. This naming convention was continued by Quilter's research team when five more structures were identified in the 1983 survey of the site. Unfortunately for archaeologists, modern machinery, roads, and irrigation canals have disturbed the ground in the immediate vicinity of the features, especially in the western half of the site. Because of this, the exact nature of the relationship between Units III and IX is unknown; additionally, Quilter has speculated that Unit III, a structure identified as a rubble pile, may in fact be two structures that have collapsed on themselves. In the eastern part of the site, a brick storage yard has been constructed on the remains of Unit VI, one of the two largest structures at the site; preliminary investigation suggests that the structure once extended under the brick yard.\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.7\\|Huaca El Paraíso](/wiki/File:Huaca_Para%C3%ADso.JPG \"Huaca Paraíso.JPG\")\nComparing the general layout of the site to other pre\\-ceramic sites in the region, such as Aspero and Rio Seco, reveals some interesting dissimilarities. Those sites are organized in a typical \"U\\-shape,\" with monumental structures forming the sides and bottom of the \"U\". The structure at that bottom of the \"U\" is the largest in area and height, and creates a focus for the site at one end. At El Paraíso, the structure at the bottom of the \"U\" is neither the largest nor tallest. Instead the structures forming the sides of the U are larger than those at the bottom of the \"U,\" and are roughly the same in height and length.",
"The geographic position of El Paraíso is also different from the other Preceramic period Peruvian sites. Those sites are situated overlooking the largest fields in the area, and with a view of the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, the view of the ocean at El Paraíso is blocked by hills, and the site does not overlook the largest adjacent fields. Coprolites from El Paraíso indicate a higher riverine component to the diet at the site; the positioning of the site farther from the ocean, and with no view shed coupled with the dietary data may suggest an inland focus at this site but this hypothesis is untested.Quilter 1985; Quilter 1991",
"#### Unit I",
"The structure referred to as Unit I is located at the southern extremity of the site. It is built of rough trimmed stones quarried from a nearby hill side, assembled with coarse fill and mortar, and then covered in plaster. The unit consists of four tiered levels, corresponding to between four and six building phases. Direct corroboration of the phases of construction has been hampered by reconstruction during the excavations in the 1960s. Consecutive construction phases saw rooms filled in with fibre bags filled rocks, or *shicra*. Internal doorways and stairways within the multi\\-room structure indicate a changing pattern of use throughout the occupation.",
"Room 2 is the oldest in this complex, and an 80 x 80 cm excavation unit located in the north east corner contained four distinct floors, each separated by black midden deposits. Three dates are associated with this room, the earliest level is date to 2,185 to 1,685 cal BC and the upper most level is dated to 1,420–1,105 cal BC. The last phase suggests ceremonial use; the most notable finding in this building was the ritual offering placed inside one of the walls.",
"Quilter has suggested that there is a complex dynamic of control of space at this site. The northwest rooms of Unit I are accessed easily from the outside of the structure with wide staircases, but the rooms making up the southern half of the complex can only be accessed through a single staircase on the east side or through long narrow hallways along the western side of the structure.",
"#### Unit II",
"Like Unit I, multiple plaster floors and evidence of multiple construction phases is found at Unit II. The upper level of the excavation revealed a clay floor, with ceramic dating to the Intermediate period. Deeper in the excavation, two parallel lines of stone (possibly walls or foundations) were encountered. Unique engaged columns were found in two of the walls of one of the smaller rooms in the northwest quadrant of Unit II. Features like these have not been observed at other preceramic sites on the Peruvian coast.",
"Room 1, a 5 m square room was also excavated. The upper levels revealed ceramic sherds, cloth fragments, and domestic refuse suggesting a mixed use during occupation. A small central hearth was found beneath. One of the rooms had two short pillars or columns conjoined to opposite walls. A skeleton of an immature bird, small fish vertebrae, and crab were found as well. A large quantity of bird guano, avian skeletal material, and feathers were found in the lower layers but no associated remains of nesting boxes or other structures indicating aviculture. However, the abundance does indicate that birds were important at this site in either a ritual, production or consumption context. Other artifacts found in this room also included cotton, wool, needles and nine adobe bricks. The mix of artifact types suggests multiple activity patterns.Quilter 1985; ; Quilter 1991; Quilter et al 1991",
"#### Unit IV",
"Unit IV is a single storied structure that showed evidence of looting. An excavation unit was placed immediately adjacent to that pit. This unit produced a clay floor, and a large amount of faunal material. Rather than an occupation site, Quilter speculates that this Unit may be a feasting site associated with Unit I.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
Kolesar began his [major junior](/wiki/Junior_ice_hockey%23Major_junior "Junior ice hockey#Major junior") career with the [Brandon Wheat Kings](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_Kings "Brandon Wheat Kings") of the [WHL](/wiki/Western_Hockey_League "Western Hockey League") in 1991, having previously played for the [Neepawa Natives](/wiki/Neepawa_Natives "Neepawa Natives") of the [MJHL](/wiki/Manitoba_Junior_Hockey_League "Manitoba Junior Hockey League").{{cite web \|title\=Mark Kolesar\|url\=https://www.eliteprospects.com/player/70958/mark\-kolesar\|publisher\=EliteProspects.com\|language\=english\|access\-date\=July 7, 2020}} He had a quiet season during his rookie year, registering 13 points in 53 games. His scoring improved in his second year, however, tallying 60 points in 68 games. By his third year, he was scoring at a point\-per\-game rate, with 66 points in 59 games. This offensive production got the attention of the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") who signed him to a contract on 24 May 1994\.{{cite web \|title\=Alumni Spotlight: Mark Kolesar\|url\=https://wheatkings.com/article/alumni\-spotlight\-mark\-kolesar\|publisher\=\[\[Brandon Wheat Kings]]\|language\=english\|date\=March 7, 2020\|access\-date\=July 6, 2020}}
Upon turning professional, Kolesar spent the 1994\-95 season with Toronto's [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") affiliate, the [St. John's Maple Leafs](/wiki/St._John%27s_Maple_Leafs "St. John's Maple Leafs") registering 35 points in 60 games. The following season, Kolesar split time between St. John's and Toronto, playing 21 regular season games in the NHL, scoring his first NHL goal against the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings "Detroit Red Wings") in March 1996\. The 1996\-97 season was again split between Toronto and St. John's, with Kolesar playing 7 games in Ontario and 62 in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador"). The following season, Kolesar would begin in St. John's before being loaned out to the [IHL's](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 "International Hockey League (1945–2001)") [Manitoba Moose](/wiki/Manitoba_Moose "Manitoba Moose"). Kolesar was subsequently traded to the [Hamilton Bulldogs](/wiki/Hamilton_Bulldogs_%28AHL%29 "Hamilton Bulldogs (AHL)"), where he finished the season.
Europe would be Kolesar's next port of call, playing in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") for [BISL](/wiki/Ice_Hockey_Superleague "Ice Hockey Superleague") side [Nottingham Panthers](/wiki/Nottingham_Panthers "Nottingham Panthers") for the 1998\-99 season. His time in Nottingham was successful, registering 42 points in 40 games. The team also found success, winning the [Benson \& Hedges Cup](/wiki/Autumn_Cup "Autumn Cup") and reaching the finals of both the [Challenge Cup](/wiki/Challenge_Cup_%28UK_ice_hockey%29 "Challenge Cup (UK ice hockey)") and the BISL Play\-off finals. Following a strong season in the UK, Kolesar moved to Germany to play for the [SERC Wild Wings](/wiki/Schwenninger_Wild_Wings "Schwenninger Wild Wings") of the [DEL](/wiki/Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga "Deutsche Eishockey Liga"). He managed 18 points in 55 games, as the Wild Wings struggled for much of the season, finishing 11th.
For the 2000\-01 season, Kolesar returned to the UK, signing for reigning BISL Champions [London Knights](/wiki/London_Knights_%28UK%29 "London Knights (UK)"),{{cite web \|title\=More confirmed for London Knights\|url\=http://www.knightice.co.uk/news/stories/stories\_53\.htm\|publisher\=\[\[London Knights (UK)\|London Knights]]\|language\=english\|date\=August 15, 2000\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010625023044/http://www.knightice.co.uk/news/stories/stories\_53\.htm\|access\-date\=July 8, 2020\|archive\-date\=2001\-06\-25}} where he was named as an [alternate captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29%23Alternate_captains "Captain (ice hockey)#Alternate captains"). At the Knights he played alongside former Wheat Kings team mates [Jeff Hoad](/wiki/Jeff_Hoad "Jeff Hoad"), [Mark Dutiaume](/wiki/Mark_Dutiaume "Mark Dutiaume") and Trevor Robins. His first season in the capital was successful, registering 27 points in 47 games, helping the Knights finish 4th in the league, before narrowly losing the Play\-off final to the [Sheffield Steelers](/wiki/Sheffield_Steelers "Sheffield Steelers").{{cite web \|title\=Superleague needs a higher profile\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\_sports/1257049\.stm\|publisher\=\[\[BBC]]\|language\=english\|date\=April 2, 2001\|access\-date\=July 8, 2020}} The Knights would also have continental success, beating both the [Munich Barons](/wiki/Munich_Barons "Munich Barons") and [HC Slovan Bratislava](/wiki/HC_Slovan_Bratislava "HC Slovan Bratislava") in the [IIHF Continental Cup](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_IIHF_Continental_Cup "2000–01 IIHF Continental Cup"). Although the Swiss side [ZSC Lions](/wiki/ZSC_Lions "ZSC Lions") would ultimately win the Cup, the Knights would take the silver medal, and their performance in the competition was considered to be the best by a British team at the time.
Kolesar remained in London for the following season, where he registered 25 points in 48 games. The Knights would struggle under new coach [Bob Leslie](/wiki/Bob_Leslie "Bob Leslie"), finishing 6th in the regular season, however, they nevertheless made it to the Play\-off semi\-finals, again narrowly losing to the Steelers. A third season in the capital followed, with Kolesar tallying 22 points in 29 games; the team finished 5th and lost the Play\-off final to the [Belfast Giants](/wiki/Belfast_Giants "Belfast Giants"). Following the culmination of the 2002\-03 season, the team would fold as a result of their rink, the [London Arena](/wiki/London_Arena "London Arena"), being sold to developers. This, coupled with the [Ayr Scottish Eagles](/wiki/Ayr_Scottish_Eagles "Ayr Scottish Eagles") and [Manchester Storm](/wiki/Manchester_Storm_%281995%E2%80%932002%29 "Manchester Storm (1995–2002)") also folding, and the [Bracknell Bees](/wiki/Bracknell_Bees "Bracknell Bees") deciding to drop down to the [BNL](/wiki/British_National_League_%281996%E2%80%932005%29 "British National League (1996–2005)"), culminating in the demise of the BISL.{{cite web \|title\=Eagles forced out\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\_sports/2477323\.stm\|publisher\=\[\[BBC]]\|language\=english\|date\=November 14, 2002\|access\-date\=June 19, 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=Elite League "will go ahead"\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\_sports/2952464\.stm\|publisher\=\[\[BBC]]\|language\=english\|date\=May 31, 2003\|access\-date\=July 8, 2020}}
For the 2003\-04 season, Kolesar initially signed with the Italian side [Alleghe HC](/wiki/Alleghe_Hockey "Alleghe Hockey"), however, he only played one game before moving back to North America to play for the [Wichita Thunder](/wiki/Wichita_Thunder "Wichita Thunder") of the [CHL](/wiki/Central_Hockey_League "Central Hockey League"). Whilst he had a productive season, 59 points in 64 games, towards the end of the season Kolesar broke his leg. Subsequently, Kolesar retired from professional hockey.
He briefly came out of retirement in [2009](/wiki/2009_Allan_Cup "2009 Allan Cup") to play [senior hockey](/wiki/Senior_ice_hockey "Senior ice hockey") for the [Steinbach North Stars](/wiki/%C3%8Ele-des-Ch%C3%AAnes_North_Stars "Île-des-Chênes North Stars") to challenge for the [Allan Cup](/wiki/Allan_Cup "Allan Cup"). In doing so, he once again reunited with Dutiaume and Hoad. The team had a successful exhibition season, however, they lost in the Cup semi\-finals to the [South East Prairie Thunder](/wiki/South_East_Prairie_Thunder "South East Prairie Thunder").
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"Kolesar began his [major junior](/wiki/Junior_ice_hockey%23Major_junior \"Junior ice hockey#Major junior\") career with the [Brandon Wheat Kings](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_Kings \"Brandon Wheat Kings\") of the [WHL](/wiki/Western_Hockey_League \"Western Hockey League\") in 1991, having previously played for the [Neepawa Natives](/wiki/Neepawa_Natives \"Neepawa Natives\") of the [MJHL](/wiki/Manitoba_Junior_Hockey_League \"Manitoba Junior Hockey League\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Mark Kolesar\\|url\\=https://www.eliteprospects.com/player/70958/mark\\-kolesar\\|publisher\\=EliteProspects.com\\|language\\=english\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2020}} He had a quiet season during his rookie year, registering 13 points in 53 games. His scoring improved in his second year, however, tallying 60 points in 68 games. By his third year, he was scoring at a point\\-per\\-game rate, with 66 points in 59 games. This offensive production got the attention of the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") who signed him to a contract on 24 May 1994\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Alumni Spotlight: Mark Kolesar\\|url\\=https://wheatkings.com/article/alumni\\-spotlight\\-mark\\-kolesar\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Brandon Wheat Kings]]\\|language\\=english\\|date\\=March 7, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2020}}",
"Upon turning professional, Kolesar spent the 1994\\-95 season with Toronto's [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") affiliate, the [St. John's Maple Leafs](/wiki/St._John%27s_Maple_Leafs \"St. John's Maple Leafs\") registering 35 points in 60 games. The following season, Kolesar split time between St. John's and Toronto, playing 21 regular season games in the NHL, scoring his first NHL goal against the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings \"Detroit Red Wings\") in March 1996\\. The 1996\\-97 season was again split between Toronto and St. John's, with Kolesar playing 7 games in Ontario and 62 in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Newfoundland and Labrador\"). The following season, Kolesar would begin in St. John's before being loaned out to the [IHL's](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 \"International Hockey League (1945–2001)\") [Manitoba Moose](/wiki/Manitoba_Moose \"Manitoba Moose\"). Kolesar was subsequently traded to the [Hamilton Bulldogs](/wiki/Hamilton_Bulldogs_%28AHL%29 \"Hamilton Bulldogs (AHL)\"), where he finished the season.",
"Europe would be Kolesar's next port of call, playing in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") for [BISL](/wiki/Ice_Hockey_Superleague \"Ice Hockey Superleague\") side [Nottingham Panthers](/wiki/Nottingham_Panthers \"Nottingham Panthers\") for the 1998\\-99 season. His time in Nottingham was successful, registering 42 points in 40 games. The team also found success, winning the [Benson \\& Hedges Cup](/wiki/Autumn_Cup \"Autumn Cup\") and reaching the finals of both the [Challenge Cup](/wiki/Challenge_Cup_%28UK_ice_hockey%29 \"Challenge Cup (UK ice hockey)\") and the BISL Play\\-off finals. Following a strong season in the UK, Kolesar moved to Germany to play for the [SERC Wild Wings](/wiki/Schwenninger_Wild_Wings \"Schwenninger Wild Wings\") of the [DEL](/wiki/Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga \"Deutsche Eishockey Liga\"). He managed 18 points in 55 games, as the Wild Wings struggled for much of the season, finishing 11th.",
"For the 2000\\-01 season, Kolesar returned to the UK, signing for reigning BISL Champions [London Knights](/wiki/London_Knights_%28UK%29 \"London Knights (UK)\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=More confirmed for London Knights\\|url\\=http://www.knightice.co.uk/news/stories/stories\\_53\\.htm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[London Knights (UK)\\|London Knights]]\\|language\\=english\\|date\\=August 15, 2000\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010625023044/http://www.knightice.co.uk/news/stories/stories\\_53\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=2001\\-06\\-25}} where he was named as an [alternate captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29%23Alternate_captains \"Captain (ice hockey)#Alternate captains\"). At the Knights he played alongside former Wheat Kings team mates [Jeff Hoad](/wiki/Jeff_Hoad \"Jeff Hoad\"), [Mark Dutiaume](/wiki/Mark_Dutiaume \"Mark Dutiaume\") and Trevor Robins. His first season in the capital was successful, registering 27 points in 47 games, helping the Knights finish 4th in the league, before narrowly losing the Play\\-off final to the [Sheffield Steelers](/wiki/Sheffield_Steelers \"Sheffield Steelers\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Superleague needs a higher profile\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\\_sports/1257049\\.stm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC]]\\|language\\=english\\|date\\=April 2, 2001\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2020}} The Knights would also have continental success, beating both the [Munich Barons](/wiki/Munich_Barons \"Munich Barons\") and [HC Slovan Bratislava](/wiki/HC_Slovan_Bratislava \"HC Slovan Bratislava\") in the [IIHF Continental Cup](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_IIHF_Continental_Cup \"2000–01 IIHF Continental Cup\"). Although the Swiss side [ZSC Lions](/wiki/ZSC_Lions \"ZSC Lions\") would ultimately win the Cup, the Knights would take the silver medal, and their performance in the competition was considered to be the best by a British team at the time.",
"Kolesar remained in London for the following season, where he registered 25 points in 48 games. The Knights would struggle under new coach [Bob Leslie](/wiki/Bob_Leslie \"Bob Leslie\"), finishing 6th in the regular season, however, they nevertheless made it to the Play\\-off semi\\-finals, again narrowly losing to the Steelers. A third season in the capital followed, with Kolesar tallying 22 points in 29 games; the team finished 5th and lost the Play\\-off final to the [Belfast Giants](/wiki/Belfast_Giants \"Belfast Giants\"). Following the culmination of the 2002\\-03 season, the team would fold as a result of their rink, the [London Arena](/wiki/London_Arena \"London Arena\"), being sold to developers. This, coupled with the [Ayr Scottish Eagles](/wiki/Ayr_Scottish_Eagles \"Ayr Scottish Eagles\") and [Manchester Storm](/wiki/Manchester_Storm_%281995%E2%80%932002%29 \"Manchester Storm (1995–2002)\") also folding, and the [Bracknell Bees](/wiki/Bracknell_Bees \"Bracknell Bees\") deciding to drop down to the [BNL](/wiki/British_National_League_%281996%E2%80%932005%29 \"British National League (1996–2005)\"), culminating in the demise of the BISL.{{cite web \\|title\\=Eagles forced out\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\\_sports/2477323\\.stm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC]]\\|language\\=english\\|date\\=November 14, 2002\\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Elite League \"will go ahead\"\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\\_sports/2952464\\.stm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC]]\\|language\\=english\\|date\\=May 31, 2003\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2020}}",
"For the 2003\\-04 season, Kolesar initially signed with the Italian side [Alleghe HC](/wiki/Alleghe_Hockey \"Alleghe Hockey\"), however, he only played one game before moving back to North America to play for the [Wichita Thunder](/wiki/Wichita_Thunder \"Wichita Thunder\") of the [CHL](/wiki/Central_Hockey_League \"Central Hockey League\"). Whilst he had a productive season, 59 points in 64 games, towards the end of the season Kolesar broke his leg. Subsequently, Kolesar retired from professional hockey.",
"He briefly came out of retirement in [2009](/wiki/2009_Allan_Cup \"2009 Allan Cup\") to play [senior hockey](/wiki/Senior_ice_hockey \"Senior ice hockey\") for the [Steinbach North Stars](/wiki/%C3%8Ele-des-Ch%C3%AAnes_North_Stars \"Île-des-Chênes North Stars\") to challenge for the [Allan Cup](/wiki/Allan_Cup \"Allan Cup\"). In doing so, he once again reunited with Dutiaume and Hoad. The team had a successful exhibition season, however, they lost in the Cup semi\\-finals to the [South East Prairie Thunder](/wiki/South_East_Prairie_Thunder \"South East Prairie Thunder\").",
""
] |
Transitional Federal Government
-------------------------------
### Establishment and overview
On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the [Transitional Federal Parliamentin](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament "Transitional Federal Parliament") the neighbouring Kenyan capital of Nairobi, Ahmed was elected as President of the [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government "Transitional Federal Government") (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004\-11/13/content\_2213479\.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041121085231/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004\-11/13/content\_2213479\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=21 November 2004 \|title\=Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country \|publisher\=News.xinhuanet.com \|date\=13 November 2004 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}} He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender being, former Somali Ambassador to the United States [Abdullahi Ahmed Addou](/wiki/Abdullahi_Ahmed_Addou "Abdullahi Ahmed Addou"), got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, [Abdiqasim Salad Hassan](/wiki/Abdiqasim_Salad_Hassan "Abdiqasim Salad Hassan"), peacefully withdrew his candidature.{{cite web\|url\=http://aceproject.org/ero\-en/regions/africa/SO/Somalia%20\-%20BBC%20article%20MPs%20elect%20new%20president.doc \|title\=Somalia MPs elect new president \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rulers.org/2004\-10\.html \|title\=Somalia – October 2004 \|publisher\=Rulers \|date\=1 March 2005 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}} Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004\.
The Ethiopian government heavily backed the presidency of Abdullahi Yusuf and the formation of the [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia "Transitional Federal Government of Somalia") (TFG) in 2004 on the grounds that Yusuf would give up Somalia's long standing claim to the Ogaden.{{Cite journal \|last\=Cocodia \|first\=Jude \|date\=2021\-04\-03 \|title\=Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia \|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/19392206\.2021\.1922026 \|journal\=African Security \|language\=en \|volume\=14 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=110–131 \|doi\=10\.1080/19392206\.2021\.1922026 \|issn\=1939\-2206 \|s2cid\=236350899 \|quote\=The TFG had Ethiopia’s approval on the basis that under Yusuf, Somalia will rest its claim to the Ogaden region}} Before becoming president of the TFG during 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf was a member of an Ethiopian\-backed coalition of warlords that had undermined a previous attempt at restoring a government in Somalia when the [Transitional National Government](/wiki/Transitional_National_Government_of_Somalia "Transitional National Government of Somalia") (TNG) formed in 2000\.{{Cite news \|date\=2008\-12\-29 \|title\=Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3732020\.stm \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-09 \|work\=\[\[BBC News]] \|language\=en\-GB \|quote\=He was a member of an Ethiopian\-backed coalition of warlords that blocked previous attempts at restoring order. As a result of this opposition, the authority of the Transitional National Government (TNG) formed in 2000 was undermined.}} [I.M. Lewis](/wiki/Ioan_Lewis "Ioan Lewis") observes that with significant Ethiopian support, Abdullahi Yusuf was elected as the TFG president, and, under Ethiopian direction, he appointed a prime minister with connections to then\-Ethiopian Prime Minister [Meles Zenawi](/wiki/Meles_Zenawi "Meles Zenawi"). These close connections to Addis Ababa were a driving force behind the invasion and provoked the ICU into later adopting a bellicose stance.{{Cite news \|last\=Lewis \|first\=I.M. \|author\-link\=Ioan Lewis \|date\=16 April 2007 \|title\=Ethiopia’s Invasion of Somalia \|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Opinion\_20/Ethiopia\_s\_Invasion\_of\_Somalia.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820013812/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Opinion\_20/Ethiopia\_s\_Invasion\_of\_Somalia.shtml \|archive\-date\=20 August 2007 \|work\=\[\[Garowe Online]] \|quote\=}} In 2004, Yusuf made his first foreign visit as President when he travelled to Ethiopia. During this visit he requested 20,000 Ethiopian troops to back his government.{{Cite web \|last\=Cobb Jr. \|first\=Charles \|date\=22 January 2007 \|title\=Tentative hope and little else \- Somalia \|url\=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia\-tentative\-hope\-and\-little\-else \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-03 \|website\=\[\[AllAfrica]] \|publisher\=\[\[Reliefweb]] \|language\=en}}
As President, Ahmed pledged to promote reconciliation and to set about rebuilding the country. However, his government was beset by internal disagreements and contentions with other stakeholders in Somalia. For example, he was at loggerheads with some [warlords](/wiki/Warlord "Warlord") and government members over where the administration should be based. The President and Prime Minister opposed a move to Mogadishu, citing security reasons. Consequently, Ahmed along with his Prime Minister [Ali Mohammed Ghedi](/wiki/Ali_Mohammed_Ghedi "Ali Mohammed Ghedi") and the Speaker of the Parliament [Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden](/wiki/Sharif_Hassan_Sheikh_Aden "Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden") helped to relocate the [Transitional Federal Institutions](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions "Transitional Federal Institutions") (TFIs) from [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi") to the Somali cities of [Jowhar](/wiki/Jowhar "Jowhar") and [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa "Baidoa"), where the TFG resided until the government eventually took [control of Mogadishu](/wiki/Fall_of_Mogadishu "Fall of Mogadishu").{{cn\|date\=April 2024}}
The majority of Somali society, including much of the newly formed [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia "Transitional Federal Government of Somalia"), deeply opposed any foreign military intervention on Somali soil.{{Cite news \|last\=Rice \|first\=Xan \|last2\= \|first2\= \|date\=11 Nov 2006 \|title\=Sending African troops into Somalia 'would trigger war' \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/27/3 \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-27 \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|language\=en\-GB \|issn\=0261\-3077 \|quote\=Most Somalis, including a significant chunk of the government, are deeply opposed to any foreign intervention.}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Samatar \|first\=Abdi Ismail \|date\=2006 \|title\=The Miracle of Mogadishu \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4007061 \|journal\=Review of African Political Economy \|volume\=33 \|issue\=109 \|pages\=581–587 \|issn\=0305\-6244 \|jstor\=4007061}} An [African Union](/wiki/African_Union "African Union") fact finding mission to Somalia in 2005 found that the overwhelming majority of Somalis rejected troops from neighboring states entering the country.{{Cite journal \|last\=Khayre \|first\=Ahmed Ali M. \|date\=2014 \|title\=Self\-defence, Intervention by Invitation, or Proxy War? The Legality of the 2006 Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.3366/ajicl.2014\.0090 \|journal\=African Journal of International and Comparative Law \|volume\=22 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=208–233 \|doi\=10\.3366/ajicl.2014\.0090 \|issn\=0954\-8890}} Despite significant opposition within the TFG parliament,{{Cite web \|last\=Maruf \|first\=Harun \|author\-link\=Harun Maruf \|date\=2006\-08\-15 \|title\=Somalia for the Somalis: An idea in peril \|url\=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia\-somalis\-idea\-peril \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-24 \|website\=\[\[Relief Web]] \|language\=en \|quote\=The UIC leaders say they will not discuss matters with the government as long as foreign troops remain on Somali soil; and the Somali Parliament (also based in Baidoa) is equally opposed to any Ethiopian presence. \|agency\=\[\[Mail \& Guardian]]}} President Yusuf made the widely unpopular decision to invite Ethiopian troops to prop up his administration.{{cite news \|date\=30 December 2008 \|title\=President Yusuf made the failed and unpopular decision to call in troops from neighbouring Ethiopia \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7804335\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231094846/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7804335\.stm \|archive\-date\=31 December 2008 \|access\-date\=2011\-07\-09 \|work\=\[\[BBC News]]}} As an institution, the TFG did not consent to or approve of the Ethiopian military intervention. No parliamentary approval was given for a decision openly opposed by a significant portion of the government.
Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re\-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia\_27/Somalia\_Guide\_to\_Puntland\_Election\_2009\.shtml \|title\=Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009 \|publisher\=Garoweonline.com \|date\=25 December 2008 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131633/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia\_27/Somalia\_Guide\_to\_Puntland\_Election\_2009\.shtml \|archive\-date\=14 May 2011 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386\.html \|title\=Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary\-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts \|publisher\=Unis.unvienna.org \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}}
### Insurgency
In May 2006, the [Second Battle of Mogadishu](/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_%282006%29 "Battle of Mogadishu (2006)") started and [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN") reported that there were interim government forces in action. However, Ahmed told the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") that the alliance of warlords were not fighting on behalf of the government, and threatened to fire them.{{cite news
\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4768857\.stm
\|title\=Warring Somali ministers warned
\|date\=13 June 2006
\|publisher\=BBC
\|access\-date\=3 February 2007 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070218023416/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4768857\.stm\| archive\-date\= 18 February 2007 \| url\-status\= live}} Indeed, members of the government who were part of the warring [Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter\-Terrorism](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Restoration_of_Peace_and_Counter-Terrorism "Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism") (ARPCT) were sacked. Others left the government in disaffection following the victories of the Islamic Courts Union.
After the start of the new phase of the [War in Somalia](/wiki/War_in_Somalia_%282006%E2%80%932009%29 "War in Somalia (2006–2009)") on 21 December 2006, the TFG, with the help of Ethiopian forces, wrested control of the southern part of the country and the capital, Mogadishu, from the hands of the Islamic Courts Union. By 28 December, the Transitional Federal Government had captured Mogadishu as the ICU forces fled. On 8 January 2007, as the [Battle of Ras Kamboni](/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_Kamboni "Battle of Ras Kamboni") raged, TFG President Ahmed entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. It was announced that the government would relocate to [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia "Villa Somalia") in the capital from its interim location in Baidoa. This marked the first time since in 1991 that a Somali government controlled most of the country.
During fierce fighting in Mogadishu in early 2007, the Ethiopian army reportedly [carpet bombed](/wiki/Carpet_bombing "Carpet bombing") neighborhoods. Yusuf announced in a radio interview that “any place from which a bullet is fired, we will bombard it, regardless of whoever is there.”{{Cite news \|last\=Gettleman \|first\=Jeffrey \|date\=2007\-04\-06 \|title\=Somali Battles Bring Charges of War Crimes \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/06/world/africa/06somalia.html \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-30 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re\-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.
Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including [Al\-Shabaab](/wiki/Al-Shabaab_%28Somalia%29 "Al-Shabaab (Somalia)"), regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al\-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al\-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to withdraw from the country, leaving behind an under\-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.{{cite web\|author\=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees \|url\=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0\.html \|title\=USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia \|publisher\=Unhcr.org \|date\=1 May 2009 \|access\-date\=27 June 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0\.html \|archive\-date\=10 May 2011 }}
### Assassination attempt
On 17 September 2006, a [suicide](/wiki/Suicide_attack "Suicide attack") [car bomber](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb") smashed his vehicle into Ahmed's convoy outside the National Parliament in [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa "Baidoa"). The attack killed four of Ahmed's bodyguards as well as Ahmed's brother. Six attackers were also slain in the subsequent gun battle.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5356126\.stm
\|title\=Somali leader survives bomb blast
\|publisher\=BBC
\|date\=18 September 2006
\|access\-date\=3 February 2007}}
### Health problems
Ahmed underwent a [liver transplant](/wiki/Liver_transplantation "Liver transplantation") in the 1990s. In early December 2007, he was admitted to a hospital in Nairobi for treatment of what his spokesman described as [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis "Bronchitis"),["Somalia's leader 'has bronchitis'"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7128502.stm), BBC News, 5 December 2007\. and on 4 January 2008, he collapsed in Baidoa and was taken to Ethiopia for treatment.["Somali interim leader collapses"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7171370.stm), BBC News, 4 January 2008\. Two days later, Ahmed was rushed to London for tests.["Sick Somali president in London"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7174701.stm), BBC News, 7 January 2008\. He returned to Mogadishu on 16 February 2008; rebels promptly fired mortars at the presidential compound, reportedly wounding at least five people.["Mortar attack on Somali president's residence wounds five"](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/02/17/africa/AF-GEN-Somalia.php), Associated Press (*International Herald Tribune*), 17 February 2008\.
### Dismissal of government
During June 2008, a faction of the [Alliance for the Re\-liberation of Somalia](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia "Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia") and the [TFG](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia "Transitional Federal Government of Somalia") signed a ceasefire agreement after months of talks in [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti"). The agreement was met with resistance from elements within the TFG, chiefly President Yusuf.{{Cite web \|date\=2008\-11\-17 \|title\=TFG on brink of collapse \|url\=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/81499/somalia\-%E2%80%9Ctfg\-brink\-collapse%E2%80%9D \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-06 \|website\=\[\[The New Humanitarian]] \|language\=en}} In the second half of 2008, Ahmed had been at loggerheads with then Prime Minister [Nur Hassan Hussein](/wiki/Nur_Hassan_Hussein "Nur Hassan Hussein") over a proposed new cabinet,{{cite web\|url\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLE374226\.\_CH\_.2420 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171518/http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLE374226\.\_CH\_.2420 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016 \|title\=Somali president sacks prime minister \|publisher\=Uk.reuters.com \|date\=14 December 2008 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}} the latter of which Ahmed characterized as nothing more than a "clan deal". By mid\-2008, President Yusuf had lost all the support he had accumulated in the international community. His primary backer, Ethiopia, had also become tired of the TFG president only offering military answers to serious political issues.{{Cite book \|last\=Hoehn \|first\=Markus Virgil \|url\=https://riftvalley.net/wp\-content/uploads/2018/06/Between\-Somaliland\-and\-Puntland\-by\-Markus\-Hoehne\-RVI\-Contested\-Borderlands\-2015\.pdf \|title\=Between Somaliland and Puntland: Marginalization, militarization and conflicting political visions \|publisher\=\[\[Rift Valley Institute]] \|year\=2018 \|pages\=75–76 \|quote\=By mid\-2008, Cabdulaahi Yuusuf had also lost any support he had accumulated in the international community. Ethiopia, too, was fed up with a Somali president who only came up with military solutions for political problems. The Puntland troops supporting the president had suffered heavy casualties in Mogadishu.}}
On 14 December 2008, Ahmed announced that he had dismissed Hussein and his government, citing corruption, inefficiency, treason and failure to bring peace to the war\-torn country as reasons for the dismissal.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rttnews.com/ArticleView.aspx?Id\=811266\&SMap\=1 \|title\=Somalia's New Prime Minister Resigns \|publisher\=Rttnews.com \|date\=24 December 2008 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}} Earlier in the year, Hussein had survived a [vote of no confidence](/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence "Vote of no confidence") after having been accused by some lawmakers of embezzling state funds.
Hussein said that Ahmed did not have the power to fire him without parliamentary approval, while Ahmed asserted that he believed Parliament would endorse the dismissal.["Somali president sacks PM, PM stands firm"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090213173954/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jvbcljxg8gQRtQd5LTp3oWm4L06Q), AFP, 14 December 2008\. Parliament supported Hussein in a vote on 15 December, but Ahmed nevertheless appointed [Mohamoud Mohamed Guled](/wiki/Mohamoud_Mohamed_Guled "Mohamoud Mohamed Guled") as Prime Minister to replace Hussein on 16 December.["Somali president names new prime minister"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140219221134/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ic81Q58zj-MdbCKpgSd25KO20EBw), AFP, 16 December 2008\.
On 21 December, [Radio Garowe](/wiki/Radio_Garowe "Radio Garowe") reported that 80 members of parliament held a conference in [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa "Baidoa") where they all agreed that the vote of confidence in support of Hussein's government never took place. Ismail Ali Nur, who spoke on behalf of the dissenting lawmakers, indicated that Somalia's constitution requires a parliament [quorum](/wiki/Quorum "Quorum") of no less than 139 MPs present for votes, but that "only 95 MPs" showed up as opposed to the 143 members of parliament claimed by Speaker [Adan "Madobe" Mohamed](/wiki/Adan_Mohamed_Nuur_Madobe "Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe"). Nur urged people to "watch video footage recorded from that session."{{Cite web\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/200812220026\.html\|title\=Somalia: PM Nur Adde Confidence Vote 'Never Happened' – 80 MPs\|accessdate\=8 April 2023}}
On 24 December, the newly appointed Prime Minister Guled announced his resignation, citing that he did not wish to be "seen as a stumbling block to the peace process which is going well now."["More turmoil in Somalia as new PM quits"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090209044017/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gJ69SRMgrDMTkEVPYFeHmCny4Jwg), AFP, 24 December 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7799512\.stm \|title\=Somali leader quit threat denied \|work\=BBC News \|date\=25 December 2008 \|access\-date\=5 September 2013}}
Following Guled's resignation, Abdirashid Sed, who was close to President Ahmed, said that Ahmed would announce his resignation and retirement from politics at a special session of Parliament on 29 December. According to Sed, Ahmed made this decision "because he does not want to be seen as an obstacle to peace in Somalia".["Key Somali official says president to quit Monday"](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/12/28/africa/AF-Somalia.php), Associated Press (*International Herald Tribune*), 28 December 2008\.
### Impeachment attempt and resignation
In December 2008, the TFG parliament moved to impeach President Abdullahi Yusuf, accusing him of being a dictator and an obstacle to peace.{{Cite news \|date\=2008\-12\-29 \|title\=Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3732020\.stm \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-04 \|work\=\[\[BBC News]] \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|last\=McCrummen \|first\=Stephanie \|author\-link\=Stephanie McCrummen \|date\=18 December 2008 \|title\=Impeachment Proceedings Begun Against Somali Leader \|url\=https://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2008/Dec/9005/impeachment\_proceedings\_begun\_against\_somali\_leader.aspx \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-19 \|website\= \|language\=en\-US \|agency\=\[\[Washington Post]]}}
On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Ahmed expressed regret at failing to end the country's 17\-year conflict.["Somalia's president quits office"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm), BBC News, 29 December 2008\. Yusuf stated that he had lost control of the country to Islamist insurgents,{{Cite web \|date\=2009\-01\-15 \|title\=Last Ethiopian troops leave Somalia's capital \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna28678345 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-26 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en}} and blamed the international community for its failure to support the government. He further announced said that the speaker of parliament, Aden "Madobe" Mohamed, would succeed him in office per the Transitional Federal Government's [Charter](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter_of_the_Somali_Republic "Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic").["Somali President Yusuf resigns"](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html), Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008\.
While it was suggested that Ahmed's resignation added chaos to the country's political landscape as Ethiopia withdrew its troops, some diplomats opined that it might have improved the prospects of striking a deal with the more moderate Islamist insurgents.
|
[
"Transitional Federal Government\n-------------------------------",
"### Establishment and overview",
"On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the [Transitional Federal Parliamentin](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament \"Transitional Federal Parliament\") the neighbouring Kenyan capital of Nairobi, Ahmed was elected as President of the [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government \"Transitional Federal Government\") (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004\\-11/13/content\\_2213479\\.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041121085231/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004\\-11/13/content\\_2213479\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=21 November 2004 \\|title\\=Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country \\|publisher\\=News.xinhuanet.com \\|date\\=13 November 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}} He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender being, former Somali Ambassador to the United States [Abdullahi Ahmed Addou](/wiki/Abdullahi_Ahmed_Addou \"Abdullahi Ahmed Addou\"), got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, [Abdiqasim Salad Hassan](/wiki/Abdiqasim_Salad_Hassan \"Abdiqasim Salad Hassan\"), peacefully withdrew his candidature.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://aceproject.org/ero\\-en/regions/africa/SO/Somalia%20\\-%20BBC%20article%20MPs%20elect%20new%20president.doc \\|title\\=Somalia MPs elect new president \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rulers.org/2004\\-10\\.html \\|title\\=Somalia – October 2004 \\|publisher\\=Rulers \\|date\\=1 March 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}} Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004\\.",
"The Ethiopian government heavily backed the presidency of Abdullahi Yusuf and the formation of the [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia \"Transitional Federal Government of Somalia\") (TFG) in 2004 on the grounds that Yusuf would give up Somalia's long standing claim to the Ogaden.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Cocodia \\|first\\=Jude \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-03 \\|title\\=Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia \\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/19392206\\.2021\\.1922026 \\|journal\\=African Security \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=110–131 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/19392206\\.2021\\.1922026 \\|issn\\=1939\\-2206 \\|s2cid\\=236350899 \\|quote\\=The TFG had Ethiopia’s approval on the basis that under Yusuf, Somalia will rest its claim to the Ogaden region}} Before becoming president of the TFG during 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf was a member of an Ethiopian\\-backed coalition of warlords that had undermined a previous attempt at restoring a government in Somalia when the [Transitional National Government](/wiki/Transitional_National_Government_of_Somalia \"Transitional National Government of Somalia\") (TNG) formed in 2000\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-29 \\|title\\=Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3732020\\.stm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-09 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|quote\\=He was a member of an Ethiopian\\-backed coalition of warlords that blocked previous attempts at restoring order. As a result of this opposition, the authority of the Transitional National Government (TNG) formed in 2000 was undermined.}} [I.M. Lewis](/wiki/Ioan_Lewis \"Ioan Lewis\") observes that with significant Ethiopian support, Abdullahi Yusuf was elected as the TFG president, and, under Ethiopian direction, he appointed a prime minister with connections to then\\-Ethiopian Prime Minister [Meles Zenawi](/wiki/Meles_Zenawi \"Meles Zenawi\"). These close connections to Addis Ababa were a driving force behind the invasion and provoked the ICU into later adopting a bellicose stance.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=I.M. \\|author\\-link\\=Ioan Lewis \\|date\\=16 April 2007 \\|title\\=Ethiopia’s Invasion of Somalia \\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Opinion\\_20/Ethiopia\\_s\\_Invasion\\_of\\_Somalia.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820013812/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Opinion\\_20/Ethiopia\\_s\\_Invasion\\_of\\_Somalia.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2007 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Garowe Online]] \\|quote\\=}} In 2004, Yusuf made his first foreign visit as President when he travelled to Ethiopia. During this visit he requested 20,000 Ethiopian troops to back his government.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cobb Jr. \\|first\\=Charles \\|date\\=22 January 2007 \\|title\\=Tentative hope and little else \\- Somalia \\|url\\=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia\\-tentative\\-hope\\-and\\-little\\-else \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-03 \\|website\\=\\[\\[AllAfrica]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Reliefweb]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"As President, Ahmed pledged to promote reconciliation and to set about rebuilding the country. However, his government was beset by internal disagreements and contentions with other stakeholders in Somalia. For example, he was at loggerheads with some [warlords](/wiki/Warlord \"Warlord\") and government members over where the administration should be based. The President and Prime Minister opposed a move to Mogadishu, citing security reasons. Consequently, Ahmed along with his Prime Minister [Ali Mohammed Ghedi](/wiki/Ali_Mohammed_Ghedi \"Ali Mohammed Ghedi\") and the Speaker of the Parliament [Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden](/wiki/Sharif_Hassan_Sheikh_Aden \"Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden\") helped to relocate the [Transitional Federal Institutions](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions \"Transitional Federal Institutions\") (TFIs) from [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\") to the Somali cities of [Jowhar](/wiki/Jowhar \"Jowhar\") and [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa \"Baidoa\"), where the TFG resided until the government eventually took [control of Mogadishu](/wiki/Fall_of_Mogadishu \"Fall of Mogadishu\").{{cn\\|date\\=April 2024}}",
"The majority of Somali society, including much of the newly formed [Transitional Federal Government](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia \"Transitional Federal Government of Somalia\"), deeply opposed any foreign military intervention on Somali soil.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rice \\|first\\=Xan \\|last2\\= \\|first2\\= \\|date\\=11 Nov 2006 \\|title\\=Sending African troops into Somalia 'would trigger war' \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/27/3 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-27 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077 \\|quote\\=Most Somalis, including a significant chunk of the government, are deeply opposed to any foreign intervention.}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Samatar \\|first\\=Abdi Ismail \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=The Miracle of Mogadishu \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4007061 \\|journal\\=Review of African Political Economy \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=109 \\|pages\\=581–587 \\|issn\\=0305\\-6244 \\|jstor\\=4007061}} An [African Union](/wiki/African_Union \"African Union\") fact finding mission to Somalia in 2005 found that the overwhelming majority of Somalis rejected troops from neighboring states entering the country.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Khayre \\|first\\=Ahmed Ali M. \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=Self\\-defence, Intervention by Invitation, or Proxy War? The Legality of the 2006 Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.3366/ajicl.2014\\.0090 \\|journal\\=African Journal of International and Comparative Law \\|volume\\=22 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=208–233 \\|doi\\=10\\.3366/ajicl.2014\\.0090 \\|issn\\=0954\\-8890}} Despite significant opposition within the TFG parliament,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Maruf \\|first\\=Harun \\|author\\-link\\=Harun Maruf \\|date\\=2006\\-08\\-15 \\|title\\=Somalia for the Somalis: An idea in peril \\|url\\=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia\\-somalis\\-idea\\-peril \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-24 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Relief Web]] \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=The UIC leaders say they will not discuss matters with the government as long as foreign troops remain on Somali soil; and the Somali Parliament (also based in Baidoa) is equally opposed to any Ethiopian presence. \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Mail \\& Guardian]]}} President Yusuf made the widely unpopular decision to invite Ethiopian troops to prop up his administration.{{cite news \\|date\\=30 December 2008 \\|title\\=President Yusuf made the failed and unpopular decision to call in troops from neighbouring Ethiopia \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7804335\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231094846/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7804335\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-09 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]]}} As an institution, the TFG did not consent to or approve of the Ethiopian military intervention. No parliamentary approval was given for a decision openly opposed by a significant portion of the government.",
"Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re\\-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia\\_27/Somalia\\_Guide\\_to\\_Puntland\\_Election\\_2009\\.shtml \\|title\\=Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009 \\|publisher\\=Garoweonline.com \\|date\\=25 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131633/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia\\_27/Somalia\\_Guide\\_to\\_Puntland\\_Election\\_2009\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2011 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386\\.html \\|title\\=Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary\\-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts \\|publisher\\=Unis.unvienna.org \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}}",
"### Insurgency",
"In May 2006, the [Second Battle of Mogadishu](/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_%282006%29 \"Battle of Mogadishu (2006)\") started and [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\") reported that there were interim government forces in action. However, Ahmed told the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") that the alliance of warlords were not fighting on behalf of the government, and threatened to fire them.{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4768857\\.stm\n\\|title\\=Warring Somali ministers warned\n\\|date\\=13 June 2006\n\\|publisher\\=BBC\n\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2007 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070218023416/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4768857\\.stm\\| archive\\-date\\= 18 February 2007 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Indeed, members of the government who were part of the warring [Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter\\-Terrorism](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Restoration_of_Peace_and_Counter-Terrorism \"Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism\") (ARPCT) were sacked. Others left the government in disaffection following the victories of the Islamic Courts Union.",
"After the start of the new phase of the [War in Somalia](/wiki/War_in_Somalia_%282006%E2%80%932009%29 \"War in Somalia (2006–2009)\") on 21 December 2006, the TFG, with the help of Ethiopian forces, wrested control of the southern part of the country and the capital, Mogadishu, from the hands of the Islamic Courts Union. By 28 December, the Transitional Federal Government had captured Mogadishu as the ICU forces fled. On 8 January 2007, as the [Battle of Ras Kamboni](/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_Kamboni \"Battle of Ras Kamboni\") raged, TFG President Ahmed entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. It was announced that the government would relocate to [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia \"Villa Somalia\") in the capital from its interim location in Baidoa. This marked the first time since in 1991 that a Somali government controlled most of the country.",
"During fierce fighting in Mogadishu in early 2007, the Ethiopian army reportedly [carpet bombed](/wiki/Carpet_bombing \"Carpet bombing\") neighborhoods. Yusuf announced in a radio interview that “any place from which a bullet is fired, we will bombard it, regardless of whoever is there.”{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gettleman \\|first\\=Jeffrey \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-06 \\|title\\=Somali Battles Bring Charges of War Crimes \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/06/world/africa/06somalia.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-30 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re\\-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.",
"Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including [Al\\-Shabaab](/wiki/Al-Shabaab_%28Somalia%29 \"Al-Shabaab (Somalia)\"), regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al\\-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al\\-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to withdraw from the country, leaving behind an under\\-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.{{cite web\\|author\\=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees \\|url\\=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0\\.html \\|title\\=USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia \\|publisher\\=Unhcr.org \\|date\\=1 May 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=10 May 2011 }}",
"### Assassination attempt",
"On 17 September 2006, a [suicide](/wiki/Suicide_attack \"Suicide attack\") [car bomber](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\") smashed his vehicle into Ahmed's convoy outside the National Parliament in [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa \"Baidoa\"). The attack killed four of Ahmed's bodyguards as well as Ahmed's brother. Six attackers were also slain in the subsequent gun battle.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5356126\\.stm\n\\|title\\=Somali leader survives bomb blast\n\\|publisher\\=BBC\n\\|date\\=18 September 2006\n\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2007}}",
"### Health problems",
"Ahmed underwent a [liver transplant](/wiki/Liver_transplantation \"Liver transplantation\") in the 1990s. In early December 2007, he was admitted to a hospital in Nairobi for treatment of what his spokesman described as [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis \"Bronchitis\"),[\"Somalia's leader 'has bronchitis'\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7128502.stm), BBC News, 5 December 2007\\. and on 4 January 2008, he collapsed in Baidoa and was taken to Ethiopia for treatment.[\"Somali interim leader collapses\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7171370.stm), BBC News, 4 January 2008\\. Two days later, Ahmed was rushed to London for tests.[\"Sick Somali president in London\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7174701.stm), BBC News, 7 January 2008\\. He returned to Mogadishu on 16 February 2008; rebels promptly fired mortars at the presidential compound, reportedly wounding at least five people.[\"Mortar attack on Somali president's residence wounds five\"](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/02/17/africa/AF-GEN-Somalia.php), Associated Press (*International Herald Tribune*), 17 February 2008\\.",
"### Dismissal of government",
"During June 2008, a faction of the [Alliance for the Re\\-liberation of Somalia](/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia \"Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia\") and the [TFG](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia \"Transitional Federal Government of Somalia\") signed a ceasefire agreement after months of talks in [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti \"Djibouti\"). The agreement was met with resistance from elements within the TFG, chiefly President Yusuf.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-17 \\|title\\=TFG on brink of collapse \\|url\\=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/81499/somalia\\-%E2%80%9Ctfg\\-brink\\-collapse%E2%80%9D \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The New Humanitarian]] \\|language\\=en}} In the second half of 2008, Ahmed had been at loggerheads with then Prime Minister [Nur Hassan Hussein](/wiki/Nur_Hassan_Hussein \"Nur Hassan Hussein\") over a proposed new cabinet,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLE374226\\.\\_CH\\_.2420 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171518/http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLE374226\\.\\_CH\\_.2420 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016 \\|title\\=Somali president sacks prime minister \\|publisher\\=Uk.reuters.com \\|date\\=14 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}} the latter of which Ahmed characterized as nothing more than a \"clan deal\". By mid\\-2008, President Yusuf had lost all the support he had accumulated in the international community. His primary backer, Ethiopia, had also become tired of the TFG president only offering military answers to serious political issues.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Hoehn \\|first\\=Markus Virgil \\|url\\=https://riftvalley.net/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/06/Between\\-Somaliland\\-and\\-Puntland\\-by\\-Markus\\-Hoehne\\-RVI\\-Contested\\-Borderlands\\-2015\\.pdf \\|title\\=Between Somaliland and Puntland: Marginalization, militarization and conflicting political visions \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rift Valley Institute]] \\|year\\=2018 \\|pages\\=75–76 \\|quote\\=By mid\\-2008, Cabdulaahi Yuusuf had also lost any support he had accumulated in the international community. Ethiopia, too, was fed up with a Somali president who only came up with military solutions for political problems. The Puntland troops supporting the president had suffered heavy casualties in Mogadishu.}}",
"On 14 December 2008, Ahmed announced that he had dismissed Hussein and his government, citing corruption, inefficiency, treason and failure to bring peace to the war\\-torn country as reasons for the dismissal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rttnews.com/ArticleView.aspx?Id\\=811266\\&SMap\\=1 \\|title\\=Somalia's New Prime Minister Resigns \\|publisher\\=Rttnews.com \\|date\\=24 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}} Earlier in the year, Hussein had survived a [vote of no confidence](/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence \"Vote of no confidence\") after having been accused by some lawmakers of embezzling state funds.",
"Hussein said that Ahmed did not have the power to fire him without parliamentary approval, while Ahmed asserted that he believed Parliament would endorse the dismissal.[\"Somali president sacks PM, PM stands firm\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090213173954/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jvbcljxg8gQRtQd5LTp3oWm4L06Q), AFP, 14 December 2008\\. Parliament supported Hussein in a vote on 15 December, but Ahmed nevertheless appointed [Mohamoud Mohamed Guled](/wiki/Mohamoud_Mohamed_Guled \"Mohamoud Mohamed Guled\") as Prime Minister to replace Hussein on 16 December.[\"Somali president names new prime minister\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140219221134/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ic81Q58zj-MdbCKpgSd25KO20EBw), AFP, 16 December 2008\\.",
"On 21 December, [Radio Garowe](/wiki/Radio_Garowe \"Radio Garowe\") reported that 80 members of parliament held a conference in [Baidoa](/wiki/Baidoa \"Baidoa\") where they all agreed that the vote of confidence in support of Hussein's government never took place. Ismail Ali Nur, who spoke on behalf of the dissenting lawmakers, indicated that Somalia's constitution requires a parliament [quorum](/wiki/Quorum \"Quorum\") of no less than 139 MPs present for votes, but that \"only 95 MPs\" showed up as opposed to the 143 members of parliament claimed by Speaker [Adan \"Madobe\" Mohamed](/wiki/Adan_Mohamed_Nuur_Madobe \"Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe\"). Nur urged people to \"watch video footage recorded from that session.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/200812220026\\.html\\|title\\=Somalia: PM Nur Adde Confidence Vote 'Never Happened' – 80 MPs\\|accessdate\\=8 April 2023}}",
"On 24 December, the newly appointed Prime Minister Guled announced his resignation, citing that he did not wish to be \"seen as a stumbling block to the peace process which is going well now.\"[\"More turmoil in Somalia as new PM quits\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090209044017/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gJ69SRMgrDMTkEVPYFeHmCny4Jwg), AFP, 24 December 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7799512\\.stm \\|title\\=Somali leader quit threat denied \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=25 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2013}}",
"Following Guled's resignation, Abdirashid Sed, who was close to President Ahmed, said that Ahmed would announce his resignation and retirement from politics at a special session of Parliament on 29 December. According to Sed, Ahmed made this decision \"because he does not want to be seen as an obstacle to peace in Somalia\".[\"Key Somali official says president to quit Monday\"](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/12/28/africa/AF-Somalia.php), Associated Press (*International Herald Tribune*), 28 December 2008\\.",
"### Impeachment attempt and resignation",
"In December 2008, the TFG parliament moved to impeach President Abdullahi Yusuf, accusing him of being a dictator and an obstacle to peace.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-29 \\|title\\=Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3732020\\.stm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-04 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=McCrummen \\|first\\=Stephanie \\|author\\-link\\=Stephanie McCrummen \\|date\\=18 December 2008 \\|title\\=Impeachment Proceedings Begun Against Somali Leader \\|url\\=https://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2008/Dec/9005/impeachment\\_proceedings\\_begun\\_against\\_somali\\_leader.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-19 \\|website\\= \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Washington Post]]}}",
"On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Ahmed expressed regret at failing to end the country's 17\\-year conflict.[\"Somalia's president quits office\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm), BBC News, 29 December 2008\\. Yusuf stated that he had lost control of the country to Islamist insurgents,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2009\\-01\\-15 \\|title\\=Last Ethiopian troops leave Somalia's capital \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna28678345 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-26 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en}} and blamed the international community for its failure to support the government. He further announced said that the speaker of parliament, Aden \"Madobe\" Mohamed, would succeed him in office per the Transitional Federal Government's [Charter](/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter_of_the_Somali_Republic \"Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic\").[\"Somali President Yusuf resigns\"](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html), Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008\\.",
"While it was suggested that Ahmed's resignation added chaos to the country's political landscape as Ethiopia withdrew its troops, some diplomats opined that it might have improved the prospects of striking a deal with the more moderate Islamist insurgents.",
""
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
### Independent circuit (2006–present)
Baillargeon\-Laberge made his [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling "Professional wrestling") debut at a Federation de Lutte Quebecoise{{Cite web\|url\=http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/nouvelle\-quebec\-la\-flq\-en\-partenariat\-avec\-smash\-wrestling/\|title\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise\|work\=lutte.quebec\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} [house show](/wiki/House_show "House show") from January 6, 2006, as Mike Sydal, where he teamed up with Bouncer and Brad Foley in a losing effort to Alextreme, Sheik Tank Ali and Sweet Pete in a [six\-man tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types "Professional wrestling match types").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=1\&nr\=170360\|title\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise/FLQ show\|work\=cagematch.net\|language\=German\|first\=Philip\|last\=Kreikenbohm\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He is known for working with various [wrestling promotions](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_promotions "List of professional wrestling promotions") and would often compete under the nickname of *Speedball*.
#### International Wrestling Syndicate (2009–present)
Baillargeon\-Laberge, now going as Mike Bailey, made his [IWS](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate "International Wrestling Syndicate") debut on October 1, 2009, in a tag team victory with Brian Kirkland, defeating [2\.0](/wiki/2point0 "2point0") (Jagged \& Shane Matthews) at Le Skratch in [Laval](/wiki/Laval%2C_Quebec "Laval, Quebec").["IWS Seasons Beatings 2009"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=2&nr=12214&page=4&year=2009&promotion=50), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. At Scarred 4 Life, on September 20, 2014, Bailey won the [IWS World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWS_World_Heavyweight_Championship "IWS World Heavyweight Championship") against The Green Phantom.["IWS Scarred 4 Live 2014"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=1&nr=115437), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. At Un F'N Sanctioned on March 28, 2015, at [Corona Theatre](/wiki/Corona_Theatre "Corona Theatre"), Bailey defeated [Hallowicked](/wiki/Hallowicked "Hallowicked") and [Jesse Neal](/wiki/Jesse_Neal "Jesse Neal") in a Triple Threat Match. On September 5 at Scarred 4 Life, he retained the IWS World Heavyweight Championship against [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)").Laprade, Patric. (2015\-09\-04\) ["Montreal show brings Vampiro full circle"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151842/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2015/09/04/22548463.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling "SLAM! Wrestling")*, Retrieved on September 04, 2015\. On March 5, 2016, at Un F'N Sanctioned held at [Métropolis](/wiki/M%C3%A9tropolis_%28concert_hall%29 "Métropolis (concert hall)"), Black Dynomite won the IWS World Heavyweight Championship in a four\-way match versus [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio "Rey Mysterio"), Jack Evans and Bailey.Laprade, Patric.["Mysterio at IWS latest in Montreal\-Mexico exchange"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160307143450/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2016/03/07/22610766.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling "SLAM! Wrestling")*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. On September 9, 2018, Bailey defeated [Psicosis](/wiki/Psicosis "Psicosis") and [Argenis](/wiki/Argenis_%28wrestler%29 "Argenis (wrestler)") in a three\-way dance,{{clarify\|date\=May 2024}} at an IWS vs [AAA](/wiki/Lucha_Libre_AAA_World_Wide "Lucha Libre AAA World Wide") spot show for the Montreal Mercado del Taco.["Lucha Libre AAA"](https://www.facebook.com/515487502156565/photos/a.532646777107304.1073741828.515487502156565/652324255139555/?type=3&theater), *Montreal Mercado del Taco*, Retrieved on August 14, 2018\.["IWS vs AAA Full Match"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/videos/vb.536667323113683/540257693072253/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on September 10, 2018\. On March 23, 2019, IWS celebrated its 20th anniversary with Un F'N Sanctioned at [MTelus](/wiki/M_Telus_%28concert_hall%29 "M Telus (concert hall)"), where [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri "Yoshihiro Tajiri") with [Mikey Whipwreck](/wiki/Mikey_Whipwreck "Mikey Whipwreck") defeated Bailey.Mack, Franky. (2019\-03\-24\) ["Résultats du Gala 20eme anniversaire de la IWS"](http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/resultats-du-gala-20eme-anniversaire-de-la-iws-iws-un-fn-sanctionned/), *Lutte Québec*, Retrieved on March 24, 2019\. On February 8, 2020, at Praise the Violence, Matt Angel defeated Bailey in an IWS World Heavyweight Championship Ladder Match.Ohayon, Matthew. (2020\-02\-11\) ["Grading IWS: Praise the Violence"](http://theconcordian.com/2020/02/grading-iws-praise-the-violence/), *[The Concordian](/wiki/The_Concordian_%28Montreal%29 "The Concordian (Montreal)")*, Retrieved on February 12, 2020\. On September 4, 2021, at Blood, Sweat \& Beers, Bailey defeated Matt Angel in an IWS Title Match, winning his second IWS World Heavyweight Championship.Laprade, Pat. (09/04/2021\) ["And neeeeeewwwwww IWS champion"](https://twitter.com/PatLaprade/status/1434351105316724743), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter"), Retrieved on September 04, 2021\. On June 25, 2022, at Hardcore Heat, Matt Falco defeated Bailey for the IWS World Heavyweight Championship.IWS (27/06/2022\) ["IWS Hardcore Heat Results"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/pfbid0Bdu6ZGsoPtaSc6r7EWjLKisEfFNCTgbRXQJbAxLv9i67kPVWpf7v8RJwzAobc5z4l), *[Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook")*, Retrieved on June 27, 2022\. Bailey has taught seminars and until moving to the United States, was part of the [IWS Training Centre](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate%23Training_Centre_and_Dojo "International Wrestling Syndicate#Training Centre and Dojo") coaching staff.["Mike Bailey teaching a wonderful seminar"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/1297943916986016), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 15, 2017\.["IWS: South Shore"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/photos/a.539783656135383/3874104949369887/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\.
#### Capital City Championship Combat (2010–present)
Bailey worked for the [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") promotion Capital City Championship Combat based in Ottawa, Ontario, where he debuted on May 1, 2010, at *C4 Stand Alone 2010* in a losing effort against [Player Uno](/wiki/Evil_Uno "Evil Uno").{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2010/04/stand\-alone\-2010\-news\-update\-three\-more\-matches\-for\-may\-1st/\|title\=Stand Alone 2010 News Update – Three More Matches for May 1st!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=April 14, 2010\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He teamed up with [Kevin Steen](/wiki/Kevin_Steen "Kevin Steen") at *C4 Domination 2K11* on April 30, 2011, to defeat [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander "Josh Alexander") and Michael Von Payton (who replaced an injured Rahim Ali) for the C4 Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2011/04/c4\-domination\-2k11\-this\-saturday\-night\-full\-card/\|title\=C\*4 "Domination" 2K11 – This Saturday Night – Full Card!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=April 27, 2011\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey worked with other infamous wrestling personalities, such as in a six\-way match from *C4 Crossing The Line 5* on June 16, 2012, where he competed against Josh Alexander, [Michael Elgin](/wiki/Michael_Elgin "Michael Elgin"), Scotty O'Shea, [Stu Grayson](/wiki/Stu_Grayson "Stu Grayson") and [Tyson Dux](/wiki/Tyson_Dux "Tyson Dux") for the C4 Championship, coming in unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2012/06/c4\-presents\-crossing\-the\-line\-5\-season\-5\-finale\-2/\|title\=C\*4 presents "Crossing the Line 5" – Season 5 Finale!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=June 2, 2012\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He eventually won the title at *C4 Crossing The Line 6* on June 15, 2013, in a three\-way match also involving Josh Alexander and the champion Scotty O'Shea.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2013/06/c4ctl6\-final\-news\-update\-tag\-team\-championship\-open\-rules/\|title\=\#C4CTL6 Final News Update! Tag Team Championship Open Rules!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (C\*4\)\|date\=June 13, 2013\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On September 18, 2021 at Fighting Back X, Bailey defeated [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 "Daniel Garcia (wrestler)") for his second C4 Championship. On November 12, 2021, at *Never Say Never*, Bailey defeated Kevin Blackwood for the C4 Underground Championship in a Title vs Title Match.Greer, Jamie. (11/12/2021\)["\#AndNEW: “Speedball” Mike Bailey Wins C4 Underground Championship"](https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2021/11/13/speedball-mike-bailey-c4-double-champion), *Last Word On Sports*, Retrieved on November 21, 2021\.
#### Combat Zone Wrestling (2014–2016\)
At the [Combat Zone Wrestling](/wiki/Combat_Zone_Wrestling "Combat Zone Wrestling")'s *New Heights 2014* event from July 12, he unsuccessfully challenged [Biff Busick](/wiki/Oney_Lorcan "Oney Lorcan") for the [CZW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Heavyweight_Championship "CZW World Heavyweight Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.shopczw.com/products/czw\-new\-heights\-2014\-7\-12\-14\-dvd\|title\=ZW "New Heights 2014" 7/12/2014\|work\=shopczw.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=July 12, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Night Of Infamy 2014* on November 8, he teamed up with Buxx Belmar and unsuccessfully challenged [OI4K](/wiki/Ohio_Versus_Everything "Ohio Versus Everything") ([Dave Crist and Jake Crist](/wiki/The_Crist_Brothers "The Crist Brothers")) for the [CZW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Tag_Team_Championship "CZW World Tag Team Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.diywrestling.com/dywvideodetail.php?video\_id\=548\|title\=Combat Zone Wrestling presents Night of Infamy 2014 held Nov. 8, 2014 in Voorhees, NJ\|work\=www.diywrestling.com\|author\=DJ Hyde\|date\=November 8, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} On the October 18, 2014 event *CZW Tangled Web 7*, he unsuccessfully challenged [Shane Strickland](/wiki/Isaiah_%22Swerve%22_Scott "Isaiah ") for the [CZW Wired Championship](/wiki/CZW_Wired_Championship "CZW Wired Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22tangled\-web\-7%22\-10\-18\-2014\-voorhees%2C\-nj/24746\|title\=CZW "Tangled Web 7" 10/18/2014 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=October 18, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *[CZW Cage Of Death XVI](/wiki/CZW_Cage_of_Death "CZW Cage of Death")*, he participated in a six\-man scramble match, a qualifier for the Best Of The Best Tournament, where he competed against the winner [Jonathan Gresham](/wiki/Jonathan_Gresham "Jonathan Gresham"), [A. R. Fox](/wiki/A._R._Fox "A. R. Fox"), [Caleb Konley](/wiki/Caleb_Konley "Caleb Konley"), [David Starr](/wiki/David_Starr_%28wrestler%29 "David Starr (wrestler)") and [Alex Colon](/wiki/The_Blackout_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Blackout (professional wrestling)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://en.superluchas.com/czw\-cage\-of\-death\-xvi/\|title\=Everything ready for CZW Cage Of Death XVI\|work\=superluchas.com\|author\=Lic. Luis Omar Rodríguez Alonso\|date\=December 11, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Deja Vu 2015* on March 14, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Joe Gacy](/wiki/Joe_Gacy "Joe Gacy") for the CZW Wired Championship.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22deja\-vu%22\-3\-14\-2015\-voorhees%2C\-nj/26947\|title\=CZW "Deja Vu" 3/14/2015 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=March 14, 2015\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} Their feud continued until *CZW Proving Grounds 2015* from May 9, where he managed to defeat Gacy, but by disqualification, therefore not succeeding in winning the title.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22proving\-grounds%22\-5\-9\-2015\-voorhees%2C\-nj/26328\|title\=CZW "Proving Grounds" 5/9/2015 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=May 9, 2015\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} His last match in CZW was a loss against [Sami Callihan](/wiki/Sami_Callihan "Sami Callihan") at *CZW Seventeen* from February 13, 2016\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://talesfromtheturnbuckle.com/czws\-seventeen\-results\-02\-13\-16/\|title\=CZW's Seventeen Results: 02\-13\-16\|work\=talesfromtheturnbuckle.com\|first\=Hellter\|last\=Skelter\|date\=March 21, 2016\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2015–2016\)
Bailey made his debut for the [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") promotion [Pro Wrestling Guerrilla](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Guerrilla "Pro Wrestling Guerrilla") (PWG) at *From Out of Nowhere* on February 27, 2015, losing to Biff Busick in his first match. At Mystery Vortex III, Bailey answered [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong "Roderick Strong")'s open challenge for the [PWG World Championship](/wiki/PWG_World_Championship "PWG World Championship"), but failed to win the title. Bailey picked up his first win in PWG by defeating [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero "Chris Hero") at [Threemendous IV](/wiki/PWG_Threemendous_IV "PWG Threemendous IV"). He participated in the [Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282015%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2015)"), where he managed to reach to the final by defeating [Drew Galloway](/wiki/Drew_Galloway "Drew Galloway") in the first round, [Will Ospreay](/wiki/Will_Ospreay "Will Ospreay") in the quarterfinals and [Tommy End](/wiki/Tommy_End "Tommy End") in the semifinals. Bailey competed against Chris Hero and [Zack Sabre Jr.](/wiki/Zack_Sabre_Jr. "Zack Sabre Jr.") in a three\-way elimination match in the final, where he was the first man to be eliminated. He made a few more appearances with PWG until early 2016 before he was banned from working in the US for five years due to not having a work visa.
#### Progress Wrestling (2016–2019\)
Bailey worked several matches for [Progress Wrestling](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling "Progress Wrestling"), first of them being a loss against [Mark Haskins](/wiki/Mark_Haskins "Mark Haskins") for the Smash Wrestling Championship at *Smash/Progress Smash vs. Progress*, a cross\-over event held between the two promotions on August 7, 2016\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wrestling\-news.net/smash\-vs\-progress\-august\-7th\-results/128392/\|title\=Smash vs. Progress Results – Toronto, Ontario, Canada (8/7\)\|work\=wrestling\-news.net\|first\=Wayne\|last\=Daly\|date\=August 8, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} at *Progress Chapter 95: Still Chasing* on September 15, 2019, he participated in a 30\-person rumble match for the inaugural [Progress Proteus Championship](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling "Progress Wrestling"), competing against other wrestlers such as the winner Paul Robinson, [Eddie Kingston](/wiki/Eddie_Kingston "Eddie Kingston"), Dan Moloney, Sid Scala and Los Federales Santos Jr.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2019/09/16/progress\-09\-15\-19\-chapter\-95\-still\-chasing\-results/\|title\=Progress 09/15/19 Chapter 95: Still Chasing Results\|work\=pwponderings.com\|author\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\|date\=September 16, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People* on November 11, 2018, he lost a match to [Eddie Dennis](/wiki/Eddie_Dennis "Eddie Dennis").{{Cite web\|url\=https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2018/11/08/preview\-progress\-chapter\-78\-24\-hour\-progress\-people\-11\-11\-18/\|title\=Preview: Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People (11/11/18\)\|work\=lastwordonsports.com\|first\=Alex\|last\=Richards\|date\=November 8, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Revolution Pro Wrestling (2016–present)
Bailey worked for the [British](/wiki/England "England") promotion [Revolution Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Revolution_Pro_Wrestling "Revolution Pro Wrestling"), having his first match at *RevPro High Stakes 2016* on January 16, where he lost to [Big Damo](/wiki/Killian_Dain "Killian Dain").{{Cite web\|url\=https://en.superluchas.com/resultados\-de\-revpro\-high\-stakes\-2016\-16\-de\-enero\-de\-2016\-aj\-styles\-perdio\-el\-campeonato\-britanico\-a\-menos\-de\-zack\-sabre\-jr/\|title\=RevPro High Stakes 2016 Results (Jan 16, 2016\) \- AJ Styles lost the British Championship to Zack Saber Jr.\|work\=superluchas.com\|first\=Adri\|last\=Lopez\|date\=January 17, 2016\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} He competed in various matches against popular wrestling figures. He lost to Zack Sabre Jr. at *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 13* on February 5, 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/02/17/revolution\-pro\-wrestling\-live\-cockpit\-13\-review/\|title\=Revolutiopn Pro Wrestling Live at the Cockpit 13 Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=February 17, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live In Portsmouth 9* on August 27, 2017, Bailey lost a match to [Jeff Cobb](/wiki/Jeff_Cobb "Jeff Cobb").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thewrestlingrevolution.com/review.php?id\=2411\|title\=RevPro Live in Portsmouth 9\|work\=thewrestlingrevolution.com\|author\=The Wrestling Revolution\|date\=August 27, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 21* on October 10, 2017, Bailey lost to [Zack Gibson](/wiki/Zack_Gibson "Zack Gibson").{{Cite web\|url\=https://rpwondemand.pivotshare.com/media/live\-at\-the\-cockpit\-21/68042\|title\=Live At The Cockpit 21\|author\=Revolution Pro Wrestling\|date\=October 10, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Monday Night Mayhem* on October 23, 2017, he unsuccessfully challenged Josh Bodom for the [RPW British Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/British_Cruiserweight_Championship_%28RevPro%29 "British Cruiserweight Championship (RevPro)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://ramblingsaboutwrestling.com/2017/10/26/retvolution\-pro\-monday\-night\-mayhem\-review/\|title\=Revolution Pro Monday Night Mayhem Review\|first\=Stuart\|last\=Iversen\|date\=October 26, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019* on August 30, he participated in a six\-man scramble match also involving the winner [Sanada](/wiki/Sanada_%28wrestler%29 "Sanada (wrestler)"), [Hikuleo](/wiki/Hikuleo_%28wrestler%29 "Hikuleo (wrestler)"), [Robbie Eagles](/wiki/Robbie_Eagles "Robbie Eagles"), [Rocky Romero](/wiki/Rocky_Romero "Rocky Romero") and [Senza Volto](/wiki/Senza_Volto "Senza Volto").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.twm.news/revpro\-summer\-sizzler\-2019\-results/\|title\=RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019 Results\|work\=twm.news\|author\=TWM Wrestling\|date\=August 31, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 47*, Bailey teamed up with [Mao](/wiki/Mao_%28wrestler%29 "Mao (wrestler)") as Moonlight Express to win the SWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Deadly Sins (JK Moody and Kane Khan).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2019/11/03/results\-revolution\-pro\-live\-at\-the\-cockpit\-47/\|title\=Live Report: Revolution Pro Live at The Cockpit 47\|work\=postwrestling.com\|author\=Post Wrestlnig Staff\|date\=November 3, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Uprising 2019*, on December 15, Bailey teamed up again with Mao, this time scoring a loss against [Pretty Deadly](/wiki/Pretty_Deadly_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Pretty Deadly (professional wrestling)") (Lewis Howley and Sam Stoker).{{Cite web\|url\=https://vulturehound.co.uk/2019/12/hope\-wins\-revolution\-pro\-wrestling\-uprising\-december\-15th\-2019/\|title\='Hope wins' – Revolution Pro Wrestling 'Uprising' – December 15th, 2019\|work\=vulturehound.co.uk\|first\=Stephen\|last\=Goodman\|date\=December 20, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} On November 6, 2021, Bailey defeated [Kid Lykos](/wiki/Kid_Lykos "Kid Lykos") in the first round and pinned Luke Jacobs in a four\-way elimination match to win the [2021 British J\-Cup](/wiki/British_J-Cup_%282021%29 "British J-Cup (2021)").Thompson, Andrew. (2021\-11\-07\) ["‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey wins 2021 RevPro British J Cup tournament"](https://www.postwrestling.com/2021/11/07/speedball-mike-bailey-wins-2021-revpro-british-j-cup-tournament), *Post Wrestling*, Retrieved on November 08, 2021\.
#### Ring Of Honor (2019\)
Bailey wrestled a match for [Ring Of Honor](/wiki/Ring_Of_Honor "Ring Of Honor"), at *ROH Honor United \- Bolton*, on October 27, 2019, where he fell short to [Flamita](/wiki/Flamita "Flamita").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rohwrestling.com/live/events/102719\-honor\-united\-bolton\|title\=10/27/19 \- Honor United \- Bolton\|work\=rohwrestling.com\|author\=Ring of Honor Wrestling Entertainment\|date\=October 27, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Westside Xtreme Wrestling (2016–2020\)
[thumb\|Bailey facing [Jurn Simmons](/wiki/Jurn_Simmons "Jurn Simmons") at [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2020](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling%23Tournaments_and_accomplishments "Westside Xtreme Wrestling#Tournaments and accomplishments")](/wiki/File:Simmons_vs._Bailey_16_Carat_Gold_2020_%283%29.jpg "Simmons vs. Bailey 16 Carat Gold 2020 (3).jpg")
Bailey debuted for the [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") promotion [Westside Xtreme Wrestling](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling "Westside Xtreme Wrestling") on March 10, 2016, at the *wXw The Inner Circle*, where he first fell short to Kim Ray. In the second match, he teamed up with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate "Tyler Bate") in a losing effort to [Timothy Thatcher](/wiki/Timothy_Thatcher "Timothy Thatcher") and [Big Daddy Walter](/wiki/Walter_%28wrestler%29 "Walter (wrestler)").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestlingfever.de/wf\-on\-tour\-wxw\-inner\-circle\-10\-03\-2016\-wrestling\-academy\-essen/\|title\=WF on Tour: WXW Inner Circle (10\.03\.2016 – Wrestling Academy, Essen)\|work\=wrestlingfever.de\|language\=German\|author\=Markus (WrestlingFever.de)\|date\=March 11, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He participated in the [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2016 Tournament](/wiki/WXw_16_Carat_Gold_Tournament "WXw 16 Carat Gold Tournament") where he lost to [Ilja Dragunov](/wiki/Ilja_Dragunov "Ilja Dragunov") on the first night, on March 11, 2016,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/25/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2016\-night\-1\-results\-reivew/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night 1 Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=March 25, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} and on the second night, from March 12, he faced [Marty Scurll](/wiki/Marty_Scurll "Marty Scurll"), [Trevor Lee](/wiki/Cameron_Grimes "Cameron Grimes") and [Angélico](/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lico "Angélico") in a three\-way match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/28/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2016\-night\-two\-march\-12\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night Two (March 12\) Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Arnold\|last\=Furious\|date\=March 28, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, on March 13, he teamed up with Will Ospreay in a losing effort to Marty Scurll and Trevor Lee.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.f4wonline.com/indies/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-night\-three\-results\-tournament\-winner\-crowned\-278996\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold Night Three Results: Tournament Winner Crowned\|work\=f4wonline.com\|first\=Markus\|last\=Gronemann\|date\=March 11, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On September 30, 2016, on the first night of the *wXw World Tag Team League 2016*, Bailey defeated [John Klinger](/wiki/Bad_Bones "Bad Bones") to become the number ont contender for the [wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship](/wiki/WXw_Unified_World_Wrestling_Championship "WXw Unified World Wrestling Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-world\-tag\-team\-league\-2016/night\-1\|title\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \- Night 1\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=September 30, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on October 1, he fell short to the champion, Jurn Simmons.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-world\-tag\-team\-league\-2016/night\-2\|title\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=October 1, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He also participated in the wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 Tournament, and on the first night, on March 10, 2017, he defeated [A. C. H.](/wiki/ACH_%28wrestler%29 "ACH (wrestler)") in a first round match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/03/16/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2017\-night\-1\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2017 (Night 1\) Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=March 16, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on March 11, he got defeated by [Matt Riddle](/wiki/Matt_Riddle "Matt Riddle") in a quarter\-final match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2017/night\-2\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 11, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, he teamed up with ACH to score a victory against [Donovan Dijak](/wiki/Dominik_Dijakovic "Dominik Dijakovic") and [J. T. Dunn](/wiki/J._T._Dunn "J. T. Dunn").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2017/03/12/wxw\-16\-carat\-2017\-results/\|title\=wXw 16 Carat 2017 Results\|work\=pwponderings.com\|author\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\|date\=March 12, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} At *wXw True Colors 2017* on April 8, Bailey battled Jurn Simmons, Walter and [Axel Dieter Jr.](/wiki/Marcel_Barthel "Marcel Barthel") in a four\-way match for the wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship, coming out unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/04/17/wxw\-true\-colors\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW True Colors Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Arnold\|last\=Furious\|date\=April 17, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} At *Road To 16 Carat Gold 2018*, on February 25, 2018, Bailey defeated [Jay Skillet](/wiki/Jay_Skillet "Jay Skillet") and Julian Pace in a three\-way match semi\-final; however, he fell short to [Marius Al\-Ani](/wiki/Marius_Al-Ani "Marius Al-Ani") in the final, the same night.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-road\-to\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/vod\|title\=wXw Road to 16 Carat Gold 2018\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=February 25, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 Tournament, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Bobby Gunns](/wiki/Bobby_Gunns "Bobby Gunns") for the [wXw Shotgun Championship](/wiki/WXw_Shotgun_Championship "WXw Shotgun Championship") on the second night, from March 10,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/night\-2\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 10, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} and on the third night, a day later, he teamed up with [Matt Sydal](/wiki/Matt_Sydal "Matt Sydal") and Marius Al\-Ani in a losing effort to CCK ([Chris Brookes](/wiki/Chris_Brookes "Chris Brookes") and [Travis Banks](/wiki/Travis_Banks "Travis Banks")) and [Jonah Rock](/wiki/Bronson_Reed "Bronson Reed") in a six\-man tag team match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/night\-3\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \- Night 3\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 11, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Return to PWG (2022–present)
Bailey returned to PWG after a six\-year absence as a participant in the [2022 Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282022%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2022)"), where he defeated [Bandido](/wiki/Bandido_%28wrestler%29 "Bandido (wrestler)") in the first round, [Wheeler Yuta](/wiki/Wheeler_Yuta "Wheeler Yuta") in the quarterfinals and [Buddy Matthews](/wiki/Buddy_Matthews "Buddy Matthews") in the semifinals before losing to [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 "Daniel Garcia (wrestler)") in the final. He rebounded from the loss in the [2023 Battle of Los Angeles](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282023%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2023)"), a year later, where he defeated [Jordynne Grace](/wiki/Jordynne_Grace "Jordynne Grace") in the first round, [Shun Skywalker](/wiki/Shun_Skywalker "Shun Skywalker") in the quarterfinals, Bryan Keith in the semifinals and [Konosuke Takeshita](/wiki/Konosuke_Takeshita "Konosuke Takeshita") in the final to win the tournament. The tournament win earned Bailey, a PWG World Championship title shot against Daniel Garcia in a sixty\-minute Iron Man match at [Twenty: Mystery Vortex](/wiki/PWG_Twenty:Mystery_Vortex "Mystery Vortex"), which Bailey lost in a sudden death overtime.
### DDT Pro\-Wrestling (2016–2020\)
Bailey debuted for [DDT Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/DDT_Pro-Wrestling "DDT Pro-Wrestling") on August 2, 2016, in a 17\-man royal rumble match at *DDT U.S.A. \~Ultimate Superstars Action\~ Sakabash At The Beach 2016 Drunkers Kingdom*, where he wrestled under the name of Mike Tajiri, a parody of the real wrestler Tajiri.{{Cite web\|url\=https://togetter.com/li/1007551?page\=3\|title\=8\.2 Sakaba Wrestling U・S・A ～ Ultimate Superstars Action "Sakabash at the Beach 2016" Summary\|work\=togetter.com\|author\=@homura\_keo\|date\=August 2, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He often wrestled alongside members of the Happy Motel stable Konosuke Takeshita and [Antonio Honda](/wiki/Antonio_Honda "Antonio Honda") without being part of the group. They even challenged [Damnation](/wiki/Damnation_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Damnation (professional wrestling)") ([Daisuke Sasaki](/wiki/Daisuke_Sasaki "Daisuke Sasaki"), [Mad Paulie](/wiki/Mad_Paulie "Mad Paulie") and [Tetsuya Endo](/wiki/Tetsuya_Endo_%28wrestler%29 "Tetsuya Endo (wrestler)")) for the [KO\-D 6\-Man Tag Team Championship](/wiki/KO-D_6-Man_Tag_Team_Championship "KO-D 6-Man Tag Team Championship") at *DDT Sapporo Wrestling Festa \~ DDT Crab \~* on October 10, 2016, but unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/ddt/results/results16\.php\|title\=Results 2016/DDT "Sapporo Pro\-Wrestling Festa 2016 \~ DDT Crab", 10\.10\.2016\|work\=purolove.com\|author\=Purolove\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He captured his first title in DDT, the [KO\-D Tag Team Championship](/wiki/KO-D_Tag_Team_Championship "KO-D Tag Team Championship") by teaming up with Konosuke Takeshita at *DDT Osaka Octopus 2016* on December 4, to defeat Damnation (Daisuke Sasaki and Tetsuya Endo).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/12/12/ddt\-osaka\-octopus\-2016\-december\-4\-review/\|title\=DDT Osaka Octopus 2016 (Decemberf 4\) Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Dylan\|last\=Justin\|date\=December 12, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} They dropped the titles at *DDT Road To Super Arena In Oyodo* on January 9, 2017, to [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki "Masakatsu Funaki") and [Yukio Sakaguchi](/wiki/Yukio_Sakaguchi "Yukio Sakaguchi").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/14826\|title\=Dramatic Dream Team Results\|work\=ddtpro.com\|author\=Dramatic Pro\-Wrestling (DDT)\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He won the titles for the second time by teaming with Mao as a part of the Moonlight Express on July 22, 2018, at *DDT Summer Vacation 2018*, where they defeated Damnation (Mad Paulie and Tetsuya Endo).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/1059\|title\=Uchikomi! presents Summer Vacation 2018\|work\=ddtpro.com\|author\=DDT Pro\-Wrestling\|date\=July 22, 2018\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Harashima](/wiki/Harashima "Harashima") for the [KO\-D Openweight Championship](/wiki/KO-D_Openweight_Championship "KO-D Openweight Championship") at *DDT New Year Lottery Special!* on January 3, 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://411mania.com/wrestling/furious\-ddt\-new\-year\-lottery\-special\-2017\|title\=DDT New Year Lottery Special! 2017/Furious'\|first\=Arnold\|last\=Furious\|work\=411mania.com\|date\=January 14, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He is a former [Ironman Heavymetalweight Champion](/wiki/Ironman_Heavymetalweight_Championship "Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship"), title which he won in the block B of the [D\-Oh Grand Prix 2019](/wiki/D-Oh_Grand_Prix%232019 "D-Oh Grand Prix#2019") tournament show from November 30, 2018, where he defeated Konosuke Takeshita.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/ddt/results/results18\.php\|title\=DDT "D King Grand Prix 2019 in Shinjuku", 30\.11\.2018\|work\=purolove.com\|author\=Purolove\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey participates in comedic matches, produced many times by DDT, such as a [five\-way loser explosion weapon rumble tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types "Professional wrestling match types") from [Judgement 2018: DDT 21st Anniversary](/wiki/Judgement_2018:DDT_21st_Anniversary "DDT 21st Anniversary") on March 25, where he teamed up with Mao to defeat [Michael Nakazawa](/wiki/Michael_Nakazawa "Michael Nakazawa") and Chinsuke Nakamura, [Isami Kodaka](/wiki/Isami_Kodaka "Isami Kodaka") and [Fuminori Abe](/wiki/Fuminori_Abe "Fuminori Abe"), [Sanshiro Takagi](/wiki/Sanshiro_Takagi "Sanshiro Takagi") and [Ordinary Man Munenori Sawa](/wiki/Munenori_Sawa "Munenori Sawa"), and Smile Squash ([Yuko Miyamoto](/wiki/Yuko_Miyamoto "Yuko Miyamoto") and [Soma Takao](/wiki/Soma_Takao "Soma Takao")).{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/386 \|title\=Judgement2018～DDT旗揚げ21周年記念大会～ \|work\=\[\[DDT Pro\-Wrestling]] \|date\=February 24, 2020\|author\=DDT Pro\-Wrestling\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
### Impact Wrestling/Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2021–present)
On October 31, 2021, Bailey signed a contract with [Impact Wrestling](/wiki/Impact_Wrestling "Impact Wrestling"), offered by Impact executive [Scott D'Amore](/wiki/Scott_D%27Amore "Scott D'Amore") after their match against [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander_%28wrestler%29 "Josh Alexander (wrestler)") at Destiny Wrestling's Raising Hell.{{cite web\|url\=https://impactwrestling.com/2021/11/01/speedball\-mike\-bailey\-signs\-with\-impact\-wrestling/\|title\="Speedball" Mike Bailey Signs With IMPACT Wrestling\|publisher\=Impact Wrestling\|author\=Impact Wrestling Staff\|date\=November 1, 2021\|access\-date\=November 2, 2021}}Haulotte, Kellie. (10/31/2021\) ["“Speedball” Mike Bailey Signs With Impact Wrestling"](https://www.wrestlinginc.com/news/2021/10/speedball-mike-bailey-signs-with-impact-wrestling), Wrestling Inc., Retrieved on November 01, 2021\. D’Amore has confirmed Bailey is expected to debut in the first part of 2022\.Barrasso, Justin. (11/3/2021\) ["After Five\-Year Ban From U.S., ‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey Signs With Impact Wrestling"](https://www.si.com/wrestling/2021/11/03/speedball-mike-bailey-impact-contract-signing), [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated "Sports Illustrated"), Retrieved on November 03, 2021\. Bailey competed on the Hard To Kill pre\-show in their debut match in Impact, winning a four\-way match against [Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin "Ace Austin"), [Laredo Kid](/wiki/Laredo_Kid "Laredo Kid"), and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey "Chris Bey").
On June 19, 2022, Mike Bailey defeated Ace Austin, [Alex Zayne](/wiki/Alex_Zayne "Alex Zayne"), [Andrew Everett](/wiki/Andrew_Everett "Andrew Everett"), [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 "Kenny King (wrestler)"), and [Trey Miguel](/wiki/Trey_Miguel "Trey Miguel") in a 6\-man [Ultimate X match](/wiki/Ultimate_X_match "Ultimate X match") for the [Impact X Division Championship](/wiki/Impact_X_Division_Championship "Impact X Division Championship") to become Impact X Division Champion for their first time at Impact's [Slammiversary 2022](/wiki/Slammiversary_%282022%29 "Slammiversary (2022)").{{cite web\|url\=https://impactwrestling.com/2022/06/09/ultimate\-x\-returns\-at\-slammviersary\-with\-ace\-austins\-x\-division\-championship\-up\-for\-grabs/\|title\=Ultimate X Returns at Slammiversary With Ace Austin's X\-Division Championship Up for Grabs\|publisher\=\[\[Impact Wrestling]]\|author\=IMPACT Wrestling Staff\|date\=June 9, 2022\|access\-date\=June 10, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610095115/https://impactwrestling.com/2022/06/09/ultimate\-x\-returns\-at\-slammviersary\-with\-ace\-austins\-x\-division\-championship\-up\-for\-grabs/\|archive\-date\=June 10, 2022\|url\-status\=live}} Afterwards Bailey lost the X Division title to [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian "Frankie Kazarian") at Impact's [Bound for Glory 2022](/wiki/Bound_for_Glory_%282022%29 "Bound for Glory (2022)") via Submission.{{Cite web \|last\=Flanagan \|first\=Neal \|title\=Frankie Kazarian says Mike Bailey is "the f\*\*king man" after IMPACT Bound for Glory match THE NEW X\-DIVISION CHAMPION WANTS EVERYONE TO KNOW FIVE THINGS. \|url\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2022/10/08/frankie\-kazarian\-says\-mike\-bailey\-is\-the\-fking\-man\-after\-impact\-bound\-for\-glory\-match/ \|access\-date\=July 5, 2023 \|website\=Postwrestling.com\|date\=October 8, 2022 }}
At [Slammiversary](/wiki/Slammiversary_%282024%29 "Slammiversary (2024)"), Bailey defeated [Mustafa Ali](/wiki/Mustafa_Ali "Mustafa Ali") to win the X\-Division Championship for the second time. At [Emergence](/wiki/Emergence_%282024%29 "Emergence (2024)"), Baily lost the title to [Zachary Wentz](/wiki/Zachary_Wentz "Zachary Wentz") in a [Ultimate X match](/wiki/Ultimate_X_match "Ultimate X match"). At [Victory Road](/wiki/Victory_Road_%282024%29 "Victory Road (2024)") on September 13, Bailey defeated Wentz to win the TNA X Division Championship for the third time.{{cite web\|url\=https://tnawrestling.com/2024/09/13/tna\-victory\-road\-2024\-live\-results/\|title\=TNA Victory Road 2024 Results\|work\=TNA Wrestling\|author\=TNA Wrestling Staff\|date\=September 13, 2024\|access\-date\=September 14, 2024}}
### New Japan Pro\-Wrestling (2023\)
On April 27, 2023, Bailey was announced as an entrant in [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling")'s [Best of the Super Juniors 30](/wiki/Best_of_the_Super_Juniors%232023 "Best of the Super Juniors#2023") tournament, competing in the A Block.{{Cite web \|last\=NJPW \|title\=Best of the Super Jr. 30 lineup revealed! {{!}} NEW JAPAN PRO\-WRESTLING \|url\=https://www.njpw1972\.com/148624 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-27 \|website\=NJPW \|language\=en}} In his first tournament match, Bailey successfully defeated [IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion](/wiki/IWGP_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship "IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship") and four\-time tournament winner, [Hiromu Takahashi](/wiki/Hiromu_Takahashi "Hiromu Takahashi").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2023/05/12/bosj\-results\-speedball\-mike\-bailey\-pins\-hiromu\-takahashi\-on\-opening\-night/ \| title\=BOSJ Results: Speedball Mike Bailey pins Hiromu Takahashi \| date\=12 May 2023 }} Bailey scored 14 points in the tournament, topping the A Block and advancing to the semi\-finals.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.ewrestlingnews.com/news/njpw\-best\-of\-the\-super\-juniors\-tournament\-update\-semi\-finals\-set \| title\=NJPW Best of the Super Juniors Tournament Update: Semi\-Finals Set \| date\=26 May 2023 }} In the semi\-final round, Bailey was defeated by [Master Wato](/wiki/Master_Wato "Master Wato").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.f4wonline.com/news/new\-japan/finals\-set\-for\-njpw\-best\-of\-the\-super\-juniors\-30 \| title\=Finals set for NJPW Best of the Super Juniors 30 \| date\=26 May 2023 }} On August 19, Bailey was announced as one of four participants for One\-Night All Star Jr. USA tournament which was held as part of [All Star Jr. Festival USA 2023](/wiki/All_Star_Jr._Festival_USA_2023 "All Star Jr. Festival USA 2023") event in Philadelphia. They defeated [Francesco Akira](/wiki/Francesco_Akira "Francesco Akira") in semifinal and [Kevin Night](/wiki/Kevin_Knight_%28wrestler%29 "Kevin Knight (wrestler)") in the final to win the tournament.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wrestlinginc.com/1370940/mike\-bailey\-wins\-all\-star\-jr\-tournament\-calls\-out\-hiromu\-takahashi/\|title\=Mike Bailey Wins One\-Night All Star Jr. Tournament, Calls Out Hiromu Takahashi\|last\=Berman IV\|first\=Ross W\|date\=August 20, 2023 \|accessdate\=August 22, 2023}} On October 9 of [Destruction](/wiki/Destruction_%282023%29 "Destruction (2023)") event in [Ryogoku Sumo Hall](/wiki/Ryogoku_Kokugikan "Ryogoku Kokugikan"), Tokyo, they unsuccessfully challenged Hiromu for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship in a three\-way match that also included [YOH](/wiki/Yohei_Komatsu "Yohei Komatsu").
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"### Independent circuit (2006–present)",
"Baillargeon\\-Laberge made his [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling \"Professional wrestling\") debut at a Federation de Lutte Quebecoise{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/nouvelle\\-quebec\\-la\\-flq\\-en\\-partenariat\\-avec\\-smash\\-wrestling/\\|title\\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise\\|work\\=lutte.quebec\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} [house show](/wiki/House_show \"House show\") from January 6, 2006, as Mike Sydal, where he teamed up with Bouncer and Brad Foley in a losing effort to Alextreme, Sheik Tank Ali and Sweet Pete in a [six\\-man tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types \"Professional wrestling match types\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=1\\&nr\\=170360\\|title\\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise/FLQ show\\|work\\=cagematch.net\\|language\\=German\\|first\\=Philip\\|last\\=Kreikenbohm\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He is known for working with various [wrestling promotions](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_promotions \"List of professional wrestling promotions\") and would often compete under the nickname of *Speedball*.",
"#### International Wrestling Syndicate (2009–present)",
"Baillargeon\\-Laberge, now going as Mike Bailey, made his [IWS](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate \"International Wrestling Syndicate\") debut on October 1, 2009, in a tag team victory with Brian Kirkland, defeating [2\\.0](/wiki/2point0 \"2point0\") (Jagged \\& Shane Matthews) at Le Skratch in [Laval](/wiki/Laval%2C_Quebec \"Laval, Quebec\").[\"IWS Seasons Beatings 2009\"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=2&nr=12214&page=4&year=2009&promotion=50), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. At Scarred 4 Life, on September 20, 2014, Bailey won the [IWS World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWS_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"IWS World Heavyweight Championship\") against The Green Phantom.[\"IWS Scarred 4 Live 2014\"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=1&nr=115437), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. At Un F'N Sanctioned on March 28, 2015, at [Corona Theatre](/wiki/Corona_Theatre \"Corona Theatre\"), Bailey defeated [Hallowicked](/wiki/Hallowicked \"Hallowicked\") and [Jesse Neal](/wiki/Jesse_Neal \"Jesse Neal\") in a Triple Threat Match. On September 5 at Scarred 4 Life, he retained the IWS World Heavyweight Championship against [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\").Laprade, Patric. (2015\\-09\\-04\\) [\"Montreal show brings Vampiro full circle\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151842/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2015/09/04/22548463.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling \"SLAM! Wrestling\")*, Retrieved on September 04, 2015\\. On March 5, 2016, at Un F'N Sanctioned held at [Métropolis](/wiki/M%C3%A9tropolis_%28concert_hall%29 \"Métropolis (concert hall)\"), Black Dynomite won the IWS World Heavyweight Championship in a four\\-way match versus [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio \"Rey Mysterio\"), Jack Evans and Bailey.Laprade, Patric.[\"Mysterio at IWS latest in Montreal\\-Mexico exchange\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160307143450/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2016/03/07/22610766.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling \"SLAM! Wrestling\")*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. On September 9, 2018, Bailey defeated [Psicosis](/wiki/Psicosis \"Psicosis\") and [Argenis](/wiki/Argenis_%28wrestler%29 \"Argenis (wrestler)\") in a three\\-way dance,{{clarify\\|date\\=May 2024}} at an IWS vs [AAA](/wiki/Lucha_Libre_AAA_World_Wide \"Lucha Libre AAA World Wide\") spot show for the Montreal Mercado del Taco.[\"Lucha Libre AAA\"](https://www.facebook.com/515487502156565/photos/a.532646777107304.1073741828.515487502156565/652324255139555/?type=3&theater), *Montreal Mercado del Taco*, Retrieved on August 14, 2018\\.[\"IWS vs AAA Full Match\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/videos/vb.536667323113683/540257693072253/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on September 10, 2018\\. On March 23, 2019, IWS celebrated its 20th anniversary with Un F'N Sanctioned at [MTelus](/wiki/M_Telus_%28concert_hall%29 \"M Telus (concert hall)\"), where [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri \"Yoshihiro Tajiri\") with [Mikey Whipwreck](/wiki/Mikey_Whipwreck \"Mikey Whipwreck\") defeated Bailey.Mack, Franky. (2019\\-03\\-24\\) [\"Résultats du Gala 20eme anniversaire de la IWS\"](http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/resultats-du-gala-20eme-anniversaire-de-la-iws-iws-un-fn-sanctionned/), *Lutte Québec*, Retrieved on March 24, 2019\\. On February 8, 2020, at Praise the Violence, Matt Angel defeated Bailey in an IWS World Heavyweight Championship Ladder Match.Ohayon, Matthew. (2020\\-02\\-11\\) [\"Grading IWS: Praise the Violence\"](http://theconcordian.com/2020/02/grading-iws-praise-the-violence/), *[The Concordian](/wiki/The_Concordian_%28Montreal%29 \"The Concordian (Montreal)\")*, Retrieved on February 12, 2020\\. On September 4, 2021, at Blood, Sweat \\& Beers, Bailey defeated Matt Angel in an IWS Title Match, winning his second IWS World Heavyweight Championship.Laprade, Pat. (09/04/2021\\) [\"And neeeeeewwwwww IWS champion\"](https://twitter.com/PatLaprade/status/1434351105316724743), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\"), Retrieved on September 04, 2021\\. On June 25, 2022, at Hardcore Heat, Matt Falco defeated Bailey for the IWS World Heavyweight Championship.IWS (27/06/2022\\) [\"IWS Hardcore Heat Results\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/pfbid0Bdu6ZGsoPtaSc6r7EWjLKisEfFNCTgbRXQJbAxLv9i67kPVWpf7v8RJwzAobc5z4l), *[Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\")*, Retrieved on June 27, 2022\\. Bailey has taught seminars and until moving to the United States, was part of the [IWS Training Centre](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate%23Training_Centre_and_Dojo \"International Wrestling Syndicate#Training Centre and Dojo\") coaching staff.[\"Mike Bailey teaching a wonderful seminar\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/1297943916986016), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 15, 2017\\.[\"IWS: South Shore\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/photos/a.539783656135383/3874104949369887/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\.",
"#### Capital City Championship Combat (2010–present)",
"Bailey worked for the [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") promotion Capital City Championship Combat based in Ottawa, Ontario, where he debuted on May 1, 2010, at *C4 Stand Alone 2010* in a losing effort against [Player Uno](/wiki/Evil_Uno \"Evil Uno\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2010/04/stand\\-alone\\-2010\\-news\\-update\\-three\\-more\\-matches\\-for\\-may\\-1st/\\|title\\=Stand Alone 2010 News Update – Three More Matches for May 1st!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=April 14, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He teamed up with [Kevin Steen](/wiki/Kevin_Steen \"Kevin Steen\") at *C4 Domination 2K11* on April 30, 2011, to defeat [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander \"Josh Alexander\") and Michael Von Payton (who replaced an injured Rahim Ali) for the C4 Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2011/04/c4\\-domination\\-2k11\\-this\\-saturday\\-night\\-full\\-card/\\|title\\=C\\*4 \"Domination\" 2K11 – This Saturday Night – Full Card!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=April 27, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey worked with other infamous wrestling personalities, such as in a six\\-way match from *C4 Crossing The Line 5* on June 16, 2012, where he competed against Josh Alexander, [Michael Elgin](/wiki/Michael_Elgin \"Michael Elgin\"), Scotty O'Shea, [Stu Grayson](/wiki/Stu_Grayson \"Stu Grayson\") and [Tyson Dux](/wiki/Tyson_Dux \"Tyson Dux\") for the C4 Championship, coming in unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2012/06/c4\\-presents\\-crossing\\-the\\-line\\-5\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-2/\\|title\\=C\\*4 presents \"Crossing the Line 5\" – Season 5 Finale!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=June 2, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He eventually won the title at *C4 Crossing The Line 6* on June 15, 2013, in a three\\-way match also involving Josh Alexander and the champion Scotty O'Shea.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2013/06/c4ctl6\\-final\\-news\\-update\\-tag\\-team\\-championship\\-open\\-rules/\\|title\\=\\#C4CTL6 Final News Update! Tag Team Championship Open Rules!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (C\\*4\\)\\|date\\=June 13, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On September 18, 2021 at Fighting Back X, Bailey defeated [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 \"Daniel Garcia (wrestler)\") for his second C4 Championship. On November 12, 2021, at *Never Say Never*, Bailey defeated Kevin Blackwood for the C4 Underground Championship in a Title vs Title Match.Greer, Jamie. (11/12/2021\\)[\"\\#AndNEW: “Speedball” Mike Bailey Wins C4 Underground Championship\"](https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2021/11/13/speedball-mike-bailey-c4-double-champion), *Last Word On Sports*, Retrieved on November 21, 2021\\.",
"#### Combat Zone Wrestling (2014–2016\\)",
"At the [Combat Zone Wrestling](/wiki/Combat_Zone_Wrestling \"Combat Zone Wrestling\")'s *New Heights 2014* event from July 12, he unsuccessfully challenged [Biff Busick](/wiki/Oney_Lorcan \"Oney Lorcan\") for the [CZW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"CZW World Heavyweight Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.shopczw.com/products/czw\\-new\\-heights\\-2014\\-7\\-12\\-14\\-dvd\\|title\\=ZW \"New Heights 2014\" 7/12/2014\\|work\\=shopczw.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=July 12, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Night Of Infamy 2014* on November 8, he teamed up with Buxx Belmar and unsuccessfully challenged [OI4K](/wiki/Ohio_Versus_Everything \"Ohio Versus Everything\") ([Dave Crist and Jake Crist](/wiki/The_Crist_Brothers \"The Crist Brothers\")) for the [CZW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"CZW World Tag Team Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.diywrestling.com/dywvideodetail.php?video\\_id\\=548\\|title\\=Combat Zone Wrestling presents Night of Infamy 2014 held Nov. 8, 2014 in Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=www.diywrestling.com\\|author\\=DJ Hyde\\|date\\=November 8, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} On the October 18, 2014 event *CZW Tangled Web 7*, he unsuccessfully challenged [Shane Strickland](/wiki/Isaiah_%22Swerve%22_Scott \"Isaiah \") for the [CZW Wired Championship](/wiki/CZW_Wired_Championship \"CZW Wired Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22tangled\\-web\\-7%22\\-10\\-18\\-2014\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/24746\\|title\\=CZW \"Tangled Web 7\" 10/18/2014 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=October 18, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *[CZW Cage Of Death XVI](/wiki/CZW_Cage_of_Death \"CZW Cage of Death\")*, he participated in a six\\-man scramble match, a qualifier for the Best Of The Best Tournament, where he competed against the winner [Jonathan Gresham](/wiki/Jonathan_Gresham \"Jonathan Gresham\"), [A. R. Fox](/wiki/A._R._Fox \"A. R. Fox\"), [Caleb Konley](/wiki/Caleb_Konley \"Caleb Konley\"), [David Starr](/wiki/David_Starr_%28wrestler%29 \"David Starr (wrestler)\") and [Alex Colon](/wiki/The_Blackout_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Blackout (professional wrestling)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://en.superluchas.com/czw\\-cage\\-of\\-death\\-xvi/\\|title\\=Everything ready for CZW Cage Of Death XVI\\|work\\=superluchas.com\\|author\\=Lic. Luis Omar Rodríguez Alonso\\|date\\=December 11, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Deja Vu 2015* on March 14, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Joe Gacy](/wiki/Joe_Gacy \"Joe Gacy\") for the CZW Wired Championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22deja\\-vu%22\\-3\\-14\\-2015\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/26947\\|title\\=CZW \"Deja Vu\" 3/14/2015 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=March 14, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} Their feud continued until *CZW Proving Grounds 2015* from May 9, where he managed to defeat Gacy, but by disqualification, therefore not succeeding in winning the title.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22proving\\-grounds%22\\-5\\-9\\-2015\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/26328\\|title\\=CZW \"Proving Grounds\" 5/9/2015 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=May 9, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} His last match in CZW was a loss against [Sami Callihan](/wiki/Sami_Callihan \"Sami Callihan\") at *CZW Seventeen* from February 13, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://talesfromtheturnbuckle.com/czws\\-seventeen\\-results\\-02\\-13\\-16/\\|title\\=CZW's Seventeen Results: 02\\-13\\-16\\|work\\=talesfromtheturnbuckle.com\\|first\\=Hellter\\|last\\=Skelter\\|date\\=March 21, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2015–2016\\)",
"Bailey made his debut for the [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") promotion [Pro Wrestling Guerrilla](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Guerrilla \"Pro Wrestling Guerrilla\") (PWG) at *From Out of Nowhere* on February 27, 2015, losing to Biff Busick in his first match. At Mystery Vortex III, Bailey answered [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong \"Roderick Strong\")'s open challenge for the [PWG World Championship](/wiki/PWG_World_Championship \"PWG World Championship\"), but failed to win the title. Bailey picked up his first win in PWG by defeating [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero \"Chris Hero\") at [Threemendous IV](/wiki/PWG_Threemendous_IV \"PWG Threemendous IV\"). He participated in the [Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282015%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2015)\"), where he managed to reach to the final by defeating [Drew Galloway](/wiki/Drew_Galloway \"Drew Galloway\") in the first round, [Will Ospreay](/wiki/Will_Ospreay \"Will Ospreay\") in the quarterfinals and [Tommy End](/wiki/Tommy_End \"Tommy End\") in the semifinals. Bailey competed against Chris Hero and [Zack Sabre Jr.](/wiki/Zack_Sabre_Jr. \"Zack Sabre Jr.\") in a three\\-way elimination match in the final, where he was the first man to be eliminated. He made a few more appearances with PWG until early 2016 before he was banned from working in the US for five years due to not having a work visa.",
"#### Progress Wrestling (2016–2019\\)",
"Bailey worked several matches for [Progress Wrestling](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling \"Progress Wrestling\"), first of them being a loss against [Mark Haskins](/wiki/Mark_Haskins \"Mark Haskins\") for the Smash Wrestling Championship at *Smash/Progress Smash vs. Progress*, a cross\\-over event held between the two promotions on August 7, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wrestling\\-news.net/smash\\-vs\\-progress\\-august\\-7th\\-results/128392/\\|title\\=Smash vs. Progress Results – Toronto, Ontario, Canada (8/7\\)\\|work\\=wrestling\\-news.net\\|first\\=Wayne\\|last\\=Daly\\|date\\=August 8, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} at *Progress Chapter 95: Still Chasing* on September 15, 2019, he participated in a 30\\-person rumble match for the inaugural [Progress Proteus Championship](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling \"Progress Wrestling\"), competing against other wrestlers such as the winner Paul Robinson, [Eddie Kingston](/wiki/Eddie_Kingston \"Eddie Kingston\"), Dan Moloney, Sid Scala and Los Federales Santos Jr.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2019/09/16/progress\\-09\\-15\\-19\\-chapter\\-95\\-still\\-chasing\\-results/\\|title\\=Progress 09/15/19 Chapter 95: Still Chasing Results\\|work\\=pwponderings.com\\|author\\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\\|date\\=September 16, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People* on November 11, 2018, he lost a match to [Eddie Dennis](/wiki/Eddie_Dennis \"Eddie Dennis\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2018/11/08/preview\\-progress\\-chapter\\-78\\-24\\-hour\\-progress\\-people\\-11\\-11\\-18/\\|title\\=Preview: Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People (11/11/18\\)\\|work\\=lastwordonsports.com\\|first\\=Alex\\|last\\=Richards\\|date\\=November 8, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Revolution Pro Wrestling (2016–present)",
"Bailey worked for the [British](/wiki/England \"England\") promotion [Revolution Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Revolution_Pro_Wrestling \"Revolution Pro Wrestling\"), having his first match at *RevPro High Stakes 2016* on January 16, where he lost to [Big Damo](/wiki/Killian_Dain \"Killian Dain\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://en.superluchas.com/resultados\\-de\\-revpro\\-high\\-stakes\\-2016\\-16\\-de\\-enero\\-de\\-2016\\-aj\\-styles\\-perdio\\-el\\-campeonato\\-britanico\\-a\\-menos\\-de\\-zack\\-sabre\\-jr/\\|title\\=RevPro High Stakes 2016 Results (Jan 16, 2016\\) \\- AJ Styles lost the British Championship to Zack Saber Jr.\\|work\\=superluchas.com\\|first\\=Adri\\|last\\=Lopez\\|date\\=January 17, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} He competed in various matches against popular wrestling figures. He lost to Zack Sabre Jr. at *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 13* on February 5, 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/02/17/revolution\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-live\\-cockpit\\-13\\-review/\\|title\\=Revolutiopn Pro Wrestling Live at the Cockpit 13 Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=February 17, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live In Portsmouth 9* on August 27, 2017, Bailey lost a match to [Jeff Cobb](/wiki/Jeff_Cobb \"Jeff Cobb\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thewrestlingrevolution.com/review.php?id\\=2411\\|title\\=RevPro Live in Portsmouth 9\\|work\\=thewrestlingrevolution.com\\|author\\=The Wrestling Revolution\\|date\\=August 27, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 21* on October 10, 2017, Bailey lost to [Zack Gibson](/wiki/Zack_Gibson \"Zack Gibson\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://rpwondemand.pivotshare.com/media/live\\-at\\-the\\-cockpit\\-21/68042\\|title\\=Live At The Cockpit 21\\|author\\=Revolution Pro Wrestling\\|date\\=October 10, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Monday Night Mayhem* on October 23, 2017, he unsuccessfully challenged Josh Bodom for the [RPW British Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/British_Cruiserweight_Championship_%28RevPro%29 \"British Cruiserweight Championship (RevPro)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ramblingsaboutwrestling.com/2017/10/26/retvolution\\-pro\\-monday\\-night\\-mayhem\\-review/\\|title\\=Revolution Pro Monday Night Mayhem Review\\|first\\=Stuart\\|last\\=Iversen\\|date\\=October 26, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019* on August 30, he participated in a six\\-man scramble match also involving the winner [Sanada](/wiki/Sanada_%28wrestler%29 \"Sanada (wrestler)\"), [Hikuleo](/wiki/Hikuleo_%28wrestler%29 \"Hikuleo (wrestler)\"), [Robbie Eagles](/wiki/Robbie_Eagles \"Robbie Eagles\"), [Rocky Romero](/wiki/Rocky_Romero \"Rocky Romero\") and [Senza Volto](/wiki/Senza_Volto \"Senza Volto\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.twm.news/revpro\\-summer\\-sizzler\\-2019\\-results/\\|title\\=RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019 Results\\|work\\=twm.news\\|author\\=TWM Wrestling\\|date\\=August 31, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 47*, Bailey teamed up with [Mao](/wiki/Mao_%28wrestler%29 \"Mao (wrestler)\") as Moonlight Express to win the SWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Deadly Sins (JK Moody and Kane Khan).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2019/11/03/results\\-revolution\\-pro\\-live\\-at\\-the\\-cockpit\\-47/\\|title\\=Live Report: Revolution Pro Live at The Cockpit 47\\|work\\=postwrestling.com\\|author\\=Post Wrestlnig Staff\\|date\\=November 3, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Uprising 2019*, on December 15, Bailey teamed up again with Mao, this time scoring a loss against [Pretty Deadly](/wiki/Pretty_Deadly_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Pretty Deadly (professional wrestling)\") (Lewis Howley and Sam Stoker).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vulturehound.co.uk/2019/12/hope\\-wins\\-revolution\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-uprising\\-december\\-15th\\-2019/\\|title\\='Hope wins' – Revolution Pro Wrestling 'Uprising' – December 15th, 2019\\|work\\=vulturehound.co.uk\\|first\\=Stephen\\|last\\=Goodman\\|date\\=December 20, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} On November 6, 2021, Bailey defeated [Kid Lykos](/wiki/Kid_Lykos \"Kid Lykos\") in the first round and pinned Luke Jacobs in a four\\-way elimination match to win the [2021 British J\\-Cup](/wiki/British_J-Cup_%282021%29 \"British J-Cup (2021)\").Thompson, Andrew. (2021\\-11\\-07\\) [\"‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey wins 2021 RevPro British J Cup tournament\"](https://www.postwrestling.com/2021/11/07/speedball-mike-bailey-wins-2021-revpro-british-j-cup-tournament), *Post Wrestling*, Retrieved on November 08, 2021\\.",
"#### Ring Of Honor (2019\\)",
"Bailey wrestled a match for [Ring Of Honor](/wiki/Ring_Of_Honor \"Ring Of Honor\"), at *ROH Honor United \\- Bolton*, on October 27, 2019, where he fell short to [Flamita](/wiki/Flamita \"Flamita\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rohwrestling.com/live/events/102719\\-honor\\-united\\-bolton\\|title\\=10/27/19 \\- Honor United \\- Bolton\\|work\\=rohwrestling.com\\|author\\=Ring of Honor Wrestling Entertainment\\|date\\=October 27, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Westside Xtreme Wrestling (2016–2020\\)",
"[thumb\\|Bailey facing [Jurn Simmons](/wiki/Jurn_Simmons \"Jurn Simmons\") at [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2020](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling%23Tournaments_and_accomplishments \"Westside Xtreme Wrestling#Tournaments and accomplishments\")](/wiki/File:Simmons_vs._Bailey_16_Carat_Gold_2020_%283%29.jpg \"Simmons vs. Bailey 16 Carat Gold 2020 (3).jpg\")\nBailey debuted for the [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") promotion [Westside Xtreme Wrestling](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling \"Westside Xtreme Wrestling\") on March 10, 2016, at the *wXw The Inner Circle*, where he first fell short to Kim Ray. In the second match, he teamed up with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate \"Tyler Bate\") in a losing effort to [Timothy Thatcher](/wiki/Timothy_Thatcher \"Timothy Thatcher\") and [Big Daddy Walter](/wiki/Walter_%28wrestler%29 \"Walter (wrestler)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestlingfever.de/wf\\-on\\-tour\\-wxw\\-inner\\-circle\\-10\\-03\\-2016\\-wrestling\\-academy\\-essen/\\|title\\=WF on Tour: WXW Inner Circle (10\\.03\\.2016 – Wrestling Academy, Essen)\\|work\\=wrestlingfever.de\\|language\\=German\\|author\\=Markus (WrestlingFever.de)\\|date\\=March 11, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He participated in the [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2016 Tournament](/wiki/WXw_16_Carat_Gold_Tournament \"WXw 16 Carat Gold Tournament\") where he lost to [Ilja Dragunov](/wiki/Ilja_Dragunov \"Ilja Dragunov\") on the first night, on March 11, 2016,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/25/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2016\\-night\\-1\\-results\\-reivew/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night 1 Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=March 25, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} and on the second night, from March 12, he faced [Marty Scurll](/wiki/Marty_Scurll \"Marty Scurll\"), [Trevor Lee](/wiki/Cameron_Grimes \"Cameron Grimes\") and [Angélico](/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lico \"Angélico\") in a three\\-way match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/28/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2016\\-night\\-two\\-march\\-12\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night Two (March 12\\) Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Arnold\\|last\\=Furious\\|date\\=March 28, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, on March 13, he teamed up with Will Ospreay in a losing effort to Marty Scurll and Trevor Lee.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.f4wonline.com/indies/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-night\\-three\\-results\\-tournament\\-winner\\-crowned\\-278996\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold Night Three Results: Tournament Winner Crowned\\|work\\=f4wonline.com\\|first\\=Markus\\|last\\=Gronemann\\|date\\=March 11, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On September 30, 2016, on the first night of the *wXw World Tag Team League 2016*, Bailey defeated [John Klinger](/wiki/Bad_Bones \"Bad Bones\") to become the number ont contender for the [wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship](/wiki/WXw_Unified_World_Wrestling_Championship \"WXw Unified World Wrestling Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-world\\-tag\\-team\\-league\\-2016/night\\-1\\|title\\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \\- Night 1\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=September 30, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on October 1, he fell short to the champion, Jurn Simmons.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-world\\-tag\\-team\\-league\\-2016/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=October 1, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He also participated in the wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 Tournament, and on the first night, on March 10, 2017, he defeated [A. C. H.](/wiki/ACH_%28wrestler%29 \"ACH (wrestler)\") in a first round match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/03/16/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2017\\-night\\-1\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2017 (Night 1\\) Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=March 16, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on March 11, he got defeated by [Matt Riddle](/wiki/Matt_Riddle \"Matt Riddle\") in a quarter\\-final match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2017/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 11, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, he teamed up with ACH to score a victory against [Donovan Dijak](/wiki/Dominik_Dijakovic \"Dominik Dijakovic\") and [J. T. Dunn](/wiki/J._T._Dunn \"J. T. Dunn\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2017/03/12/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-2017\\-results/\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat 2017 Results\\|work\\=pwponderings.com\\|author\\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\\|date\\=March 12, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} At *wXw True Colors 2017* on April 8, Bailey battled Jurn Simmons, Walter and [Axel Dieter Jr.](/wiki/Marcel_Barthel \"Marcel Barthel\") in a four\\-way match for the wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship, coming out unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/04/17/wxw\\-true\\-colors\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW True Colors Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Arnold\\|last\\=Furious\\|date\\=April 17, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} At *Road To 16 Carat Gold 2018*, on February 25, 2018, Bailey defeated [Jay Skillet](/wiki/Jay_Skillet \"Jay Skillet\") and Julian Pace in a three\\-way match semi\\-final; however, he fell short to [Marius Al\\-Ani](/wiki/Marius_Al-Ani \"Marius Al-Ani\") in the final, the same night.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-road\\-to\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/vod\\|title\\=wXw Road to 16 Carat Gold 2018\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=February 25, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 Tournament, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Bobby Gunns](/wiki/Bobby_Gunns \"Bobby Gunns\") for the [wXw Shotgun Championship](/wiki/WXw_Shotgun_Championship \"WXw Shotgun Championship\") on the second night, from March 10,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 10, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} and on the third night, a day later, he teamed up with [Matt Sydal](/wiki/Matt_Sydal \"Matt Sydal\") and Marius Al\\-Ani in a losing effort to CCK ([Chris Brookes](/wiki/Chris_Brookes \"Chris Brookes\") and [Travis Banks](/wiki/Travis_Banks \"Travis Banks\")) and [Jonah Rock](/wiki/Bronson_Reed \"Bronson Reed\") in a six\\-man tag team match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/night\\-3\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \\- Night 3\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 11, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Return to PWG (2022–present)",
"Bailey returned to PWG after a six\\-year absence as a participant in the [2022 Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282022%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2022)\"), where he defeated [Bandido](/wiki/Bandido_%28wrestler%29 \"Bandido (wrestler)\") in the first round, [Wheeler Yuta](/wiki/Wheeler_Yuta \"Wheeler Yuta\") in the quarterfinals and [Buddy Matthews](/wiki/Buddy_Matthews \"Buddy Matthews\") in the semifinals before losing to [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 \"Daniel Garcia (wrestler)\") in the final. He rebounded from the loss in the [2023 Battle of Los Angeles](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282023%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2023)\"), a year later, where he defeated [Jordynne Grace](/wiki/Jordynne_Grace \"Jordynne Grace\") in the first round, [Shun Skywalker](/wiki/Shun_Skywalker \"Shun Skywalker\") in the quarterfinals, Bryan Keith in the semifinals and [Konosuke Takeshita](/wiki/Konosuke_Takeshita \"Konosuke Takeshita\") in the final to win the tournament. The tournament win earned Bailey, a PWG World Championship title shot against Daniel Garcia in a sixty\\-minute Iron Man match at [Twenty: Mystery Vortex](/wiki/PWG_Twenty:Mystery_Vortex \"Mystery Vortex\"), which Bailey lost in a sudden death overtime.",
"### DDT Pro\\-Wrestling (2016–2020\\)",
"Bailey debuted for [DDT Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/DDT_Pro-Wrestling \"DDT Pro-Wrestling\") on August 2, 2016, in a 17\\-man royal rumble match at *DDT U.S.A. \\~Ultimate Superstars Action\\~ Sakabash At The Beach 2016 Drunkers Kingdom*, where he wrestled under the name of Mike Tajiri, a parody of the real wrestler Tajiri.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://togetter.com/li/1007551?page\\=3\\|title\\=8\\.2 Sakaba Wrestling U・S・A ～ Ultimate Superstars Action \"Sakabash at the Beach 2016\" Summary\\|work\\=togetter.com\\|author\\=@homura\\_keo\\|date\\=August 2, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He often wrestled alongside members of the Happy Motel stable Konosuke Takeshita and [Antonio Honda](/wiki/Antonio_Honda \"Antonio Honda\") without being part of the group. They even challenged [Damnation](/wiki/Damnation_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Damnation (professional wrestling)\") ([Daisuke Sasaki](/wiki/Daisuke_Sasaki \"Daisuke Sasaki\"), [Mad Paulie](/wiki/Mad_Paulie \"Mad Paulie\") and [Tetsuya Endo](/wiki/Tetsuya_Endo_%28wrestler%29 \"Tetsuya Endo (wrestler)\")) for the [KO\\-D 6\\-Man Tag Team Championship](/wiki/KO-D_6-Man_Tag_Team_Championship \"KO-D 6-Man Tag Team Championship\") at *DDT Sapporo Wrestling Festa \\~ DDT Crab \\~* on October 10, 2016, but unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/ddt/results/results16\\.php\\|title\\=Results 2016/DDT \"Sapporo Pro\\-Wrestling Festa 2016 \\~ DDT Crab\", 10\\.10\\.2016\\|work\\=purolove.com\\|author\\=Purolove\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He captured his first title in DDT, the [KO\\-D Tag Team Championship](/wiki/KO-D_Tag_Team_Championship \"KO-D Tag Team Championship\") by teaming up with Konosuke Takeshita at *DDT Osaka Octopus 2016* on December 4, to defeat Damnation (Daisuke Sasaki and Tetsuya Endo).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/12/12/ddt\\-osaka\\-octopus\\-2016\\-december\\-4\\-review/\\|title\\=DDT Osaka Octopus 2016 (Decemberf 4\\) Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Dylan\\|last\\=Justin\\|date\\=December 12, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} They dropped the titles at *DDT Road To Super Arena In Oyodo* on January 9, 2017, to [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki \"Masakatsu Funaki\") and [Yukio Sakaguchi](/wiki/Yukio_Sakaguchi \"Yukio Sakaguchi\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/14826\\|title\\=Dramatic Dream Team Results\\|work\\=ddtpro.com\\|author\\=Dramatic Pro\\-Wrestling (DDT)\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He won the titles for the second time by teaming with Mao as a part of the Moonlight Express on July 22, 2018, at *DDT Summer Vacation 2018*, where they defeated Damnation (Mad Paulie and Tetsuya Endo).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/1059\\|title\\=Uchikomi! presents Summer Vacation 2018\\|work\\=ddtpro.com\\|author\\=DDT Pro\\-Wrestling\\|date\\=July 22, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Harashima](/wiki/Harashima \"Harashima\") for the [KO\\-D Openweight Championship](/wiki/KO-D_Openweight_Championship \"KO-D Openweight Championship\") at *DDT New Year Lottery Special!* on January 3, 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://411mania.com/wrestling/furious\\-ddt\\-new\\-year\\-lottery\\-special\\-2017\\|title\\=DDT New Year Lottery Special! 2017/Furious'\\|first\\=Arnold\\|last\\=Furious\\|work\\=411mania.com\\|date\\=January 14, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He is a former [Ironman Heavymetalweight Champion](/wiki/Ironman_Heavymetalweight_Championship \"Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship\"), title which he won in the block B of the [D\\-Oh Grand Prix 2019](/wiki/D-Oh_Grand_Prix%232019 \"D-Oh Grand Prix#2019\") tournament show from November 30, 2018, where he defeated Konosuke Takeshita.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/ddt/results/results18\\.php\\|title\\=DDT \"D King Grand Prix 2019 in Shinjuku\", 30\\.11\\.2018\\|work\\=purolove.com\\|author\\=Purolove\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey participates in comedic matches, produced many times by DDT, such as a [five\\-way loser explosion weapon rumble tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types \"Professional wrestling match types\") from [Judgement 2018: DDT 21st Anniversary](/wiki/Judgement_2018:DDT_21st_Anniversary \"DDT 21st Anniversary\") on March 25, where he teamed up with Mao to defeat [Michael Nakazawa](/wiki/Michael_Nakazawa \"Michael Nakazawa\") and Chinsuke Nakamura, [Isami Kodaka](/wiki/Isami_Kodaka \"Isami Kodaka\") and [Fuminori Abe](/wiki/Fuminori_Abe \"Fuminori Abe\"), [Sanshiro Takagi](/wiki/Sanshiro_Takagi \"Sanshiro Takagi\") and [Ordinary Man Munenori Sawa](/wiki/Munenori_Sawa \"Munenori Sawa\"), and Smile Squash ([Yuko Miyamoto](/wiki/Yuko_Miyamoto \"Yuko Miyamoto\") and [Soma Takao](/wiki/Soma_Takao \"Soma Takao\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ddtpro.com/results/386 \\|title\\=Judgement2018～DDT旗揚げ21周年記念大会～ \\|work\\=\\[\\[DDT Pro\\-Wrestling]] \\|date\\=February 24, 2020\\|author\\=DDT Pro\\-Wrestling\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"### Impact Wrestling/Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2021–present)",
"On October 31, 2021, Bailey signed a contract with [Impact Wrestling](/wiki/Impact_Wrestling \"Impact Wrestling\"), offered by Impact executive [Scott D'Amore](/wiki/Scott_D%27Amore \"Scott D'Amore\") after their match against [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander_%28wrestler%29 \"Josh Alexander (wrestler)\") at Destiny Wrestling's Raising Hell.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://impactwrestling.com/2021/11/01/speedball\\-mike\\-bailey\\-signs\\-with\\-impact\\-wrestling/\\|title\\=\"Speedball\" Mike Bailey Signs With IMPACT Wrestling\\|publisher\\=Impact Wrestling\\|author\\=Impact Wrestling Staff\\|date\\=November 1, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2021}}Haulotte, Kellie. (10/31/2021\\) [\"“Speedball” Mike Bailey Signs With Impact Wrestling\"](https://www.wrestlinginc.com/news/2021/10/speedball-mike-bailey-signs-with-impact-wrestling), Wrestling Inc., Retrieved on November 01, 2021\\. D’Amore has confirmed Bailey is expected to debut in the first part of 2022\\.Barrasso, Justin. (11/3/2021\\) [\"After Five\\-Year Ban From U.S., ‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey Signs With Impact Wrestling\"](https://www.si.com/wrestling/2021/11/03/speedball-mike-bailey-impact-contract-signing), [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated \"Sports Illustrated\"), Retrieved on November 03, 2021\\. Bailey competed on the Hard To Kill pre\\-show in their debut match in Impact, winning a four\\-way match against [Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin \"Ace Austin\"), [Laredo Kid](/wiki/Laredo_Kid \"Laredo Kid\"), and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey \"Chris Bey\").",
"On June 19, 2022, Mike Bailey defeated Ace Austin, [Alex Zayne](/wiki/Alex_Zayne \"Alex Zayne\"), [Andrew Everett](/wiki/Andrew_Everett \"Andrew Everett\"), [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 \"Kenny King (wrestler)\"), and [Trey Miguel](/wiki/Trey_Miguel \"Trey Miguel\") in a 6\\-man [Ultimate X match](/wiki/Ultimate_X_match \"Ultimate X match\") for the [Impact X Division Championship](/wiki/Impact_X_Division_Championship \"Impact X Division Championship\") to become Impact X Division Champion for their first time at Impact's [Slammiversary 2022](/wiki/Slammiversary_%282022%29 \"Slammiversary (2022)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://impactwrestling.com/2022/06/09/ultimate\\-x\\-returns\\-at\\-slammviersary\\-with\\-ace\\-austins\\-x\\-division\\-championship\\-up\\-for\\-grabs/\\|title\\=Ultimate X Returns at Slammiversary With Ace Austin's X\\-Division Championship Up for Grabs\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Impact Wrestling]]\\|author\\=IMPACT Wrestling Staff\\|date\\=June 9, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610095115/https://impactwrestling.com/2022/06/09/ultimate\\-x\\-returns\\-at\\-slammviersary\\-with\\-ace\\-austins\\-x\\-division\\-championship\\-up\\-for\\-grabs/\\|archive\\-date\\=June 10, 2022\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Afterwards Bailey lost the X Division title to [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian \"Frankie Kazarian\") at Impact's [Bound for Glory 2022](/wiki/Bound_for_Glory_%282022%29 \"Bound for Glory (2022)\") via Submission.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Flanagan \\|first\\=Neal \\|title\\=Frankie Kazarian says Mike Bailey is \"the f\\*\\*king man\" after IMPACT Bound for Glory match THE NEW X\\-DIVISION CHAMPION WANTS EVERYONE TO KNOW FIVE THINGS. \\|url\\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2022/10/08/frankie\\-kazarian\\-says\\-mike\\-bailey\\-is\\-the\\-fking\\-man\\-after\\-impact\\-bound\\-for\\-glory\\-match/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2023 \\|website\\=Postwrestling.com\\|date\\=October 8, 2022 }}",
"At [Slammiversary](/wiki/Slammiversary_%282024%29 \"Slammiversary (2024)\"), Bailey defeated [Mustafa Ali](/wiki/Mustafa_Ali \"Mustafa Ali\") to win the X\\-Division Championship for the second time. At [Emergence](/wiki/Emergence_%282024%29 \"Emergence (2024)\"), Baily lost the title to [Zachary Wentz](/wiki/Zachary_Wentz \"Zachary Wentz\") in a [Ultimate X match](/wiki/Ultimate_X_match \"Ultimate X match\"). At [Victory Road](/wiki/Victory_Road_%282024%29 \"Victory Road (2024)\") on September 13, Bailey defeated Wentz to win the TNA X Division Championship for the third time.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://tnawrestling.com/2024/09/13/tna\\-victory\\-road\\-2024\\-live\\-results/\\|title\\=TNA Victory Road 2024 Results\\|work\\=TNA Wrestling\\|author\\=TNA Wrestling Staff\\|date\\=September 13, 2024\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2024}}",
"### New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling (2023\\)",
"On April 27, 2023, Bailey was announced as an entrant in [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\")'s [Best of the Super Juniors 30](/wiki/Best_of_the_Super_Juniors%232023 \"Best of the Super Juniors#2023\") tournament, competing in the A Block.{{Cite web \\|last\\=NJPW \\|title\\=Best of the Super Jr. 30 lineup revealed! {{!}} NEW JAPAN PRO\\-WRESTLING \\|url\\=https://www.njpw1972\\.com/148624 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-27 \\|website\\=NJPW \\|language\\=en}} In his first tournament match, Bailey successfully defeated [IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion](/wiki/IWGP_Junior_Heavyweight_Championship \"IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship\") and four\\-time tournament winner, [Hiromu Takahashi](/wiki/Hiromu_Takahashi \"Hiromu Takahashi\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2023/05/12/bosj\\-results\\-speedball\\-mike\\-bailey\\-pins\\-hiromu\\-takahashi\\-on\\-opening\\-night/ \\| title\\=BOSJ Results: Speedball Mike Bailey pins Hiromu Takahashi \\| date\\=12 May 2023 }} Bailey scored 14 points in the tournament, topping the A Block and advancing to the semi\\-finals.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.ewrestlingnews.com/news/njpw\\-best\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-juniors\\-tournament\\-update\\-semi\\-finals\\-set \\| title\\=NJPW Best of the Super Juniors Tournament Update: Semi\\-Finals Set \\| date\\=26 May 2023 }} In the semi\\-final round, Bailey was defeated by [Master Wato](/wiki/Master_Wato \"Master Wato\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.f4wonline.com/news/new\\-japan/finals\\-set\\-for\\-njpw\\-best\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-juniors\\-30 \\| title\\=Finals set for NJPW Best of the Super Juniors 30 \\| date\\=26 May 2023 }} On August 19, Bailey was announced as one of four participants for One\\-Night All Star Jr. USA tournament which was held as part of [All Star Jr. Festival USA 2023](/wiki/All_Star_Jr._Festival_USA_2023 \"All Star Jr. Festival USA 2023\") event in Philadelphia. They defeated [Francesco Akira](/wiki/Francesco_Akira \"Francesco Akira\") in semifinal and [Kevin Night](/wiki/Kevin_Knight_%28wrestler%29 \"Kevin Knight (wrestler)\") in the final to win the tournament.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wrestlinginc.com/1370940/mike\\-bailey\\-wins\\-all\\-star\\-jr\\-tournament\\-calls\\-out\\-hiromu\\-takahashi/\\|title\\=Mike Bailey Wins One\\-Night All Star Jr. Tournament, Calls Out Hiromu Takahashi\\|last\\=Berman IV\\|first\\=Ross W\\|date\\=August 20, 2023 \\|accessdate\\=August 22, 2023}} On October 9 of [Destruction](/wiki/Destruction_%282023%29 \"Destruction (2023)\") event in [Ryogoku Sumo Hall](/wiki/Ryogoku_Kokugikan \"Ryogoku Kokugikan\"), Tokyo, they unsuccessfully challenged Hiromu for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship in a three\\-way match that also included [YOH](/wiki/Yohei_Komatsu \"Yohei Komatsu\").",
""
] |
### Independent circuit (2006–present)
Baillargeon\-Laberge made his [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling "Professional wrestling") debut at a Federation de Lutte Quebecoise{{Cite web\|url\=http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/nouvelle\-quebec\-la\-flq\-en\-partenariat\-avec\-smash\-wrestling/\|title\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise\|work\=lutte.quebec\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} [house show](/wiki/House_show "House show") from January 6, 2006, as Mike Sydal, where he teamed up with Bouncer and Brad Foley in a losing effort to Alextreme, Sheik Tank Ali and Sweet Pete in a [six\-man tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types "Professional wrestling match types").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=1\&nr\=170360\|title\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise/FLQ show\|work\=cagematch.net\|language\=German\|first\=Philip\|last\=Kreikenbohm\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He is known for working with various [wrestling promotions](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_promotions "List of professional wrestling promotions") and would often compete under the nickname of *Speedball*.
#### International Wrestling Syndicate (2009–present)
Baillargeon\-Laberge, now going as Mike Bailey, made his [IWS](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate "International Wrestling Syndicate") debut on October 1, 2009, in a tag team victory with Brian Kirkland, defeating [2\.0](/wiki/2point0 "2point0") (Jagged \& Shane Matthews) at Le Skratch in [Laval](/wiki/Laval%2C_Quebec "Laval, Quebec").["IWS Seasons Beatings 2009"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=2&nr=12214&page=4&year=2009&promotion=50), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. At Scarred 4 Life, on September 20, 2014, Bailey won the [IWS World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWS_World_Heavyweight_Championship "IWS World Heavyweight Championship") against The Green Phantom.["IWS Scarred 4 Live 2014"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=1&nr=115437), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. At Un F'N Sanctioned on March 28, 2015, at [Corona Theatre](/wiki/Corona_Theatre "Corona Theatre"), Bailey defeated [Hallowicked](/wiki/Hallowicked "Hallowicked") and [Jesse Neal](/wiki/Jesse_Neal "Jesse Neal") in a Triple Threat Match. On September 5 at Scarred 4 Life, he retained the IWS World Heavyweight Championship against [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)").Laprade, Patric. (2015\-09\-04\) ["Montreal show brings Vampiro full circle"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151842/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2015/09/04/22548463.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling "SLAM! Wrestling")*, Retrieved on September 04, 2015\. On March 5, 2016, at Un F'N Sanctioned held at [Métropolis](/wiki/M%C3%A9tropolis_%28concert_hall%29 "Métropolis (concert hall)"), Black Dynomite won the IWS World Heavyweight Championship in a four\-way match versus [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio "Rey Mysterio"), Jack Evans and Bailey.Laprade, Patric.["Mysterio at IWS latest in Montreal\-Mexico exchange"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160307143450/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2016/03/07/22610766.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling "SLAM! Wrestling")*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\. On September 9, 2018, Bailey defeated [Psicosis](/wiki/Psicosis "Psicosis") and [Argenis](/wiki/Argenis_%28wrestler%29 "Argenis (wrestler)") in a three\-way dance,{{clarify\|date\=May 2024}} at an IWS vs [AAA](/wiki/Lucha_Libre_AAA_World_Wide "Lucha Libre AAA World Wide") spot show for the Montreal Mercado del Taco.["Lucha Libre AAA"](https://www.facebook.com/515487502156565/photos/a.532646777107304.1073741828.515487502156565/652324255139555/?type=3&theater), *Montreal Mercado del Taco*, Retrieved on August 14, 2018\.["IWS vs AAA Full Match"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/videos/vb.536667323113683/540257693072253/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on September 10, 2018\. On March 23, 2019, IWS celebrated its 20th anniversary with Un F'N Sanctioned at [MTelus](/wiki/M_Telus_%28concert_hall%29 "M Telus (concert hall)"), where [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri "Yoshihiro Tajiri") with [Mikey Whipwreck](/wiki/Mikey_Whipwreck "Mikey Whipwreck") defeated Bailey.Mack, Franky. (2019\-03\-24\) ["Résultats du Gala 20eme anniversaire de la IWS"](http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/resultats-du-gala-20eme-anniversaire-de-la-iws-iws-un-fn-sanctionned/), *Lutte Québec*, Retrieved on March 24, 2019\. On February 8, 2020, at Praise the Violence, Matt Angel defeated Bailey in an IWS World Heavyweight Championship Ladder Match.Ohayon, Matthew. (2020\-02\-11\) ["Grading IWS: Praise the Violence"](http://theconcordian.com/2020/02/grading-iws-praise-the-violence/), *[The Concordian](/wiki/The_Concordian_%28Montreal%29 "The Concordian (Montreal)")*, Retrieved on February 12, 2020\. On September 4, 2021, at Blood, Sweat \& Beers, Bailey defeated Matt Angel in an IWS Title Match, winning his second IWS World Heavyweight Championship.Laprade, Pat. (09/04/2021\) ["And neeeeeewwwwww IWS champion"](https://twitter.com/PatLaprade/status/1434351105316724743), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter"), Retrieved on September 04, 2021\. On June 25, 2022, at Hardcore Heat, Matt Falco defeated Bailey for the IWS World Heavyweight Championship.IWS (27/06/2022\) ["IWS Hardcore Heat Results"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/pfbid0Bdu6ZGsoPtaSc6r7EWjLKisEfFNCTgbRXQJbAxLv9i67kPVWpf7v8RJwzAobc5z4l), *[Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook")*, Retrieved on June 27, 2022\. Bailey has taught seminars and until moving to the United States, was part of the [IWS Training Centre](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate%23Training_Centre_and_Dojo "International Wrestling Syndicate#Training Centre and Dojo") coaching staff.["Mike Bailey teaching a wonderful seminar"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/1297943916986016), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 15, 2017\.["IWS: South Shore"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/photos/a.539783656135383/3874104949369887/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\.
#### Capital City Championship Combat (2010–present)
Bailey worked for the [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") promotion Capital City Championship Combat based in Ottawa, Ontario, where he debuted on May 1, 2010, at *C4 Stand Alone 2010* in a losing effort against [Player Uno](/wiki/Evil_Uno "Evil Uno").{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2010/04/stand\-alone\-2010\-news\-update\-three\-more\-matches\-for\-may\-1st/\|title\=Stand Alone 2010 News Update – Three More Matches for May 1st!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=April 14, 2010\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He teamed up with [Kevin Steen](/wiki/Kevin_Steen "Kevin Steen") at *C4 Domination 2K11* on April 30, 2011, to defeat [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander "Josh Alexander") and Michael Von Payton (who replaced an injured Rahim Ali) for the C4 Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2011/04/c4\-domination\-2k11\-this\-saturday\-night\-full\-card/\|title\=C\*4 "Domination" 2K11 – This Saturday Night – Full Card!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=April 27, 2011\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey worked with other infamous wrestling personalities, such as in a six\-way match from *C4 Crossing The Line 5* on June 16, 2012, where he competed against Josh Alexander, [Michael Elgin](/wiki/Michael_Elgin "Michael Elgin"), Scotty O'Shea, [Stu Grayson](/wiki/Stu_Grayson "Stu Grayson") and [Tyson Dux](/wiki/Tyson_Dux "Tyson Dux") for the C4 Championship, coming in unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2012/06/c4\-presents\-crossing\-the\-line\-5\-season\-5\-finale\-2/\|title\=C\*4 presents "Crossing the Line 5" – Season 5 Finale!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\|date\=June 2, 2012\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He eventually won the title at *C4 Crossing The Line 6* on June 15, 2013, in a three\-way match also involving Josh Alexander and the champion Scotty O'Shea.{{Cite web\|url\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2013/06/c4ctl6\-final\-news\-update\-tag\-team\-championship\-open\-rules/\|title\=\#C4CTL6 Final News Update! Tag Team Championship Open Rules!\|work\=c4wrestling.com\|author\=Capital City Championship Combat (C\*4\)\|date\=June 13, 2013\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On September 18, 2021 at Fighting Back X, Bailey defeated [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 "Daniel Garcia (wrestler)") for his second C4 Championship. On November 12, 2021, at *Never Say Never*, Bailey defeated Kevin Blackwood for the C4 Underground Championship in a Title vs Title Match.Greer, Jamie. (11/12/2021\)["\#AndNEW: “Speedball” Mike Bailey Wins C4 Underground Championship"](https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2021/11/13/speedball-mike-bailey-c4-double-champion), *Last Word On Sports*, Retrieved on November 21, 2021\.
#### Combat Zone Wrestling (2014–2016\)
At the [Combat Zone Wrestling](/wiki/Combat_Zone_Wrestling "Combat Zone Wrestling")'s *New Heights 2014* event from July 12, he unsuccessfully challenged [Biff Busick](/wiki/Oney_Lorcan "Oney Lorcan") for the [CZW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Heavyweight_Championship "CZW World Heavyweight Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.shopczw.com/products/czw\-new\-heights\-2014\-7\-12\-14\-dvd\|title\=ZW "New Heights 2014" 7/12/2014\|work\=shopczw.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=July 12, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Night Of Infamy 2014* on November 8, he teamed up with Buxx Belmar and unsuccessfully challenged [OI4K](/wiki/Ohio_Versus_Everything "Ohio Versus Everything") ([Dave Crist and Jake Crist](/wiki/The_Crist_Brothers "The Crist Brothers")) for the [CZW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Tag_Team_Championship "CZW World Tag Team Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.diywrestling.com/dywvideodetail.php?video\_id\=548\|title\=Combat Zone Wrestling presents Night of Infamy 2014 held Nov. 8, 2014 in Voorhees, NJ\|work\=www.diywrestling.com\|author\=DJ Hyde\|date\=November 8, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} On the October 18, 2014 event *CZW Tangled Web 7*, he unsuccessfully challenged [Shane Strickland](/wiki/Isaiah_%22Swerve%22_Scott "Isaiah ") for the [CZW Wired Championship](/wiki/CZW_Wired_Championship "CZW Wired Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22tangled\-web\-7%22\-10\-18\-2014\-voorhees%2C\-nj/24746\|title\=CZW "Tangled Web 7" 10/18/2014 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=October 18, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *[CZW Cage Of Death XVI](/wiki/CZW_Cage_of_Death "CZW Cage of Death")*, he participated in a six\-man scramble match, a qualifier for the Best Of The Best Tournament, where he competed against the winner [Jonathan Gresham](/wiki/Jonathan_Gresham "Jonathan Gresham"), [A. R. Fox](/wiki/A._R._Fox "A. R. Fox"), [Caleb Konley](/wiki/Caleb_Konley "Caleb Konley"), [David Starr](/wiki/David_Starr_%28wrestler%29 "David Starr (wrestler)") and [Alex Colon](/wiki/The_Blackout_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Blackout (professional wrestling)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://en.superluchas.com/czw\-cage\-of\-death\-xvi/\|title\=Everything ready for CZW Cage Of Death XVI\|work\=superluchas.com\|author\=Lic. Luis Omar Rodríguez Alonso\|date\=December 11, 2014\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Deja Vu 2015* on March 14, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Joe Gacy](/wiki/Joe_Gacy "Joe Gacy") for the CZW Wired Championship.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22deja\-vu%22\-3\-14\-2015\-voorhees%2C\-nj/26947\|title\=CZW "Deja Vu" 3/14/2015 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=March 14, 2015\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} Their feud continued until *CZW Proving Grounds 2015* from May 9, where he managed to defeat Gacy, but by disqualification, therefore not succeeding in winning the title.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\-%22proving\-grounds%22\-5\-9\-2015\-voorhees%2C\-nj/26328\|title\=CZW "Proving Grounds" 5/9/2015 Voorhees, NJ\|work\=czwstudios.com\|author\=Combat Zone Wrestling\|date\=May 9, 2015\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} His last match in CZW was a loss against [Sami Callihan](/wiki/Sami_Callihan "Sami Callihan") at *CZW Seventeen* from February 13, 2016\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://talesfromtheturnbuckle.com/czws\-seventeen\-results\-02\-13\-16/\|title\=CZW's Seventeen Results: 02\-13\-16\|work\=talesfromtheturnbuckle.com\|first\=Hellter\|last\=Skelter\|date\=March 21, 2016\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2015–2016\)
Bailey made his debut for the [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") promotion [Pro Wrestling Guerrilla](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Guerrilla "Pro Wrestling Guerrilla") (PWG) at *From Out of Nowhere* on February 27, 2015, losing to Biff Busick in his first match. At Mystery Vortex III, Bailey answered [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong "Roderick Strong")'s open challenge for the [PWG World Championship](/wiki/PWG_World_Championship "PWG World Championship"), but failed to win the title. Bailey picked up his first win in PWG by defeating [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero "Chris Hero") at [Threemendous IV](/wiki/PWG_Threemendous_IV "PWG Threemendous IV"). He participated in the [Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282015%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2015)"), where he managed to reach to the final by defeating [Drew Galloway](/wiki/Drew_Galloway "Drew Galloway") in the first round, [Will Ospreay](/wiki/Will_Ospreay "Will Ospreay") in the quarterfinals and [Tommy End](/wiki/Tommy_End "Tommy End") in the semifinals. Bailey competed against Chris Hero and [Zack Sabre Jr.](/wiki/Zack_Sabre_Jr. "Zack Sabre Jr.") in a three\-way elimination match in the final, where he was the first man to be eliminated. He made a few more appearances with PWG until early 2016 before he was banned from working in the US for five years due to not having a work visa.
#### Progress Wrestling (2016–2019\)
Bailey worked several matches for [Progress Wrestling](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling "Progress Wrestling"), first of them being a loss against [Mark Haskins](/wiki/Mark_Haskins "Mark Haskins") for the Smash Wrestling Championship at *Smash/Progress Smash vs. Progress*, a cross\-over event held between the two promotions on August 7, 2016\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wrestling\-news.net/smash\-vs\-progress\-august\-7th\-results/128392/\|title\=Smash vs. Progress Results – Toronto, Ontario, Canada (8/7\)\|work\=wrestling\-news.net\|first\=Wayne\|last\=Daly\|date\=August 8, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} at *Progress Chapter 95: Still Chasing* on September 15, 2019, he participated in a 30\-person rumble match for the inaugural [Progress Proteus Championship](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling "Progress Wrestling"), competing against other wrestlers such as the winner Paul Robinson, [Eddie Kingston](/wiki/Eddie_Kingston "Eddie Kingston"), Dan Moloney, Sid Scala and Los Federales Santos Jr.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2019/09/16/progress\-09\-15\-19\-chapter\-95\-still\-chasing\-results/\|title\=Progress 09/15/19 Chapter 95: Still Chasing Results\|work\=pwponderings.com\|author\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\|date\=September 16, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People* on November 11, 2018, he lost a match to [Eddie Dennis](/wiki/Eddie_Dennis "Eddie Dennis").{{Cite web\|url\=https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2018/11/08/preview\-progress\-chapter\-78\-24\-hour\-progress\-people\-11\-11\-18/\|title\=Preview: Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People (11/11/18\)\|work\=lastwordonsports.com\|first\=Alex\|last\=Richards\|date\=November 8, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Revolution Pro Wrestling (2016–present)
Bailey worked for the [British](/wiki/England "England") promotion [Revolution Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Revolution_Pro_Wrestling "Revolution Pro Wrestling"), having his first match at *RevPro High Stakes 2016* on January 16, where he lost to [Big Damo](/wiki/Killian_Dain "Killian Dain").{{Cite web\|url\=https://en.superluchas.com/resultados\-de\-revpro\-high\-stakes\-2016\-16\-de\-enero\-de\-2016\-aj\-styles\-perdio\-el\-campeonato\-britanico\-a\-menos\-de\-zack\-sabre\-jr/\|title\=RevPro High Stakes 2016 Results (Jan 16, 2016\) \- AJ Styles lost the British Championship to Zack Saber Jr.\|work\=superluchas.com\|first\=Adri\|last\=Lopez\|date\=January 17, 2016\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} He competed in various matches against popular wrestling figures. He lost to Zack Sabre Jr. at *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 13* on February 5, 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/02/17/revolution\-pro\-wrestling\-live\-cockpit\-13\-review/\|title\=Revolutiopn Pro Wrestling Live at the Cockpit 13 Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=February 17, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live In Portsmouth 9* on August 27, 2017, Bailey lost a match to [Jeff Cobb](/wiki/Jeff_Cobb "Jeff Cobb").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thewrestlingrevolution.com/review.php?id\=2411\|title\=RevPro Live in Portsmouth 9\|work\=thewrestlingrevolution.com\|author\=The Wrestling Revolution\|date\=August 27, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 21* on October 10, 2017, Bailey lost to [Zack Gibson](/wiki/Zack_Gibson "Zack Gibson").{{Cite web\|url\=https://rpwondemand.pivotshare.com/media/live\-at\-the\-cockpit\-21/68042\|title\=Live At The Cockpit 21\|author\=Revolution Pro Wrestling\|date\=October 10, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Monday Night Mayhem* on October 23, 2017, he unsuccessfully challenged Josh Bodom for the [RPW British Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/British_Cruiserweight_Championship_%28RevPro%29 "British Cruiserweight Championship (RevPro)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://ramblingsaboutwrestling.com/2017/10/26/retvolution\-pro\-monday\-night\-mayhem\-review/\|title\=Revolution Pro Monday Night Mayhem Review\|first\=Stuart\|last\=Iversen\|date\=October 26, 2017\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019* on August 30, he participated in a six\-man scramble match also involving the winner [Sanada](/wiki/Sanada_%28wrestler%29 "Sanada (wrestler)"), [Hikuleo](/wiki/Hikuleo_%28wrestler%29 "Hikuleo (wrestler)"), [Robbie Eagles](/wiki/Robbie_Eagles "Robbie Eagles"), [Rocky Romero](/wiki/Rocky_Romero "Rocky Romero") and [Senza Volto](/wiki/Senza_Volto "Senza Volto").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.twm.news/revpro\-summer\-sizzler\-2019\-results/\|title\=RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019 Results\|work\=twm.news\|author\=TWM Wrestling\|date\=August 31, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 47*, Bailey teamed up with [Mao](/wiki/Mao_%28wrestler%29 "Mao (wrestler)") as Moonlight Express to win the SWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Deadly Sins (JK Moody and Kane Khan).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2019/11/03/results\-revolution\-pro\-live\-at\-the\-cockpit\-47/\|title\=Live Report: Revolution Pro Live at The Cockpit 47\|work\=postwrestling.com\|author\=Post Wrestlnig Staff\|date\=November 3, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Uprising 2019*, on December 15, Bailey teamed up again with Mao, this time scoring a loss against [Pretty Deadly](/wiki/Pretty_Deadly_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Pretty Deadly (professional wrestling)") (Lewis Howley and Sam Stoker).{{Cite web\|url\=https://vulturehound.co.uk/2019/12/hope\-wins\-revolution\-pro\-wrestling\-uprising\-december\-15th\-2019/\|title\='Hope wins' – Revolution Pro Wrestling 'Uprising' – December 15th, 2019\|work\=vulturehound.co.uk\|first\=Stephen\|last\=Goodman\|date\=December 20, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} On November 6, 2021, Bailey defeated [Kid Lykos](/wiki/Kid_Lykos "Kid Lykos") in the first round and pinned Luke Jacobs in a four\-way elimination match to win the [2021 British J\-Cup](/wiki/British_J-Cup_%282021%29 "British J-Cup (2021)").Thompson, Andrew. (2021\-11\-07\) ["‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey wins 2021 RevPro British J Cup tournament"](https://www.postwrestling.com/2021/11/07/speedball-mike-bailey-wins-2021-revpro-british-j-cup-tournament), *Post Wrestling*, Retrieved on November 08, 2021\.
#### Ring Of Honor (2019\)
Bailey wrestled a match for [Ring Of Honor](/wiki/Ring_Of_Honor "Ring Of Honor"), at *ROH Honor United \- Bolton*, on October 27, 2019, where he fell short to [Flamita](/wiki/Flamita "Flamita").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rohwrestling.com/live/events/102719\-honor\-united\-bolton\|title\=10/27/19 \- Honor United \- Bolton\|work\=rohwrestling.com\|author\=Ring of Honor Wrestling Entertainment\|date\=October 27, 2019\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Westside Xtreme Wrestling (2016–2020\)
[thumb\|Bailey facing [Jurn Simmons](/wiki/Jurn_Simmons "Jurn Simmons") at [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2020](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling%23Tournaments_and_accomplishments "Westside Xtreme Wrestling#Tournaments and accomplishments")](/wiki/File:Simmons_vs._Bailey_16_Carat_Gold_2020_%283%29.jpg "Simmons vs. Bailey 16 Carat Gold 2020 (3).jpg")
Bailey debuted for the [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") promotion [Westside Xtreme Wrestling](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling "Westside Xtreme Wrestling") on March 10, 2016, at the *wXw The Inner Circle*, where he first fell short to Kim Ray. In the second match, he teamed up with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate "Tyler Bate") in a losing effort to [Timothy Thatcher](/wiki/Timothy_Thatcher "Timothy Thatcher") and [Big Daddy Walter](/wiki/Walter_%28wrestler%29 "Walter (wrestler)").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestlingfever.de/wf\-on\-tour\-wxw\-inner\-circle\-10\-03\-2016\-wrestling\-academy\-essen/\|title\=WF on Tour: WXW Inner Circle (10\.03\.2016 – Wrestling Academy, Essen)\|work\=wrestlingfever.de\|language\=German\|author\=Markus (WrestlingFever.de)\|date\=March 11, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He participated in the [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2016 Tournament](/wiki/WXw_16_Carat_Gold_Tournament "WXw 16 Carat Gold Tournament") where he lost to [Ilja Dragunov](/wiki/Ilja_Dragunov "Ilja Dragunov") on the first night, on March 11, 2016,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/25/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2016\-night\-1\-results\-reivew/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night 1 Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=March 25, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} and on the second night, from March 12, he faced [Marty Scurll](/wiki/Marty_Scurll "Marty Scurll"), [Trevor Lee](/wiki/Cameron_Grimes "Cameron Grimes") and [Angélico](/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lico "Angélico") in a three\-way match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/28/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2016\-night\-two\-march\-12\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night Two (March 12\) Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Arnold\|last\=Furious\|date\=March 28, 2016\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, on March 13, he teamed up with Will Ospreay in a losing effort to Marty Scurll and Trevor Lee.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.f4wonline.com/indies/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-night\-three\-results\-tournament\-winner\-crowned\-278996\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold Night Three Results: Tournament Winner Crowned\|work\=f4wonline.com\|first\=Markus\|last\=Gronemann\|date\=March 11, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On September 30, 2016, on the first night of the *wXw World Tag Team League 2016*, Bailey defeated [John Klinger](/wiki/Bad_Bones "Bad Bones") to become the number ont contender for the [wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship](/wiki/WXw_Unified_World_Wrestling_Championship "WXw Unified World Wrestling Championship").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-world\-tag\-team\-league\-2016/night\-1\|title\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \- Night 1\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=September 30, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on October 1, he fell short to the champion, Jurn Simmons.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-world\-tag\-team\-league\-2016/night\-2\|title\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=October 1, 2019\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} He also participated in the wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 Tournament, and on the first night, on March 10, 2017, he defeated [A. C. H.](/wiki/ACH_%28wrestler%29 "ACH (wrestler)") in a first round match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/03/16/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2017\-night\-1\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2017 (Night 1\) Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Oliver\|last\=Court\|date\=March 16, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on March 11, he got defeated by [Matt Riddle](/wiki/Matt_Riddle "Matt Riddle") in a quarter\-final match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2017/night\-2\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 11, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, he teamed up with ACH to score a victory against [Donovan Dijak](/wiki/Dominik_Dijakovic "Dominik Dijakovic") and [J. T. Dunn](/wiki/J._T._Dunn "J. T. Dunn").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2017/03/12/wxw\-16\-carat\-2017\-results/\|title\=wXw 16 Carat 2017 Results\|work\=pwponderings.com\|author\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\|date\=March 12, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} At *wXw True Colors 2017* on April 8, Bailey battled Jurn Simmons, Walter and [Axel Dieter Jr.](/wiki/Marcel_Barthel "Marcel Barthel") in a four\-way match for the wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship, coming out unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/04/17/wxw\-true\-colors\-results\-review/\|title\=WXW True Colors Results \& Review\|work\=voicesofwrestling.com\|first\=Arnold\|last\=Furious\|date\=April 17, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2021}} At *Road To 16 Carat Gold 2018*, on February 25, 2018, Bailey defeated [Jay Skillet](/wiki/Jay_Skillet "Jay Skillet") and Julian Pace in a three\-way match semi\-final; however, he fell short to [Marius Al\-Ani](/wiki/Marius_Al-Ani "Marius Al-Ani") in the final, the same night.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-road\-to\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/vod\|title\=wXw Road to 16 Carat Gold 2018\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=February 25, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} At wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 Tournament, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Bobby Gunns](/wiki/Bobby_Gunns "Bobby Gunns") for the [wXw Shotgun Championship](/wiki/WXw_Shotgun_Championship "WXw Shotgun Championship") on the second night, from March 10,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/night\-2\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \- Night 2\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 10, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}} and on the third night, a day later, he teamed up with [Matt Sydal](/wiki/Matt_Sydal "Matt Sydal") and Marius Al\-Ani in a losing effort to CCK ([Chris Brookes](/wiki/Chris_Brookes "Chris Brookes") and [Travis Banks](/wiki/Travis_Banks "Travis Banks")) and [Jonah Rock](/wiki/Bronson_Reed "Bronson Reed") in a six\-man tag team match.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\-16\-carat\-gold\-2018/night\-3\|title\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \- Night 3\|work\=wxwnow.com\|author\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\|date\=March 11, 2018\|access\-date\=March 18, 2021}}
#### Return to PWG (2022–present)
Bailey returned to PWG after a six\-year absence as a participant in the [2022 Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282022%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2022)"), where he defeated [Bandido](/wiki/Bandido_%28wrestler%29 "Bandido (wrestler)") in the first round, [Wheeler Yuta](/wiki/Wheeler_Yuta "Wheeler Yuta") in the quarterfinals and [Buddy Matthews](/wiki/Buddy_Matthews "Buddy Matthews") in the semifinals before losing to [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 "Daniel Garcia (wrestler)") in the final. He rebounded from the loss in the [2023 Battle of Los Angeles](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282023%29 "Battle of Los Angeles (2023)"), a year later, where he defeated [Jordynne Grace](/wiki/Jordynne_Grace "Jordynne Grace") in the first round, [Shun Skywalker](/wiki/Shun_Skywalker "Shun Skywalker") in the quarterfinals, Bryan Keith in the semifinals and [Konosuke Takeshita](/wiki/Konosuke_Takeshita "Konosuke Takeshita") in the final to win the tournament. The tournament win earned Bailey, a PWG World Championship title shot against Daniel Garcia in a sixty\-minute Iron Man match at [Twenty: Mystery Vortex](/wiki/PWG_Twenty:Mystery_Vortex "Mystery Vortex"), which Bailey lost in a sudden death overtime.
|
[
"### Independent circuit (2006–present)",
"Baillargeon\\-Laberge made his [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling \"Professional wrestling\") debut at a Federation de Lutte Quebecoise{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/nouvelle\\-quebec\\-la\\-flq\\-en\\-partenariat\\-avec\\-smash\\-wrestling/\\|title\\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise\\|work\\=lutte.quebec\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} [house show](/wiki/House_show \"House show\") from January 6, 2006, as Mike Sydal, where he teamed up with Bouncer and Brad Foley in a losing effort to Alextreme, Sheik Tank Ali and Sweet Pete in a [six\\-man tag team match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types \"Professional wrestling match types\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=1\\&nr\\=170360\\|title\\=Federation de Lutte Quebecoise/FLQ show\\|work\\=cagematch.net\\|language\\=German\\|first\\=Philip\\|last\\=Kreikenbohm\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He is known for working with various [wrestling promotions](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_promotions \"List of professional wrestling promotions\") and would often compete under the nickname of *Speedball*.",
"#### International Wrestling Syndicate (2009–present)",
"Baillargeon\\-Laberge, now going as Mike Bailey, made his [IWS](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate \"International Wrestling Syndicate\") debut on October 1, 2009, in a tag team victory with Brian Kirkland, defeating [2\\.0](/wiki/2point0 \"2point0\") (Jagged \\& Shane Matthews) at Le Skratch in [Laval](/wiki/Laval%2C_Quebec \"Laval, Quebec\").[\"IWS Seasons Beatings 2009\"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=2&nr=12214&page=4&year=2009&promotion=50), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. At Scarred 4 Life, on September 20, 2014, Bailey won the [IWS World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWS_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"IWS World Heavyweight Championship\") against The Green Phantom.[\"IWS Scarred 4 Live 2014\"](https://www.cagematch.net/en/?id=1&nr=115437), *Cagematch*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. At Un F'N Sanctioned on March 28, 2015, at [Corona Theatre](/wiki/Corona_Theatre \"Corona Theatre\"), Bailey defeated [Hallowicked](/wiki/Hallowicked \"Hallowicked\") and [Jesse Neal](/wiki/Jesse_Neal \"Jesse Neal\") in a Triple Threat Match. On September 5 at Scarred 4 Life, he retained the IWS World Heavyweight Championship against [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\").Laprade, Patric. (2015\\-09\\-04\\) [\"Montreal show brings Vampiro full circle\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151842/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2015/09/04/22548463.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling \"SLAM! Wrestling\")*, Retrieved on September 04, 2015\\. On March 5, 2016, at Un F'N Sanctioned held at [Métropolis](/wiki/M%C3%A9tropolis_%28concert_hall%29 \"Métropolis (concert hall)\"), Black Dynomite won the IWS World Heavyweight Championship in a four\\-way match versus [Rey Mysterio](/wiki/Rey_Mysterio \"Rey Mysterio\"), Jack Evans and Bailey.Laprade, Patric.[\"Mysterio at IWS latest in Montreal\\-Mexico exchange\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160307143450/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/2016/03/07/22610766.html), *[SLAM! Wrestling](/wiki/SLAM%21_Wrestling \"SLAM! Wrestling\")*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\. On September 9, 2018, Bailey defeated [Psicosis](/wiki/Psicosis \"Psicosis\") and [Argenis](/wiki/Argenis_%28wrestler%29 \"Argenis (wrestler)\") in a three\\-way dance,{{clarify\\|date\\=May 2024}} at an IWS vs [AAA](/wiki/Lucha_Libre_AAA_World_Wide \"Lucha Libre AAA World Wide\") spot show for the Montreal Mercado del Taco.[\"Lucha Libre AAA\"](https://www.facebook.com/515487502156565/photos/a.532646777107304.1073741828.515487502156565/652324255139555/?type=3&theater), *Montreal Mercado del Taco*, Retrieved on August 14, 2018\\.[\"IWS vs AAA Full Match\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/videos/vb.536667323113683/540257693072253/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on September 10, 2018\\. On March 23, 2019, IWS celebrated its 20th anniversary with Un F'N Sanctioned at [MTelus](/wiki/M_Telus_%28concert_hall%29 \"M Telus (concert hall)\"), where [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri \"Yoshihiro Tajiri\") with [Mikey Whipwreck](/wiki/Mikey_Whipwreck \"Mikey Whipwreck\") defeated Bailey.Mack, Franky. (2019\\-03\\-24\\) [\"Résultats du Gala 20eme anniversaire de la IWS\"](http://lutte.quebec/nouvelles/resultats-du-gala-20eme-anniversaire-de-la-iws-iws-un-fn-sanctionned/), *Lutte Québec*, Retrieved on March 24, 2019\\. On February 8, 2020, at Praise the Violence, Matt Angel defeated Bailey in an IWS World Heavyweight Championship Ladder Match.Ohayon, Matthew. (2020\\-02\\-11\\) [\"Grading IWS: Praise the Violence\"](http://theconcordian.com/2020/02/grading-iws-praise-the-violence/), *[The Concordian](/wiki/The_Concordian_%28Montreal%29 \"The Concordian (Montreal)\")*, Retrieved on February 12, 2020\\. On September 4, 2021, at Blood, Sweat \\& Beers, Bailey defeated Matt Angel in an IWS Title Match, winning his second IWS World Heavyweight Championship.Laprade, Pat. (09/04/2021\\) [\"And neeeeeewwwwww IWS champion\"](https://twitter.com/PatLaprade/status/1434351105316724743), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\"), Retrieved on September 04, 2021\\. On June 25, 2022, at Hardcore Heat, Matt Falco defeated Bailey for the IWS World Heavyweight Championship.IWS (27/06/2022\\) [\"IWS Hardcore Heat Results\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/pfbid0Bdu6ZGsoPtaSc6r7EWjLKisEfFNCTgbRXQJbAxLv9i67kPVWpf7v8RJwzAobc5z4l), *[Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\")*, Retrieved on June 27, 2022\\. Bailey has taught seminars and until moving to the United States, was part of the [IWS Training Centre](/wiki/International_Wrestling_Syndicate%23Training_Centre_and_Dojo \"International Wrestling Syndicate#Training Centre and Dojo\") coaching staff.[\"Mike Bailey teaching a wonderful seminar\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/posts/1297943916986016), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 15, 2017\\.[\"IWS: South Shore\"](https://www.facebook.com/IWSHardcore/photos/a.539783656135383/3874104949369887/?type=3&theater), *International Wrestling Syndicate*, Retrieved on April 02, 2021\\.",
"#### Capital City Championship Combat (2010–present)",
"Bailey worked for the [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") promotion Capital City Championship Combat based in Ottawa, Ontario, where he debuted on May 1, 2010, at *C4 Stand Alone 2010* in a losing effort against [Player Uno](/wiki/Evil_Uno \"Evil Uno\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2010/04/stand\\-alone\\-2010\\-news\\-update\\-three\\-more\\-matches\\-for\\-may\\-1st/\\|title\\=Stand Alone 2010 News Update – Three More Matches for May 1st!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=April 14, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He teamed up with [Kevin Steen](/wiki/Kevin_Steen \"Kevin Steen\") at *C4 Domination 2K11* on April 30, 2011, to defeat [Josh Alexander](/wiki/Josh_Alexander \"Josh Alexander\") and Michael Von Payton (who replaced an injured Rahim Ali) for the C4 Tag Team Championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2011/04/c4\\-domination\\-2k11\\-this\\-saturday\\-night\\-full\\-card/\\|title\\=C\\*4 \"Domination\" 2K11 – This Saturday Night – Full Card!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=April 27, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} Bailey worked with other infamous wrestling personalities, such as in a six\\-way match from *C4 Crossing The Line 5* on June 16, 2012, where he competed against Josh Alexander, [Michael Elgin](/wiki/Michael_Elgin \"Michael Elgin\"), Scotty O'Shea, [Stu Grayson](/wiki/Stu_Grayson \"Stu Grayson\") and [Tyson Dux](/wiki/Tyson_Dux \"Tyson Dux\") for the C4 Championship, coming in unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2012/06/c4\\-presents\\-crossing\\-the\\-line\\-5\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-2/\\|title\\=C\\*4 presents \"Crossing the Line 5\" – Season 5 Finale!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (Kris)\\|date\\=June 2, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He eventually won the title at *C4 Crossing The Line 6* on June 15, 2013, in a three\\-way match also involving Josh Alexander and the champion Scotty O'Shea.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://c4wrestling.com/home/2013/06/c4ctl6\\-final\\-news\\-update\\-tag\\-team\\-championship\\-open\\-rules/\\|title\\=\\#C4CTL6 Final News Update! Tag Team Championship Open Rules!\\|work\\=c4wrestling.com\\|author\\=Capital City Championship Combat (C\\*4\\)\\|date\\=June 13, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On September 18, 2021 at Fighting Back X, Bailey defeated [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 \"Daniel Garcia (wrestler)\") for his second C4 Championship. On November 12, 2021, at *Never Say Never*, Bailey defeated Kevin Blackwood for the C4 Underground Championship in a Title vs Title Match.Greer, Jamie. (11/12/2021\\)[\"\\#AndNEW: “Speedball” Mike Bailey Wins C4 Underground Championship\"](https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2021/11/13/speedball-mike-bailey-c4-double-champion), *Last Word On Sports*, Retrieved on November 21, 2021\\.",
"#### Combat Zone Wrestling (2014–2016\\)",
"At the [Combat Zone Wrestling](/wiki/Combat_Zone_Wrestling \"Combat Zone Wrestling\")'s *New Heights 2014* event from July 12, he unsuccessfully challenged [Biff Busick](/wiki/Oney_Lorcan \"Oney Lorcan\") for the [CZW World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"CZW World Heavyweight Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.shopczw.com/products/czw\\-new\\-heights\\-2014\\-7\\-12\\-14\\-dvd\\|title\\=ZW \"New Heights 2014\" 7/12/2014\\|work\\=shopczw.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=July 12, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Night Of Infamy 2014* on November 8, he teamed up with Buxx Belmar and unsuccessfully challenged [OI4K](/wiki/Ohio_Versus_Everything \"Ohio Versus Everything\") ([Dave Crist and Jake Crist](/wiki/The_Crist_Brothers \"The Crist Brothers\")) for the [CZW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CZW_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"CZW World Tag Team Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.diywrestling.com/dywvideodetail.php?video\\_id\\=548\\|title\\=Combat Zone Wrestling presents Night of Infamy 2014 held Nov. 8, 2014 in Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=www.diywrestling.com\\|author\\=DJ Hyde\\|date\\=November 8, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} On the October 18, 2014 event *CZW Tangled Web 7*, he unsuccessfully challenged [Shane Strickland](/wiki/Isaiah_%22Swerve%22_Scott \"Isaiah \") for the [CZW Wired Championship](/wiki/CZW_Wired_Championship \"CZW Wired Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22tangled\\-web\\-7%22\\-10\\-18\\-2014\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/24746\\|title\\=CZW \"Tangled Web 7\" 10/18/2014 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=October 18, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *[CZW Cage Of Death XVI](/wiki/CZW_Cage_of_Death \"CZW Cage of Death\")*, he participated in a six\\-man scramble match, a qualifier for the Best Of The Best Tournament, where he competed against the winner [Jonathan Gresham](/wiki/Jonathan_Gresham \"Jonathan Gresham\"), [A. R. Fox](/wiki/A._R._Fox \"A. R. Fox\"), [Caleb Konley](/wiki/Caleb_Konley \"Caleb Konley\"), [David Starr](/wiki/David_Starr_%28wrestler%29 \"David Starr (wrestler)\") and [Alex Colon](/wiki/The_Blackout_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Blackout (professional wrestling)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://en.superluchas.com/czw\\-cage\\-of\\-death\\-xvi/\\|title\\=Everything ready for CZW Cage Of Death XVI\\|work\\=superluchas.com\\|author\\=Lic. Luis Omar Rodríguez Alonso\\|date\\=December 11, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *CZW Deja Vu 2015* on March 14, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Joe Gacy](/wiki/Joe_Gacy \"Joe Gacy\") for the CZW Wired Championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22deja\\-vu%22\\-3\\-14\\-2015\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/26947\\|title\\=CZW \"Deja Vu\" 3/14/2015 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=March 14, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} Their feud continued until *CZW Proving Grounds 2015* from May 9, where he managed to defeat Gacy, but by disqualification, therefore not succeeding in winning the title.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.czwstudios.com/media/czw\\-%22proving\\-grounds%22\\-5\\-9\\-2015\\-voorhees%2C\\-nj/26328\\|title\\=CZW \"Proving Grounds\" 5/9/2015 Voorhees, NJ\\|work\\=czwstudios.com\\|author\\=Combat Zone Wrestling\\|date\\=May 9, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} His last match in CZW was a loss against [Sami Callihan](/wiki/Sami_Callihan \"Sami Callihan\") at *CZW Seventeen* from February 13, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://talesfromtheturnbuckle.com/czws\\-seventeen\\-results\\-02\\-13\\-16/\\|title\\=CZW's Seventeen Results: 02\\-13\\-16\\|work\\=talesfromtheturnbuckle.com\\|first\\=Hellter\\|last\\=Skelter\\|date\\=March 21, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2015–2016\\)",
"Bailey made his debut for the [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") promotion [Pro Wrestling Guerrilla](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Guerrilla \"Pro Wrestling Guerrilla\") (PWG) at *From Out of Nowhere* on February 27, 2015, losing to Biff Busick in his first match. At Mystery Vortex III, Bailey answered [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong \"Roderick Strong\")'s open challenge for the [PWG World Championship](/wiki/PWG_World_Championship \"PWG World Championship\"), but failed to win the title. Bailey picked up his first win in PWG by defeating [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero \"Chris Hero\") at [Threemendous IV](/wiki/PWG_Threemendous_IV \"PWG Threemendous IV\"). He participated in the [Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282015%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2015)\"), where he managed to reach to the final by defeating [Drew Galloway](/wiki/Drew_Galloway \"Drew Galloway\") in the first round, [Will Ospreay](/wiki/Will_Ospreay \"Will Ospreay\") in the quarterfinals and [Tommy End](/wiki/Tommy_End \"Tommy End\") in the semifinals. Bailey competed against Chris Hero and [Zack Sabre Jr.](/wiki/Zack_Sabre_Jr. \"Zack Sabre Jr.\") in a three\\-way elimination match in the final, where he was the first man to be eliminated. He made a few more appearances with PWG until early 2016 before he was banned from working in the US for five years due to not having a work visa.",
"#### Progress Wrestling (2016–2019\\)",
"Bailey worked several matches for [Progress Wrestling](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling \"Progress Wrestling\"), first of them being a loss against [Mark Haskins](/wiki/Mark_Haskins \"Mark Haskins\") for the Smash Wrestling Championship at *Smash/Progress Smash vs. Progress*, a cross\\-over event held between the two promotions on August 7, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wrestling\\-news.net/smash\\-vs\\-progress\\-august\\-7th\\-results/128392/\\|title\\=Smash vs. Progress Results – Toronto, Ontario, Canada (8/7\\)\\|work\\=wrestling\\-news.net\\|first\\=Wayne\\|last\\=Daly\\|date\\=August 8, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} at *Progress Chapter 95: Still Chasing* on September 15, 2019, he participated in a 30\\-person rumble match for the inaugural [Progress Proteus Championship](/wiki/Progress_Wrestling \"Progress Wrestling\"), competing against other wrestlers such as the winner Paul Robinson, [Eddie Kingston](/wiki/Eddie_Kingston \"Eddie Kingston\"), Dan Moloney, Sid Scala and Los Federales Santos Jr.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2019/09/16/progress\\-09\\-15\\-19\\-chapter\\-95\\-still\\-chasing\\-results/\\|title\\=Progress 09/15/19 Chapter 95: Still Chasing Results\\|work\\=pwponderings.com\\|author\\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\\|date\\=September 16, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People* on November 11, 2018, he lost a match to [Eddie Dennis](/wiki/Eddie_Dennis \"Eddie Dennis\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lastwordonsports.com/prowrestling/2018/11/08/preview\\-progress\\-chapter\\-78\\-24\\-hour\\-progress\\-people\\-11\\-11\\-18/\\|title\\=Preview: Progress Chapter 78: 24 Hour Progress People (11/11/18\\)\\|work\\=lastwordonsports.com\\|first\\=Alex\\|last\\=Richards\\|date\\=November 8, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Revolution Pro Wrestling (2016–present)",
"Bailey worked for the [British](/wiki/England \"England\") promotion [Revolution Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Revolution_Pro_Wrestling \"Revolution Pro Wrestling\"), having his first match at *RevPro High Stakes 2016* on January 16, where he lost to [Big Damo](/wiki/Killian_Dain \"Killian Dain\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://en.superluchas.com/resultados\\-de\\-revpro\\-high\\-stakes\\-2016\\-16\\-de\\-enero\\-de\\-2016\\-aj\\-styles\\-perdio\\-el\\-campeonato\\-britanico\\-a\\-menos\\-de\\-zack\\-sabre\\-jr/\\|title\\=RevPro High Stakes 2016 Results (Jan 16, 2016\\) \\- AJ Styles lost the British Championship to Zack Saber Jr.\\|work\\=superluchas.com\\|first\\=Adri\\|last\\=Lopez\\|date\\=January 17, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} He competed in various matches against popular wrestling figures. He lost to Zack Sabre Jr. at *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 13* on February 5, 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/02/17/revolution\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-live\\-cockpit\\-13\\-review/\\|title\\=Revolutiopn Pro Wrestling Live at the Cockpit 13 Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=February 17, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live In Portsmouth 9* on August 27, 2017, Bailey lost a match to [Jeff Cobb](/wiki/Jeff_Cobb \"Jeff Cobb\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thewrestlingrevolution.com/review.php?id\\=2411\\|title\\=RevPro Live in Portsmouth 9\\|work\\=thewrestlingrevolution.com\\|author\\=The Wrestling Revolution\\|date\\=August 27, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 21* on October 10, 2017, Bailey lost to [Zack Gibson](/wiki/Zack_Gibson \"Zack Gibson\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://rpwondemand.pivotshare.com/media/live\\-at\\-the\\-cockpit\\-21/68042\\|title\\=Live At The Cockpit 21\\|author\\=Revolution Pro Wrestling\\|date\\=October 10, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Monday Night Mayhem* on October 23, 2017, he unsuccessfully challenged Josh Bodom for the [RPW British Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/British_Cruiserweight_Championship_%28RevPro%29 \"British Cruiserweight Championship (RevPro)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ramblingsaboutwrestling.com/2017/10/26/retvolution\\-pro\\-monday\\-night\\-mayhem\\-review/\\|title\\=Revolution Pro Monday Night Mayhem Review\\|first\\=Stuart\\|last\\=Iversen\\|date\\=October 26, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019* on August 30, he participated in a six\\-man scramble match also involving the winner [Sanada](/wiki/Sanada_%28wrestler%29 \"Sanada (wrestler)\"), [Hikuleo](/wiki/Hikuleo_%28wrestler%29 \"Hikuleo (wrestler)\"), [Robbie Eagles](/wiki/Robbie_Eagles \"Robbie Eagles\"), [Rocky Romero](/wiki/Rocky_Romero \"Rocky Romero\") and [Senza Volto](/wiki/Senza_Volto \"Senza Volto\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.twm.news/revpro\\-summer\\-sizzler\\-2019\\-results/\\|title\\=RevPro Summer Sizzler 2019 Results\\|work\\=twm.news\\|author\\=TWM Wrestling\\|date\\=August 31, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Live At The Cockpit 47*, Bailey teamed up with [Mao](/wiki/Mao_%28wrestler%29 \"Mao (wrestler)\") as Moonlight Express to win the SWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Deadly Sins (JK Moody and Kane Khan).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.postwrestling.com/2019/11/03/results\\-revolution\\-pro\\-live\\-at\\-the\\-cockpit\\-47/\\|title\\=Live Report: Revolution Pro Live at The Cockpit 47\\|work\\=postwrestling.com\\|author\\=Post Wrestlnig Staff\\|date\\=November 3, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At *RevPro Uprising 2019*, on December 15, Bailey teamed up again with Mao, this time scoring a loss against [Pretty Deadly](/wiki/Pretty_Deadly_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Pretty Deadly (professional wrestling)\") (Lewis Howley and Sam Stoker).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vulturehound.co.uk/2019/12/hope\\-wins\\-revolution\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-uprising\\-december\\-15th\\-2019/\\|title\\='Hope wins' – Revolution Pro Wrestling 'Uprising' – December 15th, 2019\\|work\\=vulturehound.co.uk\\|first\\=Stephen\\|last\\=Goodman\\|date\\=December 20, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} On November 6, 2021, Bailey defeated [Kid Lykos](/wiki/Kid_Lykos \"Kid Lykos\") in the first round and pinned Luke Jacobs in a four\\-way elimination match to win the [2021 British J\\-Cup](/wiki/British_J-Cup_%282021%29 \"British J-Cup (2021)\").Thompson, Andrew. (2021\\-11\\-07\\) [\"‘Speedball’ Mike Bailey wins 2021 RevPro British J Cup tournament\"](https://www.postwrestling.com/2021/11/07/speedball-mike-bailey-wins-2021-revpro-british-j-cup-tournament), *Post Wrestling*, Retrieved on November 08, 2021\\.",
"#### Ring Of Honor (2019\\)",
"Bailey wrestled a match for [Ring Of Honor](/wiki/Ring_Of_Honor \"Ring Of Honor\"), at *ROH Honor United \\- Bolton*, on October 27, 2019, where he fell short to [Flamita](/wiki/Flamita \"Flamita\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rohwrestling.com/live/events/102719\\-honor\\-united\\-bolton\\|title\\=10/27/19 \\- Honor United \\- Bolton\\|work\\=rohwrestling.com\\|author\\=Ring of Honor Wrestling Entertainment\\|date\\=October 27, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Westside Xtreme Wrestling (2016–2020\\)",
"[thumb\\|Bailey facing [Jurn Simmons](/wiki/Jurn_Simmons \"Jurn Simmons\") at [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2020](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling%23Tournaments_and_accomplishments \"Westside Xtreme Wrestling#Tournaments and accomplishments\")](/wiki/File:Simmons_vs._Bailey_16_Carat_Gold_2020_%283%29.jpg \"Simmons vs. Bailey 16 Carat Gold 2020 (3).jpg\")\nBailey debuted for the [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") promotion [Westside Xtreme Wrestling](/wiki/Westside_Xtreme_Wrestling \"Westside Xtreme Wrestling\") on March 10, 2016, at the *wXw The Inner Circle*, where he first fell short to Kim Ray. In the second match, he teamed up with [Tyler Bate](/wiki/Tyler_Bate \"Tyler Bate\") in a losing effort to [Timothy Thatcher](/wiki/Timothy_Thatcher \"Timothy Thatcher\") and [Big Daddy Walter](/wiki/Walter_%28wrestler%29 \"Walter (wrestler)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestlingfever.de/wf\\-on\\-tour\\-wxw\\-inner\\-circle\\-10\\-03\\-2016\\-wrestling\\-academy\\-essen/\\|title\\=WF on Tour: WXW Inner Circle (10\\.03\\.2016 – Wrestling Academy, Essen)\\|work\\=wrestlingfever.de\\|language\\=German\\|author\\=Markus (WrestlingFever.de)\\|date\\=March 11, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He participated in the [wXw 16 Carat Gold 2016 Tournament](/wiki/WXw_16_Carat_Gold_Tournament \"WXw 16 Carat Gold Tournament\") where he lost to [Ilja Dragunov](/wiki/Ilja_Dragunov \"Ilja Dragunov\") on the first night, on March 11, 2016,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/25/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2016\\-night\\-1\\-results\\-reivew/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night 1 Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=March 25, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} and on the second night, from March 12, he faced [Marty Scurll](/wiki/Marty_Scurll \"Marty Scurll\"), [Trevor Lee](/wiki/Cameron_Grimes \"Cameron Grimes\") and [Angélico](/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lico \"Angélico\") in a three\\-way match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2016/03/28/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2016\\-night\\-two\\-march\\-12\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2016 – Night Two (March 12\\) Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Arnold\\|last\\=Furious\\|date\\=March 28, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, on March 13, he teamed up with Will Ospreay in a losing effort to Marty Scurll and Trevor Lee.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.f4wonline.com/indies/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-night\\-three\\-results\\-tournament\\-winner\\-crowned\\-278996\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold Night Three Results: Tournament Winner Crowned\\|work\\=f4wonline.com\\|first\\=Markus\\|last\\=Gronemann\\|date\\=March 11, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On September 30, 2016, on the first night of the *wXw World Tag Team League 2016*, Bailey defeated [John Klinger](/wiki/Bad_Bones \"Bad Bones\") to become the number ont contender for the [wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship](/wiki/WXw_Unified_World_Wrestling_Championship \"WXw Unified World Wrestling Championship\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-world\\-tag\\-team\\-league\\-2016/night\\-1\\|title\\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \\- Night 1\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=September 30, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on October 1, he fell short to the champion, Jurn Simmons.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-world\\-tag\\-team\\-league\\-2016/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw World Tag Team League 2016 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=October 1, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} He also participated in the wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 Tournament, and on the first night, on March 10, 2017, he defeated [A. C. H.](/wiki/ACH_%28wrestler%29 \"ACH (wrestler)\") in a first round match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/03/16/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2017\\-night\\-1\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW 16 Carat Gold 2017 (Night 1\\) Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Oliver\\|last\\=Court\\|date\\=March 16, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the second night, on March 11, he got defeated by [Matt Riddle](/wiki/Matt_Riddle \"Matt Riddle\") in a quarter\\-final match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2017/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2017 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 11, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} On the third night, he teamed up with ACH to score a victory against [Donovan Dijak](/wiki/Dominik_Dijakovic \"Dominik Dijakovic\") and [J. T. Dunn](/wiki/J._T._Dunn \"J. T. Dunn\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pwponderings.com/2017/03/12/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-2017\\-results/\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat 2017 Results\\|work\\=pwponderings.com\\|author\\=PWPonderings Independent Wrestling News, Analysis, and Results\\|date\\=March 12, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} At *wXw True Colors 2017* on April 8, Bailey battled Jurn Simmons, Walter and [Axel Dieter Jr.](/wiki/Marcel_Barthel \"Marcel Barthel\") in a four\\-way match for the wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship, coming out unsuccessfully.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.voicesofwrestling.com/2017/04/17/wxw\\-true\\-colors\\-results\\-review/\\|title\\=WXW True Colors Results \\& Review\\|work\\=voicesofwrestling.com\\|first\\=Arnold\\|last\\=Furious\\|date\\=April 17, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2021}} At *Road To 16 Carat Gold 2018*, on February 25, 2018, Bailey defeated [Jay Skillet](/wiki/Jay_Skillet \"Jay Skillet\") and Julian Pace in a three\\-way match semi\\-final; however, he fell short to [Marius Al\\-Ani](/wiki/Marius_Al-Ani \"Marius Al-Ani\") in the final, the same night.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-road\\-to\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/vod\\|title\\=wXw Road to 16 Carat Gold 2018\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=February 25, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} At wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 Tournament, Bailey unsuccessfully challenged [Bobby Gunns](/wiki/Bobby_Gunns \"Bobby Gunns\") for the [wXw Shotgun Championship](/wiki/WXw_Shotgun_Championship \"WXw Shotgun Championship\") on the second night, from March 10,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/night\\-2\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \\- Night 2\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 10, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}} and on the third night, a day later, he teamed up with [Matt Sydal](/wiki/Matt_Sydal \"Matt Sydal\") and Marius Al\\-Ani in a losing effort to CCK ([Chris Brookes](/wiki/Chris_Brookes \"Chris Brookes\") and [Travis Banks](/wiki/Travis_Banks \"Travis Banks\")) and [Jonah Rock](/wiki/Bronson_Reed \"Bronson Reed\") in a six\\-man tag team match.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wxwnow.com/en/events/wxw\\-16\\-carat\\-gold\\-2018/night\\-3\\|title\\=wXw 16 Carat Gold 2018 \\- Night 3\\|work\\=wxwnow.com\\|author\\=Westside Xtreme Wrestling\\|date\\=March 11, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2021}}",
"#### Return to PWG (2022–present)",
"Bailey returned to PWG after a six\\-year absence as a participant in the [2022 Battle of Los Angeles tournament](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282022%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2022)\"), where he defeated [Bandido](/wiki/Bandido_%28wrestler%29 \"Bandido (wrestler)\") in the first round, [Wheeler Yuta](/wiki/Wheeler_Yuta \"Wheeler Yuta\") in the quarterfinals and [Buddy Matthews](/wiki/Buddy_Matthews \"Buddy Matthews\") in the semifinals before losing to [Daniel Garcia](/wiki/Daniel_Garcia_%28wrestler%29 \"Daniel Garcia (wrestler)\") in the final. He rebounded from the loss in the [2023 Battle of Los Angeles](/wiki/Battle_of_Los_Angeles_%282023%29 \"Battle of Los Angeles (2023)\"), a year later, where he defeated [Jordynne Grace](/wiki/Jordynne_Grace \"Jordynne Grace\") in the first round, [Shun Skywalker](/wiki/Shun_Skywalker \"Shun Skywalker\") in the quarterfinals, Bryan Keith in the semifinals and [Konosuke Takeshita](/wiki/Konosuke_Takeshita \"Konosuke Takeshita\") in the final to win the tournament. The tournament win earned Bailey, a PWG World Championship title shot against Daniel Garcia in a sixty\\-minute Iron Man match at [Twenty: Mystery Vortex](/wiki/PWG_Twenty:Mystery_Vortex \"Mystery Vortex\"), which Bailey lost in a sudden death overtime.",
""
] |
Characters
----------
The twelve children are divided into three teams according to their particular field of rescue. These Machine Robos together with their Robo Masters (RM) can unite with various Support Robos but only with the permission of their RMs which can be transmitted through their **K\-Boy**s, which are communicator cellphone Machine Robo.
### Red Wings
The Red Wings were the first of MRR's rescue teams. They were designated as experts on fire and aerial rescues. The team's color is red and their symbol an open hand, which is the "paper" sign. Their emblem shows wings on either side of a diamond shape. This team is headed by Instructor Musashi.
{{nihongo\|Taiyou Ozora\|大空 太陽\|Ōzora Taiyō}}
Voice by: [Sayaka Aida](/wiki/Sayaka_Aida "Sayaka Aida"), A Robo Master of Jet Robo and Shuttle Robo, Taiyou is an aerial rescue specialist. A "survival natural", granted the ability to survive and sense danger, Taiyou is an orphan following a plane crash that killed his parents four years before he joined MRR and which he survived. He was the only survivor rescued by the Rescue Red robot. He is the leader of the Red Wings team along with Ace, usually reckless and likes to tackle problems head\-on. Sometimes, he relies too much on his ability which costs him the rescue. Later in the series, he was assigned to a place called Sabah for International Hyper Rescue located in Africa. He has a pet dog called Bone.
{{nihongo\|Arias "Ace" Honou\|エリアス 炎\|Ariasu Honō}}
Voice by: [Naomi Shindō](/wiki/Naomi_Shind%C5%8D "Naomi Shindō"). Robo Master of Fire Robo and a fire fighting and prevention specialist, his father is a fireman and expert on situations involving fire disasters. Ace is the type of person who is knowledgeable, acts like he wants to do everything by himself and lets his teammates rely on him. At the start of the series, he is usually seen competing with Makoto, Daichi, and most of all Taiyou. He also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.
{{nihongo\|Kai Kitazawa\|北沢 海\|Kitazawa Kai}}
Voice by: [Chihiro Kusaka](/wiki/Chihiro_Kusaka "Chihiro Kusaka"). Co\-pilot of the Red Wings' Wing\-Liner transport he acts as backup for Red Wings together with Rin and the pair help their teammates during rescues. He is a somewhat smart guy who knows a lot and is usually calm among the Red Wings. Later in the series, he and Jay were both assigned to space for International Hyper Rescue, where they live in a satellite.
{{nihongo\|Rin Haruka\|遥 鈴\|Haruka Rin}}
Voice by: [Kumiko Higa](/wiki/Kumiko_Higa "Kumiko Higa"). Main pilot of Wing\-Liner; proxy Red Wings Robo\-Master; mountain rescue specialist. She is half\-Japanese half\-Chinese. She is the only person who is not [acrophobic](/wiki/Acrophobic "Acrophobic") among the members when it comes to practice. She provides backup for the Red Wings together with Kai. After the experimental Gura Gorros were used in a particular rescue mission, (later renamed the Gura Gorro Rescue Squad), she became the robo master of the three Gura Gorros. She was assigned to Paris for International Hyper Rescue. She has a crush on Taiyoh, which she does not want Taiyou to know.
### Blue Sirens
The Blue Sirens were the second rescue team of MRR. This team handles police situations, road accidents and situations involving the capture of criminals. The team's color is blue and the team's symbol is a peace sign made with the hand. The sign also stands for "scissors". The team emblem has police lights at the top, an olive branch on either side, and a black tire in the middle. The Blue Sirens are headed by Instructor Koshiro.
{{nihongo\|Makoto Aikawa\|愛川 誠\|Aikawa Makoto}}
Voice by: [Chihiro Kusaka](/wiki/Chihiro_Kusaka "Chihiro Kusaka").
Robo Master of Police Robo, Makoto is a combat natural from a family of police officers. He is very strict with his teammates sometimes and is usually called the "cold guy" because of his upright manner and his following of the rules to the letter. Later on in the series, he leaves Machine Robo Rescue to gain more experience in rescue and being a policeman. He also took the Police Robo and the Bike Robos with him.
{{nihongo\|Susumu Utada\|歌田 進\|Utada Susumu}}
Voice: [Michael Shitanda](/wiki/Michael_Shitanda "Michael Shitanda"). Robo Master of Gyro Robo and twin brother of Tsuyoshi, mechanic and engineering specialist. Being Tsuyoshi's twin, Susumu knows exactly what his brother is thinking and doing at all times. Susumu is the machinery expert among the twins. Later, both he and his brother are assigned to New York for International Hyper Rescue.
{{nihongo\|Tsuyoshi Utada\|歌田 強\|Utada Tsuyoshi}}
{{Voiced by\|\[\[Masato Amada]]\[http://www.sunrise\-inc.co.jp/mrr/chara/index.html Staff\&cast]\|Chuck Powers}}.
Co\-pilot of the Blue Sirens' Siren\-Galley transport and twin brother of Susumu, mechanic and engineering specialist. Being Susumu's twin, Tsuyoshi knows exactly what his brother is thinking and doing at all times. Later, both he and his brother are assigned to New York for International Hyper Rescue.
{{nihongo\|Alice Beckham\|アリス・ベッカム\|Arisu Bekkamu}}
Voice by: [Yukana Nogami](/wiki/Yukana "Yukana"),. Main pilot of the Blue Sirens' Siren\-Galley transport. She is a former child actress and now the MRR public relations liaison. The main backup for the Blue Sirens, she has a crush on Makoto, proven when she got jealous when Makoto went on a date with Aki. She also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.
### Yellow Gears
The last rescue team of MRR. Their specialty is extreme rescue situations involving earthquakes, debris, building collapses and underwater rescues. The team's color is yellow and the team's symbol is a closed hand, which is the "rock" sign. The team emblem has two gears on either side of an embedded plate. They are headed by Instructor Marie.
Members:
{{nihongo\|Daichi Hayami\|速水 大地\|Haiyami Daichi}}
Voice by: [Risa Hayamizu](/wiki/Risa_Hayamizu "Risa Hayamizu").
Robo Master of Drill Robo, Daichi has high spatial awareness, which allows him to accurately estimate distance and dimension by just looking at a distance or object. He is usually shy and his stomach hurts before a rescue. He left Machine Robo Rescue later in the series to help Professor Suidoubashi in developing the new Machine Robos. He also owns the company where the new parts for Machine Robos are built hence Professor Suidoubashi addressing him as "Company President".
{{nihongo\|Shou Ashikawa\|芦川ショウ\|Ashikawa Shō}}
Voice by:
Robo Master of Submarine Robo, Shou is a sea and underwater rescue specialist and the best swimmer among the members. They are the happy group of MRR, with Sho and Ken, making people laugh and smile so as to forget their problems and believe in the quote "Laughter can Save the World." He also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.
{{nihongo\|Sayuri Suizenji\|水前寺 小百合\|Suizenji Sayuri}}
Voice by: Akiko Kimura. Main pilot of the Yellow Gears' Gear\-Dump transport and medical specialist. She is a "therapy natural", which gives her the ability to instill calm to anyone she talks to although this ability is not mentioned until episode 44\. She is the main backup of the Yellow Gears along with Ken. She later leaves MRR to develop laws to make International Hyper Rescue more responsive.
{{nihongo\|Ken Minami\|美波ケン\|Minami Ken}}
Voice by: Megumi Masato. Co\-pilot of the Gear Dump and proxy Yellow Gears Robo\-Master. He is one of the backups for the Yellow Gears together with Sayuri. He sometimes acts in a feminine manner. He met a ghost pirate girl named Nina which follows him but is not determined whether they still contact each other. He later becomes the official doctor for the next MRR generation.
### MRR Stealth
This team was formed by Jay and V\-Stealth Robo and specializes in air, land and space combat. The team's color is violet and the team's symbol is a hand with a finger pointing northwest and a thumb pointing northeast. The team emblem is the same with the emblem of V\-Stealth Robo, featuring a simple drawing of the vehicle mode of V\-Stealth Robo with lightning striking it.
{{nihongo\|Jay\|ジェイ\|Jei}}
Voice by: Hisafumi Oda. Real name: Junior. Robo Master of V\-Stealth Robo and formerly an agent of Disaster for Kaiser\-G until reformed and accepted into the MRR. He is a combat specialist and also a "survivor natural" like Taiyou. His past is unknown but it is believed he was involved in space exploration when he was a baby. He was the only survivor from an accident that happened in space where he was sent out in an escape pod and found by an exploration team. He was sent to an orphanage then captured by the Disasters. He was brainwashed and trained to be a warrior. Later on in the series, he and Kai were both assigned to space for International Hyper Rescue.
### MRR Staff and other characters
{{nihongo\|Musashi Miyajima \|宮島 武蔵\|Miyajima Musashi}}
Voice: Hiroomi Sugino. One of the Instructors of Machine Robo Rescue, he has a hard headed attitude but sometimes a good heart. He is in charge of the Red Wings.
{{nihongo\|Koshiro Sasaki\|佐々木 古志郎\|Sasaki Kōshiro}}
Voice: [Ryotaro Okiayu](/wiki/Ryotaro_Okiayu "Ryotaro Okiayu"). The second Instructor of Machine Robo rescue. He is a calm, cool guy but can become upset when trainees get into trouble. He is in charge of the Blue Sirens.
{{nihongo\|Marie Bitou\|尾藤 マリー\|Bitō Marie}}
Voice: [Yukana Nogami](/wiki/Yukana_Nogami "Yukana Nogami"). The third and only female instructor of Machine Robo Rescue, she is the daughter of founder Brad Bitou and always calls her father "Chief" sometimes. She is in charge of the Yellow Gears.
{{nihongo\|Brad Bitou\|尾藤 ブラッド\|Bitō Brad}}
Voice: [Kazuhiro Nakata](/wiki/Kazuhiro_Nakata "Kazuhiro Nakata"). The founder of MRR, he is one of the developers of the Machine Robos along with Tohru Suidohbashi. He was also involved in the creation of Kaiser\-G and the subsequent disaster it caused.
{{nihongo\|Tohru Suidohbashi\|水道橋 徹\|Suidōbashi Tōru}}
Voice: [Kazuma Horie](/wiki/Kazuma_Horie "Kazuma Horie"). The main developer of the Machine Robos. He and Brad worked together and founded MRR after the Stealth Robo activation incident.
{{nihongo\|Bone\|ボン\|Bone}}
Voice: \[Naoki Yanagi]]. Taiyo's pet dog and a pure bred [Saint Bernard](/wiki/St._Bernard_%28dog%29 "St. Bernard (dog)"). He is also a survivor of the same plane crash that killed Taiyo's parents.
### Disasters
The Antagonist Group in the series. They were led by Kaiser\-G and interfered with the activities of MRR.
Cap.Hazard
Voice by: [Kenji Nojima](/wiki/Kenji_Nojima "Kenji Nojima"). Kaiser\-G's right\-hand man, he is a psychopath who wants to create more disaster and bring chaos to humans. He was defeated by the MRR before Kaiser\-G was fully activated.
Kaiser\-G
The Leader of the Disasters and the one who adopted Jay as a baby. He is a powerful supercomputer created by Brad Bitou that went berserk several years later. His goal is to create the worst disaster on the planet through an asteroid crashing into the Earth. He was ultimately defeated by Taiyoh, Jay, Machine Commander Robo V and Shuttle Robo.
|
[
"Characters\n----------",
"The twelve children are divided into three teams according to their particular field of rescue. These Machine Robos together with their Robo Masters (RM) can unite with various Support Robos but only with the permission of their RMs which can be transmitted through their **K\\-Boy**s, which are communicator cellphone Machine Robo.",
"### Red Wings",
"The Red Wings were the first of MRR's rescue teams. They were designated as experts on fire and aerial rescues. The team's color is red and their symbol an open hand, which is the \"paper\" sign. Their emblem shows wings on either side of a diamond shape. This team is headed by Instructor Musashi.",
"{{nihongo\\|Taiyou Ozora\\|大空 太陽\\|Ōzora Taiyō}}\nVoice by: [Sayaka Aida](/wiki/Sayaka_Aida \"Sayaka Aida\"), A Robo Master of Jet Robo and Shuttle Robo, Taiyou is an aerial rescue specialist. A \"survival natural\", granted the ability to survive and sense danger, Taiyou is an orphan following a plane crash that killed his parents four years before he joined MRR and which he survived. He was the only survivor rescued by the Rescue Red robot. He is the leader of the Red Wings team along with Ace, usually reckless and likes to tackle problems head\\-on. Sometimes, he relies too much on his ability which costs him the rescue. Later in the series, he was assigned to a place called Sabah for International Hyper Rescue located in Africa. He has a pet dog called Bone.\n{{nihongo\\|Arias \"Ace\" Honou\\|エリアス 炎\\|Ariasu Honō}}\nVoice by: [Naomi Shindō](/wiki/Naomi_Shind%C5%8D \"Naomi Shindō\"). Robo Master of Fire Robo and a fire fighting and prevention specialist, his father is a fireman and expert on situations involving fire disasters. Ace is the type of person who is knowledgeable, acts like he wants to do everything by himself and lets his teammates rely on him. At the start of the series, he is usually seen competing with Makoto, Daichi, and most of all Taiyou. He also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.\n{{nihongo\\|Kai Kitazawa\\|北沢 海\\|Kitazawa Kai}}\nVoice by: [Chihiro Kusaka](/wiki/Chihiro_Kusaka \"Chihiro Kusaka\"). Co\\-pilot of the Red Wings' Wing\\-Liner transport he acts as backup for Red Wings together with Rin and the pair help their teammates during rescues. He is a somewhat smart guy who knows a lot and is usually calm among the Red Wings. Later in the series, he and Jay were both assigned to space for International Hyper Rescue, where they live in a satellite.\n{{nihongo\\|Rin Haruka\\|遥 鈴\\|Haruka Rin}}\nVoice by: [Kumiko Higa](/wiki/Kumiko_Higa \"Kumiko Higa\"). Main pilot of Wing\\-Liner; proxy Red Wings Robo\\-Master; mountain rescue specialist. She is half\\-Japanese half\\-Chinese. She is the only person who is not [acrophobic](/wiki/Acrophobic \"Acrophobic\") among the members when it comes to practice. She provides backup for the Red Wings together with Kai. After the experimental Gura Gorros were used in a particular rescue mission, (later renamed the Gura Gorro Rescue Squad), she became the robo master of the three Gura Gorros. She was assigned to Paris for International Hyper Rescue. She has a crush on Taiyoh, which she does not want Taiyou to know.\n### Blue Sirens",
"The Blue Sirens were the second rescue team of MRR. This team handles police situations, road accidents and situations involving the capture of criminals. The team's color is blue and the team's symbol is a peace sign made with the hand. The sign also stands for \"scissors\". The team emblem has police lights at the top, an olive branch on either side, and a black tire in the middle. The Blue Sirens are headed by Instructor Koshiro.",
"{{nihongo\\|Makoto Aikawa\\|愛川 誠\\|Aikawa Makoto}}\nVoice by: [Chihiro Kusaka](/wiki/Chihiro_Kusaka \"Chihiro Kusaka\"). \nRobo Master of Police Robo, Makoto is a combat natural from a family of police officers. He is very strict with his teammates sometimes and is usually called the \"cold guy\" because of his upright manner and his following of the rules to the letter. Later on in the series, he leaves Machine Robo Rescue to gain more experience in rescue and being a policeman. He also took the Police Robo and the Bike Robos with him.\n{{nihongo\\|Susumu Utada\\|歌田 進\\|Utada Susumu}}\nVoice: [Michael Shitanda](/wiki/Michael_Shitanda \"Michael Shitanda\"). Robo Master of Gyro Robo and twin brother of Tsuyoshi, mechanic and engineering specialist. Being Tsuyoshi's twin, Susumu knows exactly what his brother is thinking and doing at all times. Susumu is the machinery expert among the twins. Later, both he and his brother are assigned to New York for International Hyper Rescue.\n{{nihongo\\|Tsuyoshi Utada\\|歌田 強\\|Utada Tsuyoshi}}\n{{Voiced by\\|\\[\\[Masato Amada]]\\[http://www.sunrise\\-inc.co.jp/mrr/chara/index.html Staff\\&cast]\\|Chuck Powers}}.\nCo\\-pilot of the Blue Sirens' Siren\\-Galley transport and twin brother of Susumu, mechanic and engineering specialist. Being Susumu's twin, Tsuyoshi knows exactly what his brother is thinking and doing at all times. Later, both he and his brother are assigned to New York for International Hyper Rescue.\n{{nihongo\\|Alice Beckham\\|アリス・ベッカム\\|Arisu Bekkamu}}\nVoice by: [Yukana Nogami](/wiki/Yukana \"Yukana\"),. Main pilot of the Blue Sirens' Siren\\-Galley transport. She is a former child actress and now the MRR public relations liaison. The main backup for the Blue Sirens, she has a crush on Makoto, proven when she got jealous when Makoto went on a date with Aki. She also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.\n### Yellow Gears",
"The last rescue team of MRR. Their specialty is extreme rescue situations involving earthquakes, debris, building collapses and underwater rescues. The team's color is yellow and the team's symbol is a closed hand, which is the \"rock\" sign. The team emblem has two gears on either side of an embedded plate. They are headed by Instructor Marie.",
"Members:\n{{nihongo\\|Daichi Hayami\\|速水 大地\\|Haiyami Daichi}}\nVoice by: [Risa Hayamizu](/wiki/Risa_Hayamizu \"Risa Hayamizu\"). \nRobo Master of Drill Robo, Daichi has high spatial awareness, which allows him to accurately estimate distance and dimension by just looking at a distance or object. He is usually shy and his stomach hurts before a rescue. He left Machine Robo Rescue later in the series to help Professor Suidoubashi in developing the new Machine Robos. He also owns the company where the new parts for Machine Robos are built hence Professor Suidoubashi addressing him as \"Company President\".",
"{{nihongo\\|Shou Ashikawa\\|芦川ショウ\\|Ashikawa Shō}}\nVoice by: \nRobo Master of Submarine Robo, Shou is a sea and underwater rescue specialist and the best swimmer among the members. They are the happy group of MRR, with Sho and Ken, making people laugh and smile so as to forget their problems and believe in the quote \"Laughter can Save the World.\" He also volunteered to be one of the instructors of the next MRR generation.\n{{nihongo\\|Sayuri Suizenji\\|水前寺 小百合\\|Suizenji Sayuri}}\nVoice by: Akiko Kimura. Main pilot of the Yellow Gears' Gear\\-Dump transport and medical specialist. She is a \"therapy natural\", which gives her the ability to instill calm to anyone she talks to although this ability is not mentioned until episode 44\\. She is the main backup of the Yellow Gears along with Ken. She later leaves MRR to develop laws to make International Hyper Rescue more responsive.\n{{nihongo\\|Ken Minami\\|美波ケン\\|Minami Ken}}\nVoice by: Megumi Masato. Co\\-pilot of the Gear Dump and proxy Yellow Gears Robo\\-Master. He is one of the backups for the Yellow Gears together with Sayuri. He sometimes acts in a feminine manner. He met a ghost pirate girl named Nina which follows him but is not determined whether they still contact each other. He later becomes the official doctor for the next MRR generation.\n### MRR Stealth",
"This team was formed by Jay and V\\-Stealth Robo and specializes in air, land and space combat. The team's color is violet and the team's symbol is a hand with a finger pointing northwest and a thumb pointing northeast. The team emblem is the same with the emblem of V\\-Stealth Robo, featuring a simple drawing of the vehicle mode of V\\-Stealth Robo with lightning striking it.",
"{{nihongo\\|Jay\\|ジェイ\\|Jei}}\nVoice by: Hisafumi Oda. Real name: Junior. Robo Master of V\\-Stealth Robo and formerly an agent of Disaster for Kaiser\\-G until reformed and accepted into the MRR. He is a combat specialist and also a \"survivor natural\" like Taiyou. His past is unknown but it is believed he was involved in space exploration when he was a baby. He was the only survivor from an accident that happened in space where he was sent out in an escape pod and found by an exploration team. He was sent to an orphanage then captured by the Disasters. He was brainwashed and trained to be a warrior. Later on in the series, he and Kai were both assigned to space for International Hyper Rescue.\n### MRR Staff and other characters",
"{{nihongo\\|Musashi Miyajima \\|宮島 武蔵\\|Miyajima Musashi}}\nVoice: Hiroomi Sugino. One of the Instructors of Machine Robo Rescue, he has a hard headed attitude but sometimes a good heart. He is in charge of the Red Wings.\n{{nihongo\\|Koshiro Sasaki\\|佐々木 古志郎\\|Sasaki Kōshiro}}\nVoice: [Ryotaro Okiayu](/wiki/Ryotaro_Okiayu \"Ryotaro Okiayu\"). The second Instructor of Machine Robo rescue. He is a calm, cool guy but can become upset when trainees get into trouble. He is in charge of the Blue Sirens.\n{{nihongo\\|Marie Bitou\\|尾藤 マリー\\|Bitō Marie}}\nVoice: [Yukana Nogami](/wiki/Yukana_Nogami \"Yukana Nogami\"). The third and only female instructor of Machine Robo Rescue, she is the daughter of founder Brad Bitou and always calls her father \"Chief\" sometimes. She is in charge of the Yellow Gears.",
"{{nihongo\\|Brad Bitou\\|尾藤 ブラッド\\|Bitō Brad}}\nVoice: [Kazuhiro Nakata](/wiki/Kazuhiro_Nakata \"Kazuhiro Nakata\"). The founder of MRR, he is one of the developers of the Machine Robos along with Tohru Suidohbashi. He was also involved in the creation of Kaiser\\-G and the subsequent disaster it caused.",
"{{nihongo\\|Tohru Suidohbashi\\|水道橋 徹\\|Suidōbashi Tōru}}\nVoice: [Kazuma Horie](/wiki/Kazuma_Horie \"Kazuma Horie\"). The main developer of the Machine Robos. He and Brad worked together and founded MRR after the Stealth Robo activation incident.\n{{nihongo\\|Bone\\|ボン\\|Bone}}\nVoice: \\[Naoki Yanagi]]. Taiyo's pet dog and a pure bred [Saint Bernard](/wiki/St._Bernard_%28dog%29 \"St. Bernard (dog)\"). He is also a survivor of the same plane crash that killed Taiyo's parents.\n### Disasters",
"The Antagonist Group in the series. They were led by Kaiser\\-G and interfered with the activities of MRR.",
"Cap.Hazard\nVoice by: [Kenji Nojima](/wiki/Kenji_Nojima \"Kenji Nojima\"). Kaiser\\-G's right\\-hand man, he is a psychopath who wants to create more disaster and bring chaos to humans. He was defeated by the MRR before Kaiser\\-G was fully activated.\nKaiser\\-G\nThe Leader of the Disasters and the one who adopted Jay as a baby. He is a powerful supercomputer created by Brad Bitou that went berserk several years later. His goal is to create the worst disaster on the planet through an asteroid crashing into the Earth. He was ultimately defeated by Taiyoh, Jay, Machine Commander Robo V and Shuttle Robo."
] |
Mecha
-----
### Machine Robo
* **MR\-01L Jet Robo/MR\-S01L Shuttle Robo**
Robo Master: Taiyoh Ohzora
Taiyoh's Machine Robo Partner, he is one of the special Machine Robos built for Aerial Rescues and sometimes help put out fires along with the Sky Robos. In Vehicle mode, he resembles a jet while he resembles blue Jet when he is in Robo Mode. When he was defeated by Stealth Robo out in space and crash landed on earth, he was remodeled for space rescues to beat Stealth Robo and to perform space rescues, he became Shuttle Robo and commanded the Space Robos instead of the Sky Robos . With Taiyo's command, Jet Robo can combine with the Sky Robos to form Hyper Jet Robo or Shuttle Robo can combine with the Space Robos to become Hyper Shuttle Robo. His special attacks are Jet Puncher as Jet Robo and Shuttle Puncher and Beam Anchor as Shuttle Robo.
Jet Robo's Design is maybe based on Blue Jet from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.
* **MR\-04L Fire Robo**
Robo Master: Arias "Ace" Honoh
Ace's Machine Robo Partner, he specializes on putting out fires. In Vehicle Mode, he reassembles a Fire Truck. In Robo Mode, he carries two water guns that puts out certain fires. In Hyper mode, both water guns were mounted on the shoulders. He has the ability to put out fires with water and foam. He is also the only leader robo with ladies as his supporter robos. Ace gives the command to Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to combine to become Hyper Fire Robo. His special attack is Hydro Splasher.
* **MR\-05L Police Robo**
Robo Master: Makoto Aikawa
Makoto's Machine Robo Partner, he is an expert on the road and on capturing criminals. He has a strong sense of Justice and knows what is wrong and what is right. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a police car. In Hyper Mode, his chest area looks like Supercar Robo. When Makoto gives the command, Police Robo and the Bike Robos combine to form Hyper Police Robo. His special attack is Back Fire.
* **MR\-02L Gyro Robo**
Robo Master: Susumu and Tsuyoshi Utada
Susumu and Tsuyoshi's Machine Robo Partner, he also has a strong sense of Justice like Police but a bit too much. He was sent to MRR after the New York incident. He is sometimes cocky. He is also the only robo with 2 robo masters. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Gyro Jet. In Robo Mode, the Gyro wings became arms which he also use for flying. When either both Susumu and Tsuyoshi gave the command, Gyro Robo and the Helicopter Robos combine to form Hyper Gyro Robo. His special attack is Gyro Shooter.
* **MR\-03L Drill Robo**
Robo Master: Daichi Hayami
Daichi's Machine Robo Partner, he is the odd ball of the group. Sometimes acting like a Kabuki performer, he is specially designed to drill through the earth and performs extreme rescue situations. In one episode, it reveals that he was not built for underwater conditions. He is, in fact, the strongest among the leader robos. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Drill Tank. In Robo Mode, he somehow has a strange resemblance to Rod Drill. Daichi gives the command to him and the Dozer Robos to form Hyper Drill Robo. His special attack is Drill Attack.
Just like Jet Robo, his design is also based on Rod Drill from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.
* **MR\-06L Submarine Robo**
Robo Master: Shoh Ashikawa
Sho's Machine Robo Partner, he is the Machine Robo who specializes in Underwater Rescues. He has a cool accent and can understand with the animals of the ocean and he really loves the ocean. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Submarine/Powerboat Hybrid. In Robo and Hyper modes, he is like Police Robo except for the different features and design. When Sho gives the command, Submarine Robo and the Aqua Robos combine to form Hyper Submarine Robo. His special attack is Bubble Smash.
* **MRX\-00L Stealth Robo/MR\-V00L V\-Stealth Robo**
Robo Master: Jay
He was the Original Machine Robo who all the Machine Robo were based on. When he is activated once, he almost destroyed the facility so he was deactivated until the Disasters got a hold of him and Jay chose him to be his Robo Master. Originally, Stealth Robo is colored purple in all Vehicle, Robo and Hyper Modes and can unleash powerful beam blasts and missiles when he is Hyper Stealth Robo. But after Jay left the Disasters, the MRR repaired as well as remodeled him to become V\-Stealth Robo, now colored white with purple accents. He may have the same ability as his former self but the 4 Tank Robos (which were destroyed by BL Hyper Drill Robo) that combine with him were replaced with a special booster wing pack that combines with V\-Stealth Robo to form Hyper V\-Stealth Robo. Also, he has ability to combine with Machine Commander to form Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burst Tempest. Fitting his name, he can turn invinsible. His vehicle resembles an F\-117 Stealth Fighter.
### Transporters
* **TMR\-01WL Wing Liner**
Pilots: Rin Haruka, Kai Kitazawa
The transport unit of the Red Wings. It resembles a set of bullet trains. It carries Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to their chosen destinations. It is the tallest among the transporters when in Robo mode as the front and back carriage become the legs. But when Rin and Kai manually activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Wing Liner Robo.
* **TMR\-02SG Siren Galley**
Pilots: Alice Beckham
Blue Siren's Transport unit. It reassembles an armored van in Vehicle mode. But when Alice or either Susumu or Tsuyoshi manually activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Siren Galley Robo.
* **TMR\-03GD Gear Dump**
Pilots: Sayuri Suizenji, Ken Minami
Yellow Gear's Transport unit. It is the shortest of all the transporters of the MRR. It reassembles a Haul Truck in Vehicle mode, which is pretty huge. But when Sayuri and Ken activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Gear Dump Robo.
* **TMR\-04MC Machine Commander**
The last Transporter of the MRR and the only one equipped with sentient AI. It was composed of 3 units: the TMR\-04MC1 Red Commander, TMR\-04MC2 Blue Commander and TMR\-04MC3 Yellow Commander. Each Designated Leader Robo goes inside each commander and all 3 commander combines into Machine Commander or Machine Commander Robo. Also, the unit has a special ability to combine with V\-Stealth Robo to become Machine Commander Robo V. His special attacks are Zone Release and Mighty Flash as Machine Commander Robo and Sprinkler Shield and Dual Tornado in V mode.
### Disasters
* **Gura Gorros**
These are units created by Kaiser\-G to interfere Machine Robo Rescue's duties. After Kaiser\-G is defeated, 3 of them were trained and assigned to Rin Haruka as the Gura Gorro Rescue Squad for International Hyper Rescue
* **BL Fire Robo/Hyper BL Fire Robo**
The first of the Black Machine Robos created by the disasters. He is the black/violet version of Fire Robo who uses fire instead of water. The most popular among the BL Robos for he is usually seen fighting in the series, he was destroyed by Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burning Storm.
* **BL Police Robo/Hyper BL Police Robo**
Second of the Black Machine Robos and a black version of Police Robo. He was the last to be destroyed and by Machine Commander Robo. His special attack is Exhaust Bomber.
* **BL Drill Robo/Hyper BL Drill Robo**
The last of the Black Machine Robos who is the brown/olive version of Drill Robo. He was defeated by Stealth Robo using Jet Robo's parts. His special attack is Power Crusher.
All three of the Black Machine Robos were in command of Col. Hazard using his black K\-Boy.
### Guest Units
* **Air Leon** \- Appeared in the Two\-Part Special, it was a special Mugenbine Machine Robo enlisted in the MRR.
|
[
"Mecha\n-----",
"### Machine Robo",
"* **MR\\-01L Jet Robo/MR\\-S01L Shuttle Robo**\nRobo Master: Taiyoh Ohzora",
"Taiyoh's Machine Robo Partner, he is one of the special Machine Robos built for Aerial Rescues and sometimes help put out fires along with the Sky Robos. In Vehicle mode, he resembles a jet while he resembles blue Jet when he is in Robo Mode. When he was defeated by Stealth Robo out in space and crash landed on earth, he was remodeled for space rescues to beat Stealth Robo and to perform space rescues, he became Shuttle Robo and commanded the Space Robos instead of the Sky Robos . With Taiyo's command, Jet Robo can combine with the Sky Robos to form Hyper Jet Robo or Shuttle Robo can combine with the Space Robos to become Hyper Shuttle Robo. His special attacks are Jet Puncher as Jet Robo and Shuttle Puncher and Beam Anchor as Shuttle Robo.",
"Jet Robo's Design is maybe based on Blue Jet from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.",
"* **MR\\-04L Fire Robo**\nRobo Master: Arias \"Ace\" Honoh",
"Ace's Machine Robo Partner, he specializes on putting out fires. In Vehicle Mode, he reassembles a Fire Truck. In Robo Mode, he carries two water guns that puts out certain fires. In Hyper mode, both water guns were mounted on the shoulders. He has the ability to put out fires with water and foam. He is also the only leader robo with ladies as his supporter robos. Ace gives the command to Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to combine to become Hyper Fire Robo. His special attack is Hydro Splasher.",
"* **MR\\-05L Police Robo**\nRobo Master: Makoto Aikawa",
"Makoto's Machine Robo Partner, he is an expert on the road and on capturing criminals. He has a strong sense of Justice and knows what is wrong and what is right. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a police car. In Hyper Mode, his chest area looks like Supercar Robo. When Makoto gives the command, Police Robo and the Bike Robos combine to form Hyper Police Robo. His special attack is Back Fire.",
"* **MR\\-02L Gyro Robo**\nRobo Master: Susumu and Tsuyoshi Utada",
"Susumu and Tsuyoshi's Machine Robo Partner, he also has a strong sense of Justice like Police but a bit too much. He was sent to MRR after the New York incident. He is sometimes cocky. He is also the only robo with 2 robo masters. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Gyro Jet. In Robo Mode, the Gyro wings became arms which he also use for flying. When either both Susumu and Tsuyoshi gave the command, Gyro Robo and the Helicopter Robos combine to form Hyper Gyro Robo. His special attack is Gyro Shooter.",
"* **MR\\-03L Drill Robo**\nRobo Master: Daichi Hayami",
"Daichi's Machine Robo Partner, he is the odd ball of the group. Sometimes acting like a Kabuki performer, he is specially designed to drill through the earth and performs extreme rescue situations. In one episode, it reveals that he was not built for underwater conditions. He is, in fact, the strongest among the leader robos. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Drill Tank. In Robo Mode, he somehow has a strange resemblance to Rod Drill. Daichi gives the command to him and the Dozer Robos to form Hyper Drill Robo. His special attack is Drill Attack.",
"Just like Jet Robo, his design is also based on Rod Drill from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.",
"* **MR\\-06L Submarine Robo**\nRobo Master: Shoh Ashikawa",
"Sho's Machine Robo Partner, he is the Machine Robo who specializes in Underwater Rescues. He has a cool accent and can understand with the animals of the ocean and he really loves the ocean. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Submarine/Powerboat Hybrid. In Robo and Hyper modes, he is like Police Robo except for the different features and design. When Sho gives the command, Submarine Robo and the Aqua Robos combine to form Hyper Submarine Robo. His special attack is Bubble Smash.",
"* **MRX\\-00L Stealth Robo/MR\\-V00L V\\-Stealth Robo**\nRobo Master: Jay",
"He was the Original Machine Robo who all the Machine Robo were based on. When he is activated once, he almost destroyed the facility so he was deactivated until the Disasters got a hold of him and Jay chose him to be his Robo Master. Originally, Stealth Robo is colored purple in all Vehicle, Robo and Hyper Modes and can unleash powerful beam blasts and missiles when he is Hyper Stealth Robo. But after Jay left the Disasters, the MRR repaired as well as remodeled him to become V\\-Stealth Robo, now colored white with purple accents. He may have the same ability as his former self but the 4 Tank Robos (which were destroyed by BL Hyper Drill Robo) that combine with him were replaced with a special booster wing pack that combines with V\\-Stealth Robo to form Hyper V\\-Stealth Robo. Also, he has ability to combine with Machine Commander to form Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burst Tempest. Fitting his name, he can turn invinsible. His vehicle resembles an F\\-117 Stealth Fighter.",
"### Transporters",
"* **TMR\\-01WL Wing Liner**\nPilots: Rin Haruka, Kai Kitazawa",
"The transport unit of the Red Wings. It resembles a set of bullet trains. It carries Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to their chosen destinations. It is the tallest among the transporters when in Robo mode as the front and back carriage become the legs. But when Rin and Kai manually activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Wing Liner Robo.",
"* **TMR\\-02SG Siren Galley**\nPilots: Alice Beckham",
"Blue Siren's Transport unit. It reassembles an armored van in Vehicle mode. But when Alice or either Susumu or Tsuyoshi manually activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Siren Galley Robo.",
"* **TMR\\-03GD Gear Dump**\nPilots: Sayuri Suizenji, Ken Minami",
"Yellow Gear's Transport unit. It is the shortest of all the transporters of the MRR. It reassembles a Haul Truck in Vehicle mode, which is pretty huge. But when Sayuri and Ken activates its Robo Mode, it becomes Gear Dump Robo.",
"* **TMR\\-04MC Machine Commander**",
"The last Transporter of the MRR and the only one equipped with sentient AI. It was composed of 3 units: the TMR\\-04MC1 Red Commander, TMR\\-04MC2 Blue Commander and TMR\\-04MC3 Yellow Commander. Each Designated Leader Robo goes inside each commander and all 3 commander combines into Machine Commander or Machine Commander Robo. Also, the unit has a special ability to combine with V\\-Stealth Robo to become Machine Commander Robo V. His special attacks are Zone Release and Mighty Flash as Machine Commander Robo and Sprinkler Shield and Dual Tornado in V mode.",
"### Disasters",
"* **Gura Gorros**",
"These are units created by Kaiser\\-G to interfere Machine Robo Rescue's duties. After Kaiser\\-G is defeated, 3 of them were trained and assigned to Rin Haruka as the Gura Gorro Rescue Squad for International Hyper Rescue",
"* **BL Fire Robo/Hyper BL Fire Robo**",
"The first of the Black Machine Robos created by the disasters. He is the black/violet version of Fire Robo who uses fire instead of water. The most popular among the BL Robos for he is usually seen fighting in the series, he was destroyed by Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burning Storm.\n* **BL Police Robo/Hyper BL Police Robo**",
"Second of the Black Machine Robos and a black version of Police Robo. He was the last to be destroyed and by Machine Commander Robo. His special attack is Exhaust Bomber.",
"* **BL Drill Robo/Hyper BL Drill Robo**",
"The last of the Black Machine Robos who is the brown/olive version of Drill Robo. He was defeated by Stealth Robo using Jet Robo's parts. His special attack is Power Crusher.",
"All three of the Black Machine Robos were in command of Col. Hazard using his black K\\-Boy.",
"### Guest Units",
"* **Air Leon** \\- Appeared in the Two\\-Part Special, it was a special Mugenbine Machine Robo enlisted in the MRR."
] |
### Machine Robo
* **MR\-01L Jet Robo/MR\-S01L Shuttle Robo**
Robo Master: Taiyoh Ohzora
Taiyoh's Machine Robo Partner, he is one of the special Machine Robos built for Aerial Rescues and sometimes help put out fires along with the Sky Robos. In Vehicle mode, he resembles a jet while he resembles blue Jet when he is in Robo Mode. When he was defeated by Stealth Robo out in space and crash landed on earth, he was remodeled for space rescues to beat Stealth Robo and to perform space rescues, he became Shuttle Robo and commanded the Space Robos instead of the Sky Robos . With Taiyo's command, Jet Robo can combine with the Sky Robos to form Hyper Jet Robo or Shuttle Robo can combine with the Space Robos to become Hyper Shuttle Robo. His special attacks are Jet Puncher as Jet Robo and Shuttle Puncher and Beam Anchor as Shuttle Robo.
Jet Robo's Design is maybe based on Blue Jet from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.
* **MR\-04L Fire Robo**
Robo Master: Arias "Ace" Honoh
Ace's Machine Robo Partner, he specializes on putting out fires. In Vehicle Mode, he reassembles a Fire Truck. In Robo Mode, he carries two water guns that puts out certain fires. In Hyper mode, both water guns were mounted on the shoulders. He has the ability to put out fires with water and foam. He is also the only leader robo with ladies as his supporter robos. Ace gives the command to Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to combine to become Hyper Fire Robo. His special attack is Hydro Splasher.
* **MR\-05L Police Robo**
Robo Master: Makoto Aikawa
Makoto's Machine Robo Partner, he is an expert on the road and on capturing criminals. He has a strong sense of Justice and knows what is wrong and what is right. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a police car. In Hyper Mode, his chest area looks like Supercar Robo. When Makoto gives the command, Police Robo and the Bike Robos combine to form Hyper Police Robo. His special attack is Back Fire.
* **MR\-02L Gyro Robo**
Robo Master: Susumu and Tsuyoshi Utada
Susumu and Tsuyoshi's Machine Robo Partner, he also has a strong sense of Justice like Police but a bit too much. He was sent to MRR after the New York incident. He is sometimes cocky. He is also the only robo with 2 robo masters. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Gyro Jet. In Robo Mode, the Gyro wings became arms which he also use for flying. When either both Susumu and Tsuyoshi gave the command, Gyro Robo and the Helicopter Robos combine to form Hyper Gyro Robo. His special attack is Gyro Shooter.
* **MR\-03L Drill Robo**
Robo Master: Daichi Hayami
Daichi's Machine Robo Partner, he is the odd ball of the group. Sometimes acting like a Kabuki performer, he is specially designed to drill through the earth and performs extreme rescue situations. In one episode, it reveals that he was not built for underwater conditions. He is, in fact, the strongest among the leader robos. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Drill Tank. In Robo Mode, he somehow has a strange resemblance to Rod Drill. Daichi gives the command to him and the Dozer Robos to form Hyper Drill Robo. His special attack is Drill Attack.
Just like Jet Robo, his design is also based on Rod Drill from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.
* **MR\-06L Submarine Robo**
Robo Master: Shoh Ashikawa
Sho's Machine Robo Partner, he is the Machine Robo who specializes in Underwater Rescues. He has a cool accent and can understand with the animals of the ocean and he really loves the ocean. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Submarine/Powerboat Hybrid. In Robo and Hyper modes, he is like Police Robo except for the different features and design. When Sho gives the command, Submarine Robo and the Aqua Robos combine to form Hyper Submarine Robo. His special attack is Bubble Smash.
* **MRX\-00L Stealth Robo/MR\-V00L V\-Stealth Robo**
Robo Master: Jay
He was the Original Machine Robo who all the Machine Robo were based on. When he is activated once, he almost destroyed the facility so he was deactivated until the Disasters got a hold of him and Jay chose him to be his Robo Master. Originally, Stealth Robo is colored purple in all Vehicle, Robo and Hyper Modes and can unleash powerful beam blasts and missiles when he is Hyper Stealth Robo. But after Jay left the Disasters, the MRR repaired as well as remodeled him to become V\-Stealth Robo, now colored white with purple accents. He may have the same ability as his former self but the 4 Tank Robos (which were destroyed by BL Hyper Drill Robo) that combine with him were replaced with a special booster wing pack that combines with V\-Stealth Robo to form Hyper V\-Stealth Robo. Also, he has ability to combine with Machine Commander to form Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burst Tempest. Fitting his name, he can turn invinsible. His vehicle resembles an F\-117 Stealth Fighter.
|
[
"### Machine Robo",
"* **MR\\-01L Jet Robo/MR\\-S01L Shuttle Robo**\nRobo Master: Taiyoh Ohzora",
"Taiyoh's Machine Robo Partner, he is one of the special Machine Robos built for Aerial Rescues and sometimes help put out fires along with the Sky Robos. In Vehicle mode, he resembles a jet while he resembles blue Jet when he is in Robo Mode. When he was defeated by Stealth Robo out in space and crash landed on earth, he was remodeled for space rescues to beat Stealth Robo and to perform space rescues, he became Shuttle Robo and commanded the Space Robos instead of the Sky Robos . With Taiyo's command, Jet Robo can combine with the Sky Robos to form Hyper Jet Robo or Shuttle Robo can combine with the Space Robos to become Hyper Shuttle Robo. His special attacks are Jet Puncher as Jet Robo and Shuttle Puncher and Beam Anchor as Shuttle Robo.",
"Jet Robo's Design is maybe based on Blue Jet from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.",
"* **MR\\-04L Fire Robo**\nRobo Master: Arias \"Ace\" Honoh",
"Ace's Machine Robo Partner, he specializes on putting out fires. In Vehicle Mode, he reassembles a Fire Truck. In Robo Mode, he carries two water guns that puts out certain fires. In Hyper mode, both water guns were mounted on the shoulders. He has the ability to put out fires with water and foam. He is also the only leader robo with ladies as his supporter robos. Ace gives the command to Fire Robo and the Aider Robos to combine to become Hyper Fire Robo. His special attack is Hydro Splasher.",
"* **MR\\-05L Police Robo**\nRobo Master: Makoto Aikawa",
"Makoto's Machine Robo Partner, he is an expert on the road and on capturing criminals. He has a strong sense of Justice and knows what is wrong and what is right. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a police car. In Hyper Mode, his chest area looks like Supercar Robo. When Makoto gives the command, Police Robo and the Bike Robos combine to form Hyper Police Robo. His special attack is Back Fire.",
"* **MR\\-02L Gyro Robo**\nRobo Master: Susumu and Tsuyoshi Utada",
"Susumu and Tsuyoshi's Machine Robo Partner, he also has a strong sense of Justice like Police but a bit too much. He was sent to MRR after the New York incident. He is sometimes cocky. He is also the only robo with 2 robo masters. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Gyro Jet. In Robo Mode, the Gyro wings became arms which he also use for flying. When either both Susumu and Tsuyoshi gave the command, Gyro Robo and the Helicopter Robos combine to form Hyper Gyro Robo. His special attack is Gyro Shooter.",
"* **MR\\-03L Drill Robo**\nRobo Master: Daichi Hayami",
"Daichi's Machine Robo Partner, he is the odd ball of the group. Sometimes acting like a Kabuki performer, he is specially designed to drill through the earth and performs extreme rescue situations. In one episode, it reveals that he was not built for underwater conditions. He is, in fact, the strongest among the leader robos. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Drill Tank. In Robo Mode, he somehow has a strange resemblance to Rod Drill. Daichi gives the command to him and the Dozer Robos to form Hyper Drill Robo. His special attack is Drill Attack.",
"Just like Jet Robo, his design is also based on Rod Drill from Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos.",
"* **MR\\-06L Submarine Robo**\nRobo Master: Shoh Ashikawa",
"Sho's Machine Robo Partner, he is the Machine Robo who specializes in Underwater Rescues. He has a cool accent and can understand with the animals of the ocean and he really loves the ocean. In Vehicle Mode, he resembles a Submarine/Powerboat Hybrid. In Robo and Hyper modes, he is like Police Robo except for the different features and design. When Sho gives the command, Submarine Robo and the Aqua Robos combine to form Hyper Submarine Robo. His special attack is Bubble Smash.",
"* **MRX\\-00L Stealth Robo/MR\\-V00L V\\-Stealth Robo**\nRobo Master: Jay",
"He was the Original Machine Robo who all the Machine Robo were based on. When he is activated once, he almost destroyed the facility so he was deactivated until the Disasters got a hold of him and Jay chose him to be his Robo Master. Originally, Stealth Robo is colored purple in all Vehicle, Robo and Hyper Modes and can unleash powerful beam blasts and missiles when he is Hyper Stealth Robo. But after Jay left the Disasters, the MRR repaired as well as remodeled him to become V\\-Stealth Robo, now colored white with purple accents. He may have the same ability as his former self but the 4 Tank Robos (which were destroyed by BL Hyper Drill Robo) that combine with him were replaced with a special booster wing pack that combines with V\\-Stealth Robo to form Hyper V\\-Stealth Robo. Also, he has ability to combine with Machine Commander to form Machine Commander Robo V. His special attack is Burst Tempest. Fitting his name, he can turn invinsible. His vehicle resembles an F\\-117 Stealth Fighter.",
""
] |
History
-------
The mill/brewery complex was originally part of a parcel of land promised to William Henry Broughton in 1818 as one of the first portions of the "New Country" south west of [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") that [Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie "Lachlan Macquarie") proffered for settlement. In 1833 [William Bradley](/wiki/William_Bradley_%28New_South_Wales_colonial_politician%29 "William Bradley (New South Wales colonial politician)") took an interest in Broughton's stockyards and bought 600 acres of what was called West Park. Its close proximity to the Bradley's [Landsdowne Estate](/wiki/Lansdowne_Park%2C_Goulburn "Lansdowne Park, Goulburn") on the other side of the Mulawee Chain of Ponds was the most likely reason behind his interest. The resiting of the town of Goulburn in 1832 would also have contributed.
Bradley's acquisition of this land and a total of 32 000 acres in the Goulburn district was part of a wider pattern of land holdings in which Bradley acquired over 300 000 acres, or a tenth of the available land, in the [Monaro](/wiki/Monaro_%28New_South_Wales%29 "Monaro (New South Wales)") area.
In 1838 William Bradley and William Shelley became co\-partners in a milling and brewing venture. This venture appears to have had its origins in 1836\. Construction of the mill appears to have started in this year. A visitor in 1837 wrote that a Mr Bradbury (sic) was building a granary and steam engine flour mill. Advertisements in 1837 proclaimed the intention of the proprietors to purchase grain after the ensuing harvest. It was complete and operational in 1838 and remained as a mill until 1869\. The lease to manage the operation was originally given to N. C. Phillips. When he died in 1863 Bradley leased the buildings to S. Emanuel and Son.
The exact commencement date of the brewery's operations has not been fixed although it is thought to be around the early 1840s. It remained in operation until 1854 when brewing ceased.
Thomas Capel appears to have been the first brewer at Bradley's. He moved on to another brewery but returned and was brewing at Bradley's again in 1853\. During his absence John Blackshaw took over as brewer. The brewery closed in February 1854, only six months after Capel's return.
The closure of the brewery was blamed on a lack of support. Colonial beer did not enjoy a good reputation and the Goulburn folk, like other colonials, expressed a preference for English brews. Locals judged Bradley's brew to be inferior to English brews and declined to buy it when the price rose in the early 1850s as a result of increases in the cost of barley.
Plans were announced in April 1859 in which malting would be renewed in the winter of 1860 and a call was made for 10,000 bushels of English barley. Farmers were given twelve months notice in the hope that the barley would be forthcoming. Their response does not appear to have been sufficient to have permitted malting operations to begin.
William Bradley died in April 1868 and the part of his estate which included Lansdowne and the mill/brewery complex passed from the Bradley's to new ownership in 1874\.
In December 1869 the complex ceased to function as a mill and Solomon Emanuel arranged for the transfer of his lease to the Goulburn Meat Preserving Company which took possession of the works in February 1870\. The company was slow to make building alterations and did not begin to function until November 1870\. It was not successful and stopped operations in October 1871\. The mill/brewery complex lay idle from this time until June 1875 when Bartlett and Oddy leased the premises, proposing to operate it as a brewery and to manufacture their own malt. It was also intended to use part of the premises as a steam sawmill and joinery works. However, this does not seem to have eventuated.
W. J. Bartlett and J. S. Oddy moved to the complex in June 1875 and proceeded to operate it as a brewery. They appear to have been limited in capital, mortgaging the brewery for the whole of the purchase price \- 3,200 pounds. In 1879 Oddy left the partnership, Bartlett purchasing Oddy's share of the business. Bartlett appears to have been the proprietor from 1879 to 1920 although several mortgage agreements are listed in his claim for Certificate of Title in 1913\. One agreement involving Andrew Seton Chisholm remains unclear. It has been suggested that a sale was negotiated but not finalised.
Chisholm had the Brewery operated by James E. and Robert S. Raymond between 1887 and 1896\. The Raymonds were the licensed brewers at Goulburn and there is record at the brewery of them doing so. The Raymonds appear to have been related to Chisholm by marriage and the business arrangement is confused in that it bears on Chisholm's family arrangements.
The Brewery continued to function as Bartlett and Co during this period. In 1897 Bartlett resumed the role of brewer.
In 1913 Bartlett divided the land into two lots, one containing the mill/brewery and the other his residence, Broughton. An offer was made to [Tooth and Co.](/wiki/Tooth_and_Co. "Tooth and Co.") in 1914 but was declined. In 1920 Tooth and Co agreed to buy the brewery for 14 000 pounds. In this purchase they also acquired ten year extensions of the leases of five hotels as well as Bartlett's interest in the trade of another six. Arrangements were made for the Maudslay steam condensing beam engine to revert to Bartlett in the event of Tooth and Co deciding to discontinue brewing at Goulburn.
Tooth and Company took over the brewery in October–November 1920\. Bartlett continued to supervise work for twelve months before retiring at the end of 1921\. The title of the property was formally transferred on 7 November 1921\.
Frank Carman, who had been working for Bartlett since 1910, took over as Manager after Bartlett's retirement. Under his management the premises were used as a depot for Tooth and Co products. The brewery continued to function until August 1929 when the company decided to cease brewing and use the premises as a depot only. The final brew was made on 7 August and all bottling was completed by 23 September. The decision to stop brewing was prompted by several factors, including the need to replace the loco boiler in a period of economic depression in Australia.
In 1954 Tooth and Co appointed Jim Malcolm as manager of the Goulburn depot and the licence for the premises was transferred to his name. His role was that of caretaker in the absence of Frank Carman who was in ill health. It was the intention of the company to close the depot if Carman remained indisposed. Carman died in 1955 and after a "decent interval" the company announced on 5 August 1956 that it would close the depot at the end of the month.
In March 1958 Tooth \& Co accepted an offer of 3,500 pounds from Hedley and Joyce Carman, the son and daughter\-in\-law of Frank Carman, for the purchase of the buildings and site. The Carmans renovated a portion of the building known as the sugar rooms, converting it into a modern flat. They continued to use the property as a residence until 1975\. The Carmans also attempted to use it for the storage of hay but floods made it seem unsuitable.
In 1974\-75 Goulburn City Council expressed interest in buying the complex and developing it as a tourist site. This did not happen and the Carmans sold the property to the Phoenix Community Services Ltd in 1975\. The intention was to use the property as a rehabilitation centre. It operated in this capacity until the mid 1980s.Pennay 1983:71\-72
In 1989 the complex was reopened, incorporating the restored brewery, a hotel, restaurant, function rooms, cabaret theatre restaurant, art gallery and accommodation.O'Halloran 1995: 1
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The mill/brewery complex was originally part of a parcel of land promised to William Henry Broughton in 1818 as one of the first portions of the \"New Country\" south west of [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") that [Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie \"Lachlan Macquarie\") proffered for settlement. In 1833 [William Bradley](/wiki/William_Bradley_%28New_South_Wales_colonial_politician%29 \"William Bradley (New South Wales colonial politician)\") took an interest in Broughton's stockyards and bought 600 acres of what was called West Park. Its close proximity to the Bradley's [Landsdowne Estate](/wiki/Lansdowne_Park%2C_Goulburn \"Lansdowne Park, Goulburn\") on the other side of the Mulawee Chain of Ponds was the most likely reason behind his interest. The resiting of the town of Goulburn in 1832 would also have contributed.",
"Bradley's acquisition of this land and a total of 32 000 acres in the Goulburn district was part of a wider pattern of land holdings in which Bradley acquired over 300 000 acres, or a tenth of the available land, in the [Monaro](/wiki/Monaro_%28New_South_Wales%29 \"Monaro (New South Wales)\") area.",
"In 1838 William Bradley and William Shelley became co\\-partners in a milling and brewing venture. This venture appears to have had its origins in 1836\\. Construction of the mill appears to have started in this year. A visitor in 1837 wrote that a Mr Bradbury (sic) was building a granary and steam engine flour mill. Advertisements in 1837 proclaimed the intention of the proprietors to purchase grain after the ensuing harvest. It was complete and operational in 1838 and remained as a mill until 1869\\. The lease to manage the operation was originally given to N. C. Phillips. When he died in 1863 Bradley leased the buildings to S. Emanuel and Son.",
"The exact commencement date of the brewery's operations has not been fixed although it is thought to be around the early 1840s. It remained in operation until 1854 when brewing ceased.",
"Thomas Capel appears to have been the first brewer at Bradley's. He moved on to another brewery but returned and was brewing at Bradley's again in 1853\\. During his absence John Blackshaw took over as brewer. The brewery closed in February 1854, only six months after Capel's return.",
"The closure of the brewery was blamed on a lack of support. Colonial beer did not enjoy a good reputation and the Goulburn folk, like other colonials, expressed a preference for English brews. Locals judged Bradley's brew to be inferior to English brews and declined to buy it when the price rose in the early 1850s as a result of increases in the cost of barley.",
"Plans were announced in April 1859 in which malting would be renewed in the winter of 1860 and a call was made for 10,000 bushels of English barley. Farmers were given twelve months notice in the hope that the barley would be forthcoming. Their response does not appear to have been sufficient to have permitted malting operations to begin.",
"William Bradley died in April 1868 and the part of his estate which included Lansdowne and the mill/brewery complex passed from the Bradley's to new ownership in 1874\\.",
"In December 1869 the complex ceased to function as a mill and Solomon Emanuel arranged for the transfer of his lease to the Goulburn Meat Preserving Company which took possession of the works in February 1870\\. The company was slow to make building alterations and did not begin to function until November 1870\\. It was not successful and stopped operations in October 1871\\. The mill/brewery complex lay idle from this time until June 1875 when Bartlett and Oddy leased the premises, proposing to operate it as a brewery and to manufacture their own malt. It was also intended to use part of the premises as a steam sawmill and joinery works. However, this does not seem to have eventuated.",
"W. J. Bartlett and J. S. Oddy moved to the complex in June 1875 and proceeded to operate it as a brewery. They appear to have been limited in capital, mortgaging the brewery for the whole of the purchase price \\- 3,200 pounds. In 1879 Oddy left the partnership, Bartlett purchasing Oddy's share of the business. Bartlett appears to have been the proprietor from 1879 to 1920 although several mortgage agreements are listed in his claim for Certificate of Title in 1913\\. One agreement involving Andrew Seton Chisholm remains unclear. It has been suggested that a sale was negotiated but not finalised.",
"Chisholm had the Brewery operated by James E. and Robert S. Raymond between 1887 and 1896\\. The Raymonds were the licensed brewers at Goulburn and there is record at the brewery of them doing so. The Raymonds appear to have been related to Chisholm by marriage and the business arrangement is confused in that it bears on Chisholm's family arrangements.",
"The Brewery continued to function as Bartlett and Co during this period. In 1897 Bartlett resumed the role of brewer.",
"In 1913 Bartlett divided the land into two lots, one containing the mill/brewery and the other his residence, Broughton. An offer was made to [Tooth and Co.](/wiki/Tooth_and_Co. \"Tooth and Co.\") in 1914 but was declined. In 1920 Tooth and Co agreed to buy the brewery for 14 000 pounds. In this purchase they also acquired ten year extensions of the leases of five hotels as well as Bartlett's interest in the trade of another six. Arrangements were made for the Maudslay steam condensing beam engine to revert to Bartlett in the event of Tooth and Co deciding to discontinue brewing at Goulburn.",
"Tooth and Company took over the brewery in October–November 1920\\. Bartlett continued to supervise work for twelve months before retiring at the end of 1921\\. The title of the property was formally transferred on 7 November 1921\\.",
"Frank Carman, who had been working for Bartlett since 1910, took over as Manager after Bartlett's retirement. Under his management the premises were used as a depot for Tooth and Co products. The brewery continued to function until August 1929 when the company decided to cease brewing and use the premises as a depot only. The final brew was made on 7 August and all bottling was completed by 23 September. The decision to stop brewing was prompted by several factors, including the need to replace the loco boiler in a period of economic depression in Australia.",
"In 1954 Tooth and Co appointed Jim Malcolm as manager of the Goulburn depot and the licence for the premises was transferred to his name. His role was that of caretaker in the absence of Frank Carman who was in ill health. It was the intention of the company to close the depot if Carman remained indisposed. Carman died in 1955 and after a \"decent interval\" the company announced on 5 August 1956 that it would close the depot at the end of the month.",
"In March 1958 Tooth \\& Co accepted an offer of 3,500 pounds from Hedley and Joyce Carman, the son and daughter\\-in\\-law of Frank Carman, for the purchase of the buildings and site. The Carmans renovated a portion of the building known as the sugar rooms, converting it into a modern flat. They continued to use the property as a residence until 1975\\. The Carmans also attempted to use it for the storage of hay but floods made it seem unsuitable.",
"In 1974\\-75 Goulburn City Council expressed interest in buying the complex and developing it as a tourist site. This did not happen and the Carmans sold the property to the Phoenix Community Services Ltd in 1975\\. The intention was to use the property as a rehabilitation centre. It operated in this capacity until the mid 1980s.Pennay 1983:71\\-72",
"In 1989 the complex was reopened, incorporating the restored brewery, a hotel, restaurant, function rooms, cabaret theatre restaurant, art gallery and accommodation.O'Halloran 1995: 1",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
The Goulburn Mill/Brewery is one of the most substantial industrial establishments to survive in country New South Wales from early colonial times. It is a well designed, integrated industrial complex that has been put to different uses in response to shifts in the economy. Its changes in function illustrate the fluctuating fortunes of the flour milling and brewing industries in country NSW in general and the [Southern Tablelands](/wiki/Southern_Tablelands "Southern Tablelands") and Goulburn in particular.
It is associated with William Bradley, a pastoralist who gathered considerable holdings in the Argyle and Monaro districts and influenced the development of those districts. It is also associated with W.J.Bartlett, a brewer and civic benefactor.
Alterations to the complex provide a record of ways in which milling and brewing technology has changed.
The site is an important element in the heritage of Goulburn. The size and nature of the buildings have made it a local landmark. It indicates the importance of Goulburn as the major provincial centre in southern NSW in the 19th century.(Pennay 1983: vi)
The site contains a range of moveable heritage items, embracing a wide range of artefacts relating to the machinery and the historic activities of the place.
Goulburn Brewery was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**
The Goulburn Brewery is significant primarily because it is the remaining physical evidence of 120 years of varied industrial activity occupying one group of buildings conceived within the first 50 years of white settlement in NSW. The group bears comparison with important historic industrial structures elsewhere in Australia, including the former Australian Sugar Company at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury%2C_New_South_Wales "Canterbury, New South Wales"), the [Venus State Battery](/wiki/Venus_State_Battery "Venus State Battery") at Charters Towers and the [Cascade Brewery](/wiki/Cascade_Brewery "Cascade Brewery") in [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"). However, no known industrial complex combines longevity, complexity, variety and intactness more manifestly than the Goulburn Brewery Group.
The Goulburn Brewery Complex has long associations with the pioneer white land holders in the area. The subsequent history of the Brewery's development closely parallels the movement of financial power within the state. The ownership of the site, firstly by large scale pastoralist land owners, then by merchant entrepreneurs, afterwards by monopolistic public companies, and more recently government and community involvement, has been well documented. The physical evidence of continuing as well as past social history is important.Brady 1983: 27\-28
**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**
From the time of the earliest settlement of Goulburn, the Brewery complex has, by virtue of its location adjacent to the Mulwaree Ponds, its Georgian form, and the subsequent sympathetic additions, have been regarded as an aesthetic focal point and feathered in sketches, maps and photographs. The susceptibility of much of the surrounding land to flooding, and the concentration of Goulburn's growth west of the brewery complex, have resulted in the retention of most of the Brewery's visual curtilage; historic prospects as well as aspects are surprisingly intact.
The main elements of the complex show clearly the influence of British Georgian building tradition on the planning and detailing of industrial buildings in Australia during the first half of the 19th century. The complex demonstrates the Georgian use of geometry and proportion in the harmonious design of a group of buildings related in function and diversity of size. Though no architect is known to have been associated with the Goulburn Complex, comparison may be made with some other geometrical examples such as Francis Greenway's [Hyde Park Barracks](/wiki/Hyde_Park_Barracks%2C_Sydney "Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney") of 1817, and with Greenway's treatment of Robert Campbell Junior's residence and outbuildings in Bligh Street in 1822\.
**The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
Public esteem for the place and local respect for its historical value is high and, by all accounts, increasing. The tourist potential of the place is great and there is evidence that the Brewery is considered locally to be an important part of Goulburn's future.Brady 1983: 29
**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
The materials used in work carried on over the life of the brewery provide evidence of great technological improvements. Beginning with hand processed materials won from the immediate area – bricks, mud morters, hand wrought iron \& split shingles – the materials progress to machine finished locally made items and then imported finished components. Despite these dramatic improvements in building materials the standards of workmanship remained consistently simple, testifying to the utilitarian nature of the project.
The alterations to the brewery provide a vivid record of the ways in which brewing and milling technology changed during a period of 120 years.
The site is one upon which technological change and varied industrial activity have left many signs of usage over a long time span. The layering effect of sequential activities has meant that building fabric and surfaces bear much unexplained evidence of previous uses. Much of this evidence is capable of only archaeological interpretation, and this fact reinforces the significance of the existing fabric and surfaces, which convey virtually as much information as the structural forms and spaces. The site therefore offers the opportunity for extensive and meaningful future archaeological investigation. There is an extensive collection of moveable heritage items that provide research potential for changes in brewing and milling technology over a period of 120 years.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"The Goulburn Mill/Brewery is one of the most substantial industrial establishments to survive in country New South Wales from early colonial times. It is a well designed, integrated industrial complex that has been put to different uses in response to shifts in the economy. Its changes in function illustrate the fluctuating fortunes of the flour milling and brewing industries in country NSW in general and the [Southern Tablelands](/wiki/Southern_Tablelands \"Southern Tablelands\") and Goulburn in particular.",
"It is associated with William Bradley, a pastoralist who gathered considerable holdings in the Argyle and Monaro districts and influenced the development of those districts. It is also associated with W.J.Bartlett, a brewer and civic benefactor.",
"Alterations to the complex provide a record of ways in which milling and brewing technology has changed.",
"The site is an important element in the heritage of Goulburn. The size and nature of the buildings have made it a local landmark. It indicates the importance of Goulburn as the major provincial centre in southern NSW in the 19th century.(Pennay 1983: vi)",
"The site contains a range of moveable heritage items, embracing a wide range of artefacts relating to the machinery and the historic activities of the place.",
"Goulburn Brewery was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**",
"The Goulburn Brewery is significant primarily because it is the remaining physical evidence of 120 years of varied industrial activity occupying one group of buildings conceived within the first 50 years of white settlement in NSW. The group bears comparison with important historic industrial structures elsewhere in Australia, including the former Australian Sugar Company at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury%2C_New_South_Wales \"Canterbury, New South Wales\"), the [Venus State Battery](/wiki/Venus_State_Battery \"Venus State Battery\") at Charters Towers and the [Cascade Brewery](/wiki/Cascade_Brewery \"Cascade Brewery\") in [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"). However, no known industrial complex combines longevity, complexity, variety and intactness more manifestly than the Goulburn Brewery Group.",
"The Goulburn Brewery Complex has long associations with the pioneer white land holders in the area. The subsequent history of the Brewery's development closely parallels the movement of financial power within the state. The ownership of the site, firstly by large scale pastoralist land owners, then by merchant entrepreneurs, afterwards by monopolistic public companies, and more recently government and community involvement, has been well documented. The physical evidence of continuing as well as past social history is important.Brady 1983: 27\\-28",
"**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**",
"From the time of the earliest settlement of Goulburn, the Brewery complex has, by virtue of its location adjacent to the Mulwaree Ponds, its Georgian form, and the subsequent sympathetic additions, have been regarded as an aesthetic focal point and feathered in sketches, maps and photographs. The susceptibility of much of the surrounding land to flooding, and the concentration of Goulburn's growth west of the brewery complex, have resulted in the retention of most of the Brewery's visual curtilage; historic prospects as well as aspects are surprisingly intact.",
"The main elements of the complex show clearly the influence of British Georgian building tradition on the planning and detailing of industrial buildings in Australia during the first half of the 19th century. The complex demonstrates the Georgian use of geometry and proportion in the harmonious design of a group of buildings related in function and diversity of size. Though no architect is known to have been associated with the Goulburn Complex, comparison may be made with some other geometrical examples such as Francis Greenway's [Hyde Park Barracks](/wiki/Hyde_Park_Barracks%2C_Sydney \"Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney\") of 1817, and with Greenway's treatment of Robert Campbell Junior's residence and outbuildings in Bligh Street in 1822\\.",
"**The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"Public esteem for the place and local respect for its historical value is high and, by all accounts, increasing. The tourist potential of the place is great and there is evidence that the Brewery is considered locally to be an important part of Goulburn's future.Brady 1983: 29",
"**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"The materials used in work carried on over the life of the brewery provide evidence of great technological improvements. Beginning with hand processed materials won from the immediate area – bricks, mud morters, hand wrought iron \\& split shingles – the materials progress to machine finished locally made items and then imported finished components. Despite these dramatic improvements in building materials the standards of workmanship remained consistently simple, testifying to the utilitarian nature of the project.",
"The alterations to the brewery provide a vivid record of the ways in which brewing and milling technology changed during a period of 120 years.",
"The site is one upon which technological change and varied industrial activity have left many signs of usage over a long time span. The layering effect of sequential activities has meant that building fabric and surfaces bear much unexplained evidence of previous uses. Much of this evidence is capable of only archaeological interpretation, and this fact reinforces the significance of the existing fabric and surfaces, which convey virtually as much information as the structural forms and spaces. The site therefore offers the opportunity for extensive and meaningful future archaeological investigation. There is an extensive collection of moveable heritage items that provide research potential for changes in brewing and milling technology over a period of 120 years.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|2020\= 175
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2016}}
}}
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 150 people, 50 households, and 42 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\|127\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 55 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|46\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}.
The racial makeup of the CDP was 99\.33% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") and 0\.67% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.67% of the population.
There were 50 households, out of which 28\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 82\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\.0% were non\-families. 10\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.88 and the average family size was 2\.83\.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 16\.7% under the age of 18, 4\.7% from 18 to 24, 24\.0% from 25 to 44, 35\.3% from 45 to 64, and 19\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\.8 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,625, and the median income for a family was $46,250\. Males had a median income of $29,107 versus $22,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $20,538\.
Just 1\.7% of the population lived below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"); 6\.3% of those who were aged sixty\-four or older were living in poverty while no one under eighteen and no families were classified as impoverished.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|2020\\= 175\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2016}}\n}}\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 150 people, 50 households, and 42 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\\|127\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 55 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|46\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}.",
"The racial makeup of the CDP was 99\\.33% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") and 0\\.67% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.67% of the population.",
"There were 50 households, out of which 28\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 82\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\\.0% were non\\-families. 10\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.88 and the average family size was 2\\.83\\.",
"In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 16\\.7% under the age of 18, 4\\.7% from 18 to 24, 24\\.0% from 25 to 44, 35\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 19\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\\.8 males.",
"The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,625, and the median income for a family was $46,250\\. Males had a median income of $29,107 versus $22,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $20,538\\.",
"Just 1\\.7% of the population lived below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"); 6\\.3% of those who were aged sixty\\-four or older were living in poverty while no one under eighteen and no families were classified as impoverished.",
""
] |
United States
-------------
[thumb\|right\|[Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn")'s [Eastern Parkway](/wiki/Eastern_Parkway_%28Brooklyn%29 "Eastern Parkway (Brooklyn)"), the world's first parkway, according to the [New York City Department of Parks and Recreation](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation "New York City Department of Parks and Recreation").](/wiki/File:Eastern_Pkwy_west_of_New_York_Ave.JPG "Eastern Pkwy west of New York Ave.JPG")
[thumb\|right\|The [Clara Barton Parkway](/wiki/Clara_Barton_Parkway "Clara Barton Parkway") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland")](/wiki/File:IMG_2237_-_Clara_Barton_Pkwy_at_NSWC_%28looking_west%29.JPG "IMG 2237 - Clara Barton Pkwy at NSWC (looking west).JPG")
### Scenic roads
The first parkways in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") were developed during the late 19th century by landscape architects [Frederick Law Olmsted](/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted "Frederick Law Olmsted") and Calvert Vaux as roads that separated pedestrians, bicyclists, equestrians, and [horse carriages](/wiki/Horse_carriage "Horse carriage"), such as the [Eastern Parkway](/wiki/Eastern_Parkway "Eastern Parkway"), which is credited as the world's first parkway,{{Cite web \|url \= http://www.nycgovparks.org/about/history/historical\-signs/listings?id\=196 \|title \= Eastern Parkway Highlights : NYC Parks }} and [Ocean Parkway](/wiki/Ocean_Parkway_%28Brooklyn%29 "Ocean Parkway (Brooklyn)") in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") [borough](/wiki/Borough_%28New_York_City%29 "Borough (New York City)") of [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"). The term "parkway" to define this type of road was coined by [Calvert Vaux](/wiki/Calvert_Vaux "Calvert Vaux") and Frederick Law Olmsted in their proposal to link city and suburban parks with "pleasure roads".[thumb\|right\|300px\|Heavy traffic on the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway "Garden State Parkway") in [Monmouth County](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey "Monmouth County, New Jersey"), [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"), in the [New York Metropolitan Area](/wiki/New_York_Metropolitan_Area "New York Metropolitan Area"), [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). This is one of the world's busiest roadways.In](/wiki/File:Parkway_Congestion_02.jpg "Parkway Congestion 02.jpg") [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York "Buffalo, New York"), Olmsted and Vaux used parkways with landscaped medians and setbacks to create the first interconnected park and parkway system in the United States.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wned/frederick\-law\-olmsted/learn\-more/olmsteds\-buffalo\-park\-system\-and\-its\-stewards/\|title\=Olmsted's Buffalo Park System and Its Stewards {{!}} Frederick Law Olmsted {{!}} PBS\|website\=Olmsted's Buffalo Park System and Its Stewards {{!}} Frederick Law Olmsted {{!}} PBS\|access\-date\=July 10, 2019}} [Bidwell](/wiki/Delaware_Park-Front_Park_System "Delaware Park-Front Park System") Parkway and Chapin Parkway are 200 foot wide city streets with only one lane for cars in each direction and broad landscaped medians that provide a pleasant, shaded route to the park and serve as mini\-parks within the neighborhood.{{Cite web \|url \= https://www.bfloparks.org/parks/parkways/ \|title \= Your Parkways: Caring for 850 acres of Buffalo's Olmsted Park System \|website \= Buffalo Olmsted Parks \|language \= en\-US \|access\-date \= July 10, 2019 }} The [Rhode Island Metropolitan Park Commission](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Metropolitan_Park_Commission "Rhode Island Metropolitan Park Commission") developed several parkways in the Providence area.Including Veterans Memorial Parkway in [East Providence](/wiki/East_Providence%2C_Rhode_Island "East Providence, Rhode Island"), and the Narragansett Parkway in [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Rhode_Island "Warwick, Rhode Island").[https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ristateparks\-commission/rhode\-island\-state\-parks\-commission/](https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ristateparks-commission/rhode-island-state-parks-commission/)
Other parkways, such as Park Presidio Boulevard in [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"),{{cite web \|last1 \= Alexander \|first1 \= Jeanne \|title \= History of Park Presidio Boulevard \|url \= http://ppnsf.org/history \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121003130754/http://ppnsf.org/history \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-date \= October 3, 2012 }} were designed to serve larger volumes of traffic.
During the early 20th century, the meaning of the word was expanded to include [limited\-access highways](/wiki/Limited-access_highway "Limited-access highway") designed for recreational driving of automobiles, with [landscaping](/wiki/Landscape "Landscape"). These parkways originally provided [scenic routes](/wiki/Scenic_route "Scenic route") without very slow or [commercial vehicles](/wiki/Commercial_vehicle "Commercial vehicle"), at [grade intersections](/wiki/Level_crossing "Level crossing"), or pedestrian traffic. Examples are the [Merritt Parkway](/wiki/Merritt_Parkway "Merritt Parkway") in Connecticut and the [Vanderbilt Motor Parkway](/wiki/Vanderbilt_Motor_Parkway "Vanderbilt Motor Parkway") in New York. But their success led to more development, expanding a city's boundaries, eventually limiting the parkway's recreational driving use. The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway "Arroyo Seco Parkway") between [Downtown Los Angeles](/wiki/Downtown_Los_Angeles "Downtown Los Angeles") and [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"), is an example of lost [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral "Pastoral") aesthetics. It and others have become major commuting routes, while retaining the name "parkway".
### Early high speed roads
{{See also\|Parkways in New York State}}
In New York City, construction on the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway "Long Island Motor Parkway") (Vanderbilt Parkway) began in 1906 and planning for the [Bronx River Parkway](/wiki/Bronx_River_Parkway "Bronx River Parkway") in 1907\. In the 1920s, the [New York City Metropolitan Area](/wiki/New_York_City_Metropolitan_Area "New York City Metropolitan Area")'s parkway system grew under the direction of [Robert Moses](/wiki/Robert_Moses "Robert Moses"), the president of the New York State Council of Parks and [Long Island State Park Commission](/wiki/Long_Island_State_Park_Commission "Long Island State Park Commission"), who used parkways to provide access to newly created state parks, especially for city dwellers. As Commissioner of New York City Parks under Mayor LaGuardia, he extended the parkways to the heart of the city, creating and linking its parks to the greater metropolitan systems.
Most of the New York metropolitan parkways were designed by Gilmore Clark. The famed "Gateway to New England" [Merritt Parkway](/wiki/Merritt_Parkway "Merritt Parkway") in [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut") was designed in the 1930s as a pleasurable alternative for affluent locals to the congested Boston Post Road, running through forest with each bridge designed uniquely to enhance the scenery. Another example is the [Sprain Brook Parkway](/wiki/Sprain_Brook_Parkway "Sprain Brook Parkway") from lower\-[Westchester](/wiki/Westchester_County "Westchester County") to connect to the [Taconic State Parkway](/wiki/Taconic_State_Parkway "Taconic State Parkway") to [Chatham, New York](/wiki/Chatham%2C_New_York "Chatham, New York"). [Landscape architect](/wiki/Landscape_architect "Landscape architect") [George Kessler](/wiki/George_Kessler "George Kessler") designed extensive parkway systems for [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri%23Parks_and_boulevards "Kansas City, Missouri#Parks and boulevards"); [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis_Park_and_Parkway_System "Memphis Park and Parkway System"); [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis_Park_and_Boulevard_System "Indianapolis Park and Boulevard System"); and other cities at the beginning of the 20th century.
[thumb\|right\|The [Natchez Trace Parkway](/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Parkway "Natchez Trace Parkway")](/wiki/File:Natchez-Trace-Parkway-Highsmith.jpeg "Natchez-Trace-Parkway-Highsmith.jpeg")
### New Deal roads
In the 1930s, as part of the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal "New Deal") the U.S. federal government constructed [National Parkways](/wiki/National_Parkway "National Parkway") designed for recreational driving and to commemorate historic trails and routes. These divided four\-lane parkways have lower [speed limits](/wiki/Speed_limit "Speed limit") and are maintained by the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"). An example is the [Civilian Conservation Corps](/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps "Civilian Conservation Corps") (CCC) built [Blue Ridge Parkway](/wiki/Blue_Ridge_Parkway "Blue Ridge Parkway") in the [Appalachian Mountains](/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains "Appalachian Mountains") of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") and [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia").
Others are: [Skyline Drive](/wiki/Skyline_Drive "Skyline Drive") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"); the [Natchez Trace Parkway](/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Parkway "Natchez Trace Parkway") in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama"), and [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee"); and the [Colonial Parkway](/wiki/Colonial_Parkway "Colonial Parkway") in eastern Virginia's [Historic Triangle](/wiki/Historic_Triangle "Historic Triangle") area.{{cite news \|url \= http://www.roanoke.com/roatimes/special\_sections/parkway/parkway1\.html \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121009162431/http://www.roanoke.com/roatimes/special\_sections/parkway/parkway1\.html \|archive\-date \= October 9, 2012 \|first1 \= Tim \|last1 \= Thornton \|first2 \= Isak \|last2 \= Howell \|title \= Parkway's Past Haunts Its Future }} The [George Washington Memorial Parkway](/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway "George Washington Memorial Parkway") and the [Clara Barton Parkway](/wiki/Clara_Barton_Parkway "Clara Barton Parkway"), running along the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River") near [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), and [Alexandria, Virginia](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Virginia "Alexandria, Virginia"), were also constructed during this era.
### Post\-war parkways
[thumb\|Aerial view of [Valley Stream](/wiki/Valley_Stream%2C_New_York "Valley Stream, New York") (foreground) and more of [Nassau County, New York](/wiki/Nassau_County%2C_New_York "Nassau County, New York"), including the [Belt Parkway](/wiki/Belt_Parkway "Belt Parkway") (left), [Southern State Parkway](/wiki/Southern_State_Parkway "Southern State Parkway") (right), and [Cross Island Parkway](/wiki/Cross_Island_Parkway "Cross Island Parkway") (center rear)](/wiki/File:Valley_Stream_NY_and_parkways.jpg "Valley Stream NY and parkways.jpg")
In [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky") the term "parkway" designates a [freeway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway "Controlled-access highway") in the [Kentucky Parkway system](/wiki/Kentucky_parkway_system "Kentucky parkway system"), with nine built in the 1960s and 1970s. They were [toll roads](/wiki/Toll_road "Toll road") until the [construction bonds](/wiki/Construction_bond "Construction bond") were repaid; the last of these roads to charge tolls became [freeways](/wiki/Freeway "Freeway") in 2006\.
The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway "Arroyo Seco Parkway") from [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California") to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), built in 1940, was the first segment of the vast [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") freeway system. It became part of [State Route 110](/wiki/Interstate_110_and_State_Route_110_%28California%29 "Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)") and was renamed the Pasadena Freeway. A 2010 restoration of the freeway brought the Arroyo Seco Parkway designation back.
[thumb\|left\|Sign informing truckers that it is illegal for their vehicles to use a parkway in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").](/wiki/File:Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg "Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg")
In the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area "New York metropolitan area"), contemporary parkways are predominantly limited\-access highways or freeways restricted to non\-commercial traffic, excluding [trucks](/wiki/Truck "Truck") and [tractor\-trailers](/wiki/Tractor-trailer "Tractor-trailer"). Some have low overpasses that also exclude buses. The Vanderbilt Parkway, an exception in western [Suffolk County](/wiki/Suffolk_County%2C_New_York "Suffolk County, New York"), is a surviving remnant of the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway "Long Island Motor Parkway") that became a [surface street](/wiki/Surface_street "Surface street"), no longer with controlled\-access or non\-commercial vehicle restrictions. The [Palisades Interstate Parkway](/wiki/Palisades_Interstate_Parkway "Palisades Interstate Parkway") is a post\-war parkway that starts at the [George Washington Bridge](/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge "George Washington Bridge"), heads north through New Jersey, continuing through Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The Palisades Parkway was built to allow for a direct route from New York City to [Harriman State Park](/wiki/Harriman_State_Park_%28New_York%29 "Harriman State Park (New York)").
In New Jersey, the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway "Garden State Parkway"), connecting the northern part of the state with the [Jersey Shore](/wiki/Jersey_Shore "Jersey Shore"), is restricted to buses and non\-commercial traffic north of the [Route 18](/wiki/New_Jersey_Route_18 "New Jersey Route 18") interchange, but trucks are permitted south of this point. It is one of the busiest toll roads in the country.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \|title \= Title 16\. Department of Transportation; Chapter 32\. Truck Access \|publisher \= \[\[New Jersey Department of Transportation]] \|access\-date \= August 13, 2010 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080920214137/http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \|archive\-date \= September 20, 2008 }}
In the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") region, two of the major Interstates are referred to informally as parkways. The Parkway East ([I\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 "Interstate 376"), formally the [Penn\-Lincoln Parkway](/wiki/Penn-Lincoln_Parkway "Penn-Lincoln Parkway")) connects Downtown Pittsburgh to [Monroeville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Monroeville%2C_Pennsylvania "Monroeville, Pennsylvania"). The Parkway West ([I\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 "Interstate 376")) runs through the [Fort Pitt Tunnel](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_Tunnel "Fort Pitt Tunnel") and links Downtown to [Pittsburgh International Airport](/wiki/Pittsburgh_International_Airport "Pittsburgh International Airport"), southbound [I\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 "Interstate 79"), [Imperial, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Imperial%2C_Pennsylvania "Imperial, Pennsylvania"), and westbound US 22/US 30\. The Parkway North ([I\-279](/wiki/Interstate_279 "Interstate 279")) connects Downtown to [Franklin Park, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Franklin_Park%2C_Pennsylvania "Franklin Park, Pennsylvania") and northbound [I\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 "Interstate 79").
[thumb\|right\|[US 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania "U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania") parkway northbound in [Montgomery Township, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Montgomery_Township%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Montgomery Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania")](/wiki/File:US_202_NB_between_PA_463_and_County_Line_Road_in_Montgomery_Township.jpeg "US 202 NB between PA 463 and County Line Road in Montgomery Township.jpeg")
In the suburbs of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [U.S. Route 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania "U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania") follows an at\-grade parkway alignment known as the "U.S. Route 202 Parkway" between [Montgomeryville](/wiki/Montgomeryville%2C_Pennsylvania "Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania") and [Doylestown](/wiki/Doylestown%2C_Pennsylvania "Doylestown, Pennsylvania"). The parkway varies from two to four lanes in width, has {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-wide}} shoulders, a {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-wide}} walking path called the [US 202 Parkway Trail](/wiki/US_202_Parkway_Trail "US 202 Parkway Trail") on the side, and a {{convert\|40\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} speed limit. The parkway opened in 2012 as a bypass of a section of US 202 between the two towns; it had originally been proposed as a four\-lane freeway before funding for the road was cut.{{cite news \|first \= Peter \|last \= Mucha \|title \= New Route 202 parkway opens today \|work \= \[\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \|date \= December 3, 2012 \|url \= http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/20121203\_New\_Route\_202\_parkway\_opens\_today.html \|access\-date \= December 3, 2012 }}{{cite news \|first \= Freda R. \|last \= Savana \|title \= Make way for the 202 Parkway \|work \= \[\[The Intelligencer (Doylestown, Pennsylvania)\|The Intelligencer]] \|location \= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \|date \= March 2, 2008 }}{{cite news \|first \= Christina \|last \= Kristofic \|title \= PennDOT to hold meetings on noise from parkway \|work \= The Intelligencer \|location \= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \|date \= November 1, 2007 }}
In [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), the [Grand Rounds Scenic Byway](/wiki/Grand_Rounds_Scenic_Byway "Grand Rounds Scenic Byway") system has {{convert\|50\|mi\|km}} of streets designated as parkways. These are not freeways; they have a slow {{convert\|25\|mph\|km/h\|adj\=on}} speed limit, pedestrian crossings, and stop signs.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\_about.htm \|title \= Information Center: About the Grand Rounds \|access\-date \= December 18, 2007 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150214064938/http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\_about.htm \|archive\-date \= February 14, 2015 }}{{cite web \|url \= http://secondward.blogspot.com/2007/01/traffic\-calming\-event.html \|title \= Second Ward, Minneapolis: Traffic Calming Event \|access\-date \= December 18, 2007 }}
In [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati"), parkways are major roads which trucks are prohibited from using. Some Cincinnati parkways, such as Columbia Parkway, are high\-speed, limited\-access roads, while others, such as Central Parkway, are multi\-lane urban roads without controlled access. Columbia Parkway carries US\-50 traffic from downtown towards east\-side suburbs of Mariemont, Anderson, and Milford, and is a limited access road from downtown to the Village of Mariemont.
In [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), parkways are generally four to six lanes wide but are not usually controlled\-access. They are highly trafficked in most cases, transporting people between neighborhoods quicker than a typical city street. Many of them serve as principal arterials and some (like [Storrow Drive](/wiki/Storrow_Drive "Storrow Drive"), [Memorial Drive](/wiki/Memorial_Drive_%28Cambridge%29 "Memorial Drive (Cambridge)"), the [Alewife Brook Parkway](/wiki/Alewife_Brook_Parkway "Alewife Brook Parkway") and the [VFW Parkway](/wiki/VFW_Parkway "VFW Parkway")) have evolved into regional commuter routes.
|
[
"United States\n-------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\")'s [Eastern Parkway](/wiki/Eastern_Parkway_%28Brooklyn%29 \"Eastern Parkway (Brooklyn)\"), the world's first parkway, according to the [New York City Department of Parks and Recreation](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation \"New York City Department of Parks and Recreation\").](/wiki/File:Eastern_Pkwy_west_of_New_York_Ave.JPG \"Eastern Pkwy west of New York Ave.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Clara Barton Parkway](/wiki/Clara_Barton_Parkway \"Clara Barton Parkway\") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\")](/wiki/File:IMG_2237_-_Clara_Barton_Pkwy_at_NSWC_%28looking_west%29.JPG \"IMG 2237 - Clara Barton Pkwy at NSWC (looking west).JPG\")",
"### Scenic roads",
"The first parkways in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") were developed during the late 19th century by landscape architects [Frederick Law Olmsted](/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted \"Frederick Law Olmsted\") and Calvert Vaux as roads that separated pedestrians, bicyclists, equestrians, and [horse carriages](/wiki/Horse_carriage \"Horse carriage\"), such as the [Eastern Parkway](/wiki/Eastern_Parkway \"Eastern Parkway\"), which is credited as the world's first parkway,{{Cite web \\|url \\= http://www.nycgovparks.org/about/history/historical\\-signs/listings?id\\=196 \\|title \\= Eastern Parkway Highlights : NYC Parks }} and [Ocean Parkway](/wiki/Ocean_Parkway_%28Brooklyn%29 \"Ocean Parkway (Brooklyn)\") in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") [borough](/wiki/Borough_%28New_York_City%29 \"Borough (New York City)\") of [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"). The term \"parkway\" to define this type of road was coined by [Calvert Vaux](/wiki/Calvert_Vaux \"Calvert Vaux\") and Frederick Law Olmsted in their proposal to link city and suburban parks with \"pleasure roads\".[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Heavy traffic on the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway \"Garden State Parkway\") in [Monmouth County](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Monmouth County, New Jersey\"), [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"), in the [New York Metropolitan Area](/wiki/New_York_Metropolitan_Area \"New York Metropolitan Area\"), [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). This is one of the world's busiest roadways.In](/wiki/File:Parkway_Congestion_02.jpg \"Parkway Congestion 02.jpg\") [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\"), Olmsted and Vaux used parkways with landscaped medians and setbacks to create the first interconnected park and parkway system in the United States.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wned/frederick\\-law\\-olmsted/learn\\-more/olmsteds\\-buffalo\\-park\\-system\\-and\\-its\\-stewards/\\|title\\=Olmsted's Buffalo Park System and Its Stewards {{!}} Frederick Law Olmsted {{!}} PBS\\|website\\=Olmsted's Buffalo Park System and Its Stewards {{!}} Frederick Law Olmsted {{!}} PBS\\|access\\-date\\=July 10, 2019}} [Bidwell](/wiki/Delaware_Park-Front_Park_System \"Delaware Park-Front Park System\") Parkway and Chapin Parkway are 200 foot wide city streets with only one lane for cars in each direction and broad landscaped medians that provide a pleasant, shaded route to the park and serve as mini\\-parks within the neighborhood.{{Cite web \\|url \\= https://www.bfloparks.org/parks/parkways/ \\|title \\= Your Parkways: Caring for 850 acres of Buffalo's Olmsted Park System \\|website \\= Buffalo Olmsted Parks \\|language \\= en\\-US \\|access\\-date \\= July 10, 2019 }} The [Rhode Island Metropolitan Park Commission](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Metropolitan_Park_Commission \"Rhode Island Metropolitan Park Commission\") developed several parkways in the Providence area.Including Veterans Memorial Parkway in [East Providence](/wiki/East_Providence%2C_Rhode_Island \"East Providence, Rhode Island\"), and the Narragansett Parkway in [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Rhode_Island \"Warwick, Rhode Island\").[https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ristateparks\\-commission/rhode\\-island\\-state\\-parks\\-commission/](https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ristateparks-commission/rhode-island-state-parks-commission/)",
"Other parkways, such as Park Presidio Boulevard in [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"),{{cite web \\|last1 \\= Alexander \\|first1 \\= Jeanne \\|title \\= History of Park Presidio Boulevard \\|url \\= http://ppnsf.org/history \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121003130754/http://ppnsf.org/history \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-date \\= October 3, 2012 }} were designed to serve larger volumes of traffic.",
"During the early 20th century, the meaning of the word was expanded to include [limited\\-access highways](/wiki/Limited-access_highway \"Limited-access highway\") designed for recreational driving of automobiles, with [landscaping](/wiki/Landscape \"Landscape\"). These parkways originally provided [scenic routes](/wiki/Scenic_route \"Scenic route\") without very slow or [commercial vehicles](/wiki/Commercial_vehicle \"Commercial vehicle\"), at [grade intersections](/wiki/Level_crossing \"Level crossing\"), or pedestrian traffic. Examples are the [Merritt Parkway](/wiki/Merritt_Parkway \"Merritt Parkway\") in Connecticut and the [Vanderbilt Motor Parkway](/wiki/Vanderbilt_Motor_Parkway \"Vanderbilt Motor Parkway\") in New York. But their success led to more development, expanding a city's boundaries, eventually limiting the parkway's recreational driving use. The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\") between [Downtown Los Angeles](/wiki/Downtown_Los_Angeles \"Downtown Los Angeles\") and [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"), is an example of lost [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\") aesthetics. It and others have become major commuting routes, while retaining the name \"parkway\".",
"### Early high speed roads",
"{{See also\\|Parkways in New York State}}\nIn New York City, construction on the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway \"Long Island Motor Parkway\") (Vanderbilt Parkway) began in 1906 and planning for the [Bronx River Parkway](/wiki/Bronx_River_Parkway \"Bronx River Parkway\") in 1907\\. In the 1920s, the [New York City Metropolitan Area](/wiki/New_York_City_Metropolitan_Area \"New York City Metropolitan Area\")'s parkway system grew under the direction of [Robert Moses](/wiki/Robert_Moses \"Robert Moses\"), the president of the New York State Council of Parks and [Long Island State Park Commission](/wiki/Long_Island_State_Park_Commission \"Long Island State Park Commission\"), who used parkways to provide access to newly created state parks, especially for city dwellers. As Commissioner of New York City Parks under Mayor LaGuardia, he extended the parkways to the heart of the city, creating and linking its parks to the greater metropolitan systems.",
"Most of the New York metropolitan parkways were designed by Gilmore Clark. The famed \"Gateway to New England\" [Merritt Parkway](/wiki/Merritt_Parkway \"Merritt Parkway\") in [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\") was designed in the 1930s as a pleasurable alternative for affluent locals to the congested Boston Post Road, running through forest with each bridge designed uniquely to enhance the scenery. Another example is the [Sprain Brook Parkway](/wiki/Sprain_Brook_Parkway \"Sprain Brook Parkway\") from lower\\-[Westchester](/wiki/Westchester_County \"Westchester County\") to connect to the [Taconic State Parkway](/wiki/Taconic_State_Parkway \"Taconic State Parkway\") to [Chatham, New York](/wiki/Chatham%2C_New_York \"Chatham, New York\"). [Landscape architect](/wiki/Landscape_architect \"Landscape architect\") [George Kessler](/wiki/George_Kessler \"George Kessler\") designed extensive parkway systems for [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri%23Parks_and_boulevards \"Kansas City, Missouri#Parks and boulevards\"); [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis_Park_and_Parkway_System \"Memphis Park and Parkway System\"); [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis_Park_and_Boulevard_System \"Indianapolis Park and Boulevard System\"); and other cities at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The [Natchez Trace Parkway](/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Parkway \"Natchez Trace Parkway\")](/wiki/File:Natchez-Trace-Parkway-Highsmith.jpeg \"Natchez-Trace-Parkway-Highsmith.jpeg\")",
"### New Deal roads",
"In the 1930s, as part of the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal \"New Deal\") the U.S. federal government constructed [National Parkways](/wiki/National_Parkway \"National Parkway\") designed for recreational driving and to commemorate historic trails and routes. These divided four\\-lane parkways have lower [speed limits](/wiki/Speed_limit \"Speed limit\") and are maintained by the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"). An example is the [Civilian Conservation Corps](/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps \"Civilian Conservation Corps\") (CCC) built [Blue Ridge Parkway](/wiki/Blue_Ridge_Parkway \"Blue Ridge Parkway\") in the [Appalachian Mountains](/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains \"Appalachian Mountains\") of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") and [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\").",
"Others are: [Skyline Drive](/wiki/Skyline_Drive \"Skyline Drive\") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"); the [Natchez Trace Parkway](/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Parkway \"Natchez Trace Parkway\") in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\"), and [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\"); and the [Colonial Parkway](/wiki/Colonial_Parkway \"Colonial Parkway\") in eastern Virginia's [Historic Triangle](/wiki/Historic_Triangle \"Historic Triangle\") area.{{cite news \\|url \\= http://www.roanoke.com/roatimes/special\\_sections/parkway/parkway1\\.html \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121009162431/http://www.roanoke.com/roatimes/special\\_sections/parkway/parkway1\\.html \\|archive\\-date \\= October 9, 2012 \\|first1 \\= Tim \\|last1 \\= Thornton \\|first2 \\= Isak \\|last2 \\= Howell \\|title \\= Parkway's Past Haunts Its Future }} The [George Washington Memorial Parkway](/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway \"George Washington Memorial Parkway\") and the [Clara Barton Parkway](/wiki/Clara_Barton_Parkway \"Clara Barton Parkway\"), running along the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\") near [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), and [Alexandria, Virginia](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Virginia \"Alexandria, Virginia\"), were also constructed during this era.",
"### Post\\-war parkways",
"[thumb\\|Aerial view of [Valley Stream](/wiki/Valley_Stream%2C_New_York \"Valley Stream, New York\") (foreground) and more of [Nassau County, New York](/wiki/Nassau_County%2C_New_York \"Nassau County, New York\"), including the [Belt Parkway](/wiki/Belt_Parkway \"Belt Parkway\") (left), [Southern State Parkway](/wiki/Southern_State_Parkway \"Southern State Parkway\") (right), and [Cross Island Parkway](/wiki/Cross_Island_Parkway \"Cross Island Parkway\") (center rear)](/wiki/File:Valley_Stream_NY_and_parkways.jpg \"Valley Stream NY and parkways.jpg\")",
"In [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\") the term \"parkway\" designates a [freeway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway \"Controlled-access highway\") in the [Kentucky Parkway system](/wiki/Kentucky_parkway_system \"Kentucky parkway system\"), with nine built in the 1960s and 1970s. They were [toll roads](/wiki/Toll_road \"Toll road\") until the [construction bonds](/wiki/Construction_bond \"Construction bond\") were repaid; the last of these roads to charge tolls became [freeways](/wiki/Freeway \"Freeway\") in 2006\\.",
"The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\") from [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\") to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), built in 1940, was the first segment of the vast [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") freeway system. It became part of [State Route 110](/wiki/Interstate_110_and_State_Route_110_%28California%29 \"Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)\") and was renamed the Pasadena Freeway. A 2010 restoration of the freeway brought the Arroyo Seco Parkway designation back.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Sign informing truckers that it is illegal for their vehicles to use a parkway in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").](/wiki/File:Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg \"Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg\")\nIn the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area \"New York metropolitan area\"), contemporary parkways are predominantly limited\\-access highways or freeways restricted to non\\-commercial traffic, excluding [trucks](/wiki/Truck \"Truck\") and [tractor\\-trailers](/wiki/Tractor-trailer \"Tractor-trailer\"). Some have low overpasses that also exclude buses. The Vanderbilt Parkway, an exception in western [Suffolk County](/wiki/Suffolk_County%2C_New_York \"Suffolk County, New York\"), is a surviving remnant of the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway \"Long Island Motor Parkway\") that became a [surface street](/wiki/Surface_street \"Surface street\"), no longer with controlled\\-access or non\\-commercial vehicle restrictions. The [Palisades Interstate Parkway](/wiki/Palisades_Interstate_Parkway \"Palisades Interstate Parkway\") is a post\\-war parkway that starts at the [George Washington Bridge](/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge \"George Washington Bridge\"), heads north through New Jersey, continuing through Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The Palisades Parkway was built to allow for a direct route from New York City to [Harriman State Park](/wiki/Harriman_State_Park_%28New_York%29 \"Harriman State Park (New York)\").",
"In New Jersey, the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway \"Garden State Parkway\"), connecting the northern part of the state with the [Jersey Shore](/wiki/Jersey_Shore \"Jersey Shore\"), is restricted to buses and non\\-commercial traffic north of the [Route 18](/wiki/New_Jersey_Route_18 \"New Jersey Route 18\") interchange, but trucks are permitted south of this point. It is one of the busiest toll roads in the country.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \\|title \\= Title 16\\. Department of Transportation; Chapter 32\\. Truck Access \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[New Jersey Department of Transportation]] \\|access\\-date \\= August 13, 2010 \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080920214137/http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \\|archive\\-date \\= September 20, 2008 }}",
"In the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") region, two of the major Interstates are referred to informally as parkways. The Parkway East ([I\\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 \"Interstate 376\"), formally the [Penn\\-Lincoln Parkway](/wiki/Penn-Lincoln_Parkway \"Penn-Lincoln Parkway\")) connects Downtown Pittsburgh to [Monroeville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Monroeville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Monroeville, Pennsylvania\"). The Parkway West ([I\\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 \"Interstate 376\")) runs through the [Fort Pitt Tunnel](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_Tunnel \"Fort Pitt Tunnel\") and links Downtown to [Pittsburgh International Airport](/wiki/Pittsburgh_International_Airport \"Pittsburgh International Airport\"), southbound [I\\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 \"Interstate 79\"), [Imperial, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Imperial%2C_Pennsylvania \"Imperial, Pennsylvania\"), and westbound US 22/US 30\\. The Parkway North ([I\\-279](/wiki/Interstate_279 \"Interstate 279\")) connects Downtown to [Franklin Park, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Franklin_Park%2C_Pennsylvania \"Franklin Park, Pennsylvania\") and northbound [I\\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 \"Interstate 79\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[US 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania\") parkway northbound in [Montgomery Township, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Montgomery_Township%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Montgomery Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\")](/wiki/File:US_202_NB_between_PA_463_and_County_Line_Road_in_Montgomery_Township.jpeg \"US 202 NB between PA 463 and County Line Road in Montgomery Township.jpeg\")\nIn the suburbs of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [U.S. Route 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania\") follows an at\\-grade parkway alignment known as the \"U.S. Route 202 Parkway\" between [Montgomeryville](/wiki/Montgomeryville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania\") and [Doylestown](/wiki/Doylestown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Doylestown, Pennsylvania\"). The parkway varies from two to four lanes in width, has {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-wide}} shoulders, a {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-wide}} walking path called the [US 202 Parkway Trail](/wiki/US_202_Parkway_Trail \"US 202 Parkway Trail\") on the side, and a {{convert\\|40\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} speed limit. The parkway opened in 2012 as a bypass of a section of US 202 between the two towns; it had originally been proposed as a four\\-lane freeway before funding for the road was cut.{{cite news \\|first \\= Peter \\|last \\= Mucha \\|title \\= New Route 202 parkway opens today \\|work \\= \\[\\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \\|date \\= December 3, 2012 \\|url \\= http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/20121203\\_New\\_Route\\_202\\_parkway\\_opens\\_today.html \\|access\\-date \\= December 3, 2012 }}{{cite news \\|first \\= Freda R. \\|last \\= Savana \\|title \\= Make way for the 202 Parkway \\|work \\= \\[\\[The Intelligencer (Doylestown, Pennsylvania)\\|The Intelligencer]] \\|location \\= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \\|date \\= March 2, 2008 }}{{cite news \\|first \\= Christina \\|last \\= Kristofic \\|title \\= PennDOT to hold meetings on noise from parkway \\|work \\= The Intelligencer \\|location \\= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \\|date \\= November 1, 2007 }}",
"In [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), the [Grand Rounds Scenic Byway](/wiki/Grand_Rounds_Scenic_Byway \"Grand Rounds Scenic Byway\") system has {{convert\\|50\\|mi\\|km}} of streets designated as parkways. These are not freeways; they have a slow {{convert\\|25\\|mph\\|km/h\\|adj\\=on}} speed limit, pedestrian crossings, and stop signs.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\\_about.htm \\|title \\= Information Center: About the Grand Rounds \\|access\\-date \\= December 18, 2007 \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150214064938/http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\\_about.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= February 14, 2015 }}{{cite web \\|url \\= http://secondward.blogspot.com/2007/01/traffic\\-calming\\-event.html \\|title \\= Second Ward, Minneapolis: Traffic Calming Event \\|access\\-date \\= December 18, 2007 }}",
"In [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\"), parkways are major roads which trucks are prohibited from using. Some Cincinnati parkways, such as Columbia Parkway, are high\\-speed, limited\\-access roads, while others, such as Central Parkway, are multi\\-lane urban roads without controlled access. Columbia Parkway carries US\\-50 traffic from downtown towards east\\-side suburbs of Mariemont, Anderson, and Milford, and is a limited access road from downtown to the Village of Mariemont.",
"In [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), parkways are generally four to six lanes wide but are not usually controlled\\-access. They are highly trafficked in most cases, transporting people between neighborhoods quicker than a typical city street. Many of them serve as principal arterials and some (like [Storrow Drive](/wiki/Storrow_Drive \"Storrow Drive\"), [Memorial Drive](/wiki/Memorial_Drive_%28Cambridge%29 \"Memorial Drive (Cambridge)\"), the [Alewife Brook Parkway](/wiki/Alewife_Brook_Parkway \"Alewife Brook Parkway\") and the [VFW Parkway](/wiki/VFW_Parkway \"VFW Parkway\")) have evolved into regional commuter routes.",
""
] |
### Post\-war parkways
[thumb\|Aerial view of [Valley Stream](/wiki/Valley_Stream%2C_New_York "Valley Stream, New York") (foreground) and more of [Nassau County, New York](/wiki/Nassau_County%2C_New_York "Nassau County, New York"), including the [Belt Parkway](/wiki/Belt_Parkway "Belt Parkway") (left), [Southern State Parkway](/wiki/Southern_State_Parkway "Southern State Parkway") (right), and [Cross Island Parkway](/wiki/Cross_Island_Parkway "Cross Island Parkway") (center rear)](/wiki/File:Valley_Stream_NY_and_parkways.jpg "Valley Stream NY and parkways.jpg")
In [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky") the term "parkway" designates a [freeway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway "Controlled-access highway") in the [Kentucky Parkway system](/wiki/Kentucky_parkway_system "Kentucky parkway system"), with nine built in the 1960s and 1970s. They were [toll roads](/wiki/Toll_road "Toll road") until the [construction bonds](/wiki/Construction_bond "Construction bond") were repaid; the last of these roads to charge tolls became [freeways](/wiki/Freeway "Freeway") in 2006\.
The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway "Arroyo Seco Parkway") from [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California") to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), built in 1940, was the first segment of the vast [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") freeway system. It became part of [State Route 110](/wiki/Interstate_110_and_State_Route_110_%28California%29 "Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)") and was renamed the Pasadena Freeway. A 2010 restoration of the freeway brought the Arroyo Seco Parkway designation back.
[thumb\|left\|Sign informing truckers that it is illegal for their vehicles to use a parkway in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").](/wiki/File:Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg "Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg")
In the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area "New York metropolitan area"), contemporary parkways are predominantly limited\-access highways or freeways restricted to non\-commercial traffic, excluding [trucks](/wiki/Truck "Truck") and [tractor\-trailers](/wiki/Tractor-trailer "Tractor-trailer"). Some have low overpasses that also exclude buses. The Vanderbilt Parkway, an exception in western [Suffolk County](/wiki/Suffolk_County%2C_New_York "Suffolk County, New York"), is a surviving remnant of the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway "Long Island Motor Parkway") that became a [surface street](/wiki/Surface_street "Surface street"), no longer with controlled\-access or non\-commercial vehicle restrictions. The [Palisades Interstate Parkway](/wiki/Palisades_Interstate_Parkway "Palisades Interstate Parkway") is a post\-war parkway that starts at the [George Washington Bridge](/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge "George Washington Bridge"), heads north through New Jersey, continuing through Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The Palisades Parkway was built to allow for a direct route from New York City to [Harriman State Park](/wiki/Harriman_State_Park_%28New_York%29 "Harriman State Park (New York)").
In New Jersey, the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway "Garden State Parkway"), connecting the northern part of the state with the [Jersey Shore](/wiki/Jersey_Shore "Jersey Shore"), is restricted to buses and non\-commercial traffic north of the [Route 18](/wiki/New_Jersey_Route_18 "New Jersey Route 18") interchange, but trucks are permitted south of this point. It is one of the busiest toll roads in the country.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \|title \= Title 16\. Department of Transportation; Chapter 32\. Truck Access \|publisher \= \[\[New Jersey Department of Transportation]] \|access\-date \= August 13, 2010 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080920214137/http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \|archive\-date \= September 20, 2008 }}
In the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") region, two of the major Interstates are referred to informally as parkways. The Parkway East ([I\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 "Interstate 376"), formally the [Penn\-Lincoln Parkway](/wiki/Penn-Lincoln_Parkway "Penn-Lincoln Parkway")) connects Downtown Pittsburgh to [Monroeville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Monroeville%2C_Pennsylvania "Monroeville, Pennsylvania"). The Parkway West ([I\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 "Interstate 376")) runs through the [Fort Pitt Tunnel](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_Tunnel "Fort Pitt Tunnel") and links Downtown to [Pittsburgh International Airport](/wiki/Pittsburgh_International_Airport "Pittsburgh International Airport"), southbound [I\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 "Interstate 79"), [Imperial, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Imperial%2C_Pennsylvania "Imperial, Pennsylvania"), and westbound US 22/US 30\. The Parkway North ([I\-279](/wiki/Interstate_279 "Interstate 279")) connects Downtown to [Franklin Park, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Franklin_Park%2C_Pennsylvania "Franklin Park, Pennsylvania") and northbound [I\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 "Interstate 79").
[thumb\|right\|[US 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania "U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania") parkway northbound in [Montgomery Township, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Montgomery_Township%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Montgomery Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania")](/wiki/File:US_202_NB_between_PA_463_and_County_Line_Road_in_Montgomery_Township.jpeg "US 202 NB between PA 463 and County Line Road in Montgomery Township.jpeg")
In the suburbs of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [U.S. Route 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania "U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania") follows an at\-grade parkway alignment known as the "U.S. Route 202 Parkway" between [Montgomeryville](/wiki/Montgomeryville%2C_Pennsylvania "Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania") and [Doylestown](/wiki/Doylestown%2C_Pennsylvania "Doylestown, Pennsylvania"). The parkway varies from two to four lanes in width, has {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-wide}} shoulders, a {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-wide}} walking path called the [US 202 Parkway Trail](/wiki/US_202_Parkway_Trail "US 202 Parkway Trail") on the side, and a {{convert\|40\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} speed limit. The parkway opened in 2012 as a bypass of a section of US 202 between the two towns; it had originally been proposed as a four\-lane freeway before funding for the road was cut.{{cite news \|first \= Peter \|last \= Mucha \|title \= New Route 202 parkway opens today \|work \= \[\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \|date \= December 3, 2012 \|url \= http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/20121203\_New\_Route\_202\_parkway\_opens\_today.html \|access\-date \= December 3, 2012 }}{{cite news \|first \= Freda R. \|last \= Savana \|title \= Make way for the 202 Parkway \|work \= \[\[The Intelligencer (Doylestown, Pennsylvania)\|The Intelligencer]] \|location \= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \|date \= March 2, 2008 }}{{cite news \|first \= Christina \|last \= Kristofic \|title \= PennDOT to hold meetings on noise from parkway \|work \= The Intelligencer \|location \= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \|date \= November 1, 2007 }}
In [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), the [Grand Rounds Scenic Byway](/wiki/Grand_Rounds_Scenic_Byway "Grand Rounds Scenic Byway") system has {{convert\|50\|mi\|km}} of streets designated as parkways. These are not freeways; they have a slow {{convert\|25\|mph\|km/h\|adj\=on}} speed limit, pedestrian crossings, and stop signs.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\_about.htm \|title \= Information Center: About the Grand Rounds \|access\-date \= December 18, 2007 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150214064938/http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\_about.htm \|archive\-date \= February 14, 2015 }}{{cite web \|url \= http://secondward.blogspot.com/2007/01/traffic\-calming\-event.html \|title \= Second Ward, Minneapolis: Traffic Calming Event \|access\-date \= December 18, 2007 }}
In [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati"), parkways are major roads which trucks are prohibited from using. Some Cincinnati parkways, such as Columbia Parkway, are high\-speed, limited\-access roads, while others, such as Central Parkway, are multi\-lane urban roads without controlled access. Columbia Parkway carries US\-50 traffic from downtown towards east\-side suburbs of Mariemont, Anderson, and Milford, and is a limited access road from downtown to the Village of Mariemont.
In [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), parkways are generally four to six lanes wide but are not usually controlled\-access. They are highly trafficked in most cases, transporting people between neighborhoods quicker than a typical city street. Many of them serve as principal arterials and some (like [Storrow Drive](/wiki/Storrow_Drive "Storrow Drive"), [Memorial Drive](/wiki/Memorial_Drive_%28Cambridge%29 "Memorial Drive (Cambridge)"), the [Alewife Brook Parkway](/wiki/Alewife_Brook_Parkway "Alewife Brook Parkway") and the [VFW Parkway](/wiki/VFW_Parkway "VFW Parkway")) have evolved into regional commuter routes.
|
[
"### Post\\-war parkways",
"[thumb\\|Aerial view of [Valley Stream](/wiki/Valley_Stream%2C_New_York \"Valley Stream, New York\") (foreground) and more of [Nassau County, New York](/wiki/Nassau_County%2C_New_York \"Nassau County, New York\"), including the [Belt Parkway](/wiki/Belt_Parkway \"Belt Parkway\") (left), [Southern State Parkway](/wiki/Southern_State_Parkway \"Southern State Parkway\") (right), and [Cross Island Parkway](/wiki/Cross_Island_Parkway \"Cross Island Parkway\") (center rear)](/wiki/File:Valley_Stream_NY_and_parkways.jpg \"Valley Stream NY and parkways.jpg\")",
"In [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\") the term \"parkway\" designates a [freeway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway \"Controlled-access highway\") in the [Kentucky Parkway system](/wiki/Kentucky_parkway_system \"Kentucky parkway system\"), with nine built in the 1960s and 1970s. They were [toll roads](/wiki/Toll_road \"Toll road\") until the [construction bonds](/wiki/Construction_bond \"Construction bond\") were repaid; the last of these roads to charge tolls became [freeways](/wiki/Freeway \"Freeway\") in 2006\\.",
"The [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\") from [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\") to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), built in 1940, was the first segment of the vast [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") freeway system. It became part of [State Route 110](/wiki/Interstate_110_and_State_Route_110_%28California%29 \"Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)\") and was renamed the Pasadena Freeway. A 2010 restoration of the freeway brought the Arroyo Seco Parkway designation back.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Sign informing truckers that it is illegal for their vehicles to use a parkway in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").](/wiki/File:Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg \"Truckersuseexpwysnotpkwys.jpg\")\nIn the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area \"New York metropolitan area\"), contemporary parkways are predominantly limited\\-access highways or freeways restricted to non\\-commercial traffic, excluding [trucks](/wiki/Truck \"Truck\") and [tractor\\-trailers](/wiki/Tractor-trailer \"Tractor-trailer\"). Some have low overpasses that also exclude buses. The Vanderbilt Parkway, an exception in western [Suffolk County](/wiki/Suffolk_County%2C_New_York \"Suffolk County, New York\"), is a surviving remnant of the [Long Island Motor Parkway](/wiki/Long_Island_Motor_Parkway \"Long Island Motor Parkway\") that became a [surface street](/wiki/Surface_street \"Surface street\"), no longer with controlled\\-access or non\\-commercial vehicle restrictions. The [Palisades Interstate Parkway](/wiki/Palisades_Interstate_Parkway \"Palisades Interstate Parkway\") is a post\\-war parkway that starts at the [George Washington Bridge](/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge \"George Washington Bridge\"), heads north through New Jersey, continuing through Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The Palisades Parkway was built to allow for a direct route from New York City to [Harriman State Park](/wiki/Harriman_State_Park_%28New_York%29 \"Harriman State Park (New York)\").",
"In New Jersey, the [Garden State Parkway](/wiki/Garden_State_Parkway \"Garden State Parkway\"), connecting the northern part of the state with the [Jersey Shore](/wiki/Jersey_Shore \"Jersey Shore\"), is restricted to buses and non\\-commercial traffic north of the [Route 18](/wiki/New_Jersey_Route_18 \"New Jersey Route 18\") interchange, but trucks are permitted south of this point. It is one of the busiest toll roads in the country.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \\|title \\= Title 16\\. Department of Transportation; Chapter 32\\. Truck Access \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[New Jersey Department of Transportation]] \\|access\\-date \\= August 13, 2010 \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080920214137/http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/rules/pdf/chapter32truckaccess.pdf \\|archive\\-date \\= September 20, 2008 }}",
"In the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") region, two of the major Interstates are referred to informally as parkways. The Parkway East ([I\\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 \"Interstate 376\"), formally the [Penn\\-Lincoln Parkway](/wiki/Penn-Lincoln_Parkway \"Penn-Lincoln Parkway\")) connects Downtown Pittsburgh to [Monroeville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Monroeville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Monroeville, Pennsylvania\"). The Parkway West ([I\\-376](/wiki/Interstate_376 \"Interstate 376\")) runs through the [Fort Pitt Tunnel](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_Tunnel \"Fort Pitt Tunnel\") and links Downtown to [Pittsburgh International Airport](/wiki/Pittsburgh_International_Airport \"Pittsburgh International Airport\"), southbound [I\\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 \"Interstate 79\"), [Imperial, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Imperial%2C_Pennsylvania \"Imperial, Pennsylvania\"), and westbound US 22/US 30\\. The Parkway North ([I\\-279](/wiki/Interstate_279 \"Interstate 279\")) connects Downtown to [Franklin Park, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Franklin_Park%2C_Pennsylvania \"Franklin Park, Pennsylvania\") and northbound [I\\-79](/wiki/Interstate_79 \"Interstate 79\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[US 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania\") parkway northbound in [Montgomery Township, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Montgomery_Township%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Montgomery Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\")](/wiki/File:US_202_NB_between_PA_463_and_County_Line_Road_in_Montgomery_Township.jpeg \"US 202 NB between PA 463 and County Line Road in Montgomery Township.jpeg\")\nIn the suburbs of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [U.S. Route 202](/wiki/U.S._Route_202_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 202 in Pennsylvania\") follows an at\\-grade parkway alignment known as the \"U.S. Route 202 Parkway\" between [Montgomeryville](/wiki/Montgomeryville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania\") and [Doylestown](/wiki/Doylestown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Doylestown, Pennsylvania\"). The parkway varies from two to four lanes in width, has {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-wide}} shoulders, a {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-wide}} walking path called the [US 202 Parkway Trail](/wiki/US_202_Parkway_Trail \"US 202 Parkway Trail\") on the side, and a {{convert\\|40\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} speed limit. The parkway opened in 2012 as a bypass of a section of US 202 between the two towns; it had originally been proposed as a four\\-lane freeway before funding for the road was cut.{{cite news \\|first \\= Peter \\|last \\= Mucha \\|title \\= New Route 202 parkway opens today \\|work \\= \\[\\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \\|date \\= December 3, 2012 \\|url \\= http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/20121203\\_New\\_Route\\_202\\_parkway\\_opens\\_today.html \\|access\\-date \\= December 3, 2012 }}{{cite news \\|first \\= Freda R. \\|last \\= Savana \\|title \\= Make way for the 202 Parkway \\|work \\= \\[\\[The Intelligencer (Doylestown, Pennsylvania)\\|The Intelligencer]] \\|location \\= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \\|date \\= March 2, 2008 }}{{cite news \\|first \\= Christina \\|last \\= Kristofic \\|title \\= PennDOT to hold meetings on noise from parkway \\|work \\= The Intelligencer \\|location \\= Doylestown, Pennsylvania \\|date \\= November 1, 2007 }}",
"In [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), the [Grand Rounds Scenic Byway](/wiki/Grand_Rounds_Scenic_Byway \"Grand Rounds Scenic Byway\") system has {{convert\\|50\\|mi\\|km}} of streets designated as parkways. These are not freeways; they have a slow {{convert\\|25\\|mph\\|km/h\\|adj\\=on}} speed limit, pedestrian crossings, and stop signs.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\\_about.htm \\|title \\= Information Center: About the Grand Rounds \\|access\\-date \\= December 18, 2007 \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150214064938/http://www.minneapolisparks.org/grandrounds/inf\\_about.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= February 14, 2015 }}{{cite web \\|url \\= http://secondward.blogspot.com/2007/01/traffic\\-calming\\-event.html \\|title \\= Second Ward, Minneapolis: Traffic Calming Event \\|access\\-date \\= December 18, 2007 }}",
"In [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\"), parkways are major roads which trucks are prohibited from using. Some Cincinnati parkways, such as Columbia Parkway, are high\\-speed, limited\\-access roads, while others, such as Central Parkway, are multi\\-lane urban roads without controlled access. Columbia Parkway carries US\\-50 traffic from downtown towards east\\-side suburbs of Mariemont, Anderson, and Milford, and is a limited access road from downtown to the Village of Mariemont.",
"In [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), parkways are generally four to six lanes wide but are not usually controlled\\-access. They are highly trafficked in most cases, transporting people between neighborhoods quicker than a typical city street. Many of them serve as principal arterials and some (like [Storrow Drive](/wiki/Storrow_Drive \"Storrow Drive\"), [Memorial Drive](/wiki/Memorial_Drive_%28Cambridge%29 \"Memorial Drive (Cambridge)\"), the [Alewife Brook Parkway](/wiki/Alewife_Brook_Parkway \"Alewife Brook Parkway\") and the [VFW Parkway](/wiki/VFW_Parkway \"VFW Parkway\")) have evolved into regional commuter routes.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In [Edwardian](/wiki/Edwardian "Edwardian") [London](/wiki/Bloomsbury "Bloomsbury") 1904, George and Mary Darling's preparations to attend a party are disrupted by the antics of their boys, John and Michael, who are acting out a [Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan "Peter Pan") story told them by their elder sister [Wendy](/wiki/Wendy_Darling "Wendy Darling"). An irritated George demands that Wendy drop the stories and move out of the nursery, since "sooner or later, people have to grow up". Later that night, Peter himself arrives in the nursery to find his lost shadow. He persuades Wendy to come to [Never Land](/wiki/Neverland "Neverland"), where she will never have to grow up, and she and the boys fly there with the begrudging help of the pixie [Tinker Bell](/wiki/Tinker_Bell_%28Disney_character%29 "Tinker Bell (Disney character)").
A ship of [pirates](/wiki/Pirate "Pirate") is anchored off Never Land, led by [Captain Hook](/wiki/Captain_Hook "Captain Hook") and his first mate, [Mr. Smee](/wiki/Mr._Smee_%28Disney%29 "Mr. Smee (Disney)"). Hook wants revenge on Peter for cutting off his hand, but fears the crocodile which consumed the hand, knowing it is eager to eat the rest of him. When Pan and the Darlings arrive, Hook shoots at them with a cannon, and Peter sends the Darlings off to safety while he baits the pirates. Tinker Bell, who is jealous of Pan's attention to Wendy, convinces the [Lost Boys](/wiki/Lost_Boys_%28Peter_Pan%29 "Lost Boys (Peter Pan)") that Pan has ordered them to shoot down Wendy. Tinker Bell's treachery is soon found out, and Peter [banishes](/wiki/Banishment "Banishment") her. John and Michael set off with the Lost Boys to find the island's [Natives](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples "Indigenous peoples"); however, the Natives capture the group, believing them to be responsible for taking the chief's daughter, [Tiger Lily](/wiki/Tiger_Lily_%28Peter_Pan%29 "Tiger Lily (Peter Pan)").
Meanwhile, Peter takes Wendy to see the [mermaids](/wiki/Mermaid "Mermaid"), who flee in terror when Hook arrives on the scene. Peter and Wendy see that Hook and Smee have captured Tiger Lily, to force her to disclose the location of Peter's hideout. Peter frees Tiger Lily and returns her to the Chief, and the tribe honors Peter. Meanwhile, Hook takes advantage of Tinker Bell's jealousy of Wendy, tricking the fairy into revealing Peter's secret hideout instead.
Wendy and her brothers eventually grow homesick and plan to return to London. They invite Peter and the Lost Boys to join them and be adopted by the Darlings. The Lost Boys agree, but Peter does not want to grow up and refuses. The pirates lie in wait, and capture the Lost Boys and the Darlings as they exit the lair, leaving behind a [time bomb](/wiki/Time_bomb "Time bomb") to kill Peter. Hook attempts to persuade the Lost Boys and the Darlings to join the crew or [walk the plank](/wiki/Walk_the_plank "Walk the plank"). Tinker Bell learns of the plot, just in time to snatch the bomb from Peter as it explodes.
Peter rescues Tinker Bell from the rubble, and together they rescue Wendy, confronting the pirates and releasing the children. Peter engages Hook in combat as the children fight off the crew, and defeats him. Hook falls into the sea and swims away, pursued by the crocodile. Peter commandeers the deserted ship and, assisted by Tinker Bell's pixie dust, flies it to London with the children aboard.
George and Mary Darling return home and find Wendy sleeping at the nursery's open window. Wendy awakens and excitedly tells about their adventures. The parents look out the window and see what appears to be a pirate ship in the clouds. George, who has softened his position about Wendy staying in the nursery, recognizes the ship from his own childhood, hinting that he himself went to Neverland when he was a boy.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In [Edwardian](/wiki/Edwardian \"Edwardian\") [London](/wiki/Bloomsbury \"Bloomsbury\") 1904, George and Mary Darling's preparations to attend a party are disrupted by the antics of their boys, John and Michael, who are acting out a [Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan \"Peter Pan\") story told them by their elder sister [Wendy](/wiki/Wendy_Darling \"Wendy Darling\"). An irritated George demands that Wendy drop the stories and move out of the nursery, since \"sooner or later, people have to grow up\". Later that night, Peter himself arrives in the nursery to find his lost shadow. He persuades Wendy to come to [Never Land](/wiki/Neverland \"Neverland\"), where she will never have to grow up, and she and the boys fly there with the begrudging help of the pixie [Tinker Bell](/wiki/Tinker_Bell_%28Disney_character%29 \"Tinker Bell (Disney character)\").",
"A ship of [pirates](/wiki/Pirate \"Pirate\") is anchored off Never Land, led by [Captain Hook](/wiki/Captain_Hook \"Captain Hook\") and his first mate, [Mr. Smee](/wiki/Mr._Smee_%28Disney%29 \"Mr. Smee (Disney)\"). Hook wants revenge on Peter for cutting off his hand, but fears the crocodile which consumed the hand, knowing it is eager to eat the rest of him. When Pan and the Darlings arrive, Hook shoots at them with a cannon, and Peter sends the Darlings off to safety while he baits the pirates. Tinker Bell, who is jealous of Pan's attention to Wendy, convinces the [Lost Boys](/wiki/Lost_Boys_%28Peter_Pan%29 \"Lost Boys (Peter Pan)\") that Pan has ordered them to shoot down Wendy. Tinker Bell's treachery is soon found out, and Peter [banishes](/wiki/Banishment \"Banishment\") her. John and Michael set off with the Lost Boys to find the island's [Natives](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples \"Indigenous peoples\"); however, the Natives capture the group, believing them to be responsible for taking the chief's daughter, [Tiger Lily](/wiki/Tiger_Lily_%28Peter_Pan%29 \"Tiger Lily (Peter Pan)\").",
"Meanwhile, Peter takes Wendy to see the [mermaids](/wiki/Mermaid \"Mermaid\"), who flee in terror when Hook arrives on the scene. Peter and Wendy see that Hook and Smee have captured Tiger Lily, to force her to disclose the location of Peter's hideout. Peter frees Tiger Lily and returns her to the Chief, and the tribe honors Peter. Meanwhile, Hook takes advantage of Tinker Bell's jealousy of Wendy, tricking the fairy into revealing Peter's secret hideout instead.",
"Wendy and her brothers eventually grow homesick and plan to return to London. They invite Peter and the Lost Boys to join them and be adopted by the Darlings. The Lost Boys agree, but Peter does not want to grow up and refuses. The pirates lie in wait, and capture the Lost Boys and the Darlings as they exit the lair, leaving behind a [time bomb](/wiki/Time_bomb \"Time bomb\") to kill Peter. Hook attempts to persuade the Lost Boys and the Darlings to join the crew or [walk the plank](/wiki/Walk_the_plank \"Walk the plank\"). Tinker Bell learns of the plot, just in time to snatch the bomb from Peter as it explodes.",
"Peter rescues Tinker Bell from the rubble, and together they rescue Wendy, confronting the pirates and releasing the children. Peter engages Hook in combat as the children fight off the crew, and defeats him. Hook falls into the sea and swims away, pursued by the crocodile. Peter commandeers the deserted ship and, assisted by Tinker Bell's pixie dust, flies it to London with the children aboard.",
"George and Mary Darling return home and find Wendy sleeping at the nursery's open window. Wendy awakens and excitedly tells about their adventures. The parents look out the window and see what appears to be a pirate ship in the clouds. George, who has softened his position about Wendy staying in the nursery, recognizes the ship from his own childhood, hinting that he himself went to Neverland when he was a boy.",
""
] |
Awards, recognition and rankings
--------------------------------
[thumb\|left\|First Floor Lobby Of EBHS](/wiki/Image:252-firstflloorlobby.jpg "252-firstflloorlobby.jpg")
East Brunswick High School was awarded the [Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence](/wiki/National_Blue_Ribbon_Schools_Program "National Blue Ribbon Schools Program") by the [United States Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education "United States Department of Education"), the highest award an American school can receive, during the 1990–91 school year.[National Blue Ribbon Schools Program: Schools Recognized 1982 Through 2019 (PDF)](https://nationalblueribbonschools.ed.gov/assets/reports/2019/1982_to_2019_nbrs_schools.pdf), [United States Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education "United States Department of Education"). Accessed September 1, 2024\.
In the 2014 "America's Top High School", *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")* ranked the school 130th overall in the nation.["America's Top High School"](http://www.newsweek.com/high-schools/americas-top-schools-2014), *Newsweek*. Accessed September 16, 2014
In its 2013 report on "America's Best High Schools", *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast "The Daily Beast")* ranked the school 484th among participating public high schools and 41st among schools in New Jersey.Streib, Lauren. ["America's Best High Schools"](http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2013/05/06/america-s-best-high-schools.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508145653/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2013/05/06/america\-s\-best\-high\-schools.html \|date\=May 8, 2013 }}, *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast "The Daily Beast")*, May 6, 2013\. Accessed May 9, 2013\.
In the 2012 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*, the school was ranked 45th in New Jersey, after being ranked 48th statewide in 2011\.[Mathews, Jay](/wiki/Jay_Mathews "Jay Mathews"). ["The High School Challenge 2012: East Brunswick Regional High School"](https://archive.today/20130217032738/http://apps.washingtonpost.com/highschoolchallenge/schools/2012/list/new-jersey-schools/east-brunswick-east-brunswick-nj/), *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*. Accessed January 15, 2013\. In the May 22, 2007, issue of *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")*, ranking the country's top high schools, East Brunswick High School was listed in 997th place, the 30th\-highest ranked school in New Jersey.["The Top of the Class: The complete list of the 1,200 top U.S. schools"](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/?sort=State&count=1257&search=&start=700&limit=100&year=2007&) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523055916/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/?sort\=State\&count\=1257\&search\=\&start\=700\&limit\=100\&year\=2007\& \|date\=May 23, 2007 }}, *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")*, May 22, 2007\. Accessed May 24, 2007\. The school was ranked 886th in the May 8, 2006, issue of *Newsweek*, listing the "Top 1,200 High Schools in The United States". [Top 1,200 High Schools in The United States](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12532678/site/newsweek/?s=800&np=12&sort=raa){{dead link\|date\=August 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}, *Newsweek*, May 8, 2006\.
For the 1996–97 school year, East Brunswick High School was named a "Star School" by the [New Jersey Department of Education](/wiki/New_Jersey_Department_of_Education "New Jersey Department of Education"), the highest honor that a New Jersey school can achieve.[New Jersey Department of Education Star School Award recipient detail 1996\-97 school year, East Brunswick High School](https://web.archive.org/web/20061219000605/http://www.state.nj.us/cgi-bin/education/ss/ss3.pl?string=id=036&maxhits=10000), accessed May 26, 2006\.
In the April 1996 issue, the high school was cited as best in the state by *[Redbook](/wiki/Redbook "Redbook")* magazine.[A Message from the Principal](http://www.hs.ebruns.k12.nj.us/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025051044/http://www.hs.ebruns.k12\.nj.us/ \|date\=October 25, 2005 }}, accessed January 13, 2007\.["Public Hearing before Senate Education Committee and Assembly Education Committee Senate Bill No. 40 and Assembly Bill No. 20"](https://www.njleg.state.nj.us/legislativepub/pubhear/072596mj.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621061517/http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/legislativepub/pubhear/072596mj.htm \|date\=June 21, 2016 }}, [New Jersey Legislature](/wiki/New_Jersey_Legislature "New Jersey Legislature"), July 25, 1996\. Accessed November 19, 2020\. "East Brunswick High School was named the best high school in New Jersey and one of the best 51 in the nation in the April 1996 issue of *Redbook* magazine."
During the 2001–02 school year, East Brunswick High School's Intergenerational Program was honored by the Best Practices Program in the state of New Jersey.[Intergenerational Studies: Linking Senior Citizens and High School Students](https://web.archive.org/web/20070627114412/http://www.nj.gov/cgi-bin/education/oipp/bp3.pl?string=recid=0307&maxhits=10000), [New Jersey Department of Education](/wiki/New_Jersey_Department_of_Education "New Jersey Department of Education"). Accessed January 13, 2007\.
The school was the 47th\-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly "New Jersey Monthly")* magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology.Staff. ["Top Schools Alphabetical List 2014"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/top-schools-alphabetical-list.html), *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly "New Jersey Monthly")*, September 2, 2014\. Accessed September 5, 2014\. The school had been ranked 121st in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 71st in 2010 out of 322 schools listed.Staff. ["The Top New Jersey High Schools: Alphabetical"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/the-top-new-jersey-high-schools-alphabetical.html), *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly "New Jersey Monthly")*, August 16, 2012\. Accessed September 7, 2012\. The magazine ranked the school 76th in 2008 out of 316 schools.Staff. ["2010 Top High Schools"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/highschoolrankings/top-high-schools-2010.html), *New Jersey Monthly*, August 16, 2010\. Accessed February 7, 2011\. The school was ranked 60th in the magazine's September 2006 issue, which included 316 schools across the state.["Top New Jersey High Schools 2008: By Rank"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/highschoolrankings/top-new-jersey-high-schools-by-rank.html), *New Jersey Monthly*, September 2008, posted August 7, 2008\. Accessed August 19, 2008\.
The Schooldigger.com website ranked the school tied for 109th out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (a decrease of 35 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (87\.9%) and language arts literacy (94\.4%) components of the [High School Proficiency Assessment](/wiki/High_School_Proficiency_Assessment "High School Proficiency Assessment") (HSPA).[New Jersey High School Rankings: 11th Grade HSPA Language Arts Literacy \& HSPA Math 2010\-2011](https://archive.today/20120909223745/http://www.schooldigger.com/schoolrank.aspx?Level=3&findschool=0411003294), *Schooldigger.com*. Accessed March 4, 2012\.
|
[
"Awards, recognition and rankings\n--------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|First Floor Lobby Of EBHS](/wiki/Image:252-firstflloorlobby.jpg \"252-firstflloorlobby.jpg\")\nEast Brunswick High School was awarded the [Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence](/wiki/National_Blue_Ribbon_Schools_Program \"National Blue Ribbon Schools Program\") by the [United States Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education \"United States Department of Education\"), the highest award an American school can receive, during the 1990–91 school year.[National Blue Ribbon Schools Program: Schools Recognized 1982 Through 2019 (PDF)](https://nationalblueribbonschools.ed.gov/assets/reports/2019/1982_to_2019_nbrs_schools.pdf), [United States Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education \"United States Department of Education\"). Accessed September 1, 2024\\.",
"In the 2014 \"America's Top High School\", *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")* ranked the school 130th overall in the nation.[\"America's Top High School\"](http://www.newsweek.com/high-schools/americas-top-schools-2014), *Newsweek*. Accessed September 16, 2014",
"In its 2013 report on \"America's Best High Schools\", *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast \"The Daily Beast\")* ranked the school 484th among participating public high schools and 41st among schools in New Jersey.Streib, Lauren. [\"America's Best High Schools\"](http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2013/05/06/america-s-best-high-schools.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508145653/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2013/05/06/america\\-s\\-best\\-high\\-schools.html \\|date\\=May 8, 2013 }}, *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast \"The Daily Beast\")*, May 6, 2013\\. Accessed May 9, 2013\\.",
"In the 2012 \"Ranking America's High Schools\" issue by *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*, the school was ranked 45th in New Jersey, after being ranked 48th statewide in 2011\\.[Mathews, Jay](/wiki/Jay_Mathews \"Jay Mathews\"). [\"The High School Challenge 2012: East Brunswick Regional High School\"](https://archive.today/20130217032738/http://apps.washingtonpost.com/highschoolchallenge/schools/2012/list/new-jersey-schools/east-brunswick-east-brunswick-nj/), *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*. Accessed January 15, 2013\\. In the May 22, 2007, issue of *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, ranking the country's top high schools, East Brunswick High School was listed in 997th place, the 30th\\-highest ranked school in New Jersey.[\"The Top of the Class: The complete list of the 1,200 top U.S. schools\"](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/?sort=State&count=1257&search=&start=700&limit=100&year=2007&) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523055916/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18757087/?sort\\=State\\&count\\=1257\\&search\\=\\&start\\=700\\&limit\\=100\\&year\\=2007\\& \\|date\\=May 23, 2007 }}, *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, May 22, 2007\\. Accessed May 24, 2007\\. The school was ranked 886th in the May 8, 2006, issue of *Newsweek*, listing the \"Top 1,200 High Schools in The United States\". [Top 1,200 High Schools in The United States](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12532678/site/newsweek/?s=800&np=12&sort=raa){{dead link\\|date\\=August 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}, *Newsweek*, May 8, 2006\\.",
"For the 1996–97 school year, East Brunswick High School was named a \"Star School\" by the [New Jersey Department of Education](/wiki/New_Jersey_Department_of_Education \"New Jersey Department of Education\"), the highest honor that a New Jersey school can achieve.[New Jersey Department of Education Star School Award recipient detail 1996\\-97 school year, East Brunswick High School](https://web.archive.org/web/20061219000605/http://www.state.nj.us/cgi-bin/education/ss/ss3.pl?string=id=036&maxhits=10000), accessed May 26, 2006\\.",
"In the April 1996 issue, the high school was cited as best in the state by *[Redbook](/wiki/Redbook \"Redbook\")* magazine.[A Message from the Principal](http://www.hs.ebruns.k12.nj.us/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025051044/http://www.hs.ebruns.k12\\.nj.us/ \\|date\\=October 25, 2005 }}, accessed January 13, 2007\\.[\"Public Hearing before Senate Education Committee and Assembly Education Committee Senate Bill No. 40 and Assembly Bill No. 20\"](https://www.njleg.state.nj.us/legislativepub/pubhear/072596mj.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621061517/http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/legislativepub/pubhear/072596mj.htm \\|date\\=June 21, 2016 }}, [New Jersey Legislature](/wiki/New_Jersey_Legislature \"New Jersey Legislature\"), July 25, 1996\\. Accessed November 19, 2020\\. \"East Brunswick High School was named the best high school in New Jersey and one of the best 51 in the nation in the April 1996 issue of *Redbook* magazine.\"",
"During the 2001–02 school year, East Brunswick High School's Intergenerational Program was honored by the Best Practices Program in the state of New Jersey.[Intergenerational Studies: Linking Senior Citizens and High School Students](https://web.archive.org/web/20070627114412/http://www.nj.gov/cgi-bin/education/oipp/bp3.pl?string=recid=0307&maxhits=10000), [New Jersey Department of Education](/wiki/New_Jersey_Department_of_Education \"New Jersey Department of Education\"). Accessed January 13, 2007\\.",
"The school was the 47th\\-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly \"New Jersey Monthly\")* magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's \"Top Public High Schools\", using a new ranking methodology.Staff. [\"Top Schools Alphabetical List 2014\"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/top-schools-alphabetical-list.html), *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly \"New Jersey Monthly\")*, September 2, 2014\\. Accessed September 5, 2014\\. The school had been ranked 121st in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 71st in 2010 out of 322 schools listed.Staff. [\"The Top New Jersey High Schools: Alphabetical\"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/the-top-new-jersey-high-schools-alphabetical.html), *[New Jersey Monthly](/wiki/New_Jersey_Monthly \"New Jersey Monthly\")*, August 16, 2012\\. Accessed September 7, 2012\\. The magazine ranked the school 76th in 2008 out of 316 schools.Staff. [\"2010 Top High Schools\"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/highschoolrankings/top-high-schools-2010.html), *New Jersey Monthly*, August 16, 2010\\. Accessed February 7, 2011\\. The school was ranked 60th in the magazine's September 2006 issue, which included 316 schools across the state.[\"Top New Jersey High Schools 2008: By Rank\"](http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_schools/highschoolrankings/top-new-jersey-high-schools-by-rank.html), *New Jersey Monthly*, September 2008, posted August 7, 2008\\. Accessed August 19, 2008\\.",
"The Schooldigger.com website ranked the school tied for 109th out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (a decrease of 35 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (87\\.9%) and language arts literacy (94\\.4%) components of the [High School Proficiency Assessment](/wiki/High_School_Proficiency_Assessment \"High School Proficiency Assessment\") (HSPA).[New Jersey High School Rankings: 11th Grade HSPA Language Arts Literacy \\& HSPA Math 2010\\-2011](https://archive.today/20120909223745/http://www.schooldigger.com/schoolrank.aspx?Level=3&findschool=0411003294), *Schooldigger.com*. Accessed March 4, 2012\\.",
""
] |
Athletics
---------
The East Brunswick High School Bears[East Brunswick High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/east-brunswick-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. compete in the [Greater Middlesex Conference](/wiki/Greater_Middlesex_Conference "Greater Middlesex Conference"), which is comprised of public and private high schools in the Middlesex County area and operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association").[League \& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. With 2,080 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 1,060 to 5,049 students in that grade range.[NJSIAA General Public School Classifications 2019–2020](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/general-classifications-2018-2020.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. The football team competes in Division 5C of the [Big Central Football Conference](/wiki/Big_Central_Football_Conference "Big Central Football Conference"), which includes 60 public and private high schools in [Hunterdon](/wiki/Hunterdon_County%2C_New_Jersey "Hunterdon County, New Jersey"), Middlesex, [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset_County%2C_New_Jersey "Somerset County, New Jersey"), [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey "Union County, New Jersey") and [Warren](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_New_Jersey "Warren County, New Jersey") counties, which are broken down into 10 divisions by size and location.Kinney, Mike. ["Big Central revises 2020 football schedule for its shortened inaugural season"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2020/08/big-central-revises-2020-football-schedule-for-its-shortened-inaugural-season.html), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com"), August 12, 2020\. Accessed April 18, 2021\. "The newly formed Big Central Football Conference has released a revised 2020 schedule for its inaugural season.... the BCFC is comprised of schools from Middlesex, Union, Somerset, Hunterdon and Warren counties." The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group V South for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 1,333 to 2,324 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated September 2024\. Accessed September 1, 2024\.
The school participates as the host school / lead agency for a joint ice hockey team with [South River High School](/wiki/South_River_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "South River High School (New Jersey)") and [Spotswood High School](/wiki/Spotswood_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Spotswood High School (New Jersey)"). The co\-op program operates under agreements scheduled to expire at the end of the 2023–24 school year.[NJSIAA Winter Cooperative Sports Programs](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/winter-co-ops-2020-21.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed December 1, 2020\.
The wrestling team won the Central Jersey Group IV state championship in 1985[NJSIAA Wrestling Team Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-04/2021-wrestling-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed May 1, 2021\.
The girls soccer team won the Group IV state championship in 1986 (against [Westfield High School](/wiki/Westfield_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Westfield High School (New Jersey)") in the finals), 1987 (vs. Westfield), 1989 (vs. Westfield), 1990 (as co\-champion with [Bayonne High School](/wiki/Bayonne_High_School "Bayonne High School")), 1992 (vs. Westfield), 1994 (vs. [Randolph High School](/wiki/Randolph_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Randolph High School (New Jersey)")), 1996 (vs. Westfield), 2001 (vs. [Clifton High School](/wiki/Clifton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Clifton High School (New Jersey)")). The program's eight state titles are tied for sixth\-most in the state.[NJSIAA History of Girls Soccer](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-girls-soccer.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed January 1, 2022\. A goal scored in the last minute of play in regulation gave the 1986 team a 1–0 win again Westfield in the Group IV championship game and a 25–0 record for the season.Racz, Gene. ["Late scores decide gir!s' state soccer finales; E. Brunswick finishes perfect season; B\-R East ties Ramapo, settles for co\-championship"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/317563887/), *[The Home News](/wiki/Home_News_Tribune "Home News Tribune")*, November 23, 1986\. Accessed March 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Last minute heroics were the order of the day as East Brunswick High School won a girls' state soccer championship and Bridgewater East grabbed a co\-championship with last\-minute goals yesterday. In the Group IV final, East Brunswick right half Amy Graf pushed a through ball to send forward Leanne Swartz one\-on\-one with the Westfield keeper Malihi Vernugopal. Vernugopal came out well to smother the shot as the ball popped to the left side of the 18\-yard\-line, where Bear center forward Lisa Gonyo raced to smack the game\-winner past the defenders and into the goal with 30 seconds remaining in the contest.... East Brunswick captured the title with an unblemished record of 25\-0\." The 2001 team finished the season with a 20–2 record after winning the Group IV title with a 1–0 win against Clifton in the championship game played at [The College of New Jersey](/wiki/The_College_of_New_Jersey "The College of New Jersey") on a goal scored by [Heather O'Reilly](/wiki/Heather_O%27Reilly "Heather O'Reilly"), her 38th that year.Rosen, Dan. ["Clifton loss is painful; E. Brunswick gets only goal"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/499411418/), *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 "The Record (North Jersey)")*, November 18, 2001\. Accessed December 29, 2020, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Clifton's junior goalkeeper had just played a fearless game in the Group 4 final Saturday at The College of New Jersey.... But like so many other teams this season, the Mustangs succumbed to the Heather O'Reilly factor. O'Reilly, a junior striker and under\-19 national\-team player, scored the lone goal, her 38th of the season, in the 18th minute and it held up as East Brunswick (20\-2\) captured its eighth Group 4 title and first since 1996 with a 1\-0 victory." From 1979 to 2019, the Bears won 36 of the 41 times the Middlesex County Tournament was played, including 21 consecutive championships from 1980 to 2000, with their only finals losses coming in 1979, 2002 and 2015 in addition to missing the finals in two other seasons.Knego, Lauren. ["Girls Soccer: East Brunswick wins 36th GMCT title"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/soccer/2019/10/23/nj-girls-soccer-east-brunswick-wins-36th-gmc-tournament-title/4071050002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")*, October 23, 2019\. Accessed November 19, 2020\. "On Wednesday night, the top\-seeded Bears (15\-2\) won their fourth\-straight county title and 36th overall with a 1\-0 victory over second\-seeded Old Bridge at Woodbridge High School. It was the third time in five years that East Brunswick and Old Bridge (11\-6\-4\) faced off in the final. Since 1979, East Brunswick has played in 39 of the 41 county finals with 36 titles. The only years it didn't win were 1979, 2002 and 2015\. The Bears didn't make the final in 2001 or 2011\." The Bears won five consecutive Greater Middlesex Conference Tournament titles, including a 2–1 victory over Old Bridge in 2007 and a 3–0 win over Bishop Ahr in 2008\.New, Mike, ["Final thoughts from the GMCT final"](http://blogs.mycentraljersey.com/soccer/2008/10/30/final-thoughts-from-the-gmct-final/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")*, October 30, 2008\. Accessed December 15, 2016\. "East Brunswick won its 27th county title in 30 years tonight, beating upstart Bishop Ahr, 3\-0, with a trio of second\-half goals."
East Brunswick won the Group IV state boys tennis championship in 1992 (defeating [Livingston High School](/wiki/Livingston_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Livingston High School (New Jersey)") in the final match of the tournament), 2004 (vs. [Bridgewater\-Raritan High School](/wiki/Bridgewater-Raritan_High_School "Bridgewater-Raritan High School")), 2021 (vs. [Bergen County Technical High School](/wiki/Bergen_County_Technical_High_School%2C_Teterboro_Campus "Bergen County Technical High School, Teterboro Campus")), and 2022 (vs. [Westfield High School](/wiki/Westfield_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Westfield High School (New Jersey)")).{{Cite web\|last\=NJ.com\|first\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for\|date\=2021\-06\-07\|title\=Boys Tennis: No. 4 East Brunswick tops No. 8 Bergen Tech for Group 4 title in 10\-point tiebreaker\|url\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2021/06/boys\-tennis\-no\-4\-east\-brunswick\-tops\-no\-8\-bergen\-tech\-for\-group\-4\-title\-in\-10\-point\-tiebreaker.html\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-08\|website\=nj\|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=NJ.com \|first\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for \|date\=2022\-06\-03 \|title\=Boys Tennis: No. 2 East Brunswick wins Group 4 title just in time for prom (PHOTOS) \|url\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2022/06/boys\-tennis\-no\-2\-east\-brunswick\-wins\-group\-4\-title\-just\-in\-time\-for\-prom\-photos.html \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-05 \|website\=nj \|language\=en}} The team won the inaugural [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 "Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)") in 1992 against runner\-up [Newark Academy](/wiki/Newark_Academy "Newark Academy"), and were ToC finalists in 2004, 2021, and 2022\.{{Cite web\|last\=NJ.com\|first\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for\|date\=2021\-06\-10\|title\=Boys Tennis: No. 1 Newark Academy caps remarkable season with 14th T of C title (PHOTOS/VIDEO)\|url\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2021/06/boys\-tennis\-no\-1\-newark\-academy\-tops\-off\-remarkable\-season\-with\-14th\-t\-of\-c\-title.html\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-17\|website\=nj\|language\=en}}[History of Boys Team Tennis Championship Tournament](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-team-tennis-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. In 2022, the team completed a clean sweep of the GMC tournament, winning all five flights as part of the most dominant run in tournament history.{{Cite web \|last\=NJ.com \|first\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for \|date\=2022\-05\-20 \|title\=Boys Tennis: No. 2 East Brunswick sweeps, crowned Greater Middlesex Conf. champs (PHOTOS) \|url\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2022/05/boys\-tennis\-no\-2\-east\-brunswick\-sweeps\-crowned\-greater\-middlesex\-conf\-champs\-photos.html \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-20 \|website\=nj \|language\=en}}
The boys' bowling team won the overall state championship in 1997, and the Group IV title in 2017 and 2018\.[History of NJSIAA Boys Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-07/22%20Bowling.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed August 1, 2022\. The team won the Group IV state championship and the overall [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 "Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)") in 2017\.Allinder, Jimmy, ["East Brunswick, Monroe pick up titles on the lanes"](https://centraljersey.com/2017/02/27/east-brunswick-monroe-pick-up-titles-on-the-lanes/), *Examiner*, February 27, 2017\. Accessed December 29, 2020\. "East Brunswick High School captured the NJSIAA Group IV title and went on to win the ultimate prize: the Tournament of Champions (TOC)."
The boys volleyball team won the overall state championship in 1999 (defeating [St. Joseph High School](/wiki/St._Joseph_High_School_%28Metuchen%2C_New_Jersey%29 "St. Joseph High School (Metuchen, New Jersey)") of Metuchen in the final match of the tournament), 2000 (vs. [Lakeland Regional High School](/wiki/Lakeland_Regional_High_School "Lakeland Regional High School")), 2001 (vs. [Clifton High School](/wiki/Clifton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Clifton High School (New Jersey)")), 2003 (vs. St. Joseph's of Metuchen), 2004 (vs. [Fair Lawn High School](/wiki/Fair_Lawn_High_School "Fair Lawn High School")) and 2007 (vs. [St. Peter's Preparatory School](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Preparatory_School "St. Peter's Preparatory School")). The program's five state titles are ranked third in the state.[NJSIAA Boys Volleyball State History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-volleyball-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. The team won the 2007 NJSIAA South Jersey sectional championship with a 25–19, 31–29 victory over [Southern Regional High School](/wiki/Southern_Regional_High_School "Southern Regional High School").[2007 Boys Volleyball \- South](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=221882&tclass=South), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed June 12, 2007\. The team went on to win the overall state title, defeating [St. Peter's Preparatory School](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Preparatory_School "St. Peter's Preparatory School"), 25–21, 25–22\.[2007 Boys Volleyball \- State Final](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=221882&tclass=State%20Final), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed June 12, 2007\.
The girls basketball team won the Group IV state championship in 1999, defeating [Columbia High School](/wiki/Columbia_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Columbia High School (New Jersey)") by a score of 63–57 in the tournament final[Girls Basketball Championship History: 1919–2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-girls-basketball-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated March 2024\. Accessed September 1, 2024\.["East Brunswick beats Columbia"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/143954143/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, March 15, 1999\. Accessed November 22, 2020\. "The East Brunswick girls basketball team buried eight 3\-pointers, including four in the second quarter, as the Bears defeated Columbia 63\-57 at the Dunn Center in Elizabeth to capture their first NJSIAA Group IV title yesterday." and advanced to the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 "Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)") as the third seed, beating sixth\-seed [Paterson Catholic High School](/wiki/Paterson_Catholic_High_School "Paterson Catholic High School") 58–43 in the first round before falling to number\-two [West Morris Mendham High School](/wiki/West_Morris_Mendham_High_School "West Morris Mendham High School") 71–40 in the semifinals to finish the season with a 28–4 record.[NJSIAA Girls Basketball Tournament Of Champions History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-girls-tofc-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\.Eisner, Dan. ["Mendham beats East Brunswick"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/143951056/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, March 21, 1999\. Accessed January 31, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "It looked like it would be a great matchup. Second\-seeded Mendham, the Group II champion, had proven its ability by incurring only one loss this season, to national power Christ the King. East Brunswick, the Group IV champ, was on a tear. Yet the final score of the Tournament of Champions girls basketball semifinal didn't come close to what could have been predicted: Mendham 71, East Brunswick 40\.... Although Mendham played a 1\-3\-1 zone, a defense that the Bears have recently devoured, East Brunswick (28\-4\) could not sink a three\-pointer, shooting 4\-for\-21 from beyond the arc."
The football team won the Central Jersey Group IV state sectional championships in 2004 and 2009\.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed May 1, 2023\. The team won their first playoff\-era title with a 17–12 win against [Jackson High School](/wiki/Jackson_Memorial_High_School "Jackson Memorial High School") in the finals of the Central Jersey Group IV tournament.Clayton, Scott. ["East Brunswick 17 Jackson 14; Drive Time: Jackson mounts 3 4th\-quarter drives, but falls short each time"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/144399541/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, December 6, 2004\. "Despite 112 yards rushing from junior tailback Jon Reggio, top\-seeded Jackson fell in the NJSIAA Central Jersey Group IV final to East Brunswick, 17\-14, last night at Rutgers Stadium." East Brunswick won the Central Jersey Group IV state sectional title in the 2009 season, defeating [Brick Memorial High School](/wiki/Brick_Memorial_High_School "Brick Memorial High School") by a score of 9–0, earning the program its first sectional championship since 2004\.Haley, John, ["East Brunswick 9, Brick Memorial 0"](http://highschoolsports.nj.com/news/article/-551912838478711213/east-brunswick-9-brick-memorial-0-high-school-football-scores-and-results/), *[The Star\-Ledger](/wiki/The_Star-Ledger "The Star-Ledger")*, December 5, 2009\. Accessed September 9, 2011\. "Known as a good 'bad\-weather' team, East Brunswick scored nine points and let its defense do the rest in posting a 9\-0 victory over Brick Memorial in the NJSIAA/Gatorade Central Jersey, Group 4 title game yesterday before 2,500 at The College of New Jersey in Ewing." In 2018, East Brunswick and [Old Bridge High School](/wiki/Old_Bridge_High_School "Old Bridge High School") played their 25th and final Thanksgiving Day game, with Old Bridge winning 22 of the 25 games. The series started after [Cedar Ridge High School](/wiki/Cedar_Ridge_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Cedar Ridge High School (New Jersey)") and [Madison Central High School](/wiki/Madison_Central_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Madison Central High School (New Jersey)"), which had played their own Thanksgiving Day game, were merged in 1994 to create Old Bridge High School. The two schools will continue to have a "Battle of Route 18" that will be played as part of the regular schedule.Mendlowitz, Andy. ["NJ Football: In final Thanksgiving Day game, Old Bridge defeats East Brunswick 10\-0"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/football/2018/11/22/nj-football-final-thanksgiving-day-game-old-bridge-defeats-east-brunswick-10-0/2054465002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")*, November 22, 2018\. Accessed November 19, 2020\. "But next fall, Joseph will be able to sleep in and catch the Macy's Parade instead of playing East Brunswick. During Thursday's game that Old Bridge won 10\-0, the schools announced they're ending the holiday edition of the 25th annual matchup. The 'Battle of Route 18' will continue on, just during the regular season.... Old Bridge has a 22\-3 edge in the series against the Bears."
The girls tennis team won the Group IV state championship in 2006 (against [J. P. Stevens High School](/wiki/J._P._Stevens_High_School "J. P. Stevens High School") in the final match of the tournament), 2008 (vs. [Cherry Hill High School East](/wiki/Cherry_Hill_High_School_East "Cherry Hill High School East")) and 2019 (vs. [Livingston High School](/wiki/Livingston_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Livingston High School (New Jersey)")). The team won the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 "Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)") in 2008 (against runner\-up [Millburn High School](/wiki/Millburn_High_School "Millburn High School")) and 2019 (vs. [Moorestown Friends School](/wiki/Moorestown_Friends_School "Moorestown Friends School")).[Girls Tennis Championship History: 1971–2023](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023-10/Girls%20Tennis.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated November 2023\. Accessed September 1, 2024\. After winning their second Group IV championship in 2008, the girls' tennis team won the Tournament of Champions, defeating Millburn High School and ending that school's streak of winning 98 consecutive matches.Chodan, Melissa, ["East Brunswick earns school's first T of C tennis title"](http://www.mycentraljersey.com/article/20081029/SPORTS1202/810290377/1172), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")*, October 29, 2008\. Accessed June 7, 2011\. "In a matter of three hours the Bears won the Tournament of Champions, garnished the school's first girls T of C tennis title and broke Millburn's 98\-game winning streak with their 3\-2 victory."Polakowski, Art, ["Millburn, NP, KPS topped local tennis season"](http://www.nj.com/independentpress/index.ssf/2008/12/millburn_np_kps_topped_local_t.html), *Independent Press*, December 5, 2008\. Accessed June 7, 2011\. "Millburn lost to East Brunswick in the 'T of C' finals, which terminated the Millers' three\-year, 98\-match winning streak." The girls' tennis team won the Greater Middlesex Conference title for nine consecutive years from 2006 to 2014\.
The girls' bowling team won the Group IV title in the 2008 season, after bowling a 1077 in the state final.Sauer, Justin, ["Farmer leads Green Dragons to fourth state title"](https://www.newspapers.com/article/asbury-park-press-new-jersey-girls-bowli/141783642/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, February 15, 2008\. Accessed February 21, 2024, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Earlier in the day, led by Farmer's 740 series and senior Kayla Salerno's 610 series, Brick tallied an impressive 3,012 through the first three games to finish first in Group III, while Bordentown (Group I), Carteret (Group II) and East Brunswick (Group IV) also won their respective groups to advance to the semifinals."[History of NJSIAA Girls Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-bowling_0_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\.
The boys track team won the spring / outdoor track state championship in Group IV in 2010 (as co\-champion) and 2022\.[NJSIAA Boys Spring Track Summary of Group Titles](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed May 1, 2023\.
The boys track team won the indoor relay championship in Group IV in 2011\.[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed December 1, 2020\.
|
[
"Athletics\n---------",
"The East Brunswick High School Bears[East Brunswick High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/east-brunswick-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. compete in the [Greater Middlesex Conference](/wiki/Greater_Middlesex_Conference \"Greater Middlesex Conference\"), which is comprised of public and private high schools in the Middlesex County area and operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\").[League \\& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. With 2,080 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 1,060 to 5,049 students in that grade range.[NJSIAA General Public School Classifications 2019–2020](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/general-classifications-2018-2020.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\. The football team competes in Division 5C of the [Big Central Football Conference](/wiki/Big_Central_Football_Conference \"Big Central Football Conference\"), which includes 60 public and private high schools in [Hunterdon](/wiki/Hunterdon_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Hunterdon County, New Jersey\"), Middlesex, [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Somerset County, New Jersey\"), [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Union County, New Jersey\") and [Warren](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Warren County, New Jersey\") counties, which are broken down into 10 divisions by size and location.Kinney, Mike. [\"Big Central revises 2020 football schedule for its shortened inaugural season\"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2020/08/big-central-revises-2020-football-schedule-for-its-shortened-inaugural-season.html), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\"), August 12, 2020\\. Accessed April 18, 2021\\. \"The newly formed Big Central Football Conference has released a revised 2020 schedule for its inaugural season.... the BCFC is comprised of schools from Middlesex, Union, Somerset, Hunterdon and Warren counties.\" The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group V South for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 1,333 to 2,324 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated September 2024\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\.",
"The school participates as the host school / lead agency for a joint ice hockey team with [South River High School](/wiki/South_River_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"South River High School (New Jersey)\") and [Spotswood High School](/wiki/Spotswood_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Spotswood High School (New Jersey)\"). The co\\-op program operates under agreements scheduled to expire at the end of the 2023–24 school year.[NJSIAA Winter Cooperative Sports Programs](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/winter-co-ops-2020-21.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed December 1, 2020\\.",
"The wrestling team won the Central Jersey Group IV state championship in 1985[NJSIAA Wrestling Team Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-04/2021-wrestling-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed May 1, 2021\\.",
"The girls soccer team won the Group IV state championship in 1986 (against [Westfield High School](/wiki/Westfield_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Westfield High School (New Jersey)\") in the finals), 1987 (vs. Westfield), 1989 (vs. Westfield), 1990 (as co\\-champion with [Bayonne High School](/wiki/Bayonne_High_School \"Bayonne High School\")), 1992 (vs. Westfield), 1994 (vs. [Randolph High School](/wiki/Randolph_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Randolph High School (New Jersey)\")), 1996 (vs. Westfield), 2001 (vs. [Clifton High School](/wiki/Clifton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Clifton High School (New Jersey)\")). The program's eight state titles are tied for sixth\\-most in the state.[NJSIAA History of Girls Soccer](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-girls-soccer.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed January 1, 2022\\. A goal scored in the last minute of play in regulation gave the 1986 team a 1–0 win again Westfield in the Group IV championship game and a 25–0 record for the season.Racz, Gene. [\"Late scores decide gir!s' state soccer finales; E. Brunswick finishes perfect season; B\\-R East ties Ramapo, settles for co\\-championship\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/317563887/), *[The Home News](/wiki/Home_News_Tribune \"Home News Tribune\")*, November 23, 1986\\. Accessed March 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Last minute heroics were the order of the day as East Brunswick High School won a girls' state soccer championship and Bridgewater East grabbed a co\\-championship with last\\-minute goals yesterday. In the Group IV final, East Brunswick right half Amy Graf pushed a through ball to send forward Leanne Swartz one\\-on\\-one with the Westfield keeper Malihi Vernugopal. Vernugopal came out well to smother the shot as the ball popped to the left side of the 18\\-yard\\-line, where Bear center forward Lisa Gonyo raced to smack the game\\-winner past the defenders and into the goal with 30 seconds remaining in the contest.... East Brunswick captured the title with an unblemished record of 25\\-0\\.\" The 2001 team finished the season with a 20–2 record after winning the Group IV title with a 1–0 win against Clifton in the championship game played at [The College of New Jersey](/wiki/The_College_of_New_Jersey \"The College of New Jersey\") on a goal scored by [Heather O'Reilly](/wiki/Heather_O%27Reilly \"Heather O'Reilly\"), her 38th that year.Rosen, Dan. [\"Clifton loss is painful; E. Brunswick gets only goal\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/499411418/), *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 \"The Record (North Jersey)\")*, November 18, 2001\\. Accessed December 29, 2020, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Clifton's junior goalkeeper had just played a fearless game in the Group 4 final Saturday at The College of New Jersey.... But like so many other teams this season, the Mustangs succumbed to the Heather O'Reilly factor. O'Reilly, a junior striker and under\\-19 national\\-team player, scored the lone goal, her 38th of the season, in the 18th minute and it held up as East Brunswick (20\\-2\\) captured its eighth Group 4 title and first since 1996 with a 1\\-0 victory.\" From 1979 to 2019, the Bears won 36 of the 41 times the Middlesex County Tournament was played, including 21 consecutive championships from 1980 to 2000, with their only finals losses coming in 1979, 2002 and 2015 in addition to missing the finals in two other seasons.Knego, Lauren. [\"Girls Soccer: East Brunswick wins 36th GMCT title\"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/soccer/2019/10/23/nj-girls-soccer-east-brunswick-wins-36th-gmc-tournament-title/4071050002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")*, October 23, 2019\\. Accessed November 19, 2020\\. \"On Wednesday night, the top\\-seeded Bears (15\\-2\\) won their fourth\\-straight county title and 36th overall with a 1\\-0 victory over second\\-seeded Old Bridge at Woodbridge High School. It was the third time in five years that East Brunswick and Old Bridge (11\\-6\\-4\\) faced off in the final. Since 1979, East Brunswick has played in 39 of the 41 county finals with 36 titles. The only years it didn't win were 1979, 2002 and 2015\\. The Bears didn't make the final in 2001 or 2011\\.\" The Bears won five consecutive Greater Middlesex Conference Tournament titles, including a 2–1 victory over Old Bridge in 2007 and a 3–0 win over Bishop Ahr in 2008\\.New, Mike, [\"Final thoughts from the GMCT final\"](http://blogs.mycentraljersey.com/soccer/2008/10/30/final-thoughts-from-the-gmct-final/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")*, October 30, 2008\\. Accessed December 15, 2016\\. \"East Brunswick won its 27th county title in 30 years tonight, beating upstart Bishop Ahr, 3\\-0, with a trio of second\\-half goals.\"",
"East Brunswick won the Group IV state boys tennis championship in 1992 (defeating [Livingston High School](/wiki/Livingston_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Livingston High School (New Jersey)\") in the final match of the tournament), 2004 (vs. [Bridgewater\\-Raritan High School](/wiki/Bridgewater-Raritan_High_School \"Bridgewater-Raritan High School\")), 2021 (vs. [Bergen County Technical High School](/wiki/Bergen_County_Technical_High_School%2C_Teterboro_Campus \"Bergen County Technical High School, Teterboro Campus\")), and 2022 (vs. [Westfield High School](/wiki/Westfield_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Westfield High School (New Jersey)\")).{{Cite web\\|last\\=NJ.com\\|first\\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for\\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-07\\|title\\=Boys Tennis: No. 4 East Brunswick tops No. 8 Bergen Tech for Group 4 title in 10\\-point tiebreaker\\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2021/06/boys\\-tennis\\-no\\-4\\-east\\-brunswick\\-tops\\-no\\-8\\-bergen\\-tech\\-for\\-group\\-4\\-title\\-in\\-10\\-point\\-tiebreaker.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-08\\|website\\=nj\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=NJ.com \\|first\\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-03 \\|title\\=Boys Tennis: No. 2 East Brunswick wins Group 4 title just in time for prom (PHOTOS) \\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2022/06/boys\\-tennis\\-no\\-2\\-east\\-brunswick\\-wins\\-group\\-4\\-title\\-just\\-in\\-time\\-for\\-prom\\-photos.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-05 \\|website\\=nj \\|language\\=en}} The team won the inaugural [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 \"Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)\") in 1992 against runner\\-up [Newark Academy](/wiki/Newark_Academy \"Newark Academy\"), and were ToC finalists in 2004, 2021, and 2022\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=NJ.com\\|first\\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for\\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-10\\|title\\=Boys Tennis: No. 1 Newark Academy caps remarkable season with 14th T of C title (PHOTOS/VIDEO)\\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2021/06/boys\\-tennis\\-no\\-1\\-newark\\-academy\\-tops\\-off\\-remarkable\\-season\\-with\\-14th\\-t\\-of\\-c\\-title.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-17\\|website\\=nj\\|language\\=en}}[History of Boys Team Tennis Championship Tournament](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-team-tennis-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\. In 2022, the team completed a clean sweep of the GMC tournament, winning all five flights as part of the most dominant run in tournament history.{{Cite web \\|last\\=NJ.com \\|first\\=Chris Nalwasky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-20 \\|title\\=Boys Tennis: No. 2 East Brunswick sweeps, crowned Greater Middlesex Conf. champs (PHOTOS) \\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2022/05/boys\\-tennis\\-no\\-2\\-east\\-brunswick\\-sweeps\\-crowned\\-greater\\-middlesex\\-conf\\-champs\\-photos.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-20 \\|website\\=nj \\|language\\=en}}",
"The boys' bowling team won the overall state championship in 1997, and the Group IV title in 2017 and 2018\\.[History of NJSIAA Boys Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-07/22%20Bowling.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed August 1, 2022\\. The team won the Group IV state championship and the overall [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 \"Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)\") in 2017\\.Allinder, Jimmy, [\"East Brunswick, Monroe pick up titles on the lanes\"](https://centraljersey.com/2017/02/27/east-brunswick-monroe-pick-up-titles-on-the-lanes/), *Examiner*, February 27, 2017\\. Accessed December 29, 2020\\. \"East Brunswick High School captured the NJSIAA Group IV title and went on to win the ultimate prize: the Tournament of Champions (TOC).\"",
"The boys volleyball team won the overall state championship in 1999 (defeating [St. Joseph High School](/wiki/St._Joseph_High_School_%28Metuchen%2C_New_Jersey%29 \"St. Joseph High School (Metuchen, New Jersey)\") of Metuchen in the final match of the tournament), 2000 (vs. [Lakeland Regional High School](/wiki/Lakeland_Regional_High_School \"Lakeland Regional High School\")), 2001 (vs. [Clifton High School](/wiki/Clifton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Clifton High School (New Jersey)\")), 2003 (vs. St. Joseph's of Metuchen), 2004 (vs. [Fair Lawn High School](/wiki/Fair_Lawn_High_School \"Fair Lawn High School\")) and 2007 (vs. [St. Peter's Preparatory School](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Preparatory_School \"St. Peter's Preparatory School\")). The program's five state titles are ranked third in the state.[NJSIAA Boys Volleyball State History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-volleyball-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\. The team won the 2007 NJSIAA South Jersey sectional championship with a 25–19, 31–29 victory over [Southern Regional High School](/wiki/Southern_Regional_High_School \"Southern Regional High School\").[2007 Boys Volleyball \\- South](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=221882&tclass=South), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed June 12, 2007\\. The team went on to win the overall state title, defeating [St. Peter's Preparatory School](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Preparatory_School \"St. Peter's Preparatory School\"), 25–21, 25–22\\.[2007 Boys Volleyball \\- State Final](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=221882&tclass=State%20Final), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed June 12, 2007\\.",
"The girls basketball team won the Group IV state championship in 1999, defeating [Columbia High School](/wiki/Columbia_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Columbia High School (New Jersey)\") by a score of 63–57 in the tournament final[Girls Basketball Championship History: 1919–2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-girls-basketball-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated March 2024\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\.[\"East Brunswick beats Columbia\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/143954143/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, March 15, 1999\\. Accessed November 22, 2020\\. \"The East Brunswick girls basketball team buried eight 3\\-pointers, including four in the second quarter, as the Bears defeated Columbia 63\\-57 at the Dunn Center in Elizabeth to capture their first NJSIAA Group IV title yesterday.\" and advanced to the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 \"Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)\") as the third seed, beating sixth\\-seed [Paterson Catholic High School](/wiki/Paterson_Catholic_High_School \"Paterson Catholic High School\") 58–43 in the first round before falling to number\\-two [West Morris Mendham High School](/wiki/West_Morris_Mendham_High_School \"West Morris Mendham High School\") 71–40 in the semifinals to finish the season with a 28–4 record.[NJSIAA Girls Basketball Tournament Of Champions History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-girls-tofc-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\.Eisner, Dan. [\"Mendham beats East Brunswick\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/143951056/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, March 21, 1999\\. Accessed January 31, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"It looked like it would be a great matchup. Second\\-seeded Mendham, the Group II champion, had proven its ability by incurring only one loss this season, to national power Christ the King. East Brunswick, the Group IV champ, was on a tear. Yet the final score of the Tournament of Champions girls basketball semifinal didn't come close to what could have been predicted: Mendham 71, East Brunswick 40\\.... Although Mendham played a 1\\-3\\-1 zone, a defense that the Bears have recently devoured, East Brunswick (28\\-4\\) could not sink a three\\-pointer, shooting 4\\-for\\-21 from beyond the arc.\"",
"The football team won the Central Jersey Group IV state sectional championships in 2004 and 2009\\.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed May 1, 2023\\. The team won their first playoff\\-era title with a 17–12 win against [Jackson High School](/wiki/Jackson_Memorial_High_School \"Jackson Memorial High School\") in the finals of the Central Jersey Group IV tournament.Clayton, Scott. [\"East Brunswick 17 Jackson 14; Drive Time: Jackson mounts 3 4th\\-quarter drives, but falls short each time\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/144399541/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, December 6, 2004\\. \"Despite 112 yards rushing from junior tailback Jon Reggio, top\\-seeded Jackson fell in the NJSIAA Central Jersey Group IV final to East Brunswick, 17\\-14, last night at Rutgers Stadium.\" East Brunswick won the Central Jersey Group IV state sectional title in the 2009 season, defeating [Brick Memorial High School](/wiki/Brick_Memorial_High_School \"Brick Memorial High School\") by a score of 9–0, earning the program its first sectional championship since 2004\\.Haley, John, [\"East Brunswick 9, Brick Memorial 0\"](http://highschoolsports.nj.com/news/article/-551912838478711213/east-brunswick-9-brick-memorial-0-high-school-football-scores-and-results/), *[The Star\\-Ledger](/wiki/The_Star-Ledger \"The Star-Ledger\")*, December 5, 2009\\. Accessed September 9, 2011\\. \"Known as a good 'bad\\-weather' team, East Brunswick scored nine points and let its defense do the rest in posting a 9\\-0 victory over Brick Memorial in the NJSIAA/Gatorade Central Jersey, Group 4 title game yesterday before 2,500 at The College of New Jersey in Ewing.\" In 2018, East Brunswick and [Old Bridge High School](/wiki/Old_Bridge_High_School \"Old Bridge High School\") played their 25th and final Thanksgiving Day game, with Old Bridge winning 22 of the 25 games. The series started after [Cedar Ridge High School](/wiki/Cedar_Ridge_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Cedar Ridge High School (New Jersey)\") and [Madison Central High School](/wiki/Madison_Central_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Madison Central High School (New Jersey)\"), which had played their own Thanksgiving Day game, were merged in 1994 to create Old Bridge High School. The two schools will continue to have a \"Battle of Route 18\" that will be played as part of the regular schedule.Mendlowitz, Andy. [\"NJ Football: In final Thanksgiving Day game, Old Bridge defeats East Brunswick 10\\-0\"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/football/2018/11/22/nj-football-final-thanksgiving-day-game-old-bridge-defeats-east-brunswick-10-0/2054465002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")*, November 22, 2018\\. Accessed November 19, 2020\\. \"But next fall, Joseph will be able to sleep in and catch the Macy's Parade instead of playing East Brunswick. During Thursday's game that Old Bridge won 10\\-0, the schools announced they're ending the holiday edition of the 25th annual matchup. The 'Battle of Route 18' will continue on, just during the regular season.... Old Bridge has a 22\\-3 edge in the series against the Bears.\"",
"The girls tennis team won the Group IV state championship in 2006 (against [J. P. Stevens High School](/wiki/J._P._Stevens_High_School \"J. P. Stevens High School\") in the final match of the tournament), 2008 (vs. [Cherry Hill High School East](/wiki/Cherry_Hill_High_School_East \"Cherry Hill High School East\")) and 2019 (vs. [Livingston High School](/wiki/Livingston_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Livingston High School (New Jersey)\")). The team won the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 \"Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)\") in 2008 (against runner\\-up [Millburn High School](/wiki/Millburn_High_School \"Millburn High School\")) and 2019 (vs. [Moorestown Friends School](/wiki/Moorestown_Friends_School \"Moorestown Friends School\")).[Girls Tennis Championship History: 1971–2023](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023-10/Girls%20Tennis.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated November 2023\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\. After winning their second Group IV championship in 2008, the girls' tennis team won the Tournament of Champions, defeating Millburn High School and ending that school's streak of winning 98 consecutive matches.Chodan, Melissa, [\"East Brunswick earns school's first T of C tennis title\"](http://www.mycentraljersey.com/article/20081029/SPORTS1202/810290377/1172), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")*, October 29, 2008\\. Accessed June 7, 2011\\. \"In a matter of three hours the Bears won the Tournament of Champions, garnished the school's first girls T of C tennis title and broke Millburn's 98\\-game winning streak with their 3\\-2 victory.\"Polakowski, Art, [\"Millburn, NP, KPS topped local tennis season\"](http://www.nj.com/independentpress/index.ssf/2008/12/millburn_np_kps_topped_local_t.html), *Independent Press*, December 5, 2008\\. Accessed June 7, 2011\\. \"Millburn lost to East Brunswick in the 'T of C' finals, which terminated the Millers' three\\-year, 98\\-match winning streak.\" The girls' tennis team won the Greater Middlesex Conference title for nine consecutive years from 2006 to 2014\\.",
"The girls' bowling team won the Group IV title in the 2008 season, after bowling a 1077 in the state final.Sauer, Justin, [\"Farmer leads Green Dragons to fourth state title\"](https://www.newspapers.com/article/asbury-park-press-new-jersey-girls-bowli/141783642/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, February 15, 2008\\. Accessed February 21, 2024, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Earlier in the day, led by Farmer's 740 series and senior Kayla Salerno's 610 series, Brick tallied an impressive 3,012 through the first three games to finish first in Group III, while Bordentown (Group I), Carteret (Group II) and East Brunswick (Group IV) also won their respective groups to advance to the semifinals.\"[History of NJSIAA Girls Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-bowling_0_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\.",
"The boys track team won the spring / outdoor track state championship in Group IV in 2010 (as co\\-champion) and 2022\\.[NJSIAA Boys Spring Track Summary of Group Titles](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed May 1, 2023\\.",
"The boys track team won the indoor relay championship in Group IV in 2011\\.[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed December 1, 2020\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Ownership
Among the earliest owners of Trinity plantation were [Isaac Gale](/wiki/Isaac_Gale "Isaac Gale") (died 1748\),[Isaac Gale of St Elizabeth.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146649399) Legacies of British Slave\-ownership, UCL. Retrieved 16 May 2019\. and [Zachary Bayly](/wiki/Zachary_Bayly_%28planter%29 "Zachary Bayly (planter)") (died 1769\),[Zachary Bayly.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146652013) Legacies of British Slave\-ownership, [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London "University College London"). Retrieved 16 May 2019\. who also owned the Tryall, [Brimmer Hall](/wiki/Brimmer_Hall "Brimmer Hall"), and Roslyn plantations, which formed one contiguous area of around 4\-5,000 acres known as Bayly's Vale.["The Letters of Simon Taylor of Jamaica to Chaloner Arcedekne, 1765\-1775"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XLJ_YC3BYFYC&pg=PA16) edited by [Betty Wood](/wiki/Betty_Wood "Betty Wood") *et al* in {{cite book\|author\=Betty Wood \& Martin Lynn (Eds.)\|title\=Travel, Trade and Power in the Atlantic 1765\-1884\|url\=https://archive.org/details/traveltradepower0000unse/page/1\|series\=Camden Fifth Series Vol. 19\. Miscellany XXXV\|year\=2002\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]]\|location\=Cambridge\|isbn\=0521823129\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/traveltradepower0000unse/page/1 1–164 (pp. 16\-17\)]}}
After Zachary Bayly's death, Trinity passed into the ownership of his nephew [Bryan Edwards](/wiki/Bryan_Edwards_%28politician%29 "Bryan Edwards (politician)") (died 1800\), his brother [Nathaniel Bayly](/wiki/Nathaniel_Bayly "Nathaniel Bayly") (died 1798\), and his son [Charles Nathaniel Bayly](/wiki/Charles_Nathaniel_Bayly "Charles Nathaniel Bayly"),[Trinity Estate.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/estate/view/1811) Legacies of British Slave\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 16 May 2019\. the nephew of Zachary Bayly. After the Baylys, the plantation came under the control of the merchant and banker [Job Mathew Raikes](/wiki/Job_Mathew_Raikes "Job Mathew Raikes"), who married Charlotte Bayly, daughter of Nathaniel Bayly.[Papers of Job Matthew Raikes as executor of the estate of Nathaniel Bayly (1726\-98\), West Indian plantation owner.](https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/f92ea20b-a12d-3b1f-bdf4-e1eeb5ebfe51) Jisc Archives Hub. Retrieved 19 May 2019\. Raikes died in 1833, the same year that slavery was abolished in the British Empire by the [Slavery Abolition Act](/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833 "Slavery Abolition Act 1833"), compensation being paid to his executors in 1837 of £4,026 in respect of 212 enslaved persons at Trinity.[Job Mathew Raikes.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/-1055845506) Legacies of British Slave\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 19 May 2019\.[Jamaica St Mary 265 (Trinity Estate)](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/claim/view/14444). Legacies of British Slave\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 19 May 2019\.
### Aqueduct and production
A good water supply was necessary for sugar refining and Trinity was located at the confluence of the Port Maria Western River, now the [Otram River](/wiki/Otram_River "Otram River"), and the [Negro River](/wiki/Negro_River_%28Saint_Mary%2C_Jamaica%29 "Negro River (Saint Mary, Jamaica)"). In addition, Nathaniel Bayly built an [aqueduct](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28water_supply%29 "Aqueduct (water supply)"), completed in 1797, of over a mile's length from Port Maria Western River to Trinity.{{cite book\|author\=\[\[B. W. Higman\|Higman, B. W.]]\|title\=Jamaica Surveyed: Plantation Maps and Plans of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=v\_sPBnsQXV8C\&pg\=PA116\|year\=2001\|publisher\=University of the West Indies Press\|location\=Kingston\|isbn\=978\-976\-640\-113\-9\|pages\=116–118}} It is shown centrally in [James Hakewill](/wiki/James_Hakewill "James Hakewill")'s illustration of the plantation with the Brimmer Hall works and overseer's house in the background.
Hakewill wrote that the area produced 1,000\-1,100 [hogsheads](/wiki/Hogsheads "Hogsheads") of sugar annually and in 1815 had produced 1,450 with a population of around 1,100 slaves.["Trinity Estate", Hakewill, 1825\.](https://archive.org/details/picturesquetouro00hake/page/n67) The principal products of the plantation were sugar and rum, but it also produced molasses, logwood, and cattle.
### Rebellion
In 1760, during [Tacky's Rebellion](/wiki/Tacky%27s_War "Tacky's War"), about 50 slaves rebelled and marched on Port Maria where they seized weapons. They were mostly from Trinity plantation but also from Whitehall, Frontier, and Heywood Hall. According to [Edward Long](/wiki/Edward_Long_%28colonial_administrator%29 "Edward Long (colonial administrator)"), their number grew to around 400 before the rebellion was put down with help from troops sent by the Governor.[Long, Edward](/wiki/Edward_Long_%28colonial_administrator%29 "Edward Long (colonial administrator)"). (1774\). *[The History of Jamaica or, General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island \&c.](https://archive.org/details/historyjamaicao01longgoog/page/n478)* Vol. II. London: T. Lowndes. p. 448\.
### Final sale
In 1874, Trinity came up for sale at auction in London by order of the [Court of the Commissioners for Sale of Incumbered Estates in the West Indies](/wiki/Court_of_the_Commissioners_for_Sale_of_Incumbered_Estates_in_the_West_Indies "Court of the Commissioners for Sale of Incumbered Estates in the West Indies"). The sale particulars stated that it was of 816 acres with 227 under cultivation, with 111 animals, mostly steers, and multiple buildings and machinery.*Jamaica, Particulars and Conditions of Sale of Valuable Sugar Estates \- known as "Trinity Plantation," "Roslyn Pen," "Cromwell Plantation," and Cromwell Mountain," all situate in the Parish of St. Mary.* 25 November 1874\. 2nd edition. London: Hards, Vaughan, \& Jenkinson.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Ownership",
"Among the earliest owners of Trinity plantation were [Isaac Gale](/wiki/Isaac_Gale \"Isaac Gale\") (died 1748\\),[Isaac Gale of St Elizabeth.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146649399) Legacies of British Slave\\-ownership, UCL. Retrieved 16 May 2019\\. and [Zachary Bayly](/wiki/Zachary_Bayly_%28planter%29 \"Zachary Bayly (planter)\") (died 1769\\),[Zachary Bayly.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146652013) Legacies of British Slave\\-ownership, [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London \"University College London\"). Retrieved 16 May 2019\\. who also owned the Tryall, [Brimmer Hall](/wiki/Brimmer_Hall \"Brimmer Hall\"), and Roslyn plantations, which formed one contiguous area of around 4\\-5,000 acres known as Bayly's Vale.[\"The Letters of Simon Taylor of Jamaica to Chaloner Arcedekne, 1765\\-1775\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XLJ_YC3BYFYC&pg=PA16) edited by [Betty Wood](/wiki/Betty_Wood \"Betty Wood\") *et al* in {{cite book\\|author\\=Betty Wood \\& Martin Lynn (Eds.)\\|title\\=Travel, Trade and Power in the Atlantic 1765\\-1884\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/traveltradepower0000unse/page/1\\|series\\=Camden Fifth Series Vol. 19\\. Miscellany XXXV\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]]\\|location\\=Cambridge\\|isbn\\=0521823129\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/traveltradepower0000unse/page/1 1–164 (pp. 16\\-17\\)]}}",
"After Zachary Bayly's death, Trinity passed into the ownership of his nephew [Bryan Edwards](/wiki/Bryan_Edwards_%28politician%29 \"Bryan Edwards (politician)\") (died 1800\\), his brother [Nathaniel Bayly](/wiki/Nathaniel_Bayly \"Nathaniel Bayly\") (died 1798\\), and his son [Charles Nathaniel Bayly](/wiki/Charles_Nathaniel_Bayly \"Charles Nathaniel Bayly\"),[Trinity Estate.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/estate/view/1811) Legacies of British Slave\\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 16 May 2019\\. the nephew of Zachary Bayly. After the Baylys, the plantation came under the control of the merchant and banker [Job Mathew Raikes](/wiki/Job_Mathew_Raikes \"Job Mathew Raikes\"), who married Charlotte Bayly, daughter of Nathaniel Bayly.[Papers of Job Matthew Raikes as executor of the estate of Nathaniel Bayly (1726\\-98\\), West Indian plantation owner.](https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/f92ea20b-a12d-3b1f-bdf4-e1eeb5ebfe51) Jisc Archives Hub. Retrieved 19 May 2019\\. Raikes died in 1833, the same year that slavery was abolished in the British Empire by the [Slavery Abolition Act](/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833 \"Slavery Abolition Act 1833\"), compensation being paid to his executors in 1837 of £4,026 in respect of 212 enslaved persons at Trinity.[Job Mathew Raikes.](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/-1055845506) Legacies of British Slave\\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 19 May 2019\\.[Jamaica St Mary 265 (Trinity Estate)](https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/claim/view/14444). Legacies of British Slave\\-ownership, University College London. Retrieved 19 May 2019\\.",
"### Aqueduct and production",
"A good water supply was necessary for sugar refining and Trinity was located at the confluence of the Port Maria Western River, now the [Otram River](/wiki/Otram_River \"Otram River\"), and the [Negro River](/wiki/Negro_River_%28Saint_Mary%2C_Jamaica%29 \"Negro River (Saint Mary, Jamaica)\"). In addition, Nathaniel Bayly built an [aqueduct](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28water_supply%29 \"Aqueduct (water supply)\"), completed in 1797, of over a mile's length from Port Maria Western River to Trinity.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[B. W. Higman\\|Higman, B. W.]]\\|title\\=Jamaica Surveyed: Plantation Maps and Plans of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=v\\_sPBnsQXV8C\\&pg\\=PA116\\|year\\=2001\\|publisher\\=University of the West Indies Press\\|location\\=Kingston\\|isbn\\=978\\-976\\-640\\-113\\-9\\|pages\\=116–118}} It is shown centrally in [James Hakewill](/wiki/James_Hakewill \"James Hakewill\")'s illustration of the plantation with the Brimmer Hall works and overseer's house in the background.",
"Hakewill wrote that the area produced 1,000\\-1,100 [hogsheads](/wiki/Hogsheads \"Hogsheads\") of sugar annually and in 1815 had produced 1,450 with a population of around 1,100 slaves.[\"Trinity Estate\", Hakewill, 1825\\.](https://archive.org/details/picturesquetouro00hake/page/n67) The principal products of the plantation were sugar and rum, but it also produced molasses, logwood, and cattle.",
"### Rebellion",
"In 1760, during [Tacky's Rebellion](/wiki/Tacky%27s_War \"Tacky's War\"), about 50 slaves rebelled and marched on Port Maria where they seized weapons. They were mostly from Trinity plantation but also from Whitehall, Frontier, and Heywood Hall. According to [Edward Long](/wiki/Edward_Long_%28colonial_administrator%29 \"Edward Long (colonial administrator)\"), their number grew to around 400 before the rebellion was put down with help from troops sent by the Governor.[Long, Edward](/wiki/Edward_Long_%28colonial_administrator%29 \"Edward Long (colonial administrator)\"). (1774\\). *[The History of Jamaica or, General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island \\&c.](https://archive.org/details/historyjamaicao01longgoog/page/n478)* Vol. II. London: T. Lowndes. p. 448\\.",
"### Final sale",
"In 1874, Trinity came up for sale at auction in London by order of the [Court of the Commissioners for Sale of Incumbered Estates in the West Indies](/wiki/Court_of_the_Commissioners_for_Sale_of_Incumbered_Estates_in_the_West_Indies \"Court of the Commissioners for Sale of Incumbered Estates in the West Indies\"). The sale particulars stated that it was of 816 acres with 227 under cultivation, with 111 animals, mostly steers, and multiple buildings and machinery.*Jamaica, Particulars and Conditions of Sale of Valuable Sugar Estates \\- known as \"Trinity Plantation,\" \"Roslyn Pen,\" \"Cromwell Plantation,\" and Cromwell Mountain,\" all situate in the Parish of St. Mary.* 25 November 1874\\. 2nd edition. London: Hards, Vaughan, \\& Jenkinson.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Prehistory
In 2010, Mecca and the surrounding area became an important site for [paleontology](/wiki/Paleontology "Paleontology") with respect to [primate](/wiki/Primate "Primate") evolution, with the discovery of a *[Saadanius](/wiki/Saadanius "Saadanius")* fossil. *Saadanius* is considered to be a primate closely related to the common ancestor of the [Old World monkeys](/wiki/Old_World_monkey "Old World monkey") and [apes](/wiki/Apes "Apes"). The fossil habitat, near what is now the Red Sea in western Saudi Arabia, was a damp forest area between 28 million and 29 million years ago.{{cite news\|last\=Sample\|first\=Ian\|date\=14 July 2010\|title\=Ape ancestors brought to life by fossil skull of 'Saadanius' primate\|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|location\=London\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/14/ape\-ancestors\-fossil\-skull\-saadanius\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927160050/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/14/ape\-ancestors\-fossil\-skull\-saadanius\|archive\-date\=27 September 2016}} Paleontologists involved in the research hope to find further fossils in the area.{{cite journal\|last\=Laursen\|first\=Lucas\|year\=2010\|title\=Fossil skull fingered as ape–monkey ancestor\|journal\=\[\[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]\|doi\=10\.1038/news.2010\.354\|issn \= 0028\-0836 }}
### Early history (up to 6th century CE)
The early history of Mecca is still largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. The city lies in the hinterland of the middle part of western Arabia of which there are sparse textual or archaeological sources available. This lack of knowledge is in contrast to both the northern and southern areas of western Arabia, specifically the Syro\-Palestinian frontier and Yemen, where historians have various sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco\-Roman authors, and information collected by church historians. The area of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz") that surrounds Mecca was characterized by its remote, rocky, and inhospitable nature, supporting only meagre settled populations in scattered oases and occasional stretches of fertile land. The Red Sea coast offered no easily accessible ports and the oasis dwellers and bedouins in the region were illiterate.
While one individual has suggested that Mecca’s population at the time of Muhammad was around 550,{{Cite journal\|author\=M. Robinson\|year\=2022\|title\=The Population Size of Muḥammad's Mecca and the Creation of the Quraysh\|journal\=Der Islam\|volume\=1\|issue\=99\|pages\=10–37\|doi\=10\.1515/islam\-2022\-0002\|s2cid\=247974816 \|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=10023/25835\|hdl\-access\=free}} research published by Binimad Al\-Ateeqi in 2020 shows that the population was closer to 10,000 individuals, a figure extrapolated from data taken from historical records about the [Battle of Badr](/wiki/Battle_of_Badr "Battle of Badr") and other [military expeditions](/wiki/List_of_expeditions_of_Muhammad "List of expeditions of Muhammad"), emigrants to both [Abyssinia](/wiki/Migration_to_Abyssinia "Migration to Abyssinia") and [Madinah](/wiki/Hijrah "Hijrah"), and Muhammad’s own household. Al\-Ateeqi, a researcher from [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") who has written extensively about the early history of Mecca, also makes deductions about the numbers of women, children, servants, and slaves living in Mecca at the time, pointing out that some wealthy individuals, such as [Abdullah ibn Jud’an](/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Jud%E2%80%99an "Abdullah ibn Jud’an"), had as many as 100 slaves.{{Cite book \|last\=Al\-Ateeqi \|first\=Binimad \|title\=Makkah at the Time of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) \|year\=2020 \|isbn\=978\-1710858853 \|publication\-date\=March 17, 2020 \|pages\=146–149 \|publisher\=Independently Published \|language\=EN}}
The first clear reference to Mecca in non\-Islamic literature appears in 741 CE, long after the death of Muhammad, in the Byzantine\-Arab Chronicle, though here the author places the region in Mesopotamia rather than the Hejaz.Holland, Tom; In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; 2012; p. 471
Possible earlier mentions are not unambiguous. The Greek historian [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus "Diodorus Siculus") writes about Arabia in the 1st century BCE in his work *[Bibliotheca historica](/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica "Bibliotheca historica")*, describing a holy shrine: "And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".Translated by C.H. Oldfather, *Diodorus Of Sicily, Volume II*, William Heinemann Ltd., London \& Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1935, p. 217\. Claims have been made this could be a reference to the [Ka'bah](/wiki/Ka%27bah "Ka'bah") in Mecca. However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area of [Leuke Kome](/wiki/Leuke_Kome "Leuke Kome"), within the former [Nabataean Kingdom](/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom "Nabataean Kingdom") and the Roman province of [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea "Arabia Petraea").Jan Retsö, The Arabs in Antiquity (2003\), 295–300Photius, Diodorus and Strabo (English): Stanley M. Burnstein (tr.), Agatharchides of Cnidus: On the Eritraean Sea (1989\), 132–173, esp. 152–3 (§92\).)
Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned by [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned.{{Cite book\|author\=Crone, Patricia\|title\=Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|year\=1987\|isbn\=978\-1\-59333\-102\-3\|pages\=134–135}}{{Cite journal\|author\=Morris, Ian D.\|year\=2018\|title\=Mecca and Macoraba\|url\=https://islamichistorycommons.org/mem/wp\-content/uploads/sites/55/2018/11/UW\-26\-Morris.pdf\|journal\=Al\-ʿUṣūr Al\-Wusṭā\|volume\=26\|pages\=1–60\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022342/https://islamichistorycommons.org/mem/wp\-content/uploads/sites/55/2018/11/UW\-26\-Morris.pdf\|archive\-date\=17 November 2018\|access\-date\=16 November 2018}} Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that "Macoraba" is the word "*Makkah"* followed by the aggrandizing [Aramaic](/wiki/Aramaic "Aramaic") adjective *rabb* (great). The Roman historian [Ammianus Marcellinus](/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus "Ammianus Marcellinus") also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as "Geapolis" or "Hierapolis", the latter one meaning "holy city" potentially referring to the sanctuary of the [Kaaba](/wiki/Kaaba "Kaaba").{{cite book\|last1\=Bowersock\|first1\=G. W.\|title\=The crucible of Islam\|date\=2017\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-05776\-0\|location\=Cambridge (Mass.)\|pages\=53–55}} [Patricia Crone](/wiki/Patricia_Crone "Patricia Crone"), from the [Revisionist school of Islamic studies](/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies "Revisionist school of Islamic studies") on the other hand, writes that "the plain truth is that the name Macoraba has nothing to do with that of Mecca \[...] if Ptolemy mentions Mecca at all, he calls it Moka, a town in [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea "Arabia Petraea")".Crane, P. *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*, 1987, p.136
[Procopius](/wiki/Procopius "Procopius")' 6th century statement that the [Ma'ad](/wiki/Ma%27ad_ibn_Adnan "Ma'ad ibn Adnan") tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between the [Ghassanids](/wiki/Ghassanids "Ghassanids") and the [Himyarites](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom "Himyarite Kingdom") of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associates [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh "Quraysh") as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of [Ma'ad ibn Adnan](/wiki/Ma%27ad_ibn_Adnan "Ma'ad ibn Adnan").{{cite book \|last1\=Shahid \|first1\=Irfan \|title\=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, volume 1, part 1 \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=Dumbarton Oaks \|isbn\=978\-0\-88402\-284\-8 \|page\=163}}{{cite book \|last1\=Procopius \|title\=History \|pages\=I.xix.14}}
Historian [Patricia Crone](/wiki/Patricia_Crone "Patricia Crone") has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.Crone, Patricia; *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*; 1987; p.7Holland, Tom (2012\). *In the Shadow of the Sword*; Little, Brown; p. 303 However, other scholars such as Glen W. Bowersock disagree and assert that Mecca was a major trading outpost.{{Cite book\|last\=Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan\|title\=Sales and Contracts in Early Islamic Commercial Law\|year\=1994\|isbn\=978\-969\-408\-136\-6\|pages\=3 ff\|publisher\=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University }}{{Cite book\|last\=Bowersock\|first\=Glen. W.\|title\=Bowersock, G. W. (2017\). The crucible of Islam. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. pp. 50 ff.\|year\=2017}} Crone later on disregarded some of her theories.{{cite journal \|last1\=Crone \|first1\=Patricia \|title\=Quraysh and the Roman Army: Making Sense of the Meccan Leather Trade. \|journal\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \|date\=2007 \|volume\=70 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=63–88 \|doi\=10\.1017/S0041977X0700002X \|jstor\=40378894 \|s2cid\=154910558 }} She argues that Meccan trade relied on skins, hides, manufactured leather goods, clarified butter, Hijazi woollens, and camels. She suggests that most of these goods were destined for the Roman army, which is known to have required colossal quantities of leather and hides for its equipment.
Mecca is mentioned in the following early Quranic manuscripts:
* Codex Is. 1615 I, folio 47v, [radiocarbon dated](/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating "Radiocarbon dating") to 591–643 CE.
* Codex Ṣanʿāʾ DAM 01–29\.1, folio 29a, radiocarbon dated between 633 and 665 CE.
* Codex Arabe 331, folio 40 v, radiocarbon dated between 652 and 765 CE.
The earliest Muslim inscriptions are from the Mecca\-[Ta'if](/wiki/Ta%27if "Ta'if") area.{{cite book \|last1\=Hoyland \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Seeing Islam as others saw it \|date\=1997 \|publisher\=Darwin Press \|isbn\=0\-87850\-125\-8 \|page\=565}}
**Islamic narrative**
{{multiple image
\| align \= right
\| direction \= vertical
\| width \= 220
\| image1 \= Makkah mentioned in Quranic manuscript Codex Arabe 331dated to 652\-765 CE with 95\.4% probability.png
\| caption1 \= Mecca mentioned in Quranic manuscript Codex Arabe 331 (\[\[Q48:24]])
\| image2 \= OldmapofMecca.jpg
\| caption2 \= A 1787 \[\[Ottoman Empire\|Ottoman]] Turkish map of \[\[Al\-Haram Mosque]], and related religious sites, such as Jabal al\-Nour
}}
In the Islamic view, the beginnings of Mecca are attributed to the [Biblical figures](/wiki/Biblical_people_in_Islam "Biblical people in Islam"), [Adam](/wiki/Adam "Adam"), [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham "Abraham"), [Hagar](/wiki/Hagar "Hagar") and [Ishmael](/wiki/Ishmael "Ishmael"). It was Adam himself who built the first God's house in Mecca according to a heavenly prototype but this building was destroyed in the [Noahic Flood](/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative "Genesis flood narrative"). The civilization of Mecca is believed to have started after [Ibrāhīm](/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam "Abraham in Islam") (Abraham) left his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife [Hājar](/wiki/Hagar_in_Islam "Hagar in Islam") (Hagar) in the valley at [Allah](/wiki/Allah "Allah")'s command.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} Some people from the Yemeni tribe of [Jurhum](/wiki/Jurhum "Jurhum") settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing the first, on Ibrahim's advice. At least one man of the Jurhum helped Ismāʿīl and his father to construct or according to Islamic narratives, reconstruct, the *[Ka'bah](/wiki/Kaaba "Kaaba")* ('Cube'),{{qref\|2\|127\|b\=y}}{{qref\|22\|25\-37\|b\=y}} which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.{{cite encyclopedia\|last\=Glassé\|first\=Cyril\|title\=Kaaba\|encyclopedia\=The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam\|publisher\=\[\[HarperSanFrancisco]]\|year\=1991\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dlPuAAAAMAAJ\|isbn\=0\-0606\-3126\-0}}{{cite book \|last\=Lings \|first\=Martin \|author\-link\=Martin Lings \|title\=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources \|publisher\=Islamic Texts Society \|year\=1983 \|isbn\=978\-0\-946621\-33\-0\|title\-link\=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources }}
Muslims see the mention of a pilgrimage at the [Valley of the Bakha](/wiki/Bakkah%23Valley_of_the_Bakha "Bakkah#Valley of the Bakha") in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament "Old Testament") chapter [Psalm 84](/wiki/Psalm_84 "Psalm 84"):3–6 as a reference to Mecca, similar to the Quran at Surah {{qref\|3\|96\|}} In the *Sharḥ al\-Asāṭīr*, a commentary on the [Samaritan](/wiki/Samaritans "Samaritans") [midrashic](/wiki/Midrash "Midrash") chronology of the Patriarchs, of unknown date but probably composed in the 10th century CE, it is claimed that Mecca was built by the sons of [Nebaioth](/wiki/Nebaioth "Nebaioth"), the eldest son of Ismāʿīl or [Ishmael](/wiki/Ishmael "Ishmael").Crown, Alan David (2001\) [*Samaritan Scribes and Manuscripts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5iW24esf-sC&pg=PA27). Mohr Siebeck. p. 27Crone, Patricia and Cook, M.A. (1977\) [*Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ta08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22) Cambridge University Press. p. 22\.Lazarus\-Yafeh, Hava (1992\). [*Intertwined Worlds: Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). Princeton University Press. pp.61–62
**Thamudic inscriptions**
Some [Thamudic](/wiki/Thamudic "Thamudic") inscriptions which were discovered in the south [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") contained names of some individuals such as *ʿAbd Mekkat* ({{lang\|ar\|{{Script\|Arab\|عَبْد مَكَّة}}}}, "Servant of Mecca").G. Lankester Harding \& Enno Littman, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from the Hashimite Kingdom of the Jordan (Leiden, Netherlands – 1952\), p. 19, Inscription No. 112A
There were also some other inscriptions which contained personal names such as *Makki* ({{lang\|ar\|مَكِّي}}, "Makkan, of Makkah"), but Jawwad Ali from the [University of Baghdad](/wiki/University_of_Baghdad "University of Baghdad") suggested that there's also a probability of a tribe named "Makkah".Jawwad Ali, The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam (1993\), Vol. 4, p. 11
### Under the Quraish
Sometime in the 5th century, the Ka'bah was a place of worship for the deities of [Arabia's pagan tribes](/wiki/Arabian_mythology "Arabian mythology"). Mecca's most important [pagan](/wiki/Paganism "Paganism") [deity](/wiki/Deity "Deity") was [Hubal](/wiki/Hubal "Hubal"), which had been placed there by the ruling [Quraish](/wiki/Quraysh_%28tribe%29 "Quraysh (tribe)") tribe.{{Cite journal\|author\=Hawting, G.R.\|year\=1980\|title\=The Disappearance and Rediscovery of Zamzam and the 'Well of the Ka'ba'\|journal\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London\|volume\=43\|issue\=1\|pages\=44–54 (44\)\|doi\=10\.1017/S0041977X00110523\|jstor\=616125\|s2cid\=162654756}}[*Islamic World*](/wiki/%23iw "#iw"), p. 20 and remained until the [Conquest of Mecca](/wiki/Conquest_of_Mecca "Conquest of Mecca") by [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad").{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} In the 5th century, the Quraish took control of Mecca, and became skilled merchants and traders. In the 6th century, they joined the lucrative [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade"), since battles elsewhere were diverting [trade routes](/wiki/Trade_route "Trade route") from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes. The [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") had previously controlled the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea"), but [piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") had been increasing.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} Another previous route that ran through the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf") via the [Tigris](/wiki/Tigris "Tigris") and [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") rivers was also being threatened by exploitations from the [Sassanid Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire "Sassanid Empire"), and was being disrupted by the [Lakhmids](/wiki/Lakhmids "Lakhmids"), the [Ghassanids](/wiki/Ghassanids "Ghassanids"), and the [Roman–Persian Wars](/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars "Roman–Persian Wars"). Mecca's prominence as a trading center also surpassed the cities of [Petra](/wiki/Petra "Petra") and [Palmyra](/wiki/Palmyra "Palmyra")."Makka – The pre\-Islamic and early Islamic periods", *Encyclopaedia of Islam*[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus "#Lapidus"), p. 14 The Sassanids however did not always pose a threat to Mecca, as in 575 CE they protected it from a Yemeni invasion, led by its Christian leader [Abraha](/wiki/Abraha "Abraha"). The tribes of southern Arabia asked the Persian king [Khosrau I](/wiki/Khosrau_I "Khosrau I") for aid, in response to which he came south to Arabia with foot\-soldiers and a fleet of ships near Mecca.{{cite book\|author\=Bauer, S. Wise\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1u2oP2RihIgC\&pg\=PA243\|title\=The history of the medieval world: from the conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade\|publisher\=W.W. Norton \& Company\|year\=2010\|isbn\=978\-0\-393\-05975\-5\|page\=243}}
By the middle of the 6th century, there were three major settlements in northern [Arabia](/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula "Arabian Peninsula"), all along the south\-western coast that borders the Red Sea, in a habitable region between the sea and the Hejaz mountains to the east. Although the area around Mecca was completely barren, it was the wealthiest of the three settlements with abundant water from the renowned [Zamzam Well](/wiki/Zamzam_Well "Zamzam Well") and a position at the crossroads of major [caravan](/wiki/Camel_train "Camel train") routes.
The harsh conditions and terrain of the Arabian peninsula meant a near\-constant state of conflict between the [local tribes](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia "Tribes of Arabia"), but once a year they would declare a truce and converge upon Mecca in an annual pilgrimage. Up to the 7th century, this journey was intended for religious reasons by the pagan Arabs to pay homage to their shrine, and to drink [Zamzam](/wiki/Zamzam_Well "Zamzam Well"). However, it was also the time each year that disputes would be arbitrated, debts would be resolved, and trading would occur at Meccan fairs. These annual events gave the tribes a sense of common identity and made Mecca an important focus for the peninsula.[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus "#Lapidus"), pp. 16–17
**The Year of the Elephant (570 CE)**
The "[Year of the Elephant](/wiki/Year_of_the_Elephant "Year of the Elephant")" is the name in [Islamic](/wiki/Islam "Islam") history for the year approximately equating to 570–572 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era"), when, according to Islamic sources such as [Ibn Ishaq](/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq "Ibn Ishaq"), Abraha descended upon Mecca, riding an elephant, with a large army after building a [cathedral](/wiki/Church_%28building%29 "Church (building)") at [San'aa](/wiki/Sanaa "Sanaa"), named *al\-Qullays* in honor of the [Negus](/wiki/Negus "Negus") of [Axum](/wiki/Axum "Axum"). It gained widespread fame, even gaining attention from the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire"). Abraha attempted to divert the pilgrimage of the Arabs from the Ka'bah to al\-Qullays, effectively converting them to Christianity. According to Islamic tradition, this was the year of [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad")'s birth.{{cite book \|last\=Hajjah Adil \|first\=Amina \|title\=Prophet Muhammad \|url\=https://archive.org/details/muhammadmessenge0000adil \|year\=2002 \|publisher\=\[\[Islamic Supreme Council of America\|ISCA]] \|isbn\=1\-930409\-11\-7 \|url\-access\=registration}} Abraha allegedly sent a messenger named Muhammad ibn Khuza'i to Mecca and [Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah "Tihamah") with a message that al\-Qullays was both much better than other houses of worship and purer, having not been defiled by the housing of idols. When Muhammad ibn Khuza'i got as far as the land of [Kinana](/wiki/Banu_Kinanah "Banu Kinanah"), the people of the lowland, knowing what he had come for, sent a man of [Hudhayl](/wiki/Banu_Hudhayl "Banu Hudhayl") called ʿUrwa bin Hayyad al\-Milasi, who shot him with an arrow, killing him. His brother Qays who was with him, fled to Abraha and told him the news, which increased his rage and fury and he swore to raid the Kinana tribe and destroy the Ka'bah. Ibn Ishaq further states that one of the men of the [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh "Quraysh") tribe was angered by this, and going to Sana'a, entering the church at night and defiling it; widely assumed to have done so by [defecating](/wiki/Defecation "Defecation") in it.["Abraha."](http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/_abraha.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113213718/http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/\_abraha.html\|date\=13 January 2016}} *Dictionary of African Christian Biographies*. 2007\. (last accessed 11 April 2007\)Müller, Walter W. (1987\) ["Outline of the History of Ancient Southern Arabia"](http://www.yemenweb.com/info/_disc/0000002c.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010075912/http://www.yemenweb.com/info/\_disc/0000002c.htm\|date\=10 October 2014}}, in Werner Daum (ed.), *Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix*.
[Abraha](/wiki/Abraha "Abraha") marched upon the [Ka'bah](/wiki/Kaaba "Kaaba") with a large army, which included one or more [war elephants](/wiki/War_elephant "War elephant"), intending to demolish it. When news of the advance of his army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Kinanah, [Khuza'a](/wiki/Banu_Khuza%27a "Banu Khuza'a") and Hudhayl united in the defense of the Ka'bah and the city. A man from the [Himyarite Kingdom](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom "Himyarite Kingdom") was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'bah and if they resisted, they would be crushed. [Abdul Muttalib](/wiki/Abdul_Muttalib "Abdul Muttalib") told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he and some members of the Quraysh remained within the precincts of the Kaaba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting Abdul\-Muttalib to meet with Abraha and discuss matters. When Abdul\-Muttalib left the meeting he was heard saying: "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure he will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."{{Cite web\|date\=2012\-10\-18\|title\=The Year of the Elephant\|url\=https://www.al\-islam.org/life\-muhammad\-prophet\-sayyid\-saeed\-akhtar\-rizvi/year\-elephant\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-07\|website\=Al\-Islam.org\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|title\=Significance Behind Prophet Mohammad's Birth in the Year of the Elephant\|url\=http://aliftaa.jo/ArticleEn.aspx?ArticleId\=2462\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-07\|website\=aliftaa.jo}}
Abraha eventually attacked Mecca. However, the lead elephant, known as Mahmud,{{cite web\|author\=ʿAbdu r\-Rahmān ibn Nāsir as\-Saʿdī\|title\=Tafsir of Surah al Fil – The Elephant (Surah 105\)\|date\=23 December 2009 \|url\=http://islaam.net/main/display.php?id\=1480\&category\=176\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220090653/http://islaam.net/main/display.php?id\=1480\&category\=176\|archive\-date\=20 December 2010\|access\-date\=15 March 2013\|translator\=Abū Rumaysah \|publisher\=Islamic Network\|quote\=This elephant was called Mahmud and it was sent to Abrahah from \[\[Negus\|Najashi]], the king of Abyssinia, particularly for this expedition.}} is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca and refused to enter. It has been theorized that an epidemic such as by [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox "Smallpox") could have caused such a failed invasion of Mecca.{{cite journal\|author\-link\=John S. Marr\|vauthors\=Marr JS, Hubbard E, Cathey JT\|date\=2015\|title\=The Year of the Elephant\|journal\=WikiJournal of Medicine\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|doi\=10\.15347/wjm/2015\.003\|doi\-access\=free}}
In turn citing: {{cite web\|author\=Willan R.\|date\=1821\|title\=Miscellaneous works: comprising An inquiry into the antiquity of the small\-pox, measles, and scarlet fever, now first published; Reports on the diseases in London, a new ed.; and detached papers on medical subjects, collected from various periodical publi\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TXEFAAAAQAAJ\|publisher\=Cadell\|page\=488}} The reference to the story in [Quran](/wiki/Quran "Quran") is rather short. According to the 105th [Surah](/wiki/Sura "Sura") of the Quran, [Al\-Fil](/wiki/Al-Fil "Al-Fil"), the next day, a dark cloud of small birds sent by Allah appeared. The birds carried small rocks in their beaks, and bombarded the Ethiopian forces, and smashed them to a state like that of eaten straw.{{qref\|105\|1\-5\|b\=y}}
**Economy**
Camel caravans, said to have first been used by Muhammad's great\-grandfather, were a major part of Mecca's bustling economy. Alliances were struck between the merchants in Mecca and the local nomadic tribes, who would bring goods – leather, livestock, and metals mined in the local mountains – to Mecca to be loaded on the caravans and carried to cities in [Shaam](/wiki/Syria_%28region%29 "Syria (region)") and [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq").[*Islamic World*](/wiki/%23iw "#iw"), pp. 17–18 Historical accounts also provide some indication that goods from other continents may also have flowed through Mecca. Goods from Africa and the Far East passed through en route to Syria including spices, leather, medicine, cloth, and slaves; in return Mecca received money, weapons, cereals and wine, which in turn were distributed throughout Arabia. {{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} The Meccans signed treaties with both the Byzantines and the [Bedouins](/wiki/Bedouin "Bedouin"), and negotiated safe passages for caravans, giving them water and pasture rights. Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes, which included those of the [Banu Tamim](/wiki/Banu_Tamim "Banu Tamim"). Other regional powers such as the [Abyssinians](/wiki/Habesha_people "Habesha people"), Ghassanids, and Lakhmids were in decline leaving Meccan trade to be the primary binding force in Arabia in the late 6th century.
### Muhammad and the conquest of Mecca
{{Main\|Muhammad\|Conquest of Mecca\|Muhammad in Mecca\|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}
[thumb\|[Makkah Al Mukarramah Library](/wiki/Makkah_Al_Mukarramah_Library "Makkah Al Mukarramah Library") ({{coord\|21\|25\|30\|N\|39\|49\|48\|E\|type:landmark\_scale:5000\_region:SA\|name\=Bayt al\-Mawlid / Makkah Al Mukarramah Library}}) is believed to stand on the spot where Muhammad was born, so it is also known as *[Bayt al\-Mawlid](/wiki/Bayt_al-Mawlid "Bayt al-Mawlid")*](/wiki/File:Site_of_the_birthplace_of_the_Prophet_Muhammad%2C_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia.jpg "Site of the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg")
Muhammad was [born](/wiki/Mawlid "Mawlid") in Mecca in 570 CE, and thus Islam has been inextricably linked with it ever since. He was born into the faction of [Banu Hashim](/wiki/Banu_Hashim "Banu Hashim") in the ruling tribe of [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh "Quraysh"). It was in the nearby mountain cave of Hira on [Jabal al\-Nour](/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour "Jabal al-Nour") that Muhammad began receiving divine [revelations](/wiki/Revelation "Revelation") from God through the [archangel](/wiki/Archangel "Archangel") [Jibreel](/wiki/Gabriel "Gabriel") in 610 CE, according to Islamic tradition. Advocating his form of [Abrahamic monotheism](/wiki/Abrahamic_religions "Abrahamic religions") against Meccan paganism, and after enduring persecution from the pagan tribes for 13 years, Muhammad emigrated ([*hijrah*](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 "Hijra (Islam)")) in 622 CE with his companions, the *[Muhajirun](/wiki/Muhajirun "Muhajirun")*, to Yathrib (later renamed [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina")). The conflict between the Quraysh and the Muslims is accepted to have begun at this point. Overall, Meccan efforts to annihilate Islam failed and proved to be costly and unsuccessful.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} During the [Battle of the Trench](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench "Battle of the Trench") in 627 CE, the combined armies of Arabia were unable to defeat Muhammad's forces (as the trench surrounding Muhammad's forces protected them from harm and a storm was sent to breach the Quraysh tribe).[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus "#Lapidus"), p. 32
In 628 CE, Muhammad and his followers wanted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage, but were blocked by the Quraysh. Subsequently, Muslims and Meccans entered into the [Treaty of Hudaybiyyah](/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah "Treaty of Hudaybiyyah"), whereby the Quraysh and their allies promised to cease fighting Muslims and their allies and promised that Muslims would be allowed into the city to perform the pilgrimage the following year. It was meant to be a ceasefire for 10 years; however, just two years later, the [Banu Bakr](/wiki/Banu_Bakr "Banu Bakr"), allies of the Quraish, violated the truce by slaughtering a group of the Banu Khuza'ah, allies of the Muslims. Muhammad and his companions, now 10,000 strong, marched into Mecca and conquered the city. The pagan imagery was destroyed by Muhammad's followers and the location [Islamized](/wiki/Islamized "Islamized") and rededicated to the worship of [Allah](/wiki/Allah "Allah") alone. Mecca was declared the holiest site in Islam ordaining it as the center of Muslim pilgrimage (*[Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj")*), one of the Islamic faith's [Five Pillars](/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam "Five Pillars of Islam").
Muhammad then returned to Medina, after assigning '[Attab ibn Asid](/wiki/Attab_ibn_Asid "Attab ibn Asid") as governor of the city. His other activities in Arabia led to the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. Muhammad died in 632 CE. Within the next few hundred years, the area under the banner of Islam stretched from North Africa into Asia and parts of Europe. As the [Islamic realm](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate "Rashidun Caliphate") grew, Mecca continued to attract pilgrims from all across the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world "Muslim world") and beyond, as Muslims came to perform the annual Hajj pilgrimage. Mecca also attracted a year\-round population of scholars, pious Muslims who wished to live close to the Kaaba, and local inhabitants who served the pilgrims. Due to the difficulty and expense of the Hajj, pilgrims arrived by boat at Jeddah, and came overland, or joined the annual caravans from Syria or Iraq.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}}
### Medieval and pre\-modern times
Mecca was never the capital of any of the [Islamic states](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate"). Muslim rulers did contribute to its upkeep, such as during the reigns of '[Umar](/wiki/Umar "Umar") (r. 634–644 CE) and '[Uthman ibn Affan](/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan "Uthman ibn Affan") (r. 644–656 CE) when concerns of flooding caused the caliphs to bring in Christian engineers to build barrages in the low\-lying quarters and construct dykes and embankments to protect the area around the Kaaba.
Muhammad's return to Medina shifted the focus away from Mecca and later even further away when '[Ali](/wiki/Ali "Ali"), the fourth caliph, took power and chose [Kufa](/wiki/Kufa "Kufa") as his capital. The [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate") moved the capital to [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") in Syria and the [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate") to [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), in modern\-day Iraq, which remained the center of the Islamic Empire for nearly 500 years. Mecca re\-entered Islamic political history during the [Second Fitna](/wiki/Second_Fitna "Second Fitna"), when it was held by [Abdullah ibn az\-Zubayr](/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_al-Zubayr "Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr") and the Zubayrids.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} The city was twice besieged by the Umayyads in [683](/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_%28683%29 "Siege of Mecca (683)") CE and [692](/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_%28692%29 "Siege of Mecca (692)") CE, and for some time thereafter, the city figured little in politics, remaining a city of devotion and scholarship governed by various other factions. In 930 CE, Mecca was [attacked and sacked](/wiki/Sack_of_Mecca "Sack of Mecca") by [Qarmatians](/wiki/Qarmatians "Qarmatians"), a [millenarian](/wiki/Millenarianism "Millenarianism") [Shi'a](/wiki/Shia_Islam "Shia Islam") [Isma'ili](/wiki/Ismailism "Ismailism") [Muslim sect](/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches "Islamic schools and branches") led by [Abū\-Tāhir Al\-Jannābī](/wiki/Ab%C5%AB-T%C4%81hir_Al-Jann%C4%81b%C4%AB "Abū-Tāhir Al-Jannābī") and centered in eastern Arabia.{{cite web\|title\=Mecca\|url\=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0832430\.html\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817083014/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0832430\.html\|archive\-date\=17 August 2010\|access\-date\=6 April 2010\|publisher\=Infoplease.com}} The [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death") [pandemic](/wiki/Pandemic "Pandemic") hit Mecca in 1349 CE.{{cite web\|title\=The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)\|url\=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied\_history/tutor/islam/mongols/blackDeath.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721033845/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied\_history/tutor/islam/mongols/blackDeath.html\|archive\-date\=21 July 2009\|access\-date\=6 April 2010\|publisher\=Ucalgary.ca}}
#### Ibn Battuta's description of Mecca
One of the most famous travelers to Mecca in the 14th century was a Moroccan scholar and traveler, [Ibn Battuta](/wiki/Ibn_Battuta "Ibn Battuta"). In his *rihla* (account), he provides a vast description of the city. Around the year 1327 CE or 729 AH, Ibn Battuta arrived at the holy city. Immediately, he says, it felt like a holy sanctuary, and thus he started the rites of the pilgrimage. He remained in Mecca for three years and left in 1330 CE. During his second year in the holy city, he says his caravan arrived "with a great quantity of alms for the support of those who were staying in Mecca and Medina". While in Mecca, prayers were made for (not to) the King of Iraq and also for [Salaheddin al\-Ayyubi](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin"), Sultan of Egypt and Syria at the Ka'bah. Battuta says the Ka'bah was large, but was destroyed and rebuilt smaller than the original. According to Ibn Battuta, the original Kaaba, prior to the conquest of Makkah by the Prophet, contained images of angels and prophets including Jesus (Isa in Islamic tradition), his mother Mary (Maryam in Islamic tradition), and many others \- Ibn Battuta however states these were all destroyed by the Prophet in the year of victory. Battuta describes the Ka'bah in his time as an important part of Mecca due to the fact that many people make the pilgrimage to it. Battuta describes the people of the city as being humble and kind, and also willing to give a part of everything they had to someone who had nothing. The inhabitants of Mecca and the village itself, he says, were very clean. There was also a sense of elegance to the village.{{Cite book\|last\=Battuta\|first\=Ibn\|title\=The Travels of Ibn Battuta\|publisher\=Cosimo\|year\=2009}}
**Under the Ottomans**[alt\=\|thumb\|Panorama of Mecca, 1845, from the [Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage](/wiki/Khalili_Collection_of_Hajj_and_the_Arts_of_Pilgrimage "Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage")In](/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_Mecca_panorama.jpg "Khalili Collection Hajj Mecca panorama.jpg") 1517, the then Sharif of Mecca, Barakat bin Muhammad, acknowledged the supremacy of the [Ottoman Caliph](/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate "Ottoman Caliphate") but retained a great degree of local autonomy.{{cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Mecca\|volume\=17\|page\=952}} In 1803 the city was captured by the [First Saudi State](/wiki/First_Saudi_State "First Saudi State"),"[The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam](http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721222356/http://countrystudies.us/saudi\-arabia/7\.htm\|date\=21 July 2011}}". [Library of Congress Country Studies](/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies "Library of Congress Country Studies"). which held Mecca until 1813, destroying some of the historic tombs and domes in and around the city. The Ottomans assigned the task of bringing Mecca back under Ottoman control to their powerful *[Khedive](/wiki/Khedive "Khedive")* (viceroy) and *[Wali](/wiki/Wali_%28administrative_title%29 "Wali (administrative title)")* of Egypt, [Muhammad Ali Pasha](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt "Muhammad Ali of Egypt"). Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully returned Mecca to Ottoman control [in 1813](/wiki/Ottoman_return_of_Mecca_1813 "Ottoman return of Mecca 1813"). In 1818, the Saud were defeated again but survived and founded the [Second Saudi State](/wiki/Second_Saudi_State "Second Saudi State") that lasted until 1891 and led on to the present country of Saudi Arabia. In 1853, Sir [Richard Francis Burton](/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton "Richard Francis Burton") undertook the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina disguised as a Muslim. Although Burton was certainly not the first non\-Muslim European to make the *Hajj* ([Ludovico di Varthema](/wiki/Ludovico_di_Varthema "Ludovico di Varthema") did this in 1503\),{{cite web\|author\=Leigh Rayment\|title\=Ludovico di Varthema\|url\=http://www.win.tue.nl/\~engels/discovery/varthema.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617222339/http://www.win.tue.nl/\~engels/discovery/varthema.html\|archive\-date\=17 June 2012\|work\=Discoverers Web}} his pilgrimage remains one of the most famous and documented of modern times. Mecca was regularly hit by [cholera](/wiki/Cholera "Cholera") [outbreaks](/wiki/Cholera_outbreaks_and_pandemics "Cholera outbreaks and pandemics"). Between 1830 and 1930, cholera broke out among pilgrims at Mecca 27 times.[Cholera (pathology)](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven-pandemics#ref=ref886683) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627012745/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven\-pandemics\|date\=27 June 2009}}. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
### Modern history
[thumb\|Mecca in 1910](/wiki/File:Makkah-1910.jpg "Makkah-1910.jpg")
**Hashemite Revolt and subsequent control by the Sharifate of Mecca**
In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the Ottoman Empire was at war with the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I"). It had successfully repulsed an attack on [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") in the [Gallipoli campaign](/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign "Gallipoli campaign") and on Baghdad in the [Siege of Kut](/wiki/Siege_of_Kut "Siege of Kut"). The British intelligence agent [T.E. Lawrence](/wiki/T.E._Lawrence "T.E. Lawrence") conspired with the Ottoman governor, [Hussain bin Ali](/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali%2C_Sharif_of_Mecca "Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca"), the Sharif of Mecca to revolt against the Ottoman Empire and it was the first city captured by his forces in the [1916 Battle of Mecca](/wiki/Battle_of_Mecca_%281916%29 "Battle of Mecca (1916)"). Sharif's revolt proved a turning point of the war on the eastern front. Hussein declared a new state, the [Kingdom of Hejaz](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz "Kingdom of Hejaz"), declaring himself the Sharif of the state and Mecca his capital. News reports in November 1916 via contact in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") with returning [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") pilgrims, stated that with the Ottoman Turkish authorities gone, the Hajj of 1916 was free of the previous massive extortion and monetary demands made by the Turks who were agents of the Ottoman government.*[Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph "Daily Telegraph")* Saturday 25 November 1916, reprinted in *[Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph "Daily Telegraph")* Friday 25 November 2016 issue (p. 36\)
**Saudi Arabian conquest and modern history**
Following the [1924 Battle of Mecca](/wiki/Battle_of_Mecca_%281924%29 "Battle of Mecca (1924)"), the Sharif of Mecca was overthrown by the Saud family, and Mecca was incorporated into Saudi Arabia.["Mecca"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091028055612/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577367/Mecca.html) at [Encarta](/wiki/Encarta "Encarta"). (Archived) 1 November 2009\. Under Saudi rule, much of the historic city has been demolished as a result of the Saudi government fearing these sites might become sites of association in worship besides Allah (*[shirk](/wiki/Shirk_%28Islam%29 "Shirk (Islam)")*). The city has been expanded to include several towns previously considered to be separate from the holy city and now is just a few kilometers outside the main sites of the Hajj, Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat. Mecca is not served by any airport, due to concerns about the city's safety. It is instead served by the [King Abdulaziz International Airport](/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_International_Airport "King Abdulaziz International Airport") in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah") (approx. 70 km away) internationally and the [Ta'if Regional Airport](/wiki/Ta%27if_Regional_Airport "Ta'if Regional Airport") (approx. 120 km away) for domestic flights.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}}
The city today is at the junction of the two most important highways in all of the Saudi Arabian highway system, Highway 40, which connects the city to Jeddah in the west and the capital, [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh "Riyadh") and [Dammam](/wiki/Dammam "Dammam") in the east and Highway 15, which connects it to [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina"), [Tabuk](/wiki/Tabuk%2C_Saudi_Arabia "Tabuk, Saudi Arabia") and onward to [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") in the north and [Abha](/wiki/Abha "Abha") and [Jizan](/wiki/Jizan "Jizan") in the south. The Ottomans had planned to extend their railway network to the holy city, but were forced to abandon this plan due to their entry into the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"). This plan was later carried out by the Saudi government, which connected the two holy cities of Medina and Mecca with the modern [Haramain high\-speed railway](/wiki/Haramain_high-speed_railway "Haramain high-speed railway") system which runs at 300 km/h (190 mph) and connects the two cities via Jeddah, King Abdulaziz International Airport and [King Abdullah Economic City](/wiki/King_Abdullah_Economic_City "King Abdullah Economic City") near Rabigh within two hours.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}}
The [haram area](/wiki/Haram_%28site%29 "Haram (site)") of Mecca, in which the entry of non\-Muslims is forbidden, is much larger than that of Medina.
**1979 Grand Mosque seizure**{{See also\|Grand Mosque seizure}}
On 20 November 1979, two hundred armed dissidents led by [Juhayman al\-Otaibi](/wiki/Juhayman_al-Otaibi "Juhayman al-Otaibi"), [seized the Grand Mosque](/wiki/Grand_Mosque_Seizure "Grand Mosque Seizure"), claiming the Saudi royal family no longer represented pure Islam and that the [Masjid al\-Haram](/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram "Masjid al-Haram") and the Ka'bah, must be held by those of true faith. The rebels seized tens of thousands of pilgrims as hostages and barricaded themselves in the mosque. The siege lasted two weeks, and resulted in several hundred deaths and significant damage to the shrine, especially the [Safa\-Marwah](/wiki/Al-Safa_and_Al-Marwah "Al-Safa and Al-Marwah") gallery. A multinational force was finally able to retake the mosque from the dissidents.{{cite news\|date\=28 August 2007\|title\=The Siege of Mecca\|publisher\=Doubleday(US)\|url\=http://www.siegeofmecca.com\|access\-date\=3 August 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018060953/http://www.siegeofmecca.com/\|archive\-date\=18 October 2014}}
Since then, the Grand Mosque has been expanded several times, with many other expansions being undertaken in the present day.
**Destruction of Islamic heritage sites**{{Main\|Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia}}
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Mecca, as seen from [Jabal al\-Nour](/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour "Jabal al-Nour"). [Mecca Clock Tower](/wiki/Abraj_Al_Bait "Abraj Al Bait") is visible in the skyline.](/wiki/File:Makkah_Aerial_View.jpg "Makkah Aerial View.jpg")
Under Saudi rule, it has been estimated that since 1985, about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.['The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage'](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119151341/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\-east/the\-destruction\-of\-mecca\-saudi\-hardliners\-are\-wiping\-out\-their\-own\-heritage\-501647\.html\|date\=19 January 2011}}, The Independent, 6 August 2005\. Retrieved 17 January 2011 It has been reported that there are now fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Some important buildings that have been destroyed include the house of [Khadijah](/wiki/Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid "Khadija bint Khuwaylid"), the wife of Muhammad, the house of [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr "Abu Bakr"), Muhammad's birthplace and the Ottoman\-era [Ajyad Fortress](/wiki/Ajyad_Fortress "Ajyad Fortress").['Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'](https://web.archive.org/web/20090310011511/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html), The Independent, 19 April 2006 \| archived from the original on 10 March 2009 The reason for much of the destruction of historic buildings has been for the construction of hotels, apartments, parking lots, and other infrastructure facilities for [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") pilgrims.{{Cite web\|last\=Bsheer\|first\=Rosie\|date\=20 December 2020\|title\=How Saudi Arabia obliterated its rich cultural history\|url\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/saudi\-arabia\-obliterated\-rich\-cultural\-history\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-17\|website\=Middle East Eye\|language\=en}}
**Incidents during pilgrimage**{{main\|Incidents during the Hajj}}
Mecca has been the site of several incidents and failures of crowd control because of the large numbers of people who come to make the Hajj.{{cite news\|date\=27 December 2006\|title\=What is the Hajj? ("Hajj disasters")\|publisher\=BBC\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\_east/4180965\.stm\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=18 January 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124121049/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\_east/4180965\.stm\|archive\-date\=24 January 2009}}{{cite news\|date\=17 December 2007\|title\=History of deaths on the Hajj\|publisher\=BBC\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\_east/4607304\.stm\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=18 January 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610220505/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\_east/4607304\.stm\|archive\-date\=10 June 2009}}{{cite book\|last\=Ruthven\|first\=Malise\|title\=Islam in the World\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-1\-86207\-906\-9\|page\=10\|publisher\=Granta Books \|author\-link\=Malise Ruthven}} For example, on 2 July 1990, a pilgrimage to Mecca ended in tragedy when the ventilation system failed in a crowded pedestrian tunnel and 1,426 people were either suffocated or trampled to death in a [stampede](/wiki/1990_Hajj_stampede "1990 Hajj stampede").[Express \& Star](https://www.expressandstar.com/days/1976-2000/1990.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200651/http://www.expressandstar.com/days/1976\-2000/1990\.html\|date\=3 March 2016}}. *Express \& Star*. Retrieved 3 February 2013\. On 24 September 2015, 700 pilgrims [were killed](/wiki/2015_Mina_stampede "2015 Mina stampede") in a stampede at [Mina](/wiki/Mina%2C_Saudi_Arabia "Mina, Saudi Arabia") during the stoning\-the\-Devil ritual at Jamarat.{{cite news\|title\=Over 700 Dead, 800 Injured in Stampede Near Mecca During Haj\|publisher\=NDTV\|url\=http://www.ndtv.com/world\-news/at\-least\-100\-dead\-390\-hurt\-in\-stampede\-during\-haj\-in\-saudi\-arabia\-say\-officials\-1221489?pfrom\=home\-lateststories\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=24 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103415/http://www.ndtv.com/world\-news/at\-least\-100\-dead\-390\-hurt\-in\-stampede\-during\-haj\-in\-saudi\-arabia\-say\-officials\-1221489?pfrom\=home\-lateststories\|archive\-date\=25 September 2015}}
**2027 total solar eclipse**
Mecca will experience a [total solar eclipse](/wiki/Solar_eclipse_of_August_2%2C_2027 "Solar eclipse of August 2, 2027") on Monday, 2 August 2027, for a duration of 5 minutes and 8 seconds.{{Cite web \|title\=Total Solar Eclipse on August 2, 2027: Path Map and Times \|url\=https://www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/map/2027\-august\-2 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-23 \|website\=www.timeanddate.com \|language\=en}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Prehistory",
"In 2010, Mecca and the surrounding area became an important site for [paleontology](/wiki/Paleontology \"Paleontology\") with respect to [primate](/wiki/Primate \"Primate\") evolution, with the discovery of a *[Saadanius](/wiki/Saadanius \"Saadanius\")* fossil. *Saadanius* is considered to be a primate closely related to the common ancestor of the [Old World monkeys](/wiki/Old_World_monkey \"Old World monkey\") and [apes](/wiki/Apes \"Apes\"). The fossil habitat, near what is now the Red Sea in western Saudi Arabia, was a damp forest area between 28 million and 29 million years ago.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sample\\|first\\=Ian\\|date\\=14 July 2010\\|title\\=Ape ancestors brought to life by fossil skull of 'Saadanius' primate\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|location\\=London\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/14/ape\\-ancestors\\-fossil\\-skull\\-saadanius\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927160050/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/14/ape\\-ancestors\\-fossil\\-skull\\-saadanius\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2016}} Paleontologists involved in the research hope to find further fossils in the area.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Laursen\\|first\\=Lucas\\|year\\=2010\\|title\\=Fossil skull fingered as ape–monkey ancestor\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Nature (journal)\\|Nature]]\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/news.2010\\.354\\|issn \\= 0028\\-0836 }}",
"### Early history (up to 6th century CE)",
"The early history of Mecca is still largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. The city lies in the hinterland of the middle part of western Arabia of which there are sparse textual or archaeological sources available. This lack of knowledge is in contrast to both the northern and southern areas of western Arabia, specifically the Syro\\-Palestinian frontier and Yemen, where historians have various sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco\\-Roman authors, and information collected by church historians. The area of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\") that surrounds Mecca was characterized by its remote, rocky, and inhospitable nature, supporting only meagre settled populations in scattered oases and occasional stretches of fertile land. The Red Sea coast offered no easily accessible ports and the oasis dwellers and bedouins in the region were illiterate.",
"While one individual has suggested that Mecca’s population at the time of Muhammad was around 550,{{Cite journal\\|author\\=M. Robinson\\|year\\=2022\\|title\\=The Population Size of Muḥammad's Mecca and the Creation of the Quraysh\\|journal\\=Der Islam\\|volume\\=1\\|issue\\=99\\|pages\\=10–37\\|doi\\=10\\.1515/islam\\-2022\\-0002\\|s2cid\\=247974816 \\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=10023/25835\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} research published by Binimad Al\\-Ateeqi in 2020 shows that the population was closer to 10,000 individuals, a figure extrapolated from data taken from historical records about the [Battle of Badr](/wiki/Battle_of_Badr \"Battle of Badr\") and other [military expeditions](/wiki/List_of_expeditions_of_Muhammad \"List of expeditions of Muhammad\"), emigrants to both [Abyssinia](/wiki/Migration_to_Abyssinia \"Migration to Abyssinia\") and [Madinah](/wiki/Hijrah \"Hijrah\"), and Muhammad’s own household. Al\\-Ateeqi, a researcher from [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") who has written extensively about the early history of Mecca, also makes deductions about the numbers of women, children, servants, and slaves living in Mecca at the time, pointing out that some wealthy individuals, such as [Abdullah ibn Jud’an](/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Jud%E2%80%99an \"Abdullah ibn Jud’an\"), had as many as 100 slaves.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Al\\-Ateeqi \\|first\\=Binimad \\|title\\=Makkah at the Time of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) \\|year\\=2020 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1710858853 \\|publication\\-date\\=March 17, 2020 \\|pages\\=146–149 \\|publisher\\=Independently Published \\|language\\=EN}}",
"The first clear reference to Mecca in non\\-Islamic literature appears in 741 CE, long after the death of Muhammad, in the Byzantine\\-Arab Chronicle, though here the author places the region in Mesopotamia rather than the Hejaz.Holland, Tom; In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; 2012; p. 471",
"Possible earlier mentions are not unambiguous. The Greek historian [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus \"Diodorus Siculus\") writes about Arabia in the 1st century BCE in his work *[Bibliotheca historica](/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica \"Bibliotheca historica\")*, describing a holy shrine: \"And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians\".Translated by C.H. Oldfather, *Diodorus Of Sicily, Volume II*, William Heinemann Ltd., London \\& Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1935, p. 217\\. Claims have been made this could be a reference to the [Ka'bah](/wiki/Ka%27bah \"Ka'bah\") in Mecca. However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area of [Leuke Kome](/wiki/Leuke_Kome \"Leuke Kome\"), within the former [Nabataean Kingdom](/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom \"Nabataean Kingdom\") and the Roman province of [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea \"Arabia Petraea\").Jan Retsö, The Arabs in Antiquity (2003\\), 295–300Photius, Diodorus and Strabo (English): Stanley M. Burnstein (tr.), Agatharchides of Cnidus: On the Eritraean Sea (1989\\), 132–173, esp. 152–3 (§92\\).)",
"Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned by [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Crone, Patricia\\|title\\=Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59333\\-102\\-3\\|pages\\=134–135}}{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Morris, Ian D.\\|year\\=2018\\|title\\=Mecca and Macoraba\\|url\\=https://islamichistorycommons.org/mem/wp\\-content/uploads/sites/55/2018/11/UW\\-26\\-Morris.pdf\\|journal\\=Al\\-ʿUṣūr Al\\-Wusṭā\\|volume\\=26\\|pages\\=1–60\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022342/https://islamichistorycommons.org/mem/wp\\-content/uploads/sites/55/2018/11/UW\\-26\\-Morris.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2018\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2018}} Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that \"Macoraba\" is the word \"*Makkah\"* followed by the aggrandizing [Aramaic](/wiki/Aramaic \"Aramaic\") adjective *rabb* (great). The Roman historian [Ammianus Marcellinus](/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus \"Ammianus Marcellinus\") also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as \"Geapolis\" or \"Hierapolis\", the latter one meaning \"holy city\" potentially referring to the sanctuary of the [Kaaba](/wiki/Kaaba \"Kaaba\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Bowersock\\|first1\\=G. W.\\|title\\=The crucible of Islam\\|date\\=2017\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-05776\\-0\\|location\\=Cambridge (Mass.)\\|pages\\=53–55}} [Patricia Crone](/wiki/Patricia_Crone \"Patricia Crone\"), from the [Revisionist school of Islamic studies](/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies \"Revisionist school of Islamic studies\") on the other hand, writes that \"the plain truth is that the name Macoraba has nothing to do with that of Mecca \\[...] if Ptolemy mentions Mecca at all, he calls it Moka, a town in [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea \"Arabia Petraea\")\".Crane, P. *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*, 1987, p.136",
"[Procopius](/wiki/Procopius \"Procopius\")' 6th century statement that the [Ma'ad](/wiki/Ma%27ad_ibn_Adnan \"Ma'ad ibn Adnan\") tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between the [Ghassanids](/wiki/Ghassanids \"Ghassanids\") and the [Himyarites](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom \"Himyarite Kingdom\") of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associates [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh \"Quraysh\") as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of [Ma'ad ibn Adnan](/wiki/Ma%27ad_ibn_Adnan \"Ma'ad ibn Adnan\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Shahid \\|first1\\=Irfan \\|title\\=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, volume 1, part 1 \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Dumbarton Oaks \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88402\\-284\\-8 \\|page\\=163}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Procopius \\|title\\=History \\|pages\\=I.xix.14}}",
"Historian [Patricia Crone](/wiki/Patricia_Crone \"Patricia Crone\") has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.Crone, Patricia; *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*; 1987; p.7Holland, Tom (2012\\). *In the Shadow of the Sword*; Little, Brown; p. 303 However, other scholars such as Glen W. Bowersock disagree and assert that Mecca was a major trading outpost.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan\\|title\\=Sales and Contracts in Early Islamic Commercial Law\\|year\\=1994\\|isbn\\=978\\-969\\-408\\-136\\-6\\|pages\\=3 ff\\|publisher\\=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University }}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Bowersock\\|first\\=Glen. W.\\|title\\=Bowersock, G. W. (2017\\). The crucible of Islam. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. pp. 50 ff.\\|year\\=2017}} Crone later on disregarded some of her theories.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Crone \\|first1\\=Patricia \\|title\\=Quraysh and the Roman Army: Making Sense of the Meccan Leather Trade. \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \\|date\\=2007 \\|volume\\=70 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=63–88 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0041977X0700002X \\|jstor\\=40378894 \\|s2cid\\=154910558 }} She argues that Meccan trade relied on skins, hides, manufactured leather goods, clarified butter, Hijazi woollens, and camels. She suggests that most of these goods were destined for the Roman army, which is known to have required colossal quantities of leather and hides for its equipment.",
"Mecca is mentioned in the following early Quranic manuscripts:\n* Codex Is. 1615 I, folio 47v, [radiocarbon dated](/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating \"Radiocarbon dating\") to 591–643 CE.\n* Codex Ṣanʿāʾ DAM 01–29\\.1, folio 29a, radiocarbon dated between 633 and 665 CE.\n* Codex Arabe 331, folio 40 v, radiocarbon dated between 652 and 765 CE.",
"The earliest Muslim inscriptions are from the Mecca\\-[Ta'if](/wiki/Ta%27if \"Ta'if\") area.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Hoyland \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Seeing Islam as others saw it \\|date\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=Darwin Press \\|isbn\\=0\\-87850\\-125\\-8 \\|page\\=565}}",
"**Islamic narrative**",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= Makkah mentioned in Quranic manuscript Codex Arabe 331dated to 652\\-765 CE with 95\\.4% probability.png\n\\| caption1 \\= Mecca mentioned in Quranic manuscript Codex Arabe 331 (\\[\\[Q48:24]])\n\\| image2 \\= OldmapofMecca.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= A 1787 \\[\\[Ottoman Empire\\|Ottoman]] Turkish map of \\[\\[Al\\-Haram Mosque]], and related religious sites, such as Jabal al\\-Nour\n}}",
"In the Islamic view, the beginnings of Mecca are attributed to the [Biblical figures](/wiki/Biblical_people_in_Islam \"Biblical people in Islam\"), [Adam](/wiki/Adam \"Adam\"), [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham \"Abraham\"), [Hagar](/wiki/Hagar \"Hagar\") and [Ishmael](/wiki/Ishmael \"Ishmael\"). It was Adam himself who built the first God's house in Mecca according to a heavenly prototype but this building was destroyed in the [Noahic Flood](/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative \"Genesis flood narrative\"). The civilization of Mecca is believed to have started after [Ibrāhīm](/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam \"Abraham in Islam\") (Abraham) left his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife [Hājar](/wiki/Hagar_in_Islam \"Hagar in Islam\") (Hagar) in the valley at [Allah](/wiki/Allah \"Allah\")'s command.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} Some people from the Yemeni tribe of [Jurhum](/wiki/Jurhum \"Jurhum\") settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing the first, on Ibrahim's advice. At least one man of the Jurhum helped Ismāʿīl and his father to construct or according to Islamic narratives, reconstruct, the *[Ka'bah](/wiki/Kaaba \"Kaaba\")* ('Cube'),{{qref\\|2\\|127\\|b\\=y}}{{qref\\|22\\|25\\-37\\|b\\=y}} which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.{{cite encyclopedia\\|last\\=Glassé\\|first\\=Cyril\\|title\\=Kaaba\\|encyclopedia\\=The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[HarperSanFrancisco]]\\|year\\=1991\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dlPuAAAAMAAJ\\|isbn\\=0\\-0606\\-3126\\-0}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Lings \\|first\\=Martin \\|author\\-link\\=Martin Lings \\|title\\=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources \\|publisher\\=Islamic Texts Society \\|year\\=1983 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-946621\\-33\\-0\\|title\\-link\\=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources }}",
"Muslims see the mention of a pilgrimage at the [Valley of the Bakha](/wiki/Bakkah%23Valley_of_the_Bakha \"Bakkah#Valley of the Bakha\") in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament \"Old Testament\") chapter [Psalm 84](/wiki/Psalm_84 \"Psalm 84\"):3–6 as a reference to Mecca, similar to the Quran at Surah {{qref\\|3\\|96\\|}} In the *Sharḥ al\\-Asāṭīr*, a commentary on the [Samaritan](/wiki/Samaritans \"Samaritans\") [midrashic](/wiki/Midrash \"Midrash\") chronology of the Patriarchs, of unknown date but probably composed in the 10th century CE, it is claimed that Mecca was built by the sons of [Nebaioth](/wiki/Nebaioth \"Nebaioth\"), the eldest son of Ismāʿīl or [Ishmael](/wiki/Ishmael \"Ishmael\").Crown, Alan David (2001\\) [*Samaritan Scribes and Manuscripts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5iW24esf-sC&pg=PA27). Mohr Siebeck. p. 27Crone, Patricia and Cook, M.A. (1977\\) [*Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ta08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22) Cambridge University Press. p. 22\\.Lazarus\\-Yafeh, Hava (1992\\). [*Intertwined Worlds: Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). Princeton University Press. pp.61–62",
"**Thamudic inscriptions**",
"Some [Thamudic](/wiki/Thamudic \"Thamudic\") inscriptions which were discovered in the south [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\") contained names of some individuals such as *ʿAbd Mekkat* ({{lang\\|ar\\|{{Script\\|Arab\\|عَبْد مَكَّة}}}}, \"Servant of Mecca\").G. Lankester Harding \\& Enno Littman, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from the Hashimite Kingdom of the Jordan (Leiden, Netherlands – 1952\\), p. 19, Inscription No. 112A",
"There were also some other inscriptions which contained personal names such as *Makki* ({{lang\\|ar\\|مَكِّي}}, \"Makkan, of Makkah\"), but Jawwad Ali from the [University of Baghdad](/wiki/University_of_Baghdad \"University of Baghdad\") suggested that there's also a probability of a tribe named \"Makkah\".Jawwad Ali, The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam (1993\\), Vol. 4, p. 11",
"### Under the Quraish",
"Sometime in the 5th century, the Ka'bah was a place of worship for the deities of [Arabia's pagan tribes](/wiki/Arabian_mythology \"Arabian mythology\"). Mecca's most important [pagan](/wiki/Paganism \"Paganism\") [deity](/wiki/Deity \"Deity\") was [Hubal](/wiki/Hubal \"Hubal\"), which had been placed there by the ruling [Quraish](/wiki/Quraysh_%28tribe%29 \"Quraysh (tribe)\") tribe.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Hawting, G.R.\\|year\\=1980\\|title\\=The Disappearance and Rediscovery of Zamzam and the 'Well of the Ka'ba'\\|journal\\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=44–54 (44\\)\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0041977X00110523\\|jstor\\=616125\\|s2cid\\=162654756}}[*Islamic World*](/wiki/%23iw \"#iw\"), p. 20 and remained until the [Conquest of Mecca](/wiki/Conquest_of_Mecca \"Conquest of Mecca\") by [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} In the 5th century, the Quraish took control of Mecca, and became skilled merchants and traders. In the 6th century, they joined the lucrative [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\"), since battles elsewhere were diverting [trade routes](/wiki/Trade_route \"Trade route\") from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes. The [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") had previously controlled the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\"), but [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") had been increasing.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} Another previous route that ran through the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\") via the [Tigris](/wiki/Tigris \"Tigris\") and [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") rivers was also being threatened by exploitations from the [Sassanid Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire \"Sassanid Empire\"), and was being disrupted by the [Lakhmids](/wiki/Lakhmids \"Lakhmids\"), the [Ghassanids](/wiki/Ghassanids \"Ghassanids\"), and the [Roman–Persian Wars](/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars \"Roman–Persian Wars\"). Mecca's prominence as a trading center also surpassed the cities of [Petra](/wiki/Petra \"Petra\") and [Palmyra](/wiki/Palmyra \"Palmyra\").\"Makka – The pre\\-Islamic and early Islamic periods\", *Encyclopaedia of Islam*[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus \"#Lapidus\"), p. 14 The Sassanids however did not always pose a threat to Mecca, as in 575 CE they protected it from a Yemeni invasion, led by its Christian leader [Abraha](/wiki/Abraha \"Abraha\"). The tribes of southern Arabia asked the Persian king [Khosrau I](/wiki/Khosrau_I \"Khosrau I\") for aid, in response to which he came south to Arabia with foot\\-soldiers and a fleet of ships near Mecca.{{cite book\\|author\\=Bauer, S. Wise\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1u2oP2RihIgC\\&pg\\=PA243\\|title\\=The history of the medieval world: from the conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade\\|publisher\\=W.W. Norton \\& Company\\|year\\=2010\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-393\\-05975\\-5\\|page\\=243}}",
"By the middle of the 6th century, there were three major settlements in northern [Arabia](/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula \"Arabian Peninsula\"), all along the south\\-western coast that borders the Red Sea, in a habitable region between the sea and the Hejaz mountains to the east. Although the area around Mecca was completely barren, it was the wealthiest of the three settlements with abundant water from the renowned [Zamzam Well](/wiki/Zamzam_Well \"Zamzam Well\") and a position at the crossroads of major [caravan](/wiki/Camel_train \"Camel train\") routes.",
"The harsh conditions and terrain of the Arabian peninsula meant a near\\-constant state of conflict between the [local tribes](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia \"Tribes of Arabia\"), but once a year they would declare a truce and converge upon Mecca in an annual pilgrimage. Up to the 7th century, this journey was intended for religious reasons by the pagan Arabs to pay homage to their shrine, and to drink [Zamzam](/wiki/Zamzam_Well \"Zamzam Well\"). However, it was also the time each year that disputes would be arbitrated, debts would be resolved, and trading would occur at Meccan fairs. These annual events gave the tribes a sense of common identity and made Mecca an important focus for the peninsula.[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus \"#Lapidus\"), pp. 16–17",
"**The Year of the Elephant (570 CE)**",
"The \"[Year of the Elephant](/wiki/Year_of_the_Elephant \"Year of the Elephant\")\" is the name in [Islamic](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") history for the year approximately equating to 570–572 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\"), when, according to Islamic sources such as [Ibn Ishaq](/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq \"Ibn Ishaq\"), Abraha descended upon Mecca, riding an elephant, with a large army after building a [cathedral](/wiki/Church_%28building%29 \"Church (building)\") at [San'aa](/wiki/Sanaa \"Sanaa\"), named *al\\-Qullays* in honor of the [Negus](/wiki/Negus \"Negus\") of [Axum](/wiki/Axum \"Axum\"). It gained widespread fame, even gaining attention from the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\"). Abraha attempted to divert the pilgrimage of the Arabs from the Ka'bah to al\\-Qullays, effectively converting them to Christianity. According to Islamic tradition, this was the year of [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\")'s birth.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hajjah Adil \\|first\\=Amina \\|title\\=Prophet Muhammad \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/muhammadmessenge0000adil \\|year\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Islamic Supreme Council of America\\|ISCA]] \\|isbn\\=1\\-930409\\-11\\-7 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}} Abraha allegedly sent a messenger named Muhammad ibn Khuza'i to Mecca and [Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah \"Tihamah\") with a message that al\\-Qullays was both much better than other houses of worship and purer, having not been defiled by the housing of idols. When Muhammad ibn Khuza'i got as far as the land of [Kinana](/wiki/Banu_Kinanah \"Banu Kinanah\"), the people of the lowland, knowing what he had come for, sent a man of [Hudhayl](/wiki/Banu_Hudhayl \"Banu Hudhayl\") called ʿUrwa bin Hayyad al\\-Milasi, who shot him with an arrow, killing him. His brother Qays who was with him, fled to Abraha and told him the news, which increased his rage and fury and he swore to raid the Kinana tribe and destroy the Ka'bah. Ibn Ishaq further states that one of the men of the [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh \"Quraysh\") tribe was angered by this, and going to Sana'a, entering the church at night and defiling it; widely assumed to have done so by [defecating](/wiki/Defecation \"Defecation\") in it.[\"Abraha.\"](http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/_abraha.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113213718/http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/\\_abraha.html\\|date\\=13 January 2016}} *Dictionary of African Christian Biographies*. 2007\\. (last accessed 11 April 2007\\)Müller, Walter W. (1987\\) [\"Outline of the History of Ancient Southern Arabia\"](http://www.yemenweb.com/info/_disc/0000002c.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010075912/http://www.yemenweb.com/info/\\_disc/0000002c.htm\\|date\\=10 October 2014}}, in Werner Daum (ed.), *Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix*.",
"[Abraha](/wiki/Abraha \"Abraha\") marched upon the [Ka'bah](/wiki/Kaaba \"Kaaba\") with a large army, which included one or more [war elephants](/wiki/War_elephant \"War elephant\"), intending to demolish it. When news of the advance of his army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Kinanah, [Khuza'a](/wiki/Banu_Khuza%27a \"Banu Khuza'a\") and Hudhayl united in the defense of the Ka'bah and the city. A man from the [Himyarite Kingdom](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom \"Himyarite Kingdom\") was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'bah and if they resisted, they would be crushed. [Abdul Muttalib](/wiki/Abdul_Muttalib \"Abdul Muttalib\") told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he and some members of the Quraysh remained within the precincts of the Kaaba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting Abdul\\-Muttalib to meet with Abraha and discuss matters. When Abdul\\-Muttalib left the meeting he was heard saying: \"The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure he will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House.\"{{Cite web\\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-18\\|title\\=The Year of the Elephant\\|url\\=https://www.al\\-islam.org/life\\-muhammad\\-prophet\\-sayyid\\-saeed\\-akhtar\\-rizvi/year\\-elephant\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-07\\|website\\=Al\\-Islam.org\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Significance Behind Prophet Mohammad's Birth in the Year of the Elephant\\|url\\=http://aliftaa.jo/ArticleEn.aspx?ArticleId\\=2462\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-07\\|website\\=aliftaa.jo}}",
"Abraha eventually attacked Mecca. However, the lead elephant, known as Mahmud,{{cite web\\|author\\=ʿAbdu r\\-Rahmān ibn Nāsir as\\-Saʿdī\\|title\\=Tafsir of Surah al Fil – The Elephant (Surah 105\\)\\|date\\=23 December 2009 \\|url\\=http://islaam.net/main/display.php?id\\=1480\\&category\\=176\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220090653/http://islaam.net/main/display.php?id\\=1480\\&category\\=176\\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2013\\|translator\\=Abū Rumaysah \\|publisher\\=Islamic Network\\|quote\\=This elephant was called Mahmud and it was sent to Abrahah from \\[\\[Negus\\|Najashi]], the king of Abyssinia, particularly for this expedition.}} is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca and refused to enter. It has been theorized that an epidemic such as by [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox \"Smallpox\") could have caused such a failed invasion of Mecca.{{cite journal\\|author\\-link\\=John S. Marr\\|vauthors\\=Marr JS, Hubbard E, Cathey JT\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=The Year of the Elephant\\|journal\\=WikiJournal of Medicine\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|doi\\=10\\.15347/wjm/2015\\.003\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} \nIn turn citing: {{cite web\\|author\\=Willan R.\\|date\\=1821\\|title\\=Miscellaneous works: comprising An inquiry into the antiquity of the small\\-pox, measles, and scarlet fever, now first published; Reports on the diseases in London, a new ed.; and detached papers on medical subjects, collected from various periodical publi\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TXEFAAAAQAAJ\\|publisher\\=Cadell\\|page\\=488}} The reference to the story in [Quran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\") is rather short. According to the 105th [Surah](/wiki/Sura \"Sura\") of the Quran, [Al\\-Fil](/wiki/Al-Fil \"Al-Fil\"), the next day, a dark cloud of small birds sent by Allah appeared. The birds carried small rocks in their beaks, and bombarded the Ethiopian forces, and smashed them to a state like that of eaten straw.{{qref\\|105\\|1\\-5\\|b\\=y}}",
"**Economy**",
"Camel caravans, said to have first been used by Muhammad's great\\-grandfather, were a major part of Mecca's bustling economy. Alliances were struck between the merchants in Mecca and the local nomadic tribes, who would bring goods – leather, livestock, and metals mined in the local mountains – to Mecca to be loaded on the caravans and carried to cities in [Shaam](/wiki/Syria_%28region%29 \"Syria (region)\") and [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\").[*Islamic World*](/wiki/%23iw \"#iw\"), pp. 17–18 Historical accounts also provide some indication that goods from other continents may also have flowed through Mecca. Goods from Africa and the Far East passed through en route to Syria including spices, leather, medicine, cloth, and slaves; in return Mecca received money, weapons, cereals and wine, which in turn were distributed throughout Arabia. {{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} The Meccans signed treaties with both the Byzantines and the [Bedouins](/wiki/Bedouin \"Bedouin\"), and negotiated safe passages for caravans, giving them water and pasture rights. Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes, which included those of the [Banu Tamim](/wiki/Banu_Tamim \"Banu Tamim\"). Other regional powers such as the [Abyssinians](/wiki/Habesha_people \"Habesha people\"), Ghassanids, and Lakhmids were in decline leaving Meccan trade to be the primary binding force in Arabia in the late 6th century.",
"### Muhammad and the conquest of Mecca",
"{{Main\\|Muhammad\\|Conquest of Mecca\\|Muhammad in Mecca\\|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}\n[thumb\\|[Makkah Al Mukarramah Library](/wiki/Makkah_Al_Mukarramah_Library \"Makkah Al Mukarramah Library\") ({{coord\\|21\\|25\\|30\\|N\\|39\\|49\\|48\\|E\\|type:landmark\\_scale:5000\\_region:SA\\|name\\=Bayt al\\-Mawlid / Makkah Al Mukarramah Library}}) is believed to stand on the spot where Muhammad was born, so it is also known as *[Bayt al\\-Mawlid](/wiki/Bayt_al-Mawlid \"Bayt al-Mawlid\")*](/wiki/File:Site_of_the_birthplace_of_the_Prophet_Muhammad%2C_Mecca%2C_Saudi_Arabia.jpg \"Site of the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg\")",
"Muhammad was [born](/wiki/Mawlid \"Mawlid\") in Mecca in 570 CE, and thus Islam has been inextricably linked with it ever since. He was born into the faction of [Banu Hashim](/wiki/Banu_Hashim \"Banu Hashim\") in the ruling tribe of [Quraysh](/wiki/Quraysh \"Quraysh\"). It was in the nearby mountain cave of Hira on [Jabal al\\-Nour](/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour \"Jabal al-Nour\") that Muhammad began receiving divine [revelations](/wiki/Revelation \"Revelation\") from God through the [archangel](/wiki/Archangel \"Archangel\") [Jibreel](/wiki/Gabriel \"Gabriel\") in 610 CE, according to Islamic tradition. Advocating his form of [Abrahamic monotheism](/wiki/Abrahamic_religions \"Abrahamic religions\") against Meccan paganism, and after enduring persecution from the pagan tribes for 13 years, Muhammad emigrated ([*hijrah*](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 \"Hijra (Islam)\")) in 622 CE with his companions, the *[Muhajirun](/wiki/Muhajirun \"Muhajirun\")*, to Yathrib (later renamed [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\")). The conflict between the Quraysh and the Muslims is accepted to have begun at this point. Overall, Meccan efforts to annihilate Islam failed and proved to be costly and unsuccessful.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} During the [Battle of the Trench](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench \"Battle of the Trench\") in 627 CE, the combined armies of Arabia were unable to defeat Muhammad's forces (as the trench surrounding Muhammad's forces protected them from harm and a storm was sent to breach the Quraysh tribe).[Lapidus](/wiki/%23Lapidus \"#Lapidus\"), p. 32\nIn 628 CE, Muhammad and his followers wanted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage, but were blocked by the Quraysh. Subsequently, Muslims and Meccans entered into the [Treaty of Hudaybiyyah](/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah \"Treaty of Hudaybiyyah\"), whereby the Quraysh and their allies promised to cease fighting Muslims and their allies and promised that Muslims would be allowed into the city to perform the pilgrimage the following year. It was meant to be a ceasefire for 10 years; however, just two years later, the [Banu Bakr](/wiki/Banu_Bakr \"Banu Bakr\"), allies of the Quraish, violated the truce by slaughtering a group of the Banu Khuza'ah, allies of the Muslims. Muhammad and his companions, now 10,000 strong, marched into Mecca and conquered the city. The pagan imagery was destroyed by Muhammad's followers and the location [Islamized](/wiki/Islamized \"Islamized\") and rededicated to the worship of [Allah](/wiki/Allah \"Allah\") alone. Mecca was declared the holiest site in Islam ordaining it as the center of Muslim pilgrimage (*[Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\")*), one of the Islamic faith's [Five Pillars](/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam \"Five Pillars of Islam\").",
"Muhammad then returned to Medina, after assigning '[Attab ibn Asid](/wiki/Attab_ibn_Asid \"Attab ibn Asid\") as governor of the city. His other activities in Arabia led to the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. Muhammad died in 632 CE. Within the next few hundred years, the area under the banner of Islam stretched from North Africa into Asia and parts of Europe. As the [Islamic realm](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate \"Rashidun Caliphate\") grew, Mecca continued to attract pilgrims from all across the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world \"Muslim world\") and beyond, as Muslims came to perform the annual Hajj pilgrimage. Mecca also attracted a year\\-round population of scholars, pious Muslims who wished to live close to the Kaaba, and local inhabitants who served the pilgrims. Due to the difficulty and expense of the Hajj, pilgrims arrived by boat at Jeddah, and came overland, or joined the annual caravans from Syria or Iraq.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}}",
"### Medieval and pre\\-modern times",
"Mecca was never the capital of any of the [Islamic states](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\"). Muslim rulers did contribute to its upkeep, such as during the reigns of '[Umar](/wiki/Umar \"Umar\") (r. 634–644 CE) and '[Uthman ibn Affan](/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan \"Uthman ibn Affan\") (r. 644–656 CE) when concerns of flooding caused the caliphs to bring in Christian engineers to build barrages in the low\\-lying quarters and construct dykes and embankments to protect the area around the Kaaba.",
"Muhammad's return to Medina shifted the focus away from Mecca and later even further away when '[Ali](/wiki/Ali \"Ali\"), the fourth caliph, took power and chose [Kufa](/wiki/Kufa \"Kufa\") as his capital. The [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\") moved the capital to [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\") in Syria and the [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\") to [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), in modern\\-day Iraq, which remained the center of the Islamic Empire for nearly 500 years. Mecca re\\-entered Islamic political history during the [Second Fitna](/wiki/Second_Fitna \"Second Fitna\"), when it was held by [Abdullah ibn az\\-Zubayr](/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_al-Zubayr \"Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr\") and the Zubayrids.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} The city was twice besieged by the Umayyads in [683](/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_%28683%29 \"Siege of Mecca (683)\") CE and [692](/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_%28692%29 \"Siege of Mecca (692)\") CE, and for some time thereafter, the city figured little in politics, remaining a city of devotion and scholarship governed by various other factions. In 930 CE, Mecca was [attacked and sacked](/wiki/Sack_of_Mecca \"Sack of Mecca\") by [Qarmatians](/wiki/Qarmatians \"Qarmatians\"), a [millenarian](/wiki/Millenarianism \"Millenarianism\") [Shi'a](/wiki/Shia_Islam \"Shia Islam\") [Isma'ili](/wiki/Ismailism \"Ismailism\") [Muslim sect](/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches \"Islamic schools and branches\") led by [Abū\\-Tāhir Al\\-Jannābī](/wiki/Ab%C5%AB-T%C4%81hir_Al-Jann%C4%81b%C4%AB \"Abū-Tāhir Al-Jannābī\") and centered in eastern Arabia.{{cite web\\|title\\=Mecca\\|url\\=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0832430\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817083014/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0832430\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2010\\|access\\-date\\=6 April 2010\\|publisher\\=Infoplease.com}} The [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death \"Black Death\") [pandemic](/wiki/Pandemic \"Pandemic\") hit Mecca in 1349 CE.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)\\|url\\=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied\\_history/tutor/islam/mongols/blackDeath.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721033845/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied\\_history/tutor/islam/mongols/blackDeath.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2009\\|access\\-date\\=6 April 2010\\|publisher\\=Ucalgary.ca}}",
"#### Ibn Battuta's description of Mecca",
"One of the most famous travelers to Mecca in the 14th century was a Moroccan scholar and traveler, [Ibn Battuta](/wiki/Ibn_Battuta \"Ibn Battuta\"). In his *rihla* (account), he provides a vast description of the city. Around the year 1327 CE or 729 AH, Ibn Battuta arrived at the holy city. Immediately, he says, it felt like a holy sanctuary, and thus he started the rites of the pilgrimage. He remained in Mecca for three years and left in 1330 CE. During his second year in the holy city, he says his caravan arrived \"with a great quantity of alms for the support of those who were staying in Mecca and Medina\". While in Mecca, prayers were made for (not to) the King of Iraq and also for [Salaheddin al\\-Ayyubi](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\"), Sultan of Egypt and Syria at the Ka'bah. Battuta says the Ka'bah was large, but was destroyed and rebuilt smaller than the original. According to Ibn Battuta, the original Kaaba, prior to the conquest of Makkah by the Prophet, contained images of angels and prophets including Jesus (Isa in Islamic tradition), his mother Mary (Maryam in Islamic tradition), and many others \\- Ibn Battuta however states these were all destroyed by the Prophet in the year of victory. Battuta describes the Ka'bah in his time as an important part of Mecca due to the fact that many people make the pilgrimage to it. Battuta describes the people of the city as being humble and kind, and also willing to give a part of everything they had to someone who had nothing. The inhabitants of Mecca and the village itself, he says, were very clean. There was also a sense of elegance to the village.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Battuta\\|first\\=Ibn\\|title\\=The Travels of Ibn Battuta\\|publisher\\=Cosimo\\|year\\=2009}}",
"**Under the Ottomans**[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|Panorama of Mecca, 1845, from the [Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage](/wiki/Khalili_Collection_of_Hajj_and_the_Arts_of_Pilgrimage \"Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage\")In](/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_Mecca_panorama.jpg \"Khalili Collection Hajj Mecca panorama.jpg\") 1517, the then Sharif of Mecca, Barakat bin Muhammad, acknowledged the supremacy of the [Ottoman Caliph](/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate \"Ottoman Caliphate\") but retained a great degree of local autonomy.{{cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Mecca\\|volume\\=17\\|page\\=952}} In 1803 the city was captured by the [First Saudi State](/wiki/First_Saudi_State \"First Saudi State\"),\"[The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam](http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721222356/http://countrystudies.us/saudi\\-arabia/7\\.htm\\|date\\=21 July 2011}}\". [Library of Congress Country Studies](/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies \"Library of Congress Country Studies\"). which held Mecca until 1813, destroying some of the historic tombs and domes in and around the city. The Ottomans assigned the task of bringing Mecca back under Ottoman control to their powerful *[Khedive](/wiki/Khedive \"Khedive\")* (viceroy) and *[Wali](/wiki/Wali_%28administrative_title%29 \"Wali (administrative title)\")* of Egypt, [Muhammad Ali Pasha](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt \"Muhammad Ali of Egypt\"). Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully returned Mecca to Ottoman control [in 1813](/wiki/Ottoman_return_of_Mecca_1813 \"Ottoman return of Mecca 1813\"). In 1818, the Saud were defeated again but survived and founded the [Second Saudi State](/wiki/Second_Saudi_State \"Second Saudi State\") that lasted until 1891 and led on to the present country of Saudi Arabia. In 1853, Sir [Richard Francis Burton](/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton \"Richard Francis Burton\") undertook the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina disguised as a Muslim. Although Burton was certainly not the first non\\-Muslim European to make the *Hajj* ([Ludovico di Varthema](/wiki/Ludovico_di_Varthema \"Ludovico di Varthema\") did this in 1503\\),{{cite web\\|author\\=Leigh Rayment\\|title\\=Ludovico di Varthema\\|url\\=http://www.win.tue.nl/\\~engels/discovery/varthema.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617222339/http://www.win.tue.nl/\\~engels/discovery/varthema.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2012\\|work\\=Discoverers Web}} his pilgrimage remains one of the most famous and documented of modern times. Mecca was regularly hit by [cholera](/wiki/Cholera \"Cholera\") [outbreaks](/wiki/Cholera_outbreaks_and_pandemics \"Cholera outbreaks and pandemics\"). Between 1830 and 1930, cholera broke out among pilgrims at Mecca 27 times.[Cholera (pathology)](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven-pandemics#ref=ref886683) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627012745/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven\\-pandemics\\|date\\=27 June 2009}}. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.",
"### Modern history",
"[thumb\\|Mecca in 1910](/wiki/File:Makkah-1910.jpg \"Makkah-1910.jpg\")\n**Hashemite Revolt and subsequent control by the Sharifate of Mecca**",
"In [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the Ottoman Empire was at war with the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\"). It had successfully repulsed an attack on [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") in the [Gallipoli campaign](/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign \"Gallipoli campaign\") and on Baghdad in the [Siege of Kut](/wiki/Siege_of_Kut \"Siege of Kut\"). The British intelligence agent [T.E. Lawrence](/wiki/T.E._Lawrence \"T.E. Lawrence\") conspired with the Ottoman governor, [Hussain bin Ali](/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali%2C_Sharif_of_Mecca \"Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca\"), the Sharif of Mecca to revolt against the Ottoman Empire and it was the first city captured by his forces in the [1916 Battle of Mecca](/wiki/Battle_of_Mecca_%281916%29 \"Battle of Mecca (1916)\"). Sharif's revolt proved a turning point of the war on the eastern front. Hussein declared a new state, the [Kingdom of Hejaz](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz \"Kingdom of Hejaz\"), declaring himself the Sharif of the state and Mecca his capital. News reports in November 1916 via contact in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") with returning [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\") pilgrims, stated that with the Ottoman Turkish authorities gone, the Hajj of 1916 was free of the previous massive extortion and monetary demands made by the Turks who were agents of the Ottoman government.*[Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph \"Daily Telegraph\")* Saturday 25 November 1916, reprinted in *[Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph \"Daily Telegraph\")* Friday 25 November 2016 issue (p. 36\\)",
"**Saudi Arabian conquest and modern history**",
"Following the [1924 Battle of Mecca](/wiki/Battle_of_Mecca_%281924%29 \"Battle of Mecca (1924)\"), the Sharif of Mecca was overthrown by the Saud family, and Mecca was incorporated into Saudi Arabia.[\"Mecca\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091028055612/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577367/Mecca.html) at [Encarta](/wiki/Encarta \"Encarta\"). (Archived) 1 November 2009\\. Under Saudi rule, much of the historic city has been demolished as a result of the Saudi government fearing these sites might become sites of association in worship besides Allah (*[shirk](/wiki/Shirk_%28Islam%29 \"Shirk (Islam)\")*). The city has been expanded to include several towns previously considered to be separate from the holy city and now is just a few kilometers outside the main sites of the Hajj, Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat. Mecca is not served by any airport, due to concerns about the city's safety. It is instead served by the [King Abdulaziz International Airport](/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_International_Airport \"King Abdulaziz International Airport\") in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah \"Jeddah\") (approx. 70 km away) internationally and the [Ta'if Regional Airport](/wiki/Ta%27if_Regional_Airport \"Ta'if Regional Airport\") (approx. 120 km away) for domestic flights.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}}",
"The city today is at the junction of the two most important highways in all of the Saudi Arabian highway system, Highway 40, which connects the city to Jeddah in the west and the capital, [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\") and [Dammam](/wiki/Dammam \"Dammam\") in the east and Highway 15, which connects it to [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\"), [Tabuk](/wiki/Tabuk%2C_Saudi_Arabia \"Tabuk, Saudi Arabia\") and onward to [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\") in the north and [Abha](/wiki/Abha \"Abha\") and [Jizan](/wiki/Jizan \"Jizan\") in the south. The Ottomans had planned to extend their railway network to the holy city, but were forced to abandon this plan due to their entry into the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"). This plan was later carried out by the Saudi government, which connected the two holy cities of Medina and Mecca with the modern [Haramain high\\-speed railway](/wiki/Haramain_high-speed_railway \"Haramain high-speed railway\") system which runs at 300 km/h (190 mph) and connects the two cities via Jeddah, King Abdulaziz International Airport and [King Abdullah Economic City](/wiki/King_Abdullah_Economic_City \"King Abdullah Economic City\") near Rabigh within two hours.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}}",
"The [haram area](/wiki/Haram_%28site%29 \"Haram (site)\") of Mecca, in which the entry of non\\-Muslims is forbidden, is much larger than that of Medina.",
"**1979 Grand Mosque seizure**{{See also\\|Grand Mosque seizure}}\nOn 20 November 1979, two hundred armed dissidents led by [Juhayman al\\-Otaibi](/wiki/Juhayman_al-Otaibi \"Juhayman al-Otaibi\"), [seized the Grand Mosque](/wiki/Grand_Mosque_Seizure \"Grand Mosque Seizure\"), claiming the Saudi royal family no longer represented pure Islam and that the [Masjid al\\-Haram](/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram \"Masjid al-Haram\") and the Ka'bah, must be held by those of true faith. The rebels seized tens of thousands of pilgrims as hostages and barricaded themselves in the mosque. The siege lasted two weeks, and resulted in several hundred deaths and significant damage to the shrine, especially the [Safa\\-Marwah](/wiki/Al-Safa_and_Al-Marwah \"Al-Safa and Al-Marwah\") gallery. A multinational force was finally able to retake the mosque from the dissidents.{{cite news\\|date\\=28 August 2007\\|title\\=The Siege of Mecca\\|publisher\\=Doubleday(US)\\|url\\=http://www.siegeofmecca.com\\|access\\-date\\=3 August 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018060953/http://www.siegeofmecca.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2014}}\n Since then, the Grand Mosque has been expanded several times, with many other expansions being undertaken in the present day.",
"**Destruction of Islamic heritage sites**{{Main\\|Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia}}",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Mecca, as seen from [Jabal al\\-Nour](/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour \"Jabal al-Nour\"). [Mecca Clock Tower](/wiki/Abraj_Al_Bait \"Abraj Al Bait\") is visible in the skyline.](/wiki/File:Makkah_Aerial_View.jpg \"Makkah Aerial View.jpg\")\nUnder Saudi rule, it has been estimated that since 1985, about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.['The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage'](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119151341/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\\-east/the\\-destruction\\-of\\-mecca\\-saudi\\-hardliners\\-are\\-wiping\\-out\\-their\\-own\\-heritage\\-501647\\.html\\|date\\=19 January 2011}}, The Independent, 6 August 2005\\. Retrieved 17 January 2011 It has been reported that there are now fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Some important buildings that have been destroyed include the house of [Khadijah](/wiki/Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid \"Khadija bint Khuwaylid\"), the wife of Muhammad, the house of [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr \"Abu Bakr\"), Muhammad's birthplace and the Ottoman\\-era [Ajyad Fortress](/wiki/Ajyad_Fortress \"Ajyad Fortress\").['Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'](https://web.archive.org/web/20090310011511/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html), The Independent, 19 April 2006 \\| archived from the original on 10 March 2009 The reason for much of the destruction of historic buildings has been for the construction of hotels, apartments, parking lots, and other infrastructure facilities for [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\") pilgrims.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Bsheer\\|first\\=Rosie\\|date\\=20 December 2020\\|title\\=How Saudi Arabia obliterated its rich cultural history\\|url\\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/saudi\\-arabia\\-obliterated\\-rich\\-cultural\\-history\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=Middle East Eye\\|language\\=en}}",
"**Incidents during pilgrimage**{{main\\|Incidents during the Hajj}}\nMecca has been the site of several incidents and failures of crowd control because of the large numbers of people who come to make the Hajj.{{cite news\\|date\\=27 December 2006\\|title\\=What is the Hajj? (\"Hajj disasters\")\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\\_east/4180965\\.stm\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124121049/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\\_east/4180965\\.stm\\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2009}}{{cite news\\|date\\=17 December 2007\\|title\\=History of deaths on the Hajj\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\\_east/4607304\\.stm\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610220505/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle\\_east/4607304\\.stm\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2009}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Ruthven\\|first\\=Malise\\|title\\=Islam in the World\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-86207\\-906\\-9\\|page\\=10\\|publisher\\=Granta Books \\|author\\-link\\=Malise Ruthven}} For example, on 2 July 1990, a pilgrimage to Mecca ended in tragedy when the ventilation system failed in a crowded pedestrian tunnel and 1,426 people were either suffocated or trampled to death in a [stampede](/wiki/1990_Hajj_stampede \"1990 Hajj stampede\").[Express \\& Star](https://www.expressandstar.com/days/1976-2000/1990.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200651/http://www.expressandstar.com/days/1976\\-2000/1990\\.html\\|date\\=3 March 2016}}. *Express \\& Star*. Retrieved 3 February 2013\\. On 24 September 2015, 700 pilgrims [were killed](/wiki/2015_Mina_stampede \"2015 Mina stampede\") in a stampede at [Mina](/wiki/Mina%2C_Saudi_Arabia \"Mina, Saudi Arabia\") during the stoning\\-the\\-Devil ritual at Jamarat.{{cite news\\|title\\=Over 700 Dead, 800 Injured in Stampede Near Mecca During Haj\\|publisher\\=NDTV\\|url\\=http://www.ndtv.com/world\\-news/at\\-least\\-100\\-dead\\-390\\-hurt\\-in\\-stampede\\-during\\-haj\\-in\\-saudi\\-arabia\\-say\\-officials\\-1221489?pfrom\\=home\\-lateststories\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103415/http://www.ndtv.com/world\\-news/at\\-least\\-100\\-dead\\-390\\-hurt\\-in\\-stampede\\-during\\-haj\\-in\\-saudi\\-arabia\\-say\\-officials\\-1221489?pfrom\\=home\\-lateststories\\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2015}}",
"**2027 total solar eclipse**",
"Mecca will experience a [total solar eclipse](/wiki/Solar_eclipse_of_August_2%2C_2027 \"Solar eclipse of August 2, 2027\") on Monday, 2 August 2027, for a duration of 5 minutes and 8 seconds.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Total Solar Eclipse on August 2, 2027: Path Map and Times \\|url\\=https://www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/map/2027\\-august\\-2 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-23 \\|website\\=www.timeanddate.com \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
Tobin was first elected to the [House of Commons of Canada](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada "House of Commons of Canada") as a Liberal in the [1980 election](/wiki/1980_Canadian_federal_election "1980 Canadian federal election"). He was re\-elected in the [1984 election](/wiki/1984_Canadian_federal_election "1984 Canadian federal election") even though [Brian Mulroney](/wiki/Brian_Mulroney "Brian Mulroney")'s, [Progressive Conservative Party](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada") (PC) won the largest majority government in [Canadian history](/wiki/Canadian_history "Canadian history"). It was at this time however that Tobin gained prominence as a member of the ["Rat Pack"](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada_Rat_Pack "Liberal Party of Canada Rat Pack"), which was the nickname given to a group of young, high\-profile Canadian Liberal opposition MPs during Mulroney's government.
### In government
Following the [1993 election](/wiki/1993_Canadian_federal_election "1993 Canadian federal election") in which the Liberals regained power from the Progressive Conservatives after almost a decade in opposition, Tobin was appointed [Minister of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Minister_of_Fisheries_and_Oceans_%28Canada%29 "Minister of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada)").
In the ministry, Tobin distinguished himself from his colleagues with speeches rife with rhetoric and his youthful exuberance. Throughout 1994 he mounted a fierce campaign against foreign over\-fishing of waters on the nose and tail of the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks "Grand Banks"), located just outside Canada's declared 200 nautical mile (370 km) [Exclusive Economic Zone](/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone "Exclusive Economic Zone") (EEZ). People across Canada took notice of this new and aggressive posture, a position that had not been taken by a federal minister—Liberal or Conservative—since the EEZ was declared in 1977\.
Critics{{who\|date\=December 2023}} note that Tobin was likely doing this to preserve his political life in his home province.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2023}} At this point, Newfoundland and Labrador was wracked{{clarify\|date\=December 2023}} by rapidly rising [unemployment](/wiki/Unemployment "Unemployment") and social unrest over the fiscal situation which many believed had been caused by federal mismanagement of foreign and domestic overfishing. This had resulted in the 1992 "Northern Cod Moratorium." In April 1995, Tobin's department was embroiled in the [Turbot War](/wiki/Turbot_War "Turbot War") (known in Spain as Guerra del Fletán). He received full backing of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") in the pursuit. Later that month, Tobin conducted an international news conference from a barge on the [East River](/wiki/East_River "East River") outside the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") headquarters and dramatically displayed an illegal, under Canadian Law, trawl net that had allegedly been cut from a [Spanish](/wiki/Spain "Spain") trawler which was arrested outside the Canadian EEZ, on international waters. The net was over 16 stories high and was hung from a crane causing a media sensation.{{cite web\|title\=Tobin Fights Fish War at the UN\|url\=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/tobin\-fights\-fish\-war\-at\-the\-un/\|website\=The Canadian Encyclopedia\|access\-date\=December 4, 2014}} Tobin was accused by the arrested shipmen of ill\-intentionally orchestrating a media\-oriented frame\-up to mislead attention from economic and public image problems Canada was facing.{{cite web\|url\=http://mas.laopinioncoruna.es/suplementos/2010/03/14/heroes\-del\-estai/ \|title\=Suplementos de La Opinión A Coruña: Héroes del Estai\|date\=Mar 14, 2010\|website\=laopinioncoruna.es\|access\-date\=May 15, 2021 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329124734/http://mas.laopinioncoruna.es/suplementos/2010/03/14/heroes\-del\-estai/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-29 }}
Tobin helped organize a pro\-Canada rally in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") before the October [1995 Quebec referendum](/wiki/1995_Quebec_referendum "1995 Quebec referendum")—busing in thousands of university students and other residents from English Canada. For his roles as Fisheries Minister and in the referendum, he earned the nickname "Captain Canada".
### Premier of Newfoundland
In 1996, Tobin resigned from federal politics to succeed [Clyde Wells](/wiki/Clyde_Kirby_Wells "Clyde Kirby Wells") as leader of the governing [Liberal Party of Newfoundland](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador") and premier. The Liberal Party won a large majority government later that year. During his time as premier Tobin pursued tough negotiations with out\-of\-province companies seeking to export resources for refining and smelting elsewhere. He insisted that the resources will never be mined unless Newfoundlanders received secondary manufacturing and tertiary service spin\-offs. A similar tough stance was taken in seeking to [develop](/wiki/Lower_Churchill_Project "Lower Churchill Project") the [Lower Churchill River](/wiki/Churchill_River_%28Atlantic%29 "Churchill River (Atlantic)"), keeping in mind the contract his predecessor [Joey Smallwood](/wiki/Joey_Smallwood "Joey Smallwood") had negotiated. His Liberals won re\-election in [1999](/wiki/1999_Newfoundland_general_election "1999 Newfoundland general election").[Brian Tobin's Liberals win re\-election](http://www.cbc.ca/player/Digital+Archives/Politics/Provincial+and+Territorial+Politics/Newfoundland+and+Labrador+Elections/ID/1822259854/)
It was also during this time in the lead\-up to the millennium that Newfoundland undertook an aggressive tourism marketing campaign which focused on important anniversaries such as the 500th year since [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot "John Cabot")'s voyage of discovery (1997\), as well as the 1000th year since [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings"), such as [Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson "Leif Ericson"), made landfall on the province's shores (2000\).
### Return to federal politics
In October 2000, Tobin suddenly resigned to join the federal Cabinet and run for re\-election to the House of Commons in a [snap election](/wiki/2000_Canadian_federal_election "2000 Canadian federal election") called by Governor General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson "Adrienne Clarkson") on the advice of her prime minister, Jean Chrétien.["Tobin to run in next federal election"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-to-run-in-next-federal-election-1.240047). CBC News, October 17, 2000\. Retrieved 2014\-04\-15\. Chrétien advised that his friend be appointed as [Minister of Industry](/wiki/Minister_of_Industry_%28Canada%29 "Minister of Industry (Canada)") before the election, replacing [John Manley](/wiki/John_Manley "John Manley"), and Tobin was easily elected in the riding of [Bonavista—Trinity—Conception](/wiki/Bonavista%E2%80%94Trinity%E2%80%94Conception "Bonavista—Trinity—Conception").["Tobin back as MP"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-back-as-mp-1.243511). CBC News, November 28, 2000\. Retrieved 2014\-04\-15\. His departure from the premiership caused speculation among Newfoundlanders and Canadians about his aspirations for the leadership of the federal Liberals following what was assumed would be Chrétien's final term as prime minister.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2016}} Tobin's position in Industry would allow him to develop a relationship with the nation's business leaders who would ultimately be financing any potential leadership campaign. In January 2002, Tobin abruptly resigned both his cabinet portfolio and parliament seat.["Tobin quits politics, will serve country as 'private citizen'"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-quits-politics-will-serve-country-as-private-citizen-1.312402). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News "CBC News"), January 15, 2002\. Retrieved 2014\-04\-15\. Observers interpreted that his departure of federal politics was due to his frustration at the stranglehold on the future leadership of the Liberal party by the then [Minister of Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_%28Canada%29 "Minister of Finance (Canada)"), [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin "Paul Martin"), and possibly because Chrétien had promoted Manley to Deputy Prime Minister.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2016}}
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"Tobin was first elected to the [House of Commons of Canada](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada \"House of Commons of Canada\") as a Liberal in the [1980 election](/wiki/1980_Canadian_federal_election \"1980 Canadian federal election\"). He was re\\-elected in the [1984 election](/wiki/1984_Canadian_federal_election \"1984 Canadian federal election\") even though [Brian Mulroney](/wiki/Brian_Mulroney \"Brian Mulroney\")'s, [Progressive Conservative Party](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Progressive Conservative Party of Canada\") (PC) won the largest majority government in [Canadian history](/wiki/Canadian_history \"Canadian history\"). It was at this time however that Tobin gained prominence as a member of the [\"Rat Pack\"](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada_Rat_Pack \"Liberal Party of Canada Rat Pack\"), which was the nickname given to a group of young, high\\-profile Canadian Liberal opposition MPs during Mulroney's government.",
"### In government",
"Following the [1993 election](/wiki/1993_Canadian_federal_election \"1993 Canadian federal election\") in which the Liberals regained power from the Progressive Conservatives after almost a decade in opposition, Tobin was appointed [Minister of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Minister_of_Fisheries_and_Oceans_%28Canada%29 \"Minister of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada)\").",
"In the ministry, Tobin distinguished himself from his colleagues with speeches rife with rhetoric and his youthful exuberance. Throughout 1994 he mounted a fierce campaign against foreign over\\-fishing of waters on the nose and tail of the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks \"Grand Banks\"), located just outside Canada's declared 200 nautical mile (370 km) [Exclusive Economic Zone](/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone \"Exclusive Economic Zone\") (EEZ). People across Canada took notice of this new and aggressive posture, a position that had not been taken by a federal minister—Liberal or Conservative—since the EEZ was declared in 1977\\.",
"Critics{{who\\|date\\=December 2023}} note that Tobin was likely doing this to preserve his political life in his home province.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023}} At this point, Newfoundland and Labrador was wracked{{clarify\\|date\\=December 2023}} by rapidly rising [unemployment](/wiki/Unemployment \"Unemployment\") and social unrest over the fiscal situation which many believed had been caused by federal mismanagement of foreign and domestic overfishing. This had resulted in the 1992 \"Northern Cod Moratorium.\" In April 1995, Tobin's department was embroiled in the [Turbot War](/wiki/Turbot_War \"Turbot War\") (known in Spain as Guerra del Fletán). He received full backing of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") in the pursuit. Later that month, Tobin conducted an international news conference from a barge on the [East River](/wiki/East_River \"East River\") outside the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") headquarters and dramatically displayed an illegal, under Canadian Law, trawl net that had allegedly been cut from a [Spanish](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") trawler which was arrested outside the Canadian EEZ, on international waters. The net was over 16 stories high and was hung from a crane causing a media sensation.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tobin Fights Fish War at the UN\\|url\\=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/tobin\\-fights\\-fish\\-war\\-at\\-the\\-un/\\|website\\=The Canadian Encyclopedia\\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2014}} Tobin was accused by the arrested shipmen of ill\\-intentionally orchestrating a media\\-oriented frame\\-up to mislead attention from economic and public image problems Canada was facing.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mas.laopinioncoruna.es/suplementos/2010/03/14/heroes\\-del\\-estai/ \\|title\\=Suplementos de La Opinión A Coruña: Héroes del Estai\\|date\\=Mar 14, 2010\\|website\\=laopinioncoruna.es\\|access\\-date\\=May 15, 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329124734/http://mas.laopinioncoruna.es/suplementos/2010/03/14/heroes\\-del\\-estai/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-29 }}",
"Tobin helped organize a pro\\-Canada rally in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") before the October [1995 Quebec referendum](/wiki/1995_Quebec_referendum \"1995 Quebec referendum\")—busing in thousands of university students and other residents from English Canada. For his roles as Fisheries Minister and in the referendum, he earned the nickname \"Captain Canada\".",
"### Premier of Newfoundland",
"In 1996, Tobin resigned from federal politics to succeed [Clyde Wells](/wiki/Clyde_Kirby_Wells \"Clyde Kirby Wells\") as leader of the governing [Liberal Party of Newfoundland](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador\") and premier. The Liberal Party won a large majority government later that year. During his time as premier Tobin pursued tough negotiations with out\\-of\\-province companies seeking to export resources for refining and smelting elsewhere. He insisted that the resources will never be mined unless Newfoundlanders received secondary manufacturing and tertiary service spin\\-offs. A similar tough stance was taken in seeking to [develop](/wiki/Lower_Churchill_Project \"Lower Churchill Project\") the [Lower Churchill River](/wiki/Churchill_River_%28Atlantic%29 \"Churchill River (Atlantic)\"), keeping in mind the contract his predecessor [Joey Smallwood](/wiki/Joey_Smallwood \"Joey Smallwood\") had negotiated. His Liberals won re\\-election in [1999](/wiki/1999_Newfoundland_general_election \"1999 Newfoundland general election\").[Brian Tobin's Liberals win re\\-election](http://www.cbc.ca/player/Digital+Archives/Politics/Provincial+and+Territorial+Politics/Newfoundland+and+Labrador+Elections/ID/1822259854/)",
"It was also during this time in the lead\\-up to the millennium that Newfoundland undertook an aggressive tourism marketing campaign which focused on important anniversaries such as the 500th year since [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot \"John Cabot\")'s voyage of discovery (1997\\), as well as the 1000th year since [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\"), such as [Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson \"Leif Ericson\"), made landfall on the province's shores (2000\\).",
"### Return to federal politics",
"In October 2000, Tobin suddenly resigned to join the federal Cabinet and run for re\\-election to the House of Commons in a [snap election](/wiki/2000_Canadian_federal_election \"2000 Canadian federal election\") called by Governor General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson \"Adrienne Clarkson\") on the advice of her prime minister, Jean Chrétien.[\"Tobin to run in next federal election\"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-to-run-in-next-federal-election-1.240047). CBC News, October 17, 2000\\. Retrieved 2014\\-04\\-15\\. Chrétien advised that his friend be appointed as [Minister of Industry](/wiki/Minister_of_Industry_%28Canada%29 \"Minister of Industry (Canada)\") before the election, replacing [John Manley](/wiki/John_Manley \"John Manley\"), and Tobin was easily elected in the riding of [Bonavista—Trinity—Conception](/wiki/Bonavista%E2%80%94Trinity%E2%80%94Conception \"Bonavista—Trinity—Conception\").[\"Tobin back as MP\"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-back-as-mp-1.243511). CBC News, November 28, 2000\\. Retrieved 2014\\-04\\-15\\. His departure from the premiership caused speculation among Newfoundlanders and Canadians about his aspirations for the leadership of the federal Liberals following what was assumed would be Chrétien's final term as prime minister.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2016}} Tobin's position in Industry would allow him to develop a relationship with the nation's business leaders who would ultimately be financing any potential leadership campaign. In January 2002, Tobin abruptly resigned both his cabinet portfolio and parliament seat.[\"Tobin quits politics, will serve country as 'private citizen'\"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/tobin-quits-politics-will-serve-country-as-private-citizen-1.312402). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News \"CBC News\"), January 15, 2002\\. Retrieved 2014\\-04\\-15\\. Observers interpreted that his departure of federal politics was due to his frustration at the stranglehold on the future leadership of the Liberal party by the then [Minister of Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_%28Canada%29 \"Minister of Finance (Canada)\"), [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin \"Paul Martin\"), and possibly because Chrétien had promoted Manley to Deputy Prime Minister.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2016}}",
""
] |
Detective, lawman, and gun for hire
-----------------------------------
Horn wandered and took jobs as a [prospector](/wiki/Prospecting "Prospecting"), ranch hand, and rodeo contestant, but he is most notorious for being hired by numerous cattle companies as a cowboy and hired gun to watch over their cattle and kill any suspected [rustlers](/wiki/Cattle_rustling "Cattle rustling"). Horn developed his own means to fight thieves: "I would simply take the calf and such things as that stopped the stealing. I had more faith in getting the calf than in courts". If he thought a man was guilty of stealing cattle and had been fairly warned, Horn said that he would shoot the thief and would not feel "one shred of remorse".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.historynet.com/tom\-horn\-misunderstood\-misfit.htm\|title\=Tom Horn: Misunderstood Misfit \|last\=Carlson \|first\= Chip \|publisher\=Wild West Magazine \|date\=June 12, 2006\|access\-date\=October 30, 2014 }}
Horn often gave a warning first to those he suspected of rustling and was said to have been a "tremendous presence" whenever he was in the vicinity. Fergie Mitchell, a rancher on the [North Laramie River](/wiki/North_Laramie_River "North Laramie River"), described Horn's reputation: "I saw him ride by. He didn't stop, but went straight on up the creek in plain sight of everyone. All he wanted was to be seen, as his reputation was so great that his presence in a community had the desired effect. Within a week, three settlers in the neighborhood sold their holdings and moved out. That was the end of cattle rustling on the North Laramie".
Later, Horn took part in the [Pleasant Valley War](/wiki/Pleasant_Valley_War "Pleasant Valley War") between cattlemen and sheepmen in Arizona. Historians have not established for which side he worked, and both sides suffered several killings for which no known suspects were ever identified.Carlson.(2001\) p. 36 Horn worked on a ranch owned by Robert Bowen, where he became one of the prime suspects in the disappearance of Mart Blevins in 1887\.Dan L. Thrapp, *Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 1: A–F* (1991\); University of Nebraska Press, p. 127\. He claimed that throughout the war he was the "mediator" of the conflict, serving as a deputy sheriff under three famous Arizona lawmen: [Buckey O'Neill](/wiki/Buckey_O%27Neill "Buckey O'Neill"), [Perry Owens](/wiki/Perry_Owens "Perry Owens"), and [Glenn Reynolds](/wiki/Glenn_Reynolds_%28sheriff%29 "Glenn Reynolds (sheriff)").Tom Horn, *Life of Tom Horn: Government Scout and Interpreter* (1904\); Doyce B. Nunis Jr. editor; Chicago: The Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company, 1987, pp. 317–318\. Horn also participated with Reynolds in the lynching of three suspected rustlers in August 1888\. As a deputy sheriff, Horn drew the attention of the [Pinkerton National Detective Agency](/wiki/Pinkerton_National_Detective_Agency "Pinkerton National Detective Agency") owing to his tracking abilities. Hired by the agency in late 1889 or early 1890, he handled investigations in the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains") of [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), and other western states, working out of the [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver") office. He became known for his calm\-under\-pressure demeanor and his ability to track down anyone assigned to him.
In one case, Horn and another agent, C.W. Shores, captured two men who had robbed the [Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad "Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad") on August 31, 1890, between [Cotopaxi](/wiki/Cotopaxi%2C_Colorado "Cotopaxi, Colorado") and [Texas Creek](/wiki/Texas_Creek%2C_Colorado "Texas Creek, Colorado") in [Fremont County, Colorado](/wiki/Fremont_County%2C_Colorado "Fremont County, Colorado"). Horn and Shores tracked and arrested Thomas Eskridge—also known as "Peg\-Leg" Watson—and Burt "Red" Curtis without firing a shot. They tracked them all the way to the home of a man named Wolfe, said to be in either [Washita](/wiki/Washita%2C_Oklahoma "Washita, Oklahoma") or [Pauls Valley, Oklahoma](/wiki/Pauls_Valley%2C_Oklahoma "Pauls Valley, Oklahoma"), along the [Washita River](/wiki/Washita_River "Washita River"). In his report on that arrest, Horn stated in part, "Watson was considered by everyone in Colorado as a very desperate character. I had no trouble with him".{{citation \|author1\=Anderson, Dan \|author2\=Laurence J. Yadon \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|year\=2007 \|title\=100 Oklahoma Outlaws, Gangsters, and Lawmen: 1839–1939 \|publisher\=Pelican Publishing Company \|page\=231 \|isbn\=978\-1\-58980\-384\-8}}
During the [Johnson County War](/wiki/Johnson_County_War "Johnson County War"), Horn worked for the [Wyoming Stock Growers Association](/wiki/Wyoming_Stock_Growers_Association "Wyoming Stock Growers Association") and for the Pinkertons, who had assigned him to work undercover in the county using the alias Tom Hale. He is alleged to have been involved in the killing of [Nate Champion](/wiki/Nate_Champion "Nate Champion") and Nick Ray on April 9, 1892, and was a prime suspect in the killings of ranchers John A. Tisdale and Orley "Ranger" Jones. The Pinkerton Agency forced Horn to resign in 1894\. In his memoir, *Two Evil Isms: Pinkertonism and Anarchism*, Pinkerton detective [Charlie Siringo](/wiki/Charlie_Siringo "Charlie Siringo") wrote, "William A. Pinkerton told me that Tom Horn was guilty of the crime, but that his people could not allow him to go to prison while in their employ". Siringo later indicated that he respected Horn's abilities at tracking, and that he was a very talented agent but had a wicked element.[Tom Horn](http://www.thrillingdetective.com/eyes/horn.html) at www.thrillingdetective.com[Charlie Siringo](http://www.thrillingdetective.com/eyes/siringo.html), Thrilling Detective website
In 1895, Horn reportedly killed a known cattle thief named William Lewis near [Iron Mountain, Wyoming](/wiki/Iron_Mountain%2C_Wyoming "Iron Mountain, Wyoming"). Horn was exonerated for that crime and for the 1895 murder of Fred Powell six weeks later.["The Murder of Fred U. Powell"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-fred-powell.htm), Tom Horn website In 1896, a ranchman named Campbell, known to have a large stash of cash, was last seen with Horn. In 1896, Horn offered his service in a letter to the marshal of [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona"), in getting rid of William Christian's rustler gang. William was killed by an unknown assailant in 1897, and his associate Robert Christian disappeared the same year.Dan L. Thrapp, *Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 1: G–O* (1991\), University of Nebraska Press, p. 676\.
### Colorado Range War
{{main\|Colorado Range War}}
Although his official title was "range detective", Horn essentially served as a [killer for hire](/wiki/Killer_for_hire "Killer for hire"). By the mid\-1890s, the cattle business in [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming") and [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado") was changing due to the arrival of [homesteaders](/wiki/Homesteaders "Homesteaders") and new ranchers. The homesteaders, referred to as "nesters" or "grangers" by the big operators, had moved into the territory in large numbers. By doing so, they decreased the availability of water and graze for the larger herds of the cattle barons.Ball (2014\) pp. 232–234\. Soon, efforts were made to get rid of these homesteaders, including the hiring of gunmen like Horn. Violent gunfights such as the bloody shootout that resulted in the death of nine trappers in [Big Dry Creek](/wiki/Big_Dry_Creek_%28Littleton%2C_Colorado%29 "Big Dry Creek (Littleton, Colorado)"), as well as the lynching and burning of homesteaders Luther M. Mitchell and Ami W. Ketchum, precipitated the [Colorado Range War](/wiki/Colorado_Range_War "Colorado Range War").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wyomingtalesandtrails.com/johnson.html\|title\=Johnson County War \|publisher\=Wyoming Tails and Trails \|access\-date\=February 2, 2014 }}
In 1900, Horn began working for the Swan Land and Cattle Company in northwest Colorado. His first job was to investigate the Browns Park Cattle Association's leader, a cowboy named Matt Rash, who was suspected of cattle rustling. Horn went undercover as "Tom Hicks" and worked for Rash as a ranch hand while also collecting evidence Rash was branding cattle that did not belong to him. When Horn finally pieced together enough evidence to determine that Rash was indeed a rustler, he put a threatening letter on Rash's door saying that he must leave in 60 days. Rash, however, defiantly stayed and continued working on his ranch. As Rash continued to be uncooperative, Horn's employers were said to have given him the "go\-ahead signal" to execute Rash. On the day of the murder, an armed Horn allegedly arrived at Rash's cabin just as he finished eating and shot him at point\-blank range. The dying Rash unsuccessfully tried to write the name of his killer, but no trace was left of the murder. Only the accounts and rumors from various people point to Horn as the one responsible. Rash was supposed to be married to a nearby rancher, [Ann Bassett](/wiki/Ann_Bassett "Ann Bassett"), and the woman accused "Hicks" of being the murderer.[thumb\|upright\|[Isom Dart](/wiki/Isom_Dart "Isom Dart")Around](/wiki/File:Isom_Dart.jpg "Isom Dart.jpg") the same time, Horn also suspected another cowboy named [Isom Dart](/wiki/Isom_Dart "Isom Dart") of rustling.Ball (2014\) p. 237 Dart was one of Rash's fellow cowboys but was believed to have previously worked as a rustler named [Ned Huddleston](/wiki/Ned_Huddleston "Ned Huddleston") and to have been a former member of the late "Tip Gault" gang. The gang, which had rustled cattle in the [Saratoga, Wyoming](/wiki/Saratoga%2C_Wyoming "Saratoga, Wyoming"), area, had been wiped out in a gun battle. Dart also had three indictments returned against him in [Sweetwater County](/wiki/Sweetwater_County "Sweetwater County"). When Dart was accused of murdering Rash, he took refuge inside his friend's cabin and waited for the rumors to cool down.Ball (2014\), p. 238\. Horn, however, managed to track Dart to his cabin and saw him hiding together with two other armed associates.
The assassin was said to have set up a sniping position overlooking the cabin from a hill, under cover of a pine tree. As Dart and his friends came out of the cabin, Horn shot him in the chest from a distance. Prior to the assassination, Horn had instructed a rancher named Robert Hudler to ready a horse miles from the murder scene for his getaway.Ball (2014\), pp. 237–239\. The next day, two spent [.30\-30 Winchester](/wiki/.30-30_Winchester ".30-30 Winchester") casings were found at the base of a tree where the murderer is believed to have lain in wait. "Hicks" was said to have been the only one in the area to use a .30–30\. The news of Rash and Dart's deaths spread throughout the territory, causing the other rustlers to scatter in fear. Horn tracked them all down and killed three other members of Rash's association. The story goes that he pinned one of the dead cowboys' ears for the homesteaders to see as a warning.
### Government employment
During the Wilcox train robbery investigation, Horn obtained information from Bill Speck that revealed which of the outlaws, [George Curry](/wiki/George_Curry_%28Wild_Bunch%29 "George Curry (Wild Bunch)") or [Harvey Logan](/wiki/Harvey_Logan "Harvey Logan"), had killed Sheriff Josiah Hazen during their escape.{{citation \|url\= http://www.odmp.org/officer/6276\-sheriff\-josiah\-hazen \|title\=Sheriff Josiah Hazen, Converse County Sheriff's Office, Wyoming \|publisher\=\[\[The Officer Down Memorial Page]] }} Both were members of [Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy%27s_Wild_Bunch "Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch"), then known as the [Hole\-in\-the\-Wall Gang](/wiki/Hole-in-the-Wall_Gang "Hole-in-the-Wall Gang"), so named after their hideaway in the mountains. Horn passed this information on to Charlie Siringo, who was working the case for the Pinkertons.
Horn briefly entered the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") to serve during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War") as the chief packer of the Fifth Corps.Ball (2014\), p. 214\. He left [Tampa](/wiki/Tampa "Tampa") for [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), where he led some of the [pack trains](/wiki/Pack_train "Pack train") to the front. Horn personally witnessed the bravery of the famous [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders "Rough Riders") and [colored regiments](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier "Buffalo Soldier"), the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries, during their assault on [San Juan Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill "Battle of San Juan Hill"), as well as the humiliating rout of American soldiers under Brigadier General [Hamilton S. Hawkins](/wiki/Hamilton_S._Hawkins "Hamilton S. Hawkins"). Although the packers were noncombatants, they were still prone to attack by Cuban rebels. Horn considered himself lucky to have lost no packer during the war, although Horn recalled that his men and he were under constant fire as they delivered rations and ammunition to the soldiers.Ball (2014\), Murder on Horse Creek.
Horn continued working as a packer during the war, though he and many of his men contracted [yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever "Yellow fever"). At one point, he was bedridden and was deemed unfit for combat. Upon recovering, he returned to Wyoming. Shortly after his return, Horn began working in 1901 for wealthy cattle baron John C. Coble, who belonged to the Wyoming Stock Men's Association.Carlson (2001\), *Blood on the Moon*
### Murder of Willie Nickell
While working again near Iron Mountain, Wyoming, on July 15, 1901, Horn visited the Jim and Dora Miller family, who were cattle ranchers. Jim Miller was no relation to Texas outlaw [Jim Miller](/wiki/Jim_Miller_%28outlaw%29 "Jim Miller (outlaw)"). Jim Miller and his neighbor Kels Nickell had already had several disputes following Nickell's introduction of sheep into the Iron Mountain area. Miller frequently accused Nickell of letting his sheep graze on Miller's land.["Glendolene M. Kimmell, The Schoolmarm"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-glendolene-kimmell.htm), Tom Horn's Story website At the Millers, Horn met Glendolene M. Kimmell, the young teacher at the Iron Mountain School. Ms. Kimmell was supported by both the large Miller and Kels Nickell families, and she boarded with the Millers. Horn entertained her with accounts of his adventures. That day some males of the Miller family and he went fishing; Victor Miller, a son about his age, and he also practiced shooting, both of them with .30\-30s.
The Miller and Nickell families were the only ones to have children at the school. Before she arrived, Kimmell had been advised of the families' ongoing feud and found that it was often played out by conflict among the children. A few days later, on July 18, Willie Nickell, the 14\-year\-old son of sheep ranchers Kels and Mary Nickell, was found murdered near their homestead gate. A coroner's inquest began to investigate the murder. More violent incidents occurred during the period of the coroner's inquest, which was expanded to investigate these incidents and lasted from July through September 1901\.
On August 4, Kels Nickell was shot and wounded. Some 60–80 of his sheep were found "shot or clubbed to death". Two of the younger Nickell children later reported seeing two men leaving on horses, one a [bay](/wiki/Bay_horse "Bay horse") and one gray, as were horses owned by Jim Miller. On August 6, Deputy Sheriff Peter Warlaumont and Deputy U.S. Marshal Joe LeFors came to Iron Mountain and arrested Jim Miller and his sons Victor and Gus on suspicion of shooting Kels Nickell. They were jailed on August 7 and released the following day on bond. The investigation of the shooting of Kels Nickell was added to the investigation of Willie Nickell's murder in the coroner's inquest.
Deputy Marshal [Joe Lefors](/wiki/Joe_Lefors "Joe Lefors") later questioned Horn in January 1902 about the murder while supposedly talking to him about employment. Horn was still inebriated from the night before, but Lefors gained what he called a confession to the murder of Willie Nickell. Horn allegedly confessed to killing young Willie with his rifle from {{convert\|300\|yd}}, which he boasted of as the "best shot that \[he] ever made and the dirtiest trick that \[he] had ever done". Horn was arrested the next day by the county sheriff. Walter Stoll was the Laramie County prosecutor in the case.{{cite book\|title\=The Saga of Tom Horn: The Story of a Cattlemen's War, with personal narratives, newspaper accounts, and official documents and testimonies \|first\=Dean Fenton\|last\= Krakel \|edition\= 2 \|publisher \=Powder River Publishers\|year\=1954 \|page\=204}} Judge Richard H. Scott, who presided over the case, was running for re\-election.
Horn was supported by his longtime friend and employer, cattle rancher John C. Coble. He gathered a team for the defense headed by former Judge [John W. Lacey](/wiki/John_W._Lacey "John W. Lacey"), and which included attorneys T. F. Burke, Roderick N. Matson, Edward T. Clark, and T. Blake Kennedy. Reportedly, Coble paid for most of the costs of this large team. According to Johan P. Bakker, who wrote *Tracking Tom Horn*, the large cattle interests by this time found Horn "expendable", and the case provided a way to silence him in regard to their activities. He wrote that 100 members of the Wyoming Stock Growers Association paid $1000 each{{dubious\|It has already been established Coble paid the bulk of the fees; $100,000 extra to support that effort is an impossibly large sum for that time. $1,000, could purchase a family home at the time, when the average American wage was around $500 annually, and a male laborer earned just $150 a year, provided ''en toto'' by the stockmen would be more appropriate.\|date\=August 2020}} toward the defense, but wanted a minimal effort.Johan P. Bakker, *Tracking Tom Horn*(Union Lake: Talking Boy, 1993\) pp. 127, 131–132\.
Horn's trial started October 10, 1902, in Cheyenne, which filled with crowds attracted by the notoriety of Horn. The *Rocky Mountain News* noted the carnival atmosphere and great interest from the public for a conviction. The prosecution introduced Horn's confession to Lefors. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting his statement. The prosecution introduced testimony by at least two witnesses, including Lefors, as well as [circumstantial evidence](/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence "Circumstantial evidence"); these elements only placed Horn in the general vicinity of the crime scene. During the trial, Victor Miller testified that Horn and he both had .30\-30 guns and bought their ammunition at the same store. Another, Otto Plaga, testified that Horn was {{convert\|20\|mi\|\-1}} from the scene of the murder an hour after it was committed; however, prosecuting attorney Walter Stoll was able to lead Horn into boasting on the stand that he could have ridden that distance in an hour, undermining his alibi.
Glendolene Kimmell had testified during the coroner's inquest, saying she thought both the Miller and Nickell families responsible for maintaining the feud, but she was never called as a defense witness. She had resigned from the school in October 1901, and left the area, but was in communication with people in the case. Horn's trial went to the jury on October 23, and they returned a guilty verdict the next day. [Carol L. Bowers. "School Bells and Winchesters: The Sad Saga of Glendolene Myrtle Kimmell"](http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/robertshistory/school_bells_and_winchesters.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614073651/http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/RobertsHistory/school\_bells\_and\_winchesters.htm \|date\=2010\-06\-14 }}, *Readings in Wyoming History* (5th Revised Edition), Ed. Phil Roberts, University of Wyoming, 2007, Retrieved 2012\-10\-10 A hearing several days later sentenced Horn to death by hanging. Horn's attorneys filed a petition with the [Wyoming Supreme Court](/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court "Wyoming Supreme Court") for a new trial. While in jail, Horn wrote his autobiography, *Life of Tom Horn, Government Scout and Interpreter, Written by Himself*, mostly giving an account of his early life. It contained little about the case.
The Wyoming Supreme Court upheld the decision of the District Court and denied a new trial. Convinced of Horn's innocence, Glendolene Kimmell sent an affidavit to Governor [Fenimore Chatterton](/wiki/Fenimore_Chatterton "Fenimore Chatterton") with testimony reportedly saying that Victor Miller was guilty of Nickell's murder. Accounts of its contents appeared in the press, but the original document has since disappeared. The governor chose not to intervene in the case. Horn was initially given an execution date of November 20, 1903\.
|
[
"Detective, lawman, and gun for hire\n-----------------------------------",
"Horn wandered and took jobs as a [prospector](/wiki/Prospecting \"Prospecting\"), ranch hand, and rodeo contestant, but he is most notorious for being hired by numerous cattle companies as a cowboy and hired gun to watch over their cattle and kill any suspected [rustlers](/wiki/Cattle_rustling \"Cattle rustling\"). Horn developed his own means to fight thieves: \"I would simply take the calf and such things as that stopped the stealing. I had more faith in getting the calf than in courts\". If he thought a man was guilty of stealing cattle and had been fairly warned, Horn said that he would shoot the thief and would not feel \"one shred of remorse\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.historynet.com/tom\\-horn\\-misunderstood\\-misfit.htm\\|title\\=Tom Horn: Misunderstood Misfit \\|last\\=Carlson \\|first\\= Chip \\|publisher\\=Wild West Magazine \\|date\\=June 12, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=October 30, 2014 }}",
"Horn often gave a warning first to those he suspected of rustling and was said to have been a \"tremendous presence\" whenever he was in the vicinity. Fergie Mitchell, a rancher on the [North Laramie River](/wiki/North_Laramie_River \"North Laramie River\"), described Horn's reputation: \"I saw him ride by. He didn't stop, but went straight on up the creek in plain sight of everyone. All he wanted was to be seen, as his reputation was so great that his presence in a community had the desired effect. Within a week, three settlers in the neighborhood sold their holdings and moved out. That was the end of cattle rustling on the North Laramie\".",
"Later, Horn took part in the [Pleasant Valley War](/wiki/Pleasant_Valley_War \"Pleasant Valley War\") between cattlemen and sheepmen in Arizona. Historians have not established for which side he worked, and both sides suffered several killings for which no known suspects were ever identified.Carlson.(2001\\) p. 36 Horn worked on a ranch owned by Robert Bowen, where he became one of the prime suspects in the disappearance of Mart Blevins in 1887\\.Dan L. Thrapp, *Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 1: A–F* (1991\\); University of Nebraska Press, p. 127\\. He claimed that throughout the war he was the \"mediator\" of the conflict, serving as a deputy sheriff under three famous Arizona lawmen: [Buckey O'Neill](/wiki/Buckey_O%27Neill \"Buckey O'Neill\"), [Perry Owens](/wiki/Perry_Owens \"Perry Owens\"), and [Glenn Reynolds](/wiki/Glenn_Reynolds_%28sheriff%29 \"Glenn Reynolds (sheriff)\").Tom Horn, *Life of Tom Horn: Government Scout and Interpreter* (1904\\); Doyce B. Nunis Jr. editor; Chicago: The Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company, 1987, pp. 317–318\\. Horn also participated with Reynolds in the lynching of three suspected rustlers in August 1888\\. As a deputy sheriff, Horn drew the attention of the [Pinkerton National Detective Agency](/wiki/Pinkerton_National_Detective_Agency \"Pinkerton National Detective Agency\") owing to his tracking abilities. Hired by the agency in late 1889 or early 1890, he handled investigations in the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\") of [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), and other western states, working out of the [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\") office. He became known for his calm\\-under\\-pressure demeanor and his ability to track down anyone assigned to him.",
"In one case, Horn and another agent, C.W. Shores, captured two men who had robbed the [Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad \"Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad\") on August 31, 1890, between [Cotopaxi](/wiki/Cotopaxi%2C_Colorado \"Cotopaxi, Colorado\") and [Texas Creek](/wiki/Texas_Creek%2C_Colorado \"Texas Creek, Colorado\") in [Fremont County, Colorado](/wiki/Fremont_County%2C_Colorado \"Fremont County, Colorado\"). Horn and Shores tracked and arrested Thomas Eskridge—also known as \"Peg\\-Leg\" Watson—and Burt \"Red\" Curtis without firing a shot. They tracked them all the way to the home of a man named Wolfe, said to be in either [Washita](/wiki/Washita%2C_Oklahoma \"Washita, Oklahoma\") or [Pauls Valley, Oklahoma](/wiki/Pauls_Valley%2C_Oklahoma \"Pauls Valley, Oklahoma\"), along the [Washita River](/wiki/Washita_River \"Washita River\"). In his report on that arrest, Horn stated in part, \"Watson was considered by everyone in Colorado as a very desperate character. I had no trouble with him\".{{citation \\|author1\\=Anderson, Dan \\|author2\\=Laurence J. Yadon \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|year\\=2007 \\|title\\=100 Oklahoma Outlaws, Gangsters, and Lawmen: 1839–1939 \\|publisher\\=Pelican Publishing Company \\|page\\=231 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58980\\-384\\-8}}",
"During the [Johnson County War](/wiki/Johnson_County_War \"Johnson County War\"), Horn worked for the [Wyoming Stock Growers Association](/wiki/Wyoming_Stock_Growers_Association \"Wyoming Stock Growers Association\") and for the Pinkertons, who had assigned him to work undercover in the county using the alias Tom Hale. He is alleged to have been involved in the killing of [Nate Champion](/wiki/Nate_Champion \"Nate Champion\") and Nick Ray on April 9, 1892, and was a prime suspect in the killings of ranchers John A. Tisdale and Orley \"Ranger\" Jones. The Pinkerton Agency forced Horn to resign in 1894\\. In his memoir, *Two Evil Isms: Pinkertonism and Anarchism*, Pinkerton detective [Charlie Siringo](/wiki/Charlie_Siringo \"Charlie Siringo\") wrote, \"William A. Pinkerton told me that Tom Horn was guilty of the crime, but that his people could not allow him to go to prison while in their employ\". Siringo later indicated that he respected Horn's abilities at tracking, and that he was a very talented agent but had a wicked element.[Tom Horn](http://www.thrillingdetective.com/eyes/horn.html) at www.thrillingdetective.com[Charlie Siringo](http://www.thrillingdetective.com/eyes/siringo.html), Thrilling Detective website",
"In 1895, Horn reportedly killed a known cattle thief named William Lewis near [Iron Mountain, Wyoming](/wiki/Iron_Mountain%2C_Wyoming \"Iron Mountain, Wyoming\"). Horn was exonerated for that crime and for the 1895 murder of Fred Powell six weeks later.[\"The Murder of Fred U. Powell\"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-fred-powell.htm), Tom Horn website In 1896, a ranchman named Campbell, known to have a large stash of cash, was last seen with Horn. In 1896, Horn offered his service in a letter to the marshal of [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\"), in getting rid of William Christian's rustler gang. William was killed by an unknown assailant in 1897, and his associate Robert Christian disappeared the same year.Dan L. Thrapp, *Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 1: G–O* (1991\\), University of Nebraska Press, p. 676\\.",
"### Colorado Range War",
"{{main\\|Colorado Range War}}\nAlthough his official title was \"range detective\", Horn essentially served as a [killer for hire](/wiki/Killer_for_hire \"Killer for hire\"). By the mid\\-1890s, the cattle business in [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\") and [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\") was changing due to the arrival of [homesteaders](/wiki/Homesteaders \"Homesteaders\") and new ranchers. The homesteaders, referred to as \"nesters\" or \"grangers\" by the big operators, had moved into the territory in large numbers. By doing so, they decreased the availability of water and graze for the larger herds of the cattle barons.Ball (2014\\) pp. 232–234\\. Soon, efforts were made to get rid of these homesteaders, including the hiring of gunmen like Horn. Violent gunfights such as the bloody shootout that resulted in the death of nine trappers in [Big Dry Creek](/wiki/Big_Dry_Creek_%28Littleton%2C_Colorado%29 \"Big Dry Creek (Littleton, Colorado)\"), as well as the lynching and burning of homesteaders Luther M. Mitchell and Ami W. Ketchum, precipitated the [Colorado Range War](/wiki/Colorado_Range_War \"Colorado Range War\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wyomingtalesandtrails.com/johnson.html\\|title\\=Johnson County War \\|publisher\\=Wyoming Tails and Trails \\|access\\-date\\=February 2, 2014 }}",
"In 1900, Horn began working for the Swan Land and Cattle Company in northwest Colorado. His first job was to investigate the Browns Park Cattle Association's leader, a cowboy named Matt Rash, who was suspected of cattle rustling. Horn went undercover as \"Tom Hicks\" and worked for Rash as a ranch hand while also collecting evidence Rash was branding cattle that did not belong to him. When Horn finally pieced together enough evidence to determine that Rash was indeed a rustler, he put a threatening letter on Rash's door saying that he must leave in 60 days. Rash, however, defiantly stayed and continued working on his ranch. As Rash continued to be uncooperative, Horn's employers were said to have given him the \"go\\-ahead signal\" to execute Rash. On the day of the murder, an armed Horn allegedly arrived at Rash's cabin just as he finished eating and shot him at point\\-blank range. The dying Rash unsuccessfully tried to write the name of his killer, but no trace was left of the murder. Only the accounts and rumors from various people point to Horn as the one responsible. Rash was supposed to be married to a nearby rancher, [Ann Bassett](/wiki/Ann_Bassett \"Ann Bassett\"), and the woman accused \"Hicks\" of being the murderer.[thumb\\|upright\\|[Isom Dart](/wiki/Isom_Dart \"Isom Dart\")Around](/wiki/File:Isom_Dart.jpg \"Isom Dart.jpg\") the same time, Horn also suspected another cowboy named [Isom Dart](/wiki/Isom_Dart \"Isom Dart\") of rustling.Ball (2014\\) p. 237 Dart was one of Rash's fellow cowboys but was believed to have previously worked as a rustler named [Ned Huddleston](/wiki/Ned_Huddleston \"Ned Huddleston\") and to have been a former member of the late \"Tip Gault\" gang. The gang, which had rustled cattle in the [Saratoga, Wyoming](/wiki/Saratoga%2C_Wyoming \"Saratoga, Wyoming\"), area, had been wiped out in a gun battle. Dart also had three indictments returned against him in [Sweetwater County](/wiki/Sweetwater_County \"Sweetwater County\"). When Dart was accused of murdering Rash, he took refuge inside his friend's cabin and waited for the rumors to cool down.Ball (2014\\), p. 238\\. Horn, however, managed to track Dart to his cabin and saw him hiding together with two other armed associates.",
"The assassin was said to have set up a sniping position overlooking the cabin from a hill, under cover of a pine tree. As Dart and his friends came out of the cabin, Horn shot him in the chest from a distance. Prior to the assassination, Horn had instructed a rancher named Robert Hudler to ready a horse miles from the murder scene for his getaway.Ball (2014\\), pp. 237–239\\. The next day, two spent [.30\\-30 Winchester](/wiki/.30-30_Winchester \".30-30 Winchester\") casings were found at the base of a tree where the murderer is believed to have lain in wait. \"Hicks\" was said to have been the only one in the area to use a .30–30\\. The news of Rash and Dart's deaths spread throughout the territory, causing the other rustlers to scatter in fear. Horn tracked them all down and killed three other members of Rash's association. The story goes that he pinned one of the dead cowboys' ears for the homesteaders to see as a warning.",
"### Government employment",
"During the Wilcox train robbery investigation, Horn obtained information from Bill Speck that revealed which of the outlaws, [George Curry](/wiki/George_Curry_%28Wild_Bunch%29 \"George Curry (Wild Bunch)\") or [Harvey Logan](/wiki/Harvey_Logan \"Harvey Logan\"), had killed Sheriff Josiah Hazen during their escape.{{citation \\|url\\= http://www.odmp.org/officer/6276\\-sheriff\\-josiah\\-hazen \\|title\\=Sheriff Josiah Hazen, Converse County Sheriff's Office, Wyoming \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Officer Down Memorial Page]] }} Both were members of [Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy%27s_Wild_Bunch \"Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch\"), then known as the [Hole\\-in\\-the\\-Wall Gang](/wiki/Hole-in-the-Wall_Gang \"Hole-in-the-Wall Gang\"), so named after their hideaway in the mountains. Horn passed this information on to Charlie Siringo, who was working the case for the Pinkertons.",
"Horn briefly entered the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") to serve during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\") as the chief packer of the Fifth Corps.Ball (2014\\), p. 214\\. He left [Tampa](/wiki/Tampa \"Tampa\") for [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), where he led some of the [pack trains](/wiki/Pack_train \"Pack train\") to the front. Horn personally witnessed the bravery of the famous [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders \"Rough Riders\") and [colored regiments](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier \"Buffalo Soldier\"), the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries, during their assault on [San Juan Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill \"Battle of San Juan Hill\"), as well as the humiliating rout of American soldiers under Brigadier General [Hamilton S. Hawkins](/wiki/Hamilton_S._Hawkins \"Hamilton S. Hawkins\"). Although the packers were noncombatants, they were still prone to attack by Cuban rebels. Horn considered himself lucky to have lost no packer during the war, although Horn recalled that his men and he were under constant fire as they delivered rations and ammunition to the soldiers.Ball (2014\\), Murder on Horse Creek.",
"Horn continued working as a packer during the war, though he and many of his men contracted [yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever \"Yellow fever\"). At one point, he was bedridden and was deemed unfit for combat. Upon recovering, he returned to Wyoming. Shortly after his return, Horn began working in 1901 for wealthy cattle baron John C. Coble, who belonged to the Wyoming Stock Men's Association.Carlson (2001\\), *Blood on the Moon*",
"### Murder of Willie Nickell",
"While working again near Iron Mountain, Wyoming, on July 15, 1901, Horn visited the Jim and Dora Miller family, who were cattle ranchers. Jim Miller was no relation to Texas outlaw [Jim Miller](/wiki/Jim_Miller_%28outlaw%29 \"Jim Miller (outlaw)\"). Jim Miller and his neighbor Kels Nickell had already had several disputes following Nickell's introduction of sheep into the Iron Mountain area. Miller frequently accused Nickell of letting his sheep graze on Miller's land.[\"Glendolene M. Kimmell, The Schoolmarm\"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-glendolene-kimmell.htm), Tom Horn's Story website At the Millers, Horn met Glendolene M. Kimmell, the young teacher at the Iron Mountain School. Ms. Kimmell was supported by both the large Miller and Kels Nickell families, and she boarded with the Millers. Horn entertained her with accounts of his adventures. That day some males of the Miller family and he went fishing; Victor Miller, a son about his age, and he also practiced shooting, both of them with .30\\-30s.",
"The Miller and Nickell families were the only ones to have children at the school. Before she arrived, Kimmell had been advised of the families' ongoing feud and found that it was often played out by conflict among the children. A few days later, on July 18, Willie Nickell, the 14\\-year\\-old son of sheep ranchers Kels and Mary Nickell, was found murdered near their homestead gate. A coroner's inquest began to investigate the murder. More violent incidents occurred during the period of the coroner's inquest, which was expanded to investigate these incidents and lasted from July through September 1901\\.",
"On August 4, Kels Nickell was shot and wounded. Some 60–80 of his sheep were found \"shot or clubbed to death\". Two of the younger Nickell children later reported seeing two men leaving on horses, one a [bay](/wiki/Bay_horse \"Bay horse\") and one gray, as were horses owned by Jim Miller. On August 6, Deputy Sheriff Peter Warlaumont and Deputy U.S. Marshal Joe LeFors came to Iron Mountain and arrested Jim Miller and his sons Victor and Gus on suspicion of shooting Kels Nickell. They were jailed on August 7 and released the following day on bond. The investigation of the shooting of Kels Nickell was added to the investigation of Willie Nickell's murder in the coroner's inquest.",
"Deputy Marshal [Joe Lefors](/wiki/Joe_Lefors \"Joe Lefors\") later questioned Horn in January 1902 about the murder while supposedly talking to him about employment. Horn was still inebriated from the night before, but Lefors gained what he called a confession to the murder of Willie Nickell. Horn allegedly confessed to killing young Willie with his rifle from {{convert\\|300\\|yd}}, which he boasted of as the \"best shot that \\[he] ever made and the dirtiest trick that \\[he] had ever done\". Horn was arrested the next day by the county sheriff. Walter Stoll was the Laramie County prosecutor in the case.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Saga of Tom Horn: The Story of a Cattlemen's War, with personal narratives, newspaper accounts, and official documents and testimonies \\|first\\=Dean Fenton\\|last\\= Krakel \\|edition\\= 2 \\|publisher \\=Powder River Publishers\\|year\\=1954 \\|page\\=204}} Judge Richard H. Scott, who presided over the case, was running for re\\-election.",
"Horn was supported by his longtime friend and employer, cattle rancher John C. Coble. He gathered a team for the defense headed by former Judge [John W. Lacey](/wiki/John_W._Lacey \"John W. Lacey\"), and which included attorneys T. F. Burke, Roderick N. Matson, Edward T. Clark, and T. Blake Kennedy. Reportedly, Coble paid for most of the costs of this large team. According to Johan P. Bakker, who wrote *Tracking Tom Horn*, the large cattle interests by this time found Horn \"expendable\", and the case provided a way to silence him in regard to their activities. He wrote that 100 members of the Wyoming Stock Growers Association paid $1000 each{{dubious\\|It has already been established Coble paid the bulk of the fees; $100,000 extra to support that effort is an impossibly large sum for that time. $1,000, could purchase a family home at the time, when the average American wage was around $500 annually, and a male laborer earned just $150 a year, provided ''en toto'' by the stockmen would be more appropriate.\\|date\\=August 2020}} toward the defense, but wanted a minimal effort.Johan P. Bakker, *Tracking Tom Horn*(Union Lake: Talking Boy, 1993\\) pp. 127, 131–132\\.",
"Horn's trial started October 10, 1902, in Cheyenne, which filled with crowds attracted by the notoriety of Horn. The *Rocky Mountain News* noted the carnival atmosphere and great interest from the public for a conviction. The prosecution introduced Horn's confession to Lefors. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting his statement. The prosecution introduced testimony by at least two witnesses, including Lefors, as well as [circumstantial evidence](/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence \"Circumstantial evidence\"); these elements only placed Horn in the general vicinity of the crime scene. During the trial, Victor Miller testified that Horn and he both had .30\\-30 guns and bought their ammunition at the same store. Another, Otto Plaga, testified that Horn was {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|\\-1}} from the scene of the murder an hour after it was committed; however, prosecuting attorney Walter Stoll was able to lead Horn into boasting on the stand that he could have ridden that distance in an hour, undermining his alibi.",
"Glendolene Kimmell had testified during the coroner's inquest, saying she thought both the Miller and Nickell families responsible for maintaining the feud, but she was never called as a defense witness. She had resigned from the school in October 1901, and left the area, but was in communication with people in the case. Horn's trial went to the jury on October 23, and they returned a guilty verdict the next day. [Carol L. Bowers. \"School Bells and Winchesters: The Sad Saga of Glendolene Myrtle Kimmell\"](http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/robertshistory/school_bells_and_winchesters.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614073651/http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/RobertsHistory/school\\_bells\\_and\\_winchesters.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-14 }}, *Readings in Wyoming History* (5th Revised Edition), Ed. Phil Roberts, University of Wyoming, 2007, Retrieved 2012\\-10\\-10 A hearing several days later sentenced Horn to death by hanging. Horn's attorneys filed a petition with the [Wyoming Supreme Court](/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court \"Wyoming Supreme Court\") for a new trial. While in jail, Horn wrote his autobiography, *Life of Tom Horn, Government Scout and Interpreter, Written by Himself*, mostly giving an account of his early life. It contained little about the case.",
"The Wyoming Supreme Court upheld the decision of the District Court and denied a new trial. Convinced of Horn's innocence, Glendolene Kimmell sent an affidavit to Governor [Fenimore Chatterton](/wiki/Fenimore_Chatterton \"Fenimore Chatterton\") with testimony reportedly saying that Victor Miller was guilty of Nickell's murder. Accounts of its contents appeared in the press, but the original document has since disappeared. The governor chose not to intervene in the case. Horn was initially given an execution date of November 20, 1903\\.",
""
] |
### Murder of Willie Nickell
While working again near Iron Mountain, Wyoming, on July 15, 1901, Horn visited the Jim and Dora Miller family, who were cattle ranchers. Jim Miller was no relation to Texas outlaw [Jim Miller](/wiki/Jim_Miller_%28outlaw%29 "Jim Miller (outlaw)"). Jim Miller and his neighbor Kels Nickell had already had several disputes following Nickell's introduction of sheep into the Iron Mountain area. Miller frequently accused Nickell of letting his sheep graze on Miller's land.["Glendolene M. Kimmell, The Schoolmarm"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-glendolene-kimmell.htm), Tom Horn's Story website At the Millers, Horn met Glendolene M. Kimmell, the young teacher at the Iron Mountain School. Ms. Kimmell was supported by both the large Miller and Kels Nickell families, and she boarded with the Millers. Horn entertained her with accounts of his adventures. That day some males of the Miller family and he went fishing; Victor Miller, a son about his age, and he also practiced shooting, both of them with .30\-30s.
The Miller and Nickell families were the only ones to have children at the school. Before she arrived, Kimmell had been advised of the families' ongoing feud and found that it was often played out by conflict among the children. A few days later, on July 18, Willie Nickell, the 14\-year\-old son of sheep ranchers Kels and Mary Nickell, was found murdered near their homestead gate. A coroner's inquest began to investigate the murder. More violent incidents occurred during the period of the coroner's inquest, which was expanded to investigate these incidents and lasted from July through September 1901\.
On August 4, Kels Nickell was shot and wounded. Some 60–80 of his sheep were found "shot or clubbed to death". Two of the younger Nickell children later reported seeing two men leaving on horses, one a [bay](/wiki/Bay_horse "Bay horse") and one gray, as were horses owned by Jim Miller. On August 6, Deputy Sheriff Peter Warlaumont and Deputy U.S. Marshal Joe LeFors came to Iron Mountain and arrested Jim Miller and his sons Victor and Gus on suspicion of shooting Kels Nickell. They were jailed on August 7 and released the following day on bond. The investigation of the shooting of Kels Nickell was added to the investigation of Willie Nickell's murder in the coroner's inquest.
Deputy Marshal [Joe Lefors](/wiki/Joe_Lefors "Joe Lefors") later questioned Horn in January 1902 about the murder while supposedly talking to him about employment. Horn was still inebriated from the night before, but Lefors gained what he called a confession to the murder of Willie Nickell. Horn allegedly confessed to killing young Willie with his rifle from {{convert\|300\|yd}}, which he boasted of as the "best shot that \[he] ever made and the dirtiest trick that \[he] had ever done". Horn was arrested the next day by the county sheriff. Walter Stoll was the Laramie County prosecutor in the case.{{cite book\|title\=The Saga of Tom Horn: The Story of a Cattlemen's War, with personal narratives, newspaper accounts, and official documents and testimonies \|first\=Dean Fenton\|last\= Krakel \|edition\= 2 \|publisher \=Powder River Publishers\|year\=1954 \|page\=204}} Judge Richard H. Scott, who presided over the case, was running for re\-election.
Horn was supported by his longtime friend and employer, cattle rancher John C. Coble. He gathered a team for the defense headed by former Judge [John W. Lacey](/wiki/John_W._Lacey "John W. Lacey"), and which included attorneys T. F. Burke, Roderick N. Matson, Edward T. Clark, and T. Blake Kennedy. Reportedly, Coble paid for most of the costs of this large team. According to Johan P. Bakker, who wrote *Tracking Tom Horn*, the large cattle interests by this time found Horn "expendable", and the case provided a way to silence him in regard to their activities. He wrote that 100 members of the Wyoming Stock Growers Association paid $1000 each{{dubious\|It has already been established Coble paid the bulk of the fees; $100,000 extra to support that effort is an impossibly large sum for that time. $1,000, could purchase a family home at the time, when the average American wage was around $500 annually, and a male laborer earned just $150 a year, provided ''en toto'' by the stockmen would be more appropriate.\|date\=August 2020}} toward the defense, but wanted a minimal effort.Johan P. Bakker, *Tracking Tom Horn*(Union Lake: Talking Boy, 1993\) pp. 127, 131–132\.
Horn's trial started October 10, 1902, in Cheyenne, which filled with crowds attracted by the notoriety of Horn. The *Rocky Mountain News* noted the carnival atmosphere and great interest from the public for a conviction. The prosecution introduced Horn's confession to Lefors. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting his statement. The prosecution introduced testimony by at least two witnesses, including Lefors, as well as [circumstantial evidence](/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence "Circumstantial evidence"); these elements only placed Horn in the general vicinity of the crime scene. During the trial, Victor Miller testified that Horn and he both had .30\-30 guns and bought their ammunition at the same store. Another, Otto Plaga, testified that Horn was {{convert\|20\|mi\|\-1}} from the scene of the murder an hour after it was committed; however, prosecuting attorney Walter Stoll was able to lead Horn into boasting on the stand that he could have ridden that distance in an hour, undermining his alibi.
Glendolene Kimmell had testified during the coroner's inquest, saying she thought both the Miller and Nickell families responsible for maintaining the feud, but she was never called as a defense witness. She had resigned from the school in October 1901, and left the area, but was in communication with people in the case. Horn's trial went to the jury on October 23, and they returned a guilty verdict the next day. [Carol L. Bowers. "School Bells and Winchesters: The Sad Saga of Glendolene Myrtle Kimmell"](http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/robertshistory/school_bells_and_winchesters.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614073651/http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/RobertsHistory/school\_bells\_and\_winchesters.htm \|date\=2010\-06\-14 }}, *Readings in Wyoming History* (5th Revised Edition), Ed. Phil Roberts, University of Wyoming, 2007, Retrieved 2012\-10\-10 A hearing several days later sentenced Horn to death by hanging. Horn's attorneys filed a petition with the [Wyoming Supreme Court](/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court "Wyoming Supreme Court") for a new trial. While in jail, Horn wrote his autobiography, *Life of Tom Horn, Government Scout and Interpreter, Written by Himself*, mostly giving an account of his early life. It contained little about the case.
The Wyoming Supreme Court upheld the decision of the District Court and denied a new trial. Convinced of Horn's innocence, Glendolene Kimmell sent an affidavit to Governor [Fenimore Chatterton](/wiki/Fenimore_Chatterton "Fenimore Chatterton") with testimony reportedly saying that Victor Miller was guilty of Nickell's murder. Accounts of its contents appeared in the press, but the original document has since disappeared. The governor chose not to intervene in the case. Horn was initially given an execution date of November 20, 1903\.
|
[
"### Murder of Willie Nickell",
"While working again near Iron Mountain, Wyoming, on July 15, 1901, Horn visited the Jim and Dora Miller family, who were cattle ranchers. Jim Miller was no relation to Texas outlaw [Jim Miller](/wiki/Jim_Miller_%28outlaw%29 \"Jim Miller (outlaw)\"). Jim Miller and his neighbor Kels Nickell had already had several disputes following Nickell's introduction of sheep into the Iron Mountain area. Miller frequently accused Nickell of letting his sheep graze on Miller's land.[\"Glendolene M. Kimmell, The Schoolmarm\"](http://www.tom-horn.com/story-glendolene-kimmell.htm), Tom Horn's Story website At the Millers, Horn met Glendolene M. Kimmell, the young teacher at the Iron Mountain School. Ms. Kimmell was supported by both the large Miller and Kels Nickell families, and she boarded with the Millers. Horn entertained her with accounts of his adventures. That day some males of the Miller family and he went fishing; Victor Miller, a son about his age, and he also practiced shooting, both of them with .30\\-30s.",
"The Miller and Nickell families were the only ones to have children at the school. Before she arrived, Kimmell had been advised of the families' ongoing feud and found that it was often played out by conflict among the children. A few days later, on July 18, Willie Nickell, the 14\\-year\\-old son of sheep ranchers Kels and Mary Nickell, was found murdered near their homestead gate. A coroner's inquest began to investigate the murder. More violent incidents occurred during the period of the coroner's inquest, which was expanded to investigate these incidents and lasted from July through September 1901\\.",
"On August 4, Kels Nickell was shot and wounded. Some 60–80 of his sheep were found \"shot or clubbed to death\". Two of the younger Nickell children later reported seeing two men leaving on horses, one a [bay](/wiki/Bay_horse \"Bay horse\") and one gray, as were horses owned by Jim Miller. On August 6, Deputy Sheriff Peter Warlaumont and Deputy U.S. Marshal Joe LeFors came to Iron Mountain and arrested Jim Miller and his sons Victor and Gus on suspicion of shooting Kels Nickell. They were jailed on August 7 and released the following day on bond. The investigation of the shooting of Kels Nickell was added to the investigation of Willie Nickell's murder in the coroner's inquest.",
"Deputy Marshal [Joe Lefors](/wiki/Joe_Lefors \"Joe Lefors\") later questioned Horn in January 1902 about the murder while supposedly talking to him about employment. Horn was still inebriated from the night before, but Lefors gained what he called a confession to the murder of Willie Nickell. Horn allegedly confessed to killing young Willie with his rifle from {{convert\\|300\\|yd}}, which he boasted of as the \"best shot that \\[he] ever made and the dirtiest trick that \\[he] had ever done\". Horn was arrested the next day by the county sheriff. Walter Stoll was the Laramie County prosecutor in the case.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Saga of Tom Horn: The Story of a Cattlemen's War, with personal narratives, newspaper accounts, and official documents and testimonies \\|first\\=Dean Fenton\\|last\\= Krakel \\|edition\\= 2 \\|publisher \\=Powder River Publishers\\|year\\=1954 \\|page\\=204}} Judge Richard H. Scott, who presided over the case, was running for re\\-election.",
"Horn was supported by his longtime friend and employer, cattle rancher John C. Coble. He gathered a team for the defense headed by former Judge [John W. Lacey](/wiki/John_W._Lacey \"John W. Lacey\"), and which included attorneys T. F. Burke, Roderick N. Matson, Edward T. Clark, and T. Blake Kennedy. Reportedly, Coble paid for most of the costs of this large team. According to Johan P. Bakker, who wrote *Tracking Tom Horn*, the large cattle interests by this time found Horn \"expendable\", and the case provided a way to silence him in regard to their activities. He wrote that 100 members of the Wyoming Stock Growers Association paid $1000 each{{dubious\\|It has already been established Coble paid the bulk of the fees; $100,000 extra to support that effort is an impossibly large sum for that time. $1,000, could purchase a family home at the time, when the average American wage was around $500 annually, and a male laborer earned just $150 a year, provided ''en toto'' by the stockmen would be more appropriate.\\|date\\=August 2020}} toward the defense, but wanted a minimal effort.Johan P. Bakker, *Tracking Tom Horn*(Union Lake: Talking Boy, 1993\\) pp. 127, 131–132\\.",
"Horn's trial started October 10, 1902, in Cheyenne, which filled with crowds attracted by the notoriety of Horn. The *Rocky Mountain News* noted the carnival atmosphere and great interest from the public for a conviction. The prosecution introduced Horn's confession to Lefors. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting his statement. The prosecution introduced testimony by at least two witnesses, including Lefors, as well as [circumstantial evidence](/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence \"Circumstantial evidence\"); these elements only placed Horn in the general vicinity of the crime scene. During the trial, Victor Miller testified that Horn and he both had .30\\-30 guns and bought their ammunition at the same store. Another, Otto Plaga, testified that Horn was {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|\\-1}} from the scene of the murder an hour after it was committed; however, prosecuting attorney Walter Stoll was able to lead Horn into boasting on the stand that he could have ridden that distance in an hour, undermining his alibi.",
"Glendolene Kimmell had testified during the coroner's inquest, saying she thought both the Miller and Nickell families responsible for maintaining the feud, but she was never called as a defense witness. She had resigned from the school in October 1901, and left the area, but was in communication with people in the case. Horn's trial went to the jury on October 23, and they returned a guilty verdict the next day. [Carol L. Bowers. \"School Bells and Winchesters: The Sad Saga of Glendolene Myrtle Kimmell\"](http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/robertshistory/school_bells_and_winchesters.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614073651/http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/RobertsHistory/school\\_bells\\_and\\_winchesters.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-14 }}, *Readings in Wyoming History* (5th Revised Edition), Ed. Phil Roberts, University of Wyoming, 2007, Retrieved 2012\\-10\\-10 A hearing several days later sentenced Horn to death by hanging. Horn's attorneys filed a petition with the [Wyoming Supreme Court](/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court \"Wyoming Supreme Court\") for a new trial. While in jail, Horn wrote his autobiography, *Life of Tom Horn, Government Scout and Interpreter, Written by Himself*, mostly giving an account of his early life. It contained little about the case.",
"The Wyoming Supreme Court upheld the decision of the District Court and denied a new trial. Convinced of Horn's innocence, Glendolene Kimmell sent an affidavit to Governor [Fenimore Chatterton](/wiki/Fenimore_Chatterton \"Fenimore Chatterton\") with testimony reportedly saying that Victor Miller was guilty of Nickell's murder. Accounts of its contents appeared in the press, but the original document has since disappeared. The governor chose not to intervene in the case. Horn was initially given an execution date of November 20, 1903\\.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1960\= 854
\|1970\= 780
\|1980\= 915
\|1990\= 1096
\|2000\= 1081
\|2010\= 888
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}
\|2020\=1121}}
### 2020 census
| \+**Sterling City racial composition**{{Cite web \|title\=Explore Census Data \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4870232\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2 \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-19 \|website\=data.census.gov}} (*NH \= Non\-Hispanic*){{efn\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.https://www.census.gov/ {{nonspecific\|date\=August 2022}}{{cite web \|title\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \|url\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\-origin/about.html \|website\=www.census.gov \|access\-date\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") (NH) | 652 | 58\.16% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans") (NH) | 3 | 0\.27% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native") (NH) | 4 | 0\.36% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") (NH) | 1 | 0\.09% |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans") (NH) | 2 | 0\.18% |
| Some Other Race (NH) | 2 | 0\.18% |
| [Mixed/Multi\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 35 | 3\.12% |
| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") | 422 | 37\.64% |
| **Total** | **1,121** | |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 1,121 people, 344 households, and 291 families residing in the city.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, 1,081 people, 393 households, and 297 families resided in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 1,105\.9 people/sq mi (425\.9/km{{sup\|2}}). The 467 housing units averaged 477\.7/sq mi (184\.0/km{{sup\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of the city was 82\.05% White, 0\.09% African American, 0\.37% Native American, 0\.09% Pacific Islander, 14\.80% from other races, and 2\.59% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 33\.30% of the population.
Of the 393 households, 36\.9% had children under 18 living with them, 62\.8% were married couples living together, 8\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24\.4% were not families. About 23\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.69, and the average family size was 3\.18\.
In the city, the age distribution was 29\.6% under 18, 5\.5% from 18 to 24, 29\.2% from 25 to 44, 20\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 94\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90\.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $36,359, and for a family was $38,958\. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $18,654 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $14,955\. About 14\.3% of families and 17\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 22\.3% of those under age 18 and 19\.3% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1960\\= 854\n\\|1970\\= 780\n\\|1980\\= 915\n\\|1990\\= 1096\n\\|2000\\= 1081\n\\|2010\\= 888\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n\\|2020\\=1121}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+**Sterling City racial composition**{{Cite web \\|title\\=Explore Census Data \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4870232\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-19 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} (*NH \\= Non\\-Hispanic*){{efn\\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.https://www.census.gov/ {{nonspecific\\|date\\=August 2022}}{{cite web \\|title\\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\\-origin/about.html \\|website\\=www.census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") (NH) | 652 | 58\\.16% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans \"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans\") (NH) | 3 | 0\\.27% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\") (NH) | 4 | 0\\.36% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") (NH) | 1 | 0\\.09% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\") (NH) | 2 | 0\\.18% |\n| Some Other Race (NH) | 2 | 0\\.18% |\n| [Mixed/Multi\\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 35 | 3\\.12% |\n| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") | 422 | 37\\.64% |\n| **Total** | **1,121** | |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 1,121 people, 344 households, and 291 families residing in the city.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, 1,081 people, 393 households, and 297 families resided in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 1,105\\.9 people/sq mi (425\\.9/km{{sup\\|2}}). The 467 housing units averaged 477\\.7/sq mi (184\\.0/km{{sup\\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of the city was 82\\.05% White, 0\\.09% African American, 0\\.37% Native American, 0\\.09% Pacific Islander, 14\\.80% from other races, and 2\\.59% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 33\\.30% of the population.",
"Of the 393 households, 36\\.9% had children under 18 living with them, 62\\.8% were married couples living together, 8\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24\\.4% were not families. About 23\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.69, and the average family size was 3\\.18\\.",
"In the city, the age distribution was 29\\.6% under 18, 5\\.5% from 18 to 24, 29\\.2% from 25 to 44, 20\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 94\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90\\.7 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $36,359, and for a family was $38,958\\. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $18,654 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $14,955\\. About 14\\.3% of families and 17\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 22\\.3% of those under age 18 and 19\\.3% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Justice
He is appointed as a Justice of Supreme Court of Nepal {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.supremecourt.gov.np/pages/cv\_justices/hari\_Phuyal.html\|title\=Honourable Mr. Hari Prasad Phuyal}} on April 19, 2019 as per article 129 of the Constitution of Nepal, 2015\.
### Attorney General
He worked as an attorney general at Office of the Attorney General of Nepal, from April 18, 2016 to August 3, 2016\.<https://ag.gov.np/formerAG> Office of General Attorney, Nepal Retrieved 01 January 2021
### Lawyer
He was a practicing lawyer since past 23 years based in Pacific Law Associates dealing with verities of legal issues including corporate matters and commercial cases to the courts. Involved in litigation on constitutional and human rights issues to the Supreme Court. He was also involved in various national and International organizations on constitutional and operational legal aspects. He played lead roles in some important cases establishing jurisprudence decided by the Supreme Court of Nepal.
### Legal Adviser
He worked as the National Legal Adviser at the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in Nepal since November 2005 to December 2006 with main responsibilities of analyzing constitutional provisions, national legislation with specific reference to security legislation and law applicable to the institutions of the criminal justice system of Nepal and to provide operational advice to the Office on the issues involving human rights and international humanitarian law.
### Lecturer
He taught the courses on Jurisprudence, Human Rights, and Banking Laws to students of Bachelor of Law (B.L) at the Nepal Law Campus of Tribhuban University, Nepal from 1995 to 2000\.
### Host TV talk show
He hosted a prime time talk show Naya Sambidhan (New Constitution) on Kantipur Television (KTV). This talk show focused on contentious constitutional issues such as Citizenship, Federalism, the Electoral System, the Judicial System, Forms of Government and on the Constituent Assembly process related to drafting new constitution of Nepal. This talk show was broadcast between 18 September and 18 December 2014\.Nepal Kantipur Television (KTV) talk show Naya Sambidha (New Constitution) Retrieved from [https://constitutionnet.org/nepal\-kantipur\-television\-ktv\-talk\-show\-naya\-sambidha\-new\-constitution](https://constitutionnet.org/nepal-kantipur-television-ktv-talk-show-naya-sambidha-new-constitution) on Jan 01, 2020
### Author
Book
* Book on *Refugee Law* published by [Pairavi Publication](http://pairavi.com/), Nepal, in 1996 as a course book to LL.B. second year's student of Trivhuvan University.
* Book on *Police and Human Rights* published by [INSEC](https://www.insec.org.np/), in 1997\.
* An article on relation between international and law municipal law: "Appraisal of Nepalese context", published in the *Law Journal of Patan Appellate Court Bar Association of Nepal*, 2001\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Justice",
"He is appointed as a Justice of Supreme Court of Nepal {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.supremecourt.gov.np/pages/cv\\_justices/hari\\_Phuyal.html\\|title\\=Honourable Mr. Hari Prasad Phuyal}} on April 19, 2019 as per article 129 of the Constitution of Nepal, 2015\\.",
"### Attorney General",
"He worked as an attorney general at Office of the Attorney General of Nepal, from April 18, 2016 to August 3, 2016\\.<https://ag.gov.np/formerAG> Office of General Attorney, Nepal Retrieved 01 January 2021",
"### Lawyer",
"He was a practicing lawyer since past 23 years based in Pacific Law Associates dealing with verities of legal issues including corporate matters and commercial cases to the courts. Involved in litigation on constitutional and human rights issues to the Supreme Court. He was also involved in various national and International organizations on constitutional and operational legal aspects. He played lead roles in some important cases establishing jurisprudence decided by the Supreme Court of Nepal.",
"### Legal Adviser",
"He worked as the National Legal Adviser at the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in Nepal since November 2005 to December 2006 with main responsibilities of analyzing constitutional provisions, national legislation with specific reference to security legislation and law applicable to the institutions of the criminal justice system of Nepal and to provide operational advice to the Office on the issues involving human rights and international humanitarian law.",
"### Lecturer",
"He taught the courses on Jurisprudence, Human Rights, and Banking Laws to students of Bachelor of Law (B.L) at the Nepal Law Campus of Tribhuban University, Nepal from 1995 to 2000\\.",
"### Host TV talk show",
"He hosted a prime time talk show Naya Sambidhan (New Constitution) on Kantipur Television (KTV). This talk show focused on contentious constitutional issues such as Citizenship, Federalism, the Electoral System, the Judicial System, Forms of Government and on the Constituent Assembly process related to drafting new constitution of Nepal. This talk show was broadcast between 18 September and 18 December 2014\\.Nepal Kantipur Television (KTV) talk show Naya Sambidha (New Constitution) Retrieved from [https://constitutionnet.org/nepal\\-kantipur\\-television\\-ktv\\-talk\\-show\\-naya\\-sambidha\\-new\\-constitution](https://constitutionnet.org/nepal-kantipur-television-ktv-talk-show-naya-sambidha-new-constitution) on Jan 01, 2020",
"### Author",
"Book\n* Book on *Refugee Law* published by [Pairavi Publication](http://pairavi.com/), Nepal, in 1996 as a course book to LL.B. second year's student of Trivhuvan University.\n* Book on *Police and Human Rights* published by [INSEC](https://www.insec.org.np/), in 1997\\.\n* An article on relation between international and law municipal law: \"Appraisal of Nepalese context\", published in the *Law Journal of Patan Appellate Court Bar Association of Nepal*, 2001\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
In Tübingen, Zeeden took part to the foundation of the first [Collaborative Research Centres](/wiki/Collaborative_Research_Centres "Collaborative Research Centres") for *[Geisteswissenschaften](/wiki/Geisteswissenschaften "Geisteswissenschaften")* (lit. 'sciences of mind') of the [German Research Foundation](/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft "Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft") (DFG). The Center was co\-founded with historians [Josef Engel](/wiki/Josef_Engel_%28historian%29 "Josef Engel (historian)") and [Heiko Oberman](/wiki/Heiko_Oberman "Heiko Oberman"), and its activity focused on the history of the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages "Late Middle Ages") and the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation "Reformation").
In his life, Zeeden wrote about the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation "Reformation") and [Confessionalization](/wiki/Confessionalization "Confessionalization") era. His research lead to a re\-assessment of that period by German and European historians. His writings, his overall approach of all confessions, as well as his thesis about the Catholic traditions in 17th and 18th\-century Lutheranism were well\-received abroad.
Zeeden opened new research fields with his books about the emergence of confessions ({{lang\|de\|Entstehung der Konfessionen}}), [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther "Martin Luther") and the "Hegemonial Wars and Confession Struggles" ({{lang\|de\|Hegemonialkriege und Glaubenskämpfe}}) of the series *Propyläen\-Geschichte Europas*.
Zeeden's scientific legacy is preserved by the [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm "Ulm") City Archive, where it spans over a 11\-meter\-long library sector.
Moreover, Zeeden supervised 70 new doctorate theses and educated ten university professors,{{cite web \|lang\=de\|url\=https://uni\-tuebingen.de/uni/qvo/pm/pm429\.html\|title\=Der Historiker Ernst Walter Zeeden wird 85\|publisher\=University of Tübingen\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020227110139/http://www.uni\-tuebingen.de/uni/qvo/pm/pm429\.html\|archive\-date\=February 27, 2002\|access\-date\=}} including [Johannes Burkhardt](/wiki/Johannes_Burkhardt "Johannes Burkhardt"), [Helga Schnabel\-Schüle](/wiki/Helga_Schnabel-Sch%C3%BCle "Helga Schnabel-Schüle") and [Wolfram Siemann](/wiki/Wolfram_Siemann "Wolfram Siemann"). He was himself a student of [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter "Gerhard Ritter") and a relative of [Max Weber](/wiki/Max_Weber "Max Weber").His mother was a daughter of Alwine Müller, the youngest daughter of [Carl David Weber](/wiki/Carl_David_Weber "Carl David Weber"), uncle of Max Weber.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In Tübingen, Zeeden took part to the foundation of the first [Collaborative Research Centres](/wiki/Collaborative_Research_Centres \"Collaborative Research Centres\") for *[Geisteswissenschaften](/wiki/Geisteswissenschaften \"Geisteswissenschaften\")* (lit. 'sciences of mind') of the [German Research Foundation](/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft \"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft\") (DFG). The Center was co\\-founded with historians [Josef Engel](/wiki/Josef_Engel_%28historian%29 \"Josef Engel (historian)\") and [Heiko Oberman](/wiki/Heiko_Oberman \"Heiko Oberman\"), and its activity focused on the history of the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages \"Late Middle Ages\") and the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation \"Reformation\").",
"In his life, Zeeden wrote about the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation \"Reformation\") and [Confessionalization](/wiki/Confessionalization \"Confessionalization\") era. His research lead to a re\\-assessment of that period by German and European historians. His writings, his overall approach of all confessions, as well as his thesis about the Catholic traditions in 17th and 18th\\-century Lutheranism were well\\-received abroad.",
"Zeeden opened new research fields with his books about the emergence of confessions ({{lang\\|de\\|Entstehung der Konfessionen}}), [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther \"Martin Luther\") and the \"Hegemonial Wars and Confession Struggles\" ({{lang\\|de\\|Hegemonialkriege und Glaubenskämpfe}}) of the series *Propyläen\\-Geschichte Europas*.",
"Zeeden's scientific legacy is preserved by the [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm \"Ulm\") City Archive, where it spans over a 11\\-meter\\-long library sector.",
"Moreover, Zeeden supervised 70 new doctorate theses and educated ten university professors,{{cite web \\|lang\\=de\\|url\\=https://uni\\-tuebingen.de/uni/qvo/pm/pm429\\.html\\|title\\=Der Historiker Ernst Walter Zeeden wird 85\\|publisher\\=University of Tübingen\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020227110139/http://www.uni\\-tuebingen.de/uni/qvo/pm/pm429\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=February 27, 2002\\|access\\-date\\=}} including [Johannes Burkhardt](/wiki/Johannes_Burkhardt \"Johannes Burkhardt\"), [Helga Schnabel\\-Schüle](/wiki/Helga_Schnabel-Sch%C3%BCle \"Helga Schnabel-Schüle\") and [Wolfram Siemann](/wiki/Wolfram_Siemann \"Wolfram Siemann\"). He was himself a student of [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter \"Gerhard Ritter\") and a relative of [Max Weber](/wiki/Max_Weber \"Max Weber\").His mother was a daughter of Alwine Müller, the youngest daughter of [Carl David Weber](/wiki/Carl_David_Weber \"Carl David Weber\"), uncle of Max Weber.",
""
] |
Background
----------
{{main\|History of the tank }}
[thumb\|Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg "1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg")
No one individual was responsible for the development of the tank. Rather, a number of gradual technological developments brought the development of the tank as we know it closer until its eventual form was unveiled out of necessity by the British Army. The British Army designs were forced by the trench warfare in which neither side could achieve more than small incremental gains without heavy loss of soldiers lives, but tanks changed that. They were made to cross the trenches and quickly break into the enemy rear, while other tanks supported the main attack. The development between the infantry tank and the cruiser tanks had its origins in the First World War division between the [first British heavy tanks](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 "Mark I (tank)") which supported the infantry and the faster [Whippet Medium Mark A](/wiki/Whippet_%28tank%29 "Whippet (tank)") and its successors the [Medium Mark B](/wiki/Medium_Mark_B "Medium Mark B") and [Medium Mark C](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C "Medium Mark C"). During the [interbellum](/wiki/Interbellum "Interbellum") British tank experiments generally followed these basic classifications, which were made part of the overall doctrine with the work of [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart "Percy Hobart") and Captain [B. H. Liddell Hart](/wiki/B._H._Liddell_Hart "B. H. Liddell Hart"). The next development of the more heavily armoured and upgunned tanks was brought about by the tank on tank battles in the Second World War German Blitzkrieg. This continued throughout the war, and led to heavy tanks which became the basis of the current Main Battle Tanks seen throughout the armies today.
### British development
[thumb\|German photograph of British tank pushing over a tree](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S34490%2C_Tankschlacht_bei_Cambrai.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S34490, Tankschlacht bei Cambrai.jpg")
The Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant [Walter Gordon Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson "Walter Gordon Wilson") of the [Royal Naval Air Service](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service "Royal Naval Air Service") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton "William Tritton") of [William Foster \& Co.](/wiki/William_Foster_%26_Co. "William Foster & Co.") of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England "Lincoln, England"), to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code\-name tank by Swinton.
The "Number 1 Lincoln Machine", nicknamed "[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie "Little Willie")" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench\-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a [rhomboidal](/wiki/Rhomboidal "Rhomboidal") design,{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=30}} which became known as "HMLS *Centipede*" and later "Mother", the first of the [British heavy tanks](/wiki/British_heavy_tanks_of_World_War_I "British heavy tanks of World War I"). After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") for 100 units to be used on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") in France,{{cite book\|title\=The United States in the First World War \|first\=Anne Cipriano \|last\=Venzon \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YiZRC8bsOuoC \| isbn\=978\-0\-8153\-3353\-1 \| year\=1999 \| publisher\=Taylor \& Francis}}{{rp\|590}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Ym0wUR8LNCEC \|title\=Personal perspectives \|first\=Timothy C. \|last\=Dowling \| isbn\=978\-1\-85109\-565\-0 \| year\=2005 \| publisher\=Abc\-Clio}}{{rp\|129}} on 12 February 1916,{{cite book\|first\=Alain\|last\=Gougaud \|title\=L'Aube de la Gloire, Les Autos\-Mitrailleuses et les Chars Français pendant la Grande Guerre\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Musée des Blindés\|isbn\=2\-904255\-02\-8}}{{rp\|216}} and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916\.Fletcher, David *British Mark I Tank 1916* New Vanguard. Osprey Publishing. p.12
The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.
[left\|thumb\|Medium Mk A "Whippet"](/wiki/File:Whippet.jpg "Whippet.jpg")
The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 [Mark I](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 "Mark I (tank)") tanks during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme_%281916%29 "Battle of the Somme (1916)") on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet "Medium Mark A Whippet"). This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.
While the British took the lead in tank development, the [French](/wiki/France "France") were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917\. The [Germans](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on [anti\-tank weapons](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare "Anti-tank warfare").
[left\|thumb\|Vickers 6\-Ton Tank](/wiki/File:Vickers_E.jpg "Vickers E.jpg")
Following the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"). Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from [Vickers\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrong "Vickers-Armstrong"), formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The [Vickers 6\-Ton](/wiki/Vickers_6-Ton "Vickers 6-Ton"), which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.
[thumb\|A [Carden\-Loyd tankette](/wiki/Carden-Loyd_tankette "Carden-Loyd tankette") towing a howitzer in 1929](/wiki/File:3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg "3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg")
[thumb\|Vickers [Medium Mark II](/wiki/Medium_Mark_II "Medium Mark II") tank](/wiki/File:Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg "Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg")
The [Carden Loyd tankettes](/wiki/Carden_Loyd_tankette "Carden Loyd tankette") (two\-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the [tankette](/wiki/Tankette "Tankette") concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet [T\-27](/wiki/T-27 "T-27"), Italian [CV\-33](/wiki/L3/33 "L3/33"), German [Panzer I](/wiki/Panzer_I "Panzer I") and other copies. Another notable design was the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II "Vickers Medium Mk II"), a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank") were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti\-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and [constabulary](/wiki/Constabulary "Constabulary")\-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force "Experimental Mechanised Force") in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade\-sized unit developed to field\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.
Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.
The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}} and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}}. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.
At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the [Ordnance QF 2\-pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2-pounder "Ordnance QF 2-pounder") (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weaknesses in design.
In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all\-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull\-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple\-turreted or multi\-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.
British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg "Blitzkrieg") tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi\-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler [self\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Sturmgesch%C3%BCtz "Sturmgeschütz"). In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The [pre\-Dunkirk British Army](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") [Matilda I](/wiki/Matilda_Mk_I "Matilda Mk I") infantry tank had only a single [Vickers machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun "Vickers machine gun"), a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") had a capable anti\-tank gun with the 40mm [2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder "Ordnance QF 2 pounder") but these were only issued with solid\-shot (i.e. non\-explosive) for anti\-tank use and was of little use for artillery close\-support of infantry. The follow\-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually [QF 6\-pounder](/wiki/QF_6-pounder "QF 6-pounder") (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks \- thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6\-pounder against armour. Then the 17\-pounder (76\.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war \- able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"{{main\\|History of the tank }}\n[thumb\\|Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg \"1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg\")\nNo one individual was responsible for the development of the tank. Rather, a number of gradual technological developments brought the development of the tank as we know it closer until its eventual form was unveiled out of necessity by the British Army. The British Army designs were forced by the trench warfare in which neither side could achieve more than small incremental gains without heavy loss of soldiers lives, but tanks changed that. They were made to cross the trenches and quickly break into the enemy rear, while other tanks supported the main attack. The development between the infantry tank and the cruiser tanks had its origins in the First World War division between the [first British heavy tanks](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 \"Mark I (tank)\") which supported the infantry and the faster [Whippet Medium Mark A](/wiki/Whippet_%28tank%29 \"Whippet (tank)\") and its successors the [Medium Mark B](/wiki/Medium_Mark_B \"Medium Mark B\") and [Medium Mark C](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C \"Medium Mark C\"). During the [interbellum](/wiki/Interbellum \"Interbellum\") British tank experiments generally followed these basic classifications, which were made part of the overall doctrine with the work of [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart \"Percy Hobart\") and Captain [B. H. Liddell Hart](/wiki/B._H._Liddell_Hart \"B. H. Liddell Hart\"). The next development of the more heavily armoured and upgunned tanks was brought about by the tank on tank battles in the Second World War German Blitzkrieg. This continued throughout the war, and led to heavy tanks which became the basis of the current Main Battle Tanks seen throughout the armies today.",
"### British development",
"[thumb\\|German photograph of British tank pushing over a tree](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S34490%2C_Tankschlacht_bei_Cambrai.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S34490, Tankschlacht bei Cambrai.jpg\")\nThe Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant [Walter Gordon Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson \"Walter Gordon Wilson\") of the [Royal Naval Air Service](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service \"Royal Naval Air Service\") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton \"William Tritton\") of [William Foster \\& Co.](/wiki/William_Foster_%26_Co. \"William Foster & Co.\") of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England \"Lincoln, England\"), to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code\\-name tank by Swinton.",
"The \"Number 1 Lincoln Machine\", nicknamed \"[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie \"Little Willie\")\" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench\\-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a [rhomboidal](/wiki/Rhomboidal \"Rhomboidal\") design,{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=30}} which became known as \"HMLS *Centipede*\" and later \"Mother\", the first of the [British heavy tanks](/wiki/British_heavy_tanks_of_World_War_I \"British heavy tanks of World War I\"). After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") for 100 units to be used on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") in France,{{cite book\\|title\\=The United States in the First World War \\|first\\=Anne Cipriano \\|last\\=Venzon \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YiZRC8bsOuoC \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8153\\-3353\\-1 \\| year\\=1999 \\| publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis}}{{rp\\|590}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Ym0wUR8LNCEC \\|title\\=Personal perspectives \\|first\\=Timothy C. \\|last\\=Dowling \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85109\\-565\\-0 \\| year\\=2005 \\| publisher\\=Abc\\-Clio}}{{rp\\|129}} on 12 February 1916,{{cite book\\|first\\=Alain\\|last\\=Gougaud \\|title\\=L'Aube de la Gloire, Les Autos\\-Mitrailleuses et les Chars Français pendant la Grande Guerre\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Musée des Blindés\\|isbn\\=2\\-904255\\-02\\-8}}{{rp\\|216}} and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916\\.Fletcher, David *British Mark I Tank 1916* New Vanguard. Osprey Publishing. p.12",
"The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Medium Mk A \"Whippet\"](/wiki/File:Whippet.jpg \"Whippet.jpg\")",
"The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 [Mark I](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 \"Mark I (tank)\") tanks during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme_%281916%29 \"Battle of the Somme (1916)\") on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet \"Medium Mark A Whippet\"). This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.",
"While the British took the lead in tank development, the [French](/wiki/France \"France\") were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917\\. The [Germans](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on [anti\\-tank weapons](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare \"Anti-tank warfare\").",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Vickers 6\\-Ton Tank](/wiki/File:Vickers_E.jpg \"Vickers E.jpg\")\nFollowing the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"). Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from [Vickers\\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrong \"Vickers-Armstrong\"), formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The [Vickers 6\\-Ton](/wiki/Vickers_6-Ton \"Vickers 6-Ton\"), which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.",
"[thumb\\|A [Carden\\-Loyd tankette](/wiki/Carden-Loyd_tankette \"Carden-Loyd tankette\") towing a howitzer in 1929](/wiki/File:3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg \"3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Vickers [Medium Mark II](/wiki/Medium_Mark_II \"Medium Mark II\") tank](/wiki/File:Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg \"Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg\")\nThe [Carden Loyd tankettes](/wiki/Carden_Loyd_tankette \"Carden Loyd tankette\") (two\\-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the [tankette](/wiki/Tankette \"Tankette\") concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet [T\\-27](/wiki/T-27 \"T-27\"), Italian [CV\\-33](/wiki/L3/33 \"L3/33\"), German [Panzer I](/wiki/Panzer_I \"Panzer I\") and other copies. Another notable design was the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II \"Vickers Medium Mk II\"), a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\") were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti\\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti\\-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and [constabulary](/wiki/Constabulary \"Constabulary\")\\-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.",
"An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force \"Experimental Mechanised Force\") in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade\\-sized unit developed to field\\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\\-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.",
"Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.",
"The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}} and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}}. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.",
"At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the [Ordnance QF 2\\-pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2-pounder \"Ordnance QF 2-pounder\") (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weaknesses in design.",
"In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all\\-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull\\-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple\\-turreted or multi\\-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.",
"British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg \"Blitzkrieg\") tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi\\-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler [self\\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Sturmgesch%C3%BCtz \"Sturmgeschütz\"). In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The [pre\\-Dunkirk British Army](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") [Matilda I](/wiki/Matilda_Mk_I \"Matilda Mk I\") infantry tank had only a single [Vickers machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun \"Vickers machine gun\"), a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") had a capable anti\\-tank gun with the 40mm [2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder \"Ordnance QF 2 pounder\") but these were only issued with solid\\-shot (i.e. non\\-explosive) for anti\\-tank use and was of little use for artillery close\\-support of infantry. The follow\\-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually [QF 6\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_6-pounder \"QF 6-pounder\") (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks \\- thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6\\-pounder against armour. Then the 17\\-pounder (76\\.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war \\- able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.",
""
] |
### British development
[thumb\|German photograph of British tank pushing over a tree](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S34490%2C_Tankschlacht_bei_Cambrai.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S34490, Tankschlacht bei Cambrai.jpg")
The Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant [Walter Gordon Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson "Walter Gordon Wilson") of the [Royal Naval Air Service](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service "Royal Naval Air Service") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton "William Tritton") of [William Foster \& Co.](/wiki/William_Foster_%26_Co. "William Foster & Co.") of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England "Lincoln, England"), to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code\-name tank by Swinton.
The "Number 1 Lincoln Machine", nicknamed "[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie "Little Willie")" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench\-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a [rhomboidal](/wiki/Rhomboidal "Rhomboidal") design,{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=30}} which became known as "HMLS *Centipede*" and later "Mother", the first of the [British heavy tanks](/wiki/British_heavy_tanks_of_World_War_I "British heavy tanks of World War I"). After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") for 100 units to be used on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") in France,{{cite book\|title\=The United States in the First World War \|first\=Anne Cipriano \|last\=Venzon \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YiZRC8bsOuoC \| isbn\=978\-0\-8153\-3353\-1 \| year\=1999 \| publisher\=Taylor \& Francis}}{{rp\|590}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Ym0wUR8LNCEC \|title\=Personal perspectives \|first\=Timothy C. \|last\=Dowling \| isbn\=978\-1\-85109\-565\-0 \| year\=2005 \| publisher\=Abc\-Clio}}{{rp\|129}} on 12 February 1916,{{cite book\|first\=Alain\|last\=Gougaud \|title\=L'Aube de la Gloire, Les Autos\-Mitrailleuses et les Chars Français pendant la Grande Guerre\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Musée des Blindés\|isbn\=2\-904255\-02\-8}}{{rp\|216}} and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916\.Fletcher, David *British Mark I Tank 1916* New Vanguard. Osprey Publishing. p.12
The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.
[left\|thumb\|Medium Mk A "Whippet"](/wiki/File:Whippet.jpg "Whippet.jpg")
The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 [Mark I](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 "Mark I (tank)") tanks during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme_%281916%29 "Battle of the Somme (1916)") on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet "Medium Mark A Whippet"). This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.
While the British took the lead in tank development, the [French](/wiki/France "France") were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917\. The [Germans](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on [anti\-tank weapons](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare "Anti-tank warfare").
[left\|thumb\|Vickers 6\-Ton Tank](/wiki/File:Vickers_E.jpg "Vickers E.jpg")
Following the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"). Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from [Vickers\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrong "Vickers-Armstrong"), formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The [Vickers 6\-Ton](/wiki/Vickers_6-Ton "Vickers 6-Ton"), which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.
[thumb\|A [Carden\-Loyd tankette](/wiki/Carden-Loyd_tankette "Carden-Loyd tankette") towing a howitzer in 1929](/wiki/File:3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg "3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg")
[thumb\|Vickers [Medium Mark II](/wiki/Medium_Mark_II "Medium Mark II") tank](/wiki/File:Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg "Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg")
The [Carden Loyd tankettes](/wiki/Carden_Loyd_tankette "Carden Loyd tankette") (two\-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the [tankette](/wiki/Tankette "Tankette") concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet [T\-27](/wiki/T-27 "T-27"), Italian [CV\-33](/wiki/L3/33 "L3/33"), German [Panzer I](/wiki/Panzer_I "Panzer I") and other copies. Another notable design was the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II "Vickers Medium Mk II"), a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank") were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti\-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and [constabulary](/wiki/Constabulary "Constabulary")\-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force "Experimental Mechanised Force") in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade\-sized unit developed to field\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.
Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.
The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}} and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}}. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.
At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the [Ordnance QF 2\-pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2-pounder "Ordnance QF 2-pounder") (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weaknesses in design.
In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all\-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull\-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple\-turreted or multi\-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.
British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg "Blitzkrieg") tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi\-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler [self\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Sturmgesch%C3%BCtz "Sturmgeschütz"). In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The [pre\-Dunkirk British Army](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") [Matilda I](/wiki/Matilda_Mk_I "Matilda Mk I") infantry tank had only a single [Vickers machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun "Vickers machine gun"), a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") had a capable anti\-tank gun with the 40mm [2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder "Ordnance QF 2 pounder") but these were only issued with solid\-shot (i.e. non\-explosive) for anti\-tank use and was of little use for artillery close\-support of infantry. The follow\-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually [QF 6\-pounder](/wiki/QF_6-pounder "QF 6-pounder") (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks \- thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6\-pounder against armour. Then the 17\-pounder (76\.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war \- able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.
|
[
"### British development",
"[thumb\\|German photograph of British tank pushing over a tree](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S34490%2C_Tankschlacht_bei_Cambrai.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S34490, Tankschlacht bei Cambrai.jpg\")\nThe Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant [Walter Gordon Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson \"Walter Gordon Wilson\") of the [Royal Naval Air Service](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service \"Royal Naval Air Service\") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton \"William Tritton\") of [William Foster \\& Co.](/wiki/William_Foster_%26_Co. \"William Foster & Co.\") of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England \"Lincoln, England\"), to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code\\-name tank by Swinton.",
"The \"Number 1 Lincoln Machine\", nicknamed \"[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie \"Little Willie\")\" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench\\-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a [rhomboidal](/wiki/Rhomboidal \"Rhomboidal\") design,{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=30}} which became known as \"HMLS *Centipede*\" and later \"Mother\", the first of the [British heavy tanks](/wiki/British_heavy_tanks_of_World_War_I \"British heavy tanks of World War I\"). After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") for 100 units to be used on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") in France,{{cite book\\|title\\=The United States in the First World War \\|first\\=Anne Cipriano \\|last\\=Venzon \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YiZRC8bsOuoC \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8153\\-3353\\-1 \\| year\\=1999 \\| publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis}}{{rp\\|590}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Ym0wUR8LNCEC \\|title\\=Personal perspectives \\|first\\=Timothy C. \\|last\\=Dowling \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85109\\-565\\-0 \\| year\\=2005 \\| publisher\\=Abc\\-Clio}}{{rp\\|129}} on 12 February 1916,{{cite book\\|first\\=Alain\\|last\\=Gougaud \\|title\\=L'Aube de la Gloire, Les Autos\\-Mitrailleuses et les Chars Français pendant la Grande Guerre\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Musée des Blindés\\|isbn\\=2\\-904255\\-02\\-8}}{{rp\\|216}} and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916\\.Fletcher, David *British Mark I Tank 1916* New Vanguard. Osprey Publishing. p.12",
"The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Medium Mk A \"Whippet\"](/wiki/File:Whippet.jpg \"Whippet.jpg\")",
"The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 [Mark I](/wiki/Mark_I_%28tank%29 \"Mark I (tank)\") tanks during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme_%281916%29 \"Battle of the Somme (1916)\") on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet \"Medium Mark A Whippet\"). This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.",
"While the British took the lead in tank development, the [French](/wiki/France \"France\") were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917\\. The [Germans](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on [anti\\-tank weapons](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare \"Anti-tank warfare\").",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Vickers 6\\-Ton Tank](/wiki/File:Vickers_E.jpg \"Vickers E.jpg\")\nFollowing the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"). Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from [Vickers\\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrong \"Vickers-Armstrong\"), formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The [Vickers 6\\-Ton](/wiki/Vickers_6-Ton \"Vickers 6-Ton\"), which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.",
"[thumb\\|A [Carden\\-Loyd tankette](/wiki/Carden-Loyd_tankette \"Carden-Loyd tankette\") towing a howitzer in 1929](/wiki/File:3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg \"3.7inchHowitzerTowedByCarden-LoydMortarCarrier1929.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Vickers [Medium Mark II](/wiki/Medium_Mark_II \"Medium Mark II\") tank](/wiki/File:Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg \"Puckapunyal-Vickers-Medium-MkII-1.jpg\")\nThe [Carden Loyd tankettes](/wiki/Carden_Loyd_tankette \"Carden Loyd tankette\") (two\\-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the [tankette](/wiki/Tankette \"Tankette\") concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet [T\\-27](/wiki/T-27 \"T-27\"), Italian [CV\\-33](/wiki/L3/33 \"L3/33\"), German [Panzer I](/wiki/Panzer_I \"Panzer I\") and other copies. Another notable design was the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II \"Vickers Medium Mk II\"), a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\") were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti\\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti\\-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and [constabulary](/wiki/Constabulary \"Constabulary\")\\-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.",
"An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force \"Experimental Mechanised Force\") in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade\\-sized unit developed to field\\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\\-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.",
"Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.",
"The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}} and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}}. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.",
"At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the [Ordnance QF 2\\-pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2-pounder \"Ordnance QF 2-pounder\") (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weaknesses in design.",
"In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all\\-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull\\-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple\\-turreted or multi\\-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.",
"British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg \"Blitzkrieg\") tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi\\-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler [self\\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Sturmgesch%C3%BCtz \"Sturmgeschütz\"). In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The [pre\\-Dunkirk British Army](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") [Matilda I](/wiki/Matilda_Mk_I \"Matilda Mk I\") infantry tank had only a single [Vickers machine gun](/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun \"Vickers machine gun\"), a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") had a capable anti\\-tank gun with the 40mm [2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder \"Ordnance QF 2 pounder\") but these were only issued with solid\\-shot (i.e. non\\-explosive) for anti\\-tank use and was of little use for artillery close\\-support of infantry. The follow\\-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually [QF 6\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_6-pounder \"QF 6-pounder\") (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks \\- thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6\\-pounder against armour. Then the 17\\-pounder (76\\.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war \\- able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.",
""
] |
Operational use
---------------
### First World War
{{Main\|Tanks in World War I}}
{{see also\|British heavy tanks of World War I}}
[thumb\|A British [Mark I tank](/wiki/Mark_I_tank "Mark I tank") in action on 26 September 1916 (moving left to right). Photo by [Ernest Brooks](/wiki/Ernest_Brooks_%28photographer%29 "Ernest Brooks (photographer)").](/wiki/File:British_Mark_I_male_tank_Somme_25_September_1916.jpg "British Mark I male tank Somme 25 September 1916.jpg")
The British Mark I was the world's first combat tank, entering service in August 1916, and first used in action on the morning of 15 September 1916\. It was developed to be able to cross trenches, resist small\-arms fire, travel over difficult terrain, carry supplies, and be able to capture fortified enemy positions. The Mark I was a development of *[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie "Little Willie")*, the experimental tank built for the [Landships Committee](/wiki/Landships_Committee "Landships Committee") by Lieutenant [Walter Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson "Walter Gordon Wilson") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton "William Tritton") in the summer of 1915\. A small number of Mark I tanks took part in the [battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme") during the [Battle of Flers\-Courcelette](/wiki/Battle_of_Flers-Courcelette "Battle of Flers-Courcelette") in September 1916\. They were used to cut through barbed wire to clear the way for infantry, and were even driven through houses to destroy machine gunner's emplacements.C.J. Arthur, 'True World War I Stories', page 178, {{ISBN\|1\-84119\-095\-0}} Although many broke down or became stuck, almost a third that attacked made it across [no man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land "No man's land"), and their effect on the enemy was noted, leading to a request by the British C\-in\-C [Douglas Haig](/wiki/Douglas_Haig "Douglas Haig") for a thousand more. The Mark II and Mark III incorporated minor improvements and changes over the Mark I with the Mark II used in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)") in April 1917 because of delays in the production of the Mark I tank. The Mk IV incorporated thicker armour to resist German armour\-piercing bullets. The Mark V had more power (150 bhp) and could be steered by one man, thanks to the epicyclic gear system created by Walter Wilson. It was first used in the [Battle of Hamel](/wiki/Battle_of_Hamel "Battle of Hamel") on 4 July 1918 when 60 tanks contributed to a successful assault by Australian units on the German lines. During the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 "Battle of Amiens (1918)") in August 1918, several hundred of the Mark V and the lengthened Mk V\* tanks, together with the new [Whippet](/wiki/Whippet_Mk_A "Whippet Mk A") tanks, penetrated the German lines in a foretaste of modern armoured warfare.
The Mark VI did not progress past the stage of a wooden mock\-up; the project was cancelled in December 1917 in order that a tank co\-developed with the US (the Mark VIII) could go forward. Because of technical troubles the Mark VII, almost identical to Mks I to V, had only three produced out of an order for 74 when war ended. The Mark VIII was a cooperative design between the Allies[Glanfield, Devil's Chariots](/wiki/%23Glanfield%2C_Devil%27s_Chariots "#Glanfield, Devil's Chariots"), p.290 and was also known as "Liberty," "International," or Anglo\-American tank. It did not see combat in the war but was used and upgraded until the 1930s when given to Canada for training. The Mark IX was designed in 1917 as the world's first specialised [Armoured Personnel Carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier "Armoured personnel carrier") (APC). Thirty\-four were completed, but none saw service. One was experimentally equipped as an armoured ambulance, and another rebuilt as an amphibious tank by the staff of the test base at [Dollis Hill](/wiki/Dollis_Hill "Dollis Hill"). There is photographic evidence that some Mk IX were used post\-WWI as Infantry Carriers, but no record of their peacetime service is known to exist. The Mark X, a further improvement on the Mk V, was planned but never built.
The Medium Mark A Whippet was a [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland") [tank](/wiki/Tank "Tank") of the First World War. It was intended to complement the slower [British heavy tanks](/wiki/Mark_I_tank "Mark I tank") by using its relative mobility and speed in exploiting any break in the enemy lines.{{cite book \|last\=Trewhitt \|first\=Philip \|title\=Armoured Fighting Vehicles \|year\=1999 \|publisher\=Dempsey Parr \|isbn\=1\-84084\-328\-4 }}
The Whippet tanks arrived late in the First World War, and went into action in March 1918\. Alongside Mark V and V\* tanks, they took part in the [Amiens offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 "Battle of Amiens (1918)") (8 August 1918\) where they broke through into the German rear areas causing the loss of the artillery in an entire front sector.
A first offensive using 49 Mark I tanks took place on 15 September 1916, during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme"), under Field Marshal [Sir Douglas Haig](/wiki/Sir_Douglas_Haig "Sir Douglas Haig"), with limited success.{{cite book \|first\=Spencer \|last\=Tucker \|others\=Priscilla Mary Roberts \|title\= World War I: Encyclopedia \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|year\=2005\|isbn\=1\-85109\-420\-2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=B1cMtKQP3P8C}}{{rp\|1153}} Not until 20 November 1917, at [Cambrai](/wiki/Cambrai "Cambrai"), did the British [Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment "Royal Tank Regiment") get the conditions it needed for success. Around 400 tanks penetrated almost six miles on a 7\-mile front. This was their first large\-scale deployment in combat. Unfortunately, success was not complete because the infantry failed to exploit and secure the tanks' gains. The British scored another victory the following year, on 8 August 1918, with 600 tanks in the [Amiens salient](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 "Battle of Amiens (1918)"). General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff "Erich Ludendorff") referred to that date as the "Black Day" of the German Army.
[thumb\|left\|[A7V tank](/wiki/A7V_tank "A7V tank") at [Roye](/wiki/Roye%2C_Somme "Roye, Somme") on March 21, 1918](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1013-316%2C_Westfront%2C_deutscher_Panzer_in_Roye.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-P1013-316, Westfront, deutscher Panzer in Roye.jpg")
The German response to the Cambrai assault was to develop its own armoured program. Soon the massive [A7V](/wiki/A7V "A7V") appeared. The A7V was a clumsy monster, weighing 30 tons with a crew of eighteen. By the end of the war, only twenty had been built. Although other tanks were on the drawing board, material shortages limited the German tank corps to these A7Vs and some captured Mark IVs. The A7V would be involved in the first tank *vs*. tank battle of the war on 24 April 1918 at [Villers\-Bretonneux](/wiki/Villers-Bretonneux "Villers-Bretonneux")—a battle in which there was no clear winner.
[thumb\|Char [Renault FT](/wiki/Renault_FT "Renault FT"), [Les Invalides](/wiki/Les_Invalides "Les Invalides")](/wiki/File:Char_Renault_FT17_at_the_Invalides.jpg "Char Renault FT17 at the Invalides.jpg")
Parallel to the British development, [France](/wiki/France "France") designed its own tanks. The first two, the medium [Schneider CA](/wiki/Schneider_CA1 "Schneider CA1") and heavy [Saint\-Chamond](/wiki/St_Chamond_%28tank%29 "St Chamond (tank)"), were not well\-conceived, though produced in large numbers and showing technical innovations, as for the latter type a petro\-electrical transmission and a long 75 mm gun. The later [Renault FT](/wiki/Renault_FT-17 "Renault FT-17") was the first operational tank with a "modern" configuration: a revolving turret on top and an engine compartment in the back; it would be the most numerous tank of the war. A last development was the superheavy [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C "Char 2C"), the largest tank ever built, be it some years after the armistice.
[thumb\|left\|WWI\-era French and British tanks](/wiki/File:Tanks_of_WWI.ogv "Tanks of WWI.ogv")
Numerous mechanical failures and the inability of the British and French to mount any sustained drives in the early tank actions cast doubt on their usefulness—and by 1918, tanks were extremely vulnerable unless accompanied by infantry and ground\-attack aircraft, both of which worked to locate and suppress [anti\-tank](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare "Anti-tank warfare") defenses.
The first American\-produced heavy tank was the 43\.5\-ton [Mark VIII](/wiki/Mark_VIII_%28tank%29 "Mark VIII (tank)"), a US\-British development of the successful British heavy tank design. Armed with two 6\-pounder cannon and five .30\-caliber machine guns, it was operated by an 11\-man crew, had a maximum speed of 6\.5 miles per hour, and a range of 50 miles. Production difficulties meant that none was produced before the War ended.
{{Clear}}
### Between the wars
{{Main\|Tanks (1919\-1939\)}}
[thumb\|Medium Mark Cs tanks, an improvement from the [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet "Medium Mark A Whippet")](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg "1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Vickers Medium Mark Is](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") on a manoeuvre somewhere in England, 1930](/wiki/File:Baby_tank.JPG "Baby tank.JPG")
After the Great War, General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff "Erich Ludendorff") of [OHL](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung "Oberste Heeresleitung"), the German High Command, praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.
At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialised infantry\-support weapon for crossing trenches, officers in the [Royal Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Corps "Royal Tank Corps") had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel [J.F.C. Fuller](/wiki/J.F.C._Fuller "J.F.C. Fuller"), the acknowledged{{by whom\|date\=November 2012}} father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called "[Plan 1919](/wiki/Plan_1919 "Plan 1919")". This was an elaborate concept for a mass armoured offensive in 1919\.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force "Experimental Mechanised Force") (EMF) in the late 1920s. This was a small brigade\-sized unit developed to field\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The EMF formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motorised infantry and self\-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\-lived.
In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the [Tank Design Department](/wiki/Tank_Design_Department "Tank Design Department") derived such a type from the [Medium Mark D](/wiki/Medium_Mark_D "Medium Mark D"). In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank.{{citation \|last\=Duncan \|first\=N. W. \|year\=1973 \|title\=Mediums Marks I–III \|location\=Windsor \|publisher\=Profile Publications \|series\=AFV in Profile No. 12 \|page\=2}} but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers [Medium Tank Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") in 1924\. The first prototypes were sent to [Bovington](/wiki/Bovington "Bovington") for trials in 1923\. The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks and served in the [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment "Royal Tank Regiment"), being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be retired in 1938\. The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see "mass" production since the last of the ten [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C "Char 2C")'s had been finished in 1921\. As of the next tank, the [Renault NC27](/wiki/Char_D1%23Renault_NC "Char D1#Renault NC"), only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.
The Medium Mark I successor, the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II "Vickers Medium Mk II") combined some of the best traits of Great War tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the [Vickers Medium Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") and was developed to replace the last of the [Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C "Medium Mark C") still in use. It had a rotating turret on top like the [FT](/wiki/FT-17 "FT-17") but mounted a dual\-purpose [3\-pounder gun](/wiki/3-pounder_gun "3-pounder gun") (that could fire both high\-explosive and anti\-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.
[thumb\|The Medium Mk III in use as a command vehicle](/wiki/File:Medium_Mk_III_command_tank_IWM_MH_8102.jpg "Medium Mk III command tank IWM MH 8102.jpg")
[thumb\|Light Tank Mk II](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg "IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg")
[thumb\|Light Tank Mk IV](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg "IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg")
The [Medium Mark III](/wiki/Medium_Mark_III "Medium Mark III") was ordered in 1928 and proved reliable and a good gun platform. It suffered from a poorly\-designed suspension, road speed increased to {{cvt\|30\|mph\|km/h}} but during cross\-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the [Royal Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Royal_Ordnance_Factory "Royal Ordnance Factory") at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3\. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart "Percy Hobart") for the [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain "Salisbury Plain") exercises during 1934\.AFV Profile *British and Commonwealth Armoured Formations (1919–1946\)* p12
The cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or "cruiser") tanks. In practice the "light tanks" were often small armoured personnel carriers. Army Tank Battalions for infantry\-support required thickly armoured tanks. As a consequence of this doctrinal split, firepower was neglected{{citation needed\|date\=November 2012}} in tank design.
After the First World War, the British began to produce a series of similar [light tanks](/wiki/Light_tank "Light tank") and developed them right up to the Second World War; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser and infantry. The [Infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank") were for the support of infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman and the armour on these tanks was expected to be thick enough to provide immunity against towed anti\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") gained the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured and tended to carry anti\-tank armament.
[left\|thumb\|Light Tank Mk.VIA of the 3rd King's Own Hussars](/wiki/File:IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg "IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|Vickers Light Tank Mk VIC knocked out during an engagement on 27 May 1940 in the Somme sector](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4591.jpg "The British Army in France 1940 F4591.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|British Vickers light tanks cross the desert, 1940](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E443.2.jpg "The British Army in North Africa 1940 E443.2.jpg")
The light tanks were for reconnaissance and colonial policing , with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks.{{citation \|series\=AFV Profile 5 \|title\=Light Tanks Marks I–VI \|last\=Duncan \|first\=Major\-General N. W. \|year\=1969 \|publisher\=Profile Publishing \|location\=Windsor \|page\=2}} They saw use in training and in limited engagements with [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") units such as the [South African Army](/wiki/South_African_Army "South African Army") during the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "East African Campaign (World War II)") against forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire "Italian Empire"). Up until the Mk V, they had a driver–commander and a gunner. The Mk V had a driver, gunner and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942\. Some saw use in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign "Western Desert Campaign") or [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire "Ethiopian Empire"). They were followed by the [Light Tank Mk VI](/wiki/Light_Tank_Mk_VI "Light Tank Mk VI") from 1936\.
The Light Tank Mk VI was the sixth and final design in the line of tanks built by Vickers\-Armstrongs for the British Army during the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"). The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their earlier five models and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks built.{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=303}}
When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the [Imperial General Staff](/wiki/Imperial_General_Staff "Imperial General Staff") considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare.{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=275}} Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army for imperial policing duties in [British India](/wiki/British_India "British India") and other colonies in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), a role for which it and the other Vickers\-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited.Bishop p.23{{Full citation needed\|date\=May 2020}}Tucker, p. 48 When the British government began rearming in the 1930s, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") was ready to proceed with manufacture, the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the cost and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. When the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs \- there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire "Italian Empire") from June 1940 to November 1941\. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. B Squadron [4th Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Royal_Tank_Regiment "4th Royal Tank Regiment") did include small number of [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank").
[thumb\|[Cruiser Mk I (A9\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I")](/wiki/File:Cruiser_tank_Mk_I_Egypt_May_1940_IWM_E_101.jpg "Cruiser tank Mk I Egypt May 1940 IWM E 101.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Cruiser Mk II (A10\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II "Cruiser Mk II")](/wiki/File:CruiserMk2.jpg "CruiserMk2.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A Cruiser Mk III (A13\)](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg "IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg")
In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. [Sir John Carden](/wiki/Sir_John_Carden "Sir John Carden") of [Vickers\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrongs "Vickers-Armstrongs") produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I") (A9\). A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938\. The follow\-up to the A9, the [Cruiser Mk II](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II "Cruiser Mk II") (A10\), was also designed by Carden. Designated as a "heavy cruiser" tank, it was put into production in July 1938\. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I but had thicker armour and was one of the first British tanks with [Spaced armour](/wiki/Spaced_armour "Spaced armour") {{Citation needed\|date\=October 2008}} and the first to be equipped with the [Besa machine gun](/wiki/Besa_machine_gun "Besa machine gun").
Orders for the cruisers Mk I and Mk II were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the [Christie suspension](/wiki/Christie_suspension "Christie suspension") acquired from the American inventor [J. Walter Christie](/wiki/J._Walter_Christie "J. Walter Christie") and have better armour. In 1936, [Giffard LeQuesne Martel](/wiki/Giffard_LeQuesne_Martel "Giffard LeQuesne Martel"), a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured "[tankette](/wiki/Tankette "Tankette")" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the [BT tank](/wiki/BT_tank "BT tank"), which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the [Liberty Engine](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 "Liberty L-12"). The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed [Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero").
The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the [Cruiser Mk III](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_III "Cruiser Mk III") (A13 Mk 1\) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed {{cvt\|14\|LT\|t}}, had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of {{cvt\|30\|mph\|km/h}} and was armed with a [Ordnance QF 2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder "Ordnance QF 2 pounder") gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division.{{cite book \|last\=Steele \|first\=Brett D. \|title\=Military Re\-engineering Between the World Wars \|publisher\=\[\[Rand Corporation]] \|year\=2005 \|isbn\=0\-8330\-3721\-8\| page\=14}} The [Cruiser Mk IV](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_IV "Cruiser Mk IV") (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"Operational use\n---------------",
"### First World War",
"{{Main\\|Tanks in World War I}}\n{{see also\\|British heavy tanks of World War I}}\n[thumb\\|A British [Mark I tank](/wiki/Mark_I_tank \"Mark I tank\") in action on 26 September 1916 (moving left to right). Photo by [Ernest Brooks](/wiki/Ernest_Brooks_%28photographer%29 \"Ernest Brooks (photographer)\").](/wiki/File:British_Mark_I_male_tank_Somme_25_September_1916.jpg \"British Mark I male tank Somme 25 September 1916.jpg\") \nThe British Mark I was the world's first combat tank, entering service in August 1916, and first used in action on the morning of 15 September 1916\\. It was developed to be able to cross trenches, resist small\\-arms fire, travel over difficult terrain, carry supplies, and be able to capture fortified enemy positions. The Mark I was a development of *[Little Willie](/wiki/Little_Willie \"Little Willie\")*, the experimental tank built for the [Landships Committee](/wiki/Landships_Committee \"Landships Committee\") by Lieutenant [Walter Wilson](/wiki/Walter_Gordon_Wilson \"Walter Gordon Wilson\") and [William Tritton](/wiki/William_Tritton \"William Tritton\") in the summer of 1915\\. A small number of Mark I tanks took part in the [battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\") during the [Battle of Flers\\-Courcelette](/wiki/Battle_of_Flers-Courcelette \"Battle of Flers-Courcelette\") in September 1916\\. They were used to cut through barbed wire to clear the way for infantry, and were even driven through houses to destroy machine gunner's emplacements.C.J. Arthur, 'True World War I Stories', page 178, {{ISBN\\|1\\-84119\\-095\\-0}} Although many broke down or became stuck, almost a third that attacked made it across [no man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land \"No man's land\"), and their effect on the enemy was noted, leading to a request by the British C\\-in\\-C [Douglas Haig](/wiki/Douglas_Haig \"Douglas Haig\") for a thousand more. The Mark II and Mark III incorporated minor improvements and changes over the Mark I with the Mark II used in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\") in April 1917 because of delays in the production of the Mark I tank. The Mk IV incorporated thicker armour to resist German armour\\-piercing bullets. The Mark V had more power (150 bhp) and could be steered by one man, thanks to the epicyclic gear system created by Walter Wilson. It was first used in the [Battle of Hamel](/wiki/Battle_of_Hamel \"Battle of Hamel\") on 4 July 1918 when 60 tanks contributed to a successful assault by Australian units on the German lines. During the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 \"Battle of Amiens (1918)\") in August 1918, several hundred of the Mark V and the lengthened Mk V\\* tanks, together with the new [Whippet](/wiki/Whippet_Mk_A \"Whippet Mk A\") tanks, penetrated the German lines in a foretaste of modern armoured warfare.",
"The Mark VI did not progress past the stage of a wooden mock\\-up; the project was cancelled in December 1917 in order that a tank co\\-developed with the US (the Mark VIII) could go forward. Because of technical troubles the Mark VII, almost identical to Mks I to V, had only three produced out of an order for 74 when war ended. The Mark VIII was a cooperative design between the Allies[Glanfield, Devil's Chariots](/wiki/%23Glanfield%2C_Devil%27s_Chariots \"#Glanfield, Devil's Chariots\"), p.290 and was also known as \"Liberty,\" \"International,\" or Anglo\\-American tank. It did not see combat in the war but was used and upgraded until the 1930s when given to Canada for training. The Mark IX was designed in 1917 as the world's first specialised [Armoured Personnel Carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier \"Armoured personnel carrier\") (APC). Thirty\\-four were completed, but none saw service. One was experimentally equipped as an armoured ambulance, and another rebuilt as an amphibious tank by the staff of the test base at [Dollis Hill](/wiki/Dollis_Hill \"Dollis Hill\"). There is photographic evidence that some Mk IX were used post\\-WWI as Infantry Carriers, but no record of their peacetime service is known to exist. The Mark X, a further improvement on the Mk V, was planned but never built.\nThe Medium Mark A Whippet was a [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland \"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\") [tank](/wiki/Tank \"Tank\") of the First World War. It was intended to complement the slower [British heavy tanks](/wiki/Mark_I_tank \"Mark I tank\") by using its relative mobility and speed in exploiting any break in the enemy lines.{{cite book \\|last\\=Trewhitt \\|first\\=Philip \\|title\\=Armoured Fighting Vehicles \\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Dempsey Parr \\|isbn\\=1\\-84084\\-328\\-4 }}\nThe Whippet tanks arrived late in the First World War, and went into action in March 1918\\. Alongside Mark V and V\\* tanks, they took part in the [Amiens offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 \"Battle of Amiens (1918)\") (8 August 1918\\) where they broke through into the German rear areas causing the loss of the artillery in an entire front sector.",
"A first offensive using 49 Mark I tanks took place on 15 September 1916, during the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\"), under Field Marshal [Sir Douglas Haig](/wiki/Sir_Douglas_Haig \"Sir Douglas Haig\"), with limited success.{{cite book \\|first\\=Spencer \\|last\\=Tucker \\|others\\=Priscilla Mary Roberts \\|title\\= World War I: Encyclopedia \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=1\\-85109\\-420\\-2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=B1cMtKQP3P8C}}{{rp\\|1153}} Not until 20 November 1917, at [Cambrai](/wiki/Cambrai \"Cambrai\"), did the British [Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment \"Royal Tank Regiment\") get the conditions it needed for success. Around 400 tanks penetrated almost six miles on a 7\\-mile front. This was their first large\\-scale deployment in combat. Unfortunately, success was not complete because the infantry failed to exploit and secure the tanks' gains. The British scored another victory the following year, on 8 August 1918, with 600 tanks in the [Amiens salient](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 \"Battle of Amiens (1918)\"). General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff \"Erich Ludendorff\") referred to that date as the \"Black Day\" of the German Army.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[A7V tank](/wiki/A7V_tank \"A7V tank\") at [Roye](/wiki/Roye%2C_Somme \"Roye, Somme\") on March 21, 1918](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P1013-316%2C_Westfront%2C_deutscher_Panzer_in_Roye.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-P1013-316, Westfront, deutscher Panzer in Roye.jpg\")\nThe German response to the Cambrai assault was to develop its own armoured program. Soon the massive [A7V](/wiki/A7V \"A7V\") appeared. The A7V was a clumsy monster, weighing 30 tons with a crew of eighteen. By the end of the war, only twenty had been built. Although other tanks were on the drawing board, material shortages limited the German tank corps to these A7Vs and some captured Mark IVs. The A7V would be involved in the first tank *vs*. tank battle of the war on 24 April 1918 at [Villers\\-Bretonneux](/wiki/Villers-Bretonneux \"Villers-Bretonneux\")—a battle in which there was no clear winner.",
"[thumb\\|Char [Renault FT](/wiki/Renault_FT \"Renault FT\"), [Les Invalides](/wiki/Les_Invalides \"Les Invalides\")](/wiki/File:Char_Renault_FT17_at_the_Invalides.jpg \"Char Renault FT17 at the Invalides.jpg\")\nParallel to the British development, [France](/wiki/France \"France\") designed its own tanks. The first two, the medium [Schneider CA](/wiki/Schneider_CA1 \"Schneider CA1\") and heavy [Saint\\-Chamond](/wiki/St_Chamond_%28tank%29 \"St Chamond (tank)\"), were not well\\-conceived, though produced in large numbers and showing technical innovations, as for the latter type a petro\\-electrical transmission and a long 75 mm gun. The later [Renault FT](/wiki/Renault_FT-17 \"Renault FT-17\") was the first operational tank with a \"modern\" configuration: a revolving turret on top and an engine compartment in the back; it would be the most numerous tank of the war. A last development was the superheavy [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C \"Char 2C\"), the largest tank ever built, be it some years after the armistice.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|WWI\\-era French and British tanks](/wiki/File:Tanks_of_WWI.ogv \"Tanks of WWI.ogv\")\nNumerous mechanical failures and the inability of the British and French to mount any sustained drives in the early tank actions cast doubt on their usefulness—and by 1918, tanks were extremely vulnerable unless accompanied by infantry and ground\\-attack aircraft, both of which worked to locate and suppress [anti\\-tank](/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare \"Anti-tank warfare\") defenses.",
"The first American\\-produced heavy tank was the 43\\.5\\-ton [Mark VIII](/wiki/Mark_VIII_%28tank%29 \"Mark VIII (tank)\"), a US\\-British development of the successful British heavy tank design. Armed with two 6\\-pounder cannon and five .30\\-caliber machine guns, it was operated by an 11\\-man crew, had a maximum speed of 6\\.5 miles per hour, and a range of 50 miles. Production difficulties meant that none was produced before the War ended.\n{{Clear}}",
"### Between the wars",
"{{Main\\|Tanks (1919\\-1939\\)}}\n[thumb\\|Medium Mark Cs tanks, an improvement from the [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet \"Medium Mark A Whippet\")](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg \"1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Vickers Medium Mark Is](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") on a manoeuvre somewhere in England, 1930](/wiki/File:Baby_tank.JPG \"Baby tank.JPG\")\nAfter the Great War, General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff \"Erich Ludendorff\") of [OHL](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung \"Oberste Heeresleitung\"), the German High Command, praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.",
"At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialised infantry\\-support weapon for crossing trenches, officers in the [Royal Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Corps \"Royal Tank Corps\") had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel [J.F.C. Fuller](/wiki/J.F.C._Fuller \"J.F.C. Fuller\"), the acknowledged{{by whom\\|date\\=November 2012}} father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called \"[Plan 1919](/wiki/Plan_1919 \"Plan 1919\")\". This was an elaborate concept for a mass armoured offensive in 1919\\.",
"An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force \"Experimental Mechanised Force\") (EMF) in the late 1920s. This was a small brigade\\-sized unit developed to field\\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The EMF formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motorised infantry and self\\-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\\-lived.",
"In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the [Tank Design Department](/wiki/Tank_Design_Department \"Tank Design Department\") derived such a type from the [Medium Mark D](/wiki/Medium_Mark_D \"Medium Mark D\"). In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank.{{citation \\|last\\=Duncan \\|first\\=N. W. \\|year\\=1973 \\|title\\=Mediums Marks I–III \\|location\\=Windsor \\|publisher\\=Profile Publications \\|series\\=AFV in Profile No. 12 \\|page\\=2}} but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers [Medium Tank Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") in 1924\\. The first prototypes were sent to [Bovington](/wiki/Bovington \"Bovington\") for trials in 1923\\. The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks and served in the [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment \"Royal Tank Regiment\"), being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be retired in 1938\\. The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see \"mass\" production since the last of the ten [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C \"Char 2C\")'s had been finished in 1921\\. As of the next tank, the [Renault NC27](/wiki/Char_D1%23Renault_NC \"Char D1#Renault NC\"), only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.",
"The Medium Mark I successor, the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II \"Vickers Medium Mk II\") combined some of the best traits of Great War tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the [Vickers Medium Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") and was developed to replace the last of the [Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C \"Medium Mark C\") still in use. It had a rotating turret on top like the [FT](/wiki/FT-17 \"FT-17\") but mounted a dual\\-purpose [3\\-pounder gun](/wiki/3-pounder_gun \"3-pounder gun\") (that could fire both high\\-explosive and anti\\-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.",
"[thumb\\|The Medium Mk III in use as a command vehicle](/wiki/File:Medium_Mk_III_command_tank_IWM_MH_8102.jpg \"Medium Mk III command tank IWM MH 8102.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Light Tank Mk II](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg \"IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Light Tank Mk IV](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg \"IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg\")",
"The [Medium Mark III](/wiki/Medium_Mark_III \"Medium Mark III\") was ordered in 1928 and proved reliable and a good gun platform. It suffered from a poorly\\-designed suspension, road speed increased to {{cvt\\|30\\|mph\\|km/h}} but during cross\\-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the [Royal Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Royal_Ordnance_Factory \"Royal Ordnance Factory\") at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3\\. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart \"Percy Hobart\") for the [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain \"Salisbury Plain\") exercises during 1934\\.AFV Profile *British and Commonwealth Armoured Formations (1919–1946\\)* p12",
"The cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or \"cruiser\") tanks. In practice the \"light tanks\" were often small armoured personnel carriers. Army Tank Battalions for infantry\\-support required thickly armoured tanks. As a consequence of this doctrinal split, firepower was neglected{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2012}} in tank design.",
"After the First World War, the British began to produce a series of similar [light tanks](/wiki/Light_tank \"Light tank\") and developed them right up to the Second World War; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser and infantry. The [Infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\") were for the support of infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman and the armour on these tanks was expected to be thick enough to provide immunity against towed anti\\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") gained the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured and tended to carry anti\\-tank armament.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Light Tank Mk.VIA of the 3rd King's Own Hussars](/wiki/File:IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg \"IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Vickers Light Tank Mk VIC knocked out during an engagement on 27 May 1940 in the Somme sector](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4591.jpg \"The British Army in France 1940 F4591.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|British Vickers light tanks cross the desert, 1940](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E443.2.jpg \"The British Army in North Africa 1940 E443.2.jpg\")",
"The light tanks were for reconnaissance and colonial policing , with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks.{{citation \\|series\\=AFV Profile 5 \\|title\\=Light Tanks Marks I–VI \\|last\\=Duncan \\|first\\=Major\\-General N. W. \\|year\\=1969 \\|publisher\\=Profile Publishing \\|location\\=Windsor \\|page\\=2}} They saw use in training and in limited engagements with [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") units such as the [South African Army](/wiki/South_African_Army \"South African Army\") during the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"East African Campaign (World War II)\") against forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire \"Italian Empire\"). Up until the Mk V, they had a driver–commander and a gunner. The Mk V had a driver, gunner and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942\\. Some saw use in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign \"Western Desert Campaign\") or [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire \"Ethiopian Empire\"). They were followed by the [Light Tank Mk VI](/wiki/Light_Tank_Mk_VI \"Light Tank Mk VI\") from 1936\\.",
"The Light Tank Mk VI was the sixth and final design in the line of tanks built by Vickers\\-Armstrongs for the British Army during the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"). The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their earlier five models and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks built.{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=303}}",
"When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the [Imperial General Staff](/wiki/Imperial_General_Staff \"Imperial General Staff\") considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare.{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=275}} Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army for imperial policing duties in [British India](/wiki/British_India \"British India\") and other colonies in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), a role for which it and the other Vickers\\-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited.Bishop p.23{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}}Tucker, p. 48 When the British government began rearming in the 1930s, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") was ready to proceed with manufacture, the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed \"Sixteen Tonner\" medium tank in 1932 due to the cost and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. When the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs \\- there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire \"Italian Empire\") from June 1940 to November 1941\\. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. B Squadron [4th Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Royal_Tank_Regiment \"4th Royal Tank Regiment\") did include small number of [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\").\n[thumb\\|[Cruiser Mk I (A9\\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\")](/wiki/File:Cruiser_tank_Mk_I_Egypt_May_1940_IWM_E_101.jpg \"Cruiser tank Mk I Egypt May 1940 IWM E 101.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Cruiser Mk II (A10\\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II \"Cruiser Mk II\")](/wiki/File:CruiserMk2.jpg \"CruiserMk2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A Cruiser Mk III (A13\\)](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg \"IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg\")",
"In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. [Sir John Carden](/wiki/Sir_John_Carden \"Sir John Carden\") of [Vickers\\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrongs \"Vickers-Armstrongs\") produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\") (A9\\). A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938\\. The follow\\-up to the A9, the [Cruiser Mk II](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II \"Cruiser Mk II\") (A10\\), was also designed by Carden. Designated as a \"heavy cruiser\" tank, it was put into production in July 1938\\. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I but had thicker armour and was one of the first British tanks with [Spaced armour](/wiki/Spaced_armour \"Spaced armour\") {{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2008}} and the first to be equipped with the [Besa machine gun](/wiki/Besa_machine_gun \"Besa machine gun\").",
"Orders for the cruisers Mk I and Mk II were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the [Christie suspension](/wiki/Christie_suspension \"Christie suspension\") acquired from the American inventor [J. Walter Christie](/wiki/J._Walter_Christie \"J. Walter Christie\") and have better armour. In 1936, [Giffard LeQuesne Martel](/wiki/Giffard_LeQuesne_Martel \"Giffard LeQuesne Martel\"), a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured \"[tankette](/wiki/Tankette \"Tankette\")\" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the [BT tank](/wiki/BT_tank \"BT tank\"), which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the [Liberty Engine](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 \"Liberty L-12\"). The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed [Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero\").",
"The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the [Cruiser Mk III](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_III \"Cruiser Mk III\") (A13 Mk 1\\) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed {{cvt\\|14\\|LT\\|t}}, had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of {{cvt\\|30\\|mph\\|km/h}} and was armed with a [Ordnance QF 2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder \"Ordnance QF 2 pounder\") gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division.{{cite book \\|last\\=Steele \\|first\\=Brett D. \\|title\\=Military Re\\-engineering Between the World Wars \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rand Corporation]] \\|year\\=2005 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8330\\-3721\\-8\\| page\\=14}} The [Cruiser Mk IV](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_IV \"Cruiser Mk IV\") (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.\n{{Clear}}",
""
] |
### Between the wars
{{Main\|Tanks (1919\-1939\)}}
[thumb\|Medium Mark Cs tanks, an improvement from the [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet "Medium Mark A Whippet")](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg "1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Vickers Medium Mark Is](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") on a manoeuvre somewhere in England, 1930](/wiki/File:Baby_tank.JPG "Baby tank.JPG")
After the Great War, General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff "Erich Ludendorff") of [OHL](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung "Oberste Heeresleitung"), the German High Command, praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.
At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialised infantry\-support weapon for crossing trenches, officers in the [Royal Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Corps "Royal Tank Corps") had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel [J.F.C. Fuller](/wiki/J.F.C._Fuller "J.F.C. Fuller"), the acknowledged{{by whom\|date\=November 2012}} father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called "[Plan 1919](/wiki/Plan_1919 "Plan 1919")". This was an elaborate concept for a mass armoured offensive in 1919\.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force "Experimental Mechanised Force") (EMF) in the late 1920s. This was a small brigade\-sized unit developed to field\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The EMF formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motorised infantry and self\-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\-lived.
In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the [Tank Design Department](/wiki/Tank_Design_Department "Tank Design Department") derived such a type from the [Medium Mark D](/wiki/Medium_Mark_D "Medium Mark D"). In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank.{{citation \|last\=Duncan \|first\=N. W. \|year\=1973 \|title\=Mediums Marks I–III \|location\=Windsor \|publisher\=Profile Publications \|series\=AFV in Profile No. 12 \|page\=2}} but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers [Medium Tank Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") in 1924\. The first prototypes were sent to [Bovington](/wiki/Bovington "Bovington") for trials in 1923\. The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks and served in the [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment "Royal Tank Regiment"), being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be retired in 1938\. The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see "mass" production since the last of the ten [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C "Char 2C")'s had been finished in 1921\. As of the next tank, the [Renault NC27](/wiki/Char_D1%23Renault_NC "Char D1#Renault NC"), only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.
The Medium Mark I successor, the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II "Vickers Medium Mk II") combined some of the best traits of Great War tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the [Vickers Medium Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I "Vickers Medium Mark I") and was developed to replace the last of the [Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C "Medium Mark C") still in use. It had a rotating turret on top like the [FT](/wiki/FT-17 "FT-17") but mounted a dual\-purpose [3\-pounder gun](/wiki/3-pounder_gun "3-pounder gun") (that could fire both high\-explosive and anti\-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.
[thumb\|The Medium Mk III in use as a command vehicle](/wiki/File:Medium_Mk_III_command_tank_IWM_MH_8102.jpg "Medium Mk III command tank IWM MH 8102.jpg")
[thumb\|Light Tank Mk II](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg "IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg")
[thumb\|Light Tank Mk IV](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg "IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg")
The [Medium Mark III](/wiki/Medium_Mark_III "Medium Mark III") was ordered in 1928 and proved reliable and a good gun platform. It suffered from a poorly\-designed suspension, road speed increased to {{cvt\|30\|mph\|km/h}} but during cross\-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the [Royal Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Royal_Ordnance_Factory "Royal Ordnance Factory") at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3\. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart "Percy Hobart") for the [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain "Salisbury Plain") exercises during 1934\.AFV Profile *British and Commonwealth Armoured Formations (1919–1946\)* p12
The cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or "cruiser") tanks. In practice the "light tanks" were often small armoured personnel carriers. Army Tank Battalions for infantry\-support required thickly armoured tanks. As a consequence of this doctrinal split, firepower was neglected{{citation needed\|date\=November 2012}} in tank design.
After the First World War, the British began to produce a series of similar [light tanks](/wiki/Light_tank "Light tank") and developed them right up to the Second World War; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser and infantry. The [Infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank") were for the support of infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman and the armour on these tanks was expected to be thick enough to provide immunity against towed anti\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") gained the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured and tended to carry anti\-tank armament.
[left\|thumb\|Light Tank Mk.VIA of the 3rd King's Own Hussars](/wiki/File:IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg "IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|Vickers Light Tank Mk VIC knocked out during an engagement on 27 May 1940 in the Somme sector](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4591.jpg "The British Army in France 1940 F4591.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|British Vickers light tanks cross the desert, 1940](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E443.2.jpg "The British Army in North Africa 1940 E443.2.jpg")
The light tanks were for reconnaissance and colonial policing , with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks.{{citation \|series\=AFV Profile 5 \|title\=Light Tanks Marks I–VI \|last\=Duncan \|first\=Major\-General N. W. \|year\=1969 \|publisher\=Profile Publishing \|location\=Windsor \|page\=2}} They saw use in training and in limited engagements with [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") units such as the [South African Army](/wiki/South_African_Army "South African Army") during the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "East African Campaign (World War II)") against forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire "Italian Empire"). Up until the Mk V, they had a driver–commander and a gunner. The Mk V had a driver, gunner and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942\. Some saw use in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign "Western Desert Campaign") or [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire "Ethiopian Empire"). They were followed by the [Light Tank Mk VI](/wiki/Light_Tank_Mk_VI "Light Tank Mk VI") from 1936\.
The Light Tank Mk VI was the sixth and final design in the line of tanks built by Vickers\-Armstrongs for the British Army during the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"). The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their earlier five models and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks built.{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=303}}
When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the [Imperial General Staff](/wiki/Imperial_General_Staff "Imperial General Staff") considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare.{{harvnb\|Harris\|1995\|page\=275}} Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army for imperial policing duties in [British India](/wiki/British_India "British India") and other colonies in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), a role for which it and the other Vickers\-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited.Bishop p.23{{Full citation needed\|date\=May 2020}}Tucker, p. 48 When the British government began rearming in the 1930s, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") was ready to proceed with manufacture, the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the cost and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. When the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs \- there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire "Italian Empire") from June 1940 to November 1941\. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. B Squadron [4th Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Royal_Tank_Regiment "4th Royal Tank Regiment") did include small number of [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank "Infantry tank").
[thumb\|[Cruiser Mk I (A9\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I")](/wiki/File:Cruiser_tank_Mk_I_Egypt_May_1940_IWM_E_101.jpg "Cruiser tank Mk I Egypt May 1940 IWM E 101.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Cruiser Mk II (A10\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II "Cruiser Mk II")](/wiki/File:CruiserMk2.jpg "CruiserMk2.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A Cruiser Mk III (A13\)](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg "IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg")
In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. [Sir John Carden](/wiki/Sir_John_Carden "Sir John Carden") of [Vickers\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrongs "Vickers-Armstrongs") produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I") (A9\). A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938\. The follow\-up to the A9, the [Cruiser Mk II](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II "Cruiser Mk II") (A10\), was also designed by Carden. Designated as a "heavy cruiser" tank, it was put into production in July 1938\. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I but had thicker armour and was one of the first British tanks with [Spaced armour](/wiki/Spaced_armour "Spaced armour") {{Citation needed\|date\=October 2008}} and the first to be equipped with the [Besa machine gun](/wiki/Besa_machine_gun "Besa machine gun").
Orders for the cruisers Mk I and Mk II were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the [Christie suspension](/wiki/Christie_suspension "Christie suspension") acquired from the American inventor [J. Walter Christie](/wiki/J._Walter_Christie "J. Walter Christie") and have better armour. In 1936, [Giffard LeQuesne Martel](/wiki/Giffard_LeQuesne_Martel "Giffard LeQuesne Martel"), a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured "[tankette](/wiki/Tankette "Tankette")" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the [BT tank](/wiki/BT_tank "BT tank"), which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the [Liberty Engine](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 "Liberty L-12"). The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed [Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero").
The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the [Cruiser Mk III](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_III "Cruiser Mk III") (A13 Mk 1\) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed {{cvt\|14\|LT\|t}}, had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of {{cvt\|30\|mph\|km/h}} and was armed with a [Ordnance QF 2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder "Ordnance QF 2 pounder") gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division.{{cite book \|last\=Steele \|first\=Brett D. \|title\=Military Re\-engineering Between the World Wars \|publisher\=\[\[Rand Corporation]] \|year\=2005 \|isbn\=0\-8330\-3721\-8\| page\=14}} The [Cruiser Mk IV](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_IV "Cruiser Mk IV") (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"### Between the wars",
"{{Main\\|Tanks (1919\\-1939\\)}}\n[thumb\\|Medium Mark Cs tanks, an improvement from the [Whippet](/wiki/Medium_Mark_A_Whippet \"Medium Mark A Whippet\")](/wiki/File:1919_Battle_of_George_Square_-_tanks_and_soldiers.jpg \"1919 Battle of George Square - tanks and soldiers.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Vickers Medium Mark Is](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") on a manoeuvre somewhere in England, 1930](/wiki/File:Baby_tank.JPG \"Baby tank.JPG\")\nAfter the Great War, General [Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff \"Erich Ludendorff\") of [OHL](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung \"Oberste Heeresleitung\"), the German High Command, praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.",
"At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialised infantry\\-support weapon for crossing trenches, officers in the [Royal Tank Corps](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Corps \"Royal Tank Corps\") had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel [J.F.C. Fuller](/wiki/J.F.C._Fuller \"J.F.C. Fuller\"), the acknowledged{{by whom\\|date\\=November 2012}} father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called \"[Plan 1919](/wiki/Plan_1919 \"Plan 1919\")\". This was an elaborate concept for a mass armoured offensive in 1919\\.",
"An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the [Experimental Mechanised Force](/wiki/Experimental_Mechanised_Force \"Experimental Mechanised Force\") (EMF) in the late 1920s. This was a small brigade\\-sized unit developed to field\\-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The EMF formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motorised infantry and self\\-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short\\-lived.",
"In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the [Tank Design Department](/wiki/Tank_Design_Department \"Tank Design Department\") derived such a type from the [Medium Mark D](/wiki/Medium_Mark_D \"Medium Mark D\"). In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank.{{citation \\|last\\=Duncan \\|first\\=N. W. \\|year\\=1973 \\|title\\=Mediums Marks I–III \\|location\\=Windsor \\|publisher\\=Profile Publications \\|series\\=AFV in Profile No. 12 \\|page\\=2}} but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers [Medium Tank Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") in 1924\\. The first prototypes were sent to [Bovington](/wiki/Bovington \"Bovington\") for trials in 1923\\. The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks and served in the [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment \"Royal Tank Regiment\"), being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be retired in 1938\\. The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see \"mass\" production since the last of the ten [Char 2C](/wiki/Char_2C \"Char 2C\")'s had been finished in 1921\\. As of the next tank, the [Renault NC27](/wiki/Char_D1%23Renault_NC \"Char D1#Renault NC\"), only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.",
"The Medium Mark I successor, the [Vickers Medium Mk II](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mk_II \"Vickers Medium Mk II\") combined some of the best traits of Great War tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the [Vickers Medium Mark I](/wiki/Vickers_Medium_Mark_I \"Vickers Medium Mark I\") and was developed to replace the last of the [Medium Mark Cs](/wiki/Medium_Mark_C \"Medium Mark C\") still in use. It had a rotating turret on top like the [FT](/wiki/FT-17 \"FT-17\") but mounted a dual\\-purpose [3\\-pounder gun](/wiki/3-pounder_gun \"3-pounder gun\") (that could fire both high\\-explosive and anti\\-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.",
"[thumb\\|The Medium Mk III in use as a command vehicle](/wiki/File:Medium_Mk_III_command_tank_IWM_MH_8102.jpg \"Medium Mk III command tank IWM MH 8102.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Light Tank Mk II](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg \"IWM-KID-226-Light-tank-MkII.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Light Tank Mk IV](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg \"IWM-KID-329-Light-tank-MkIV.jpg\")",
"The [Medium Mark III](/wiki/Medium_Mark_III \"Medium Mark III\") was ordered in 1928 and proved reliable and a good gun platform. It suffered from a poorly\\-designed suspension, road speed increased to {{cvt\\|30\\|mph\\|km/h}} but during cross\\-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the [Royal Ordnance Factory](/wiki/Royal_Ordnance_Factory \"Royal Ordnance Factory\") at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3\\. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier [Percy Hobart](/wiki/Percy_Hobart \"Percy Hobart\") for the [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain \"Salisbury Plain\") exercises during 1934\\.AFV Profile *British and Commonwealth Armoured Formations (1919–1946\\)* p12",
"The cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or \"cruiser\") tanks. In practice the \"light tanks\" were often small armoured personnel carriers. Army Tank Battalions for infantry\\-support required thickly armoured tanks. As a consequence of this doctrinal split, firepower was neglected{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2012}} in tank design.",
"After the First World War, the British began to produce a series of similar [light tanks](/wiki/Light_tank \"Light tank\") and developed them right up to the Second World War; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser and infantry. The [Infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\") were for the support of infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman and the armour on these tanks was expected to be thick enough to provide immunity against towed anti\\-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. [Cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") gained the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured and tended to carry anti\\-tank armament.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Light Tank Mk.VIA of the 3rd King's Own Hussars](/wiki/File:IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg \"IWM-ARMY-TRAINING-6-6-light-tank-MkVIA-c1937.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Vickers Light Tank Mk VIC knocked out during an engagement on 27 May 1940 in the Somme sector](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4591.jpg \"The British Army in France 1940 F4591.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|British Vickers light tanks cross the desert, 1940](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1940_E443.2.jpg \"The British Army in North Africa 1940 E443.2.jpg\")",
"The light tanks were for reconnaissance and colonial policing , with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks.{{citation \\|series\\=AFV Profile 5 \\|title\\=Light Tanks Marks I–VI \\|last\\=Duncan \\|first\\=Major\\-General N. W. \\|year\\=1969 \\|publisher\\=Profile Publishing \\|location\\=Windsor \\|page\\=2}} They saw use in training and in limited engagements with [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") units such as the [South African Army](/wiki/South_African_Army \"South African Army\") during the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"East African Campaign (World War II)\") against forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire \"Italian Empire\"). Up until the Mk V, they had a driver–commander and a gunner. The Mk V had a driver, gunner and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942\\. Some saw use in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign \"Western Desert Campaign\") or [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire \"Ethiopian Empire\"). They were followed by the [Light Tank Mk VI](/wiki/Light_Tank_Mk_VI \"Light Tank Mk VI\") from 1936\\.",
"The Light Tank Mk VI was the sixth and final design in the line of tanks built by Vickers\\-Armstrongs for the British Army during the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"). The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their earlier five models and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks built.{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=303}}",
"When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the [Imperial General Staff](/wiki/Imperial_General_Staff \"Imperial General Staff\") considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare.{{harvnb\\|Harris\\|1995\\|page\\=275}} Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army for imperial policing duties in [British India](/wiki/British_India \"British India\") and other colonies in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), a role for which it and the other Vickers\\-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited.Bishop p.23{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}}Tucker, p. 48 When the British government began rearming in the 1930s, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") was ready to proceed with manufacture, the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed \"Sixteen Tonner\" medium tank in 1932 due to the cost and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. When the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs \\- there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the [Italian Empire](/wiki/Italian_Empire \"Italian Empire\") from June 1940 to November 1941\\. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. B Squadron [4th Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/4th_Royal_Tank_Regiment \"4th Royal Tank Regiment\") did include small number of [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") [infantry tanks](/wiki/Infantry_tank \"Infantry tank\").\n[thumb\\|[Cruiser Mk I (A9\\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\")](/wiki/File:Cruiser_tank_Mk_I_Egypt_May_1940_IWM_E_101.jpg \"Cruiser tank Mk I Egypt May 1940 IWM E 101.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Cruiser Mk II (A10\\)](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II \"Cruiser Mk II\")](/wiki/File:CruiserMk2.jpg \"CruiserMk2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A Cruiser Mk III (A13\\)](/wiki/File:IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg \"IWM-KID-358-Cruiser-MkIII.jpg\")",
"In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. [Sir John Carden](/wiki/Sir_John_Carden \"Sir John Carden\") of [Vickers\\-Armstrong](/wiki/Vickers-Armstrongs \"Vickers-Armstrongs\") produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\") (A9\\). A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938\\. The follow\\-up to the A9, the [Cruiser Mk II](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_II \"Cruiser Mk II\") (A10\\), was also designed by Carden. Designated as a \"heavy cruiser\" tank, it was put into production in July 1938\\. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I but had thicker armour and was one of the first British tanks with [Spaced armour](/wiki/Spaced_armour \"Spaced armour\") {{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2008}} and the first to be equipped with the [Besa machine gun](/wiki/Besa_machine_gun \"Besa machine gun\").",
"Orders for the cruisers Mk I and Mk II were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the [Christie suspension](/wiki/Christie_suspension \"Christie suspension\") acquired from the American inventor [J. Walter Christie](/wiki/J._Walter_Christie \"J. Walter Christie\") and have better armour. In 1936, [Giffard LeQuesne Martel](/wiki/Giffard_LeQuesne_Martel \"Giffard LeQuesne Martel\"), a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured \"[tankette](/wiki/Tankette \"Tankette\")\" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the [BT tank](/wiki/BT_tank \"BT tank\"), which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the [Liberty Engine](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 \"Liberty L-12\"). The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed [Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero\").",
"The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the [Cruiser Mk III](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_III \"Cruiser Mk III\") (A13 Mk 1\\) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed {{cvt\\|14\\|LT\\|t}}, had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of {{cvt\\|30\\|mph\\|km/h}} and was armed with a [Ordnance QF 2 pounder](/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder \"Ordnance QF 2 pounder\") gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division.{{cite book \\|last\\=Steele \\|first\\=Brett D. \\|title\\=Military Re\\-engineering Between the World Wars \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rand Corporation]] \\|year\\=2005 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8330\\-3721\\-8\\| page\\=14}} The [Cruiser Mk IV](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_IV \"Cruiser Mk IV\") (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.\n{{Clear}}",
""
] |
Secondary Campaigns
-------------------
[thumb\|320px\|left\|all tanks operated by the British during WW2](/wiki/File:British_tanks_of_WW2.jpg "British tanks of WW2.jpg")
The Mk I (A9\) cruiser was used in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. Sixty British Cruiser Mk II's went to Greece with the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and fought against the German tanks, but over 90% suffered mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action. The Cruiser Mk III saw action in Greece and early North African campaigns where they equipped units of the 7th Armoured Division. The Cruiser Mk IV tank saw action in the French and early North African campaigns.
The Cruiser tank Mk V Covenanter was first cruiser tank design to be given a name, and never deployed outside the British Isles. They first were used to re\-equip the British 1st Armoured Division after the Fall of France.
[thumb\|Cruiser tank Mk V Covenanters of the 2nd (Armoured) Irish Guards, Guards Armoured Division](/wiki/Image:IWM-H-17550-Covenanter-19420303.jpg "IWM-H-17550-Covenanter-19420303.jpg")
[thumb\|Crusader Mk III](/wiki/File:Crusader_tank_III.jpg "Crusader tank III.jpg")
The Crusader tanks became the main British tank, the A15 Crusader Mark I and II variants had QF 2 pounder (40mm) main gun, but the 'Crusader III' was fitted with an Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57mm) main gun. It used the same main turret as the A13 Mk III Covenanter designs, and over 5,000 tanks were manufactured. The A15 Crusader Mark III and Mark IV finally replaced most tanks in the British forces after the fall of France and was used extensively during the North African Campaign.
### Desert Campaign
[left\|thumb\|An A12 Infantry Tank Mark II best known as [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") advancing through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") as part of [Operation Compass](/wiki/Operation_Compass "Operation Compass")](/wiki/File:Matilda_Compass.jpg "Matilda Compass.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A Crusader II tank in the Western Desert, 2 October 1942](/wiki/File:IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg "IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|A British Cruiser Mk IV tank destroyed in the [North African Campaign](/wiki/North_African_Campaign "North African Campaign")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-782-0016-08A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_zerst%C3%B6rter_englischer_Panzer.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-782-0016-08A, Nordafrika, zerstörter englischer Panzer.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|A Valentine in North Africa, carrying infantry from a Scottish regiment](/wiki/File:Valentine_tank_Mk3_desert.jpg "Valentine tank Mk3 desert.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|Churchill tanks of '[Kingforce](/wiki/Kingforce "Kingforce")' during the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein")](/wiki/File:Churchill_III_tanks_of_%27Kingforce%27%2C_1st_Armoured_Division%2C_in_the_Western_Desert%2C_5_November_1942._E18991.jpg "Churchill III tanks of 'Kingforce', 1st Armoured Division, in the Western Desert, 5 November 1942. E18991.jpg")
When the BEF returned to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti\-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the {{convert\|88\|mm\|in}} anti\-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti\-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein") in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.
Combat experience against the Germans in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign "Western Desert Campaign") demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their [cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tanks "Cruiser tanks"). The [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I") was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2\-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10\), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War. Their cross\-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.
Hence a request was made in 1941 to the [Nuffield Organization's subsidiary](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero") and [Leyland Motors](/wiki/Leyland_Motors "Leyland Motors") for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called "Comet" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the "77mm HV". This gun used the same [calibre](/wiki/Caliber "Caliber") (76\.2 mm) projectiles as the 17\-pounder but the shell casing was from the older [QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun](/wiki/QF_3_inch_20_cwt_gun "QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun") (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank. The [A34 Comet](/wiki/Comet_tank "Comet tank") began to be delivered by September 1944\. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German [Ardennes Offensive](/wiki/Ardennes_Offensive "Ardennes Offensive"). By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.
They were followed by the [Valentine tank](/wiki/Valentine_tank "Valentine tank") (Infantry Tank Mk III) and [Churchill tank](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank") (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered "off the drawing board" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two\-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a "shelled area" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918\. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941\. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.
As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the "universal tank" in the form of the [Centurion](/wiki/Centurion_tank "Centurion tank").{{sfn\|Fletcher, Universal Tank\|pages\=119–122}}
[thumb\|Centurion tank](/wiki/File:Centurion_Tank_Waiouru.jpg "Centurion Tank Waiouru.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A British M3 (Stuart I) knocked out during fighting in North Africa](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-783-0107-14A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_amerikanischer_Panzer_M3_%22Stuart%22.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0107-14A, Nordafrika, amerikanischer Panzer M3 ")
[thumb\|right\|Stuart tanks of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars in North Africa, August 1941](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1941_E3469E.jpg "The British Army in North Africa 1941 E3469E.jpg")
In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.
The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early [North African campaigns](/wiki/North_African_campaign "North African campaign"). The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps "Afrika Korps"). Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti\-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of [High Explosive](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29%23High-explosive "Shell (projectile)#High-explosive") shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped [glacis](/wiki/Glacis "Glacis").
A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk "Tobruk") in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment "Royal Tank Regiment") and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks).See Robert Crisp, Brazen Chariots (W.W. Norton \& Co. 2005\), at 15\. (See "A Tankie's Travels" By Robert Watt {{ISBN\|1\-84683\-021\-4}})
The bright spots of British tank design included the [Valentine](/wiki/Valentine_tank "Valentine tank"), [Churchill (A22\)](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank"), [Cromwell (A27M)](/wiki/Cromwell_tank "Cromwell tank"), and [Comet I (A34\)](/wiki/Comet_tank "Comet tank"), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry\-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off\-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop\-gap, the Challenger (A30\) Cruiser Tank, mounted a [17 Pounder](/wiki/17_Pounder "17 Pounder") gun on a lengthened [Cromwell](/wiki/Cromwell_tank "Cromwell tank") chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti\-tank firepower to [cruiser tank](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.
{{Clear}}
### US imports
[thumb\|left\|British Grant (left) and Lee (right) tanks in the Egyptian desert](/wiki/File:M-3Grants-E_014053.2.jpg "M-3Grants-E 014053.2.jpg")
Beginning about 1942, most British tank units were equipped with vehicles supplied from the United States, such as the [Stuart](/wiki/Stuart_tank "Stuart tank") light tank, the [Lee](/wiki/M3_Lee "M3 Lee") (or the Grant variant thereof) and the Lee's/Grant's replacement, the [Sherman](/wiki/M4_Sherman "M4 Sherman"). The [Stuart tanks](/wiki/Stuart_tank "Stuart tank") were the first to come in with the 8th Hussars, and were part of the force of the 1st Armoured Division and also were part of the 4th Armoured Brigade and used for [Operation Crusader](/wiki/Operation_Crusader "Operation Crusader").
{{Clear}}
### D\-Day
[thumb\|British Cromwell tank](/wiki/File:Cromwell_Tank.jpg "Cromwell Tank.jpg")
[thumb\|Mk IV Churchill (A22\) Infantry tank](/wiki/File:ChurchillTank.jpg "ChurchillTank.jpg")
Immediately before and during the war, the British produced an enormous array of prototype tanks and modified tanks for a variety of specialist tasks (see [Hobart's Funnies](/wiki/Hobart%27s_Funnies "Hobart's Funnies")). For example, the [Churchill AVRE](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank") mounted a 230 mm (11\.4") direct\-fire [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)") which was used for destroying buildings and clearing obstacles. Responsibility for the buildup of vehicles and the training of crews to use them was given to armoured warfare expert Percy Hobart after whom the collection was named.
Many of the ideas had already been tried, tested or were in experimental development both by Britain and other nations. For example, the Scorpion flail tank (a modified Matilda tank) had already been used during the North African campaign to clear paths through German minefields. Soviet T\-34 tanks had been modified with mine\-rollers. Close\-support tanks, bridgelayers, and fascine carriers had been developed elsewhere also. However, the Funnies were the largest and most elaborate collection of engineering vehicles available.
By early 1944, Hobart could demonstrate to Eisenhower and Montgomery a brigade each of swimming DD tanks, Crab mine clearers, and AVRE (Engineer) tanks along with a regiment of Crocodile flamethrowing tanks.
Montgomery considered that the U.S. forces should use them, and offered them a half\-share of all the vehicles available, but take\-up was minimal. Eisenhower was in favour of the amphibious tanks but left the decision on the others to [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant general (United States)") [Omar Bradley](/wiki/Omar_Bradley "Omar Bradley"), then commanding the [U.S. First Army](/wiki/First_United_States_Army "First United States Army"). Bradley requested 25 flail tanks and 100 Churchill Crocodiles and the British [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") agreed to supply them as well as British\-crewed AVREs. In the event though there was insufficient time to produce the vehicles and train the crews so on the day American forces were limited to DD tanks and their own Sherman bulldozer tanks and armoured bulldozers.{{citation \|last\=Caddick\-Adams \|first \=Peter \|title\=Sand and Steel: A New History of D\-Day \|publisher\=Random House \|date\=2019 \|page\= }}
The British at Normandy were re\-equipped with some of the newer British and American tanks and a few days after D\-Day, the Armoured Reconnaissance regiment of the [7th Armoured Division](/wiki/7th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)") landed at Le Hamel on Gold Beach with Cromwell tanks and began going into action almost immediately in the [fighting around Villers\-Bocage](/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-Bocage "Battle of Villers-Bocage").{{harvnb\|Bellamy\|2005\|pp\=18–20}}{{Full citation needed\|date\=May 2020}} The tanks were used in the advance through the Bocage with the [22nd Armoured Brigade](/wiki/22nd_Armoured_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "22nd Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)"). They were involved in action against the [2nd Panzer Division](/wiki/2nd_Panzer_Division "2nd Panzer Division"), with the tanks leading the way out of the bridgehead.
File:IWM\-H\-35169\-valentine\-dd\-gosport\-19440114\.jpg\|Valentine DD tank with screen lowered and gun pointing towards the rear of the vehicle.
File:Challenger axb01\.jpg\|British Challenger (A30\) tank
File:Comet tanks of the 2nd Fife and Forfar Yeomanry, 11th Armoured Division, crossing the Weser at Petershagen, Germany, 7 April 1945\. BU3200\.jpg\|Comet tanks of the \[\[2nd Fife and Forfar Yeomanry]], \[\[11th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)\|11th Armoured Division]], crossing the \[\[Weser]] at Petershagen, Germany, 7 April 1945
File:Hamburg Liberation 04\.jpg\|Sherman Firefly – Hamburg 1945
|
[
"Secondary Campaigns\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|320px\\|left\\|all tanks operated by the British during WW2](/wiki/File:British_tanks_of_WW2.jpg \"British tanks of WW2.jpg\")\nThe Mk I (A9\\) cruiser was used in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. Sixty British Cruiser Mk II's went to Greece with the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and fought against the German tanks, but over 90% suffered mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action. The Cruiser Mk III saw action in Greece and early North African campaigns where they equipped units of the 7th Armoured Division. The Cruiser Mk IV tank saw action in the French and early North African campaigns.",
"The Cruiser tank Mk V Covenanter was first cruiser tank design to be given a name, and never deployed outside the British Isles. They first were used to re\\-equip the British 1st Armoured Division after the Fall of France.\n[thumb\\|Cruiser tank Mk V Covenanters of the 2nd (Armoured) Irish Guards, Guards Armoured Division](/wiki/Image:IWM-H-17550-Covenanter-19420303.jpg \"IWM-H-17550-Covenanter-19420303.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Crusader Mk III](/wiki/File:Crusader_tank_III.jpg \"Crusader tank III.jpg\")\nThe Crusader tanks became the main British tank, the A15 Crusader Mark I and II variants had QF 2 pounder (40mm) main gun, but the 'Crusader III' was fitted with an Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57mm) main gun. It used the same main turret as the A13 Mk III Covenanter designs, and over 5,000 tanks were manufactured. The A15 Crusader Mark III and Mark IV finally replaced most tanks in the British forces after the fall of France and was used extensively during the North African Campaign.",
"### Desert Campaign",
"[left\\|thumb\\|An A12 Infantry Tank Mark II best known as [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") advancing through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") as part of [Operation Compass](/wiki/Operation_Compass \"Operation Compass\")](/wiki/File:Matilda_Compass.jpg \"Matilda Compass.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A Crusader II tank in the Western Desert, 2 October 1942](/wiki/File:IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg \"IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|A British Cruiser Mk IV tank destroyed in the [North African Campaign](/wiki/North_African_Campaign \"North African Campaign\")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-782-0016-08A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_zerst%C3%B6rter_englischer_Panzer.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-782-0016-08A, Nordafrika, zerstörter englischer Panzer.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|A Valentine in North Africa, carrying infantry from a Scottish regiment](/wiki/File:Valentine_tank_Mk3_desert.jpg \"Valentine tank Mk3 desert.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Churchill tanks of '[Kingforce](/wiki/Kingforce \"Kingforce\")' during the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\")](/wiki/File:Churchill_III_tanks_of_%27Kingforce%27%2C_1st_Armoured_Division%2C_in_the_Western_Desert%2C_5_November_1942._E18991.jpg \"Churchill III tanks of 'Kingforce', 1st Armoured Division, in the Western Desert, 5 November 1942. E18991.jpg\")\nWhen the BEF returned to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti\\-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the {{convert\\|88\\|mm\\|in}} anti\\-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti\\-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\") in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.",
"Combat experience against the Germans in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign \"Western Desert Campaign\") demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their [cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tanks \"Cruiser tanks\"). The [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\") was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2\\-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10\\), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War. Their cross\\-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.",
"Hence a request was made in 1941 to the [Nuffield Organization's subsidiary](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero\") and [Leyland Motors](/wiki/Leyland_Motors \"Leyland Motors\") for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called \"Comet\" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the \"77mm HV\". This gun used the same [calibre](/wiki/Caliber \"Caliber\") (76\\.2 mm) projectiles as the 17\\-pounder but the shell casing was from the older [QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun](/wiki/QF_3_inch_20_cwt_gun \"QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun\") (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank. The [A34 Comet](/wiki/Comet_tank \"Comet tank\") began to be delivered by September 1944\\. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German [Ardennes Offensive](/wiki/Ardennes_Offensive \"Ardennes Offensive\"). By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.",
"They were followed by the [Valentine tank](/wiki/Valentine_tank \"Valentine tank\") (Infantry Tank Mk III) and [Churchill tank](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\") (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered \"off the drawing board\" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two\\-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a \"shelled area\" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918\\. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941\\. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.",
"As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the \"universal tank\" in the form of the [Centurion](/wiki/Centurion_tank \"Centurion tank\").{{sfn\\|Fletcher, Universal Tank\\|pages\\=119–122}}\n[thumb\\|Centurion tank](/wiki/File:Centurion_Tank_Waiouru.jpg \"Centurion Tank Waiouru.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A British M3 (Stuart I) knocked out during fighting in North Africa](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-783-0107-14A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_amerikanischer_Panzer_M3_%22Stuart%22.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0107-14A, Nordafrika, amerikanischer Panzer M3 \")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Stuart tanks of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars in North Africa, August 1941](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1941_E3469E.jpg \"The British Army in North Africa 1941 E3469E.jpg\")",
"In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.",
"The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early [North African campaigns](/wiki/North_African_campaign \"North African campaign\"). The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps \"Afrika Korps\"). Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti\\-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of [High Explosive](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29%23High-explosive \"Shell (projectile)#High-explosive\") shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped [glacis](/wiki/Glacis \"Glacis\").",
"A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk \"Tobruk\") in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment \"Royal Tank Regiment\") and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks).See Robert Crisp, Brazen Chariots (W.W. Norton \\& Co. 2005\\), at 15\\. (See \"A Tankie's Travels\" By Robert Watt {{ISBN\\|1\\-84683\\-021\\-4}})",
"The bright spots of British tank design included the [Valentine](/wiki/Valentine_tank \"Valentine tank\"), [Churchill (A22\\)](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\"), [Cromwell (A27M)](/wiki/Cromwell_tank \"Cromwell tank\"), and [Comet I (A34\\)](/wiki/Comet_tank \"Comet tank\"), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry\\-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off\\-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop\\-gap, the Challenger (A30\\) Cruiser Tank, mounted a [17 Pounder](/wiki/17_Pounder \"17 Pounder\") gun on a lengthened [Cromwell](/wiki/Cromwell_tank \"Cromwell tank\") chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti\\-tank firepower to [cruiser tank](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.\n{{Clear}}",
"### US imports",
"[thumb\\|left\\|British Grant (left) and Lee (right) tanks in the Egyptian desert](/wiki/File:M-3Grants-E_014053.2.jpg \"M-3Grants-E 014053.2.jpg\")\nBeginning about 1942, most British tank units were equipped with vehicles supplied from the United States, such as the [Stuart](/wiki/Stuart_tank \"Stuart tank\") light tank, the [Lee](/wiki/M3_Lee \"M3 Lee\") (or the Grant variant thereof) and the Lee's/Grant's replacement, the [Sherman](/wiki/M4_Sherman \"M4 Sherman\"). The [Stuart tanks](/wiki/Stuart_tank \"Stuart tank\") were the first to come in with the 8th Hussars, and were part of the force of the 1st Armoured Division and also were part of the 4th Armoured Brigade and used for [Operation Crusader](/wiki/Operation_Crusader \"Operation Crusader\").\n{{Clear}}",
"### D\\-Day",
"[thumb\\|British Cromwell tank](/wiki/File:Cromwell_Tank.jpg \"Cromwell Tank.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Mk IV Churchill (A22\\) Infantry tank](/wiki/File:ChurchillTank.jpg \"ChurchillTank.jpg\")\nImmediately before and during the war, the British produced an enormous array of prototype tanks and modified tanks for a variety of specialist tasks (see [Hobart's Funnies](/wiki/Hobart%27s_Funnies \"Hobart's Funnies\")). For example, the [Churchill AVRE](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\") mounted a 230 mm (11\\.4\") direct\\-fire [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\") which was used for destroying buildings and clearing obstacles. Responsibility for the buildup of vehicles and the training of crews to use them was given to armoured warfare expert Percy Hobart after whom the collection was named.",
"Many of the ideas had already been tried, tested or were in experimental development both by Britain and other nations. For example, the Scorpion flail tank (a modified Matilda tank) had already been used during the North African campaign to clear paths through German minefields. Soviet T\\-34 tanks had been modified with mine\\-rollers. Close\\-support tanks, bridgelayers, and fascine carriers had been developed elsewhere also. However, the Funnies were the largest and most elaborate collection of engineering vehicles available.",
"By early 1944, Hobart could demonstrate to Eisenhower and Montgomery a brigade each of swimming DD tanks, Crab mine clearers, and AVRE (Engineer) tanks along with a regiment of Crocodile flamethrowing tanks.",
"Montgomery considered that the U.S. forces should use them, and offered them a half\\-share of all the vehicles available, but take\\-up was minimal. Eisenhower was in favour of the amphibious tanks but left the decision on the others to [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant general (United States)\") [Omar Bradley](/wiki/Omar_Bradley \"Omar Bradley\"), then commanding the [U.S. First Army](/wiki/First_United_States_Army \"First United States Army\"). Bradley requested 25 flail tanks and 100 Churchill Crocodiles and the British [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") agreed to supply them as well as British\\-crewed AVREs. In the event though there was insufficient time to produce the vehicles and train the crews so on the day American forces were limited to DD tanks and their own Sherman bulldozer tanks and armoured bulldozers.{{citation \\|last\\=Caddick\\-Adams \\|first \\=Peter \\|title\\=Sand and Steel: A New History of D\\-Day \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|date\\=2019 \\|page\\= }}",
"The British at Normandy were re\\-equipped with some of the newer British and American tanks and a few days after D\\-Day, the Armoured Reconnaissance regiment of the [7th Armoured Division](/wiki/7th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)\") landed at Le Hamel on Gold Beach with Cromwell tanks and began going into action almost immediately in the [fighting around Villers\\-Bocage](/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-Bocage \"Battle of Villers-Bocage\").{{harvnb\\|Bellamy\\|2005\\|pp\\=18–20}}{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}} The tanks were used in the advance through the Bocage with the [22nd Armoured Brigade](/wiki/22nd_Armoured_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"22nd Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)\"). They were involved in action against the [2nd Panzer Division](/wiki/2nd_Panzer_Division \"2nd Panzer Division\"), with the tanks leading the way out of the bridgehead.",
"",
"File:IWM\\-H\\-35169\\-valentine\\-dd\\-gosport\\-19440114\\.jpg\\|Valentine DD tank with screen lowered and gun pointing towards the rear of the vehicle.\nFile:Challenger axb01\\.jpg\\|British Challenger (A30\\) tank\nFile:Comet tanks of the 2nd Fife and Forfar Yeomanry, 11th Armoured Division, crossing the Weser at Petershagen, Germany, 7 April 1945\\. BU3200\\.jpg\\|Comet tanks of the \\[\\[2nd Fife and Forfar Yeomanry]], \\[\\[11th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)\\|11th Armoured Division]], crossing the \\[\\[Weser]] at Petershagen, Germany, 7 April 1945\nFile:Hamburg Liberation 04\\.jpg\\|Sherman Firefly – Hamburg 1945",
"",
""
] |
### Desert Campaign
[left\|thumb\|An A12 Infantry Tank Mark II best known as [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II "Matilda II") advancing through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") as part of [Operation Compass](/wiki/Operation_Compass "Operation Compass")](/wiki/File:Matilda_Compass.jpg "Matilda Compass.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A Crusader II tank in the Western Desert, 2 October 1942](/wiki/File:IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg "IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|A British Cruiser Mk IV tank destroyed in the [North African Campaign](/wiki/North_African_Campaign "North African Campaign")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-782-0016-08A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_zerst%C3%B6rter_englischer_Panzer.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-782-0016-08A, Nordafrika, zerstörter englischer Panzer.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|A Valentine in North Africa, carrying infantry from a Scottish regiment](/wiki/File:Valentine_tank_Mk3_desert.jpg "Valentine tank Mk3 desert.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|Churchill tanks of '[Kingforce](/wiki/Kingforce "Kingforce")' during the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein")](/wiki/File:Churchill_III_tanks_of_%27Kingforce%27%2C_1st_Armoured_Division%2C_in_the_Western_Desert%2C_5_November_1942._E18991.jpg "Churchill III tanks of 'Kingforce', 1st Armoured Division, in the Western Desert, 5 November 1942. E18991.jpg")
When the BEF returned to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti\-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the {{convert\|88\|mm\|in}} anti\-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti\-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein") in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.
Combat experience against the Germans in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign "Western Desert Campaign") demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their [cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tanks "Cruiser tanks"). The [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I "Cruiser Mk I") was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2\-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10\), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War. Their cross\-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.
Hence a request was made in 1941 to the [Nuffield Organization's subsidiary](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero "Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero") and [Leyland Motors](/wiki/Leyland_Motors "Leyland Motors") for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called "Comet" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the "77mm HV". This gun used the same [calibre](/wiki/Caliber "Caliber") (76\.2 mm) projectiles as the 17\-pounder but the shell casing was from the older [QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun](/wiki/QF_3_inch_20_cwt_gun "QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun") (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank. The [A34 Comet](/wiki/Comet_tank "Comet tank") began to be delivered by September 1944\. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German [Ardennes Offensive](/wiki/Ardennes_Offensive "Ardennes Offensive"). By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.
They were followed by the [Valentine tank](/wiki/Valentine_tank "Valentine tank") (Infantry Tank Mk III) and [Churchill tank](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank") (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered "off the drawing board" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two\-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a "shelled area" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918\. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941\. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.
As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the "universal tank" in the form of the [Centurion](/wiki/Centurion_tank "Centurion tank").{{sfn\|Fletcher, Universal Tank\|pages\=119–122}}
[thumb\|Centurion tank](/wiki/File:Centurion_Tank_Waiouru.jpg "Centurion Tank Waiouru.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|A British M3 (Stuart I) knocked out during fighting in North Africa](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-783-0107-14A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_amerikanischer_Panzer_M3_%22Stuart%22.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0107-14A, Nordafrika, amerikanischer Panzer M3 ")
[thumb\|right\|Stuart tanks of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars in North Africa, August 1941](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1941_E3469E.jpg "The British Army in North Africa 1941 E3469E.jpg")
In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.
The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early [North African campaigns](/wiki/North_African_campaign "North African campaign"). The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps "Afrika Korps"). Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti\-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of [High Explosive](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29%23High-explosive "Shell (projectile)#High-explosive") shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped [glacis](/wiki/Glacis "Glacis").
A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk "Tobruk") in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment "Royal Tank Regiment") and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks).See Robert Crisp, Brazen Chariots (W.W. Norton \& Co. 2005\), at 15\. (See "A Tankie's Travels" By Robert Watt {{ISBN\|1\-84683\-021\-4}})
The bright spots of British tank design included the [Valentine](/wiki/Valentine_tank "Valentine tank"), [Churchill (A22\)](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank"), [Cromwell (A27M)](/wiki/Cromwell_tank "Cromwell tank"), and [Comet I (A34\)](/wiki/Comet_tank "Comet tank"), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry\-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off\-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop\-gap, the Challenger (A30\) Cruiser Tank, mounted a [17 Pounder](/wiki/17_Pounder "17 Pounder") gun on a lengthened [Cromwell](/wiki/Cromwell_tank "Cromwell tank") chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti\-tank firepower to [cruiser tank](/wiki/Cruiser_tank "Cruiser tank") reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"### Desert Campaign",
"[left\\|thumb\\|An A12 Infantry Tank Mark II best known as [Matilda II](/wiki/Matilda_II \"Matilda II\") advancing through [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") as part of [Operation Compass](/wiki/Operation_Compass \"Operation Compass\")](/wiki/File:Matilda_Compass.jpg \"Matilda Compass.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A Crusader II tank in the Western Desert, 2 October 1942](/wiki/File:IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg \"IWM-E-17616-Crusader-19421002.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|A British Cruiser Mk IV tank destroyed in the [North African Campaign](/wiki/North_African_Campaign \"North African Campaign\")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-782-0016-08A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_zerst%C3%B6rter_englischer_Panzer.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-782-0016-08A, Nordafrika, zerstörter englischer Panzer.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|A Valentine in North Africa, carrying infantry from a Scottish regiment](/wiki/File:Valentine_tank_Mk3_desert.jpg \"Valentine tank Mk3 desert.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Churchill tanks of '[Kingforce](/wiki/Kingforce \"Kingforce\")' during the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\")](/wiki/File:Churchill_III_tanks_of_%27Kingforce%27%2C_1st_Armoured_Division%2C_in_the_Western_Desert%2C_5_November_1942._E18991.jpg \"Churchill III tanks of 'Kingforce', 1st Armoured Division, in the Western Desert, 5 November 1942. E18991.jpg\")\nWhen the BEF returned to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti\\-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the {{convert\\|88\\|mm\\|in}} anti\\-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti\\-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\") in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.",
"Combat experience against the Germans in the [Western Desert Campaign](/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign \"Western Desert Campaign\") demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their [cruiser tanks](/wiki/Cruiser_tanks \"Cruiser tanks\"). The [Cruiser Mk I](/wiki/Cruiser_Mk_I \"Cruiser Mk I\") was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2\\-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10\\), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War. Their cross\\-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.",
"Hence a request was made in 1941 to the [Nuffield Organization's subsidiary](/wiki/Nuffield_Mechanisation_and_Aero \"Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero\") and [Leyland Motors](/wiki/Leyland_Motors \"Leyland Motors\") for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called \"Comet\" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the \"77mm HV\". This gun used the same [calibre](/wiki/Caliber \"Caliber\") (76\\.2 mm) projectiles as the 17\\-pounder but the shell casing was from the older [QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun](/wiki/QF_3_inch_20_cwt_gun \"QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun\") (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank. The [A34 Comet](/wiki/Comet_tank \"Comet tank\") began to be delivered by September 1944\\. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German [Ardennes Offensive](/wiki/Ardennes_Offensive \"Ardennes Offensive\"). By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.",
"They were followed by the [Valentine tank](/wiki/Valentine_tank \"Valentine tank\") (Infantry Tank Mk III) and [Churchill tank](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\") (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered \"off the drawing board\" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two\\-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a \"shelled area\" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918\\. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941\\. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.",
"As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the \"universal tank\" in the form of the [Centurion](/wiki/Centurion_tank \"Centurion tank\").{{sfn\\|Fletcher, Universal Tank\\|pages\\=119–122}}\n[thumb\\|Centurion tank](/wiki/File:Centurion_Tank_Waiouru.jpg \"Centurion Tank Waiouru.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|A British M3 (Stuart I) knocked out during fighting in North Africa](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-783-0107-14A%2C_Nordafrika%2C_amerikanischer_Panzer_M3_%22Stuart%22.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0107-14A, Nordafrika, amerikanischer Panzer M3 \")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Stuart tanks of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars in North Africa, August 1941](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North_Africa_1941_E3469E.jpg \"The British Army in North Africa 1941 E3469E.jpg\")",
"In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.",
"The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early [North African campaigns](/wiki/North_African_campaign \"North African campaign\"). The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps \"Afrika Korps\"). Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti\\-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of [High Explosive](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29%23High-explosive \"Shell (projectile)#High-explosive\") shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped [glacis](/wiki/Glacis \"Glacis\").",
"A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk \"Tobruk\") in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd [Royal Tank Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment \"Royal Tank Regiment\") and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks).See Robert Crisp, Brazen Chariots (W.W. Norton \\& Co. 2005\\), at 15\\. (See \"A Tankie's Travels\" By Robert Watt {{ISBN\\|1\\-84683\\-021\\-4}})",
"The bright spots of British tank design included the [Valentine](/wiki/Valentine_tank \"Valentine tank\"), [Churchill (A22\\)](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\"), [Cromwell (A27M)](/wiki/Cromwell_tank \"Cromwell tank\"), and [Comet I (A34\\)](/wiki/Comet_tank \"Comet tank\"), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry\\-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off\\-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop\\-gap, the Challenger (A30\\) Cruiser Tank, mounted a [17 Pounder](/wiki/17_Pounder \"17 Pounder\") gun on a lengthened [Cromwell](/wiki/Cromwell_tank \"Cromwell tank\") chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti\\-tank firepower to [cruiser tank](/wiki/Cruiser_tank \"Cruiser tank\") reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.\n{{Clear}}",
""
] |
Decision
--------
In a 6–3 decision, the Supreme Court of Canada reinstated the trial decision, holding that Duplessis wrongfully caused the revocation of Roncarelli's liquor licence.
The six judges who sided with Roncarelli used different legal reasoning to reach their decision. Three judges wrote that Duplessis had ordered the cancellation outside his authority as premier; two judges stated that although Duplessis had the power to order the cancellation, he had done so in bad faith; and the sixth judge concluded the premier was not entitled to immunity as a public official. Justice [Ivan Rand](/wiki/Ivan_Rand "Ivan Rand") wrote in his often\-quoted reasons that the unwritten constitutional principle of the "[rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law "Rule of law")" meant no public official was above the law and so could neither suspend nor dispense it. Although Duplessis had authority under the relevant legislation, his decision was not based on any factors related to the operation of the licence but was made for unrelated reasons and so was held to be exercised arbitrarily and without good faith.Sarah Blake, *Administrative Law in Canada*, 5th edition, pages 99 \- 100\.
Roncarelli was awarded $33,123\.53 in damages as well as costs in the Court of Queen's Bench and the Supreme Court of Canada. Roncarelli's son maintained that it was also a significant moral victory in his father's struggle against the system.
Roncarelli's legal counsel throughout were A. L. Stein and Professor [Frank Scott](/wiki/F._R._Scott "F. R. Scott").
### Dissent
Cartwright wrote a dissenting judgement which argued that it was within the power of the commission to refuse to grant Roncarelli a permit, as the act only fettered the commission by delineating circumstances under which the granting of a permit was forbidden and circumstances in which the cancellation of a permit was mandatory. Cartwright argued that as the Commission was an administrative tribunal, not a judicial one, it was "a law unto itself" and did not need to base its decision on anything more than policy and expediency. Cartwright went on to argue that even if the Commission were to be considered quasi\-judicial, in which case procedural fairness guarantees would apply, that still would not entitle the plaintiff to monetary damages.
|
[
"Decision\n--------",
"In a 6–3 decision, the Supreme Court of Canada reinstated the trial decision, holding that Duplessis wrongfully caused the revocation of Roncarelli's liquor licence.",
"The six judges who sided with Roncarelli used different legal reasoning to reach their decision. Three judges wrote that Duplessis had ordered the cancellation outside his authority as premier; two judges stated that although Duplessis had the power to order the cancellation, he had done so in bad faith; and the sixth judge concluded the premier was not entitled to immunity as a public official. Justice [Ivan Rand](/wiki/Ivan_Rand \"Ivan Rand\") wrote in his often\\-quoted reasons that the unwritten constitutional principle of the \"[rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law \"Rule of law\")\" meant no public official was above the law and so could neither suspend nor dispense it. Although Duplessis had authority under the relevant legislation, his decision was not based on any factors related to the operation of the licence but was made for unrelated reasons and so was held to be exercised arbitrarily and without good faith.Sarah Blake, *Administrative Law in Canada*, 5th edition, pages 99 \\- 100\\.",
"Roncarelli was awarded $33,123\\.53 in damages as well as costs in the Court of Queen's Bench and the Supreme Court of Canada. Roncarelli's son maintained that it was also a significant moral victory in his father's struggle against the system.",
"Roncarelli's legal counsel throughout were A. L. Stein and Professor [Frank Scott](/wiki/F._R._Scott \"F. R. Scott\").",
"### Dissent",
"Cartwright wrote a dissenting judgement which argued that it was within the power of the commission to refuse to grant Roncarelli a permit, as the act only fettered the commission by delineating circumstances under which the granting of a permit was forbidden and circumstances in which the cancellation of a permit was mandatory. Cartwright argued that as the Commission was an administrative tribunal, not a judicial one, it was \"a law unto itself\" and did not need to base its decision on anything more than policy and expediency. Cartwright went on to argue that even if the Commission were to be considered quasi\\-judicial, in which case procedural fairness guarantees would apply, that still would not entitle the plaintiff to monetary damages.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
Scott Pearson played his junior hockey with the [Kingston Canadians](/wiki/Kingston_Canadians "Kingston Canadians"), [Kingston Raiders](/wiki/Kingston_Raiders "Kingston Raiders") and the [Niagara Falls Thunder](/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Thunder "Niagara Falls Thunder") of the [OHL](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League") from 1985–1989, playing in 216 games, and recording 228 points (107 goals\-121 assists), while in 34 post\-season games, Pearson scored 31 points (18G\-13A). He was drafted by the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") in the [1988 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1988_NHL_Entry_Draft "1988 NHL Entry Draft") with the Leafs 1st pick, 6th overall.
Pearson played in 9 games with Toronto in the 1988–89 season, getting an assist before being returned to the [OHL](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League"). In 1989–90, he split his time with the [Newmarket Saints](/wiki/Newmarket_Saints "Newmarket Saints") of the [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League"), earning 23 points (12G\-11A) in 18 games, and with the Maple Leafs, registering 15 points (5G\-10A) in 41 games. In 2 playoff games, Pearson scored 2 goals. In 1990–91, he started the season with the Leafs, going pointless in 12 games, then on November 17, 1990, Pearson was traded along with the Leafs 2nd round draft pick in both the [1991 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1991_NHL_Entry_Draft "1991 NHL Entry Draft") and the [1992 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1992_NHL_Entry_Draft "1992 NHL Entry Draft") to the [Quebec Nordiques](/wiki/Quebec_Nordiques "Quebec Nordiques") in exchange for [Aaron Broten](/wiki/Aaron_Broten "Aaron Broten"), [Lucien DeBlois](/wiki/Lucien_DeBlois "Lucien DeBlois"), and [Michel Petit](/wiki/Michel_Petit "Michel Petit"). Pearson then split the rest of the season playing for the [Halifax Citadels](/wiki/Halifax_Citadels "Halifax Citadels") of the AHL, getting 27 points (12G\-15A) in 24 games, and the Nordiques, where he had 15 points (11G\-4A) in 35 games.
Pearson had an injury\-plagued 1991–92 season, playing in only 5 games with the Citadels, getting 3 points (2G\-1A), along with 10 games in Quebec, where he also had 3 points (1G\-2A). He spent the majority of the 1992–93 with the Nordiques, scoring 14 points (13G\-1A) in 41 games, and 4 points (3G\-1A) in 5 games with Halifax. He played for Quebec in the playoffs, getting no points in 3 games. On June 20, 1993, Quebec traded Pearson to the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers "Edmonton Oilers") for [Martin Gélinas](/wiki/Martin_G%C3%A9linas "Martin Gélinas") and the Oilers' 6th round pick in the [1993 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1993_NHL_Entry_Draft "1993 NHL Entry Draft").
Pearson enjoyed the best season of his career in 1993–94 with the Oilers, getting 37 points (19G\-18A) in 72 games. He started off the 1994–95 season with Edmonton, where he had 5 points (1G\-4A) in 28 games before being dealt to the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres "Buffalo Sabres") for [Ken Sutton](/wiki/Ken_Sutton "Ken Sutton") on April 7, 1995\. Pearson finished the season with the Sabres, getting 3 points (2G\-1A) in 14 games before going pointless in 5 post\-season games.
He split the 1995–96 season between the Sabres, where in 27 games he scored 4 points (4G\-0A), and the [Rochester Americans](/wiki/Rochester_Americans "Rochester Americans") of the AHL, where in 26 games, he earned 16 points (8G\-8A). Pearson then left Buffalo as a free agent, and signed with the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") on July 24, 1996\.
He missed the majority of the 1996–97 season due to abdominal surgery, as he only played in 1 game with the Leafs, getting no points, and played in 14 games with the [St. John's Maple Leafs](/wiki/St._John%27s_Maple_Leafs "St. John's Maple Leafs"), getting 7 points (5G\-2A). For the 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons, Pearson played with the [Chicago Wolves](/wiki/Chicago_Wolves "Chicago Wolves") of the [IHL](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 "International Hockey League (1945–2001)"), where he was successful. Pearson put up 51 points (34G\-17A) in 78 games, then put up 18 points (12G\-6A) in 21 post\-season games in the 97–98 season, while the next year he had 36 points (23G\-13A) in 62 games, before adding on 5 points (4G\-1A) in 8 playoff games. The [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders "New York Islanders") took notice of his play, and signed Pearson to a contract on August 9, 1999\.
Pearson once again spent the majority of the 1999–2000 season with the Wolves, where in 77 games he put up 33 points (19G\-14A), while in 16 playoff games, he chipped in with 10 points (5G\-5A), and he spend some time back in the NHL, where he played in 2 games, and had an assist for the Islanders. After the season, Pearson decided to head over to [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and play for [ESC Moskitos Essen](/wiki/ESC_Moskitos_Essen "ESC Moskitos Essen") of the [DEL](/wiki/Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga "Deutsche Eishockey Liga") in 2000–01, where in 51 games he put up 34 points (21G\-13A).
After the 2000–01 season, Pearson retired from the game, although he made a 1\-game comeback with the [Gwinnett Gladiators](/wiki/Gwinnett_Gladiators "Gwinnett Gladiators") of the [ECHL](/wiki/ECHL "ECHL") during the 2006\-07 season, getting no points.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"Scott Pearson played his junior hockey with the [Kingston Canadians](/wiki/Kingston_Canadians \"Kingston Canadians\"), [Kingston Raiders](/wiki/Kingston_Raiders \"Kingston Raiders\") and the [Niagara Falls Thunder](/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Thunder \"Niagara Falls Thunder\") of the [OHL](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\") from 1985–1989, playing in 216 games, and recording 228 points (107 goals\\-121 assists), while in 34 post\\-season games, Pearson scored 31 points (18G\\-13A). He was drafted by the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") in the [1988 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1988_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1988 NHL Entry Draft\") with the Leafs 1st pick, 6th overall.",
"Pearson played in 9 games with Toronto in the 1988–89 season, getting an assist before being returned to the [OHL](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\"). In 1989–90, he split his time with the [Newmarket Saints](/wiki/Newmarket_Saints \"Newmarket Saints\") of the [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\"), earning 23 points (12G\\-11A) in 18 games, and with the Maple Leafs, registering 15 points (5G\\-10A) in 41 games. In 2 playoff games, Pearson scored 2 goals. In 1990–91, he started the season with the Leafs, going pointless in 12 games, then on November 17, 1990, Pearson was traded along with the Leafs 2nd round draft pick in both the [1991 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1991_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1991 NHL Entry Draft\") and the [1992 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1992_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1992 NHL Entry Draft\") to the [Quebec Nordiques](/wiki/Quebec_Nordiques \"Quebec Nordiques\") in exchange for [Aaron Broten](/wiki/Aaron_Broten \"Aaron Broten\"), [Lucien DeBlois](/wiki/Lucien_DeBlois \"Lucien DeBlois\"), and [Michel Petit](/wiki/Michel_Petit \"Michel Petit\"). Pearson then split the rest of the season playing for the [Halifax Citadels](/wiki/Halifax_Citadels \"Halifax Citadels\") of the AHL, getting 27 points (12G\\-15A) in 24 games, and the Nordiques, where he had 15 points (11G\\-4A) in 35 games.",
"Pearson had an injury\\-plagued 1991–92 season, playing in only 5 games with the Citadels, getting 3 points (2G\\-1A), along with 10 games in Quebec, where he also had 3 points (1G\\-2A). He spent the majority of the 1992–93 with the Nordiques, scoring 14 points (13G\\-1A) in 41 games, and 4 points (3G\\-1A) in 5 games with Halifax. He played for Quebec in the playoffs, getting no points in 3 games. On June 20, 1993, Quebec traded Pearson to the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers \"Edmonton Oilers\") for [Martin Gélinas](/wiki/Martin_G%C3%A9linas \"Martin Gélinas\") and the Oilers' 6th round pick in the [1993 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1993_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1993 NHL Entry Draft\").",
"Pearson enjoyed the best season of his career in 1993–94 with the Oilers, getting 37 points (19G\\-18A) in 72 games. He started off the 1994–95 season with Edmonton, where he had 5 points (1G\\-4A) in 28 games before being dealt to the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres \"Buffalo Sabres\") for [Ken Sutton](/wiki/Ken_Sutton \"Ken Sutton\") on April 7, 1995\\. Pearson finished the season with the Sabres, getting 3 points (2G\\-1A) in 14 games before going pointless in 5 post\\-season games.",
"He split the 1995–96 season between the Sabres, where in 27 games he scored 4 points (4G\\-0A), and the [Rochester Americans](/wiki/Rochester_Americans \"Rochester Americans\") of the AHL, where in 26 games, he earned 16 points (8G\\-8A). Pearson then left Buffalo as a free agent, and signed with the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") on July 24, 1996\\.",
"He missed the majority of the 1996–97 season due to abdominal surgery, as he only played in 1 game with the Leafs, getting no points, and played in 14 games with the [St. John's Maple Leafs](/wiki/St._John%27s_Maple_Leafs \"St. John's Maple Leafs\"), getting 7 points (5G\\-2A). For the 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons, Pearson played with the [Chicago Wolves](/wiki/Chicago_Wolves \"Chicago Wolves\") of the [IHL](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 \"International Hockey League (1945–2001)\"), where he was successful. Pearson put up 51 points (34G\\-17A) in 78 games, then put up 18 points (12G\\-6A) in 21 post\\-season games in the 97–98 season, while the next year he had 36 points (23G\\-13A) in 62 games, before adding on 5 points (4G\\-1A) in 8 playoff games. The [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders \"New York Islanders\") took notice of his play, and signed Pearson to a contract on August 9, 1999\\.",
"Pearson once again spent the majority of the 1999–2000 season with the Wolves, where in 77 games he put up 33 points (19G\\-14A), while in 16 playoff games, he chipped in with 10 points (5G\\-5A), and he spend some time back in the NHL, where he played in 2 games, and had an assist for the Islanders. After the season, Pearson decided to head over to [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and play for [ESC Moskitos Essen](/wiki/ESC_Moskitos_Essen \"ESC Moskitos Essen\") of the [DEL](/wiki/Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga \"Deutsche Eishockey Liga\") in 2000–01, where in 51 games he put up 34 points (21G\\-13A).",
"After the 2000–01 season, Pearson retired from the game, although he made a 1\\-game comeback with the [Gwinnett Gladiators](/wiki/Gwinnett_Gladiators \"Gwinnett Gladiators\") of the [ECHL](/wiki/ECHL \"ECHL\") during the 2006\\-07 season, getting no points.",
""
] |
Combat use
----------
### World War I
Britain entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") with no anti\-aircraft artillery. When war broke out and Germany occupied Belgium and North\-east France, it was realised that key installations in England could be attacked by air. As a result, a search for suitable anti\-aircraft guns began. The Navy provided the initial {{convert\|3\|in\|adj\=on}} guns from its warships, approximately 18 by December 1914, for the defence of key installations in Britain, manned by [RNVR](/wiki/RNVR "RNVR") crews, until the new specialised anti\-aircraft version began production and entered service.Routledge 1994, page 4\-5 It was from then onwards operated by [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery "Royal Garrison Artillery") crews, with drivers and crew for motor lorries provided by the [Army Service Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Service_Corps "Royal Army Service Corps"). However, the Mobile Anti\-Aircraft Brigade based at [Kenwood](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath%23Kenwood "Hampstead Heath#Kenwood") Barracks in London, continued to be manned by the RNVR, although under the operational control of the Army.[Rawlinson, Alfred, Sir, *The defence of London, 1915–1918*, 1923 (p.57\)](https://archive.org/stream/defenceoflondon100rawluoft#page/56/mode/2up)
Other earlier anti\-aircraft guns based on the existing [13\-pounder](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_gun "QF 13-pounder gun") and [18\-pounder](/wiki/QF_18-pounder_gun "QF 18-pounder gun") guns proved inadequate, apart from the [QF 13\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt "QF 13-pounder 9 cwt") but even that could not reach high altitudes and fired a fairly light shell. The 3\-inch 20 cwt with its powerful and stable in flight,Routledge 1994, page 24 {{cvt\|16\|lb}} shell and fairly high altitude was well suited to defending the United Kingdom against high\-altitude [Zeppelins](/wiki/Zeppelin "Zeppelin") and bombers. The 16\-pound shell took 9\.2 seconds to reach {{cvt\|5000\|ft}} at 25 degrees from horizontal, 13\.7 seconds to reach {{cvt\|10000\|ft}} at 40 degrees, 18\.8 seconds to reach {{cvt\|15000\|ft}} at 55 degrees. This means that the gun team had to calculate where the target would be 9 to 18 seconds ahead, determine the deflection and set the correct [fuze](/wiki/Fuze "Fuze") length, load, aim and fire accordingly. Deflection was calculated mechanically and graphically using an optical height \& rangefinder to provide data for the two piece Wilson\-Dalby 'predictor', with the fuze length read off a scale mounted on the gun.
British time fuzes, required for airburst shooting, were powder burning (igniferous). However, the powder burning rate changed as air pressure reduced, making them erratic for the new vertical shooting. Modified fuzes reduced the variability but did not cure the problem. Britain lagged behind Germany in developing clockwork time fuzes. In addition, experience showed that the percussion mechanism in time fuzes, which burst the shrapnel shell on impact if the timer failed, had to be removed because AA shells could land among friendly troops and nearby civilians.Hogg \& Thurston 1972, page 220 Igniferous fuzes had to have a [gaine](/wiki/Explosive_booster "Explosive booster") in order to detonate HE shells.
The carriage's short recoil of {{convert\|11\|in}} allowed a higher rate of fire than for AA guns based on long\-recoil field guns such as the [QF 13\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt "QF 13-pounder 9 cwt").Hogg \& Thurston 1972, page 68
By June 1916, 202 3\-inch 20 cwt were deployed in the air defence of Britain, of a total of 371 AA guns.
The first guns arrived on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") in November 1916 and by the end of 1916 it equipped 10 sections out of a total of 91\.Farndale 1986, page 364 An AA section consisted of two guns and became the standard organizational unit.
By the end of World War I, 257 (out of a total of 402 AA guns) were in land service in England on static and lorry mountings, and 102 (out of a total of 348\) were in service on the Western FrontRoutledge 1994, page 27\. Farndale 1988, page 342 quotes 56 in service in France (meaning Western Front) at the Armistice. mounted on heavy lorries, typically the Peerless 4 Ton. In addition, many were mounted on Royal Navy ships.
{{Clear}}
{{gallery\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunTowedOnCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\|Demonstration of towing on 2\-wheeled travelling platform\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunInActionCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\|Demonstration of deployment for action on cruciform travelling platform with wheels removed\|File:3inch20cwtAAgunPeerlessLorryWWI.jpg\|Mk I gun on Mk IV mounting on Peerless 4 ton lorry, WWI\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunHMASAustraliaDecember1918\.jpeg\|On \[\[HMAS Australia (1911\)\|HMAS ''Australia'']], December 1918}}
### Performance
| \+Comparison with other British World War I anti\-aircraft gunsRoutledge 1994, Page 9 |
| --- |
| Gun | muzzle velocity | Shell weight | Time to {{convert\|5000\|ft}}at 25° (seconds) | Time to {{convert\|10000\|ft}}at 40° (seconds) | Time to {{convert\|15000\|ft}}at 55° (seconds) | Max. heightHogg \& Thurston 1972, Page 234\-235 |
| [QF 13 pdr 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt "QF 13-pounder 9 cwt") | {{convert\|1990\|ft/s}} | {{convert\|12\.5\|lb}} | 10\.1 | 15\.5 | 22\.1 | {{convert\|19000\|ft}} |
| [QF 12 pdr 12 cwt](/wiki/QF_12-pounder_12_cwt_AA_gun "QF 12-pounder 12 cwt AA gun") | {{convert\|2200\|ft/s}} | {{convert\|12\.5\|lb}} | 9\.1 | 14\.1 | 19\.1 | {{convert\|20000\|ft}} |
| QF 3\-inch 20 cwt 1914 | {{convert\|2500\|ft/s}} | {{convert\|12\.5\|lb}} | 8\.3 | 12\.6 | 16\.3 | {{convert\|23500\|ft}} |
| QF 3\-inch 20 cwt 1916 | {{convert\|2000\|ft/s}} | {{convert\|16\|lb}} | 9\.2 | 13\.7 | 18\.8 | {{convert\|22000\|ft}}Routledge 1994, Page 13 |
| [QF 4\-inch Mk V naval gun](/wiki/QF_4-inch_Mk_V_naval_gun "QF 4-inch Mk V naval gun") | {{convert\|2350\|ft/s}} | {{convert\|31\|lb}} | 4\.4?? | 9\.6 | 12\.3 | {{convert\|28750\|ft}} |
### World War II
At the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in 1939, Britain possessed approximately 500 of these guns. Over the 1930s, they had been gradually modernized, and a limited production line was set up at the Commonwealth Ordnance Factory [Maribyrnong](/wiki/Maribyrnong%2C_Victoria "Maribyrnong, Victoria"), Australia.{{cite web \| url\=https://artilleryhistory.org/artillery\_register/nsw/gun\_manly\_qf\_3inch\_anti\_aircraft\_gun\_sn4282\.html \| title\=RAAHC \- Artillery Register \- Manly, NSW, QF 3 inch 20 CWT Anti Aircraft Gun, Serial Number 4282 }} Initially most were in the heavy anti\-aircraft (HAA) role until replaced by the new [QF {{convert\|3\.7\|in\|adj\=on}} gun](/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun "QF 3.7-inch AA gun"). Some were deployed as light anti\-aircraft guns (LAA) for airfield defence, being transferred to the [RAF Regiment](/wiki/RAF_Regiment "RAF Regiment") when this was formed in 1942, until more [40 mm Bofors guns](/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_L/60_gun "Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun") arrivedRoutledge 1994, page 50\. However, it was discovered at mobilization that the 233 guns in HAA reserve were missing various parts and predicted fire instruments.Routledge 1994, page 371 One hundred and twenty were in France with the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)") in November 1939, compared with 48 of the modern [QF 3\.7\-inch AA gun](/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun "QF 3.7-inch AA gun").Routledge 1994, page 125
In 1941, 100 of the obsolete guns were converted to become the **3\-inch 16 cwt anti\-tank gun**, firing a {{convert\|12\.5\|lb\|adj\=on}} armour\-piercing shell.Nigel F Evans,[British Artillery In World War 2\. Anti\-Tank Artillery](https://www.britishartillery.co.uk/anti-tank.htm) They appear to have been mainly deployed in home defence. Some were mounted to [Churchill tanks](/wiki/Churchill_tank "Churchill tank") to become the "Gun Carrier, 3\-inch, Mk I, Churchill (A22D)".
#### Naval gun
In [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the gun was carried by [S\-class](/wiki/British_S-class_submarine_%281931%29 "British S-class submarine (1931)"), [U\-class](/wiki/British_U-class_submarine "British U-class submarine") and [V\-class](/wiki/British_V-class_submarine "British V-class submarine") submarines.
It was also fitted to older destroyers, [A\-class](/wiki/A-class_destroyer_%281929%29 "A-class destroyer (1929)") to [I class](/wiki/I-class_destroyer "I-class destroyer") during refits in 1940, replacing a set of torpedo tubes, to increase their AA capabilities. Some smaller warships used this gun as well. In 1939 it was estimated the RN had 553 Mk I, 184 Mk II, 27 Mk III and 111 Mk IV guns in service.Campbell, *Naval Weapons of WWII*, p.61\-62\.
{{clear}}
3inch20cwtAAgun1934\.jpg\|A modernized 3\-incher of \[\[6th Heavy Anti\-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery\|6th HAA Bde]] towed by an AEC truck, 1934
QF 3 inch 20 cwt trailer mounting AWM P05244\.003\.jpeg\|An Australian gun of the same type with a Vickers predictor in \[\[Narrabeen]], 1937
3inch20cwtAAgunsideviewHayesCommonMay1940\.jpg\|A static mount of the 99th Anti\-Aircraft Regiment in Kent, May 1940
The\_British\_Army\_in\_the\_United\_Kingdom\_1939\-45\_H28352\.jpg\|Churchill gun carrier in \[\[Dorset]], March 1943
'submarine Life'\- Last Minute Duties Before a Mediterranean Patrol. March and April 1943, Malta, Officers and Men of a British Submarine Before Going Out on Patrol in the Mediterranean. A16269\.jpg\|On a \[\[British U\-class submarine\|U\-class submarine]], April 1943
|
[
"Combat use\n----------",
"### World War I",
"Britain entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") with no anti\\-aircraft artillery. When war broke out and Germany occupied Belgium and North\\-east France, it was realised that key installations in England could be attacked by air. As a result, a search for suitable anti\\-aircraft guns began. The Navy provided the initial {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|adj\\=on}} guns from its warships, approximately 18 by December 1914, for the defence of key installations in Britain, manned by [RNVR](/wiki/RNVR \"RNVR\") crews, until the new specialised anti\\-aircraft version began production and entered service.Routledge 1994, page 4\\-5 It was from then onwards operated by [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery \"Royal Garrison Artillery\") crews, with drivers and crew for motor lorries provided by the [Army Service Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Service_Corps \"Royal Army Service Corps\"). However, the Mobile Anti\\-Aircraft Brigade based at [Kenwood](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath%23Kenwood \"Hampstead Heath#Kenwood\") Barracks in London, continued to be manned by the RNVR, although under the operational control of the Army.[Rawlinson, Alfred, Sir, *The defence of London, 1915–1918*, 1923 (p.57\\)](https://archive.org/stream/defenceoflondon100rawluoft#page/56/mode/2up)",
"Other earlier anti\\-aircraft guns based on the existing [13\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_gun \"QF 13-pounder gun\") and [18\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_18-pounder_gun \"QF 18-pounder gun\") guns proved inadequate, apart from the [QF 13\\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt \"QF 13-pounder 9 cwt\") but even that could not reach high altitudes and fired a fairly light shell. The 3\\-inch 20 cwt with its powerful and stable in flight,Routledge 1994, page 24 {{cvt\\|16\\|lb}} shell and fairly high altitude was well suited to defending the United Kingdom against high\\-altitude [Zeppelins](/wiki/Zeppelin \"Zeppelin\") and bombers. The 16\\-pound shell took 9\\.2 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|5000\\|ft}} at 25 degrees from horizontal, 13\\.7 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|10000\\|ft}} at 40 degrees, 18\\.8 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|15000\\|ft}} at 55 degrees. This means that the gun team had to calculate where the target would be 9 to 18 seconds ahead, determine the deflection and set the correct [fuze](/wiki/Fuze \"Fuze\") length, load, aim and fire accordingly. Deflection was calculated mechanically and graphically using an optical height \\& rangefinder to provide data for the two piece Wilson\\-Dalby 'predictor', with the fuze length read off a scale mounted on the gun.",
"British time fuzes, required for airburst shooting, were powder burning (igniferous). However, the powder burning rate changed as air pressure reduced, making them erratic for the new vertical shooting. Modified fuzes reduced the variability but did not cure the problem. Britain lagged behind Germany in developing clockwork time fuzes. In addition, experience showed that the percussion mechanism in time fuzes, which burst the shrapnel shell on impact if the timer failed, had to be removed because AA shells could land among friendly troops and nearby civilians.Hogg \\& Thurston 1972, page 220 Igniferous fuzes had to have a [gaine](/wiki/Explosive_booster \"Explosive booster\") in order to detonate HE shells.",
"The carriage's short recoil of {{convert\\|11\\|in}} allowed a higher rate of fire than for AA guns based on long\\-recoil field guns such as the [QF 13\\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt \"QF 13-pounder 9 cwt\").Hogg \\& Thurston 1972, page 68",
"By June 1916, 202 3\\-inch 20 cwt were deployed in the air defence of Britain, of a total of 371 AA guns.",
"The first guns arrived on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") in November 1916 and by the end of 1916 it equipped 10 sections out of a total of 91\\.Farndale 1986, page 364 An AA section consisted of two guns and became the standard organizational unit.",
"By the end of World War I, 257 (out of a total of 402 AA guns) were in land service in England on static and lorry mountings, and 102 (out of a total of 348\\) were in service on the Western FrontRoutledge 1994, page 27\\. Farndale 1988, page 342 quotes 56 in service in France (meaning Western Front) at the Armistice. mounted on heavy lorries, typically the Peerless 4 Ton. In addition, many were mounted on Royal Navy ships.",
"{{Clear}}\n{{gallery\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunTowedOnCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\\|Demonstration of towing on 2\\-wheeled travelling platform\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunInActionCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\\|Demonstration of deployment for action on cruciform travelling platform with wheels removed\\|File:3inch20cwtAAgunPeerlessLorryWWI.jpg\\|Mk I gun on Mk IV mounting on Peerless 4 ton lorry, WWI\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunHMASAustraliaDecember1918\\.jpeg\\|On \\[\\[HMAS Australia (1911\\)\\|HMAS ''Australia'']], December 1918}}\n### Performance",
"",
"",
"| \\+Comparison with other British World War I anti\\-aircraft gunsRoutledge 1994, Page 9 |\n| --- |\n| Gun | muzzle velocity | Shell weight | Time to {{convert\\|5000\\|ft}}at 25° (seconds) | Time to {{convert\\|10000\\|ft}}at 40° (seconds) | Time to {{convert\\|15000\\|ft}}at 55° (seconds) | Max. heightHogg \\& Thurston 1972, Page 234\\-235 |\n| [QF 13 pdr 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt \"QF 13-pounder 9 cwt\") | {{convert\\|1990\\|ft/s}} | {{convert\\|12\\.5\\|lb}} | 10\\.1 | 15\\.5 | 22\\.1 | {{convert\\|19000\\|ft}} |\n| [QF 12 pdr 12 cwt](/wiki/QF_12-pounder_12_cwt_AA_gun \"QF 12-pounder 12 cwt AA gun\") | {{convert\\|2200\\|ft/s}} | {{convert\\|12\\.5\\|lb}} | 9\\.1 | 14\\.1 | 19\\.1 | {{convert\\|20000\\|ft}} |\n| QF 3\\-inch 20 cwt 1914 | {{convert\\|2500\\|ft/s}} | {{convert\\|12\\.5\\|lb}} | 8\\.3 | 12\\.6 | 16\\.3 | {{convert\\|23500\\|ft}} |\n| QF 3\\-inch 20 cwt 1916 | {{convert\\|2000\\|ft/s}} | {{convert\\|16\\|lb}} | 9\\.2 | 13\\.7 | 18\\.8 | {{convert\\|22000\\|ft}}Routledge 1994, Page 13 |\n| [QF 4\\-inch Mk V naval gun](/wiki/QF_4-inch_Mk_V_naval_gun \"QF 4-inch Mk V naval gun\") | {{convert\\|2350\\|ft/s}} | {{convert\\|31\\|lb}} | 4\\.4?? | 9\\.6 | 12\\.3 | {{convert\\|28750\\|ft}} |",
"### World War II",
"At the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in 1939, Britain possessed approximately 500 of these guns. Over the 1930s, they had been gradually modernized, and a limited production line was set up at the Commonwealth Ordnance Factory [Maribyrnong](/wiki/Maribyrnong%2C_Victoria \"Maribyrnong, Victoria\"), Australia.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://artilleryhistory.org/artillery\\_register/nsw/gun\\_manly\\_qf\\_3inch\\_anti\\_aircraft\\_gun\\_sn4282\\.html \\| title\\=RAAHC \\- Artillery Register \\- Manly, NSW, QF 3 inch 20 CWT Anti Aircraft Gun, Serial Number 4282 }} Initially most were in the heavy anti\\-aircraft (HAA) role until replaced by the new [QF {{convert\\|3\\.7\\|in\\|adj\\=on}} gun](/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun \"QF 3.7-inch AA gun\"). Some were deployed as light anti\\-aircraft guns (LAA) for airfield defence, being transferred to the [RAF Regiment](/wiki/RAF_Regiment \"RAF Regiment\") when this was formed in 1942, until more [40 mm Bofors guns](/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_L/60_gun \"Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun\") arrivedRoutledge 1994, page 50\\. However, it was discovered at mobilization that the 233 guns in HAA reserve were missing various parts and predicted fire instruments.Routledge 1994, page 371 One hundred and twenty were in France with the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_II%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War II)\") in November 1939, compared with 48 of the modern [QF 3\\.7\\-inch AA gun](/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun \"QF 3.7-inch AA gun\").Routledge 1994, page 125",
"In 1941, 100 of the obsolete guns were converted to become the **3\\-inch 16 cwt anti\\-tank gun**, firing a {{convert\\|12\\.5\\|lb\\|adj\\=on}} armour\\-piercing shell.Nigel F Evans,[British Artillery In World War 2\\. Anti\\-Tank Artillery](https://www.britishartillery.co.uk/anti-tank.htm) They appear to have been mainly deployed in home defence. Some were mounted to [Churchill tanks](/wiki/Churchill_tank \"Churchill tank\") to become the \"Gun Carrier, 3\\-inch, Mk I, Churchill (A22D)\".",
"#### Naval gun",
"In [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the gun was carried by [S\\-class](/wiki/British_S-class_submarine_%281931%29 \"British S-class submarine (1931)\"), [U\\-class](/wiki/British_U-class_submarine \"British U-class submarine\") and [V\\-class](/wiki/British_V-class_submarine \"British V-class submarine\") submarines.",
"It was also fitted to older destroyers, [A\\-class](/wiki/A-class_destroyer_%281929%29 \"A-class destroyer (1929)\") to [I class](/wiki/I-class_destroyer \"I-class destroyer\") during refits in 1940, replacing a set of torpedo tubes, to increase their AA capabilities. Some smaller warships used this gun as well. In 1939 it was estimated the RN had 553 Mk I, 184 Mk II, 27 Mk III and 111 Mk IV guns in service.Campbell, *Naval Weapons of WWII*, p.61\\-62\\.",
"{{clear}}",
"3inch20cwtAAgun1934\\.jpg\\|A modernized 3\\-incher of \\[\\[6th Heavy Anti\\-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery\\|6th HAA Bde]] towed by an AEC truck, 1934\nQF 3 inch 20 cwt trailer mounting AWM P05244\\.003\\.jpeg\\|An Australian gun of the same type with a Vickers predictor in \\[\\[Narrabeen]], 1937\n3inch20cwtAAgunsideviewHayesCommonMay1940\\.jpg\\|A static mount of the 99th Anti\\-Aircraft Regiment in Kent, May 1940\nThe\\_British\\_Army\\_in\\_the\\_United\\_Kingdom\\_1939\\-45\\_H28352\\.jpg\\|Churchill gun carrier in \\[\\[Dorset]], March 1943\n'submarine Life'\\- Last Minute Duties Before a Mediterranean Patrol. March and April 1943, Malta, Officers and Men of a British Submarine Before Going Out on Patrol in the Mediterranean. A16269\\.jpg\\|On a \\[\\[British U\\-class submarine\\|U\\-class submarine]], April 1943",
"",
""
] |
### World War I
Britain entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") with no anti\-aircraft artillery. When war broke out and Germany occupied Belgium and North\-east France, it was realised that key installations in England could be attacked by air. As a result, a search for suitable anti\-aircraft guns began. The Navy provided the initial {{convert\|3\|in\|adj\=on}} guns from its warships, approximately 18 by December 1914, for the defence of key installations in Britain, manned by [RNVR](/wiki/RNVR "RNVR") crews, until the new specialised anti\-aircraft version began production and entered service.Routledge 1994, page 4\-5 It was from then onwards operated by [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery "Royal Garrison Artillery") crews, with drivers and crew for motor lorries provided by the [Army Service Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Service_Corps "Royal Army Service Corps"). However, the Mobile Anti\-Aircraft Brigade based at [Kenwood](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath%23Kenwood "Hampstead Heath#Kenwood") Barracks in London, continued to be manned by the RNVR, although under the operational control of the Army.[Rawlinson, Alfred, Sir, *The defence of London, 1915–1918*, 1923 (p.57\)](https://archive.org/stream/defenceoflondon100rawluoft#page/56/mode/2up)
Other earlier anti\-aircraft guns based on the existing [13\-pounder](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_gun "QF 13-pounder gun") and [18\-pounder](/wiki/QF_18-pounder_gun "QF 18-pounder gun") guns proved inadequate, apart from the [QF 13\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt "QF 13-pounder 9 cwt") but even that could not reach high altitudes and fired a fairly light shell. The 3\-inch 20 cwt with its powerful and stable in flight,Routledge 1994, page 24 {{cvt\|16\|lb}} shell and fairly high altitude was well suited to defending the United Kingdom against high\-altitude [Zeppelins](/wiki/Zeppelin "Zeppelin") and bombers. The 16\-pound shell took 9\.2 seconds to reach {{cvt\|5000\|ft}} at 25 degrees from horizontal, 13\.7 seconds to reach {{cvt\|10000\|ft}} at 40 degrees, 18\.8 seconds to reach {{cvt\|15000\|ft}} at 55 degrees. This means that the gun team had to calculate where the target would be 9 to 18 seconds ahead, determine the deflection and set the correct [fuze](/wiki/Fuze "Fuze") length, load, aim and fire accordingly. Deflection was calculated mechanically and graphically using an optical height \& rangefinder to provide data for the two piece Wilson\-Dalby 'predictor', with the fuze length read off a scale mounted on the gun.
British time fuzes, required for airburst shooting, were powder burning (igniferous). However, the powder burning rate changed as air pressure reduced, making them erratic for the new vertical shooting. Modified fuzes reduced the variability but did not cure the problem. Britain lagged behind Germany in developing clockwork time fuzes. In addition, experience showed that the percussion mechanism in time fuzes, which burst the shrapnel shell on impact if the timer failed, had to be removed because AA shells could land among friendly troops and nearby civilians.Hogg \& Thurston 1972, page 220 Igniferous fuzes had to have a [gaine](/wiki/Explosive_booster "Explosive booster") in order to detonate HE shells.
The carriage's short recoil of {{convert\|11\|in}} allowed a higher rate of fire than for AA guns based on long\-recoil field guns such as the [QF 13\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt "QF 13-pounder 9 cwt").Hogg \& Thurston 1972, page 68
By June 1916, 202 3\-inch 20 cwt were deployed in the air defence of Britain, of a total of 371 AA guns.
The first guns arrived on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") in November 1916 and by the end of 1916 it equipped 10 sections out of a total of 91\.Farndale 1986, page 364 An AA section consisted of two guns and became the standard organizational unit.
By the end of World War I, 257 (out of a total of 402 AA guns) were in land service in England on static and lorry mountings, and 102 (out of a total of 348\) were in service on the Western FrontRoutledge 1994, page 27\. Farndale 1988, page 342 quotes 56 in service in France (meaning Western Front) at the Armistice. mounted on heavy lorries, typically the Peerless 4 Ton. In addition, many were mounted on Royal Navy ships.
{{Clear}}
{{gallery\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunTowedOnCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\|Demonstration of towing on 2\-wheeled travelling platform\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunInActionCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\|Demonstration of deployment for action on cruciform travelling platform with wheels removed\|File:3inch20cwtAAgunPeerlessLorryWWI.jpg\|Mk I gun on Mk IV mounting on Peerless 4 ton lorry, WWI\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunHMASAustraliaDecember1918\.jpeg\|On \[\[HMAS Australia (1911\)\|HMAS ''Australia'']], December 1918}}
|
[
"### World War I",
"Britain entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") with no anti\\-aircraft artillery. When war broke out and Germany occupied Belgium and North\\-east France, it was realised that key installations in England could be attacked by air. As a result, a search for suitable anti\\-aircraft guns began. The Navy provided the initial {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|adj\\=on}} guns from its warships, approximately 18 by December 1914, for the defence of key installations in Britain, manned by [RNVR](/wiki/RNVR \"RNVR\") crews, until the new specialised anti\\-aircraft version began production and entered service.Routledge 1994, page 4\\-5 It was from then onwards operated by [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery \"Royal Garrison Artillery\") crews, with drivers and crew for motor lorries provided by the [Army Service Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Service_Corps \"Royal Army Service Corps\"). However, the Mobile Anti\\-Aircraft Brigade based at [Kenwood](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath%23Kenwood \"Hampstead Heath#Kenwood\") Barracks in London, continued to be manned by the RNVR, although under the operational control of the Army.[Rawlinson, Alfred, Sir, *The defence of London, 1915–1918*, 1923 (p.57\\)](https://archive.org/stream/defenceoflondon100rawluoft#page/56/mode/2up)",
"Other earlier anti\\-aircraft guns based on the existing [13\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_gun \"QF 13-pounder gun\") and [18\\-pounder](/wiki/QF_18-pounder_gun \"QF 18-pounder gun\") guns proved inadequate, apart from the [QF 13\\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt \"QF 13-pounder 9 cwt\") but even that could not reach high altitudes and fired a fairly light shell. The 3\\-inch 20 cwt with its powerful and stable in flight,Routledge 1994, page 24 {{cvt\\|16\\|lb}} shell and fairly high altitude was well suited to defending the United Kingdom against high\\-altitude [Zeppelins](/wiki/Zeppelin \"Zeppelin\") and bombers. The 16\\-pound shell took 9\\.2 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|5000\\|ft}} at 25 degrees from horizontal, 13\\.7 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|10000\\|ft}} at 40 degrees, 18\\.8 seconds to reach {{cvt\\|15000\\|ft}} at 55 degrees. This means that the gun team had to calculate where the target would be 9 to 18 seconds ahead, determine the deflection and set the correct [fuze](/wiki/Fuze \"Fuze\") length, load, aim and fire accordingly. Deflection was calculated mechanically and graphically using an optical height \\& rangefinder to provide data for the two piece Wilson\\-Dalby 'predictor', with the fuze length read off a scale mounted on the gun.",
"British time fuzes, required for airburst shooting, were powder burning (igniferous). However, the powder burning rate changed as air pressure reduced, making them erratic for the new vertical shooting. Modified fuzes reduced the variability but did not cure the problem. Britain lagged behind Germany in developing clockwork time fuzes. In addition, experience showed that the percussion mechanism in time fuzes, which burst the shrapnel shell on impact if the timer failed, had to be removed because AA shells could land among friendly troops and nearby civilians.Hogg \\& Thurston 1972, page 220 Igniferous fuzes had to have a [gaine](/wiki/Explosive_booster \"Explosive booster\") in order to detonate HE shells.",
"The carriage's short recoil of {{convert\\|11\\|in}} allowed a higher rate of fire than for AA guns based on long\\-recoil field guns such as the [QF 13\\-pounder 9 cwt](/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt \"QF 13-pounder 9 cwt\").Hogg \\& Thurston 1972, page 68",
"By June 1916, 202 3\\-inch 20 cwt were deployed in the air defence of Britain, of a total of 371 AA guns.",
"The first guns arrived on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") in November 1916 and by the end of 1916 it equipped 10 sections out of a total of 91\\.Farndale 1986, page 364 An AA section consisted of two guns and became the standard organizational unit.",
"By the end of World War I, 257 (out of a total of 402 AA guns) were in land service in England on static and lorry mountings, and 102 (out of a total of 348\\) were in service on the Western FrontRoutledge 1994, page 27\\. Farndale 1988, page 342 quotes 56 in service in France (meaning Western Front) at the Armistice. mounted on heavy lorries, typically the Peerless 4 Ton. In addition, many were mounted on Royal Navy ships.",
"{{Clear}}\n{{gallery\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunTowedOnCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\\|Demonstration of towing on 2\\-wheeled travelling platform\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunInActionCruciformTravellingPlatform.jpg\\|Demonstration of deployment for action on cruciform travelling platform with wheels removed\\|File:3inch20cwtAAgunPeerlessLorryWWI.jpg\\|Mk I gun on Mk IV mounting on Peerless 4 ton lorry, WWI\\|File:3inch20cwtAAGunHMASAustraliaDecember1918\\.jpeg\\|On \\[\\[HMAS Australia (1911\\)\\|HMAS ''Australia'']], December 1918}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1862 proposal by Turnbull
In 1862, the Government of Bengal asked [George Turnbull](/wiki/George_Turnbull_%28civil_engineer%29 "George Turnbull (civil engineer)"), chief engineer of the [East Indian Railway Company](/wiki/East_Indian_Railway_Company "East Indian Railway Company") to study the feasibility of bridging the Hooghly River. He had recently established the company's [rail terminus in Howrah](/wiki/Howrah_station "Howrah station"). He reported on 19 March, with large\-scale drawings and estimates, that:Diaries of George Turnbull held in Cambridge University, England.
* The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth and cost because of the depth of the mud there.
* The impediment to shipping would be considerable.
* A good place for the bridge was at Pulta Ghat "about a dozen miles north of Calcutta" where a "bed of stiff clay existed at no great depth under the river bed".
* A suspended\-girder bridge of five spans of {{convert\|401\|ft\|m}} and two spans {{convert\|200\|ft\|m}} would be ideal.
### Pontoon bridge
[thumb\|left\|The old pontoon bridge that was later replaced by the Howrah Bridge](/wiki/File:Old_Pontoon_Bridge.jpg "Old Pontoon Bridge.jpg")
In view of the increasing traffic across the Hooghly river, a committee was appointed in 1855–56 to review alternatives for constructing a bridge across it.{{cite web\|url \= http://www.irfca.org/docs/history/howrah\-district.html\|title\=Howrah District (1909\)\|access\-date\=2011\-11\-21}} The plan was shelved in 1859–60, to be revived in 1868, when it was decided that a bridge should be constructed and a newly appointed trust vested to manage it. The [Calcutta Port Trust](/wiki/Port_of_Kolkata "Port of Kolkata") was founded in 1870, and the Legislative department of the then Government of Bengal passed the Howrah Bridge Act in the year 1871 under the Bengal Act IX of 1871, empowering the lieutenant\-governor to have the bridge constructed with Government capital under the aegis of the Port Commissioners.
[right\|thumb\|The Howrah Bridge Act of 1871](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bridge_Act%2C_1871.jpg "Howrah Bridge Act, 1871.jpg")
Eventually a contract was signed with [Sir Bradford Leslie](/wiki/Bradford_Leslie "Bradford Leslie") to construct a [pontoon bridge](/wiki/Pontoon_bridge "Pontoon bridge"). Different parts of the bridge were constructed in England and shipped to Calcutta, where they were assembled. The assembling period was fraught with problems. The bridge was considerably damaged by the great cyclone on 20 March 1874\. A steamer named *Egeria* broke from her moorings and collided head\-on with the bridge, sinking three pontoons and damaging nearly 200 feet of the bridge. The bridge was complete in 1874, at a total cost of {{Indian Rupee}}2\.2 million, and opened to traffic on 17 October of that year.{{cite web\|url\=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a\=v\&q\=cache:z00ro25q5IIJ:www.riversoftheworld.org/files/11873\+bullock\+carts\+formed\+the\+eight\+\-\+thirteenths\+of\+the\+vehicular\+traffic\&hl\=en≷\=in\&pid\=bl\&srcid\=ADGEESjnc9WzFpJc5rwAmMQrqxcvPWB1X9\-uQ5rB53NV2qNioVWIUW\-4jGAih7pDzLycPniVaZDN43XMG0op\-bU3Ik48lHs3baDe3KIgXYvqCmP7KrESuolsd8tOtPLcWNne69cFC0VX\&sig\=AHIEtbRyjxcAgfyg3ZjnG9obSGXP8kWzzQ\&pli\=1\|title\=River Ganges\|access\-date\=2011\-11\-21}} The bridge was then 1528 ft long and 62 ft wide, with 7\-foot wide pavements on either side. Initially the bridge was periodically unfastened to allow steamers and other marine vehicles to pass through. Before 1906, the bridge used to be undone for the passage of vessels during daytime only. Since June of that year it started opening at night for all vessels except ocean steamers, which were required to pass through during daytime. From 19 August 1879, the bridge was illuminated by electric lamp\-posts, powered by the dynamo at the Mullick Ghat Pumping Station. As the bridge could not handle the rapidly increasing load, the Port Commissioners started planning in 1905 for a new improved bridge.
### Plans for a new bridge
In 1906 the Port Commission appointed a committee headed by R.S. Highet, chief engineer, [East Indian Railway](/wiki/East_Indian_Railway_Company "East Indian Railway Company") and W.B. MacCabe, chief engineer, Calcutta Corporation. They submitted a report stating that
{{blockquote\|Bullock carts formed the eight \- thirteenths of the vehicular traffic (as observed on 27 August 1906, the heaviest day's traffic observed in the port of Commissioners 16 days' Census of the vehicular traffic across the existing bridge). The roadway on the existing bridge is 48 feet wide except at the shore spans where it is only 43 feet in roadways, each 21 feet 6 inches wide. The roadway on the new bridge would be wide enough to take at least two lines of vehicular traffic and one line of trams in each direction and two roadways each 30 feet wide, giving a total width of 60 feet of road way which are quite sufficient for this purpose \[...]
The traffic across the existing floating bridge Calcutta \& Howrah is very heavy and it is obvious if the new bridge is to be on the same site as the existing bridge, then unless a temporary bridge is provided, there will be serious interruptions to the traffic while existing bridge is being moved to one side to allow the new bridge to be erected on the same site as the present bridge.}}
The committee considered six options:
1. Large ferry steamers capable of carrying vehicular load (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}900,000, annual cost {{Indian Rupee}}438,000\)
2. A transporters bridge (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}2 million)
3. A tunnel (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}338\.2 million, annual maintenance cost {{Indian Rupee}}1,779,000\)
4. A bridge on piers (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}22\.5 million)
5. A floating bridge (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}2,140,000, annual maintenance cost {{Indian Rupee}}200,000\)
6. An arched bridge
The committee eventually decided on a floating bridge. It extended tenders to 23 firms for its design and construction. Prize money of [£](/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling")3,000 ({{Indian Rupee}}45,000, at the then exchange rate) was declared for the firm whose design would be accepted.
### Planning and estimation
[left\|thumb\|The Howrah Bridge Amendment Act, 1935](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bridge_Amendment_Act%2C_1935.jpg "Howrah Bridge Amendment Act, 1935.jpg")
The initial construction process of the bridge was stalled due to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), although the bridge was partially renewed in 1917 and 1927\. In 1921 a committee of engineers named the 'Mukherjee Committee' was formed, headed by [R. N. Mukherji](/wiki/R._N._Mukherji "R. N. Mukherji"), Sir Clement Hindley, chairman of Calcutta Port Trust and J. McGlashan, Chief Engineer. They referred the matter to [Sir Basil Mott](/wiki/Basil_Mott "Basil Mott"), who proposed a single span [arch bridge](/wiki/Arch_bridge "Arch bridge"). Charles Alfred O'Grady one of the Engineers
In 1922, set up, to which the Mukherjee Committee submitted its report. In 1926 the New Howrah Bridge Act passed. In 1930 the Goode Committee was formed, comprising S.W. Goode as president, S.N. Mallick, and W.H. Thompson, to investigate and report on the advisability of constructing a pier bridge between Calcutta and Howrah. Based on their recommendation, M/s. Rendel, Palmer and Tritton were asked to consider the construction of a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Suspension_bridge "Suspension bridge") of a particular design prepared by their chief draftsman Mr. Walton. On basis of the report, a global tender was floated. The lowest bid came from a German company, but due to increasing political tensions between Germany and Great Britain in 1935, it was not given the contract. The [Braithwaite, Burn \& Jessop Construction Co.](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company "Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company") was awarded the construction contract that year. The New Howrah Bridge Act was amended in 1935 to reflect this, and construction of the bridge started the next year.
### Construction
The bridge does not have nuts and bolts,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mapsofindia.com/kolkata/howrah\-bridge.html\|title\=Howrah Bridge\|access\-date\=2011\-11\-21\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028120359/http://www.mapsofindia.com/kolkata/howrah\-bridge.html\|archive\-date\=28 October 2011\|df\=dmy\-all}} but was formed by riveting the whole structure. It consumed 26,500 tons of steel, out of which 23,000 tons of high\-tensile alloy steel, known as Tiscrom, were supplied by [Tata Steel](/wiki/Tata_Steel "Tata Steel").{{cite book\|author \= Kasturi Rangan \| title \= The Shaping of Indian Science: 1914\-1947 \| year \= 2003\| publisher \= Universities Press \| page \= 494}} The main tower was constructed with single monolith [caissons](/wiki/Caisson_%28engineering%29 "Caisson (engineering)") of dimensions 55\.31{{nbsp}}m{{nbsp}}× 24\.8{{nbsp}}m{{cite book\|author\=Ponnuswamy\|title\=Bridge Engineering\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited\|page\=304}} with 21 shafts, each 6\.25 metre square.{{cite book\|author1\=William Warren \|author2\=Luca Invernizzi Tettoni \|author3\=Luca Invernizzi \| title \= Singapore, city of gardens \| year \= 2001\| publisher \= Periplus Editions \| page \= 369}} The Chief Engineer of the Port Trust, Mr. J. McGlashan, wanted to replace the pontoon bridge, with a permanent structure, as the present bridge interfered with north–south river traffic. Work could not be started as World War I (1914–1918\) broke out. Then in 1926 a commission under the chairmanship of Sir R. N. Mukherjee recommended a suspension bridge of a particular type to be built across the River Hoogly. The bridge was designed by one Mr. Walton of M/s Rendel, Palmer \& Triton. The order for construction and erection was placed on [M/s.Cleveland Bridge \& Engineering Company](/wiki/Cleveland_Bridge_%26_Engineering_Company "Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company") in 1939\. Again World War II (1939–1945\) intervened. All the steel that was to come from England were diverted for war effort in Europe. Out of 26,000 tons of steel, that was required for the bridge, only 3000 tons were supplied from England. In spite of the Japanese threat, the then (British) government of India pressed on with the construction. Tata Steel were asked to supply the remaining 23,000 tons of high tension steel. The Tatas developed the quality of steel required for the bridge and called it Tiscrom. The entire 23,000 tons was supplied in time. The fabrication and erection work was awarded to a local engineering firm of Howrah: the [Braithwaite, Burn \& Jessop Construction Co.](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company "Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company") The two anchorage caissons were each 16\.4 m by 8\.2 m, with two wells 4\.9 m square. The caissons were so designed that the working chambers within the shafts could be temporarily enclosed by steel diaphragms to allow work under compressed air if required. The caisson at Kolkata side was set at 31\.41 m and that at Howrah side at 26\.53 m below ground level.
One night, during the process of grabbing out the muck to enable the caisson to move, the ground below it yielded, and the entire mass plunged two feet, shaking the ground. The impact of this was so intense that the [seismograph](/wiki/Seismograph "Seismograph") at [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore "Kidderpore") registered it as an [earthquake](/wiki/Earthquake "Earthquake") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu") [temple](/wiki/Temple "Temple") on the shore was destroyed, although it was subsequently rebuilt.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080706/jsp/calcutta/story\_9501358\.jsp\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130203133021/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080706/jsp/calcutta/story\_9501358\.jsp\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=3 February 2013\|title\=Cat's cradle of steel\|access\-date\=2011\-11\-21 \| location\=Calcutta, India\|work\=The Telegraph\|first\=Soumitra\|last\=Das\|date\=6 July 2008}} While muck was being cleared, numerous varieties of objects were brought up, including anchors, grappling irons, cannons, cannonballs, brass vessels, and coins dating back to the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company").
The job of sinking the caissons was carried out round\-the\-clock at a rate of a foot or more per day. The caissons were sunk through soft river deposits to a stiff yellow clay 26\.5 m below ground level. The accuracy of sinking the huge caissons was exceptionally precise, within 50–75 mm of the true position. After penetrating 2\.1 m into clay, all shafts were plugged with [concrete](/wiki/Concrete "Concrete") after individual dewatering, with some 5 m of backfilling in adjacent shafts. The main [piers](/wiki/Pier "Pier") on the Howrah side were sunk by open wheel [dredging](/wiki/Dredging "Dredging"), while those on the Kolkata side required compressed air to counter running sand. The air pressure maintained was about 40 lbs per square inch (2\.8 [bar](/wiki/Bar_%28unit%29 "Bar (unit)")), which required about 500 workers to be employed. Whenever excessively soft soil was encountered, the shafts symmetrical to the caisson axes were left unexcavated to allow strict control. In very stiff clays, a large number of the internal wells were completely undercut, allowing the whole weight of the caisson to be carried by the outside [skin friction](/wiki/Parasitic_drag%23Skin_friction "Parasitic drag#Skin friction") and the [bearing](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 "Bearing (mechanical)") under the external wall. Skin friction on the outside of the monolith walls was estimated at 29 kN/m2 while loads on the cutting edge in clay overlying the founding stratum reached 100 tonnes/m. The work on the foundation was completed in November 1938\.
By the end of 1940, the erection of the cantilevered arms was commenced and was completed in mid\-summer of 1941\. The two halves of the suspended span, each 282 feet (86 m) long and weighing 2,000 tons, were built in December 1941\. The bridge was erected by commencing at the two anchor spans and advancing towards the center, with the use of creeper cranes moving along the upper chord. 16 [hydraulic jacks](/wiki/Jack_%28device%29%23Hydraulic_jack "Jack (device)#Hydraulic jack"), each of which had an 800\-ton capacity, were pressed into service to join the two halves of the suspended span.
The entire project cost {{Indian Rupee}}25 million ([£](/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling")2,463,887\). The project was a pioneer in bridge construction, particularly in India, but the government did not have a formal opening of the bridge due to fears of attacks by Japanese planes fighting the [Allied Powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II"). Japan had attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941\. The first vehicle to use the bridge was a solitary [tram](/wiki/Calcutta_Tramways_Company "Calcutta Tramways Company").
[thumb\|Howrah Bus Terminus close to Howrah Bridge](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bus_Terminus_-_Howrah_Bridge_Area_-_Howrah_2012-06-22_01350.jpg "Howrah Bus Terminus - Howrah Bridge Area - Howrah 2012-06-22 01350.jpg")
The bridge is regarded "The Gateway to Kolkata, as it connects the city to Howrah Station".{{citation needed\|date\=June 2020}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1862 proposal by Turnbull",
"In 1862, the Government of Bengal asked [George Turnbull](/wiki/George_Turnbull_%28civil_engineer%29 \"George Turnbull (civil engineer)\"), chief engineer of the [East Indian Railway Company](/wiki/East_Indian_Railway_Company \"East Indian Railway Company\") to study the feasibility of bridging the Hooghly River. He had recently established the company's [rail terminus in Howrah](/wiki/Howrah_station \"Howrah station\"). He reported on 19 March, with large\\-scale drawings and estimates, that:Diaries of George Turnbull held in Cambridge University, England.\n* The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth and cost because of the depth of the mud there.\n* The impediment to shipping would be considerable.\n* A good place for the bridge was at Pulta Ghat \"about a dozen miles north of Calcutta\" where a \"bed of stiff clay existed at no great depth under the river bed\".\n* A suspended\\-girder bridge of five spans of {{convert\\|401\\|ft\\|m}} and two spans {{convert\\|200\\|ft\\|m}} would be ideal.",
"### Pontoon bridge",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The old pontoon bridge that was later replaced by the Howrah Bridge](/wiki/File:Old_Pontoon_Bridge.jpg \"Old Pontoon Bridge.jpg\")\nIn view of the increasing traffic across the Hooghly river, a committee was appointed in 1855–56 to review alternatives for constructing a bridge across it.{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.irfca.org/docs/history/howrah\\-district.html\\|title\\=Howrah District (1909\\)\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-21}} The plan was shelved in 1859–60, to be revived in 1868, when it was decided that a bridge should be constructed and a newly appointed trust vested to manage it. The [Calcutta Port Trust](/wiki/Port_of_Kolkata \"Port of Kolkata\") was founded in 1870, and the Legislative department of the then Government of Bengal passed the Howrah Bridge Act in the year 1871 under the Bengal Act IX of 1871, empowering the lieutenant\\-governor to have the bridge constructed with Government capital under the aegis of the Port Commissioners.\n[right\\|thumb\\|The Howrah Bridge Act of 1871](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bridge_Act%2C_1871.jpg \"Howrah Bridge Act, 1871.jpg\")",
"Eventually a contract was signed with [Sir Bradford Leslie](/wiki/Bradford_Leslie \"Bradford Leslie\") to construct a [pontoon bridge](/wiki/Pontoon_bridge \"Pontoon bridge\"). Different parts of the bridge were constructed in England and shipped to Calcutta, where they were assembled. The assembling period was fraught with problems. The bridge was considerably damaged by the great cyclone on 20 March 1874\\. A steamer named *Egeria* broke from her moorings and collided head\\-on with the bridge, sinking three pontoons and damaging nearly 200 feet of the bridge. The bridge was complete in 1874, at a total cost of {{Indian Rupee}}2\\.2 million, and opened to traffic on 17 October of that year.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a\\=v\\&q\\=cache:z00ro25q5IIJ:www.riversoftheworld.org/files/11873\\+bullock\\+carts\\+formed\\+the\\+eight\\+\\-\\+thirteenths\\+of\\+the\\+vehicular\\+traffic\\&hl\\=en≷\\=in\\&pid\\=bl\\&srcid\\=ADGEESjnc9WzFpJc5rwAmMQrqxcvPWB1X9\\-uQ5rB53NV2qNioVWIUW\\-4jGAih7pDzLycPniVaZDN43XMG0op\\-bU3Ik48lHs3baDe3KIgXYvqCmP7KrESuolsd8tOtPLcWNne69cFC0VX\\&sig\\=AHIEtbRyjxcAgfyg3ZjnG9obSGXP8kWzzQ\\&pli\\=1\\|title\\=River Ganges\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-21}} The bridge was then 1528 ft long and 62 ft wide, with 7\\-foot wide pavements on either side. Initially the bridge was periodically unfastened to allow steamers and other marine vehicles to pass through. Before 1906, the bridge used to be undone for the passage of vessels during daytime only. Since June of that year it started opening at night for all vessels except ocean steamers, which were required to pass through during daytime. From 19 August 1879, the bridge was illuminated by electric lamp\\-posts, powered by the dynamo at the Mullick Ghat Pumping Station. As the bridge could not handle the rapidly increasing load, the Port Commissioners started planning in 1905 for a new improved bridge.",
"### Plans for a new bridge",
"In 1906 the Port Commission appointed a committee headed by R.S. Highet, chief engineer, [East Indian Railway](/wiki/East_Indian_Railway_Company \"East Indian Railway Company\") and W.B. MacCabe, chief engineer, Calcutta Corporation. They submitted a report stating that\n{{blockquote\\|Bullock carts formed the eight \\- thirteenths of the vehicular traffic (as observed on 27 August 1906, the heaviest day's traffic observed in the port of Commissioners 16 days' Census of the vehicular traffic across the existing bridge). The roadway on the existing bridge is 48 feet wide except at the shore spans where it is only 43 feet in roadways, each 21 feet 6 inches wide. The roadway on the new bridge would be wide enough to take at least two lines of vehicular traffic and one line of trams in each direction and two roadways each 30 feet wide, giving a total width of 60 feet of road way which are quite sufficient for this purpose \\[...] \n The traffic across the existing floating bridge Calcutta \\& Howrah is very heavy and it is obvious if the new bridge is to be on the same site as the existing bridge, then unless a temporary bridge is provided, there will be serious interruptions to the traffic while existing bridge is being moved to one side to allow the new bridge to be erected on the same site as the present bridge.}}\nThe committee considered six options:\n1. Large ferry steamers capable of carrying vehicular load (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}900,000, annual cost {{Indian Rupee}}438,000\\)\n2. A transporters bridge (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}2 million)\n3. A tunnel (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}338\\.2 million, annual maintenance cost {{Indian Rupee}}1,779,000\\)\n4. A bridge on piers (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}22\\.5 million)\n5. A floating bridge (set up cost {{Indian Rupee}}2,140,000, annual maintenance cost {{Indian Rupee}}200,000\\)\n6. An arched bridge\nThe committee eventually decided on a floating bridge. It extended tenders to 23 firms for its design and construction. Prize money of [£](/wiki/Pound_sterling \"Pound sterling\")3,000 ({{Indian Rupee}}45,000, at the then exchange rate) was declared for the firm whose design would be accepted.",
"### Planning and estimation",
"[left\\|thumb\\|The Howrah Bridge Amendment Act, 1935](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bridge_Amendment_Act%2C_1935.jpg \"Howrah Bridge Amendment Act, 1935.jpg\")\nThe initial construction process of the bridge was stalled due to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), although the bridge was partially renewed in 1917 and 1927\\. In 1921 a committee of engineers named the 'Mukherjee Committee' was formed, headed by [R. N. Mukherji](/wiki/R._N._Mukherji \"R. N. Mukherji\"), Sir Clement Hindley, chairman of Calcutta Port Trust and J. McGlashan, Chief Engineer. They referred the matter to [Sir Basil Mott](/wiki/Basil_Mott \"Basil Mott\"), who proposed a single span [arch bridge](/wiki/Arch_bridge \"Arch bridge\"). Charles Alfred O'Grady one of the Engineers",
"In 1922, set up, to which the Mukherjee Committee submitted its report. In 1926 the New Howrah Bridge Act passed. In 1930 the Goode Committee was formed, comprising S.W. Goode as president, S.N. Mallick, and W.H. Thompson, to investigate and report on the advisability of constructing a pier bridge between Calcutta and Howrah. Based on their recommendation, M/s. Rendel, Palmer and Tritton were asked to consider the construction of a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Suspension_bridge \"Suspension bridge\") of a particular design prepared by their chief draftsman Mr. Walton. On basis of the report, a global tender was floated. The lowest bid came from a German company, but due to increasing political tensions between Germany and Great Britain in 1935, it was not given the contract. The [Braithwaite, Burn \\& Jessop Construction Co.](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company \"Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company\") was awarded the construction contract that year. The New Howrah Bridge Act was amended in 1935 to reflect this, and construction of the bridge started the next year.",
"### Construction",
"The bridge does not have nuts and bolts,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mapsofindia.com/kolkata/howrah\\-bridge.html\\|title\\=Howrah Bridge\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028120359/http://www.mapsofindia.com/kolkata/howrah\\-bridge.html\\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2011\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} but was formed by riveting the whole structure. It consumed 26,500 tons of steel, out of which 23,000 tons of high\\-tensile alloy steel, known as Tiscrom, were supplied by [Tata Steel](/wiki/Tata_Steel \"Tata Steel\").{{cite book\\|author \\= Kasturi Rangan \\| title \\= The Shaping of Indian Science: 1914\\-1947 \\| year \\= 2003\\| publisher \\= Universities Press \\| page \\= 494}} The main tower was constructed with single monolith [caissons](/wiki/Caisson_%28engineering%29 \"Caisson (engineering)\") of dimensions 55\\.31{{nbsp}}m{{nbsp}}× 24\\.8{{nbsp}}m{{cite book\\|author\\=Ponnuswamy\\|title\\=Bridge Engineering\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited\\|page\\=304}} with 21 shafts, each 6\\.25 metre square.{{cite book\\|author1\\=William Warren \\|author2\\=Luca Invernizzi Tettoni \\|author3\\=Luca Invernizzi \\| title \\= Singapore, city of gardens \\| year \\= 2001\\| publisher \\= Periplus Editions \\| page \\= 369}} The Chief Engineer of the Port Trust, Mr. J. McGlashan, wanted to replace the pontoon bridge, with a permanent structure, as the present bridge interfered with north–south river traffic. Work could not be started as World War I (1914–1918\\) broke out. Then in 1926 a commission under the chairmanship of Sir R. N. Mukherjee recommended a suspension bridge of a particular type to be built across the River Hoogly. The bridge was designed by one Mr. Walton of M/s Rendel, Palmer \\& Triton. The order for construction and erection was placed on [M/s.Cleveland Bridge \\& Engineering Company](/wiki/Cleveland_Bridge_%26_Engineering_Company \"Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company\") in 1939\\. Again World War II (1939–1945\\) intervened. All the steel that was to come from England were diverted for war effort in Europe. Out of 26,000 tons of steel, that was required for the bridge, only 3000 tons were supplied from England. In spite of the Japanese threat, the then (British) government of India pressed on with the construction. Tata Steel were asked to supply the remaining 23,000 tons of high tension steel. The Tatas developed the quality of steel required for the bridge and called it Tiscrom. The entire 23,000 tons was supplied in time. The fabrication and erection work was awarded to a local engineering firm of Howrah: the [Braithwaite, Burn \\& Jessop Construction Co.](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company \"Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company\") The two anchorage caissons were each 16\\.4 m by 8\\.2 m, with two wells 4\\.9 m square. The caissons were so designed that the working chambers within the shafts could be temporarily enclosed by steel diaphragms to allow work under compressed air if required. The caisson at Kolkata side was set at 31\\.41 m and that at Howrah side at 26\\.53 m below ground level.",
"One night, during the process of grabbing out the muck to enable the caisson to move, the ground below it yielded, and the entire mass plunged two feet, shaking the ground. The impact of this was so intense that the [seismograph](/wiki/Seismograph \"Seismograph\") at [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore \"Kidderpore\") registered it as an [earthquake](/wiki/Earthquake \"Earthquake\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") [temple](/wiki/Temple \"Temple\") on the shore was destroyed, although it was subsequently rebuilt.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080706/jsp/calcutta/story\\_9501358\\.jsp\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130203133021/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080706/jsp/calcutta/story\\_9501358\\.jsp\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2013\\|title\\=Cat's cradle of steel\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-21 \\| location\\=Calcutta, India\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|first\\=Soumitra\\|last\\=Das\\|date\\=6 July 2008}} While muck was being cleared, numerous varieties of objects were brought up, including anchors, grappling irons, cannons, cannonballs, brass vessels, and coins dating back to the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\").\nThe job of sinking the caissons was carried out round\\-the\\-clock at a rate of a foot or more per day. The caissons were sunk through soft river deposits to a stiff yellow clay 26\\.5 m below ground level. The accuracy of sinking the huge caissons was exceptionally precise, within 50–75 mm of the true position. After penetrating 2\\.1 m into clay, all shafts were plugged with [concrete](/wiki/Concrete \"Concrete\") after individual dewatering, with some 5 m of backfilling in adjacent shafts. The main [piers](/wiki/Pier \"Pier\") on the Howrah side were sunk by open wheel [dredging](/wiki/Dredging \"Dredging\"), while those on the Kolkata side required compressed air to counter running sand. The air pressure maintained was about 40 lbs per square inch (2\\.8 [bar](/wiki/Bar_%28unit%29 \"Bar (unit)\")), which required about 500 workers to be employed. Whenever excessively soft soil was encountered, the shafts symmetrical to the caisson axes were left unexcavated to allow strict control. In very stiff clays, a large number of the internal wells were completely undercut, allowing the whole weight of the caisson to be carried by the outside [skin friction](/wiki/Parasitic_drag%23Skin_friction \"Parasitic drag#Skin friction\") and the [bearing](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 \"Bearing (mechanical)\") under the external wall. Skin friction on the outside of the monolith walls was estimated at 29 kN/m2 while loads on the cutting edge in clay overlying the founding stratum reached 100 tonnes/m. The work on the foundation was completed in November 1938\\.",
"By the end of 1940, the erection of the cantilevered arms was commenced and was completed in mid\\-summer of 1941\\. The two halves of the suspended span, each 282 feet (86 m) long and weighing 2,000 tons, were built in December 1941\\. The bridge was erected by commencing at the two anchor spans and advancing towards the center, with the use of creeper cranes moving along the upper chord. 16 [hydraulic jacks](/wiki/Jack_%28device%29%23Hydraulic_jack \"Jack (device)#Hydraulic jack\"), each of which had an 800\\-ton capacity, were pressed into service to join the two halves of the suspended span.",
"The entire project cost {{Indian Rupee}}25 million ([£](/wiki/Pound_sterling \"Pound sterling\")2,463,887\\). The project was a pioneer in bridge construction, particularly in India, but the government did not have a formal opening of the bridge due to fears of attacks by Japanese planes fighting the [Allied Powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\"). Japan had attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941\\. The first vehicle to use the bridge was a solitary [tram](/wiki/Calcutta_Tramways_Company \"Calcutta Tramways Company\").",
"[thumb\\|Howrah Bus Terminus close to Howrah Bridge](/wiki/File:Howrah_Bus_Terminus_-_Howrah_Bridge_Area_-_Howrah_2012-06-22_01350.jpg \"Howrah Bus Terminus - Howrah Bridge Area - Howrah 2012-06-22 01350.jpg\")\nThe bridge is regarded \"The Gateway to Kolkata, as it connects the city to Howrah Station\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2020}}",
""
] |
Early life
----------
{{main\|Dickens family}}
[thumbnail\|Charles Dickens's birthplace, 393 Commercial Road, Portsmouth](/wiki/File:CharlesDickens_house_Portsmouth.JPG "CharlesDickens house Portsmouth.JPG")
[thumb\|alt\=photograph\|2 Ordnance Terrace, [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Medway "Chatham, Medway"), Dickens's home 1817 – May 1821{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=9}}](/wiki/File:ChathamOrdnanceTerrCrop.jpg "ChathamOrdnanceTerrCrop.jpg")
Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road), [Landport](/wiki/Landport "Landport") in [Portsea Island](/wiki/Portsea_Island "Portsea Island") ([Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth")), [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"), the second of eight children of [Elizabeth Dickens](/wiki/Elizabeth_Dickens "Elizabeth Dickens") (née Barrow; 1789–1863\) and [John Dickens](/wiki/John_Dickens "John Dickens") (1785–1851\). His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam,{{cite journal \|last\=West \|first\=Gilian \|title\=Huffam and Son \|journal\=The Dickensian \|volume\=95 \|number\=447 \|date\=Spring 1999 \|pages\=5–18 \|publisher\=Dickens Fellowship}} rigger to His Majesty's Navy, gentleman and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novel *[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son "Dombey and Son")* (1848\).
In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street, [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia "Fitzrovia").{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=5}} When Charles was four, they relocated to [Sheerness](/wiki/Sheerness "Sheerness") and thence to [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent "Chatham, Kent"), Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11\. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a "very small and not\-over\-particularly\-taken\-care\-of boy".{{harvnb\|Forster\|2006\|p\=13}}.
Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including the [picaresque novels](/wiki/Picaresque_novel "Picaresque novel") of [Tobias Smollett](/wiki/Tobias_Smollett "Tobias Smollett") and [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding "Henry Fielding"), as well as *[Robinson Crusoe](/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe "Robinson Crusoe")* and *[Gil Blas](/wiki/Gil_Blas "Gil Blas")*. He read and re\-read *[The Arabian Nights](/wiki/The_Arabian_Nights "The Arabian Nights")* and the Collected Farces of [Elizabeth Inchbald](/wiki/Elizabeth_Inchbald "Elizabeth Inchbald").{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=7}} At the age of seven, he first saw [Joseph Grimaldi](/wiki/Joseph_Grimaldi "Joseph Grimaldi")—the father of modern [clowning](/wiki/Clown "Clown")—perform at the Star Theatre in [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Kent "Rochester, Kent"), Kent.Charles Dickens: Collected Papers, Vol. 1, *Preface to Grimaldi*, p. 9 He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit the *[Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi](/wiki/Memoirs_of_Joseph_Grimaldi "Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi")*.{{harvnb\|Forster\|2006\|p\=65}}.{{refn\|\[\[John Forster (biographer)\|John Forster]] quotes an unpublished letter in which Dickens responds to the accusation that he must not have seen Grimaldi in person: "Now, Sir, although I was brought up from remote country parts in the dark ages of 1819 and 1820 to behold the splendour of Christmas pantomimes and the humour of Joe, in whose honour I am informed I clapped my hands with great precocity, and although I even saw him act in the remote times of 1823 ... I am willing ... to concede that I had not arrived at man's estate when Grimaldi left the stage". When Dickens arrived in America for the first time in 1842, he stayed at the \[\[Tremont House (Boston)\|Tremont House]], America's "pioneer first\-class hotel". Dickens "bounded into the Tremont's foyer shouting out 'Here we are!', Grimaldi's famous catch\-phrase and as such entirely appropriate for a great and cherished entertainer making his entrance upon a new stage."Slater, p. 178 Later, Dickens was known to imitate Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions.Dolby, pp. 39–40\|group\="nb"}} He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=22–24:29–30}}. His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at a [dame school](/wiki/Dame_school "Dame school") and then at a school run by William Giles, a [dissenter](/wiki/English_Dissenters "English Dissenters"), in Chatham.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=41}}.
[thumb\|left\|upright\|alt\=drawing\|Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe\-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea "Marshalsea"), published in the 1892 edition of Forster's *Life of Charles Dickens*{{harvnb\|Schlicke\|1999\|p\=158}}.](/wiki/File:Dickens-at-the-Blacking-Warehouse.jpg "Dickens-at-the-Blacking-Warehouse.jpg")
This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at [Somerset House](/wiki/Somerset_House "Somerset House") and the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved to [Camden Town](/wiki/Camden_Town "Camden Town") in London.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|p\=13}} The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means,{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=76}}:'recklessly improvident'. John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea "Marshalsea") [debtors' prison](/wiki/Debtors%27_prison "Debtors' prison") in [Southwark](/wiki/Southwark "Southwark"), London in 1824\. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town.{{harvnb\|Pope\-Hennessy\|1945\|p\=11}}. Mrs Roylance was "a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family", whom Dickens later immortalised, "with a few alterations and embellishments", as "Mrs Pipchin" in *Dombey and Son*. Later, he lived in a back\-attic in the house of an agent for the [Insolvent Court](/wiki/Insolvency "Insolvency"), Archibald Russell, "a fat, good\-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife" and lame son, in [Lant Street](/wiki/Lant_Street "Lant Street") in Southwark.{{harvnb\|Forster\|2006\|p\=27}}. They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop "The Old Curiosity Shop")*.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=76}}.
On Sundays—with his sister [Frances](/wiki/Fanny_Dickens "Fanny Dickens"), free from her studies at the [Royal Academy of Music](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Music "Royal Academy of Music")—he spent the day at the Marshalsea.{{harvnb\|Wilson\|1972\|p\=53}}. Dickens later used the prison as a setting in *[Little Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit "Little Dorrit")*. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten\-hour days at Warren's [Blacking](/wiki/Shoe_polish "Shoe polish") Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present [Charing Cross railway station](/wiki/Charing_Cross_railway_station "Charing Cross railway station"), where he earned six [shillings](/wiki/Shilling "Shilling") a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio\-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered "how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age". As he recalled to [John Forster](/wiki/John_Forster_%28biographer%29 "John Forster (biographer)") (from *Life of Charles Dickens*):
{{blockquote\|The blacking\-warehouse was the last house on the left\-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble\-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting\-house was on the first floor, looking over the coal\-barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste\-blacking; first with a piece of oil\-paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down\-stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist.{{harvnb\|Forster\|2006\|pp\=23–24}}.}}
When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district of [Covent Garden](/wiki/Covent_Garden "Covent Garden"), the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street. Small audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens's biographer [Simon Callow](/wiki/Simon_Callow "Simon Callow")'s estimation, the public display was "a new refinement added to his misery".{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|p\=25}}
[upright\|thumb\|The [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea "Marshalsea") around 1897, after it had closed. Dickens based several of his characters on the experience of seeing his father in the debtors' prison, most notably [Amy Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit "Little Dorrit") from *Little Dorrit*.](/wiki/File:Courtyard_of_the_former_Marshalsea_prison%2C_1897_%282%29.png "Courtyard of the former Marshalsea prison, 1897 (2).png")
A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450\. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under the [Insolvent Debtors Act](/wiki/Insolvent_Debtors_%28England%29_Act_1813 "Insolvent Debtors (England) Act 1813"), Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea,{{harvnb\|Schlicke\|1999\|p\=157}}. for the home of Mrs Roylance.
Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot\-blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: "I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back." His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women.{{harvnb\|Wilson\|1972\|p\=58}}.
Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which [working\-class](/wiki/Working-class "Working-class") people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most [autobiographical, novel](/wiki/Autobiographical_novel "Autobiographical novel"), *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield "David Copperfield")*:{{harvnb\|Cain\|2008\|p\=91}}. "I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!"
Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in [Camden Town](/wiki/Camden_Town "Camden Town"), where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there. He did not consider it to be a good school: "Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run\-down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr Creakle's Establishment in *David Copperfield*."{{harvnb\|Wilson\|1972\|p\=61}}.
Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court, [Gray's Inn](/wiki/Gray%27s_Inn "Gray's Inn"), as a junior [clerk](/wiki/Law_clerk "Law clerk") from May 1827 to November 1828\. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks. Captivated with London's theatre scene, he went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day.{{harvnb\|Forster\|2006\|p\=180}}. His favourite actor was [Charles Mathews](/wiki/Charles_Mathews "Charles Mathews") and Dickens learnt his "[monopolylogues](/wiki/Monopolylogue "Monopolylogue")" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|pp\=34, 36}} Then, having learned [Gurney](/wiki/Thomas_Gurney_%28shorthand_writer%29 "Thomas Gurney (shorthand writer)")'s system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter at [Doctors' Commons](/wiki/Doctors%27_Commons "Doctors' Commons") and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years.{{harvnb\|Pope\-Hennessy\|1945\|p\=18}}.{{harvnb\|Wilson\|1972\|p\=64}}.
{{anchor\|Maria Beadnell}}In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora in *David Copperfield*. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris.{{harvnb\|Davis\|1998\|p\=23}}.
|
[
"Early life\n----------",
"{{main\\|Dickens family}}\n[thumbnail\\|Charles Dickens's birthplace, 393 Commercial Road, Portsmouth](/wiki/File:CharlesDickens_house_Portsmouth.JPG \"CharlesDickens house Portsmouth.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|alt\\=photograph\\|2 Ordnance Terrace, [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Medway \"Chatham, Medway\"), Dickens's home 1817 – May 1821{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=9}}](/wiki/File:ChathamOrdnanceTerrCrop.jpg \"ChathamOrdnanceTerrCrop.jpg\")\nCharles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road), [Landport](/wiki/Landport \"Landport\") in [Portsea Island](/wiki/Portsea_Island \"Portsea Island\") ([Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\")), [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\"), the second of eight children of [Elizabeth Dickens](/wiki/Elizabeth_Dickens \"Elizabeth Dickens\") (née Barrow; 1789–1863\\) and [John Dickens](/wiki/John_Dickens \"John Dickens\") (1785–1851\\). His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam,{{cite journal \\|last\\=West \\|first\\=Gilian \\|title\\=Huffam and Son \\|journal\\=The Dickensian \\|volume\\=95 \\|number\\=447 \\|date\\=Spring 1999 \\|pages\\=5–18 \\|publisher\\=Dickens Fellowship}} rigger to His Majesty's Navy, gentleman and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novel *[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son \"Dombey and Son\")* (1848\\).",
"In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street, [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia \"Fitzrovia\").{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=5}} When Charles was four, they relocated to [Sheerness](/wiki/Sheerness \"Sheerness\") and thence to [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent \"Chatham, Kent\"), Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11\\. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a \"very small and not\\-over\\-particularly\\-taken\\-care\\-of boy\".{{harvnb\\|Forster\\|2006\\|p\\=13}}.",
"Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including the [picaresque novels](/wiki/Picaresque_novel \"Picaresque novel\") of [Tobias Smollett](/wiki/Tobias_Smollett \"Tobias Smollett\") and [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding \"Henry Fielding\"), as well as *[Robinson Crusoe](/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe \"Robinson Crusoe\")* and *[Gil Blas](/wiki/Gil_Blas \"Gil Blas\")*. He read and re\\-read *[The Arabian Nights](/wiki/The_Arabian_Nights \"The Arabian Nights\")* and the Collected Farces of [Elizabeth Inchbald](/wiki/Elizabeth_Inchbald \"Elizabeth Inchbald\").{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=7}} At the age of seven, he first saw [Joseph Grimaldi](/wiki/Joseph_Grimaldi \"Joseph Grimaldi\")—the father of modern [clowning](/wiki/Clown \"Clown\")—perform at the Star Theatre in [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Kent \"Rochester, Kent\"), Kent.Charles Dickens: Collected Papers, Vol. 1, *Preface to Grimaldi*, p. 9 He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit the *[Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi](/wiki/Memoirs_of_Joseph_Grimaldi \"Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi\")*.{{harvnb\\|Forster\\|2006\\|p\\=65}}.{{refn\\|\\[\\[John Forster (biographer)\\|John Forster]] quotes an unpublished letter in which Dickens responds to the accusation that he must not have seen Grimaldi in person: \"Now, Sir, although I was brought up from remote country parts in the dark ages of 1819 and 1820 to behold the splendour of Christmas pantomimes and the humour of Joe, in whose honour I am informed I clapped my hands with great precocity, and although I even saw him act in the remote times of 1823 ... I am willing ... to concede that I had not arrived at man's estate when Grimaldi left the stage\". When Dickens arrived in America for the first time in 1842, he stayed at the \\[\\[Tremont House (Boston)\\|Tremont House]], America's \"pioneer first\\-class hotel\". Dickens \"bounded into the Tremont's foyer shouting out 'Here we are!', Grimaldi's famous catch\\-phrase and as such entirely appropriate for a great and cherished entertainer making his entrance upon a new stage.\"Slater, p. 178 Later, Dickens was known to imitate Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions.Dolby, pp. 39–40\\|group\\=\"nb\"}} He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=22–24:29–30}}. His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at a [dame school](/wiki/Dame_school \"Dame school\") and then at a school run by William Giles, a [dissenter](/wiki/English_Dissenters \"English Dissenters\"), in Chatham.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=41}}.\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|alt\\=drawing\\|Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe\\-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea \"Marshalsea\"), published in the 1892 edition of Forster's *Life of Charles Dickens*{{harvnb\\|Schlicke\\|1999\\|p\\=158}}.](/wiki/File:Dickens-at-the-Blacking-Warehouse.jpg \"Dickens-at-the-Blacking-Warehouse.jpg\")",
"This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at [Somerset House](/wiki/Somerset_House \"Somerset House\") and the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved to [Camden Town](/wiki/Camden_Town \"Camden Town\") in London.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|p\\=13}} The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means,{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=76}}:'recklessly improvident'. John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea \"Marshalsea\") [debtors' prison](/wiki/Debtors%27_prison \"Debtors' prison\") in [Southwark](/wiki/Southwark \"Southwark\"), London in 1824\\. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town.{{harvnb\\|Pope\\-Hennessy\\|1945\\|p\\=11}}. Mrs Roylance was \"a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family\", whom Dickens later immortalised, \"with a few alterations and embellishments\", as \"Mrs Pipchin\" in *Dombey and Son*. Later, he lived in a back\\-attic in the house of an agent for the [Insolvent Court](/wiki/Insolvency \"Insolvency\"), Archibald Russell, \"a fat, good\\-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife\" and lame son, in [Lant Street](/wiki/Lant_Street \"Lant Street\") in Southwark.{{harvnb\\|Forster\\|2006\\|p\\=27}}. They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop \"The Old Curiosity Shop\")*.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=76}}.",
"On Sundays—with his sister [Frances](/wiki/Fanny_Dickens \"Fanny Dickens\"), free from her studies at the [Royal Academy of Music](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Music \"Royal Academy of Music\")—he spent the day at the Marshalsea.{{harvnb\\|Wilson\\|1972\\|p\\=53}}. Dickens later used the prison as a setting in *[Little Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit \"Little Dorrit\")*. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten\\-hour days at Warren's [Blacking](/wiki/Shoe_polish \"Shoe polish\") Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present [Charing Cross railway station](/wiki/Charing_Cross_railway_station \"Charing Cross railway station\"), where he earned six [shillings](/wiki/Shilling \"Shilling\") a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio\\-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered \"how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age\". As he recalled to [John Forster](/wiki/John_Forster_%28biographer%29 \"John Forster (biographer)\") (from *Life of Charles Dickens*):",
"{{blockquote\\|The blacking\\-warehouse was the last house on the left\\-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble\\-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting\\-house was on the first floor, looking over the coal\\-barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste\\-blacking; first with a piece of oil\\-paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down\\-stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist.{{harvnb\\|Forster\\|2006\\|pp\\=23–24}}.}}",
"When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district of [Covent Garden](/wiki/Covent_Garden \"Covent Garden\"), the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street. Small audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens's biographer [Simon Callow](/wiki/Simon_Callow \"Simon Callow\")'s estimation, the public display was \"a new refinement added to his misery\".{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|p\\=25}}",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|The [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea \"Marshalsea\") around 1897, after it had closed. Dickens based several of his characters on the experience of seeing his father in the debtors' prison, most notably [Amy Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit \"Little Dorrit\") from *Little Dorrit*.](/wiki/File:Courtyard_of_the_former_Marshalsea_prison%2C_1897_%282%29.png \"Courtyard of the former Marshalsea prison, 1897 (2).png\")\nA few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450\\. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under the [Insolvent Debtors Act](/wiki/Insolvent_Debtors_%28England%29_Act_1813 \"Insolvent Debtors (England) Act 1813\"), Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea,{{harvnb\\|Schlicke\\|1999\\|p\\=157}}. for the home of Mrs Roylance.",
"Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot\\-blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: \"I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back.\" His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women.{{harvnb\\|Wilson\\|1972\\|p\\=58}}.",
"Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which [working\\-class](/wiki/Working-class \"Working-class\") people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most [autobiographical, novel](/wiki/Autobiographical_novel \"Autobiographical novel\"), *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield \"David Copperfield\")*:{{harvnb\\|Cain\\|2008\\|p\\=91}}. \"I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!\"",
"Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in [Camden Town](/wiki/Camden_Town \"Camden Town\"), where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there. He did not consider it to be a good school: \"Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run\\-down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr Creakle's Establishment in *David Copperfield*.\"{{harvnb\\|Wilson\\|1972\\|p\\=61}}.",
"Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court, [Gray's Inn](/wiki/Gray%27s_Inn \"Gray's Inn\"), as a junior [clerk](/wiki/Law_clerk \"Law clerk\") from May 1827 to November 1828\\. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks. Captivated with London's theatre scene, he went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day.{{harvnb\\|Forster\\|2006\\|p\\=180}}. His favourite actor was [Charles Mathews](/wiki/Charles_Mathews \"Charles Mathews\") and Dickens learnt his \"[monopolylogues](/wiki/Monopolylogue \"Monopolylogue\")\" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|pp\\=34, 36}} Then, having learned [Gurney](/wiki/Thomas_Gurney_%28shorthand_writer%29 \"Thomas Gurney (shorthand writer)\")'s system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter at [Doctors' Commons](/wiki/Doctors%27_Commons \"Doctors' Commons\") and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years.{{harvnb\\|Pope\\-Hennessy\\|1945\\|p\\=18}}.{{harvnb\\|Wilson\\|1972\\|p\\=64}}.",
"{{anchor\\|Maria Beadnell}}In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora in *David Copperfield*. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris.{{harvnb\\|Davis\\|1998\\|p\\=23}}.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Journalism and writing
[thumb\|upright\|Catherine Hogarth Dickens by [Samuel Laurence](/wiki/Samuel_Laurence "Samuel Laurence") (1838\). She met the author in 1834, and they became engaged the following year before marrying in April 1836\.](/wiki/File:Catherine_Dickens.jpg "Catherine Dickens.jpg")
In 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self\-confident.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|p\=48}} He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the [Garrick Club](/wiki/Garrick_Club "Garrick Club"){{harvnb\|Tomalin\|1992\|p\=7}}—he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the manager [George Bartley](/wiki/George_Bartley_%28comedian%29 "George Bartley (comedian)") and the actor [Charles Kemble](/wiki/Charles_Kemble "Charles Kemble") were to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer.{{harvnb\|Tomalin\|1992\|p\=76}}
In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, "A Dinner at Poplar Walk", to the London periodical *[Monthly Magazine](/wiki/Monthly_Magazine "Monthly Magazine")*.{{harvnb\|Patten\|2001\|pp\=16–18}}. His uncle William Barrow offered him a job on *The Mirror of Parliament* and he worked in the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") for the first time early in 1832\. He rented rooms at [Furnival's Inn](/wiki/Furnival%27s_Inn "Furnival's Inn") and worked as a political journalist, reporting on [Parliamentary](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") debates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the *[Morning Chronicle](/wiki/Morning_Chronicle "Morning Chronicle")*.{{cite book\|author\=Tomalin, Claire\|author\-link\=Claire Tomalin\|title\=Charles Dickens: A Life\|year\=2011\|publisher\=Penguin\|isbn\=9781594203091 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/charlesdickensli0000toma\|url\-access\=registration}}
[thumb\|left\|upright\|[Frontispiece](/wiki/Book_frontispiece "Book frontispiece"), *Sketches by Boz*—Boz being a family nickname—written by Dickens with illustrations by [George Cruikshank](/wiki/George_Cruikshank "George Cruikshank"), 1837](/wiki/File:Sketches_by_Boz_illustrated_by_George_Cruikshank_1837.jpg "Sketches by Boz illustrated by George Cruikshank 1837.jpg")
His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836: *[Sketches by Boz](/wiki/Sketches_by_Boz "Sketches by Boz")*—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=174–176}}.{{harvnb\|Glancy\|1999\|p\=6}}. Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brother [Augustus Dickens](/wiki/Augustus_Dickens "Augustus Dickens"), after a character in Oliver Goldsmith's *[The Vicar of Wakefield](/wiki/The_Vicar_of_Wakefield "The Vicar of Wakefield")*. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, "Moses" became "Boses"—later shortened to *Boz*.{{harvnb\|Van De Linde\|1917\|p\=75}}. Dickens's own name was considered "queer" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: "Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations." Dickens contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career. In January 1835, the *Morning Chronicle* launched an evening edition, under the editorship of the *Chronicle*{{'}}s music critic, [George Hogarth](/wiki/George_Hogarth "George Hogarth"). Hogarth invited him to contribute *Street Sketches* and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house—excited by Hogarth's friendship with [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott "Walter Scott") (whom Dickens greatly admired) and enjoying the company of Hogarth's three daughters: Georgina, Mary and 19\-year\-old Catherine.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|p\=54}}
[thumb\|upright\|The wise\-cracking, warm\-hearted servant [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 "Sam Weller (character)") from *[The Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers "The Pickwick Papers")*—a publishing phenomenon that sparked numerous spin\-offs and *Pickwick* merchandise—made the 24\-year\-old Dickens famous.{{cite news \|title\=The Sam Weller Bump \|url\=https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the\-sam\-weller\-bump/ \|access\-date\=26 June 2021 \|magazine\=The Paris Review \|archive\-date\=26 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626210342/https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the\-sam\-weller\-bump/ \|url\-status\=live}}](/wiki/File:Sam-weller-kyd.jpeg "Sam-weller-kyd.jpeg")
Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship with [William Harrison Ainsworth](/wiki/William_Harrison_Ainsworth "William Harrison Ainsworth"), the author of the highwayman novel *[Rookwood](/wiki/Rookwood_%28novel%29 "Rookwood (novel)")* (1834\), whose bachelor salon in [Harrow Road](/wiki/Harrow_Road "Harrow Road") had become the meeting place for a set that included [Daniel Maclise](/wiki/Daniel_Maclise "Daniel Maclise"), [Benjamin Disraeli](/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli "Benjamin Disraeli"), [Edward Bulwer\-Lytton](/wiki/Edward_Bulwer-Lytton "Edward Bulwer-Lytton") and [George Cruikshank](/wiki/George_Cruikshank "George Cruikshank"). All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=56}} The success of *Sketches by Boz* led to a proposal from publishers [Chapman and Hall](/wiki/Chapman_and_Hall "Chapman and Hall") for Dickens to supply text to match [Robert Seymour](/wiki/Robert_Seymour_%28illustrator%29 "Robert Seymour (illustrator)")'s engraved illustrations in a monthly [letterpress](/wiki/Letterpress_printing "Letterpress printing"). Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired "[Phiz](/wiki/Hablot_Knight_Browne "Hablot Knight Browne")" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story became *[The Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers "The Pickwick Papers")* and, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney character [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 "Sam Weller (character)") in the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=60}} The final instalment sold 40,000 copies. On the impact of the character, *[The Paris Review](/wiki/The_Paris_Review "The Paris Review")* stated, "arguably the most historic bump in English publishing is the Sam Weller Bump." A publishing phenomenon, [John Sutherland](/wiki/John_Sutherland_%28author%29 "John Sutherland (author)") called *The Pickwick Papers* "\[t]he most important single novel of the Victorian era".{{cite news \|title\=Chapter One – The Pickwick Phenomenon \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plagiarizing\-the\-victorian\-novel/pickwick\-phenomenon/D6F9FF564AD9BDD6865963E107255374 \|access\-date\=26 June 2021 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|archive\-date\=26 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626213458/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plagiarizing\-the\-victorian\-novel/pickwick\-phenomenon/D6F9FF564AD9BDD6865963E107255374 \|url\-status\=live}} The unprecedented success led to numerous spin\-offs and merchandise including *Pickwick* cigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books.
{{blockquote\|The Sam Weller Bump testifies not merely to Dickens's comic genius but to his acumen as an "authorpreneur", a portmanteau he inhabited long before ''The Economist'' took it up. For a writer who made his reputation crusading against the squalor of the \[\[Industrial Revolution]], Dickens was a creature of capitalism; he used everything from the powerful new printing presses to the enhanced advertising revenues to the expansion of railroads to sell more books. Dickens ensured that his books were available in cheap bindings for the lower orders as well as in morocco\-and\-gilt for people of quality; his ideal readership included everyone from the pickpockets who read ''Oliver Twist'' to Queen Victoria, who found it "exceedingly interesting".
\| source \= How ''The Pickwick Papers'' Launched Charles Dickens's Career, ''The Paris Review''.}}
{{clear}}
On its impact on mass culture, Nicholas Dames in *[The Atlantic](/wiki/The_Atlantic "The Atlantic")* writes, {{"'}}Literature' is not a big enough category for *Pickwick*. It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call 'entertainment'."{{cite news \|last\=Dames \|first\=Nicholas \|title\=Was Dickens a Thief? \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was\-dickens\-a\-thief/392072/ \|access\-date\=27 June 2021 \|magazine\=The Atlantic \|date\=June 2015 \|archive\-date\=17 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817111558/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was\-dickens\-a\-thief/392072/ \|url\-status\=live}} In November 1836, Dickens accepted the position of editor of *[Bentley's Miscellany](/wiki/Bentley%27s_Miscellany "Bentley's Miscellany")*, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=201, 278–279}}. In 1836, as he finished the last instalments of *The Pickwick Papers*, he began writing the beginning instalments of *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist "Oliver Twist")*—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on *Bentley's* and also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw. *Oliver Twist*, published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a child [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist "Protagonist").{{harvnb\|Smiley\|2002\|pp\=12–14}}.
[thumb\|upright\|Young Charles Dickens by [Daniel Maclise](/wiki/Daniel_Maclise "Daniel Maclise"), 1839](/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_by_Daniel_Maclise.jpg "Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise.jpg")
On 2 April 1836, after a one\-year engagement, and between episodes two and three of *The Pickwick Papers*, Dickens married [Catherine Thomson Hogarth](/wiki/Catherine_Dickens "Catherine Dickens") (1815–1879\), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the *[Evening Chronicle](/wiki/Evening_Chronicle "Evening Chronicle")*.{{harvnb\|Schlicke\|1999\|p\=160}} They were married in [St Luke's Church](/wiki/St_Luke%27s_Church%2C_Chelsea "St Luke's Church, Chelsea"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.chelseaparish.org/stlukes.htm \|work\=St Luke's and Christ Church \|title\=Notable people connected with St Luke's \|location\=Chelsea \|access\-date\=25 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=27 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027061548/https://www.chelseaparish.org/stlukes.htm \|url\-status\=live}} [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London "Chelsea, London"), London. After a brief honeymoon in [Chalk](/wiki/Chalk%2C_Kent "Chalk, Kent") in Kent, the couple returned to lodgings at [Furnival's Inn](/wiki/Furnival%27s_Inn "Furnival's Inn").{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=162, 181–182}}. The first of their [ten children](/wiki/Dickens_family "Dickens family"), Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set up [home in Bloomsbury](/wiki/Charles_Dickens_Museum%2C_London "Charles Dickens Museum, London") at 48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three\-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839\.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=221}}. Dickens's younger brother [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_Dickens "Frederick Dickens") and Catherine's 17\-year\-old sister [Mary Hogarth](/wiki/Mary_Hogarth "Mary Hogarth") moved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837\. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm on [Hampstead Heath](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath "Hampstead Heath") for a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her, [Rose Maylie](/wiki/Rose_Maylie "Rose Maylie"), he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction,{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=74}} and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of [Little Nell](/wiki/Little_Nell_%28Dickens%29 "Little Nell (Dickens)") and Florence Dombey.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=225–229:p\=227}}. His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of *The Pickwick Papers* and had to cancel the *Oliver Twist* instalment that month as well. The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop; Forster soon became his unofficial business manager and the first to read his work.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|pp\=77, 78}}
[thumb\|left\|upright\| *Barnaby Rudge* was Dickens's first popular failure but the character of Dolly Varden, "pretty, witty, sexy, became central to numerous theatrical adaptations"{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=97}}](/wiki/File:Dolly_Varden_by_William_Powell_Frith.jpg "Dolly Varden by William Powell Frith.jpg")
His success as a novelist continued. The young [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") read both *Oliver Twist* and *The Pickwick Papers*, staying up until midnight to discuss them.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.queenvictoriasjournals.org/search/displayItem.do?FormatType\=fulltextimgsrc\&QueryType\=articles\&ResultsID\=2738809599926\&filterSequence\=1\&PageNumber\=1\&ItemNumber\=3\&ItemID\=qvj02315\&volumeType\=ESHER \|title\=Queen Victoria's Journals \|date\=26 December 1838 \|publisher\=RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ (W) \|access\-date\=24 May 2013}} *[Nicholas Nickleby](/wiki/Nicholas_Nickleby "Nicholas Nickleby")* (1838–39\), *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop "The Old Curiosity Shop")* (1840–41\) and, finally, his first historical novel, *[Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty](/wiki/Barnaby_Rudge "Barnaby Rudge")*, as part of the *[Master Humphrey's Clock](/wiki/Master_Humphrey%27s_Clock "Master Humphrey's Clock")* series (1840–41\), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books.{{harvnb\|Schlicke\|1999\|p\=514}}.
In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, while [Richard Bentley](/wiki/Richard_Bentley_%28publisher%29 "Richard Bentley (publisher)") signed over all his rights in *Oliver Twist*. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; in [Broadstairs](/wiki/Broadstairs "Broadstairs") he flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the "sad sea waves". She finally got free, and afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two\-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=98}} *Master Humphrey's Clock* was shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of the 18th\-century magazines *[Tatler](/wiki/Tatler_%281709_journal%29 "Tatler (1709 journal)")* and *[The Spectator](/wiki/The_Spectator "The Spectator")*.
Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as "people whom, politically, I despise and abhor."{{harvnb\|Slater\|2009\|pp\=167–168}} He had been tempted to stand for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 "Liberal Party (UK)") in Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits. He wrote three anti\-Tory verse satires ("The Fine Old English Gentleman", "The Quack Doctor's Proclamation", and "Subjects for Painters") which were published in *[The Examiner](/wiki/The_Examiner_%281808%E2%80%9386%29 "The Examiner (1808–86)")*.{{cite book \|last\=Schlicke \|first\=Paul \|title\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens \|edition\=Anniversary \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0199640188 \|pages\=462–463}}
{{clear}}
### First visit to the United States
On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), Massachusetts, aboard the [RMS *Britannia*](/wiki/RMS_Britannia "RMS Britannia") during their first trip to the United States and Canada.{{cite news \|last\=Miller \|first\=Sandra A. \|url\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2012/03/17/when\-charles\-dickens\-came\-boston/LwCtpA83DGQWqFfVEoyfZL/story.html \|title\=When Charles Dickens came to Boston \|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]] \|date\=18 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214082528/http://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2012/03/17/when\-charles\-dickens\-came\-boston/LwCtpA83DGQWqFfVEoyfZL/story.html \|archive\-date\=14 February 2014 \|access\-date\=22 January 2019}} At this time [Georgina Hogarth](/wiki/Georgina_Hogarth "Georgina Hogarth"), another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace, [Marylebone](/wiki/Marylebone "Marylebone") to care for the young family they had left behind.{{harvnb\|Jones\|2004\|p\=7}} She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870\. Dickens modelled the character of [Agnes Wickfield](/wiki/Agnes_Wickfield "Agnes Wickfield") after Georgina and Mary.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=225–229}}
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Sketch of Dickens in 1842 during his first American tour. Sketch of Dickens's sister Fanny, bottom left](/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_sketch_1842.jpg "Charles Dickens sketch 1842.jpg")
He described his impressions in a [travelogue](/wiki/Travel_literature "Travel literature"), *[American Notes for General Circulation](/wiki/American_Notes "American Notes")*. In *Notes*, Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early as *The Pickwick Papers*, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad{{harvnb\|Moore\|2004\|pp\=44–45}} citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality. For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor [Eyre](/wiki/Edward_John_Eyre "Edward John Eyre")'s harsh crackdown during the 1860s [Morant Bay rebellion](/wiki/Morant_Bay_rebellion "Morant Bay rebellion") in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it.{{cite news \|title\=Marlon James and Charles Dickens: Embrace the art, not the racist artist \|url\=https://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/10/marlon\-james\-and\-charles\-dickens \|access\-date\=21 October 2015 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Economist]] \|date\=20 October 2015 \|archive\-date\=21 October 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021125219/http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/10/marlon\-james\-and\-charles\-dickens \|url\-status\=live}} From [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles into [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois").
During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raising [the question of international copyright laws](/wiki/History_of_copyright_law "History of copyright law") and the pirating of his work in America.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=345–346}}.{{harvnb\|Tomalin\|2011\|p\=127}}. He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed by [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving "Washington Irving"), to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated.{{harvnb\|Tomalin\|2011\|pp\=128–132}}.
The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self\-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he "found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels.{{harvnb\|Flint\|2001\|p\=35}}. She writes that he assumed a role of "influential commentator", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books. His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada—Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal—where he appeared on stage in light comedies.{{cite news \|title\=Charles Dickens in Toronto \|url\=https://fisher.library.utoronto.ca/sites/fisher.library.utoronto.ca/files/halcyon\_nov\_1992\.pdf \|work\=Halcyon: The Newsletter of the Friends of the \[\[Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library]] \|publisher\=University of Toronto \|date\=November 1992 \|access\-date\=13 October 2017 \|archive\-date\=14 October 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014034207/https://fisher.library.utoronto.ca/sites/fisher.library.utoronto.ca/files/halcyon\_nov\_1992\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead}}
### Return to England
[thumb\|upright\|Dickens's portrait by [Margaret Gillies](/wiki/Margaret_Gillies "Margaret Gillies"), 1843\. Painted during the period when he was writing *A Christmas Carol*, it was in the [Royal Academy of Arts](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Arts "Royal Academy of Arts")' 1844 summer exhibition. After viewing it there, [Elizabeth Barrett Browning](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning "Elizabeth Barrett Browning") said that it showed Dickens with "the dust and mud of humanity about him, notwithstanding those eagle eyes".](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Charles_John_Huffman_Dickens.png "Portrait of Charles John Huffman Dickens.png")
Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories, *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol "A Christmas Carol")*, written in 1843, which was followed by *[The Chimes](/wiki/The_Chimes "The Chimes")* in 1844 and *[The Cricket on the Hearth](/wiki/The_Cricket_on_the_Hearth "The Cricket on the Hearth")* in 1845\. Of these, *A Christmas Carol* was most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America.{{harvnb\|Callow\|2009\|pp\=146–148}} The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane [Ragged School](/wiki/Ragged_School "Ragged School"), caused Dickens to resolve to "strike a sledge hammer blow" for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he "wept and laughed, and wept again" as he "walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed".{{harvnb\|Schlicke\|1999\|p\=98}}.
After living briefly in Italy (1844\), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846\), where he began work on *[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son "Dombey and Son")* (1846–48\). This and *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield "David Copperfield")* (1849–50\) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works.
At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother, [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus_Dickens "Augustus Dickens"), worked (John Chapman \& Co). It had been carried out by [Thomas Powell](/wiki/Thomas_Powell_%281809-1887%29 "Thomas Powell (1809-1887)"), a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book called *The Living Authors of England* with a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (*[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son "Dombey and Son")*) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman \& Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter to [Lewis Gaylord Clark](/wiki/Lewis_Gaylord_Clark "Lewis Gaylord Clark"), editor of the New York literary magazine *[The Knickerbocker](/wiki/The_Knickerbocker "The Knickerbocker")*, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in the *[New\-York Tribune](/wiki/New-York_Tribune "New-York Tribune")* and several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman \& Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt. Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court.{{cite book \|last1\=Moss \|first1\=Sidney P. \|last2\=Moss \|first2\=Carolyn J. \|title\=The Charles Dickens\-Thomas Powell Vendetta \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=The Whitston Publishing Company \|location\=Troy New York \|pages\=42–125}}
#### Philanthropy
[thumb\|Dickens presiding over a charity meeting to discuss the future of the [College of God's Gift](/wiki/College_of_God%27s_Gift "College of God's Gift"); from *[The Illustrated London News](/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News "The Illustrated London News")*, March 1856](/wiki/File:Dulwich_College_Charity_meeting_at_the_Adelphi_Theatre_-_ILN_1856.jpg "Dulwich College Charity meeting at the Adelphi Theatre - ILN 1856.jpg")
[Angela Burdett Coutts](/wiki/Angela_Burdett-Coutts%2C_1st_Baroness_Burdett-Coutts "Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts"), heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption of [fallen women](/wiki/Fallen_woman "Fallen woman") of the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, named [Urania Cottage](/wiki/Urania_Cottage "Urania Cottage"), in the Lime Grove area of [Shepherd's Bush](/wiki/Shepherd%27s_Bush "Shepherd's Bush"), which he managed for ten years,{{harvnb\|Nayder\|2011\|p\=148}}. setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=249; 530–538; 549–550; 575}} Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859\.{{harvnb\|Hartley\|2009\|pp\={{Pages needed\|date\=October 2017}}}}.
#### Religious views
As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titled *Sunday Under Three Heads*, he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. "Look into your churches—diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away \[from church]. Turn into the streets \[on a Sunday] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around."{{harvnb\|Callow\|2012\|p\=63}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www2\.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickens/sun\_3hea.pdf \|last\=Dickens \|first\=Charles \|title\=Sunday under Three Heads \|publisher\=Electronics Classics Series \|year\=2013 \|orig\-year\=1836 \|access\-date\=25 February 2019 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925203511/http://www2\.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickens/sun\_3hea.pdf \|archive\-date\=25 September 2014}}
[thumb\|175px\|Portrait of Dickens, {{c.}} 1850, [National Library of Wales](/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales "National Library of Wales")](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Charles_Dickens_%284671094%29.jpg "Portrait of Charles Dickens (4671094).jpg")
Dickens honoured the figure of [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ").Simon Callow, 'Charles Dickens'. p.159 He is regarded as a professing Christian.{{cite book \|first\=Gary \|last\=Colledge \|year\=2012 \|title\=God and Charles Dickens: Recovering the Christian Voice of a Classic Author \|page\=24 \|publisher\=Brazos Press \|isbn\=978\-1441247872}} His son, [Henry Fielding Dickens](/wiki/Henry_Fielding_Dickens "Henry Fielding Dickens"), described him as someone who "possessed deep religious convictions". In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest in [Unitarian Christianity](/wiki/Unitarianism "Unitarianism") and [Robert Browning](/wiki/Robert_Browning "Robert Browning") remarked that "Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian."{{cite magazine \|last\=Rost \|first\=Stephen \|title\=The Faith Behind the Famous: Charles Dickens \|url\=http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue\-27/faith\-behind\-famous\-charles\-dickens.html \|magazine\=Christianity Today \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=20 December 2016 \|archive\-date\=31 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231051244/http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue\-27/faith\-behind\-famous\-charles\-dickens.html \|url\-status\=live}} Professor Gary Colledge has written that he "never strayed from his attachment to popular lay [Anglicanism](/wiki/Anglicanism "Anglicanism")".{{harvnb\|Colledge\|2009\|p\=87}}. Dickens authored a work called *[The Life of Our Lord](/wiki/The_Life_of_Our_Lord "The Life of Our Lord")* (1846\), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family.{{cite web \|first\=Stephen \|last\=Skelton \|url\=https://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/churchandministry/Skelton\_Christmas\_Carol\_A.aspx \|title\=Reclaiming 'A Christmas Carol' \|work\=Christian Broadcasting Network \|access\-date\=25 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=15 January 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115031402/https://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/churchandministry/Skelton\_Christmas\_Carol\_A.aspx \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.chucknorris.com/Christian/Christian/ebooks/dickens\_life.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040114/http://chucknorris.com/Christian/Christian/ebooks/dickens\_life.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|title\=The Life Of Our Lord \|archive\-date\=7 November 2012}} In a scene from *David Copperfield*, Dickens echoed [Geoffrey Chaucer](/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer "Geoffrey Chaucer")'s use of [Luke 23:34](/wiki/Sayings_of_Jesus_on_the_cross%23Luke_23:34 "34") from *[Troilus and Criseyde](/wiki/Troilus_and_Criseyde "Troilus and Criseyde")* (Dickens held a copy in his library), with [G. K. Chesterton](/wiki/G._K._Chesterton "G. K. Chesterton") writing, "among the great [canonical](/wiki/Gospel%23Canonical_gospels:Matthew%2C_Mark%2C_Luke_and_John "Matthew, Mark, Luke and John") English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common."{{cite book \|last\=Besserman \|first\=Lawrence \|title\=The Chaucer Review \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Penn State University Press \|pages\=100–103 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/20310557}}
Dickens disapproved of [Roman Catholicism](/wiki/Roman_Catholicism "Roman Catholicism") and 19th\-century [evangelicalism](/wiki/Evangelicalism "Evangelicalism"), seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like [spiritualism](/wiki/Spiritualism_%28movement%29 "Spiritualism (movement)"), all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846\.{{cite book \|last\=Smith \|first\=Karl \|title\=Dickens and the Unreal City: Searching for Spiritual Significance in Nineteenth\-Century London \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=Springer \|pages\=11–12}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/religion1\.html \|title\=Dickens and Religion: ''The Life of Our Lord'' (1846\) \|date\=June 2011 \|publisher\=Victorian Web \|editor\-first\=Philip V \|editor\-last\=Allingham \|access\-date\=25 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=15 March 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315073824/http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/religion1\.html \|url\-status\=live}} While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as "that curse upon the world." Dickens also rejected the Evangelical conviction that the Bible was the infallible word of God. His ideas on Biblical interpretation were similar to the Liberal Anglican [Arthur Penrhyn Stanley](/wiki/Arthur_Penrhyn_Stanley "Arthur Penrhyn Stanley")'s doctrine of "[progressive revelation](/wiki/Progressive_revelation_%28Christianity%29 "Progressive revelation (Christianity)")". [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy "Leo Tolstoy") and [Fyodor Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky "Fyodor Dostoyevsky") referred to Dickens as "that great Christian writer".{{cite book \|editor1\-first\=Sally \|editor1\-last\=Ledger \|editor2\-first\=Holly \|editor2\-last\=Furneaux \|year\=2011 \|title\=Charles Dickens in Context \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \|page\=318 \|isbn\=978\-0521887007}}{{cite book \|first\=Cedric Thomas \|last\=Watts \|year\=1976 \|title\=The English novel \|publisher\=Sussex Books \|page\=55 \|isbn\=978\-0905272023}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Journalism and writing",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Catherine Hogarth Dickens by [Samuel Laurence](/wiki/Samuel_Laurence \"Samuel Laurence\") (1838\\). She met the author in 1834, and they became engaged the following year before marrying in April 1836\\.](/wiki/File:Catherine_Dickens.jpg \"Catherine Dickens.jpg\")\nIn 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self\\-confident.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|p\\=48}} He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the [Garrick Club](/wiki/Garrick_Club \"Garrick Club\"){{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|1992\\|p\\=7}}—he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the manager [George Bartley](/wiki/George_Bartley_%28comedian%29 \"George Bartley (comedian)\") and the actor [Charles Kemble](/wiki/Charles_Kemble \"Charles Kemble\") were to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer.{{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|1992\\|p\\=76}}",
"In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, \"A Dinner at Poplar Walk\", to the London periodical *[Monthly Magazine](/wiki/Monthly_Magazine \"Monthly Magazine\")*.{{harvnb\\|Patten\\|2001\\|pp\\=16–18}}. His uncle William Barrow offered him a job on *The Mirror of Parliament* and he worked in the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom \"House of Commons of the United Kingdom\") for the first time early in 1832\\. He rented rooms at [Furnival's Inn](/wiki/Furnival%27s_Inn \"Furnival's Inn\") and worked as a political journalist, reporting on [Parliamentary](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\") debates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the *[Morning Chronicle](/wiki/Morning_Chronicle \"Morning Chronicle\")*.{{cite book\\|author\\=Tomalin, Claire\\|author\\-link\\=Claire Tomalin\\|title\\=Charles Dickens: A Life\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Penguin\\|isbn\\=9781594203091 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/charlesdickensli0000toma\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|[Frontispiece](/wiki/Book_frontispiece \"Book frontispiece\"), *Sketches by Boz*—Boz being a family nickname—written by Dickens with illustrations by [George Cruikshank](/wiki/George_Cruikshank \"George Cruikshank\"), 1837](/wiki/File:Sketches_by_Boz_illustrated_by_George_Cruikshank_1837.jpg \"Sketches by Boz illustrated by George Cruikshank 1837.jpg\")\nHis journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836: *[Sketches by Boz](/wiki/Sketches_by_Boz \"Sketches by Boz\")*—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=174–176}}.{{harvnb\\|Glancy\\|1999\\|p\\=6}}. Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brother [Augustus Dickens](/wiki/Augustus_Dickens \"Augustus Dickens\"), after a character in Oliver Goldsmith's *[The Vicar of Wakefield](/wiki/The_Vicar_of_Wakefield \"The Vicar of Wakefield\")*. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, \"Moses\" became \"Boses\"—later shortened to *Boz*.{{harvnb\\|Van De Linde\\|1917\\|p\\=75}}. Dickens's own name was considered \"queer\" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: \"Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations.\" Dickens contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career. In January 1835, the *Morning Chronicle* launched an evening edition, under the editorship of the *Chronicle*{{'}}s music critic, [George Hogarth](/wiki/George_Hogarth \"George Hogarth\"). Hogarth invited him to contribute *Street Sketches* and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house—excited by Hogarth's friendship with [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott \"Walter Scott\") (whom Dickens greatly admired) and enjoying the company of Hogarth's three daughters: Georgina, Mary and 19\\-year\\-old Catherine.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|p\\=54}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The wise\\-cracking, warm\\-hearted servant [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 \"Sam Weller (character)\") from *[The Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers \"The Pickwick Papers\")*—a publishing phenomenon that sparked numerous spin\\-offs and *Pickwick* merchandise—made the 24\\-year\\-old Dickens famous.{{cite news \\|title\\=The Sam Weller Bump \\|url\\=https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the\\-sam\\-weller\\-bump/ \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2021 \\|magazine\\=The Paris Review \\|archive\\-date\\=26 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626210342/https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the\\-sam\\-weller\\-bump/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}](/wiki/File:Sam-weller-kyd.jpeg \"Sam-weller-kyd.jpeg\")",
"Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship with [William Harrison Ainsworth](/wiki/William_Harrison_Ainsworth \"William Harrison Ainsworth\"), the author of the highwayman novel *[Rookwood](/wiki/Rookwood_%28novel%29 \"Rookwood (novel)\")* (1834\\), whose bachelor salon in [Harrow Road](/wiki/Harrow_Road \"Harrow Road\") had become the meeting place for a set that included [Daniel Maclise](/wiki/Daniel_Maclise \"Daniel Maclise\"), [Benjamin Disraeli](/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli \"Benjamin Disraeli\"), [Edward Bulwer\\-Lytton](/wiki/Edward_Bulwer-Lytton \"Edward Bulwer-Lytton\") and [George Cruikshank](/wiki/George_Cruikshank \"George Cruikshank\"). All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=56}} The success of *Sketches by Boz* led to a proposal from publishers [Chapman and Hall](/wiki/Chapman_and_Hall \"Chapman and Hall\") for Dickens to supply text to match [Robert Seymour](/wiki/Robert_Seymour_%28illustrator%29 \"Robert Seymour (illustrator)\")'s engraved illustrations in a monthly [letterpress](/wiki/Letterpress_printing \"Letterpress printing\"). Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired \"[Phiz](/wiki/Hablot_Knight_Browne \"Hablot Knight Browne\")\" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story became *[The Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers \"The Pickwick Papers\")* and, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney character [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 \"Sam Weller (character)\") in the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=60}} The final instalment sold 40,000 copies. On the impact of the character, *[The Paris Review](/wiki/The_Paris_Review \"The Paris Review\")* stated, \"arguably the most historic bump in English publishing is the Sam Weller Bump.\" A publishing phenomenon, [John Sutherland](/wiki/John_Sutherland_%28author%29 \"John Sutherland (author)\") called *The Pickwick Papers* \"\\[t]he most important single novel of the Victorian era\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Chapter One – The Pickwick Phenomenon \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plagiarizing\\-the\\-victorian\\-novel/pickwick\\-phenomenon/D6F9FF564AD9BDD6865963E107255374 \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2021 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|archive\\-date\\=26 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626213458/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plagiarizing\\-the\\-victorian\\-novel/pickwick\\-phenomenon/D6F9FF564AD9BDD6865963E107255374 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The unprecedented success led to numerous spin\\-offs and merchandise including *Pickwick* cigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books.",
"{{blockquote\\|The Sam Weller Bump testifies not merely to Dickens's comic genius but to his acumen as an \"authorpreneur\", a portmanteau he inhabited long before ''The Economist'' took it up. For a writer who made his reputation crusading against the squalor of the \\[\\[Industrial Revolution]], Dickens was a creature of capitalism; he used everything from the powerful new printing presses to the enhanced advertising revenues to the expansion of railroads to sell more books. Dickens ensured that his books were available in cheap bindings for the lower orders as well as in morocco\\-and\\-gilt for people of quality; his ideal readership included everyone from the pickpockets who read ''Oliver Twist'' to Queen Victoria, who found it \"exceedingly interesting\".\n\\| source \\= How ''The Pickwick Papers'' Launched Charles Dickens's Career, ''The Paris Review''.}}\n{{clear}}",
"On its impact on mass culture, Nicholas Dames in *[The Atlantic](/wiki/The_Atlantic \"The Atlantic\")* writes, {{\"'}}Literature' is not a big enough category for *Pickwick*. It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call 'entertainment'.\"{{cite news \\|last\\=Dames \\|first\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=Was Dickens a Thief? \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was\\-dickens\\-a\\-thief/392072/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2021 \\|magazine\\=The Atlantic \\|date\\=June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817111558/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was\\-dickens\\-a\\-thief/392072/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In November 1836, Dickens accepted the position of editor of *[Bentley's Miscellany](/wiki/Bentley%27s_Miscellany \"Bentley's Miscellany\")*, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=201, 278–279}}. In 1836, as he finished the last instalments of *The Pickwick Papers*, he began writing the beginning instalments of *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist \"Oliver Twist\")*—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on *Bentley's* and also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw. *Oliver Twist*, published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a child [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist \"Protagonist\").{{harvnb\\|Smiley\\|2002\\|pp\\=12–14}}.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Young Charles Dickens by [Daniel Maclise](/wiki/Daniel_Maclise \"Daniel Maclise\"), 1839](/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_by_Daniel_Maclise.jpg \"Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise.jpg\")",
"On 2 April 1836, after a one\\-year engagement, and between episodes two and three of *The Pickwick Papers*, Dickens married [Catherine Thomson Hogarth](/wiki/Catherine_Dickens \"Catherine Dickens\") (1815–1879\\), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the *[Evening Chronicle](/wiki/Evening_Chronicle \"Evening Chronicle\")*.{{harvnb\\|Schlicke\\|1999\\|p\\=160}} They were married in [St Luke's Church](/wiki/St_Luke%27s_Church%2C_Chelsea \"St Luke's Church, Chelsea\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.chelseaparish.org/stlukes.htm \\|work\\=St Luke's and Christ Church \\|title\\=Notable people connected with St Luke's \\|location\\=Chelsea \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027061548/https://www.chelseaparish.org/stlukes.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\"), London. After a brief honeymoon in [Chalk](/wiki/Chalk%2C_Kent \"Chalk, Kent\") in Kent, the couple returned to lodgings at [Furnival's Inn](/wiki/Furnival%27s_Inn \"Furnival's Inn\").{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=162, 181–182}}. The first of their [ten children](/wiki/Dickens_family \"Dickens family\"), Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set up [home in Bloomsbury](/wiki/Charles_Dickens_Museum%2C_London \"Charles Dickens Museum, London\") at 48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three\\-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839\\.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=221}}. Dickens's younger brother [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_Dickens \"Frederick Dickens\") and Catherine's 17\\-year\\-old sister [Mary Hogarth](/wiki/Mary_Hogarth \"Mary Hogarth\") moved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837\\. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm on [Hampstead Heath](/wiki/Hampstead_Heath \"Hampstead Heath\") for a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her, [Rose Maylie](/wiki/Rose_Maylie \"Rose Maylie\"), he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction,{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=74}} and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of [Little Nell](/wiki/Little_Nell_%28Dickens%29 \"Little Nell (Dickens)\") and Florence Dombey.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=225–229:p\\=227}}. His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of *The Pickwick Papers* and had to cancel the *Oliver Twist* instalment that month as well. The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop; Forster soon became his unofficial business manager and the first to read his work.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|pp\\=77, 78}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\| *Barnaby Rudge* was Dickens's first popular failure but the character of Dolly Varden, \"pretty, witty, sexy, became central to numerous theatrical adaptations\"{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=97}}](/wiki/File:Dolly_Varden_by_William_Powell_Frith.jpg \"Dolly Varden by William Powell Frith.jpg\")",
"His success as a novelist continued. The young [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") read both *Oliver Twist* and *The Pickwick Papers*, staying up until midnight to discuss them.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.queenvictoriasjournals.org/search/displayItem.do?FormatType\\=fulltextimgsrc\\&QueryType\\=articles\\&ResultsID\\=2738809599926\\&filterSequence\\=1\\&PageNumber\\=1\\&ItemNumber\\=3\\&ItemID\\=qvj02315\\&volumeType\\=ESHER \\|title\\=Queen Victoria's Journals \\|date\\=26 December 1838 \\|publisher\\=RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ (W) \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2013}} *[Nicholas Nickleby](/wiki/Nicholas_Nickleby \"Nicholas Nickleby\")* (1838–39\\), *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop \"The Old Curiosity Shop\")* (1840–41\\) and, finally, his first historical novel, *[Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty](/wiki/Barnaby_Rudge \"Barnaby Rudge\")*, as part of the *[Master Humphrey's Clock](/wiki/Master_Humphrey%27s_Clock \"Master Humphrey's Clock\")* series (1840–41\\), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books.{{harvnb\\|Schlicke\\|1999\\|p\\=514}}.",
"In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, while [Richard Bentley](/wiki/Richard_Bentley_%28publisher%29 \"Richard Bentley (publisher)\") signed over all his rights in *Oliver Twist*. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; in [Broadstairs](/wiki/Broadstairs \"Broadstairs\") he flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the \"sad sea waves\". She finally got free, and afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two\\-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=98}} *Master Humphrey's Clock* was shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of the 18th\\-century magazines *[Tatler](/wiki/Tatler_%281709_journal%29 \"Tatler (1709 journal)\")* and *[The Spectator](/wiki/The_Spectator \"The Spectator\")*.",
"Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as \"people whom, politically, I despise and abhor.\"{{harvnb\\|Slater\\|2009\\|pp\\=167–168}} He had been tempted to stand for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Party (UK)\") in Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits. He wrote three anti\\-Tory verse satires (\"The Fine Old English Gentleman\", \"The Quack Doctor's Proclamation\", and \"Subjects for Painters\") which were published in *[The Examiner](/wiki/The_Examiner_%281808%E2%80%9386%29 \"The Examiner (1808–86)\")*.{{cite book \\|last\\=Schlicke \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens \\|edition\\=Anniversary \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0199640188 \\|pages\\=462–463}}\n{{clear}}",
"### First visit to the United States",
"On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), Massachusetts, aboard the [RMS *Britannia*](/wiki/RMS_Britannia \"RMS Britannia\") during their first trip to the United States and Canada.{{cite news \\|last\\=Miller \\|first\\=Sandra A. \\|url\\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2012/03/17/when\\-charles\\-dickens\\-came\\-boston/LwCtpA83DGQWqFfVEoyfZL/story.html \\|title\\=When Charles Dickens came to Boston \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]] \\|date\\=18 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214082528/http://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2012/03/17/when\\-charles\\-dickens\\-came\\-boston/LwCtpA83DGQWqFfVEoyfZL/story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2019}} At this time [Georgina Hogarth](/wiki/Georgina_Hogarth \"Georgina Hogarth\"), another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace, [Marylebone](/wiki/Marylebone \"Marylebone\") to care for the young family they had left behind.{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2004\\|p\\=7}} She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870\\. Dickens modelled the character of [Agnes Wickfield](/wiki/Agnes_Wickfield \"Agnes Wickfield\") after Georgina and Mary.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=225–229}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Sketch of Dickens in 1842 during his first American tour. Sketch of Dickens's sister Fanny, bottom left](/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_sketch_1842.jpg \"Charles Dickens sketch 1842.jpg\")",
"He described his impressions in a [travelogue](/wiki/Travel_literature \"Travel literature\"), *[American Notes for General Circulation](/wiki/American_Notes \"American Notes\")*. In *Notes*, Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early as *The Pickwick Papers*, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad{{harvnb\\|Moore\\|2004\\|pp\\=44–45}} citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality. For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor [Eyre](/wiki/Edward_John_Eyre \"Edward John Eyre\")'s harsh crackdown during the 1860s [Morant Bay rebellion](/wiki/Morant_Bay_rebellion \"Morant Bay rebellion\") in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it.{{cite news \\|title\\=Marlon James and Charles Dickens: Embrace the art, not the racist artist \\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/10/marlon\\-james\\-and\\-charles\\-dickens \\|access\\-date\\=21 October 2015 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Economist]] \\|date\\=20 October 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021125219/http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/10/marlon\\-james\\-and\\-charles\\-dickens \\|url\\-status\\=live}} From [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles into [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\").",
"During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raising [the question of international copyright laws](/wiki/History_of_copyright_law \"History of copyright law\") and the pirating of his work in America.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=345–346}}.{{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|2011\\|p\\=127}}. He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed by [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving \"Washington Irving\"), to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated.{{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|2011\\|pp\\=128–132}}.",
"The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self\\-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he \"found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control\", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels.{{harvnb\\|Flint\\|2001\\|p\\=35}}. She writes that he assumed a role of \"influential commentator\", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books. His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada—Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal—where he appeared on stage in light comedies.{{cite news \\|title\\=Charles Dickens in Toronto \\|url\\=https://fisher.library.utoronto.ca/sites/fisher.library.utoronto.ca/files/halcyon\\_nov\\_1992\\.pdf \\|work\\=Halcyon: The Newsletter of the Friends of the \\[\\[Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library]] \\|publisher\\=University of Toronto \\|date\\=November 1992 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014034207/https://fisher.library.utoronto.ca/sites/fisher.library.utoronto.ca/files/halcyon\\_nov\\_1992\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Return to England",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Dickens's portrait by [Margaret Gillies](/wiki/Margaret_Gillies \"Margaret Gillies\"), 1843\\. Painted during the period when he was writing *A Christmas Carol*, it was in the [Royal Academy of Arts](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Arts \"Royal Academy of Arts\")' 1844 summer exhibition. After viewing it there, [Elizabeth Barrett Browning](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning \"Elizabeth Barrett Browning\") said that it showed Dickens with \"the dust and mud of humanity about him, notwithstanding those eagle eyes\".](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Charles_John_Huffman_Dickens.png \"Portrait of Charles John Huffman Dickens.png\")",
"Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories, *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol \"A Christmas Carol\")*, written in 1843, which was followed by *[The Chimes](/wiki/The_Chimes \"The Chimes\")* in 1844 and *[The Cricket on the Hearth](/wiki/The_Cricket_on_the_Hearth \"The Cricket on the Hearth\")* in 1845\\. Of these, *A Christmas Carol* was most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America.{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2009\\|pp\\=146–148}} The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane [Ragged School](/wiki/Ragged_School \"Ragged School\"), caused Dickens to resolve to \"strike a sledge hammer blow\" for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he \"wept and laughed, and wept again\" as he \"walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed\".{{harvnb\\|Schlicke\\|1999\\|p\\=98}}.",
"After living briefly in Italy (1844\\), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846\\), where he began work on *[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son \"Dombey and Son\")* (1846–48\\). This and *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield \"David Copperfield\")* (1849–50\\) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works.",
"At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother, [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus_Dickens \"Augustus Dickens\"), worked (John Chapman \\& Co). It had been carried out by [Thomas Powell](/wiki/Thomas_Powell_%281809-1887%29 \"Thomas Powell (1809-1887)\"), a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book called *The Living Authors of England* with a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (*[Dombey and Son](/wiki/Dombey_and_Son \"Dombey and Son\")*) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman \\& Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter to [Lewis Gaylord Clark](/wiki/Lewis_Gaylord_Clark \"Lewis Gaylord Clark\"), editor of the New York literary magazine *[The Knickerbocker](/wiki/The_Knickerbocker \"The Knickerbocker\")*, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in the *[New\\-York Tribune](/wiki/New-York_Tribune \"New-York Tribune\")* and several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman \\& Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt. Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Moss \\|first1\\=Sidney P. \\|last2\\=Moss \\|first2\\=Carolyn J. \\|title\\=The Charles Dickens\\-Thomas Powell Vendetta \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=The Whitston Publishing Company \\|location\\=Troy New York \\|pages\\=42–125}}",
"#### Philanthropy",
"[thumb\\|Dickens presiding over a charity meeting to discuss the future of the [College of God's Gift](/wiki/College_of_God%27s_Gift \"College of God's Gift\"); from *[The Illustrated London News](/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News \"The Illustrated London News\")*, March 1856](/wiki/File:Dulwich_College_Charity_meeting_at_the_Adelphi_Theatre_-_ILN_1856.jpg \"Dulwich College Charity meeting at the Adelphi Theatre - ILN 1856.jpg\")",
"[Angela Burdett Coutts](/wiki/Angela_Burdett-Coutts%2C_1st_Baroness_Burdett-Coutts \"Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts\"), heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption of [fallen women](/wiki/Fallen_woman \"Fallen woman\") of the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, named [Urania Cottage](/wiki/Urania_Cottage \"Urania Cottage\"), in the Lime Grove area of [Shepherd's Bush](/wiki/Shepherd%27s_Bush \"Shepherd's Bush\"), which he managed for ten years,{{harvnb\\|Nayder\\|2011\\|p\\=148}}. setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=249; 530–538; 549–550; 575}} Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859\\.{{harvnb\\|Hartley\\|2009\\|pp\\={{Pages needed\\|date\\=October 2017}}}}.",
"#### Religious views",
"As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titled *Sunday Under Three Heads*, he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. \"Look into your churches—diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away \\[from church]. Turn into the streets \\[on a Sunday] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around.\"{{harvnb\\|Callow\\|2012\\|p\\=63}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www2\\.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickens/sun\\_3hea.pdf \\|last\\=Dickens \\|first\\=Charles \\|title\\=Sunday under Three Heads \\|publisher\\=Electronics Classics Series \\|year\\=2013 \\|orig\\-year\\=1836 \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925203511/http://www2\\.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickens/sun\\_3hea.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2014}}",
"[thumb\\|175px\\|Portrait of Dickens, {{c.}} 1850, [National Library of Wales](/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales \"National Library of Wales\")](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Charles_Dickens_%284671094%29.jpg \"Portrait of Charles Dickens (4671094).jpg\")\nDickens honoured the figure of [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus_Christ \"Jesus Christ\").Simon Callow, 'Charles Dickens'. p.159 He is regarded as a professing Christian.{{cite book \\|first\\=Gary \\|last\\=Colledge \\|year\\=2012 \\|title\\=God and Charles Dickens: Recovering the Christian Voice of a Classic Author \\|page\\=24 \\|publisher\\=Brazos Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1441247872}} His son, [Henry Fielding Dickens](/wiki/Henry_Fielding_Dickens \"Henry Fielding Dickens\"), described him as someone who \"possessed deep religious convictions\". In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest in [Unitarian Christianity](/wiki/Unitarianism \"Unitarianism\") and [Robert Browning](/wiki/Robert_Browning \"Robert Browning\") remarked that \"Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian.\"{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Rost \\|first\\=Stephen \\|title\\=The Faith Behind the Famous: Charles Dickens \\|url\\=http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue\\-27/faith\\-behind\\-famous\\-charles\\-dickens.html \\|magazine\\=Christianity Today \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231051244/http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue\\-27/faith\\-behind\\-famous\\-charles\\-dickens.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Professor Gary Colledge has written that he \"never strayed from his attachment to popular lay [Anglicanism](/wiki/Anglicanism \"Anglicanism\")\".{{harvnb\\|Colledge\\|2009\\|p\\=87}}. Dickens authored a work called *[The Life of Our Lord](/wiki/The_Life_of_Our_Lord \"The Life of Our Lord\")* (1846\\), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family.{{cite web \\|first\\=Stephen \\|last\\=Skelton \\|url\\=https://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/churchandministry/Skelton\\_Christmas\\_Carol\\_A.aspx \\|title\\=Reclaiming 'A Christmas Carol' \\|work\\=Christian Broadcasting Network \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 January 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115031402/https://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/churchandministry/Skelton\\_Christmas\\_Carol\\_A.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.chucknorris.com/Christian/Christian/ebooks/dickens\\_life.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040114/http://chucknorris.com/Christian/Christian/ebooks/dickens\\_life.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|title\\=The Life Of Our Lord \\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2012}} In a scene from *David Copperfield*, Dickens echoed [Geoffrey Chaucer](/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer \"Geoffrey Chaucer\")'s use of [Luke 23:34](/wiki/Sayings_of_Jesus_on_the_cross%23Luke_23:34 \"34\") from *[Troilus and Criseyde](/wiki/Troilus_and_Criseyde \"Troilus and Criseyde\")* (Dickens held a copy in his library), with [G. K. Chesterton](/wiki/G._K._Chesterton \"G. K. Chesterton\") writing, \"among the great [canonical](/wiki/Gospel%23Canonical_gospels:Matthew%2C_Mark%2C_Luke_and_John \"Matthew, Mark, Luke and John\") English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Besserman \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|title\\=The Chaucer Review \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Penn State University Press \\|pages\\=100–103 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/20310557}}",
"Dickens disapproved of [Roman Catholicism](/wiki/Roman_Catholicism \"Roman Catholicism\") and 19th\\-century [evangelicalism](/wiki/Evangelicalism \"Evangelicalism\"), seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like [spiritualism](/wiki/Spiritualism_%28movement%29 \"Spiritualism (movement)\"), all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Karl \\|title\\=Dickens and the Unreal City: Searching for Spiritual Significance in Nineteenth\\-Century London \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|pages\\=11–12}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/religion1\\.html \\|title\\=Dickens and Religion: ''The Life of Our Lord'' (1846\\) \\|date\\=June 2011 \\|publisher\\=Victorian Web \\|editor\\-first\\=Philip V \\|editor\\-last\\=Allingham \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315073824/http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/religion1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as \"that curse upon the world.\" Dickens also rejected the Evangelical conviction that the Bible was the infallible word of God. His ideas on Biblical interpretation were similar to the Liberal Anglican [Arthur Penrhyn Stanley](/wiki/Arthur_Penrhyn_Stanley \"Arthur Penrhyn Stanley\")'s doctrine of \"[progressive revelation](/wiki/Progressive_revelation_%28Christianity%29 \"Progressive revelation (Christianity)\")\". [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy \"Leo Tolstoy\") and [Fyodor Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky \"Fyodor Dostoyevsky\") referred to Dickens as \"that great Christian writer\".{{cite book \\|editor1\\-first\\=Sally \\|editor1\\-last\\=Ledger \\|editor2\\-first\\=Holly \\|editor2\\-last\\=Furneaux \\|year\\=2011 \\|title\\=Charles Dickens in Context \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|page\\=318 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521887007}}{{cite book \\|first\\=Cedric Thomas \\|last\\=Watts \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=The English novel \\|publisher\\=Sussex Books \\|page\\=55 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0905272023}}",
""
] |
Middle years
------------
[thumb\|upright\|[David](/wiki/David_Copperfield_%28character%29 "David Copperfield (character)") reaches Canterbury, from *David Copperfield*. The character incorporates many elements of Dickens's own life. Artwork by [Frank Reynolds](/wiki/Frank_Reynolds_%28artist%29 "Frank Reynolds (artist)").](/wiki/File:David_reaches_Canterbury%2C_from_David_Copperfield_art_by_Frank_Reynolds.jpg "David reaches Canterbury, from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg")
In December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London\-based *[Daily News](/wiki/The_Daily_News_%28UK%29 "The Daily News (UK)")*, a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, "the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation."{{cite journal \|last\=Roberts \|first\=David \|title\=Charles Dickens and the "Daily News": Editorials and Editorial Writers \|journal\=Victorian Periodicals Review \|date\=1989 \|volume\=22 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=51–63 \|jstor\=20082378}} Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economist [Thomas Hodgskin](/wiki/Thomas_Hodgskin "Thomas Hodgskin") and the social reformer [Douglas William Jerrold](/wiki/Douglas_William_Jerrold "Douglas William Jerrold"), who frequently attacked the [Corn Laws](/wiki/Corn_Laws "Corn Laws").{{cite book \|last\=Slater \|first\=Michael \|title\=Douglas Jerrold \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Gerald Duckworth \& Co \|pages\=197–204 \|isbn\=978\-0715646588}} Dickens lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co\-owners.
A Francophile, Dickens often holidayed in France and, in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French, called the French "the first people in the universe".Soubigou, Gilles "Dickens's Illustrations: France and other countries" pp. 154–167 from *The Reception of Charles Dickens in Europe* edited by Michael Hollington London: A\&C Black 2013 p. 159\. During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literati [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas "Alexandre Dumas"), [Victor Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo"), [Eugène Scribe](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe "Eugène Scribe"), [Théophile Gautier](/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier "Théophile Gautier"), [François\-René de Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand "François-René de Chateaubriand") and [Eugène Sue](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Sue "Eugène Sue"). In early 1849, Dickens started to write *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield "David Copperfield")*. It was published between 1849 and 1850\. In Dickens's biography, *Life of Charles Dickens* (1872\), [John Forster](/wiki/John_Forster_%28biographer%29 "John Forster (biographer)") wrote of *David Copperfield*, "underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life".{{cite book \|last\=Hiu Yen Lee \|first\=Klaudia \|title\=Charles Dickens and China, 1895–1915: Cross\-Cultural Encounters \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|page\=56}} It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the author's preface to the 1867 edition of the novel.{{cite book \|first\=Charles \|last\=Dickens \|title\=David Copperfield \|chapter\=Preface \|edition\=1867 \|location\=London \|publisher\=Wordsworth Classics \|page\=4}} His [collection of letters](/wiki/Letters_of_Charles_Dickens "Letters of Charles Dickens") included a correspondence with Mary Tyler, dated 6 November 1849, on the comedic merits of [Punch and Judy](/wiki/Punch_and_Judy "Punch and Judy"), a puppet show dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.{{cite book \|last\=Hartley \|first\=Jenny \|title\=The Selected Letters of Charles Dickens \|date\=2012 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|location\=Oxford \|page\=204}}
In late November 1851, Dickens moved into [Tavistock House](/wiki/Tavistock_House "Tavistock House") where he wrote *[Bleak House](/wiki/Bleak_House "Bleak House")* (1852–53\), *[Hard Times](/wiki/Hard_Times_%28novel%29 "Hard Times (novel)")* (1854\) and *[Little Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit "Little Dorrit")* (1856\).{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=628; 634–638}}. It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster's *Life of Charles Dickens*.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=648; 686–687; 772–773}} During this period, he worked closely with the novelist and playwright [Wilkie Collins](/wiki/Wilkie_Collins "Wilkie Collins"). In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buy [Gads Hill Place](/wiki/Gads_Hill_Place "Gads Hill Place") in [Higham, Kent](/wiki/Higham%2C_Kent "Higham, Kent"). As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare "Shakespeare")'s *[Henry IV, Part 1](/wiki/Henry_IV%2C_Part_1 "Henry IV, Part 1")* and this literary connection pleased him.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=32:723:750}}.
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Commemorative [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque "Blue plaque") in [Tavistock Square](/wiki/Tavistock_Square "Tavistock Square"), London where Dickens lived between 1851 and 1860](/wiki/File:Dickens-plaque-tavistock.jpg "Dickens-plaque-tavistock.jpg")
During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journals *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words "Household Words")* (1850–1859\) and *[All the Year Round](/wiki/All_the_Year_Round "All the Year Round")* (1858–1870\).{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=589–95; 848–852}}. Both journals contained a mix of fiction and non\-fiction, and dealt with aspects in the culture. For example, the latter journal included Dickens' assessment of [Madame Tussauds](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds "Madame Tussauds") wax museum on Baker Street, which he called "something more than an exhibition, it is an institution."{{cite book \|title\=All the Year Round Volume 2 \|date\=1860 \|publisher\=Charles Dickens \|page\=250}} In 1854, at the behest of [Sir John Franklin](/wiki/Sir_John_Franklin "Sir John Franklin")'s widow [Lady Jane](/wiki/Jane_Franklin "Jane Franklin"), Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorer [John Rae](/wiki/John_Rae_%28explorer%29 "John Rae (explorer)") in *Household Words* for his report to the [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Admiralty (United Kingdom)"), based on interviews with local [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit "Inuit"), that the members of [Franklin's lost expedition](/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition "Franklin's lost expedition") had resorted to [cannibalism](/wiki/Human_cannibalism "Human cannibalism"). These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 play *[The Frozen Deep](/wiki/The_Frozen_Deep "The Frozen Deep")*, which satirises Rae and the Inuit. Twentieth\-century [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") work in [King William Island](/wiki/King_William_Island "King William Island") later confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism.Roobol, M.J. (2019\) *Franklin's Fate: An investigation into what happened to the lost 1845 expedition of Sir John Frankin.* Conrad Press, 368 pages.
In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MP [Austen Henry Layard](/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard "Austen Henry Layard") formed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause.{{harvnb\|Slater\|2009\|pp\=389–390}} With the exception of [Lord John Russell](/wiki/Lord_John_Russell "Lord John Russell"), who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicated *A Tale of Two Cities*, Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were the death of England.{{cite journal \|last\=Cotsell \|first\=Michael \|title\=Politics and Peeling Frescoes: Layard of Nineveh and "Little Dorrit" \|journal\=Dickens Studies Annual \|date\=1986 \|volume\=15 \|pages\=181–200}} When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class. Dickens used his pulpit in *Household Words* to champion the Reform Association. He also commented on foreign affairs, declaring his support for [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi "Giuseppe Garibaldi") and [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini "Giuseppe Mazzini"), helping raise funds for their campaigns and stating that "a united Italy would be of vast importance to the peace of the world, and would be a rock in [Louis Napoleon](/wiki/Louis_Napoleon "Louis Napoleon")'s way," and that "I feel for Italy almost as if I were an Italian born."{{cite book \|last\=Schlicke \|first\=Paul \|title\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|page\=10}}{{cite book \|last\=Dickens \|first\=Charles \|title\=The Letters of Charles Dickens, Volume 2 \|date\=1880 \|publisher\=Chapman and Hall \|page\=140}}{{cite book \|last\=Ledger \|first\=Sally \|title\=Charles Dickens in Context \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|pages\=43–44}} Dickens also published dozens of writings in *Household Words* supporting [vaccination](/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination"), including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneer [Edward Jenner](/wiki/Edward_Jenner "Edward Jenner").{{cite book \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Steven \|author\-link\=Steven Johnson (author) \|title\=Extra Life \|publisher\=\[\[Riverhead Books]] \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=978\-0\-525\-53885\-1 \|edition\=1st \|pages\=54}}
Following the [Indian Mutiny of 1857](/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857 "Indian Rebellion of 1857"), Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") for its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander\-in\-chief in India so that he would be able to "do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested."{{citation \|last\=Robins \|first\=Nick \|title\=A Skulking Power \|date\=2012 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pcr6\.16 \|work\=The Corporation That Changed the World \|pages\=171–198 \|series\=How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational \|publisher\=Pluto Press \|doi\=10\.2307/j.ctt183pcr6\.16 \|jstor\=j.ctt183pcr6\.16 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7453\-3195\-9 \|access\-date\=30 January 2021 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203145408/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pcr6\.16 \|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Actress [Ellen Ternan](/wiki/Ellen_Ternan "Ellen Ternan") (pictured in 1858\) drew the attention of Dickens after he saw her on stage in 1857](/wiki/File:Ellen_Ternan.jpeg "Ellen Ternan.jpeg")
In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses for *The Frozen Deep*, which he and his [protégé](/wiki/Mentorship "Mentorship") [Wilkie Collins](/wiki/Wilkie_Collins "Wilkie Collins") had written. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses, [Ellen Ternan](/wiki/Ellen_Ternan "Ellen Ternan"), and this passion was to last the rest of his life.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=788–799}}. In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame. After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from "a mental disorder"—statements that disgusted his contemporaries, including [Elizabeth Barrett Browning](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning "Elizabeth Barrett Browning"){{harvnb\|Bowen\|2019\|pp\=6–7}}.—Dickens attempted to have Catherine [institutionalised](/wiki/Lunatic_asylum "Lunatic asylum").{{harvnb\|Bowen\|2019\|p\=9}}. When his scheme failed, they separated. Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child. Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children.{{harvnb\|Smith\|2001\|pp\=10–11}}.
During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal by [Great Ormond Street Hospital](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital "Great Ormond Street Hospital") to help it survive its first major financial crisis. His "Drooping Buds" essay in *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words "Household Words")* earlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success.{{harvnb\|Furneaux\|2011\|pp\=190–191}}. Dickens, whose philanthropy was well\-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founder [Charles West](/wiki/Charles_West_%28physician%29 "Charles West (physician)"), to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul.{{harvnb\|Page\|1999\|p\=261}}. Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000\.{{harvnb\|Jones\|2004\|pp\=80–81}}.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=801, 804}}.{{harvnb\|Page\|1999\|pp\=260–263}} for excerpts from the speech.
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Dickens at his desk, 1858](/wiki/File:Dickens_by_Watkins_1858.png "Dickens by Watkins 1858.png")
After separating from Catherine,{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=809–814}}. Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels.{{harvnb\|Sutherland\|1990\|p\=185}}. His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland.{{harvnb\|Hobsbaum\|1998\|p\=270}}. Dickens's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes in *Nicholas Nickleby*, and he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland.{{cite book \|last\=Schlicke \|first\=Paul \|title\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|page\=302}}
[thumb\|upright\|Dickens was a regular patron at [Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese](/wiki/Ye_Olde_Cheshire_Cheese "Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese") pub in [Fleet Street](/wiki/Fleet_Street "Fleet Street"), London. He included the venue in *A Tale of Two Cities*.](/wiki/File:Ye_Olde_Cheshire_Cheese%2C_Fleet_Street%2C_EC4_%288032557646%29.jpg "Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese, Fleet Street, EC4 (8032557646).jpg")
Other works soon followed, including *[A Tale of Two Cities](/wiki/A_Tale_of_Two_Cities "A Tale of Two Cities")* (1859\) and *[Great Expectations](/wiki/Great_Expectations "Great Expectations")* (1861\), which were resounding successes. Set in London and Paris, *A Tale of Two Cities* is his best\-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence that begins with "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." It is regularly touted as one of the best\-selling novels of all time.{{cite news \|title\=Charles Dickens novel inscribed to George Eliot up for sale \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/21/charles\-dickens\-george\-eliot\-a\-tale\-of\-two\-cities \|access\-date\=7 September 2019 \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|archive\-date\=26 October 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026175742/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/21/charles\-dickens\-george\-eliot\-a\-tale\-of\-two\-cities \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|title\=A Tale of Two Cities, King's Head, review \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre\-reviews/10340407/A\-Tale\-of\-Two\-Cities\-Kings\-Head\-review.html \|access\-date\=7 September 2019 \|newspaper\=The Telegraph \|archive\-date\=8 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708082104/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre\-reviews/10340407/A\-Tale\-of\-Two\-Cities\-Kings\-Head\-review.html \|url\-status\=live}} Themes in *Great Expectations* include wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil.Charles Dickens (1993\), *Great Expectations*, p. 1, introduction. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics
In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her,{{harvnb\|Tomalin\|2011\|pp\=332}}. the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=881–883}}. In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=914–917}}. Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929\. Storey published her account in *Dickens and Daughter*,{{harvnb\|Nisbet\|1952\|p\=37}}.{{harvnb\|Tomalin\|1992\|pp\=142–143}}. though no contemporary evidence was given. On his death, Dickens settled an [annuity](/wiki/Life_annuity "Life annuity") on Ternan which made her financially independent. [Claire Tomalin](/wiki/Claire_Tomalin "Claire Tomalin")'s book *The Invisible Woman* argues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was subsequently turned into a play, *Little Nell*, by [Simon Gray](/wiki/Simon_Gray "Simon Gray"), and [a 2013 film](/wiki/The_Invisible_Woman_%282013_film%29 "The Invisible Woman (2013 film)"). During the same period Dickens furthered his interest in the [paranormal](/wiki/Paranormal "Paranormal") becoming one of the early members of [The Ghost Club](/wiki/The_Ghost_Club "The Ghost Club").{{harvnb\|Henson\|2004\|p\=113}}.
In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia.[Ashley Alexander Mallett, *The Black Lords of Summer: The Story of the 1868 Aboriginal Tour of England*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wYNxyc-yhuwC&pg=PA66) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030055350/https://books.google.com/books?id\=wYNxyc\-yhuwC\&pg\=PA66 \|date\=30 October 2015}}, pp. 65–66\. He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book, *The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down*, but ultimately decided against the tour.[Australian Dictionary of Biography](http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dickens-charles-3409) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114011654/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dickens\-charles\-3409 \|date\=14 November 2013}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013 Two of his sons, [Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens](/wiki/Alfred_D%27Orsay_Tennyson_Dickens "Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens") and [Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens](/wiki/Edward_Dickens "Edward Dickens"), migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of the [Parliament of New South Wales](/wiki/Parliament_of_New_South_Wales "Parliament of New South Wales") as [Member for Wilcannia](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Wilcannia "Electoral district of Wilcannia") between 1889 and 1894\.[University of Sydney](http://blogs.usyd.edu.au/sydneypublishing/2011/05/charles_dickens_and_australia_1.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604221837/http://blogs.usyd.edu.au/sydneypublishing/2011/05/charles\_dickens\_and\_australia\_1\.html \|date\=4 June 2011}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013[*The Sydney Morning Herald*, "Dickens of a time", 24 December 2002](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/12/23/1040511009543.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231155722/http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/12/23/1040511009543\.html \|date\=31 December 2013}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013
|
[
"Middle years\n------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[David](/wiki/David_Copperfield_%28character%29 \"David Copperfield (character)\") reaches Canterbury, from *David Copperfield*. The character incorporates many elements of Dickens's own life. Artwork by [Frank Reynolds](/wiki/Frank_Reynolds_%28artist%29 \"Frank Reynolds (artist)\").](/wiki/File:David_reaches_Canterbury%2C_from_David_Copperfield_art_by_Frank_Reynolds.jpg \"David reaches Canterbury, from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg\")\nIn December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London\\-based *[Daily News](/wiki/The_Daily_News_%28UK%29 \"The Daily News (UK)\")*, a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, \"the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation.\"{{cite journal \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=David \\|title\\=Charles Dickens and the \"Daily News\": Editorials and Editorial Writers \\|journal\\=Victorian Periodicals Review \\|date\\=1989 \\|volume\\=22 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=51–63 \\|jstor\\=20082378}} Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economist [Thomas Hodgskin](/wiki/Thomas_Hodgskin \"Thomas Hodgskin\") and the social reformer [Douglas William Jerrold](/wiki/Douglas_William_Jerrold \"Douglas William Jerrold\"), who frequently attacked the [Corn Laws](/wiki/Corn_Laws \"Corn Laws\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Slater \\|first\\=Michael \\|title\\=Douglas Jerrold \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Gerald Duckworth \\& Co \\|pages\\=197–204 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0715646588}} Dickens lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co\\-owners.",
"A Francophile, Dickens often holidayed in France and, in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French, called the French \"the first people in the universe\".Soubigou, Gilles \"Dickens's Illustrations: France and other countries\" pp. 154–167 from *The Reception of Charles Dickens in Europe* edited by Michael Hollington London: A\\&C Black 2013 p. 159\\. During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literati [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas \"Alexandre Dumas\"), [Victor Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo \"Victor Hugo\"), [Eugène Scribe](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe \"Eugène Scribe\"), [Théophile Gautier](/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier \"Théophile Gautier\"), [François\\-René de Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand \"François-René de Chateaubriand\") and [Eugène Sue](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Sue \"Eugène Sue\"). In early 1849, Dickens started to write *[David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield \"David Copperfield\")*. It was published between 1849 and 1850\\. In Dickens's biography, *Life of Charles Dickens* (1872\\), [John Forster](/wiki/John_Forster_%28biographer%29 \"John Forster (biographer)\") wrote of *David Copperfield*, \"underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Hiu Yen Lee \\|first\\=Klaudia \\|title\\=Charles Dickens and China, 1895–1915: Cross\\-Cultural Encounters \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|page\\=56}} It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the author's preface to the 1867 edition of the novel.{{cite book \\|first\\=Charles \\|last\\=Dickens \\|title\\=David Copperfield \\|chapter\\=Preface \\|edition\\=1867 \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Wordsworth Classics \\|page\\=4}} His [collection of letters](/wiki/Letters_of_Charles_Dickens \"Letters of Charles Dickens\") included a correspondence with Mary Tyler, dated 6 November 1849, on the comedic merits of [Punch and Judy](/wiki/Punch_and_Judy \"Punch and Judy\"), a puppet show dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hartley \\|first\\=Jenny \\|title\\=The Selected Letters of Charles Dickens \\|date\\=2012 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|location\\=Oxford \\|page\\=204}}",
"In late November 1851, Dickens moved into [Tavistock House](/wiki/Tavistock_House \"Tavistock House\") where he wrote *[Bleak House](/wiki/Bleak_House \"Bleak House\")* (1852–53\\), *[Hard Times](/wiki/Hard_Times_%28novel%29 \"Hard Times (novel)\")* (1854\\) and *[Little Dorrit](/wiki/Little_Dorrit \"Little Dorrit\")* (1856\\).{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=628; 634–638}}. It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster's *Life of Charles Dickens*.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=648; 686–687; 772–773}} During this period, he worked closely with the novelist and playwright [Wilkie Collins](/wiki/Wilkie_Collins \"Wilkie Collins\"). In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buy [Gads Hill Place](/wiki/Gads_Hill_Place \"Gads Hill Place\") in [Higham, Kent](/wiki/Higham%2C_Kent \"Higham, Kent\"). As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare \"Shakespeare\")'s *[Henry IV, Part 1](/wiki/Henry_IV%2C_Part_1 \"Henry IV, Part 1\")* and this literary connection pleased him.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=32:723:750}}.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Commemorative [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque \"Blue plaque\") in [Tavistock Square](/wiki/Tavistock_Square \"Tavistock Square\"), London where Dickens lived between 1851 and 1860](/wiki/File:Dickens-plaque-tavistock.jpg \"Dickens-plaque-tavistock.jpg\")",
"During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journals *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words \"Household Words\")* (1850–1859\\) and *[All the Year Round](/wiki/All_the_Year_Round \"All the Year Round\")* (1858–1870\\).{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=589–95; 848–852}}. Both journals contained a mix of fiction and non\\-fiction, and dealt with aspects in the culture. For example, the latter journal included Dickens' assessment of [Madame Tussauds](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds \"Madame Tussauds\") wax museum on Baker Street, which he called \"something more than an exhibition, it is an institution.\"{{cite book \\|title\\=All the Year Round Volume 2 \\|date\\=1860 \\|publisher\\=Charles Dickens \\|page\\=250}} In 1854, at the behest of [Sir John Franklin](/wiki/Sir_John_Franklin \"Sir John Franklin\")'s widow [Lady Jane](/wiki/Jane_Franklin \"Jane Franklin\"), Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorer [John Rae](/wiki/John_Rae_%28explorer%29 \"John Rae (explorer)\") in *Household Words* for his report to the [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Admiralty (United Kingdom)\"), based on interviews with local [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit \"Inuit\"), that the members of [Franklin's lost expedition](/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition \"Franklin's lost expedition\") had resorted to [cannibalism](/wiki/Human_cannibalism \"Human cannibalism\"). These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 play *[The Frozen Deep](/wiki/The_Frozen_Deep \"The Frozen Deep\")*, which satirises Rae and the Inuit. Twentieth\\-century [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") work in [King William Island](/wiki/King_William_Island \"King William Island\") later confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism.Roobol, M.J. (2019\\) *Franklin's Fate: An investigation into what happened to the lost 1845 expedition of Sir John Frankin.* Conrad Press, 368 pages.",
"In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MP [Austen Henry Layard](/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard \"Austen Henry Layard\") formed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause.{{harvnb\\|Slater\\|2009\\|pp\\=389–390}} With the exception of [Lord John Russell](/wiki/Lord_John_Russell \"Lord John Russell\"), who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicated *A Tale of Two Cities*, Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were the death of England.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Cotsell \\|first\\=Michael \\|title\\=Politics and Peeling Frescoes: Layard of Nineveh and \"Little Dorrit\" \\|journal\\=Dickens Studies Annual \\|date\\=1986 \\|volume\\=15 \\|pages\\=181–200}} When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class. Dickens used his pulpit in *Household Words* to champion the Reform Association. He also commented on foreign affairs, declaring his support for [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\") and [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini \"Giuseppe Mazzini\"), helping raise funds for their campaigns and stating that \"a united Italy would be of vast importance to the peace of the world, and would be a rock in [Louis Napoleon](/wiki/Louis_Napoleon \"Louis Napoleon\")'s way,\" and that \"I feel for Italy almost as if I were an Italian born.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Schlicke \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|page\\=10}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Dickens \\|first\\=Charles \\|title\\=The Letters of Charles Dickens, Volume 2 \\|date\\=1880 \\|publisher\\=Chapman and Hall \\|page\\=140}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Ledger \\|first\\=Sally \\|title\\=Charles Dickens in Context \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|pages\\=43–44}} Dickens also published dozens of writings in *Household Words* supporting [vaccination](/wiki/Vaccination \"Vaccination\"), including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneer [Edward Jenner](/wiki/Edward_Jenner \"Edward Jenner\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Steven \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Johnson (author) \\|title\\=Extra Life \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Riverhead Books]] \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-525\\-53885\\-1 \\|edition\\=1st \\|pages\\=54}}",
"Following the [Indian Mutiny of 1857](/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857 \"Indian Rebellion of 1857\"), Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\") for its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander\\-in\\-chief in India so that he would be able to \"do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested.\"{{citation \\|last\\=Robins \\|first\\=Nick \\|title\\=A Skulking Power \\|date\\=2012 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pcr6\\.16 \\|work\\=The Corporation That Changed the World \\|pages\\=171–198 \\|series\\=How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational \\|publisher\\=Pluto Press \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/j.ctt183pcr6\\.16 \\|jstor\\=j.ctt183pcr6\\.16 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7453\\-3195\\-9 \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203145408/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pcr6\\.16 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Actress [Ellen Ternan](/wiki/Ellen_Ternan \"Ellen Ternan\") (pictured in 1858\\) drew the attention of Dickens after he saw her on stage in 1857](/wiki/File:Ellen_Ternan.jpeg \"Ellen Ternan.jpeg\")",
"In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses for *The Frozen Deep*, which he and his [protégé](/wiki/Mentorship \"Mentorship\") [Wilkie Collins](/wiki/Wilkie_Collins \"Wilkie Collins\") had written. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses, [Ellen Ternan](/wiki/Ellen_Ternan \"Ellen Ternan\"), and this passion was to last the rest of his life.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=788–799}}. In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame. After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from \"a mental disorder\"—statements that disgusted his contemporaries, including [Elizabeth Barrett Browning](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning \"Elizabeth Barrett Browning\"){{harvnb\\|Bowen\\|2019\\|pp\\=6–7}}.—Dickens attempted to have Catherine [institutionalised](/wiki/Lunatic_asylum \"Lunatic asylum\").{{harvnb\\|Bowen\\|2019\\|p\\=9}}. When his scheme failed, they separated. Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child. Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children.{{harvnb\\|Smith\\|2001\\|pp\\=10–11}}.",
"During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal by [Great Ormond Street Hospital](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital \"Great Ormond Street Hospital\") to help it survive its first major financial crisis. His \"Drooping Buds\" essay in *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words \"Household Words\")* earlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success.{{harvnb\\|Furneaux\\|2011\\|pp\\=190–191}}. Dickens, whose philanthropy was well\\-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founder [Charles West](/wiki/Charles_West_%28physician%29 \"Charles West (physician)\"), to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul.{{harvnb\\|Page\\|1999\\|p\\=261}}. Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000\\.{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2004\\|pp\\=80–81}}.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=801, 804}}.{{harvnb\\|Page\\|1999\\|pp\\=260–263}} for excerpts from the speech.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Dickens at his desk, 1858](/wiki/File:Dickens_by_Watkins_1858.png \"Dickens by Watkins 1858.png\")\nAfter separating from Catherine,{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=809–814}}. Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels.{{harvnb\\|Sutherland\\|1990\\|p\\=185}}. His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland.{{harvnb\\|Hobsbaum\\|1998\\|p\\=270}}. Dickens's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes in *Nicholas Nickleby*, and he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland.{{cite book \\|last\\=Schlicke \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|page\\=302}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Dickens was a regular patron at [Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese](/wiki/Ye_Olde_Cheshire_Cheese \"Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese\") pub in [Fleet Street](/wiki/Fleet_Street \"Fleet Street\"), London. He included the venue in *A Tale of Two Cities*.](/wiki/File:Ye_Olde_Cheshire_Cheese%2C_Fleet_Street%2C_EC4_%288032557646%29.jpg \"Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese, Fleet Street, EC4 (8032557646).jpg\")\nOther works soon followed, including *[A Tale of Two Cities](/wiki/A_Tale_of_Two_Cities \"A Tale of Two Cities\")* (1859\\) and *[Great Expectations](/wiki/Great_Expectations \"Great Expectations\")* (1861\\), which were resounding successes. Set in London and Paris, *A Tale of Two Cities* is his best\\-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence that begins with \"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.\" It is regularly touted as one of the best\\-selling novels of all time.{{cite news \\|title\\=Charles Dickens novel inscribed to George Eliot up for sale \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/21/charles\\-dickens\\-george\\-eliot\\-a\\-tale\\-of\\-two\\-cities \\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2019 \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026175742/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/21/charles\\-dickens\\-george\\-eliot\\-a\\-tale\\-of\\-two\\-cities \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|title\\=A Tale of Two Cities, King's Head, review \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre\\-reviews/10340407/A\\-Tale\\-of\\-Two\\-Cities\\-Kings\\-Head\\-review.html \\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2019 \\|newspaper\\=The Telegraph \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708082104/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre\\-reviews/10340407/A\\-Tale\\-of\\-Two\\-Cities\\-Kings\\-Head\\-review.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Themes in *Great Expectations* include wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil.Charles Dickens (1993\\), *Great Expectations*, p. 1, introduction. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics",
"In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her,{{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|2011\\|pp\\=332}}. the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=881–883}}. In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=914–917}}. Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929\\. Storey published her account in *Dickens and Daughter*,{{harvnb\\|Nisbet\\|1952\\|p\\=37}}.{{harvnb\\|Tomalin\\|1992\\|pp\\=142–143}}. though no contemporary evidence was given. On his death, Dickens settled an [annuity](/wiki/Life_annuity \"Life annuity\") on Ternan which made her financially independent. [Claire Tomalin](/wiki/Claire_Tomalin \"Claire Tomalin\")'s book *The Invisible Woman* argues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was subsequently turned into a play, *Little Nell*, by [Simon Gray](/wiki/Simon_Gray \"Simon Gray\"), and [a 2013 film](/wiki/The_Invisible_Woman_%282013_film%29 \"The Invisible Woman (2013 film)\"). During the same period Dickens furthered his interest in the [paranormal](/wiki/Paranormal \"Paranormal\") becoming one of the early members of [The Ghost Club](/wiki/The_Ghost_Club \"The Ghost Club\").{{harvnb\\|Henson\\|2004\\|p\\=113}}.",
"In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia.[Ashley Alexander Mallett, *The Black Lords of Summer: The Story of the 1868 Aboriginal Tour of England*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wYNxyc-yhuwC&pg=PA66) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030055350/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wYNxyc\\-yhuwC\\&pg\\=PA66 \\|date\\=30 October 2015}}, pp. 65–66\\. He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book, *The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down*, but ultimately decided against the tour.[Australian Dictionary of Biography](http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dickens-charles-3409) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114011654/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dickens\\-charles\\-3409 \\|date\\=14 November 2013}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013 Two of his sons, [Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens](/wiki/Alfred_D%27Orsay_Tennyson_Dickens \"Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens\") and [Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens](/wiki/Edward_Dickens \"Edward Dickens\"), migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of the [Parliament of New South Wales](/wiki/Parliament_of_New_South_Wales \"Parliament of New South Wales\") as [Member for Wilcannia](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Wilcannia \"Electoral district of Wilcannia\") between 1889 and 1894\\.[University of Sydney](http://blogs.usyd.edu.au/sydneypublishing/2011/05/charles_dickens_and_australia_1.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604221837/http://blogs.usyd.edu.au/sydneypublishing/2011/05/charles\\_dickens\\_and\\_australia\\_1\\.html \\|date\\=4 June 2011}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013[*The Sydney Morning Herald*, \"Dickens of a time\", 24 December 2002](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/12/23/1040511009543.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231155722/http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/12/23/1040511009543\\.html \\|date\\=31 December 2013}}. Retrieved 29 October 2013",
""
] |
Literary style
--------------
Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including the [picaresque novel](/wiki/Picaresque_novel "Picaresque novel") tradition,{{harvnb\|Levin\|1970\|p\=676}} [melodrama](/wiki/Melodrama "Melodrama"){{harvnb\|Levin\|1970\|p\=674}} and the [novel of sensibility](/wiki/Novel_of_sensibility "Novel of sensibility").{{harvnb\|Purton\|2012\|p\=xvii}} According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables of *[The Arabian Nights](/wiki/The_Arabian_Nights "The Arabian Nights")*.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|pp\=44–45}}. Satire and [irony](/wiki/Irony "Irony") are central to the picaresque novel.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/art/picaresque\-novel \|title\=Picaresque novel \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopaedia Britannica \|last\=Luebering \|first\=J E \|access\-date\=5 March 2019}} Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition of [Laurence Sterne](/wiki/Laurence_Sterne "Laurence Sterne"), [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding "Henry Fielding") and [Tobias Smollett](/wiki/Tobias_Smollett "Tobias Smollett"). Fielding's *[Tom Jones](/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones%2C_a_Foundling "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling")* was a major influence on the 19th\-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youth{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=44}} and named a son [Henry Fielding Dickens](/wiki/Henry_Fielding_Dickens "Henry Fielding Dickens") after him.{{harvnb\|Dickens\|1934\|p\=xviii}}{{cite book \|chapter\-url\=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851\-h/25851\-h.htm\#Page\_2\_462 \|last\=Forster \|first\=John \|title\=The Life of Charles Dickens \|publisher\=Project Gutenberg \|orig\-year\=1875 \|year\=2008 \|access\-date\=5 March 2019 \|volume\=III \|chapter\=Chapter 20 \|page\=462 \|archive\-date\=15 July 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715080715/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851\-h/25851\-h.htm\#Page\_2\_462 \|url\-status\=live}} Influenced by [Gothic fiction](/wiki/Gothic_fiction "Gothic fiction")—a literary genre that began with *[The Castle of Otranto](/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto "The Castle of Otranto")* (1764\) by [Horace Walpole](/wiki/Horace_Walpole "Horace Walpole")—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works.{{cite news \|title\=Charles Dickens and the Gothic (2\.11\) – The Cambridge History of the Gothic \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge\-history\-of\-the\-gothic/charles\-dickens\-and\-the\-gothic/FEC5D30D7DA0B6B136356034F9EEF7A0 \|access\-date\=18 July 2021 \|agency\=Cambridge University Press \|archive\-date\=18 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718093940/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge\-history\-of\-the\-gothic/charles\-dickens\-and\-the\-gothic/FEC5D30D7DA0B6B136356034F9EEF7A0 \|url\-status\=live}} Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens's *Oliver Twist* and *Bleak House*. The jilted bride [Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham "Miss Havisham") from *Great Expectations* is one of Dickens's best\-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud.{{cite news \|title\=Charles Dickens, Victorian Gothic and Bleak House \|url\=https://www.bl.uk/romantics\-and\-victorians/articles/charles\-dickens\-victorian\-gothic\-and\-bleak\-house \|access\-date\=18 July 2021 \|agency\=British Library \|archive\-date\=27 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727035856/https://www.bl.uk/romantics\-and\-victorians/articles/charles\-dickens\-victorian\-gothic\-and\-bleak\-house \|url\-status\=live}}
No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens as [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"). On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare, [Alfred Harbage](/wiki/Alfred_Harbage "Alfred Harbage") wrote in *A Kind of Power: The Shakespeare\-Dickens Analogy* (1975\) that "No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius". Regarding Shakespeare as "the great master" whose [plays](/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays "Shakespeare's plays") "were an unspeakable source of delight", Dickens's lifelong affinity with the playwright included seeing theatrical productions of his plays in London and putting on amateur dramatics with friends in his early years.{{cite book \|last\=Schlicke \|first\=Paul \|title\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|date\=2011 \|page\=537}} In 1838, Dickens travelled to [Stratford\-upon\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon "Stratford-upon-Avon") and visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book. Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work, *Nicholas Nickleby* (1838–39\), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the character [Mrs Wititterly](/wiki/Nicholas_Nickleby%23Around_London "Nicholas Nickleby#Around London") states, "I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one."{{cite news \|title\=Dickens and Shakespeare \|url\=https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/knowledgecentre/arts/literature/dickens\-shakespeare/ \|access\-date\=1 September 2020 \|agency\=University of Warwick \|archive\-date\=13 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813105534/https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/knowledgecentre/arts/literature/dickens\-shakespeare \|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|upright\|left\|The [Artful Dodger](/wiki/Artful_Dodger "Artful Dodger") from *Oliver Twist*. His dialect is rooted in [Cockney English](/wiki/Cockney_English "Cockney English").](/wiki/File:Clarke-dodger.jpg "Clarke-dodger.jpg")
Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity.{{harvnb\|Mee\|2010\|p\=20}}. Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him to [Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth "William Hogarth") for his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre.{{harvnb\|Vlock\|1998\|p\=30}}. Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an "allegorical impetus" to the novels' meanings. To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr Murdstone in *David Copperfield* conjures up twin allusions to murder and stony coldness.{{harvnb\|Stone\|1987\|pp\=xx–xxi}}. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and [realism](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 "Realism (arts)"). His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the "Noble Refrigerator"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner\-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriter [Sarah Phelps](/wiki/Sarah_Phelps "Sarah Phelps") writes, "He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next. The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean\-spirited ones."{{cite news \|title\=Why Charles Dickens' novels make great TV \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\-and\-radio/tvandradioblog/2011/dec/22/charles\-dickens\-novels\-tv \|access\-date\=16 January 2024 \|work\=The Guardian}}
The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them. [Marcus Stone](/wiki/Marcus_Stone "Marcus Stone"), illustrator of *Our Mutual Friend*, recalled that the author was always "ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life\-history of the creations of his fancy".{{harvnb\|Cohen\|1980\|p\=206}}. Dickens employs [Cockney English](/wiki/Cockney_English "Cockney English") in many of his works, denoting working\-class Londoners. Cockney grammar appears in terms such as [ain't](/wiki/Ain%27t "Ain't"), and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what).{{cite news \|title\=London dialect in Dickens \|url\=https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126779\.html \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|publisher\=British Library \|archive\-date\=9 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609021116/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126779\.html \|url\-status\=live}} An example of this usage is in *Oliver Twist*. The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying "seven" with "sivin".{{Cite book \|url\=http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext\-project/charles\_dickens/olivr10/chapter43\.html \|author\=Charles Dickens \|title\=Oliver Twist \|quote\=Project Gutenberg \|publisher\=Nalanda Digital Library \|chapter\=XLIII \|access\-date\=20 May 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322131244/http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext\-project/charles\_dickens/olivr10/chapter43\.html \|archive\-date\=22 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}
### Characters
[thumb\|*Dickens's Dream* by [Robert William Buss](/wiki/Robert_William_Buss "Robert William Buss"), portraying Dickens at his desk at [Gads Hill Place](/wiki/Gads_Hill_Place "Gads Hill Place") surrounded by many of his characters](/wiki/File:Dickens_dream.jpg "Dickens dream.jpg")
Dickens's biographer [Claire Tomalin](/wiki/Claire_Tomalin "Claire Tomalin") regards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction after [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare "Shakespeare").{{harvnb\|Jones\|2012}}.
Dickensian [characters](/wiki/List_of_Dickensian_characters "List of Dickensian characters") are amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes of [Ebenezer Scrooge](/wiki/Ebenezer_Scrooge "Ebenezer Scrooge"), [Tiny Tim](/wiki/Tiny_Tim_%28A_Christmas_Carol%29 "Tiny Tim (A Christmas Carol)"), [Jacob Marley](/wiki/Jacob_Marley "Jacob Marley") and [Bob Cratchit](/wiki/Bob_Cratchit "Bob Cratchit") (*A Christmas Carol*); [Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%28character%29 "Oliver Twist (character)"), [The Artful Dodger](/wiki/Artful_Dodger "Artful Dodger"), [Fagin](/wiki/Fagin "Fagin") and [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes "Bill Sikes") (*Oliver Twist*); [Pip](/wiki/Pip_%28Great_Expectations%29 "Pip (Great Expectations)"), [Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham "Miss Havisham"), [Estella](/wiki/Estella_%28Great_Expectations%29 "Estella (Great Expectations)") and [Abel Magwitch](/wiki/Abel_Magwitch "Abel Magwitch") (*Great Expectations*); [Sydney Carton](/wiki/Sydney_Carton "Sydney Carton"), [Charles Darnay](/wiki/Charles_Darnay "Charles Darnay") and [Madame Defarge](/wiki/Madame_Defarge "Madame Defarge") (*A Tale of Two Cities*); [David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield_%28character%29 "David Copperfield (character)"), [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28character%29 "Uriah Heep (character)") and [Mr Micawber](/wiki/Wilkins_Micawber "Wilkins Micawber") (*David Copperfield*); [Daniel Quilp](/wiki/Quilp "Quilp") and [Nell Trent](/wiki/Nell_Trent "Nell Trent") (*The Old Curiosity Shop*), [Samuel Pickwick](/wiki/Samuel_Pickwick "Samuel Pickwick") and [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 "Sam Weller (character)") (*The Pickwick Papers*); and [Wackford Squeers](/wiki/Wackford_Squeers "Wackford Squeers") (*Nicholas Nickleby*) are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: a *scrooge*, for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Scrooge,\-Ebenezer \|title\=Scrooge, Ebenezer – definition of Scrooge, Ebenezer in English \|dictionary\=Oxford English Dictionary \|access\-date\=16 October 2018 \|archive\-date\=22 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022164358/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Scrooge,\-Ebenezer \|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|left\|Illustration of [London Bridge](/wiki/London_Bridge "London Bridge") (from the 1914 book *In Dickens's London*) which [Nancy](/wiki/Nancy_%28Oliver_Twist%29 "Nancy (Oliver Twist)") crossed in *Oliver Twist*](/wiki/File:P_060--In_Dickens_London.jpg "P 060--In Dickens London.jpg")
His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. "Gamp" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character [Mrs Gamp](/wiki/Sarah_Gamp "Sarah Gamp"), and "Pickwickian", "Pecksniffian" and "Gradgrind" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively, [quixotic](/wiki/Quixotism "Quixotism"), hypocritical and vapidly factual. The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for his [Wellerisms](/wiki/Wellerism "Wellerism")—one\-liners that turn [proverbs](/wiki/Proverb "Proverb") on their heads. Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, although she did not recognise herself in the portrait,{{harvnb\|Ziegler\|2007\|p\=45}}. just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance';{{harvnb\|Hawes\|1998\|p\=153}}. Harold Skimpole in *Bleak House* is based on [James Henry Leigh Hunt](/wiki/James_Henry_Leigh_Hunt "James Henry Leigh Hunt"); his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher in *David Copperfield*.{{harvnb\|Ziegler\|2007\|p\=46}}. Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting with [Hans Christian Andersen](/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen "Hans Christian Andersen") informed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous with [sycophant](/wiki/Sycophant "Sycophant")).{{harvnb\|Hawes\|1998\|p\=109}}.
[Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf "Virginia Woolf") maintained that "we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens" as he produces "characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks".{{harvnb\|Woolf\|1986\|p\=286}}. [T. S. Eliot](/wiki/T._S._Eliot "T. S. Eliot") wrote that Dickens "excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings".{{cite news \|title\=The best Charles Dickens characters \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/charles\-dickens/9033356/The\-best\-Charles\-Dickens\-characters.html \|access\-date\=7 September 2019 \|work\=The Telegraph \|archive\-date\=14 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014111433/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/charles\-dickens/9033356/The\-best\-Charles\-Dickens\-characters.html \|url\-status\=live}} One "character" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself.{{cite news \|last\=Jones \|first\=Bryony \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/07/world/europe/uk\-dickensian\-london/ \|title\=A tale of one city: Dickensian London \|publisher\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=13 February 2012 \|access\-date\=21 August 2014 \|ref\=none \|archive\-date\=21 August 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821191251/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/07/world/europe/uk\-dickensian\-london/ \|url\-status\=live}} Dickens described London as a [magic lantern](/wiki/Magic_lantern "Magic lantern"), inspiring the places and people in many of his novels. From the [coaching inns](/wiki/Coaching_inn "Coaching inn") on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the [Thames](/wiki/River_Thames "River Thames"), all aspects of the capital—[Dickens's London](/wiki/Dickens%27_London "Dickens' London")—are described over the course of his body of work.{{cite book \|title\=Dickens's London: Perception, Subjectivity and Phenomenal Urban Multiplicity \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=poidiU20hz4C\&pg\=PA209 \|year\=2012 \|first\=Julian \|last\=Wolfreys \|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-7486\-4040\-9 \|page\=209}} Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity. Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, "If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish."{{cite news \|title\=Steve Jobs was right about walking \|url\=https://financialpost.com/executive/c\-suite/steve\-jobs\-was\-right\-about\-walking \|access\-date\=1 July 2021 \|work\=Financial Post \|archive\-date\=9 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181915/https://financialpost.com/executive/c\-suite/steve\-jobs\-was\-right\-about\-walking \|url\-status\=live}}
### Autobiographical elements
[thumb\|right\|230px\|An original illustration by [Phiz](/wiki/Phiz "Phiz") from the novel *David Copperfield*, which is widely regarded as Dickens's most autobiographical work](/wiki/File:David_Copperfield%2C_We_are_disturbed_in_our_cookery.jpg "David Copperfield, We are disturbed in our cookery.jpg")
Authors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life. *David Copperfield* is regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments in *Bleak House* reflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright.{{harvnb\|Polloczek\|1999\|p\=133}}. Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea "Marshalsea") prison in *Little Dorrit* resulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=}}. Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly in *David Copperfield* and Lucie Manette in *A Tale of Two Cities*.{{harvnb\|Slater\|1983\|pp\=43, 47}}{{refn\|Slater also detects Ellen Ternan in the portrayal of Lucie Manette.\|group\="nb"}}
Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends up [Leigh Hunt](/wiki/Leigh_Hunt "Leigh Hunt"), some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self\-parody.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=653}}.
### Episodic writing
[thumb\|right\|230px\|Advertisement for *Great Expectations*, serialised in the weekly literary magazine *[All the Year Round](/wiki/All_the_Year_Round "All the Year Round")* from December 1860 to August 1861\. The advert contains the plot device "to be continued".](/wiki/File:Publicit%C3%A9_pour_Great_Expectations_dans_All_the_Year_Round.jpeg "Publicité pour Great Expectations dans All the Year Round.jpeg")
A pioneer of the [serial](/wiki/Serial_%28literature%29 "Serial (literature)") publication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as *[Master Humphrey's Clock](/wiki/Master_Humphrey%27s_Clock "Master Humphrey's Clock")* and *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words "Household Words")*, later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, with the audience more evenly distributed across income levels than previous.{{cite book \|last\=Howsam \|first\=Leslie \|title\=The Cambridge Companion to the History of the Book \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|page\=85 \|quote\=It inspired a narrative that Dickens would explore and develop throughout his career. The instalments would typically culminate at a point in the plot that created reader anticipation and thus reader demand, generating a plot and sub\-plot motif that would come to typify the novel structure.}} His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regular [cliffhangers](/wiki/Cliffhanger "Cliffhanger") made each new episode widely anticipated. When *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop "The Old Curiosity Shop")* was being serialised, American fans waited at the docks in [New York harbour](/wiki/New_York_Harbor "New York Harbor"), shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, "Is little Nell dead?"{{harvnb\|Glancy\|1999\|p\=34}}. Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. He wrote, "The thing has to be planned for presentation in these fragments, and yet for afterwards fusing together as an uninterrupted whole."{{cite journal \|last1\=Axton \|first1\=William \|title\="Keystone" Structure in Dickens' Serial Novels \|url\=https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10\.3138/utq.37\.1\.31 \|pages\=31–50 \|journal\=University of Toronto Quarterly \|volume\=37 \|issue\= 1 \|publisher\=University of Toronto Press \|date\=October 1967\|doi\=10\.3138/utq.37\.1\.31 }}
Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning in *The Old Curiosity Shop*), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed in *Oliver Twist*. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine.{{harvnb\|Davies\|1983\|pp\=166–169}}.
At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature,{{cite news \|title\=Cliffhangers poised to make Dickens a serial winner again \|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cliffhangers\-poised\-to\-make\-dickens\-a\-serial\-winner\-again\-96jplgjhrp5 \|access\-date\=3 September 2021 \|work\=The Times \|archive\-date\=3 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903003603/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cliffhangers\-poised\-to\-make\-dickens\-a\-serial\-winner\-again\-96jplgjhrp5 \|url\-status\=live}} Dickens's influence can also be seen in television [soap operas](/wiki/Soap_operas "Soap operas") and [film series](/wiki/Film_series "Film series"), with *The Guardian* stating that "the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything."{{cite news \|title\=Streaming: the best Dickens adaptations \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/jun/13/streaming\-best\-dickens\-adaptations\-film\-tv\-personal\-history\-david\-copperfield\-armando\-iannucci \|access\-date\=3 September 2021 \|work\=The Guardian \|archive\-date\=3 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903003923/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/jun/13/streaming\-best\-dickens\-adaptations\-film\-tv\-personal\-history\-david\-copperfield\-armando\-iannucci \|url\-status\=live}} His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers. In Scottish author [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson "Robert Louis Stevenson")'s novel *[The Wrecker](/wiki/The_Wrecker_%28Stevenson_novel%29 "The Wrecker (Stevenson novel)")*, Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: "See! They were writing up the log," said Nares, pointing to the ink\-bottle. "Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log\-book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels."{{cite book \|last\=Stevenson \|first\=Robert Louis \|title\=The Novels and Tales of Robert Louis Stevenson: The Wrecker \|publisher\=Scribner's \|date\=1895 \|page\=245}}
### Social commentary
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Nurse [Sarah Gamp](/wiki/Sarah_Gamp "Sarah Gamp") (left) from *Martin Chuzzlewit* became a stereotype of untrained and incompetent nurses of the early Victorian era, before the reforms of [Florence Nightingale](/wiki/Florence_Nightingale "Florence Nightingale").](/wiki/File:Martin_Chuzzlewit_illus11.jpg "Martin Chuzzlewit illus11.jpg")
Dickens's novels were, among other things, works of [social commentary](/wiki/Social_commentary "Social commentary"). [Simon Callow](/wiki/Simon_Callow "Simon Callow") states, "From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it."{{cite news \|title\=My hero: Charles Dickens by Simon Callow \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/feb/04/my\-hero\-charles\-dickens\-callow \|date\=12 February 2012 \|access\-date\=7 November 2021 \|work\=The Guardian \|archive\-date\=7 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107140015/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/feb/04/my\-hero\-charles\-dickens\-callow \|url\-status\=live}} He was a fierce critic of the poverty and [social stratification](/wiki/Social_stratification "Social stratification") of [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era") society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that "Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen".{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=345}}. Dickens's second novel, *Oliver Twist* (1839\), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed.{{harvnb\|Raina\|1986\|p\=25}}.{{harvnb\|Bodenheimer\|2011\|p\=147}}.
At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such as [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation "Sanitation") and the [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse "Workhouse")—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is in *Hard Times* (1854\), Dickens's only novel\-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed "Hands" by the factory owners; that is, not really "people" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in *The Pickwick Papers* are claimed to have been influential in having the [Fleet Prison](/wiki/Fleet_Prison "Fleet Prison") shut down. [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx") asserted that Dickens "issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together".{{harvnb\|Kucich\|Sadoff\|2006\|p\=155}}. [George Bernard Shaw](/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw "George Bernard Shaw") even remarked that *Great Expectations* was more seditious than Marx's *[Das Kapital](/wiki/Das_Kapital "Das Kapital")*. The exceptional popularity of Dickens's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (*Bleak House*, 1853; *Little Dorrit*, 1857; *Our Mutual Friend*, 1865\), not only underscored his ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored.
It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation of [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin")'s *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species "On the Origin of Species")*.{{harvnb\|Atkinson\|1990\|p\=48}}, citing [Gillian Beer](/wiki/Gillian_Beer "Gillian Beer")'s *Darwin's Plots* (1983, p.8\).
### Literary techniques
Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his [caricatures](/wiki/Caricature "Caricature") and the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent in *The Old Curiosity Shop* (1841\) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde"). "One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell", he said in a famous remark, "without dissolving into tears ... of laughter."{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/boev1\.html \|title\=Deconstructing Little Nell \|last\=Boev \|first\=Hristo \|website\=The Victorian Web \|access\-date\=11 October 2018 \|archive\-date\=11 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011133356/http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/boev1\.html \|url\-status\=live}}{{harvnb\|Ellmann\|1988\|p\=441}}: In conversation with [Ada Leverson](/wiki/Ada_Leverson "Ada Leverson"). [G. K. Chesterton](/wiki/G._K._Chesterton "G. K. Chesterton") stated, "It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his "despotic" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this.{{harvnb\|Chesterton\|1911\|pp\=54–55}}.
[thumb\|upright\|Less fortunate characters, such as Tiny Tim (held aloft by Bob Cratchit), are often used by Dickens in sentimental ways.](/wiki/File:Tiny-tim-dickens.jpg "Tiny-tim-dickens.jpg")
The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of the [sentimental novel](/wiki/Sentimental_novel "Sentimental novel") is debatable. Valerie Purton, in her book *Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition*, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his "sentimental scenes and characters \[are] as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes", and that "*Dombey and Son* is \[ ... ] Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition".{{cite book \|last\=Purton \|first\=Valerie \|title\=Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition: Fielding, Richardson, Sterne, Goldsmith, Sheridan, Lamb \|series\=Anthem nineteenth century studies \|location\=London \|publisher\=Anthem Press \|year\=2012 \|pages\=xiii, 123 \|isbn\=978\-0857284181}} The *Encyclopædia Britannica* online comments that, despite "patches of emotional excess", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim in *A Christmas Carol* (1843\), "Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist".{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421071/novel \|title\=novel (literature) \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|access\-date\=7 July 2013 \|archive\-date\=30 April 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430021713/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421071/novel \|url\-status\=live}}
In *Oliver Twist*, Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young [pickpockets](/wiki/Pickpocketing "Pickpocketing"). While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in *Bleak House* and Amy Dorrit in *Little Dorrit*), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence.{{harvnb\|Marlow\|1994\|pp\=149–150}}. For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper\-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th\-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding's *[Tom Jones](/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones%2C_a_Foundling "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling"),* which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth.{{harvnb\|Ackroyd\|1990\|p\=44}}.
|
[
"Literary style\n--------------",
"Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including the [picaresque novel](/wiki/Picaresque_novel \"Picaresque novel\") tradition,{{harvnb\\|Levin\\|1970\\|p\\=676}} [melodrama](/wiki/Melodrama \"Melodrama\"){{harvnb\\|Levin\\|1970\\|p\\=674}} and the [novel of sensibility](/wiki/Novel_of_sensibility \"Novel of sensibility\").{{harvnb\\|Purton\\|2012\\|p\\=xvii}} According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables of *[The Arabian Nights](/wiki/The_Arabian_Nights \"The Arabian Nights\")*.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|pp\\=44–45}}. Satire and [irony](/wiki/Irony \"Irony\") are central to the picaresque novel.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/art/picaresque\\-novel \\|title\\=Picaresque novel \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopaedia Britannica \\|last\\=Luebering \\|first\\=J E \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2019}} Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition of [Laurence Sterne](/wiki/Laurence_Sterne \"Laurence Sterne\"), [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding \"Henry Fielding\") and [Tobias Smollett](/wiki/Tobias_Smollett \"Tobias Smollett\"). Fielding's *[Tom Jones](/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones%2C_a_Foundling \"The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling\")* was a major influence on the 19th\\-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youth{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=44}} and named a son [Henry Fielding Dickens](/wiki/Henry_Fielding_Dickens \"Henry Fielding Dickens\") after him.{{harvnb\\|Dickens\\|1934\\|p\\=xviii}}{{cite book \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851\\-h/25851\\-h.htm\\#Page\\_2\\_462 \\|last\\=Forster \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=The Life of Charles Dickens \\|publisher\\=Project Gutenberg \\|orig\\-year\\=1875 \\|year\\=2008 \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2019 \\|volume\\=III \\|chapter\\=Chapter 20 \\|page\\=462 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715080715/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851\\-h/25851\\-h.htm\\#Page\\_2\\_462 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Influenced by [Gothic fiction](/wiki/Gothic_fiction \"Gothic fiction\")—a literary genre that began with *[The Castle of Otranto](/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto \"The Castle of Otranto\")* (1764\\) by [Horace Walpole](/wiki/Horace_Walpole \"Horace Walpole\")—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works.{{cite news \\|title\\=Charles Dickens and the Gothic (2\\.11\\) – The Cambridge History of the Gothic \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-gothic/charles\\-dickens\\-and\\-the\\-gothic/FEC5D30D7DA0B6B136356034F9EEF7A0 \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2021 \\|agency\\=Cambridge University Press \\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718093940/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-gothic/charles\\-dickens\\-and\\-the\\-gothic/FEC5D30D7DA0B6B136356034F9EEF7A0 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens's *Oliver Twist* and *Bleak House*. The jilted bride [Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham \"Miss Havisham\") from *Great Expectations* is one of Dickens's best\\-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud.{{cite news \\|title\\=Charles Dickens, Victorian Gothic and Bleak House \\|url\\=https://www.bl.uk/romantics\\-and\\-victorians/articles/charles\\-dickens\\-victorian\\-gothic\\-and\\-bleak\\-house \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2021 \\|agency\\=British Library \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727035856/https://www.bl.uk/romantics\\-and\\-victorians/articles/charles\\-dickens\\-victorian\\-gothic\\-and\\-bleak\\-house \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens as [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"). On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare, [Alfred Harbage](/wiki/Alfred_Harbage \"Alfred Harbage\") wrote in *A Kind of Power: The Shakespeare\\-Dickens Analogy* (1975\\) that \"No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius\". Regarding Shakespeare as \"the great master\" whose [plays](/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays \"Shakespeare's plays\") \"were an unspeakable source of delight\", Dickens's lifelong affinity with the playwright included seeing theatrical productions of his plays in London and putting on amateur dramatics with friends in his early years.{{cite book \\|last\\=Schlicke \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=The Oxford Companion to Charles Dickens: Anniversary Edition \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|date\\=2011 \\|page\\=537}} In 1838, Dickens travelled to [Stratford\\-upon\\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon \"Stratford-upon-Avon\") and visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book. Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work, *Nicholas Nickleby* (1838–39\\), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the character [Mrs Wititterly](/wiki/Nicholas_Nickleby%23Around_London \"Nicholas Nickleby#Around London\") states, \"I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Dickens and Shakespeare \\|url\\=https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/knowledgecentre/arts/literature/dickens\\-shakespeare/ \\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2020 \\|agency\\=University of Warwick \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813105534/https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/knowledgecentre/arts/literature/dickens\\-shakespeare \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|The [Artful Dodger](/wiki/Artful_Dodger \"Artful Dodger\") from *Oliver Twist*. His dialect is rooted in [Cockney English](/wiki/Cockney_English \"Cockney English\").](/wiki/File:Clarke-dodger.jpg \"Clarke-dodger.jpg\")",
"Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity.{{harvnb\\|Mee\\|2010\\|p\\=20}}. Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him to [Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth \"William Hogarth\") for his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre.{{harvnb\\|Vlock\\|1998\\|p\\=30}}. Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an \"allegorical impetus\" to the novels' meanings. To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr Murdstone in *David Copperfield* conjures up twin allusions to murder and stony coldness.{{harvnb\\|Stone\\|1987\\|pp\\=xx–xxi}}. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and [realism](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 \"Realism (arts)\"). His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the \"Noble Refrigerator\"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner\\-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriter [Sarah Phelps](/wiki/Sarah_Phelps \"Sarah Phelps\") writes, \"He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next. The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean\\-spirited ones.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Why Charles Dickens' novels make great TV \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\\-and\\-radio/tvandradioblog/2011/dec/22/charles\\-dickens\\-novels\\-tv \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2024 \\|work\\=The Guardian}}",
"The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them. [Marcus Stone](/wiki/Marcus_Stone \"Marcus Stone\"), illustrator of *Our Mutual Friend*, recalled that the author was always \"ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life\\-history of the creations of his fancy\".{{harvnb\\|Cohen\\|1980\\|p\\=206}}. Dickens employs [Cockney English](/wiki/Cockney_English \"Cockney English\") in many of his works, denoting working\\-class Londoners. Cockney grammar appears in terms such as [ain't](/wiki/Ain%27t \"Ain't\"), and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what).{{cite news \\|title\\=London dialect in Dickens \\|url\\=https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126779\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|publisher\\=British Library \\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609021116/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126779\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} An example of this usage is in *Oliver Twist*. The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying \"seven\" with \"sivin\".{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext\\-project/charles\\_dickens/olivr10/chapter43\\.html \\|author\\=Charles Dickens \\|title\\=Oliver Twist \\|quote\\=Project Gutenberg \\|publisher\\=Nalanda Digital Library \\|chapter\\=XLIII \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322131244/http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext\\-project/charles\\_dickens/olivr10/chapter43\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Characters",
"[thumb\\|*Dickens's Dream* by [Robert William Buss](/wiki/Robert_William_Buss \"Robert William Buss\"), portraying Dickens at his desk at [Gads Hill Place](/wiki/Gads_Hill_Place \"Gads Hill Place\") surrounded by many of his characters](/wiki/File:Dickens_dream.jpg \"Dickens dream.jpg\")\nDickens's biographer [Claire Tomalin](/wiki/Claire_Tomalin \"Claire Tomalin\") regards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction after [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare \"Shakespeare\").{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2012}}.\nDickensian [characters](/wiki/List_of_Dickensian_characters \"List of Dickensian characters\") are amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes of [Ebenezer Scrooge](/wiki/Ebenezer_Scrooge \"Ebenezer Scrooge\"), [Tiny Tim](/wiki/Tiny_Tim_%28A_Christmas_Carol%29 \"Tiny Tim (A Christmas Carol)\"), [Jacob Marley](/wiki/Jacob_Marley \"Jacob Marley\") and [Bob Cratchit](/wiki/Bob_Cratchit \"Bob Cratchit\") (*A Christmas Carol*); [Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%28character%29 \"Oliver Twist (character)\"), [The Artful Dodger](/wiki/Artful_Dodger \"Artful Dodger\"), [Fagin](/wiki/Fagin \"Fagin\") and [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes \"Bill Sikes\") (*Oliver Twist*); [Pip](/wiki/Pip_%28Great_Expectations%29 \"Pip (Great Expectations)\"), [Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham \"Miss Havisham\"), [Estella](/wiki/Estella_%28Great_Expectations%29 \"Estella (Great Expectations)\") and [Abel Magwitch](/wiki/Abel_Magwitch \"Abel Magwitch\") (*Great Expectations*); [Sydney Carton](/wiki/Sydney_Carton \"Sydney Carton\"), [Charles Darnay](/wiki/Charles_Darnay \"Charles Darnay\") and [Madame Defarge](/wiki/Madame_Defarge \"Madame Defarge\") (*A Tale of Two Cities*); [David Copperfield](/wiki/David_Copperfield_%28character%29 \"David Copperfield (character)\"), [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28character%29 \"Uriah Heep (character)\") and [Mr Micawber](/wiki/Wilkins_Micawber \"Wilkins Micawber\") (*David Copperfield*); [Daniel Quilp](/wiki/Quilp \"Quilp\") and [Nell Trent](/wiki/Nell_Trent \"Nell Trent\") (*The Old Curiosity Shop*), [Samuel Pickwick](/wiki/Samuel_Pickwick \"Samuel Pickwick\") and [Sam Weller](/wiki/Sam_Weller_%28character%29 \"Sam Weller (character)\") (*The Pickwick Papers*); and [Wackford Squeers](/wiki/Wackford_Squeers \"Wackford Squeers\") (*Nicholas Nickleby*) are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: a *scrooge*, for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Scrooge,\\-Ebenezer \\|title\\=Scrooge, Ebenezer – definition of Scrooge, Ebenezer in English \\|dictionary\\=Oxford English Dictionary \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022164358/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Scrooge,\\-Ebenezer \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Illustration of [London Bridge](/wiki/London_Bridge \"London Bridge\") (from the 1914 book *In Dickens's London*) which [Nancy](/wiki/Nancy_%28Oliver_Twist%29 \"Nancy (Oliver Twist)\") crossed in *Oliver Twist*](/wiki/File:P_060--In_Dickens_London.jpg \"P 060--In Dickens London.jpg\")\nHis characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. \"Gamp\" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character [Mrs Gamp](/wiki/Sarah_Gamp \"Sarah Gamp\"), and \"Pickwickian\", \"Pecksniffian\" and \"Gradgrind\" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively, [quixotic](/wiki/Quixotism \"Quixotism\"), hypocritical and vapidly factual. The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for his [Wellerisms](/wiki/Wellerism \"Wellerism\")—one\\-liners that turn [proverbs](/wiki/Proverb \"Proverb\") on their heads. Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, although she did not recognise herself in the portrait,{{harvnb\\|Ziegler\\|2007\\|p\\=45}}. just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance';{{harvnb\\|Hawes\\|1998\\|p\\=153}}. Harold Skimpole in *Bleak House* is based on [James Henry Leigh Hunt](/wiki/James_Henry_Leigh_Hunt \"James Henry Leigh Hunt\"); his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher in *David Copperfield*.{{harvnb\\|Ziegler\\|2007\\|p\\=46}}. Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting with [Hans Christian Andersen](/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen \"Hans Christian Andersen\") informed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous with [sycophant](/wiki/Sycophant \"Sycophant\")).{{harvnb\\|Hawes\\|1998\\|p\\=109}}.",
"[Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf \"Virginia Woolf\") maintained that \"we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens\" as he produces \"characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks\".{{harvnb\\|Woolf\\|1986\\|p\\=286}}. [T. S. Eliot](/wiki/T._S._Eliot \"T. S. Eliot\") wrote that Dickens \"excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings\".{{cite news \\|title\\=The best Charles Dickens characters \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/charles\\-dickens/9033356/The\\-best\\-Charles\\-Dickens\\-characters.html \\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2019 \\|work\\=The Telegraph \\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014111433/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/charles\\-dickens/9033356/The\\-best\\-Charles\\-Dickens\\-characters.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} One \"character\" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself.{{cite news \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Bryony \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/07/world/europe/uk\\-dickensian\\-london/ \\|title\\=A tale of one city: Dickensian London \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=13 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2014 \\|ref\\=none \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821191251/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/07/world/europe/uk\\-dickensian\\-london/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Dickens described London as a [magic lantern](/wiki/Magic_lantern \"Magic lantern\"), inspiring the places and people in many of his novels. From the [coaching inns](/wiki/Coaching_inn \"Coaching inn\") on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the [Thames](/wiki/River_Thames \"River Thames\"), all aspects of the capital—[Dickens's London](/wiki/Dickens%27_London \"Dickens' London\")—are described over the course of his body of work.{{cite book \\|title\\=Dickens's London: Perception, Subjectivity and Phenomenal Urban Multiplicity \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=poidiU20hz4C\\&pg\\=PA209 \\|year\\=2012 \\|first\\=Julian \\|last\\=Wolfreys \\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7486\\-4040\\-9 \\|page\\=209}} Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity. Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, \"If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Steve Jobs was right about walking \\|url\\=https://financialpost.com/executive/c\\-suite/steve\\-jobs\\-was\\-right\\-about\\-walking \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2021 \\|work\\=Financial Post \\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181915/https://financialpost.com/executive/c\\-suite/steve\\-jobs\\-was\\-right\\-about\\-walking \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Autobiographical elements",
"[thumb\\|right\\|230px\\|An original illustration by [Phiz](/wiki/Phiz \"Phiz\") from the novel *David Copperfield*, which is widely regarded as Dickens's most autobiographical work](/wiki/File:David_Copperfield%2C_We_are_disturbed_in_our_cookery.jpg \"David Copperfield, We are disturbed in our cookery.jpg\")\nAuthors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life. *David Copperfield* is regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments in *Bleak House* reflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright.{{harvnb\\|Polloczek\\|1999\\|p\\=133}}. Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the [Marshalsea](/wiki/Marshalsea \"Marshalsea\") prison in *Little Dorrit* resulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=}}. Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly in *David Copperfield* and Lucie Manette in *A Tale of Two Cities*.{{harvnb\\|Slater\\|1983\\|pp\\=43, 47}}{{refn\\|Slater also detects Ellen Ternan in the portrayal of Lucie Manette.\\|group\\=\"nb\"}}",
"Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends up [Leigh Hunt](/wiki/Leigh_Hunt \"Leigh Hunt\"), some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self\\-parody.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=653}}.",
"### Episodic writing",
"[thumb\\|right\\|230px\\|Advertisement for *Great Expectations*, serialised in the weekly literary magazine *[All the Year Round](/wiki/All_the_Year_Round \"All the Year Round\")* from December 1860 to August 1861\\. The advert contains the plot device \"to be continued\".](/wiki/File:Publicit%C3%A9_pour_Great_Expectations_dans_All_the_Year_Round.jpeg \"Publicité pour Great Expectations dans All the Year Round.jpeg\")\nA pioneer of the [serial](/wiki/Serial_%28literature%29 \"Serial (literature)\") publication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as *[Master Humphrey's Clock](/wiki/Master_Humphrey%27s_Clock \"Master Humphrey's Clock\")* and *[Household Words](/wiki/Household_Words \"Household Words\")*, later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, with the audience more evenly distributed across income levels than previous.{{cite book \\|last\\=Howsam \\|first\\=Leslie \\|title\\=The Cambridge Companion to the History of the Book \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|page\\=85 \\|quote\\=It inspired a narrative that Dickens would explore and develop throughout his career. The instalments would typically culminate at a point in the plot that created reader anticipation and thus reader demand, generating a plot and sub\\-plot motif that would come to typify the novel structure.}} His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regular [cliffhangers](/wiki/Cliffhanger \"Cliffhanger\") made each new episode widely anticipated. When *[The Old Curiosity Shop](/wiki/The_Old_Curiosity_Shop \"The Old Curiosity Shop\")* was being serialised, American fans waited at the docks in [New York harbour](/wiki/New_York_Harbor \"New York Harbor\"), shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, \"Is little Nell dead?\"{{harvnb\\|Glancy\\|1999\\|p\\=34}}. Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. He wrote, \"The thing has to be planned for presentation in these fragments, and yet for afterwards fusing together as an uninterrupted whole.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Axton \\|first1\\=William \\|title\\=\"Keystone\" Structure in Dickens' Serial Novels \\|url\\=https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10\\.3138/utq.37\\.1\\.31 \\|pages\\=31–50 \\|journal\\=University of Toronto Quarterly \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\= 1 \\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press \\|date\\=October 1967\\|doi\\=10\\.3138/utq.37\\.1\\.31 }}",
"Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning in *The Old Curiosity Shop*), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed in *Oliver Twist*. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine.{{harvnb\\|Davies\\|1983\\|pp\\=166–169}}.",
"At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature,{{cite news \\|title\\=Cliffhangers poised to make Dickens a serial winner again \\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cliffhangers\\-poised\\-to\\-make\\-dickens\\-a\\-serial\\-winner\\-again\\-96jplgjhrp5 \\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2021 \\|work\\=The Times \\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903003603/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cliffhangers\\-poised\\-to\\-make\\-dickens\\-a\\-serial\\-winner\\-again\\-96jplgjhrp5 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Dickens's influence can also be seen in television [soap operas](/wiki/Soap_operas \"Soap operas\") and [film series](/wiki/Film_series \"Film series\"), with *The Guardian* stating that \"the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Streaming: the best Dickens adaptations \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/jun/13/streaming\\-best\\-dickens\\-adaptations\\-film\\-tv\\-personal\\-history\\-david\\-copperfield\\-armando\\-iannucci \\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2021 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903003923/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/jun/13/streaming\\-best\\-dickens\\-adaptations\\-film\\-tv\\-personal\\-history\\-david\\-copperfield\\-armando\\-iannucci \\|url\\-status\\=live}} His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers. In Scottish author [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson \"Robert Louis Stevenson\")'s novel *[The Wrecker](/wiki/The_Wrecker_%28Stevenson_novel%29 \"The Wrecker (Stevenson novel)\")*, Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: \"See! They were writing up the log,\" said Nares, pointing to the ink\\-bottle. \"Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log\\-book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Stevenson \\|first\\=Robert Louis \\|title\\=The Novels and Tales of Robert Louis Stevenson: The Wrecker \\|publisher\\=Scribner's \\|date\\=1895 \\|page\\=245}}",
"### Social commentary",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Nurse [Sarah Gamp](/wiki/Sarah_Gamp \"Sarah Gamp\") (left) from *Martin Chuzzlewit* became a stereotype of untrained and incompetent nurses of the early Victorian era, before the reforms of [Florence Nightingale](/wiki/Florence_Nightingale \"Florence Nightingale\").](/wiki/File:Martin_Chuzzlewit_illus11.jpg \"Martin Chuzzlewit illus11.jpg\")\nDickens's novels were, among other things, works of [social commentary](/wiki/Social_commentary \"Social commentary\"). [Simon Callow](/wiki/Simon_Callow \"Simon Callow\") states, \"From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=My hero: Charles Dickens by Simon Callow \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/feb/04/my\\-hero\\-charles\\-dickens\\-callow \\|date\\=12 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2021 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107140015/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/feb/04/my\\-hero\\-charles\\-dickens\\-callow \\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was a fierce critic of the poverty and [social stratification](/wiki/Social_stratification \"Social stratification\") of [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\") society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that \"Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen\".{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=345}}. Dickens's second novel, *Oliver Twist* (1839\\), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed.{{harvnb\\|Raina\\|1986\\|p\\=25}}.{{harvnb\\|Bodenheimer\\|2011\\|p\\=147}}.",
"At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such as [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation \"Sanitation\") and the [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse \"Workhouse\")—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is in *Hard Times* (1854\\), Dickens's only novel\\-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed \"Hands\" by the factory owners; that is, not really \"people\" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in *The Pickwick Papers* are claimed to have been influential in having the [Fleet Prison](/wiki/Fleet_Prison \"Fleet Prison\") shut down. [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") asserted that Dickens \"issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together\".{{harvnb\\|Kucich\\|Sadoff\\|2006\\|p\\=155}}. [George Bernard Shaw](/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw \"George Bernard Shaw\") even remarked that *Great Expectations* was more seditious than Marx's *[Das Kapital](/wiki/Das_Kapital \"Das Kapital\")*. The exceptional popularity of Dickens's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (*Bleak House*, 1853; *Little Dorrit*, 1857; *Our Mutual Friend*, 1865\\), not only underscored his ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored.",
"It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation of [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\")'s *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species \"On the Origin of Species\")*.{{harvnb\\|Atkinson\\|1990\\|p\\=48}}, citing [Gillian Beer](/wiki/Gillian_Beer \"Gillian Beer\")'s *Darwin's Plots* (1983, p.8\\).",
"### Literary techniques",
"Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his [caricatures](/wiki/Caricature \"Caricature\") and the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent in *The Old Curiosity Shop* (1841\\) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\"). \"One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell\", he said in a famous remark, \"without dissolving into tears ... of laughter.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/boev1\\.html \\|title\\=Deconstructing Little Nell \\|last\\=Boev \\|first\\=Hristo \\|website\\=The Victorian Web \\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011133356/http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/boev1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{harvnb\\|Ellmann\\|1988\\|p\\=441}}: In conversation with [Ada Leverson](/wiki/Ada_Leverson \"Ada Leverson\"). [G. K. Chesterton](/wiki/G._K._Chesterton \"G. K. Chesterton\") stated, \"It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to\", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his \"despotic\" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this.{{harvnb\\|Chesterton\\|1911\\|pp\\=54–55}}.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Less fortunate characters, such as Tiny Tim (held aloft by Bob Cratchit), are often used by Dickens in sentimental ways.](/wiki/File:Tiny-tim-dickens.jpg \"Tiny-tim-dickens.jpg\")\nThe question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of the [sentimental novel](/wiki/Sentimental_novel \"Sentimental novel\") is debatable. Valerie Purton, in her book *Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition*, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his \"sentimental scenes and characters \\[are] as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes\", and that \"*Dombey and Son* is \\[ ... ] Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Purton \\|first\\=Valerie \\|title\\=Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition: Fielding, Richardson, Sterne, Goldsmith, Sheridan, Lamb \\|series\\=Anthem nineteenth century studies \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Anthem Press \\|year\\=2012 \\|pages\\=xiii, 123 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0857284181}} The *Encyclopædia Britannica* online comments that, despite \"patches of emotional excess\", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim in *A Christmas Carol* (1843\\), \"Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist\".{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421071/novel \\|title\\=novel (literature) \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430021713/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421071/novel \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In *Oliver Twist*, Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young [pickpockets](/wiki/Pickpocketing \"Pickpocketing\"). While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in *Bleak House* and Amy Dorrit in *Little Dorrit*), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence.{{harvnb\\|Marlow\\|1994\\|pp\\=149–150}}. For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper\\-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th\\-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding's *[Tom Jones](/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones%2C_a_Foundling \"The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling\"),* which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth.{{harvnb\\|Ackroyd\\|1990\\|p\\=44}}.",
""
] |
History
-------
It is generally supposed that [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") was introduced to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") by [St Patrick](/wiki/St_Patrick "St Patrick") about the middle part of the [5th century](/wiki/5th_century "5th century") and that St German was appointed as the first Bishop of Man.Manks Ecclesiastical Antiquities: Manks Advertiser, Thursday, August 31, 1826; Page: 4
Under the influence of St Patrick and what is referred to as his "*Romish missionaries*," the Isle of Man saw the erection of a series of small [chapels](/wiki/Chapel "Chapel") throughout the Island. One such was *Cabbal Vaartyn* (which translates as Martin's Chapel) and which stood on what today is the road between [Andreas](/wiki/Andreas%2C_Isle_of_Man "Andreas, Isle of Man") and The Lhen. The chapel was dedicated to [St Martin](/wiki/Martin_of_Tours "Martin of Tours"), [Bishop of Tours](/wiki/Bishop_of_Tours "Bishop of Tours"), an uncle of St Patrick who is said to have been a man of eminent [piety](/wiki/Piety "Piety").
Sometime between the years 1270 and 1344, when the Isle of Man was under the dominion of the Scots, parishes were created which in turn saw the erection of a church within Andreas and dedicated to [St Andrew](/wiki/St_Andrew "St Andrew"), the patron saint of Scotland and from whom the name Andreas translates.
By 1800 the old church was in a poor state of repair, and on 19 February 1800 a special vestry meeting was held, attended by [John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl](/wiki/John_Murray%2C_4th_Duke_of_Atholl "John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl"), at which it was decided to build a new parish church; however, building work did not start for several years after the 1800 Act of [Tynwald](/wiki/Tynwald "Tynwald").
Much of the cost was covered by donations and contributions, with the short\-fall being met by holders of [Quarterlands](/wiki/Quarterland "Quarterland"), cottages and Intacks in the parish with the amounts paid being levied by [church wardens](/wiki/Churchwarden "Churchwarden") and [sidemen](/wiki/Sideman_%28bishop%29 "Sideman (bishop)"). The [chancel](/wiki/Chancel "Chancel") was paid for by the [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28ecclesiastical%29 "Rector (ecclesiastical)"), which was customary at that time.
The church was constructed by Mr Radcliffe of Andreas, the father of [Reverend](/wiki/Reverend "Reverend") W.T. Radcliffe. As there is no quarry in the parish, stone was sourced from [Sulby Glen](/wiki/Sulby_Glen "Sulby Glen") and many of the slates from the old church were reused on the new construction in order to keep costs down.
[thumb\|left\|The bell tower of St Andrew's Church as originally constructed.](/wiki/File:St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas_%285%29.jpg "St Andrew's Church, Andreas (5).jpg")[thumb\|Kirk Andreas Church (reduced tower)](/wiki/File:Andreas_Church_%28reduced_tower%29.jpeg "Andreas Church (reduced tower).jpeg")
During the war years an electric blower for the church organ was donated by serving personnel at [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas "RAF Andreas").
### Tower
When the church was rebuilt, the spire was situated at the western end; however, various improvements were made over the years. The roof was raised and between 1867 and 1869 the tower at the western end was demolished and a new one built alongside the church. The foundation stone was laid by Mrs Francis Hall (widow of [Archdeacon](/wiki/Archdeacon "Archdeacon") Hall) on 30 May 1867\.
The tower was originally {{convert\|120\|ft\|m\|1\|abbr\=on}} in height. Connected to the main building by an arch it was a striking feature and visible all across the northern [plain](/wiki/Plain "Plain") of the Isle of Man.
The west end of the church was extended to include new entrances on the north and south sides, with a central stairway to the gallery. The work was completed in August 1869 following which Archdeacon Moore gave a supper for all the workmen. A large bell was housed in the tower and [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") circles and shapes were made from a split farm roller which was given to the builders for the purpose.
With the opening of [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas "RAF Andreas") in 1941, the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry "Air Ministry") was given permission to cut down the flagpole on top of the tower and to replace it with an obstruction light.Isle of Man Examiner, Friday, September 14, 1945; Section: Front page, Page: 1 The tower was later reduced by removing the middle section on the orders of the Air Ministry. The numbered stones were stored and were originally intended to be restored at the end of the [war](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). However, the restoration never took place, and the stones mysteriously disappeared.
[thumb\|left\|War memorial, St Andrew's Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:War_Memorial%2C_St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas.jpg "War Memorial, St Andrew's Church, Andreas.jpg")
### War memorial
Another prominent feature of the church is the Andreas [War Memorial](/wiki/War_Memorial "War Memorial") commemorating those lost from the parish during both [World Wars](/wiki/World_Wars "World Wars").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.imuseum.im/search/collections/places/mnh\-site\-213764\.html\|title\=Andreas Parish War Memorial \- Site \- iMuseum}}
Designed by Cosmo Kendall, an inhabitant of the parish, the war memorial was erected by 85 [parishioners](/wiki/Parishioner "Parishioner") who gave their time voluntarily. The entire cost of materials came from voluntary subscriptions from within the [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish").
Constructed from 132 [tons](/wiki/Ton "Ton") of red [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone"), the [obelisk](/wiki/Obelisk "Obelisk") stands at {{convert\|41\|ft\|m\|1\|abbr\=on}}. It is mounted with five slate plaques with a cross at the top of the structure.
[thumb\|Military graves at St Andrews Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:Military_graves_at_St_Andrews_Church%2C_Andreas.jpg "Military graves at St Andrews Church, Andreas.jpg")
The memorial was unveiled on Sunday 9 November 1924, the ceremony being performed by Mrs J. Christian and Mrs T. Crowe, each of whom had lost two sons in the [Great War](/wiki/Great_War "Great War"). The memorial was dedicated by Archdeacon J. Kewley.
### Military graves
{{main\|RAF Andreas}}
Within a specified area of the [churchyard](/wiki/Churchyard "Churchyard") are 23 military graves, the responsibility of the [Commonwealth War Graves Commission](/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission "Commonwealth War Graves Commission"). These include pilots of [No. 457 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._457_Squadron_RAAF "No. 457 Squadron RAAF"), [No. 452 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._452_Squadron_RAAF "No. 452 Squadron RAAF"), the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm "Fleet Air Arm") and trainees of [No. 11 Air Gunnery School](/wiki/No._11_Air_Gunnery_School_RAF "No. 11 Air Gunnery School RAF"). In addition there are the graves of the commanding officer of [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas "RAF Andreas"), [Wing Commander](/wiki/Wing_commander_%28rank%29 "Wing commander (rank)") Teddy Knowles [DFC](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)"), and [Major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 "Major (rank)") Geoffrey Waite [MC](/wiki/Military_Cross "Military Cross") of the [Wiltshire Regiment](/wiki/Wiltshire_Regiment "Wiltshire Regiment") who was in charge of airfield defence and who was killed alongside Wing Commander Knowles following the crash of [Armstrong\-Whitworth Whitley](/wiki/Armstrong-Whitworth_Whitley "Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley") BD417 on 23 August 1942\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/39/a4166039\.shtml \|title\=Out of the blue – memories of the WAAF \|first\=Joyce \|last\=Brooke \|publisher\=BBC \|date\=8 June 2005 \|access\-date\=16 May 2017 }}
[thumb\|RAF Ensign in St Andrew's Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:RAF_Ensign_in_St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas.jpeg "RAF Ensign in St Andrew's Church, Andreas.jpeg")
|
[
"History\n-------",
"It is generally supposed that [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") was introduced to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\") by [St Patrick](/wiki/St_Patrick \"St Patrick\") about the middle part of the [5th century](/wiki/5th_century \"5th century\") and that St German was appointed as the first Bishop of Man.Manks Ecclesiastical Antiquities: Manks Advertiser, Thursday, August 31, 1826; Page: 4",
"Under the influence of St Patrick and what is referred to as his \"*Romish missionaries*,\" the Isle of Man saw the erection of a series of small [chapels](/wiki/Chapel \"Chapel\") throughout the Island. One such was *Cabbal Vaartyn* (which translates as Martin's Chapel) and which stood on what today is the road between [Andreas](/wiki/Andreas%2C_Isle_of_Man \"Andreas, Isle of Man\") and The Lhen. The chapel was dedicated to [St Martin](/wiki/Martin_of_Tours \"Martin of Tours\"), [Bishop of Tours](/wiki/Bishop_of_Tours \"Bishop of Tours\"), an uncle of St Patrick who is said to have been a man of eminent [piety](/wiki/Piety \"Piety\").",
"Sometime between the years 1270 and 1344, when the Isle of Man was under the dominion of the Scots, parishes were created which in turn saw the erection of a church within Andreas and dedicated to [St Andrew](/wiki/St_Andrew \"St Andrew\"), the patron saint of Scotland and from whom the name Andreas translates.",
"By 1800 the old church was in a poor state of repair, and on 19 February 1800 a special vestry meeting was held, attended by [John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl](/wiki/John_Murray%2C_4th_Duke_of_Atholl \"John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl\"), at which it was decided to build a new parish church; however, building work did not start for several years after the 1800 Act of [Tynwald](/wiki/Tynwald \"Tynwald\").",
"Much of the cost was covered by donations and contributions, with the short\\-fall being met by holders of [Quarterlands](/wiki/Quarterland \"Quarterland\"), cottages and Intacks in the parish with the amounts paid being levied by [church wardens](/wiki/Churchwarden \"Churchwarden\") and [sidemen](/wiki/Sideman_%28bishop%29 \"Sideman (bishop)\"). The [chancel](/wiki/Chancel \"Chancel\") was paid for by the [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28ecclesiastical%29 \"Rector (ecclesiastical)\"), which was customary at that time.",
"The church was constructed by Mr Radcliffe of Andreas, the father of [Reverend](/wiki/Reverend \"Reverend\") W.T. Radcliffe. As there is no quarry in the parish, stone was sourced from [Sulby Glen](/wiki/Sulby_Glen \"Sulby Glen\") and many of the slates from the old church were reused on the new construction in order to keep costs down.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The bell tower of St Andrew's Church as originally constructed.](/wiki/File:St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas_%285%29.jpg \"St Andrew's Church, Andreas (5).jpg\")[thumb\\|Kirk Andreas Church (reduced tower)](/wiki/File:Andreas_Church_%28reduced_tower%29.jpeg \"Andreas Church (reduced tower).jpeg\")\nDuring the war years an electric blower for the church organ was donated by serving personnel at [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas \"RAF Andreas\").",
"### Tower",
"When the church was rebuilt, the spire was situated at the western end; however, various improvements were made over the years. The roof was raised and between 1867 and 1869 the tower at the western end was demolished and a new one built alongside the church. The foundation stone was laid by Mrs Francis Hall (widow of [Archdeacon](/wiki/Archdeacon \"Archdeacon\") Hall) on 30 May 1867\\.",
"The tower was originally {{convert\\|120\\|ft\\|m\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} in height. Connected to the main building by an arch it was a striking feature and visible all across the northern [plain](/wiki/Plain \"Plain\") of the Isle of Man.",
"The west end of the church was extended to include new entrances on the north and south sides, with a central stairway to the gallery. The work was completed in August 1869 following which Archdeacon Moore gave a supper for all the workmen. A large bell was housed in the tower and [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") circles and shapes were made from a split farm roller which was given to the builders for the purpose.",
"With the opening of [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas \"RAF Andreas\") in 1941, the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry \"Air Ministry\") was given permission to cut down the flagpole on top of the tower and to replace it with an obstruction light.Isle of Man Examiner, Friday, September 14, 1945; Section: Front page, Page: 1 The tower was later reduced by removing the middle section on the orders of the Air Ministry. The numbered stones were stored and were originally intended to be restored at the end of the [war](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). However, the restoration never took place, and the stones mysteriously disappeared.\n[thumb\\|left\\|War memorial, St Andrew's Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:War_Memorial%2C_St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas.jpg \"War Memorial, St Andrew's Church, Andreas.jpg\")",
"### War memorial",
"Another prominent feature of the church is the Andreas [War Memorial](/wiki/War_Memorial \"War Memorial\") commemorating those lost from the parish during both [World Wars](/wiki/World_Wars \"World Wars\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imuseum.im/search/collections/places/mnh\\-site\\-213764\\.html\\|title\\=Andreas Parish War Memorial \\- Site \\- iMuseum}}",
"Designed by Cosmo Kendall, an inhabitant of the parish, the war memorial was erected by 85 [parishioners](/wiki/Parishioner \"Parishioner\") who gave their time voluntarily. The entire cost of materials came from voluntary subscriptions from within the [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\").",
"Constructed from 132 [tons](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\") of red [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\"), the [obelisk](/wiki/Obelisk \"Obelisk\") stands at {{convert\\|41\\|ft\\|m\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}. It is mounted with five slate plaques with a cross at the top of the structure.\n[thumb\\|Military graves at St Andrews Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:Military_graves_at_St_Andrews_Church%2C_Andreas.jpg \"Military graves at St Andrews Church, Andreas.jpg\")\nThe memorial was unveiled on Sunday 9 November 1924, the ceremony being performed by Mrs J. Christian and Mrs T. Crowe, each of whom had lost two sons in the [Great War](/wiki/Great_War \"Great War\"). The memorial was dedicated by Archdeacon J. Kewley.",
"### Military graves",
"{{main\\|RAF Andreas}}\nWithin a specified area of the [churchyard](/wiki/Churchyard \"Churchyard\") are 23 military graves, the responsibility of the [Commonwealth War Graves Commission](/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission \"Commonwealth War Graves Commission\"). These include pilots of [No. 457 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._457_Squadron_RAAF \"No. 457 Squadron RAAF\"), [No. 452 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._452_Squadron_RAAF \"No. 452 Squadron RAAF\"), the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm \"Fleet Air Arm\") and trainees of [No. 11 Air Gunnery School](/wiki/No._11_Air_Gunnery_School_RAF \"No. 11 Air Gunnery School RAF\"). In addition there are the graves of the commanding officer of [RAF Andreas](/wiki/RAF_Andreas \"RAF Andreas\"), [Wing Commander](/wiki/Wing_commander_%28rank%29 \"Wing commander (rank)\") Teddy Knowles [DFC](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)\"), and [Major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 \"Major (rank)\") Geoffrey Waite [MC](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\") of the [Wiltshire Regiment](/wiki/Wiltshire_Regiment \"Wiltshire Regiment\") who was in charge of airfield defence and who was killed alongside Wing Commander Knowles following the crash of [Armstrong\\-Whitworth Whitley](/wiki/Armstrong-Whitworth_Whitley \"Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley\") BD417 on 23 August 1942\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/39/a4166039\\.shtml \\|title\\=Out of the blue – memories of the WAAF \\|first\\=Joyce \\|last\\=Brooke \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=8 June 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=16 May 2017 }}\n[thumb\\|RAF Ensign in St Andrew's Church, Andreas](/wiki/File:RAF_Ensign_in_St_Andrew%27s_Church%2C_Andreas.jpeg \"RAF Ensign in St Andrew's Church, Andreas.jpeg\")",
""
] |
Personal life
-------------
Jelinek was born on November 18, 1932, as **Bedřich Jelínek** in [Kladno](/wiki/Kladno "Kladno") to Vilém and Trude Jelínek. His father was Jewish; his mother was born in Switzerland to Czech Catholic parents and had converted to Judaism. Jelínek senior, a dentist, had planned early to escape Nazi occupation and flee to England; he arranged for a passport, visa, and the shipping of his dentistry materials. The couple planned to send their son to an English [private school](/wiki/Independent_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Independent school (United Kingdom)"). However, Vilém decided to stay at the last minute and was eventually sent to the [Theresienstadt concentration camp](/wiki/Theresienstadt_concentration_camp "Theresienstadt concentration camp"), where he died in 1945\. The family was forced to move to [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") in 1941, but Frederick, his sister and mother{{mdash}}thanks to the latter's background{{mdash}}escaped the concentration camps.
{{quote box\|align\=right\|width\=26em\|qalign\=right\|salign\=left\|quote \= It is generally believed that scientific talent reveals itself in early youth. ... This was certainly not my case. I somehow slid into my scientific profession. My mother wished for me to become a physician, just like my father. ... I myself wanted to be a lawyer, defender of the unjustly accused. But my career is the result of political circumstances, academic possibilities, and lucky accidents.\|source \= —Talking about his life in a 2001 speech.}}
After the war, Jelinek entered in the [gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 "Gymnasium (school)"), despite having missed several years of schooling because education of Jewish children had been forbidden since 1942\. His mother, anxious that her son should get a good education, made great efforts for their emigration,As he put it, "she didn't want to emulate my father's big mistake." especially when it became clear he would not be allowed to even attempt the graduation examination. His mother hoped her son would become a physician, but Jelinek dreamed of being a lawyer. He studied engineering in evening classes at the [City College of New York](/wiki/City_College_of_New_York "City College of New York") and received stipends from the [National Committee for a Free Europe](/wiki/National_Committee_for_a_Free_Europe "National Committee for a Free Europe") that allowed him to study at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology"). About his choice of specialty, he said: "Fortunately, to electrical engineering there belonged a discipline whose aim was not the construction of physical systems: the theory of information". He obtained his Ph.D. in 1962, with [Robert Fano](/wiki/Robert_Fano "Robert Fano") as his adviser.
In 1957, Jelinek paid an unexpected visit to Prague. He had been in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and applied for a visa, hoping to see his former acquaintances again. He met with his old friend [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman "Miloš Forman"), who introduced him to film student [Milena Tobolová](/wiki/Milena_Jelinek "Milena Jelinek"){{mdash}}whose screenplay had been the basis for the movie *Easy Life* (*Snadný život*). His flight back to the U.S. had a stopover in Munich, during which he called her to propose. Tobolová was considered a dissident and the authorities were not happy with her film. Jelinek asked for help from [Jerome Wiesner](/wiki/Jerome_Wiesner "Jerome Wiesner") and [Cyrus Eaton](/wiki/Cyrus_Eaton "Cyrus Eaton"), the latter who lobbied [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev"). Following the inauguration of [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy"), a group of Czech dissidents were allowed to emigrate in January 1961\. Thanks to the lobbying, the future Milena Jelinek was one of them.
After completing his graduate studies, Jelinek, who had developed an interest in [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics"), had plans to work with [Charles F. Hockett](/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett "Charles F. Hockett") at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University"). However these fell through and during the next ten years he continued to study information theory. Having previously worked at [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") during a sabbatical, he began full\-time work there in 1972{{mdash}}at first on leave for Cornell, but permanently from 1974\. He remained there for over twenty years. Although at first he had been offered a regular research job, upon his arrival he learned that [Josef Raviv](/wiki/Josef_Raviv "Josef Raviv") had recently been promoted to head of the newly opened [IBM Haifa Research Laboratory](/wiki/IBM_Haifa_Research_Laboratory "IBM Haifa Research Laboratory"), and became head of the Continuous Speech Recognition group at the [Thomas J. Watson Research Center](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center "Thomas J. Watson Research Center"). Despite his team's successes in this area, Jelinek's work remained little known in his home country because Czech scientists were not allowed to participate in key conferences.
After the 1989 fall of communism, Jelinek helped establish scientific relationships, regularly visiting to lecture and helping to persuade IBM to establish a computing centre at [Charles University](/wiki/Charles_University "Charles University"). In 1993, he retired from IBM and went to [Johns Hopkins University](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University "Johns Hopkins University")'s Center for Language and Speech Processing, where he was director and Julian Sinclair Smith Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. He was still working there at the time of his death; Jelinek died of a heart attack at the close of an otherwise normal workday in mid\-September 2010\. He was survived by his wife, daughter and son, sister, stepsister, and three grandchildren, including Sophie Gold Jelinek.
|
[
"Personal life\n-------------",
"Jelinek was born on November 18, 1932, as **Bedřich Jelínek** in [Kladno](/wiki/Kladno \"Kladno\") to Vilém and Trude Jelínek. His father was Jewish; his mother was born in Switzerland to Czech Catholic parents and had converted to Judaism. Jelínek senior, a dentist, had planned early to escape Nazi occupation and flee to England; he arranged for a passport, visa, and the shipping of his dentistry materials. The couple planned to send their son to an English [private school](/wiki/Independent_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Independent school (United Kingdom)\"). However, Vilém decided to stay at the last minute and was eventually sent to the [Theresienstadt concentration camp](/wiki/Theresienstadt_concentration_camp \"Theresienstadt concentration camp\"), where he died in 1945\\. The family was forced to move to [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") in 1941, but Frederick, his sister and mother{{mdash}}thanks to the latter's background{{mdash}}escaped the concentration camps.",
"{{quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=26em\\|qalign\\=right\\|salign\\=left\\|quote \\= It is generally believed that scientific talent reveals itself in early youth. ... This was certainly not my case. I somehow slid into my scientific profession. My mother wished for me to become a physician, just like my father. ... I myself wanted to be a lawyer, defender of the unjustly accused. But my career is the result of political circumstances, academic possibilities, and lucky accidents.\\|source \\= —Talking about his life in a 2001 speech.}}",
"After the war, Jelinek entered in the [gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 \"Gymnasium (school)\"), despite having missed several years of schooling because education of Jewish children had been forbidden since 1942\\. His mother, anxious that her son should get a good education, made great efforts for their emigration,As he put it, \"she didn't want to emulate my father's big mistake.\" especially when it became clear he would not be allowed to even attempt the graduation examination. His mother hoped her son would become a physician, but Jelinek dreamed of being a lawyer. He studied engineering in evening classes at the [City College of New York](/wiki/City_College_of_New_York \"City College of New York\") and received stipends from the [National Committee for a Free Europe](/wiki/National_Committee_for_a_Free_Europe \"National Committee for a Free Europe\") that allowed him to study at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\"). About his choice of specialty, he said: \"Fortunately, to electrical engineering there belonged a discipline whose aim was not the construction of physical systems: the theory of information\". He obtained his Ph.D. in 1962, with [Robert Fano](/wiki/Robert_Fano \"Robert Fano\") as his adviser.",
"In 1957, Jelinek paid an unexpected visit to Prague. He had been in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and applied for a visa, hoping to see his former acquaintances again. He met with his old friend [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman \"Miloš Forman\"), who introduced him to film student [Milena Tobolová](/wiki/Milena_Jelinek \"Milena Jelinek\"){{mdash}}whose screenplay had been the basis for the movie *Easy Life* (*Snadný život*). His flight back to the U.S. had a stopover in Munich, during which he called her to propose. Tobolová was considered a dissident and the authorities were not happy with her film. Jelinek asked for help from [Jerome Wiesner](/wiki/Jerome_Wiesner \"Jerome Wiesner\") and [Cyrus Eaton](/wiki/Cyrus_Eaton \"Cyrus Eaton\"), the latter who lobbied [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\"). Following the inauguration of [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\"), a group of Czech dissidents were allowed to emigrate in January 1961\\. Thanks to the lobbying, the future Milena Jelinek was one of them.",
"After completing his graduate studies, Jelinek, who had developed an interest in [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\"), had plans to work with [Charles F. Hockett](/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett \"Charles F. Hockett\") at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\"). However these fell through and during the next ten years he continued to study information theory. Having previously worked at [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") during a sabbatical, he began full\\-time work there in 1972{{mdash}}at first on leave for Cornell, but permanently from 1974\\. He remained there for over twenty years. Although at first he had been offered a regular research job, upon his arrival he learned that [Josef Raviv](/wiki/Josef_Raviv \"Josef Raviv\") had recently been promoted to head of the newly opened [IBM Haifa Research Laboratory](/wiki/IBM_Haifa_Research_Laboratory \"IBM Haifa Research Laboratory\"), and became head of the Continuous Speech Recognition group at the [Thomas J. Watson Research Center](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center \"Thomas J. Watson Research Center\"). Despite his team's successes in this area, Jelinek's work remained little known in his home country because Czech scientists were not allowed to participate in key conferences.",
"After the 1989 fall of communism, Jelinek helped establish scientific relationships, regularly visiting to lecture and helping to persuade IBM to establish a computing centre at [Charles University](/wiki/Charles_University \"Charles University\"). In 1993, he retired from IBM and went to [Johns Hopkins University](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University \"Johns Hopkins University\")'s Center for Language and Speech Processing, where he was director and Julian Sinclair Smith Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. He was still working there at the time of his death; Jelinek died of a heart attack at the close of an otherwise normal workday in mid\\-September 2010\\. He was survived by his wife, daughter and son, sister, stepsister, and three grandchildren, including Sophie Gold Jelinek.",
""
] |
History
-------
The history of the city is connected to the construction of the [Belém\-Brasília highway](/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m%E2%80%93Bras%C3%ADlia_Highway "Belém–Brasília Highway"), reason for the appearance and development of many other cities along its extension in the former north of the state of Goiás.
The name Gurupi is a [Tupi](/wiki/Tupi_language "Tupi language") word meaning "pure diamond". It consists of two basic elements: "guru" (diamond) and "pi" (foot, way, base, pure origin).
Gurupi is a major agricultural producer of soybeans and sugar cane, while becoming an important cotton producer too.
The avenues of the city have the names of Brazilian states, while the streets have the names of historical figures.
There is a campus of the [Federal University of Tocantins](/wiki/Federal_University_of_Tocantins "Federal University of Tocantins") with a course in agronomy. In addition, there is a municipal public college, Faculdade Unirg, which offers 14 courses.
The city is served by [Gurupi Airport](/wiki/Gurupi_Airport "Gurupi Airport").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The history of the city is connected to the construction of the [Belém\\-Brasília highway](/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m%E2%80%93Bras%C3%ADlia_Highway \"Belém–Brasília Highway\"), reason for the appearance and development of many other cities along its extension in the former north of the state of Goiás.",
"The name Gurupi is a [Tupi](/wiki/Tupi_language \"Tupi language\") word meaning \"pure diamond\". It consists of two basic elements: \"guru\" (diamond) and \"pi\" (foot, way, base, pure origin).",
"Gurupi is a major agricultural producer of soybeans and sugar cane, while becoming an important cotton producer too.",
"The avenues of the city have the names of Brazilian states, while the streets have the names of historical figures.",
"There is a campus of the [Federal University of Tocantins](/wiki/Federal_University_of_Tocantins \"Federal University of Tocantins\") with a course in agronomy. In addition, there is a municipal public college, Faculdade Unirg, which offers 14 courses.",
"The city is served by [Gurupi Airport](/wiki/Gurupi_Airport \"Gurupi Airport\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Braxton was born on June 28, 1944, in [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), the son of Cullen L. Braxton Sr and Evelyn Braxton.{{Cite web\|title\=Other Bishop Emeritus Articles\|url\=https://www.diobelle.org/bishop\-emeritus/biography\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=Catholic Diocese of Belleville\|language\=en\-GB}}
Braxton attended [Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary](/wiki/Archbishop_Quigley_Preparatory_Seminary "Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary") and Niles College Seminary, both in Chicago, then [St. Mary of the Lake Seminary](/wiki/St._Mary_of_the_Lake_Seminary "St. Mary of the Lake Seminary") in [Mundelein, Illinois](/wiki/Mundelein%2C_Illinois "Mundelein, Illinois"). He earned Bachelor, Masters, and [Bachelor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Sacred_Theology "Bachelor of Sacred Theology") degrees, along with a [Licentiate in Sacred Theology](/wiki/Licentiate_of_Sacred_Theology "Licentiate of Sacred Theology"). Before his ordination, Braxton served as a deacon for one year at St. Raymond De Penafort Parish in [Mount Prospect, Illinois](/wiki/Mount_Prospect%2C_Illinois "Mount Prospect, Illinois").
### Priesthood
On May 13, 1970, Braxton was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church "Priesthood in the Catholic Church") of the [Archdiocese of Chicago](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chicago "Archdiocese of Chicago") by Cardinal [John Cody](/wiki/John_Cody "John Cody").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\_db.aspx\|title\=Diocese of Belleville, IL\|website\=www.diobelle.org\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-03\|archive\-date\=April 5, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405083631/http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\_db.aspx\|url\-status\=dead}}
In 1973, Braxton entered the [Catholic University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Louvain "Catholic University of Louvain") in [Leuven, Belgium](/wiki/Leuven "Leuven"), earning a Doctor of Religious Studies degree and a [Doctor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Doctor_of_Sacred_Theology "Doctor of Sacred Theology") degree in [systematic theology](/wiki/Systematic_theology "Systematic theology"), summa cum laude. While in Belgium, he ministered at US Armed Forces bases in the area and at Our Lady of Mercy Parish in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels").
After returning to Chicago, Braxton served as associate pastor of St. Felicitas Parish. He also began a [post\-doctoral fellowship](/wiki/Post-doctoral_fellowship "Post-doctoral fellowship") at [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School "University of Chicago Divinity School"). In 1976, Braxton attended the [Harvard University Divinity School](/wiki/Harvard_University_Divinity_School "Harvard University Divinity School"), occupying the William A. Coolidge Chair of Ecumenical Thought for a year. During this time, he also performed pastoral duties at St. Paul’s Parish in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts "Cambridge, Massachusetts"). The next year, Braxton became a visiting professor of theology at the [University of Notre Dame](/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame "University of Notre Dame").
In 1978, Braxton was named chancellor for theological affairs in the [Diocese of Cleveland](/wiki/Diocese_of_Cleveland "Diocese of Cleveland") for then Bishop [James A. Hickey](/wiki/James_Aloysius_Hickey "James Aloysius Hickey"). When Hickey became [Archbishop of Washington](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Washington "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington") in 1980, Braxton became his special assistant for theological affairs. He was one of the first priests to be appointed to this type of collaborative work with a bishop on a full\-time basis.
While in Washington, Braxton also worked in ministry at St. John the Baptist Parish in [Silver Spring, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Spring%2C_Maryland "Silver Spring, Maryland"). In 1983, Braxton became the scholar in residence at the [Pontifical North American College](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College "Pontifical North American College") in Rome.
After returning to Chicago in 1983, Braxton was named director of Calvert House, the Catholic Student Center at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago "University of Chicago"), working there until 1986\. In 1984, he served as a [peritus](/wiki/Peritus "Peritus") for the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar in [Kinshasa, Zaire](/wiki/Kinshasa "Kinshasa"). In August 1985, Braxton addressed the 43rd [International Eucharistic Congress](/wiki/International_Eucharistic_Congress "International Eucharistic Congress") in [Nairobi, Kenya](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi") on "The Eucharist and the Catholic Family."
Braxton's writings have appeared in the *[Harvard Theological Review](/wiki/Harvard_Theological_Review "Harvard Theological Review")*, *Theological Studies*, *[Irish Theological Quarterly](/wiki/Irish_Theological_Quarterly "Irish Theological Quarterly"), The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Origins, [Commonweal](/wiki/Commonweal_%28magazine%29 "Commonweal (magazine)"),* *America*, and *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter "National Catholic Reporter")*.
In 1986, Braxton became the official theological consultant in New York City to [William H. Sadlier Inc](/wiki/William_H._Sadlier "William H. Sadlier")., a publisher of Catholic Religious Education books. While at Sadler, he performed pastoral duties at St. Joseph's Parish in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village") and at Notre Dame Parish at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University").
In 1992, Braxton returned to Illinois to become pastor of St. Catherine of Siena Parish in [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois "Oak Park, Illinois"). While at St. Catherine, Braxton stirred resentment among some parishioners by refusing to allow Sister Teresita Weind to deliver [homilies](/wiki/Homily "Homily") at Mass.{{Cite web\|last\=Gibson\|first\=Lydialyle\|date\=2021\-02\-11\|title\=Recalling a prickly pastor\|url\=https://www.oakpark.com/2005/07/05/recalling\-a\-prickly\-pastor/\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=Oak Park\|language\=en\-US}} In August 1997, Braxton addressed the [National Black Catholic Congress](/wiki/National_Black_Catholic_Congress "National Black Catholic Congress") on the topic "Take Into account Various Situations and Cultures: Evangelization and African\-Americans".
### Auxiliary Bishop of St. Louis
Braxton was appointed an [auxiliary bishop](/wiki/Auxiliary_Bishop "Auxiliary Bishop") of the Archdiocese of Saint Louis and titular bishop of Macomades Rusticiana by [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II") on March 28, 1995\. He was consecrated by Cardinal [Justin Rigali](/wiki/Justin_Francis_Rigali "Justin Francis Rigali") on May 17, 1995, at the [Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis](/wiki/Cathedral_Basilica_of_Saint_Louis "Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis").
### Bishop of Lake Charles
Braxton was appointed bishop of the Diocese of Lake Charles in Louisiana on December 12, 2000\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.catholic\-hierarchy.org/diocese/dlake.html\|title\=Lake Charles (Diocese) \[Catholic\-Hierarchy]\|last\=Cheney\|first\=David M.\|website\=www.catholic\-hierarchy.org\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-03}} He was installed on February 22, 2001\.
### Bishop of Belleville
In January 2005, Bishop [Wilton Gregory](/wiki/Wilton_Daniel_Gregory "Wilton Daniel Gregory") of Belleville was appointed archbishop of the [Archdiocese of Atlanta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Atlanta "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Atlanta"). As was the normal procedure, Cardinal [Francis George](/wiki/Francis_George "Francis George"), then archbishop of Chicago, asked the priests and laity in the Diocese of Belleville for their input on Gregory's replacement. However, before the Vatican received it, [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II") appointed Braxton as bishop on March 15, 2005\.In May of that year, 50 priests from the diocese signed a letter complaining about how Braxton was selected. George later said that John Paul II did not consult him either on the Braxton selection.{{Cite web\|title\=Nation: Bishop shuts us out, say priests\|url\=http://www.natcath.org/NCR\_Online/archives2/2006a/011306/011306h.php\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=www.natcath.org}}
Braxton was installed on June 22, 2005, as bishop of Belleville in the [Cathedral of Saint Peter](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Peter_%28Belleville%2C_Illinois%29 "Cathedral of Saint Peter (Belleville, Illinois)") in Belleville, Illinois.{{Cite web\|title\=Bishop Edward Kenneth Braxton \[Catholic\-Hierarchy]\|url\=https://www.catholic\-hierarchy.org/bishop/bbraxton.html\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=www.catholic\-hierarchy.org}} He served as a member of [USCCB](/wiki/United_States_Conference_of_Catholic_Bishops "United States Conference of Catholic Bishops")'s Committees on Education, Science and Human Values, and also of the committee on Scripture Translation.
In January 2006, 24 priests in the diocese signed a letter stating that Braxton was not allowing any of their input into decision\-making and that he had an arrogant [leadership style](/wiki/Leadership_style "Leadership style"). On January 24, 2008, Braxton apologized for mishandling diocese funds. He had used $18,000 that was supposed to go to the [Society for the Propagation of the Faith](/wiki/Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Faith "Society for the Propagation of the Faith") to purchase [vestments](/wiki/Vestment "Vestment"), altar linens, and office furniture. Braxton said he had mistakenly believed he had discretionary power over these funds.{{Cite web\|last\=CNA\|title\=Bishop apologizes for spending mission funds on vestments\|url\=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/11574/bishop\-apologizes\-for\-spending\-mission\-funds\-on\-vestments\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=Catholic News Agency\|language\=en}}
In February 2012, the Reverend William Rowe, pastor of Saint Mary's Church in [Mount Carmel, Illinois](/wiki/Mount_Carmel%2C_Illinois "Mount Carmel, Illinois"), resigned from his post after Braxton expressed concern about "how Father Rowe celebrated the Mass". Following the implementation of the new English translation of the [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal "Roman Missal") in late November 2011, Braxton had placed greater emphasis on following the translation exactly. However, Braxton's concerns predated that translation's use. He stated that "several meetings ... over the last five years \[had] failed to resolve the bishop's concerns."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.catholicregister.org/news/international/item/13946\-illinois\-bishop\-says\-he\-didnt\-fire\-priest\-but\-had\-to\-correct\-bad\-mass\-wording \|title\=Illinois Bishop says he didn't 'fire' priest but had to correct bad Mass wording \|access\-date\=February 27, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120722230134/http://www.catholicregister.org/news/international/item/13946\-illinois\-bishop\-says\-he\-didnt\-fire\-priest\-but\-had\-to\-correct\-bad\-mass\-wording \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} "Several parishioners" had expressed dismay and furnished evidence about Rowe's celebration of the Mass.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/23/rev\-william\-rowe\-fired\-catholic\-priest\-mass\-prayers\_n\_1294769\.html \|title\=Rev. William Rowe Fired: Roman Catholic Priest Fired Over Mass Prayers \|work\=Huffington Post \|date\=February 23, 2012}} Rowe said "He mentioned in the letter that we clash in our ecclesiology — our image of the church. He’s right. He seems to consider the church as the bishops’, and my notion is that the church starts with the people." Another priest also resigned after Rowe.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Braxton was born on June 28, 1944, in [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), the son of Cullen L. Braxton Sr and Evelyn Braxton.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Other Bishop Emeritus Articles\\|url\\=https://www.diobelle.org/bishop\\-emeritus/biography\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=Catholic Diocese of Belleville\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"Braxton attended [Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary](/wiki/Archbishop_Quigley_Preparatory_Seminary \"Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary\") and Niles College Seminary, both in Chicago, then [St. Mary of the Lake Seminary](/wiki/St._Mary_of_the_Lake_Seminary \"St. Mary of the Lake Seminary\") in [Mundelein, Illinois](/wiki/Mundelein%2C_Illinois \"Mundelein, Illinois\"). He earned Bachelor, Masters, and [Bachelor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Sacred_Theology \"Bachelor of Sacred Theology\") degrees, along with a [Licentiate in Sacred Theology](/wiki/Licentiate_of_Sacred_Theology \"Licentiate of Sacred Theology\"). Before his ordination, Braxton served as a deacon for one year at St. Raymond De Penafort Parish in [Mount Prospect, Illinois](/wiki/Mount_Prospect%2C_Illinois \"Mount Prospect, Illinois\").",
"### Priesthood",
"On May 13, 1970, Braxton was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Priesthood in the Catholic Church\") of the [Archdiocese of Chicago](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chicago \"Archdiocese of Chicago\") by Cardinal [John Cody](/wiki/John_Cody \"John Cody\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\\_db.aspx\\|title\\=Diocese of Belleville, IL\\|website\\=www.diobelle.org\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=April 5, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405083631/http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\\_db.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 1973, Braxton entered the [Catholic University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Louvain \"Catholic University of Louvain\") in [Leuven, Belgium](/wiki/Leuven \"Leuven\"), earning a Doctor of Religious Studies degree and a [Doctor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Doctor_of_Sacred_Theology \"Doctor of Sacred Theology\") degree in [systematic theology](/wiki/Systematic_theology \"Systematic theology\"), summa cum laude. While in Belgium, he ministered at US Armed Forces bases in the area and at Our Lady of Mercy Parish in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\").",
"After returning to Chicago, Braxton served as associate pastor of St. Felicitas Parish. He also began a [post\\-doctoral fellowship](/wiki/Post-doctoral_fellowship \"Post-doctoral fellowship\") at [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School \"University of Chicago Divinity School\"). In 1976, Braxton attended the [Harvard University Divinity School](/wiki/Harvard_University_Divinity_School \"Harvard University Divinity School\"), occupying the William A. Coolidge Chair of Ecumenical Thought for a year. During this time, he also performed pastoral duties at St. Paul’s Parish in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts \"Cambridge, Massachusetts\"). The next year, Braxton became a visiting professor of theology at the [University of Notre Dame](/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame \"University of Notre Dame\").",
"In 1978, Braxton was named chancellor for theological affairs in the [Diocese of Cleveland](/wiki/Diocese_of_Cleveland \"Diocese of Cleveland\") for then Bishop [James A. Hickey](/wiki/James_Aloysius_Hickey \"James Aloysius Hickey\"). When Hickey became [Archbishop of Washington](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Washington \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington\") in 1980, Braxton became his special assistant for theological affairs. He was one of the first priests to be appointed to this type of collaborative work with a bishop on a full\\-time basis.",
"While in Washington, Braxton also worked in ministry at St. John the Baptist Parish in [Silver Spring, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Spring%2C_Maryland \"Silver Spring, Maryland\"). In 1983, Braxton became the scholar in residence at the [Pontifical North American College](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College \"Pontifical North American College\") in Rome.",
"After returning to Chicago in 1983, Braxton was named director of Calvert House, the Catholic Student Center at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\"), working there until 1986\\. In 1984, he served as a [peritus](/wiki/Peritus \"Peritus\") for the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar in [Kinshasa, Zaire](/wiki/Kinshasa \"Kinshasa\"). In August 1985, Braxton addressed the 43rd [International Eucharistic Congress](/wiki/International_Eucharistic_Congress \"International Eucharistic Congress\") in [Nairobi, Kenya](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\") on \"The Eucharist and the Catholic Family.\"",
"Braxton's writings have appeared in the *[Harvard Theological Review](/wiki/Harvard_Theological_Review \"Harvard Theological Review\")*, *Theological Studies*, *[Irish Theological Quarterly](/wiki/Irish_Theological_Quarterly \"Irish Theological Quarterly\"), The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Origins, [Commonweal](/wiki/Commonweal_%28magazine%29 \"Commonweal (magazine)\"),* *America*, and *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter \"National Catholic Reporter\")*.",
"In 1986, Braxton became the official theological consultant in New York City to [William H. Sadlier Inc](/wiki/William_H._Sadlier \"William H. Sadlier\")., a publisher of Catholic Religious Education books. While at Sadler, he performed pastoral duties at St. Joseph's Parish in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\") and at Notre Dame Parish at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\").",
"In 1992, Braxton returned to Illinois to become pastor of St. Catherine of Siena Parish in [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois \"Oak Park, Illinois\"). While at St. Catherine, Braxton stirred resentment among some parishioners by refusing to allow Sister Teresita Weind to deliver [homilies](/wiki/Homily \"Homily\") at Mass.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gibson\\|first\\=Lydialyle\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-11\\|title\\=Recalling a prickly pastor\\|url\\=https://www.oakpark.com/2005/07/05/recalling\\-a\\-prickly\\-pastor/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=Oak Park\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In August 1997, Braxton addressed the [National Black Catholic Congress](/wiki/National_Black_Catholic_Congress \"National Black Catholic Congress\") on the topic \"Take Into account Various Situations and Cultures: Evangelization and African\\-Americans\".",
"### Auxiliary Bishop of St. Louis",
"Braxton was appointed an [auxiliary bishop](/wiki/Auxiliary_Bishop \"Auxiliary Bishop\") of the Archdiocese of Saint Louis and titular bishop of Macomades Rusticiana by [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\") on March 28, 1995\\. He was consecrated by Cardinal [Justin Rigali](/wiki/Justin_Francis_Rigali \"Justin Francis Rigali\") on May 17, 1995, at the [Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis](/wiki/Cathedral_Basilica_of_Saint_Louis \"Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis\").",
"### Bishop of Lake Charles",
"Braxton was appointed bishop of the Diocese of Lake Charles in Louisiana on December 12, 2000\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org/diocese/dlake.html\\|title\\=Lake Charles (Diocese) \\[Catholic\\-Hierarchy]\\|last\\=Cheney\\|first\\=David M.\\|website\\=www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-03}} He was installed on February 22, 2001\\.",
"### Bishop of Belleville",
"In January 2005, Bishop [Wilton Gregory](/wiki/Wilton_Daniel_Gregory \"Wilton Daniel Gregory\") of Belleville was appointed archbishop of the [Archdiocese of Atlanta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Atlanta \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Atlanta\"). As was the normal procedure, Cardinal [Francis George](/wiki/Francis_George \"Francis George\"), then archbishop of Chicago, asked the priests and laity in the Diocese of Belleville for their input on Gregory's replacement. However, before the Vatican received it, [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\") appointed Braxton as bishop on March 15, 2005\\.In May of that year, 50 priests from the diocese signed a letter complaining about how Braxton was selected. George later said that John Paul II did not consult him either on the Braxton selection.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Nation: Bishop shuts us out, say priests\\|url\\=http://www.natcath.org/NCR\\_Online/archives2/2006a/011306/011306h.php\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=www.natcath.org}}",
"Braxton was installed on June 22, 2005, as bishop of Belleville in the [Cathedral of Saint Peter](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Peter_%28Belleville%2C_Illinois%29 \"Cathedral of Saint Peter (Belleville, Illinois)\") in Belleville, Illinois.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Bishop Edward Kenneth Braxton \\[Catholic\\-Hierarchy]\\|url\\=https://www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org/bishop/bbraxton.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org}} He served as a member of [USCCB](/wiki/United_States_Conference_of_Catholic_Bishops \"United States Conference of Catholic Bishops\")'s Committees on Education, Science and Human Values, and also of the committee on Scripture Translation.",
"In January 2006, 24 priests in the diocese signed a letter stating that Braxton was not allowing any of their input into decision\\-making and that he had an arrogant [leadership style](/wiki/Leadership_style \"Leadership style\"). On January 24, 2008, Braxton apologized for mishandling diocese funds. He had used $18,000 that was supposed to go to the [Society for the Propagation of the Faith](/wiki/Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Faith \"Society for the Propagation of the Faith\") to purchase [vestments](/wiki/Vestment \"Vestment\"), altar linens, and office furniture. Braxton said he had mistakenly believed he had discretionary power over these funds.{{Cite web\\|last\\=CNA\\|title\\=Bishop apologizes for spending mission funds on vestments\\|url\\=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/11574/bishop\\-apologizes\\-for\\-spending\\-mission\\-funds\\-on\\-vestments\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=Catholic News Agency\\|language\\=en}}",
"In February 2012, the Reverend William Rowe, pastor of Saint Mary's Church in [Mount Carmel, Illinois](/wiki/Mount_Carmel%2C_Illinois \"Mount Carmel, Illinois\"), resigned from his post after Braxton expressed concern about \"how Father Rowe celebrated the Mass\". Following the implementation of the new English translation of the [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal \"Roman Missal\") in late November 2011, Braxton had placed greater emphasis on following the translation exactly. However, Braxton's concerns predated that translation's use. He stated that \"several meetings ... over the last five years \\[had] failed to resolve the bishop's concerns.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.catholicregister.org/news/international/item/13946\\-illinois\\-bishop\\-says\\-he\\-didnt\\-fire\\-priest\\-but\\-had\\-to\\-correct\\-bad\\-mass\\-wording \\|title\\=Illinois Bishop says he didn't 'fire' priest but had to correct bad Mass wording \\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120722230134/http://www.catholicregister.org/news/international/item/13946\\-illinois\\-bishop\\-says\\-he\\-didnt\\-fire\\-priest\\-but\\-had\\-to\\-correct\\-bad\\-mass\\-wording \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} \"Several parishioners\" had expressed dismay and furnished evidence about Rowe's celebration of the Mass.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/23/rev\\-william\\-rowe\\-fired\\-catholic\\-priest\\-mass\\-prayers\\_n\\_1294769\\.html \\|title\\=Rev. William Rowe Fired: Roman Catholic Priest Fired Over Mass Prayers \\|work\\=Huffington Post \\|date\\=February 23, 2012}} Rowe said \"He mentioned in the letter that we clash in our ecclesiology — our image of the church. He’s right. He seems to consider the church as the bishops’, and my notion is that the church starts with the people.\" Another priest also resigned after Rowe.",
""
] |
### Priesthood
On May 13, 1970, Braxton was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church "Priesthood in the Catholic Church") of the [Archdiocese of Chicago](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chicago "Archdiocese of Chicago") by Cardinal [John Cody](/wiki/John_Cody "John Cody").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\_db.aspx\|title\=Diocese of Belleville, IL\|website\=www.diobelle.org\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-03\|archive\-date\=April 5, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405083631/http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\_db.aspx\|url\-status\=dead}}
In 1973, Braxton entered the [Catholic University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Louvain "Catholic University of Louvain") in [Leuven, Belgium](/wiki/Leuven "Leuven"), earning a Doctor of Religious Studies degree and a [Doctor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Doctor_of_Sacred_Theology "Doctor of Sacred Theology") degree in [systematic theology](/wiki/Systematic_theology "Systematic theology"), summa cum laude. While in Belgium, he ministered at US Armed Forces bases in the area and at Our Lady of Mercy Parish in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels").
After returning to Chicago, Braxton served as associate pastor of St. Felicitas Parish. He also began a [post\-doctoral fellowship](/wiki/Post-doctoral_fellowship "Post-doctoral fellowship") at [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School "University of Chicago Divinity School"). In 1976, Braxton attended the [Harvard University Divinity School](/wiki/Harvard_University_Divinity_School "Harvard University Divinity School"), occupying the William A. Coolidge Chair of Ecumenical Thought for a year. During this time, he also performed pastoral duties at St. Paul’s Parish in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts "Cambridge, Massachusetts"). The next year, Braxton became a visiting professor of theology at the [University of Notre Dame](/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame "University of Notre Dame").
In 1978, Braxton was named chancellor for theological affairs in the [Diocese of Cleveland](/wiki/Diocese_of_Cleveland "Diocese of Cleveland") for then Bishop [James A. Hickey](/wiki/James_Aloysius_Hickey "James Aloysius Hickey"). When Hickey became [Archbishop of Washington](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Washington "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington") in 1980, Braxton became his special assistant for theological affairs. He was one of the first priests to be appointed to this type of collaborative work with a bishop on a full\-time basis.
While in Washington, Braxton also worked in ministry at St. John the Baptist Parish in [Silver Spring, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Spring%2C_Maryland "Silver Spring, Maryland"). In 1983, Braxton became the scholar in residence at the [Pontifical North American College](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College "Pontifical North American College") in Rome.
After returning to Chicago in 1983, Braxton was named director of Calvert House, the Catholic Student Center at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago "University of Chicago"), working there until 1986\. In 1984, he served as a [peritus](/wiki/Peritus "Peritus") for the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar in [Kinshasa, Zaire](/wiki/Kinshasa "Kinshasa"). In August 1985, Braxton addressed the 43rd [International Eucharistic Congress](/wiki/International_Eucharistic_Congress "International Eucharistic Congress") in [Nairobi, Kenya](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi") on "The Eucharist and the Catholic Family."
Braxton's writings have appeared in the *[Harvard Theological Review](/wiki/Harvard_Theological_Review "Harvard Theological Review")*, *Theological Studies*, *[Irish Theological Quarterly](/wiki/Irish_Theological_Quarterly "Irish Theological Quarterly"), The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Origins, [Commonweal](/wiki/Commonweal_%28magazine%29 "Commonweal (magazine)"),* *America*, and *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter "National Catholic Reporter")*.
In 1986, Braxton became the official theological consultant in New York City to [William H. Sadlier Inc](/wiki/William_H._Sadlier "William H. Sadlier")., a publisher of Catholic Religious Education books. While at Sadler, he performed pastoral duties at St. Joseph's Parish in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village") and at Notre Dame Parish at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University").
In 1992, Braxton returned to Illinois to become pastor of St. Catherine of Siena Parish in [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois "Oak Park, Illinois"). While at St. Catherine, Braxton stirred resentment among some parishioners by refusing to allow Sister Teresita Weind to deliver [homilies](/wiki/Homily "Homily") at Mass.{{Cite web\|last\=Gibson\|first\=Lydialyle\|date\=2021\-02\-11\|title\=Recalling a prickly pastor\|url\=https://www.oakpark.com/2005/07/05/recalling\-a\-prickly\-pastor/\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-07\|website\=Oak Park\|language\=en\-US}} In August 1997, Braxton addressed the [National Black Catholic Congress](/wiki/National_Black_Catholic_Congress "National Black Catholic Congress") on the topic "Take Into account Various Situations and Cultures: Evangelization and African\-Americans".
|
[
"### Priesthood",
"On May 13, 1970, Braxton was ordained as a [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Priesthood in the Catholic Church\") of the [Archdiocese of Chicago](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Chicago \"Archdiocese of Chicago\") by Cardinal [John Cody](/wiki/John_Cody \"John Cody\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\\_db.aspx\\|title\\=Diocese of Belleville, IL\\|website\\=www.diobelle.org\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=April 5, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405083631/http://www.diobelle.org/bishop\\_db.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 1973, Braxton entered the [Catholic University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Louvain \"Catholic University of Louvain\") in [Leuven, Belgium](/wiki/Leuven \"Leuven\"), earning a Doctor of Religious Studies degree and a [Doctor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Doctor_of_Sacred_Theology \"Doctor of Sacred Theology\") degree in [systematic theology](/wiki/Systematic_theology \"Systematic theology\"), summa cum laude. While in Belgium, he ministered at US Armed Forces bases in the area and at Our Lady of Mercy Parish in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\").",
"After returning to Chicago, Braxton served as associate pastor of St. Felicitas Parish. He also began a [post\\-doctoral fellowship](/wiki/Post-doctoral_fellowship \"Post-doctoral fellowship\") at [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School \"University of Chicago Divinity School\"). In 1976, Braxton attended the [Harvard University Divinity School](/wiki/Harvard_University_Divinity_School \"Harvard University Divinity School\"), occupying the William A. Coolidge Chair of Ecumenical Thought for a year. During this time, he also performed pastoral duties at St. Paul’s Parish in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts \"Cambridge, Massachusetts\"). The next year, Braxton became a visiting professor of theology at the [University of Notre Dame](/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame \"University of Notre Dame\").",
"In 1978, Braxton was named chancellor for theological affairs in the [Diocese of Cleveland](/wiki/Diocese_of_Cleveland \"Diocese of Cleveland\") for then Bishop [James A. Hickey](/wiki/James_Aloysius_Hickey \"James Aloysius Hickey\"). When Hickey became [Archbishop of Washington](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Washington \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington\") in 1980, Braxton became his special assistant for theological affairs. He was one of the first priests to be appointed to this type of collaborative work with a bishop on a full\\-time basis.",
"While in Washington, Braxton also worked in ministry at St. John the Baptist Parish in [Silver Spring, Maryland](/wiki/Silver_Spring%2C_Maryland \"Silver Spring, Maryland\"). In 1983, Braxton became the scholar in residence at the [Pontifical North American College](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College \"Pontifical North American College\") in Rome.",
"After returning to Chicago in 1983, Braxton was named director of Calvert House, the Catholic Student Center at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\"), working there until 1986\\. In 1984, he served as a [peritus](/wiki/Peritus \"Peritus\") for the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar in [Kinshasa, Zaire](/wiki/Kinshasa \"Kinshasa\"). In August 1985, Braxton addressed the 43rd [International Eucharistic Congress](/wiki/International_Eucharistic_Congress \"International Eucharistic Congress\") in [Nairobi, Kenya](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\") on \"The Eucharist and the Catholic Family.\"",
"Braxton's writings have appeared in the *[Harvard Theological Review](/wiki/Harvard_Theological_Review \"Harvard Theological Review\")*, *Theological Studies*, *[Irish Theological Quarterly](/wiki/Irish_Theological_Quarterly \"Irish Theological Quarterly\"), The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Origins, [Commonweal](/wiki/Commonweal_%28magazine%29 \"Commonweal (magazine)\"),* *America*, and *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter \"National Catholic Reporter\")*.",
"In 1986, Braxton became the official theological consultant in New York City to [William H. Sadlier Inc](/wiki/William_H._Sadlier \"William H. Sadlier\")., a publisher of Catholic Religious Education books. While at Sadler, he performed pastoral duties at St. Joseph's Parish in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\") and at Notre Dame Parish at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\").",
"In 1992, Braxton returned to Illinois to become pastor of St. Catherine of Siena Parish in [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Illinois \"Oak Park, Illinois\"). While at St. Catherine, Braxton stirred resentment among some parishioners by refusing to allow Sister Teresita Weind to deliver [homilies](/wiki/Homily \"Homily\") at Mass.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gibson\\|first\\=Lydialyle\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-11\\|title\\=Recalling a prickly pastor\\|url\\=https://www.oakpark.com/2005/07/05/recalling\\-a\\-prickly\\-pastor/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=Oak Park\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In August 1997, Braxton addressed the [National Black Catholic Congress](/wiki/National_Black_Catholic_Congress \"National Black Catholic Congress\") on the topic \"Take Into account Various Situations and Cultures: Evangelization and African\\-Americans\".",
""
] |
History
-------
Masjid Abdul Gaffoor is located in the area known as [Kampong Kapor](/wiki/Kampong_Kapor "Kampong Kapor"), which was an active business hub for Indian [merchants](/wiki/Merchant "Merchant") and for those who worked at the old [race course](/wiki/Race_course "Race course") at [Farrer Park](/wiki/Farrer_Park "Farrer Park"). The mosque on this site was originally a building with timber partitions and a tiled roof known as Masjid Al\-Abrar, built in 1846 to serve the religious needs of the [South Indian](/wiki/South_India "South India") [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") merchants and [Baweanese](/wiki/Bawean "Bawean") [syces](/wiki/Driving_in_Singapore%23History "Driving in Singapore#History") and [horse trainers](/wiki/Horse_trainer "Horse trainer") residing in Kampong Kapor.
In 1881, a [deed of assignment](/wiki/Assignment_%28law%29 "Assignment (law)") dated 14 November 1881 created the Dunlop Street Mosque Endowment or *[wakaf](/wiki/Wakaf "Wakaf")*. The two [trustees](/wiki/Trustee "Trustee") were [Ismail Mansor](/wiki/Ismail_Mansor "Ismail Mansor") and [Shaik Abdul Gaffoor bin Shaik Hydert](/wiki/Shaik_Abdul_Gaffoor_bin_Shaik_Hydert "Shaik Abdul Gaffoor bin Shaik Hydert"). Abdul Gaffoor was chief [clerk](/wiki/Law_clerk "Law clerk") at a legal firm. The *wakaf* was created for the building of a mosque for the Muslim community in Singapore. The deed of assignment also placed in trust several other [properties](/wiki/Property "Property") including a Muslim [burial ground](/wiki/Burial_ground "Burial ground") and a house in Race Course Road. The burial ground was closed in 1921\.
In 1887, as mosque trustee, Shaik Abdul Gaffoor applied to construct shophouses and sheds on the land around the original mosque. More shophouses were added in 1903\. The rental of these buildings generated income which then went towards building the new mosque.
Building began in 1907 and it appeared to have taken quite a few years for the mosque to be completed because its completion date is not known. In 1910, when the new mosque was partially completed, the old mosque was demolished. When Shaik Gaffoor died in 1919, it was apparently still not completed. After his death, his son took over the management of the mosque and the *wakaf* properties. In 1927, the Dunlop Street Endowment was taken over by the [Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board](/wiki/Muslim_and_Hindu_Endowments_Board "Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board"). The building was presumably complete then.
Today, the mosque stands facing a row of shophouses that are now used for [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an "Qur'an") classes and other subjects, as well as for communal activities.
Masjid Abdul Gaffoor was [gazetted](/wiki/Gazette "Gazette") as a [national monument](/wiki/National_Monuments_of_Singapore "National Monuments of Singapore") on 13 July 1979\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Masjid Abdul Gaffoor is located in the area known as [Kampong Kapor](/wiki/Kampong_Kapor \"Kampong Kapor\"), which was an active business hub for Indian [merchants](/wiki/Merchant \"Merchant\") and for those who worked at the old [race course](/wiki/Race_course \"Race course\") at [Farrer Park](/wiki/Farrer_Park \"Farrer Park\"). The mosque on this site was originally a building with timber partitions and a tiled roof known as Masjid Al\\-Abrar, built in 1846 to serve the religious needs of the [South Indian](/wiki/South_India \"South India\") [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") merchants and [Baweanese](/wiki/Bawean \"Bawean\") [syces](/wiki/Driving_in_Singapore%23History \"Driving in Singapore#History\") and [horse trainers](/wiki/Horse_trainer \"Horse trainer\") residing in Kampong Kapor.",
"In 1881, a [deed of assignment](/wiki/Assignment_%28law%29 \"Assignment (law)\") dated 14 November 1881 created the Dunlop Street Mosque Endowment or *[wakaf](/wiki/Wakaf \"Wakaf\")*. The two [trustees](/wiki/Trustee \"Trustee\") were [Ismail Mansor](/wiki/Ismail_Mansor \"Ismail Mansor\") and [Shaik Abdul Gaffoor bin Shaik Hydert](/wiki/Shaik_Abdul_Gaffoor_bin_Shaik_Hydert \"Shaik Abdul Gaffoor bin Shaik Hydert\"). Abdul Gaffoor was chief [clerk](/wiki/Law_clerk \"Law clerk\") at a legal firm. The *wakaf* was created for the building of a mosque for the Muslim community in Singapore. The deed of assignment also placed in trust several other [properties](/wiki/Property \"Property\") including a Muslim [burial ground](/wiki/Burial_ground \"Burial ground\") and a house in Race Course Road. The burial ground was closed in 1921\\.",
"In 1887, as mosque trustee, Shaik Abdul Gaffoor applied to construct shophouses and sheds on the land around the original mosque. More shophouses were added in 1903\\. The rental of these buildings generated income which then went towards building the new mosque.",
"Building began in 1907 and it appeared to have taken quite a few years for the mosque to be completed because its completion date is not known. In 1910, when the new mosque was partially completed, the old mosque was demolished. When Shaik Gaffoor died in 1919, it was apparently still not completed. After his death, his son took over the management of the mosque and the *wakaf* properties. In 1927, the Dunlop Street Endowment was taken over by the [Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board](/wiki/Muslim_and_Hindu_Endowments_Board \"Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board\"). The building was presumably complete then.",
"Today, the mosque stands facing a row of shophouses that are now used for [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an \"Qur'an\") classes and other subjects, as well as for communal activities.",
"Masjid Abdul Gaffoor was [gazetted](/wiki/Gazette \"Gazette\") as a [national monument](/wiki/National_Monuments_of_Singapore \"National Monuments of Singapore\") on 13 July 1979\\.",
""
] |
Baseball career
---------------
### Philadelphia Phillies
Tejeda was first signed as an amateur [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") by the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies "Philadelphia Phillies") on November 24, {{Baseball year\|1998}}. He made his professional debut the following year with the [GCL Phillies](/wiki/GCL_Phillies "GCL Phillies"). Tejeda spent the {{Baseball year\|2001}}, {{Baseball year\|2002}}, and {{Baseball year\|2003}} seasons with the Single\-A [Lakewood BlueClaws](/wiki/Lakewood_BlueClaws "Lakewood BlueClaws") and [Clearwater Threshers](/wiki/Clearwater_Threshers "Clearwater Threshers") before being promoted to the Double\-A [Reading Phillies](/wiki/Reading_Phillies "Reading Phillies") in {{Baseball year\|2004}}.
In {{mlby\|2005}}, Tejeda made the jump to the major league club. Starting with his debut against the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers") on May 10, 2005, he appeared in 26 games – half of those as a [starter](/wiki/Starting_pitcher "Starting pitcher").
Tejeda was a former member of the [Dominican Republic team](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_national_baseball_team "Dominican Republic national baseball team") in the [2006 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2006_World_Baseball_Classic "2006 World Baseball Classic"). He only made two appearances during the tournament, a [shutout](/wiki/Shutouts_in_baseball "Shutouts in baseball") inning against [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_baseball_team "Australia national baseball team") and a rough ninth\-inning appearance in the Dominican Republic's first game against [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_baseball_team "Cuba national baseball team").
### Texas Rangers
Just prior to the start of the {{Baseball year\|2006}} season, Tejeda was dealt by the Phillies to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") along with [Jake Blalock](/wiki/Jake_Blalock "Jake Blalock") (the brother of [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") [third baseman](/wiki/Third_baseman "Third baseman") [Hank Blalock](/wiki/Hank_Blalock "Hank Blalock")) in exchange for [outfielder](/wiki/Outfielder "Outfielder") [David Dellucci](/wiki/David_Dellucci "David Dellucci"). He started the season with the Triple\-A [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks "Oklahoma RedHawks"), but was called up to the Rangers at the end of April. His first outings were shaky, and he was quickly reassigned back to Oklahoma. Aside from an emergency call\-up in June, Tejeda stayed with the RedHawks until he was recalled for good in mid\-August. Tejeda was in excellent form for the latter third of the season, going 4\-1 over eight starts, with an [ERA](/wiki/Earned_run_average "Earned run average") of 2\.01\.
Tejeda earned a spot in the starting rotation for the {{mlby\|2007}} season, but poor performance in July resulted in his demotion back to Triple\-A.
### Kansas City Royals
On June 24, {{mlby\|2008}}, the Kansas City Royals claimed Tejeda off waivers from the Rangers.
Tejeda throws a quality [fastball](/wiki/Fastball "Fastball") (96 mph) and [changeup](/wiki/Changeup "Changeup"), and is developing a useful [curveball](/wiki/Curveball "Curveball").
{{cite web\|last\=Polishuk\|first\=Mark\|title\=Robinson Tejeda Elects Free Agency\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/10/robinson\-tejeda\-elects\-free\-agency.html\|work\=MLBTradeRumors.com\|date\=7 October 2011 \|access\-date\=8 October 2011}}
In spring training in 2009, Tejeda led all players in walks, with 17 (in 17\.1 innings).
On May 26, 2011, Tejeda was designated for assignment by the Royals.[Royals Acquire Paulino From Rockies, DFA Tejeda](http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/05/royals-acquire-paulino-from-rockies.html), MLBTradeRumors.com, May 26, 2011\. He cleared waivers and was sent outright to Triple\-A [Omaha Storm Chasers](/wiki/Omaha_Storm_Chasers "Omaha Storm Chasers") on June 2\. He elected free agency after the season on October 7\.
### Cleveland Indians
On January 3, 2012, Tejeda signed a minor league contract with the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians"). He also received an invitation to spring training. Tejeda was released by the Indians' organization on May 16, 2012\.[Indians: Robinson Tejeda Released, Dan Wheeler Outrighted](http://www.mlbdailydish.com/2012/5/16/3024601/indians-robinson-tejeda-released-dan-wheeler-outrighted), MLBDailyDish.com, May 16, 2012\.
### Rojos del Águila de Veracruz
On July 6, 2013, Tejeda signed with the [Rojos del Águila de Veracruz](/wiki/Rojos_del_%C3%81guila_de_Veracruz "Rojos del Águila de Veracruz") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.elgolfo.info/elgolfo/nota/186214\-robinson\-tejeda\-llega\-a\-los\-rojos\-del\-aguila/ \|title\=Robinson Tejeda llega a los Rojos del Águila \|work\=El Golfo Info \|first\=José \|last\=Vélez \|date\=July 4, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223305/http://www.elgolfo.info/elgolfo/nota/186214\-robinson\-tejeda\-llega\-a\-los\-rojos\-del\-aguila/ \|archive\-date\=October 6, 2014 }} He was released on August 8\. He made 5 starts throwing 27\.2 innings going 1\-0 with a 5\.86 ERA and 19 strikeouts.
### Joplin Blasters
On May 3, 2015, Tejada signed with the [Joplin Blasters](/wiki/Joplin_Blasters "Joplin Blasters") of the [American Association of Independent Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Independent_Professional_Baseball "American Association of Independent Professional Baseball") after sitting out the 2014 season. He was released on July 18\. He made 6 starts throwing 28\.1 innings struggling horribly going 1\-2 with a 9\.21 ERA and 16 strikeouts.
|
[
"Baseball career\n---------------",
"### Philadelphia Phillies",
"Tejeda was first signed as an amateur [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") by the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies \"Philadelphia Phillies\") on November 24, {{Baseball year\\|1998}}. He made his professional debut the following year with the [GCL Phillies](/wiki/GCL_Phillies \"GCL Phillies\"). Tejeda spent the {{Baseball year\\|2001}}, {{Baseball year\\|2002}}, and {{Baseball year\\|2003}} seasons with the Single\\-A [Lakewood BlueClaws](/wiki/Lakewood_BlueClaws \"Lakewood BlueClaws\") and [Clearwater Threshers](/wiki/Clearwater_Threshers \"Clearwater Threshers\") before being promoted to the Double\\-A [Reading Phillies](/wiki/Reading_Phillies \"Reading Phillies\") in {{Baseball year\\|2004}}.",
"In {{mlby\\|2005}}, Tejeda made the jump to the major league club. Starting with his debut against the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\") on May 10, 2005, he appeared in 26 games – half of those as a [starter](/wiki/Starting_pitcher \"Starting pitcher\").",
"Tejeda was a former member of the [Dominican Republic team](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_national_baseball_team \"Dominican Republic national baseball team\") in the [2006 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2006_World_Baseball_Classic \"2006 World Baseball Classic\"). He only made two appearances during the tournament, a [shutout](/wiki/Shutouts_in_baseball \"Shutouts in baseball\") inning against [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_baseball_team \"Australia national baseball team\") and a rough ninth\\-inning appearance in the Dominican Republic's first game against [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_baseball_team \"Cuba national baseball team\").",
"### Texas Rangers",
"Just prior to the start of the {{Baseball year\\|2006}} season, Tejeda was dealt by the Phillies to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") along with [Jake Blalock](/wiki/Jake_Blalock \"Jake Blalock\") (the brother of [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") [third baseman](/wiki/Third_baseman \"Third baseman\") [Hank Blalock](/wiki/Hank_Blalock \"Hank Blalock\")) in exchange for [outfielder](/wiki/Outfielder \"Outfielder\") [David Dellucci](/wiki/David_Dellucci \"David Dellucci\"). He started the season with the Triple\\-A [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks \"Oklahoma RedHawks\"), but was called up to the Rangers at the end of April. His first outings were shaky, and he was quickly reassigned back to Oklahoma. Aside from an emergency call\\-up in June, Tejeda stayed with the RedHawks until he was recalled for good in mid\\-August. Tejeda was in excellent form for the latter third of the season, going 4\\-1 over eight starts, with an [ERA](/wiki/Earned_run_average \"Earned run average\") of 2\\.01\\.",
"Tejeda earned a spot in the starting rotation for the {{mlby\\|2007}} season, but poor performance in July resulted in his demotion back to Triple\\-A.",
"### Kansas City Royals",
"On June 24, {{mlby\\|2008}}, the Kansas City Royals claimed Tejeda off waivers from the Rangers.",
"Tejeda throws a quality [fastball](/wiki/Fastball \"Fastball\") (96 mph) and [changeup](/wiki/Changeup \"Changeup\"), and is developing a useful [curveball](/wiki/Curveball \"Curveball\").\n{{cite web\\|last\\=Polishuk\\|first\\=Mark\\|title\\=Robinson Tejeda Elects Free Agency\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/10/robinson\\-tejeda\\-elects\\-free\\-agency.html\\|work\\=MLBTradeRumors.com\\|date\\=7 October 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2011}} \nIn spring training in 2009, Tejeda led all players in walks, with 17 (in 17\\.1 innings).",
"On May 26, 2011, Tejeda was designated for assignment by the Royals.[Royals Acquire Paulino From Rockies, DFA Tejeda](http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2011/05/royals-acquire-paulino-from-rockies.html), MLBTradeRumors.com, May 26, 2011\\. He cleared waivers and was sent outright to Triple\\-A [Omaha Storm Chasers](/wiki/Omaha_Storm_Chasers \"Omaha Storm Chasers\") on June 2\\. He elected free agency after the season on October 7\\.",
"### Cleveland Indians",
"On January 3, 2012, Tejeda signed a minor league contract with the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\"). He also received an invitation to spring training. Tejeda was released by the Indians' organization on May 16, 2012\\.[Indians: Robinson Tejeda Released, Dan Wheeler Outrighted](http://www.mlbdailydish.com/2012/5/16/3024601/indians-robinson-tejeda-released-dan-wheeler-outrighted), MLBDailyDish.com, May 16, 2012\\.",
"### Rojos del Águila de Veracruz",
"On July 6, 2013, Tejeda signed with the [Rojos del Águila de Veracruz](/wiki/Rojos_del_%C3%81guila_de_Veracruz \"Rojos del Águila de Veracruz\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.elgolfo.info/elgolfo/nota/186214\\-robinson\\-tejeda\\-llega\\-a\\-los\\-rojos\\-del\\-aguila/ \\|title\\=Robinson Tejeda llega a los Rojos del Águila \\|work\\=El Golfo Info \\|first\\=José \\|last\\=Vélez \\|date\\=July 4, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223305/http://www.elgolfo.info/elgolfo/nota/186214\\-robinson\\-tejeda\\-llega\\-a\\-los\\-rojos\\-del\\-aguila/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2014 }} He was released on August 8\\. He made 5 starts throwing 27\\.2 innings going 1\\-0 with a 5\\.86 ERA and 19 strikeouts.",
"### Joplin Blasters",
"On May 3, 2015, Tejada signed with the [Joplin Blasters](/wiki/Joplin_Blasters \"Joplin Blasters\") of the [American Association of Independent Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Independent_Professional_Baseball \"American Association of Independent Professional Baseball\") after sitting out the 2014 season. He was released on July 18\\. He made 6 starts throwing 28\\.1 innings struggling horribly going 1\\-2 with a 9\\.21 ERA and 16 strikeouts.",
""
] |
Plot
----
At a small hotel, the owner, Linda Spring, is abducted by a masked figure. Elsewhere, the Keenan family, consisting of father Roy; mother Elaine; younger son Kevin; and older daughter Taylor; is in disarray after Taylor is caught stealing alcohol. Roy and Elaine decide to go away for the weekend as a family, driving to the hotel seen earlier. The apparent owner, Mr. Lockwood, lets them know that the hotel doesn’t have any internet connection; the family sees cameras being placed in various locations around the hotel. Taylor meets two foreign teenagers, Theo and Louis, at a bar but is caught by Elaine. In a basement, Linda is murdered by a man wearing a plague doctor costume with a power drill.
At night, Taylor sneaks out to hang out with the boys. Mr. Lockwood activates a lockdown and sends out four masked killers; the enigmatic Player One; the brother\-sister duo of Player Two and Player Three; and the muscular Player Four. After being caught by a security guard, Lockwood kidnaps him. Roy wakes up and begins to search the hotel for Taylor, who is on the roof along with the boys, while being accompanied by Kevin; while they are gone, Player One sneaks into their hotel room and murders Elaine. Lockwood reveals himself to be the plague doctor to the security guard, who he then stabs to death.
Roy finds Elaine’s body and teams up with retired police officer Dave Burnham to figure out what’s going on; leaving Kevin in a locked hotel room, they witness the players commit increasingly violent murders, all of which are livestreamed via the cameras and are watched by audience members bidding on the players. One of Player Two and Three’s victims manages to escape and when Player Three follows her, she stabs Player Three in the neck with a fork before being killed by an enraged Lockwood. Kevin hacks into Lockwood’s system and is discovered by him, who heads to the room to kill him, prompting Kevin to run out.
Meanwhile, Theo and Taylor escape the hotel, unaware of the events that transpired, but decide to return where they are both impaled by Player Two. Player Four, who had earlier killed Louis, attacks Dave and Roy but is shot dead by Dave; later, Dave betrays Roy and allows him to be seemingly killed by Player One. Dave sneaks into Lockwood’s control room, revealing himself to be a retired player who wanted to win the game his own way; however, Lockwood reveals that he knew the whole time and kills him with a power drill.
Player One finds Kevin but is revealed to be Roy in disguise; together, they manage to set Player Two on fire. Returning to the lobby, they fight with Lockwood until Roy gets the upper hand, only for Taylor, revealed to be alive, fatally stabbing Roy, believing him to be Player One. She then finishes the fight with Lockwood and beheads him with his hatchet, leaving the hotel along with Kevin. Several of the paramedics are shown to be watching the livestream.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"At a small hotel, the owner, Linda Spring, is abducted by a masked figure. Elsewhere, the Keenan family, consisting of father Roy; mother Elaine; younger son Kevin; and older daughter Taylor; is in disarray after Taylor is caught stealing alcohol. Roy and Elaine decide to go away for the weekend as a family, driving to the hotel seen earlier. The apparent owner, Mr. Lockwood, lets them know that the hotel doesn’t have any internet connection; the family sees cameras being placed in various locations around the hotel. Taylor meets two foreign teenagers, Theo and Louis, at a bar but is caught by Elaine. In a basement, Linda is murdered by a man wearing a plague doctor costume with a power drill.",
"At night, Taylor sneaks out to hang out with the boys. Mr. Lockwood activates a lockdown and sends out four masked killers; the enigmatic Player One; the brother\\-sister duo of Player Two and Player Three; and the muscular Player Four. After being caught by a security guard, Lockwood kidnaps him. Roy wakes up and begins to search the hotel for Taylor, who is on the roof along with the boys, while being accompanied by Kevin; while they are gone, Player One sneaks into their hotel room and murders Elaine. Lockwood reveals himself to be the plague doctor to the security guard, who he then stabs to death.",
"Roy finds Elaine’s body and teams up with retired police officer Dave Burnham to figure out what’s going on; leaving Kevin in a locked hotel room, they witness the players commit increasingly violent murders, all of which are livestreamed via the cameras and are watched by audience members bidding on the players. One of Player Two and Three’s victims manages to escape and when Player Three follows her, she stabs Player Three in the neck with a fork before being killed by an enraged Lockwood. Kevin hacks into Lockwood’s system and is discovered by him, who heads to the room to kill him, prompting Kevin to run out.",
"Meanwhile, Theo and Taylor escape the hotel, unaware of the events that transpired, but decide to return where they are both impaled by Player Two. Player Four, who had earlier killed Louis, attacks Dave and Roy but is shot dead by Dave; later, Dave betrays Roy and allows him to be seemingly killed by Player One. Dave sneaks into Lockwood’s control room, revealing himself to be a retired player who wanted to win the game his own way; however, Lockwood reveals that he knew the whole time and kills him with a power drill.",
"Player One finds Kevin but is revealed to be Roy in disguise; together, they manage to set Player Two on fire. Returning to the lobby, they fight with Lockwood until Roy gets the upper hand, only for Taylor, revealed to be alive, fatally stabbing Roy, believing him to be Player One. She then finishes the fight with Lockwood and beheads him with his hatchet, leaving the hotel along with Kevin. Several of the paramedics are shown to be watching the livestream.",
""
] |
Murder trial
------------
Prosecutors delayed the start of Adiguna’s trial on the grounds that he required hospitalization because of an “asthma attack”.{{cite news \|title\=Dikawal Dokter Pribadi, Adiguna Sutowo Hadiri Sidang \|url\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\-323315/dikawal\-dokter\-pribadi\-adiguna\-sutowo\-hadiri\-sidang\- \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=detikcom \|date\=22 March 2005}} After the trial commenced on 22 March 2005 at Central Jakarta District Court, he was “too sick” to attend some sessions. On other occasions, he arrived late to the court.
Despite being absent on medical grounds, he did have supporters present. These supporters were often dressed in white robes and described by the media as "hired thugs" trying to intimidate the Christian victim's family and the judges.{{cite news \|last1\=Palmer \|first1\=Tim \|title\=Indonesian oil heir jailed for murder \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1394612\.htm \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=17 June 2005}}{{cite news \|title\=Super\-rich murderer jailed for seven years \|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/world/super\-rich\-murderer\-jailed\-for\-seven\-years\-20050617\-gdlj29\.html \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=17 June 2005}}
The charge of murder with intent but without premeditation carries a maximum sentence of 20 years, while illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Rudy’s fiancee, Riska Leliana, said she hoped Adiguna would get the death penalty, but she was pessimistic about the Indonesian legal system.{{cite news \|title\=Pacar Rudy: Saya Minta Adiguna Dihukum Mati \|url\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\-298819/pacar\-rudy\-saya\-minta\-adiguna\-dihukum\-mati \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=detikcom \|date\=24 February 2005}} Prosecutors recommended a life sentence.{{cite news \|title\=Adiguna Dituntut Hukuman Seumur Hidup \|url\=https://www.liputan6\.com/news/read/101202/adiguna\-dituntut\-hukuman\-seumur\-hidup \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Liputan6 \|date\=10 May 2006}}
In preparing the case, police had taken statements from 20 witnesses over the murder. Many of the witnesses subsequently retracted their statements or gave conflicting testimony during the trial.
Tinul retracted her police statements, in which she had admitted to witnessing the murder. She told the court that she had asked “the waiter” whether she could charge the drinks to her room, and he had told her that she could not. She said she then handed the vodka tonic to Adiguna and told him she could not charge his drink to her room, but she had already paid for it. She then claimed she got up and walked away, heard a gunshot and ran away without looking back. Then she claimed she informed Adiguna’s wife Vika that “something has happened downstairs and I am worried about Guna”.
Harry Gunawan Isa, the head of bar housekeeping, also changed his account. He initially told police he saw someone who 50% resembled Adiguna point a pistol at Rudy, then heard two clicking noises followed by a gunshot and realized Rudy had been shot in the head. But in court he denied hearing any clicking noises and said he was no longer certain the gunman resembled Adiguna.
Disk jockey, Werner Saferna alias Wewen (35 at the time), also gave testimony that conflicted with his original police statement. He told police he saw Adiguna shoot Rudy and saw the waiter fall to the floor. He said Adiguna then pushed the pistol into his hand and left. But in court, Wewen claimed he only glimpsed Adiguna’s hand pointing the pistol at Rudy’s head.{{cite news \|last1\=Kuswardono \|first1\=Arif A. \|title\=Court Tales \|url\=https://magz.tempo.co/read/9680/court\-tales \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Tempo \|date\=5 April 2005}}
Adiguna was identified in court as the murderer by Cut Nina, a bartender on duty on the morning of the killing. She was standing two meters from Rudy when he was shot. She said she had heard Tinul attempt to intervene in an argument between Adiguna and Rudy, moments before the shooting. Fluid Club general manager Yerry Eka Nugraha testified in court that three of his staff had immediately after the shooting informed him that Adiguna shot Rudy.{{cite news \|title\=Two people finger Adiguna as shooter \|url\=https://jawawa.id/newsitem/two\-people\-finger\-adiguna\-as\-shooter\-1447893297 \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=The Jakarta Post \|date\=8 April 2005}}
On 16 June 2005, Central Jakarta District Court sentenced Adiguna to seven years in jail for murder with intent but without premeditation and illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition. Presiding judge Lilik Mulyadi said that although all of the accusations against Adiguna had been "legitimately proven", there were several mitigating factors to warrant a light sentence. The judge listed the extenuating circumstances as: Adiguna was still young, he had a family, he had been polite during the trial, it was his first offense, he had already been “morally punished” by media coverage, and his family had apologized for the murder.{{cite news \|last1\=Rachmadi \|first1\=Raden \|title\=Adiguna Sutowo Dihukum Tujuh Tahun Penjara \|url\=https://metro.tempo.co/read/62587/adiguna\-sutowo\-dihukum\-tujuh\-tahun\-penjara \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Tempo \|date\=16 June 2005}}{{cite news \|title\=Hilton Murderer Gets Only 7 Years \|url\=https://www.oocities.org/hoelaliejoe/laksamana170605\.htm \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Laksamana.net \|date\=16 June 2005}} Adiguna was 47 at the time of sentencing. He never confessed in court to the crime. He was often absent from the court, but often deployed his supporters to the courthouse.
Lawyer Hendrik Jehaman, representing Rudy's family, said the judges had been influenced by the prominent stature of the defendant. Defense lawyer Mohammad Assegaf said seven years was unfair and he would appeal to Jakarta High Court. Chief prosecutor Andi Herman said the low sentence was “no problem, it's normal".{{cite news \|title\=Seven year's jail for Jakarta killer \|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/world/seven\-years\-jail\-for\-jakarta\-killer\-20050617\-ge0cz2\.html \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=The Age \|date\=17 June 2005}}
Indonesian law expert Tim Lindsey from [Melbourne University](/wiki/Melbourne_University "Melbourne University") said although it would have been inconceivable that "a son of a person like Ibnu Sutowo would have been convicted at all" under the Suharto era, "the sentence of seven years is absurdly light for such a violent and unprovoked and brutal murder".{{cite news \|last1\=Palmer \|first1\=Tim \|title\=Indonesian oil heir jailed for murder \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1394612\.htm \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=17 June 2005}}
### Appeals, remissions and release
Adiguna appealed at Jakarta High Court, which in August 2005 upheld his seven\-year sentence. He then appealed at the Supreme Court, which in January 2006 also upheld the sentence. A panel of three Supreme Court judges \- Mariana Sutadi, Atja Sondjaja and Mieke Komar \- said the rulings of the two lower courts were correct. They said the forgiveness letter from Rudy's father could not be considered, and that the Supreme Court could only consider a request for "relief" if there had been an error in the application of the law by the lower courts.{{cite news \|title\=MA Tolak Kasasi Adiguna Sutowo \|url\=https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol14180/ma\-tolak\-kasasi\-adiguna\-sutowo?page\=all \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Hukum Online \|date\=9 January 2006}}
On 17 August 2006, Adiguna received a three\-month sentence remission in connection with national Independence Day celebrations.{{cite news \|title\=Adiguna Sutowo Diskon 3 Bulan \|url\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\-657761/adiguna\-sutowo\-diskon\-3\-bulan \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=detikcom \|date\=17 August 2006}}
After the rejection of his first Supreme Court appeal, Adiguna filed a second appeal to the Supreme Court. In November 2007, a panel of three Supreme Court judges – Parman Soeparman, Djoko Sarwoko and Moegiharjo – reduced Adiguna’s sentence to four years, making him due for release in 2009\. He was released on 14 December 2007 after the [Justice Ministry](/wiki/Indonesian_Ministry_of_Justice_and_Human_Rights "Indonesian Ministry of Justice and Human Rights") gave him remissions on the grounds of good behavior. He had served fewer than three years in jail.{{cite news \|title\=Ini Sosok Adiguna Sutowo \|url\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\-2396462/ini\-sosok\-adiguna\-sutowo \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=detikcom \|date\=27 October 2013}}
Following his release from jail, Adiguna was seen at Jakarta’s upmarket nightclubs. Jakarta Social Blog, a website devoted to the revels of the city’s wealthiest families, reported on Adiguna’s birthday party at the exclusive Blowfish Kitchen \& Bar in May 2008 and listed a string of celebrity attendees. The report attracted critical comments, but these were outnumbered by people posting in Adiguna’s defense with comments such as “he’s accepted his mistake… he knows what he’s done is wrong (plus when he did it he wasn’t exactly “himself”)… now let him move on with his life \& live a normal life.”{{cite news \|title\=Older and Wiser \|url\=http://jakartasocial.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/older\-and\-wiser\#comments \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Jakarta Social Blog \|date\=3 June 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926231804/http://jakartasocial.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/older\-and\-wiser\#comments \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-26 }}
|
[
"Murder trial\n------------",
"Prosecutors delayed the start of Adiguna’s trial on the grounds that he required hospitalization because of an “asthma attack”.{{cite news \\|title\\=Dikawal Dokter Pribadi, Adiguna Sutowo Hadiri Sidang \\|url\\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\\-323315/dikawal\\-dokter\\-pribadi\\-adiguna\\-sutowo\\-hadiri\\-sidang\\- \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=detikcom \\|date\\=22 March 2005}} After the trial commenced on 22 March 2005 at Central Jakarta District Court, he was “too sick” to attend some sessions. On other occasions, he arrived late to the court.",
"Despite being absent on medical grounds, he did have supporters present. These supporters were often dressed in white robes and described by the media as \"hired thugs\" trying to intimidate the Christian victim's family and the judges.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Palmer \\|first1\\=Tim \\|title\\=Indonesian oil heir jailed for murder \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1394612\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=17 June 2005}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Super\\-rich murderer jailed for seven years \\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/world/super\\-rich\\-murderer\\-jailed\\-for\\-seven\\-years\\-20050617\\-gdlj29\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=17 June 2005}}",
"The charge of murder with intent but without premeditation carries a maximum sentence of 20 years, while illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Rudy’s fiancee, Riska Leliana, said she hoped Adiguna would get the death penalty, but she was pessimistic about the Indonesian legal system.{{cite news \\|title\\=Pacar Rudy: Saya Minta Adiguna Dihukum Mati \\|url\\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\\-298819/pacar\\-rudy\\-saya\\-minta\\-adiguna\\-dihukum\\-mati \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=detikcom \\|date\\=24 February 2005}} Prosecutors recommended a life sentence.{{cite news \\|title\\=Adiguna Dituntut Hukuman Seumur Hidup \\|url\\=https://www.liputan6\\.com/news/read/101202/adiguna\\-dituntut\\-hukuman\\-seumur\\-hidup \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Liputan6 \\|date\\=10 May 2006}}",
"In preparing the case, police had taken statements from 20 witnesses over the murder. Many of the witnesses subsequently retracted their statements or gave conflicting testimony during the trial.",
"Tinul retracted her police statements, in which she had admitted to witnessing the murder. She told the court that she had asked “the waiter” whether she could charge the drinks to her room, and he had told her that she could not. She said she then handed the vodka tonic to Adiguna and told him she could not charge his drink to her room, but she had already paid for it. She then claimed she got up and walked away, heard a gunshot and ran away without looking back. Then she claimed she informed Adiguna’s wife Vika that “something has happened downstairs and I am worried about Guna”.",
"Harry Gunawan Isa, the head of bar housekeeping, also changed his account. He initially told police he saw someone who 50% resembled Adiguna point a pistol at Rudy, then heard two clicking noises followed by a gunshot and realized Rudy had been shot in the head. But in court he denied hearing any clicking noises and said he was no longer certain the gunman resembled Adiguna.",
"Disk jockey, Werner Saferna alias Wewen (35 at the time), also gave testimony that conflicted with his original police statement. He told police he saw Adiguna shoot Rudy and saw the waiter fall to the floor. He said Adiguna then pushed the pistol into his hand and left. But in court, Wewen claimed he only glimpsed Adiguna’s hand pointing the pistol at Rudy’s head.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Kuswardono \\|first1\\=Arif A. \\|title\\=Court Tales \\|url\\=https://magz.tempo.co/read/9680/court\\-tales \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Tempo \\|date\\=5 April 2005}}",
"Adiguna was identified in court as the murderer by Cut Nina, a bartender on duty on the morning of the killing. She was standing two meters from Rudy when he was shot. She said she had heard Tinul attempt to intervene in an argument between Adiguna and Rudy, moments before the shooting. Fluid Club general manager Yerry Eka Nugraha testified in court that three of his staff had immediately after the shooting informed him that Adiguna shot Rudy.{{cite news \\|title\\=Two people finger Adiguna as shooter \\|url\\=https://jawawa.id/newsitem/two\\-people\\-finger\\-adiguna\\-as\\-shooter\\-1447893297 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=The Jakarta Post \\|date\\=8 April 2005}}",
"On 16 June 2005, Central Jakarta District Court sentenced Adiguna to seven years in jail for murder with intent but without premeditation and illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition. Presiding judge Lilik Mulyadi said that although all of the accusations against Adiguna had been \"legitimately proven\", there were several mitigating factors to warrant a light sentence. The judge listed the extenuating circumstances as: Adiguna was still young, he had a family, he had been polite during the trial, it was his first offense, he had already been “morally punished” by media coverage, and his family had apologized for the murder.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rachmadi \\|first1\\=Raden \\|title\\=Adiguna Sutowo Dihukum Tujuh Tahun Penjara \\|url\\=https://metro.tempo.co/read/62587/adiguna\\-sutowo\\-dihukum\\-tujuh\\-tahun\\-penjara \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Tempo \\|date\\=16 June 2005}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Hilton Murderer Gets Only 7 Years \\|url\\=https://www.oocities.org/hoelaliejoe/laksamana170605\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Laksamana.net \\|date\\=16 June 2005}} Adiguna was 47 at the time of sentencing. He never confessed in court to the crime. He was often absent from the court, but often deployed his supporters to the courthouse.",
"Lawyer Hendrik Jehaman, representing Rudy's family, said the judges had been influenced by the prominent stature of the defendant. Defense lawyer Mohammad Assegaf said seven years was unfair and he would appeal to Jakarta High Court. Chief prosecutor Andi Herman said the low sentence was “no problem, it's normal\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Seven year's jail for Jakarta killer \\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/world/seven\\-years\\-jail\\-for\\-jakarta\\-killer\\-20050617\\-ge0cz2\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=The Age \\|date\\=17 June 2005}}",
"Indonesian law expert Tim Lindsey from [Melbourne University](/wiki/Melbourne_University \"Melbourne University\") said although it would have been inconceivable that \"a son of a person like Ibnu Sutowo would have been convicted at all\" under the Suharto era, \"the sentence of seven years is absurdly light for such a violent and unprovoked and brutal murder\".{{cite news \\|last1\\=Palmer \\|first1\\=Tim \\|title\\=Indonesian oil heir jailed for murder \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1394612\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=17 June 2005}}",
"### Appeals, remissions and release",
"Adiguna appealed at Jakarta High Court, which in August 2005 upheld his seven\\-year sentence. He then appealed at the Supreme Court, which in January 2006 also upheld the sentence. A panel of three Supreme Court judges \\- Mariana Sutadi, Atja Sondjaja and Mieke Komar \\- said the rulings of the two lower courts were correct. They said the forgiveness letter from Rudy's father could not be considered, and that the Supreme Court could only consider a request for \"relief\" if there had been an error in the application of the law by the lower courts.{{cite news \\|title\\=MA Tolak Kasasi Adiguna Sutowo \\|url\\=https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol14180/ma\\-tolak\\-kasasi\\-adiguna\\-sutowo?page\\=all \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Hukum Online \\|date\\=9 January 2006}}",
"On 17 August 2006, Adiguna received a three\\-month sentence remission in connection with national Independence Day celebrations.{{cite news \\|title\\=Adiguna Sutowo Diskon 3 Bulan \\|url\\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\\-657761/adiguna\\-sutowo\\-diskon\\-3\\-bulan \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=detikcom \\|date\\=17 August 2006}}",
"After the rejection of his first Supreme Court appeal, Adiguna filed a second appeal to the Supreme Court. In November 2007, a panel of three Supreme Court judges – Parman Soeparman, Djoko Sarwoko and Moegiharjo – reduced Adiguna’s sentence to four years, making him due for release in 2009\\. He was released on 14 December 2007 after the [Justice Ministry](/wiki/Indonesian_Ministry_of_Justice_and_Human_Rights \"Indonesian Ministry of Justice and Human Rights\") gave him remissions on the grounds of good behavior. He had served fewer than three years in jail.{{cite news \\|title\\=Ini Sosok Adiguna Sutowo \\|url\\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\\-2396462/ini\\-sosok\\-adiguna\\-sutowo \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=detikcom \\|date\\=27 October 2013}}",
"Following his release from jail, Adiguna was seen at Jakarta’s upmarket nightclubs. Jakarta Social Blog, a website devoted to the revels of the city’s wealthiest families, reported on Adiguna’s birthday party at the exclusive Blowfish Kitchen \\& Bar in May 2008 and listed a string of celebrity attendees. The report attracted critical comments, but these were outnumbered by people posting in Adiguna’s defense with comments such as “he’s accepted his mistake… he knows what he’s done is wrong (plus when he did it he wasn’t exactly “himself”)… now let him move on with his life \\& live a normal life.”{{cite news \\|title\\=Older and Wiser \\|url\\=http://jakartasocial.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/older\\-and\\-wiser\\#comments \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Jakarta Social Blog \\|date\\=3 June 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926231804/http://jakartasocial.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/older\\-and\\-wiser\\#comments \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-26 }}",
""
] |
Business career
---------------
Adiguna’s business interests covered machinery, shipping, pharmaceuticals, property and hospitality, entertainment, media, automotive and explosives.
Adiguna was involved from a young age in his family's Nugra Santana Group, which inherited assets from family patriarch, Ibnu Sutowo, a three\-star general who was viewed as the “treasurer” of the Suharto administration, as he led Pertamina, which generated revenue during the oil boom of the 1970s.{{cite news \|last1\=Khalik \|first1\=Abdul \|title\=Adiguna, spoilt brat of famed tycoon \|url\=https://jawawa.id/newsitem/adiguna\-spoilt\-brat\-of\-famed\-tycoon\-1447893297 \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=The Jakarta Post \|date\=15 January 2005}}
Upon completing university in Los Angeles in 1981, Adiguna returned to Indonesia to become president director of PT Adiguna Mesintani, which distributes diesel engine generators used to power hotels, factories and other enterprises. The company also manufactures heavy equipment used in offshore oil drilling activities.{{cite news \|last1\=Sukendar \|first1\=Endang \|title\=Adiguna Sutowo Si Bontot Dicibir Publik \|url\=https://www.mail\-archive.com/ppiindia@yahoogroups.com/msg10772\.html \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Gatra \|date\=7 January 2005}}
He went on to manage PT Santana Petroleum Equipment and shipping company PT Pelayaran Umum Indonesia (Pelumin), from which Pertamina leased several tankers. Pelumin had three tankers with a capacity of 35,000 tons.
Adiguna partnered with [Tommy Suharto](/wiki/Tommy_Suharto "Tommy Suharto") and Soetikno Soedarjo at PT Mahasarana Buana (Mabuha) as Fokker's aircraft agent and sold 15 aircraft to Tommy Suharto's Sempati and Pelita Air Service in September 1985\.{{cite news \|title\=Profil Adiguna, Bungsu Ibnu Sutowo yang Tersangka Pembunuh \|url\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\-266231/profil\-adiguna\-bungsu\-ibnu\-sutowo\-yang\-tersangka\-pembunuh \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=detikcom \|date\=3 January 2005}}
Adiguna owned an explosives supply company, as well as an explosives storage warehouse on Momoi Island, near Batam.{{cite news \|title\=Lika\-Liku Penabrak Rumah dan Pengusaha Sukses, Adiguna Sutowo \|url\=http://www.teropongbisnis.com/teropong\-ekonomi/artikel\-ekonomi/lika\-liku\-penabrak\-rumah\-dan\-pengusaha\-sukses\-adiguna\-sutowo/ \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Teropong Bisnis \|date\=5 November 2013}}
In 1993, Adiguna established [PT Mugi Rekso Abadi](/wiki/Mugi_Rekso_Abadi "Mugi Rekso Abadi") (MRA) with Soetikno Soedardjo and Ongky Soemarmo (who was executive director of Tommy Suharto's Humpuss Group).{{cite news \|title\=Brand Master \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/indonesia/prestige\-indonesia/20140801/282170764277366 \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Prestige Indonesia \|date\=1 August 2014}}{{cite news \|title\=Siapa Sebenarnya Maulana Indraguna Sutowo? Keluarga Suami Dian Sastro Pengusaha Kaya Raya \|url\=https://jambi.tribunnews.com/2019/08/07/siapa\-sebenarnya\-maulana\-indraguna\-sutowo\-keluarga\-suami\-dian\-sastro\-pengusaha\-kaya\-raya?page\=3 \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=Tribunjambi.com \|date\=7 August 2019}} In October 1992, the colleagues had established the Jakarta franchise of [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe "Hard Rock Cafe"). The founding majority shareholders were Adiguna and Soetikno. Other shareholders included Irwan Subiarto, Ongky Soemarno and Yapto Suryosumarno.{{cite book\|author\=Michael Backman\|title\=Asian Eclipse: Exposing the Dark Side of Business in Asia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jnC1AAAAIAAJ\|date\=23 May 2001\|publisher\=Wiley\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-47912\-3\|page\=74}}{{cite book\|author\=George Junus Aditjondro\|title\=Korupsi Kepresidenan\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rGVoDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA269\|date\=1 January 2006\|publisher\=Lkis Pelangi Aksara\|isbn\=978\-979\-8451\-68\-3\|pages\=269–}}
MRA Group’s website in 2019 proclaimed: “Leading the drive at MRA are energetic, dedicated executives, exemplified by Adiguna Sutowo \& Soetikno Soedarjo. They embody the character of an excellent young management team: a sense of intelligent restlessness.”{{cite web \|title\=About MRA Group Philosophy of Management MRA Group \|url\=https://www.mra.co.id/index.php/about\-us/about\-mra\-group \|website\=MRA Group \|publisher\=MRA Group \|access\-date\=26 July 2020}} The group's operations have covered restaurants, magazines and radio stations, luxury vehicles, entertainment and hotels.{{cite book\|author\=Agung Wardana\|title\=Contemporary Bali: Contested Space and Governance\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FkKFDwAAQBAJ\|date\=25 January 2019\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=9789811324789}}
Adiguna's son Maulana Indraguna Sutowo became CEO of MRA Group in January 2017\.{{cite news \|last1\=Lestari \|first1\=Widia \|title\=Profil Maulana Indraguna Sutowo, Suami Dian Sastro, Anak Konglomerat Bisnisnya Menggurita, Dia CEO Sabtu \|url\=https://jabar.tribunnews.com/2019/08/24/profil\-maulana\-indraguna\-sutowo\-suami\-dian\-sastro\-anak\-konglomerat\-bisnisnya\-menggurita\-dia\-ceo?page\=all \|access\-date\=26 July 2020 \|publisher\=TribunNews.com \|date\=24 August 2019}}
Adiguna headed PT Suntri Sepuri, a pharmaceuticals company founded in 1998\. It produces antibiotics, capsules, tablets, syrups and other medicines.
His other business interests included PT Adiguna Shipyard and PT Indobuild Co. The Sutowo family’s hotels included: Jakarta Hilton International (renamed the Sultan Hotel and Residence), Lagoon Tower Hilton, The Hilton Residence, Patra Surabaya Hilton, and Bali Hilton. Adiguna also owns Four Seasons Hotel and Four Seasons Apartment in Bali. He bought the Regent Hotel in Kuningan, Jakarta, and renamed it the Four Seasons Hotel.
The Nugra Santana group was hit hard by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Bank Pacific, led by Adiguna’s sister Endang Utari Mokodompit, was liquidated by the government in November 1997\.
### KPK summonses
On 20 March 2018, Adiguna failed to meet a summons by the [Corruption Eradication Commission](/wiki/Corruption_Eradication_Commission "Corruption Eradication Commission") (KPK) for questioning as a witness over alleged corruption and money laundering in [Garuda Indonesia](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia "Garuda Indonesia")'s procurement of aircraft and engines from [Airbus SAS](/wiki/Airbus_SAS "Airbus SAS") and [Rolls\-Royce PLC](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_PLC "Rolls-Royce PLC").{{cite news \|last1\=Batubara \|first1\=Puteranegara \|title\=Adiguna Sutowo Tak Penuhi Panggilan KPK Terkait Suap Pengadaan Mesin Pesawat Garuda \|url\=https://nasional.okezone.com/read/2018/03/20/337/1875560/adiguna\-sutowo\-tak\-penuhi\-panggilan\-kpk\-terkait\-suap\-pengadaan\-mesin\-pesawat\-garuda \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Okezone \|date\=20 March 2018}} Adiguna was re\-summoned to appear on 11 April 2018 and again failed to appear, claiming to be ill. His son, Maulana Indraguna, was summoned over the same case and did appear for questioning on 10 April 2018\.{{cite news \|last1\=Ferdiansyah \|first1\=Benardy \|title\=Adiguna Sutowo lagi\-lagi tak hadiri penggilan KPK \|url\=https://papua.antaranews.com/nasional/berita/700637/adiguna\-sutowo\-lagi\-lagi\-tak\-hadiri\-penggilan\-kpk \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Antara \|date\=11 April 2010}} The two suspects in the Garuda bribery case were Emirsyah Satar and Soetikno Soedarjo, the latter being Adiguna's business partner. On 8 May 2020, Emirsyah was sentenced to 8 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion, while Soetikno Soedarjo was sentenced to 6 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion.{{cite news \|title\=International Cooperation in the Investigation of Garuda Case \|url\=https://www.kpk.go.id/en/news/press\-releases/1687\-international\-cooperation\-in\-the\-investigation\-of\-garuda\-case \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi \|date\=11 May 2020}}
|
[
"Business career\n---------------",
"Adiguna’s business interests covered machinery, shipping, pharmaceuticals, property and hospitality, entertainment, media, automotive and explosives.",
"Adiguna was involved from a young age in his family's Nugra Santana Group, which inherited assets from family patriarch, Ibnu Sutowo, a three\\-star general who was viewed as the “treasurer” of the Suharto administration, as he led Pertamina, which generated revenue during the oil boom of the 1970s.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Khalik \\|first1\\=Abdul \\|title\\=Adiguna, spoilt brat of famed tycoon \\|url\\=https://jawawa.id/newsitem/adiguna\\-spoilt\\-brat\\-of\\-famed\\-tycoon\\-1447893297 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=The Jakarta Post \\|date\\=15 January 2005}}",
"Upon completing university in Los Angeles in 1981, Adiguna returned to Indonesia to become president director of PT Adiguna Mesintani, which distributes diesel engine generators used to power hotels, factories and other enterprises. The company also manufactures heavy equipment used in offshore oil drilling activities.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sukendar \\|first1\\=Endang \\|title\\=Adiguna Sutowo Si Bontot Dicibir Publik \\|url\\=https://www.mail\\-archive.com/ppiindia@yahoogroups.com/msg10772\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Gatra \\|date\\=7 January 2005}}",
"He went on to manage PT Santana Petroleum Equipment and shipping company PT Pelayaran Umum Indonesia (Pelumin), from which Pertamina leased several tankers. Pelumin had three tankers with a capacity of 35,000 tons.",
"Adiguna partnered with [Tommy Suharto](/wiki/Tommy_Suharto \"Tommy Suharto\") and Soetikno Soedarjo at PT Mahasarana Buana (Mabuha) as Fokker's aircraft agent and sold 15 aircraft to Tommy Suharto's Sempati and Pelita Air Service in September 1985\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Profil Adiguna, Bungsu Ibnu Sutowo yang Tersangka Pembunuh \\|url\\=https://news.detik.com/berita/d\\-266231/profil\\-adiguna\\-bungsu\\-ibnu\\-sutowo\\-yang\\-tersangka\\-pembunuh \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=detikcom \\|date\\=3 January 2005}}",
"Adiguna owned an explosives supply company, as well as an explosives storage warehouse on Momoi Island, near Batam.{{cite news \\|title\\=Lika\\-Liku Penabrak Rumah dan Pengusaha Sukses, Adiguna Sutowo \\|url\\=http://www.teropongbisnis.com/teropong\\-ekonomi/artikel\\-ekonomi/lika\\-liku\\-penabrak\\-rumah\\-dan\\-pengusaha\\-sukses\\-adiguna\\-sutowo/ \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Teropong Bisnis \\|date\\=5 November 2013}}",
"In 1993, Adiguna established [PT Mugi Rekso Abadi](/wiki/Mugi_Rekso_Abadi \"Mugi Rekso Abadi\") (MRA) with Soetikno Soedardjo and Ongky Soemarmo (who was executive director of Tommy Suharto's Humpuss Group).{{cite news \\|title\\=Brand Master \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/indonesia/prestige\\-indonesia/20140801/282170764277366 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Prestige Indonesia \\|date\\=1 August 2014}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Siapa Sebenarnya Maulana Indraguna Sutowo? Keluarga Suami Dian Sastro Pengusaha Kaya Raya \\|url\\=https://jambi.tribunnews.com/2019/08/07/siapa\\-sebenarnya\\-maulana\\-indraguna\\-sutowo\\-keluarga\\-suami\\-dian\\-sastro\\-pengusaha\\-kaya\\-raya?page\\=3 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Tribunjambi.com \\|date\\=7 August 2019}} In October 1992, the colleagues had established the Jakarta franchise of [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe \"Hard Rock Cafe\"). The founding majority shareholders were Adiguna and Soetikno. Other shareholders included Irwan Subiarto, Ongky Soemarno and Yapto Suryosumarno.{{cite book\\|author\\=Michael Backman\\|title\\=Asian Eclipse: Exposing the Dark Side of Business in Asia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jnC1AAAAIAAJ\\|date\\=23 May 2001\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-47912\\-3\\|page\\=74}}{{cite book\\|author\\=George Junus Aditjondro\\|title\\=Korupsi Kepresidenan\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rGVoDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA269\\|date\\=1 January 2006\\|publisher\\=Lkis Pelangi Aksara\\|isbn\\=978\\-979\\-8451\\-68\\-3\\|pages\\=269–}}",
"MRA Group’s website in 2019 proclaimed: “Leading the drive at MRA are energetic, dedicated executives, exemplified by Adiguna Sutowo \\& Soetikno Soedarjo. They embody the character of an excellent young management team: a sense of intelligent restlessness.”{{cite web \\|title\\=About MRA Group Philosophy of Management MRA Group \\|url\\=https://www.mra.co.id/index.php/about\\-us/about\\-mra\\-group \\|website\\=MRA Group \\|publisher\\=MRA Group \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020}} The group's operations have covered restaurants, magazines and radio stations, luxury vehicles, entertainment and hotels.{{cite book\\|author\\=Agung Wardana\\|title\\=Contemporary Bali: Contested Space and Governance\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FkKFDwAAQBAJ\\|date\\=25 January 2019\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=9789811324789}}",
"Adiguna's son Maulana Indraguna Sutowo became CEO of MRA Group in January 2017\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lestari \\|first1\\=Widia \\|title\\=Profil Maulana Indraguna Sutowo, Suami Dian Sastro, Anak Konglomerat Bisnisnya Menggurita, Dia CEO Sabtu \\|url\\=https://jabar.tribunnews.com/2019/08/24/profil\\-maulana\\-indraguna\\-sutowo\\-suami\\-dian\\-sastro\\-anak\\-konglomerat\\-bisnisnya\\-menggurita\\-dia\\-ceo?page\\=all \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=TribunNews.com \\|date\\=24 August 2019}}",
"Adiguna headed PT Suntri Sepuri, a pharmaceuticals company founded in 1998\\. It produces antibiotics, capsules, tablets, syrups and other medicines.",
"His other business interests included PT Adiguna Shipyard and PT Indobuild Co. The Sutowo family’s hotels included: Jakarta Hilton International (renamed the Sultan Hotel and Residence), Lagoon Tower Hilton, The Hilton Residence, Patra Surabaya Hilton, and Bali Hilton. Adiguna also owns Four Seasons Hotel and Four Seasons Apartment in Bali. He bought the Regent Hotel in Kuningan, Jakarta, and renamed it the Four Seasons Hotel.",
"The Nugra Santana group was hit hard by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Bank Pacific, led by Adiguna’s sister Endang Utari Mokodompit, was liquidated by the government in November 1997\\.",
"### KPK summonses",
"On 20 March 2018, Adiguna failed to meet a summons by the [Corruption Eradication Commission](/wiki/Corruption_Eradication_Commission \"Corruption Eradication Commission\") (KPK) for questioning as a witness over alleged corruption and money laundering in [Garuda Indonesia](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia \"Garuda Indonesia\")'s procurement of aircraft and engines from [Airbus SAS](/wiki/Airbus_SAS \"Airbus SAS\") and [Rolls\\-Royce PLC](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_PLC \"Rolls-Royce PLC\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Batubara \\|first1\\=Puteranegara \\|title\\=Adiguna Sutowo Tak Penuhi Panggilan KPK Terkait Suap Pengadaan Mesin Pesawat Garuda \\|url\\=https://nasional.okezone.com/read/2018/03/20/337/1875560/adiguna\\-sutowo\\-tak\\-penuhi\\-panggilan\\-kpk\\-terkait\\-suap\\-pengadaan\\-mesin\\-pesawat\\-garuda \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Okezone \\|date\\=20 March 2018}} Adiguna was re\\-summoned to appear on 11 April 2018 and again failed to appear, claiming to be ill. His son, Maulana Indraguna, was summoned over the same case and did appear for questioning on 10 April 2018\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ferdiansyah \\|first1\\=Benardy \\|title\\=Adiguna Sutowo lagi\\-lagi tak hadiri penggilan KPK \\|url\\=https://papua.antaranews.com/nasional/berita/700637/adiguna\\-sutowo\\-lagi\\-lagi\\-tak\\-hadiri\\-penggilan\\-kpk \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Antara \\|date\\=11 April 2010}} The two suspects in the Garuda bribery case were Emirsyah Satar and Soetikno Soedarjo, the latter being Adiguna's business partner. On 8 May 2020, Emirsyah was sentenced to 8 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion, while Soetikno Soedarjo was sentenced to 6 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion.{{cite news \\|title\\=International Cooperation in the Investigation of Garuda Case \\|url\\=https://www.kpk.go.id/en/news/press\\-releases/1687\\-international\\-cooperation\\-in\\-the\\-investigation\\-of\\-garuda\\-case \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi \\|date\\=11 May 2020}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Television
In 2002, Veena hosted the [Prime TV](/wiki/Prime_Television "Prime Television") series, *Prime Gupshup*{{cite web \|title\=ON AIR: prime gupshup \|url\=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/020706/yworld18\.htm \|work\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|access\-date\=11 August 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928222326/http://www.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/020706/yworld18\.htm \|archive\-date\=28 September 2008 \|url\-status\=live}} for them ushering a new direction for her comic skills and she improvised on the hour\-long show occasionally mimicking actors.
Veena hosted the [Geo TV](/wiki/Geo_TV "Geo TV") show *[Hum Sub Umeed Se Hain](/wiki/Hum_Sub_Umeed_Se_Hain "Hum Sub Umeed Se Hain")*, in which she was hailed for her comedic parodies.{{cite web \|url\=http://jang.com.pk/thenews/oct2007\-weekly/nos\-28\-10\-2007/instep/mainissue.htm \|title\=INSTEP: Bright lights, small village \|publisher\=\[\[Jang Group of Newspapers\|Jang Group]] \|access\-date\=9 April 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415065608/http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/oct2007\-weekly/nos\-28\-10\-2007/instep/mainissue.htm \|archive\-date\=15 April 2009 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://pakdoc.blipto.com/?m\=stuff\&e\=details\&t\=television\&id\=334 \|title\=Lux Style Awards 2007 \|access\-date\=17 June 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921124015/http://pakdoc.blipto.com/?m\=stuff\&e\=details\&t\=television\&id\=334 \|archive\-date\=21 September 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }}
In 2007, she appeared at the [Lux Style Awards](/wiki/Lux_Style_Awards "Lux Style Awards") and was awarded as being the *Most stylish celebrity on the carpet*.
In October 2010, Veena appeared in the Indian television reality show *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss_%28Hindi_TV_series%29 "Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series)")* [Season 4](/wiki/Bigg_Boss_%28Hindi_season_4%29 "Bigg Boss (Hindi season 4)").{{cite news \|url\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv\-/Mohd\-Asifs\-ex\-in\-Bigg\-Boss\-4/articleshow/6529159\.cms \|title\=Veena Malik in Bigg Boss 4 \|work\=The Times of India \|access\-date\=2 October 2010 \|first1\=Sonal \|last1\=Chawla \|date\=11 September 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913192221/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv\-/Mohd\-Asifs\-ex\-in\-Bigg\-Boss\-4/articleshow/6529159\.cms \|archive\-date\=13 September 2010 \|url\-status\=live}}
She was evicted two weeks before the finals, and was one of the final six contestants out of the original fourteen who had participated.{{cite news \|title\=Who's the boss? Veena for sure \|url\=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/jan2011\-weekly/nos\-02\-01\-2011/instep/mainissue.htm \|work\=Instep Magazine \|access\-date\=7 January 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029072054/http://jang.com.pk/thenews/jan2011\-weekly/nos\-02\-01\-2011/instep/mainissue.htm \|archive\-date\=29 October 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} Veena was also part of the finale of the show.{{cite news \|title\=Veena 'Ki Jawani' in 'Bigg Boss' grand finale \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/98558/veena\-ki\-jawani\-in\-bigg\-boss\-grand\-finale/ \|work\=The Express Tribune \|access\-date\=7 January 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107055039/http://tribune.com.pk/story/98558/veena\-ki\-jawani\-in\-bigg\-boss\-grand\-finale/ \|archive\-date\=7 January 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} After her *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss "Bigg Boss")* stay, she was mentioned in the media as the voice of liberal [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims"), including leading dailies, *[Daily Times](/wiki/Daily_Times_%28Pakistan%29 "Daily Times (Pakistan)")*,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\=2011\\02\\04\\story\_4\-2\-2011\_pg3\_5 \|title\=VIEW: Why is Veena Malik important? \|date\=4 February 2011 \|work\=Daily Times \|access\-date\=21 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120527084204/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\=2011%5C02%5C04%5Cstory\_4\-2\-2011\_pg3\_5 \|archive\-date\=27 May 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} *[Express Tribune](/wiki/Express_Tribune "Express Tribune")*,{{cite news \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/111037/in\-defence\-of\-veena\-malik/ \|title\=In defence of Veena Malik \|date\=30 January 2011 \|work\=The Express Tribune \|access\-date\=7 February 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204183047/http://tribune.com.pk/story/111037/in\-defence\-of\-veena\-malik/ \|archive\-date\=4 February 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} and *[The Australian](/wiki/The_Australian "The Australian")*.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/executive\-lifestyle/actress\-veena\-malik\-takes\-on\-clerics\-over\-dress/story\-e6frg8k6\-1225997043385 \|title\=Actress Veena Malik takes on clerics over dress \|date\=31 January 2011 \|work\=The Australian}} Sabbah Hajim, from the Haji Amina Charity Trust in [Jammu and Kashmir](/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_%28state%29 "Jammu and Kashmir (state)"), writing in the magazine *[Tehelka](/wiki/Tehelka "Tehelka")*, when comparing her with liberal rector of [Darul Uloom Deoband](/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband "Darul Uloom Deoband") said, "these two newly public figures might teach [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") to stop feeling eternally outraged."{{cite news \|url\=http://tehelka.com/story\_main48\.asp?filename\=hub120211WHAT\_GHULAM.asp \|title\=What Ghulam Mohammad Vastanvi and Veena Malik have in common These two newly public figures might teach Muslims to stop feeling eternally outraged \|date\=12 February 2011 \|publisher\=\[\[Tehelka]] Magazine, Vol 8, Issue 6 \|access\-date\=7 February 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210002712/http://www.tehelka.com/story\_main48\.asp?filename\=hub120211WHAT\_GHULAM.asp \|archive\-date\=10 February 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}}
In February 2011,[I am very fashionable: Veena Malik](http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/I-am-very-fashionable-Veena-Malik/articleshow/7532430.cms?) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911032302/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/I\-am\-very\-fashionable\-Veena\-Malik/articleshow/7532430\.cms \|date\=11 September 2018 }}. *The Times of India*. (20 February 2011\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\. Veena became part of the Cricket World Cup reality show[Now, Veena Malik to talk about cricket](https://web.archive.org/web/20110707231543/http://www.bharatchronicle.com/now-veena-malik-to-talk-about-cricket-12310) Bharat Chronicle (20 February 2011\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\. in Delhi, India, called "Big Toss." Big Toss was a reality game show with contestants and Veena as the captain of one team, against [Rakhi Sawant](/wiki/Rakhi_Sawant "Rakhi Sawant")['In 'Bigg Toss', Rakhi, Veena will add a lot of drama'](http://www.sify.com/movies/in-bigg-toss-rakhi-veena-will-add-a-lot-of-drama-news-national-lcsvuCcgegi.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221080414/http://www.sify.com/movies/in\-bigg\-toss\-rakhi\-veena\-will\-add\-a\-lot\-of\-drama\-news\-national\-lcsvuCcgegi.html \|date\=21 February 2011 }}. Sify.com (18 February 2011\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\. and her team.
In March 2011, Veena engaged in a passionate debate with a [mufti](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti"), who claimed she had engaged in immoral behaviour as a contestant on *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss "Bigg Boss")*, even though he admitted to not having watched the show. Veena countered pointing out the double standards of Pakistani media against women among other rebuttals.[Pakistani Actress Defies Mullah Accusing Her of Immoral Behavior on an Indian Reality TV Show](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pMnAmRa4NYw) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125030315/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=pMnAmRa4NYw \|date\=25 November 2015 }}. YouTube. Retrieved 29 May 2011\.
Another show *Veena Malik – Veena Ka Vivah* was planned where Veena would search for her soul\-mate, but the show was cancelled when [Imagine TV](/wiki/Imagine_TV "Imagine TV"), the channel on which the show was being shown, announced that it was shutting down.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio\-news\-video/AV\-Entertainment/Veena\-Ka\-Vivah\-cancelled\-as\-Imagine\-TV\-shuts\-down/Article2\-840393\.aspx \|title\=Veena Ka Vivah cancelled as Imagine TV shuts down \|access\-date\=14 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414150120/http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio\-news\-video/AV\-Entertainment/Veena\-Ka\-Vivah\-cancelled\-as\-Imagine\-TV\-shuts\-down/Article2\-840393\.aspx \|archive\-date\=14 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} Veena collected almost 71,000 entries from all over the world for the show.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.invectura.com/veena\-malik\-wedding\-plans\-ruined/ \|title\=Veena Malik Wedding Plans Ruined \|work\=invectura \|date\=15 April 2012 \|access\-date\=15 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605053923/http://www.invectura.com/veena\-malik\-wedding\-plans\-ruined/ \|archive\-date\=5 June 2012 \|url\-status\=live}}
### Films
Veena made her acting debut alongside [Shaan](/wiki/Shaan_%28Pakistan_actor%29 "Shaan (Pakistan actor)") and [Zara Sheikh](/wiki/Zara_Sheikh "Zara Sheikh") in Askari's *[Tere Pyar Mein](/wiki/Tere_Pyar_Mein "Tere Pyar Mein")* (2000\). She played a supporting role in the film and was barely acknowledged. Later on, she appeared in a supporting role in [Javed Sheikh](/wiki/Javed_Sheikh "Javed Sheikh")'s *[Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa](/wiki/Yeh_Dil_Aap_Ka_Huwa "Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa")* (2002\).{{cite web \|url\=http://dubaibliss.com/veena\-malik\-shines\-pakistan\-fashion\-week\-dubai/ \|title\=Veena Malik shines at Pakistan Fashion Week Dubai \|publisher\=Dubai Bliss \|date\=26 April 2014 \|access\-date\=2 November 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103214605/http://dubaibliss.com/veena\-malik\-shines\-pakistan\-fashion\-week\-dubai/ \|archive\-date\=3 November 2014 \|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|left\|280px\|Veena Malik in [Lahore, Pakistan](/wiki/Lahore%2C_Pakistan "Lahore, Pakistan") in 2011\.](/wiki/File:Veena_Malik_backless_photo_shoot_at_Riyaz_Gangji%27s_store_%288%29.jpg "Veena Malik backless photo shoot at Riyaz Gangji's store (8).jpg")
In 2003, Veena appeared in Indo\-Pak cross venture Punjabi film *[Pind Di Kudi](/wiki/Pind_Di_Kurhi_%282005_film%29 "Pind Di Kurhi (2005 film)")* which failed commercially. She also appeared in Askari's *[Sassi Punno](/wiki/Sassi_Punno "Sassi Punno")* (2003\) alongside [Sana](/wiki/Sana_Nawaz "Sana Nawaz") and [Moammar Rana](/wiki/Moammar_Rana "Moammar Rana"). She then appeared in Rafique's *Jageer*. Her breakthrough role was in Reema Khan's *[Koi Tujh Sa Kahan](/wiki/Koi_Tujh_Sa_Kahan "Koi Tujh Sa Kahan").* In the same year, she played the parallel lead role of Farwa in fantasy film *[Naag aur Nagin](/wiki/Naag_aur_Nagin "Naag aur Nagin").*
In 2008, Veena appeared in Rafique's Punjabi film, *[Mohabbatan Sachiyan](/wiki/Mohabbatan_Sachiyan "Mohabbatan Sachiyan")*, alongside Babrik Shah and newcomers Maria Khan and Adnan Khan. The film went on to become a commercial success.{{cite web \|title\=Mohabbatan Sachiyan gets warm reception at PNCA \|url\=http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn\-content\-library/dawn/the\-newspaper/local/islamabad/17\-mohabbatan\-sachiyan\-gets\-warm\-reception\-at\-pnca\-ek\-02 \|work\=Dawn \|location\=Pakistan \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|author\=Jonaid Iqbal \|date\=7 May 2010}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The same year, she appeared in Raza's *[Kabhi Pyar Na Karna](/wiki/Kabhi_Pyar_Na_Karna "Kabhi Pyar Na Karna")* in a supporting role.
In 2012, Veena debuted in [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood "Bollywood") with an [item song](/wiki/Item_song "Item song") in *[Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai](/wiki/Gali_Gali_Mein_Chor_Hai "Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai")* entitled "Chhanno". Then in the same month she did another item song "Fann Ban Gayi" in *[Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya](/wiki/Tere_Naal_Love_Ho_Gaya "Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya")*. Then she made her acting debut with a comedy *[Daal Mein Kuch Kaala Hai](/wiki/Daal_Mein_Kuch_Kaala_Hai "Daal Mein Kuch Kaala Hai")*. In 2013, her first film was Rajiv S. Ruia's social drama *[Zindagi 50 50](/wiki/Zindagi_50_50 "Zindagi 50 50")* in which she played a prostitute. She appeared in the music video "Ac Chala Garmi Badi Hai" sung by *Sukhdeep Grewal*. Then she made a special appearance in Punjabi film, *[Jatts in Golmaal](/wiki/Jatts_in_Golmaal "Jatts in Golmaal")* in an item song "Shabboo". She then made her [Kannada](/wiki/Kannada "Kannada") film debut and appeared in *[Dirty Picture: Silk Sakkath Hot](/wiki/Dirty_Picture:Silk_Sakkath_Hot "Silk Sakkath Hot")* in which she portrayed the life of actress [Silk Smitha](/wiki/Silk_Smitha "Silk Smitha") for which she gained 5 kg.{{cite news \|url\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news\-interviews/Veena\-Malik\-turns\-Marilyn\-Monroe/articleshow/14095695\.cms \|title\=Veena Malik turns Marilyn Monroe \|date\=14 June 2012 \|access\-date\=14 June 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614142147/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news\-interviews/Veena\-Malik\-turns\-Marilyn\-Monroe/articleshow/14095695\.cms \|archive\-date\=14 June 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} Her last film of 2013 was *[Super Model](/wiki/Super_Model_%28film%29 "Super Model (film)")*. Veena played a supermodel, a small town girl who becomes a success in the fashion industry. Her last Bollywood film was [Hemant Madhukar](/wiki/Hemant_Madhukar "Hemant Madhukar")'s *[Mumbai 125 KM 3D](/wiki/Mumbai_125_KM_3D "Mumbai 125 KM 3D")* that was released in 2014\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Television",
"In 2002, Veena hosted the [Prime TV](/wiki/Prime_Television \"Prime Television\") series, *Prime Gupshup*{{cite web \\|title\\=ON AIR: prime gupshup \\|url\\=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/020706/yworld18\\.htm \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928222326/http://www.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/020706/yworld18\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} for them ushering a new direction for her comic skills and she improvised on the hour\\-long show occasionally mimicking actors.",
"Veena hosted the [Geo TV](/wiki/Geo_TV \"Geo TV\") show *[Hum Sub Umeed Se Hain](/wiki/Hum_Sub_Umeed_Se_Hain \"Hum Sub Umeed Se Hain\")*, in which she was hailed for her comedic parodies.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://jang.com.pk/thenews/oct2007\\-weekly/nos\\-28\\-10\\-2007/instep/mainissue.htm \\|title\\=INSTEP: Bright lights, small village \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jang Group of Newspapers\\|Jang Group]] \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415065608/http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/oct2007\\-weekly/nos\\-28\\-10\\-2007/instep/mainissue.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pakdoc.blipto.com/?m\\=stuff\\&e\\=details\\&t\\=television\\&id\\=334 \\|title\\=Lux Style Awards 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921124015/http://pakdoc.blipto.com/?m\\=stuff\\&e\\=details\\&t\\=television\\&id\\=334 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\nIn 2007, she appeared at the [Lux Style Awards](/wiki/Lux_Style_Awards \"Lux Style Awards\") and was awarded as being the *Most stylish celebrity on the carpet*.",
"In October 2010, Veena appeared in the Indian television reality show *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss_%28Hindi_TV_series%29 \"Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series)\")* [Season 4](/wiki/Bigg_Boss_%28Hindi_season_4%29 \"Bigg Boss (Hindi season 4)\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv\\-/Mohd\\-Asifs\\-ex\\-in\\-Bigg\\-Boss\\-4/articleshow/6529159\\.cms \\|title\\=Veena Malik in Bigg Boss 4 \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2010 \\|first1\\=Sonal \\|last1\\=Chawla \\|date\\=11 September 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913192221/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv\\-/Mohd\\-Asifs\\-ex\\-in\\-Bigg\\-Boss\\-4/articleshow/6529159\\.cms \\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nShe was evicted two weeks before the finals, and was one of the final six contestants out of the original fourteen who had participated.{{cite news \\|title\\=Who's the boss? Veena for sure \\|url\\=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/jan2011\\-weekly/nos\\-02\\-01\\-2011/instep/mainissue.htm \\|work\\=Instep Magazine \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029072054/http://jang.com.pk/thenews/jan2011\\-weekly/nos\\-02\\-01\\-2011/instep/mainissue.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Veena was also part of the finale of the show.{{cite news \\|title\\=Veena 'Ki Jawani' in 'Bigg Boss' grand finale \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/98558/veena\\-ki\\-jawani\\-in\\-bigg\\-boss\\-grand\\-finale/ \\|work\\=The Express Tribune \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107055039/http://tribune.com.pk/story/98558/veena\\-ki\\-jawani\\-in\\-bigg\\-boss\\-grand\\-finale/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} After her *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss \"Bigg Boss\")* stay, she was mentioned in the media as the voice of liberal [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\"), including leading dailies, *[Daily Times](/wiki/Daily_Times_%28Pakistan%29 \"Daily Times (Pakistan)\")*,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\\=2011\\\\02\\\\04\\\\story\\_4\\-2\\-2011\\_pg3\\_5 \\|title\\=VIEW: Why is Veena Malik important? \\|date\\=4 February 2011 \\|work\\=Daily Times \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120527084204/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\\=2011%5C02%5C04%5Cstory\\_4\\-2\\-2011\\_pg3\\_5 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} *[Express Tribune](/wiki/Express_Tribune \"Express Tribune\")*,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/111037/in\\-defence\\-of\\-veena\\-malik/ \\|title\\=In defence of Veena Malik \\|date\\=30 January 2011 \\|work\\=The Express Tribune \\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204183047/http://tribune.com.pk/story/111037/in\\-defence\\-of\\-veena\\-malik/ \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} and *[The Australian](/wiki/The_Australian \"The Australian\")*.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/executive\\-lifestyle/actress\\-veena\\-malik\\-takes\\-on\\-clerics\\-over\\-dress/story\\-e6frg8k6\\-1225997043385 \\|title\\=Actress Veena Malik takes on clerics over dress \\|date\\=31 January 2011 \\|work\\=The Australian}} Sabbah Hajim, from the Haji Amina Charity Trust in [Jammu and Kashmir](/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_%28state%29 \"Jammu and Kashmir (state)\"), writing in the magazine *[Tehelka](/wiki/Tehelka \"Tehelka\")*, when comparing her with liberal rector of [Darul Uloom Deoband](/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband \"Darul Uloom Deoband\") said, \"these two newly public figures might teach [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") to stop feeling eternally outraged.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tehelka.com/story\\_main48\\.asp?filename\\=hub120211WHAT\\_GHULAM.asp \\|title\\=What Ghulam Mohammad Vastanvi and Veena Malik have in common These two newly public figures might teach Muslims to stop feeling eternally outraged \\|date\\=12 February 2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tehelka]] Magazine, Vol 8, Issue 6 \\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210002712/http://www.tehelka.com/story\\_main48\\.asp?filename\\=hub120211WHAT\\_GHULAM.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In February 2011,[I am very fashionable: Veena Malik](http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/I-am-very-fashionable-Veena-Malik/articleshow/7532430.cms?) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911032302/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/I\\-am\\-very\\-fashionable\\-Veena\\-Malik/articleshow/7532430\\.cms \\|date\\=11 September 2018 }}. *The Times of India*. (20 February 2011\\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\\. Veena became part of the Cricket World Cup reality show[Now, Veena Malik to talk about cricket](https://web.archive.org/web/20110707231543/http://www.bharatchronicle.com/now-veena-malik-to-talk-about-cricket-12310) Bharat Chronicle (20 February 2011\\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\\. in Delhi, India, called \"Big Toss.\" Big Toss was a reality game show with contestants and Veena as the captain of one team, against [Rakhi Sawant](/wiki/Rakhi_Sawant \"Rakhi Sawant\")['In 'Bigg Toss', Rakhi, Veena will add a lot of drama'](http://www.sify.com/movies/in-bigg-toss-rakhi-veena-will-add-a-lot-of-drama-news-national-lcsvuCcgegi.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221080414/http://www.sify.com/movies/in\\-bigg\\-toss\\-rakhi\\-veena\\-will\\-add\\-a\\-lot\\-of\\-drama\\-news\\-national\\-lcsvuCcgegi.html \\|date\\=21 February 2011 }}. Sify.com (18 February 2011\\). Retrieved 29 May 2011\\. and her team.",
"In March 2011, Veena engaged in a passionate debate with a [mufti](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\"), who claimed she had engaged in immoral behaviour as a contestant on *[Bigg Boss](/wiki/Bigg_Boss \"Bigg Boss\")*, even though he admitted to not having watched the show. Veena countered pointing out the double standards of Pakistani media against women among other rebuttals.[Pakistani Actress Defies Mullah Accusing Her of Immoral Behavior on an Indian Reality TV Show](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pMnAmRa4NYw) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125030315/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=pMnAmRa4NYw \\|date\\=25 November 2015 }}. YouTube. Retrieved 29 May 2011\\.",
"Another show *Veena Malik – Veena Ka Vivah* was planned where Veena would search for her soul\\-mate, but the show was cancelled when [Imagine TV](/wiki/Imagine_TV \"Imagine TV\"), the channel on which the show was being shown, announced that it was shutting down.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio\\-news\\-video/AV\\-Entertainment/Veena\\-Ka\\-Vivah\\-cancelled\\-as\\-Imagine\\-TV\\-shuts\\-down/Article2\\-840393\\.aspx \\|title\\=Veena Ka Vivah cancelled as Imagine TV shuts down \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414150120/http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio\\-news\\-video/AV\\-Entertainment/Veena\\-Ka\\-Vivah\\-cancelled\\-as\\-Imagine\\-TV\\-shuts\\-down/Article2\\-840393\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Veena collected almost 71,000 entries from all over the world for the show.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.invectura.com/veena\\-malik\\-wedding\\-plans\\-ruined/ \\|title\\=Veena Malik Wedding Plans Ruined \\|work\\=invectura \\|date\\=15 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605053923/http://www.invectura.com/veena\\-malik\\-wedding\\-plans\\-ruined/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Films",
"Veena made her acting debut alongside [Shaan](/wiki/Shaan_%28Pakistan_actor%29 \"Shaan (Pakistan actor)\") and [Zara Sheikh](/wiki/Zara_Sheikh \"Zara Sheikh\") in Askari's *[Tere Pyar Mein](/wiki/Tere_Pyar_Mein \"Tere Pyar Mein\")* (2000\\). She played a supporting role in the film and was barely acknowledged. Later on, she appeared in a supporting role in [Javed Sheikh](/wiki/Javed_Sheikh \"Javed Sheikh\")'s *[Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa](/wiki/Yeh_Dil_Aap_Ka_Huwa \"Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa\")* (2002\\).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://dubaibliss.com/veena\\-malik\\-shines\\-pakistan\\-fashion\\-week\\-dubai/ \\|title\\=Veena Malik shines at Pakistan Fashion Week Dubai \\|publisher\\=Dubai Bliss \\|date\\=26 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103214605/http://dubaibliss.com/veena\\-malik\\-shines\\-pakistan\\-fashion\\-week\\-dubai/ \\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|280px\\|Veena Malik in [Lahore, Pakistan](/wiki/Lahore%2C_Pakistan \"Lahore, Pakistan\") in 2011\\.](/wiki/File:Veena_Malik_backless_photo_shoot_at_Riyaz_Gangji%27s_store_%288%29.jpg \"Veena Malik backless photo shoot at Riyaz Gangji's store (8).jpg\")\nIn 2003, Veena appeared in Indo\\-Pak cross venture Punjabi film *[Pind Di Kudi](/wiki/Pind_Di_Kurhi_%282005_film%29 \"Pind Di Kurhi (2005 film)\")* which failed commercially. She also appeared in Askari's *[Sassi Punno](/wiki/Sassi_Punno \"Sassi Punno\")* (2003\\) alongside [Sana](/wiki/Sana_Nawaz \"Sana Nawaz\") and [Moammar Rana](/wiki/Moammar_Rana \"Moammar Rana\"). She then appeared in Rafique's *Jageer*. Her breakthrough role was in Reema Khan's *[Koi Tujh Sa Kahan](/wiki/Koi_Tujh_Sa_Kahan \"Koi Tujh Sa Kahan\").* In the same year, she played the parallel lead role of Farwa in fantasy film *[Naag aur Nagin](/wiki/Naag_aur_Nagin \"Naag aur Nagin\").*",
"In 2008, Veena appeared in Rafique's Punjabi film, *[Mohabbatan Sachiyan](/wiki/Mohabbatan_Sachiyan \"Mohabbatan Sachiyan\")*, alongside Babrik Shah and newcomers Maria Khan and Adnan Khan. The film went on to become a commercial success.{{cite web \\|title\\=Mohabbatan Sachiyan gets warm reception at PNCA \\|url\\=http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn\\-content\\-library/dawn/the\\-newspaper/local/islamabad/17\\-mohabbatan\\-sachiyan\\-gets\\-warm\\-reception\\-at\\-pnca\\-ek\\-02 \\|work\\=Dawn \\|location\\=Pakistan \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|author\\=Jonaid Iqbal \\|date\\=7 May 2010}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The same year, she appeared in Raza's *[Kabhi Pyar Na Karna](/wiki/Kabhi_Pyar_Na_Karna \"Kabhi Pyar Na Karna\")* in a supporting role.",
"In 2012, Veena debuted in [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood \"Bollywood\") with an [item song](/wiki/Item_song \"Item song\") in *[Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai](/wiki/Gali_Gali_Mein_Chor_Hai \"Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai\")* entitled \"Chhanno\". Then in the same month she did another item song \"Fann Ban Gayi\" in *[Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya](/wiki/Tere_Naal_Love_Ho_Gaya \"Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya\")*. Then she made her acting debut with a comedy *[Daal Mein Kuch Kaala Hai](/wiki/Daal_Mein_Kuch_Kaala_Hai \"Daal Mein Kuch Kaala Hai\")*. In 2013, her first film was Rajiv S. Ruia's social drama *[Zindagi 50 50](/wiki/Zindagi_50_50 \"Zindagi 50 50\")* in which she played a prostitute. She appeared in the music video \"Ac Chala Garmi Badi Hai\" sung by *Sukhdeep Grewal*. Then she made a special appearance in Punjabi film, *[Jatts in Golmaal](/wiki/Jatts_in_Golmaal \"Jatts in Golmaal\")* in an item song \"Shabboo\". She then made her [Kannada](/wiki/Kannada \"Kannada\") film debut and appeared in *[Dirty Picture: Silk Sakkath Hot](/wiki/Dirty_Picture:Silk_Sakkath_Hot \"Silk Sakkath Hot\")* in which she portrayed the life of actress [Silk Smitha](/wiki/Silk_Smitha \"Silk Smitha\") for which she gained 5 kg.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news\\-interviews/Veena\\-Malik\\-turns\\-Marilyn\\-Monroe/articleshow/14095695\\.cms \\|title\\=Veena Malik turns Marilyn Monroe \\|date\\=14 June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 June 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614142147/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news\\-interviews/Veena\\-Malik\\-turns\\-Marilyn\\-Monroe/articleshow/14095695\\.cms \\|archive\\-date\\=14 June 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Her last film of 2013 was *[Super Model](/wiki/Super_Model_%28film%29 \"Super Model (film)\")*. Veena played a supermodel, a small town girl who becomes a success in the fashion industry. Her last Bollywood film was [Hemant Madhukar](/wiki/Hemant_Madhukar \"Hemant Madhukar\")'s *[Mumbai 125 KM 3D](/wiki/Mumbai_125_KM_3D \"Mumbai 125 KM 3D\")* that was released in 2014\\.",
""
] |
Land preservation and animal habitats
-------------------------------------
[thumb\|Pine [flatwoods](/wiki/Flatwood "Flatwood") and [sand pine](/wiki/Sand_pine "Sand pine") [scrub](/wiki/Florida_scrub "Florida scrub")There](/wiki/File:Eel_scrub.jpg "Eel scrub.jpg") are a number of wildlife refuges in the county: the [Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Merritt_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge "Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge"), the [Canaveral National Seashore](/wiki/Canaveral_National_Seashore "Canaveral National Seashore"), the [St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/St._Johns_National_Wildlife_Refuge "St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge"), and the [Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Archie_Carr_National_Wildlife_Refuge "Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dodpif.org/iba/CapeCanaveralAirStn\_ABC.pdf \|access\-date\=September 24, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726192113/http://www.dodpif.org/iba/CapeCanaveralAirStn\_ABC.pdf \|archive\-date\=July 26, 2007 }}[Caribbean Conservation \& Sea Turtle Survival League :: CCC's Sea Turtle Survival League Programs \& Projects](http://www.cccturtle.org/florida.php?page=carrref) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005144112/http://www.cccturtle.org/florida.php?page\=carrref \|date\=2006\-10\-05 }}[Saint Johns National Wildlife Refuge \- Merritt Island NWR, Titusville, Florida](http://www.fws.gov/merrittisland/subrefuges/SJ.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922070825/http://www.fws.gov/merrittisland/subrefuges/SJ.html \|date\=2007\-09\-22 }}
### Environmentally Endangered Land Program
Local taxes support an Environmentally Endangered Land (EEL) Program to protect environmentally sensitive areas. The 395\-acre Malabar Scrub Sanctuary located in Malabar, Florida. [https://www.alltrails.com/trail/us/florida/malabar\-scrub](https://www.alltrails.com/trail/us/florida/malabar-scrub) Malabar is also a Trail Town. The {{convert\|470\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} Enchanted Forest in [Titusville](/wiki/Titusville%2C_Florida "Titusville, Florida") was the first land set aside under this program. It preserves a significant sample of the natural communities that were originally found in this region, including [xeric](/wiki/Xeric "Xeric") oak scrub, mature [hardwood forests](/wiki/Hardwood_forests "Hardwood forests"), [wetlands](/wiki/Wetland "Wetland") and [pine](/wiki/Pine "Pine") [flatwoods](/wiki/Flatwoods "Flatwoods").[Environmentally Endangered Lands Program: ENCHANTED FOREST SANCTUARY](http://efs.eelbrevard.com/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504140232/http://efs.eelbrevard.com/ \|date\=2009\-05\-04 }} A recent controversy was solved when the County decided to rehire the [Nature Conservancy](/wiki/Nature_Conservancy "Nature Conservancy") to negotiate the purchase of EEL acquisitions.
The Management \& Education Center at The Enchanted Forest Sanctuary in Titusville, is the EEL Program's first regional educational facility. The EEL Program was established in 1990 to protect the natural habitats of Brevard County by acquiring environmentally sensitive lands for conservation, passive recreation, and environmental education. This was made possible by citizens who voted to tax themselves up to $55 million for the acquisition and maintenance of Brevard's natural areas. Residents reaffirmed the EEL Program in 2004 under a second referendum to protect the natural habitats within Brevard County by the acquisition of environmentally sensitive lands through a willing seller program for the purpose of conservation, passive recreation, and environmental education.
To maximize the funding, the EEL Program forms partnerships with federal, state and local agencies that are committed to the protection of natural resources and our long\-term quality of life. EEL sanctuaries are managed to preserve native habitats and the plants and animals that live there.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eelbrevard.com/\|title\=EEL Program Home\|website\=www.eelbrevard.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/eelbrevard\|title\=EEL Program Space Coast, FL\|website\=Flickr\|date\=7 May 2009\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}
As of 2010, there have been {{convert\|37\|mi2\|km2}} purchased under the EEL program.{{Cite news \| first\=Matt \| last\=Reed \| title\=Watchdog column:EEL, chief explains process and prices \| publisher\=Florida Today \| location\=Melbourne, Florida \| pages\= 1B \| date\=18 March 2010 }}
### Barrier Island Center
In 2008, the county built a $3 million {{convert\|5700\|sqft\|m2\|0}} building south of [Melbourne Beach, Florida](/wiki/Melbourne_Beach%2C_Florida "Melbourne Beach, Florida"). Barrier Island Center is a sanctuary management and education center.{{cite book \| author \= White, George \|title \= The Center opened in May 2008 \| publisher \= Florida Today \| date \= January 14, 2008}} The {{convert\|5700\|sqft\|m2\|adj\=on}} facility {{cite web\|url\=http://www.barrierislandcenter.com/\|title\=Barrier Island Sanctuary\|website\=www.barrierislandcenter.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}} hosts environmental programs and features an interactive exhibit and presentation hall. Programs include educational projects, beach cleanups, and guided hikes on the Barrier Island Trail.
### Merritt Island Wildlife Refuge
The {{convert\|140000\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge provides and opportunity to observe animals in their natural habitat. It is home to many species of birds, [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar "Wild boar"), [white\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer "White-tailed deer"), [American alligators](/wiki/American_alligator "American alligator"), [bobcats](/wiki/Bobcat "Bobcat"), [nine\-banded armadillos](/wiki/Nine-banded_armadillo "Nine-banded armadillo") and other creatures . There are nature trails, a US Ranger Nature Center and a {{convert\|7\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} scenic drive through a wild bird habitat.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nbbd.com/godo/minwr/\|title\=Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge \- Titusville Florida\|website\=www.nbbd.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}
### Enchanted Forest Sanctuary
The Enchanted Forest Sanctuary preserves a diversity of the natural [habitats](/wiki/Habitat "Habitat") found on the Space Coast. Several miles of hiking trails pass through the natural environment of the Sanctuary. Plant life in the Sanctuary includes both [temperate](/wiki/Temperate "Temperate") (northern) and [subtropical](/wiki/Subtropical "Subtropical") (southern) species which grow here together. There are five basic habitat types in the Enchanted Forest Sanctuary: oak, scrub, [mesic](/wiki/Mesic_habitat "Mesic habitat") and [hydric](/wiki/Hydric "Hydric") [hammock](/wiki/Hammock_%28ecology%29 "Hammock (ecology)"), wet prairie, and pine flatwood. Wildlife species found here include the [eastern indigo snake](/wiki/Eastern_indigo_snake "Eastern indigo snake"), [Florida scrub lizard](/wiki/Florida_scrub_lizard "Florida scrub lizard"), [gopher tortoise](/wiki/Gopherus_polyphemus "Gopherus polyphemus"), [white\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer "White-tailed deer"), and bobcat.
Every April, the Friends of the Enchanted Forest present "[Earth Day](/wiki/Earth_Day "Earth Day") Family Fun Fest." About 800 attend.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nbbd.com/godo/ef/friends/index.html\|title\=Friends of the Enchanted Forest, a Nature Sanctuary\|website\=www.nbbd.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}
### Erna Nixon Park
The [Erna Nixon Park](/wiki/Erna_Nixon_Park "Erna Nixon Park") is a {{convert\|54\|acre}} natural Florida hammock and nature preserve that features a {{convert\|2345\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} long elevated [boardwalk](/wiki/Boardwalk "Boardwalk") with {{convert\|640\|ft\|m}} of trail that winds through three different [ecosystems](/wiki/Ecosystems "Ecosystems"). Signs on the nature trail identifies many different plant species. A nature center with exhibits is on the site.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brevardparks.com/nature/index.php?pnl\=1\_4\|title\=Brevard County Florida Page Error\|website\=www.brevardparks.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}
### Bird and turtle habitats
The [brown pelican](/wiki/Brown_pelican "Brown pelican"), [wood stork](/wiki/Wood_stork "Wood stork"), [snowy egret](/wiki/Snowy_egret "Snowy egret"), [great blue heron](/wiki/Great_blue_heron "Great blue heron") and [loggerhead sea turtles](/wiki/Loggerhead_sea_turtle "Loggerhead sea turtle") are endangered species present in Brevard.<http://www.nbbd.com/godo/pinwr/PelicanIsland.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}}
The Space Coast contains most of the sites included in the Florida East Coast portion of the "[Great Florida Birding Trail](/wiki/Great_Florida_Birding_Trail "Great Florida Birding Trail")."[Great Florida Birding Trail \- Winter 1999 Trail Update](http://floridabirdingtrail.com/updtwntr99.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729002033/http://floridabirdingtrail.com/updtwntr99\.htm \|date\=2007\-07\-29 }}
The Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival (Space Coast Flyways Festival) is held in January.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nbbd.com/fly/\|title\=Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival\|website\=www.nbbd.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}} It attracts about 5,000 attendees,{{Cite news \| first\=Jim \| last\=Waymer \| title\=Up in the air \| url\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20140120/NEWS01/301200005/Up\-air\-Will\-languishing\-lagoon\-lower\-bird\-numbers\-\| newspaper\=Florida Today \| location\=Melbourne, Florida\| pages\= 1A \| date\=January 20, 2014 \| access\-date\=January 31, 2014}} the third largest in the US.
The Welcome Back Songbirds Festival is held at the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge in April.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nbbd.com/npr/miwa/Habi\-Chat/03summer\-habichat.pdf\|title\=Microsoft Word \- 3F870F38\-20F0\-2010CD.doc\|website\=nbbd.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}}
In 1987, Brevard hosted the last [dusky seaside sparrow](/wiki/Dusky_seaside_sparrow "Dusky seaside sparrow"), now extinct.[extinct species](http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1999/projects/group4/Decker/extinct.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808024153/http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1999/projects/group4/Decker/extinct.html \|date\=2007\-08\-08 }} There have been only two such avian failures since listing of endangered species began in 1973\. This event has presented a challenge to ensure that other environmental concerns are addressed in a timely manner.
The [Florida scrub jay](/wiki/Florida_scrub_jay "Florida scrub jay") has been thought to be threatened in the county for many years, because the species is territorial and cannot move to better grounds when its habitat is jeopardized. In 2009, the [Brevard Zoo](/wiki/Brevard_Zoo "Brevard Zoo") is moving the remaining 15 scrub jay families native to [Palm Bay](/wiki/Palm_Bay%2C_Florida "Palm Bay, Florida") to Buck Lake Conservation Area in [Mims](/wiki/Mims%2C_Florida "Mims, Florida").{{cite news \| first\=Jim \| last\=Waymer \| title\=A new home, new hope for scrub jay \| url\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20091220/NEWS01/912200323/1010/NEWS0302/A\+new\+home\+\+new\+hope\+for\+scrub\+jay \| publisher\=Florida Today \| location\=Melbourne, Florida \| pages\=1A \| date\=20 December 2009 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105170628/http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20091220/NEWS01/912200323/1010/news0302/A\+new\+home\+\+new\+hope\+for\+scrub\+jay \| archive\-date\=5 January 2010 \| url\-status\=dead \| df\=dmy\-all }}
In 2010, officials rescued 3,000 [loggerhead turtles](/wiki/Loggerhead_turtle "Loggerhead turtle") from [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia "Hypothermia"), brought about by unseasonably cold weather in early January.{{cite news \| first\=Brian \| last\=Scoloff \| title\=Warmed up turtles off and paddling \| url\=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US\_SEA\_TURTLES\_COLD?SITE\=KMIZTV\&SECTION\=HOME\&TEMPLATE\=DEFAULT \| work\=Florida Today \| agency\=Associated Press \| location\=Melbourne, Florida \| pages\=6B \| date\=16 January 2010 }}{{dead link\|date\=September 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
### Floral pests
Native flora is threatened by various [invasive plants](/wiki/List_of_invasive_species "List of invasive species"), including the Brazilian pepper (*[Schinus terebinthifolius](/wiki/Schinus_terebinthifolius "Schinus terebinthifolius")*).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eelbrevard.com/pubs/pepperfree2003\.pdf\|title\=Brevard County Florida Page Error\|website\=www.eelbrevard.com\|access\-date\=7 August 2018}} Possession and cultivation of this tree is illegal. Large numbers of volunteers periodically cut down these invaders, particularly along waterways. The Australian pine (*[Casuarina](/wiki/Casuarina "Casuarina")* spp.) is being actively attacked.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090110/NEWS01/901100317/1006 \|title\= \|website\=www.floridatoday.com \|access\-date\=January 10, 2009}}{{title missing\|date\=May 2022}}
Other foreign pests include the Asian [ambrosia beetle](/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle "Ambrosia beetle") (*[Xyleborus glabratus](/wiki/Xyleborus_glabratus "Xyleborus glabratus")*) [threatens](/wiki/Laurel_wilt "Laurel wilt") the local [avocado](/wiki/Avocado "Avocado") industry and redbay trees (*[Persea](/wiki/Persea "Persea") [borbonia](/wiki/Persea_borbonia "Persea borbonia")*).[http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090128/NEWS01/901280314/1006/news01\&referrer\=NEWSFRONTCAROUSEL](http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090128/NEWS01/901280314/1006/news01&referrer=NEWSFRONTCAROUSEL) The fungus they carry destroyed 95% of redbays in the county by 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://brevard.ifas.ufl.edu/PDF/Newsletter\_JulAug2009\.pdf \|title\=Be on the lookout for avocado problems \|author\=Linda Seals \|date\=July 2009 \|work\=Ag and More \|publisher\=Brevard County Extension Service \|page\=5 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616094834/http://brevard.ifas.ufl.edu/PDF/Newsletter\_JulAug2009\.pdf \|archive\-date\=June 16, 2010 }}
|
[
"Land preservation and animal habitats\n-------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Pine [flatwoods](/wiki/Flatwood \"Flatwood\") and [sand pine](/wiki/Sand_pine \"Sand pine\") [scrub](/wiki/Florida_scrub \"Florida scrub\")There](/wiki/File:Eel_scrub.jpg \"Eel scrub.jpg\") are a number of wildlife refuges in the county: the [Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Merritt_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge\"), the [Canaveral National Seashore](/wiki/Canaveral_National_Seashore \"Canaveral National Seashore\"), the [St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/St._Johns_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge\"), and the [Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Archie_Carr_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dodpif.org/iba/CapeCanaveralAirStn\\_ABC.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726192113/http://www.dodpif.org/iba/CapeCanaveralAirStn\\_ABC.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2007 }}[Caribbean Conservation \\& Sea Turtle Survival League :: CCC's Sea Turtle Survival League Programs \\& Projects](http://www.cccturtle.org/florida.php?page=carrref) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005144112/http://www.cccturtle.org/florida.php?page\\=carrref \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-05 }}[Saint Johns National Wildlife Refuge \\- Merritt Island NWR, Titusville, Florida](http://www.fws.gov/merrittisland/subrefuges/SJ.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922070825/http://www.fws.gov/merrittisland/subrefuges/SJ.html \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-22 }}",
"### Environmentally Endangered Land Program",
"Local taxes support an Environmentally Endangered Land (EEL) Program to protect environmentally sensitive areas. The 395\\-acre Malabar Scrub Sanctuary located in Malabar, Florida. [https://www.alltrails.com/trail/us/florida/malabar\\-scrub](https://www.alltrails.com/trail/us/florida/malabar-scrub) Malabar is also a Trail Town. The {{convert\\|470\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} Enchanted Forest in [Titusville](/wiki/Titusville%2C_Florida \"Titusville, Florida\") was the first land set aside under this program. It preserves a significant sample of the natural communities that were originally found in this region, including [xeric](/wiki/Xeric \"Xeric\") oak scrub, mature [hardwood forests](/wiki/Hardwood_forests \"Hardwood forests\"), [wetlands](/wiki/Wetland \"Wetland\") and [pine](/wiki/Pine \"Pine\") [flatwoods](/wiki/Flatwoods \"Flatwoods\").[Environmentally Endangered Lands Program: ENCHANTED FOREST SANCTUARY](http://efs.eelbrevard.com/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504140232/http://efs.eelbrevard.com/ \\|date\\=2009\\-05\\-04 }} A recent controversy was solved when the County decided to rehire the [Nature Conservancy](/wiki/Nature_Conservancy \"Nature Conservancy\") to negotiate the purchase of EEL acquisitions.",
"The Management \\& Education Center at The Enchanted Forest Sanctuary in Titusville, is the EEL Program's first regional educational facility. The EEL Program was established in 1990 to protect the natural habitats of Brevard County by acquiring environmentally sensitive lands for conservation, passive recreation, and environmental education. This was made possible by citizens who voted to tax themselves up to $55 million for the acquisition and maintenance of Brevard's natural areas. Residents reaffirmed the EEL Program in 2004 under a second referendum to protect the natural habitats within Brevard County by the acquisition of environmentally sensitive lands through a willing seller program for the purpose of conservation, passive recreation, and environmental education.\nTo maximize the funding, the EEL Program forms partnerships with federal, state and local agencies that are committed to the protection of natural resources and our long\\-term quality of life. EEL sanctuaries are managed to preserve native habitats and the plants and animals that live there.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eelbrevard.com/\\|title\\=EEL Program Home\\|website\\=www.eelbrevard.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/eelbrevard\\|title\\=EEL Program Space Coast, FL\\|website\\=Flickr\\|date\\=7 May 2009\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}",
"As of 2010, there have been {{convert\\|37\\|mi2\\|km2}} purchased under the EEL program.{{Cite news \\| first\\=Matt \\| last\\=Reed \\| title\\=Watchdog column:EEL, chief explains process and prices \\| publisher\\=Florida Today \\| location\\=Melbourne, Florida \\| pages\\= 1B \\| date\\=18 March 2010 }}",
"### Barrier Island Center",
"In 2008, the county built a $3 million {{convert\\|5700\\|sqft\\|m2\\|0}} building south of [Melbourne Beach, Florida](/wiki/Melbourne_Beach%2C_Florida \"Melbourne Beach, Florida\"). Barrier Island Center is a sanctuary management and education center.{{cite book \\| author \\= White, George \\|title \\= The Center opened in May 2008 \\| publisher \\= Florida Today \\| date \\= January 14, 2008}} The {{convert\\|5700\\|sqft\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} facility {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.barrierislandcenter.com/\\|title\\=Barrier Island Sanctuary\\|website\\=www.barrierislandcenter.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}} hosts environmental programs and features an interactive exhibit and presentation hall. Programs include educational projects, beach cleanups, and guided hikes on the Barrier Island Trail.",
"### Merritt Island Wildlife Refuge",
"The {{convert\\|140000\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge provides and opportunity to observe animals in their natural habitat. It is home to many species of birds, [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar \"Wild boar\"), [white\\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer \"White-tailed deer\"), [American alligators](/wiki/American_alligator \"American alligator\"), [bobcats](/wiki/Bobcat \"Bobcat\"), [nine\\-banded armadillos](/wiki/Nine-banded_armadillo \"Nine-banded armadillo\") and other creatures . There are nature trails, a US Ranger Nature Center and a {{convert\\|7\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} scenic drive through a wild bird habitat.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nbbd.com/godo/minwr/\\|title\\=Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge \\- Titusville Florida\\|website\\=www.nbbd.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}",
"### Enchanted Forest Sanctuary",
"The Enchanted Forest Sanctuary preserves a diversity of the natural [habitats](/wiki/Habitat \"Habitat\") found on the Space Coast. Several miles of hiking trails pass through the natural environment of the Sanctuary. Plant life in the Sanctuary includes both [temperate](/wiki/Temperate \"Temperate\") (northern) and [subtropical](/wiki/Subtropical \"Subtropical\") (southern) species which grow here together. There are five basic habitat types in the Enchanted Forest Sanctuary: oak, scrub, [mesic](/wiki/Mesic_habitat \"Mesic habitat\") and [hydric](/wiki/Hydric \"Hydric\") [hammock](/wiki/Hammock_%28ecology%29 \"Hammock (ecology)\"), wet prairie, and pine flatwood. Wildlife species found here include the [eastern indigo snake](/wiki/Eastern_indigo_snake \"Eastern indigo snake\"), [Florida scrub lizard](/wiki/Florida_scrub_lizard \"Florida scrub lizard\"), [gopher tortoise](/wiki/Gopherus_polyphemus \"Gopherus polyphemus\"), [white\\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer \"White-tailed deer\"), and bobcat.",
"Every April, the Friends of the Enchanted Forest present \"[Earth Day](/wiki/Earth_Day \"Earth Day\") Family Fun Fest.\" About 800 attend.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nbbd.com/godo/ef/friends/index.html\\|title\\=Friends of the Enchanted Forest, a Nature Sanctuary\\|website\\=www.nbbd.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}",
"### Erna Nixon Park",
"The [Erna Nixon Park](/wiki/Erna_Nixon_Park \"Erna Nixon Park\") is a {{convert\\|54\\|acre}} natural Florida hammock and nature preserve that features a {{convert\\|2345\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} long elevated [boardwalk](/wiki/Boardwalk \"Boardwalk\") with {{convert\\|640\\|ft\\|m}} of trail that winds through three different [ecosystems](/wiki/Ecosystems \"Ecosystems\"). Signs on the nature trail identifies many different plant species. A nature center with exhibits is on the site.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brevardparks.com/nature/index.php?pnl\\=1\\_4\\|title\\=Brevard County Florida Page Error\\|website\\=www.brevardparks.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}",
"### Bird and turtle habitats",
"The [brown pelican](/wiki/Brown_pelican \"Brown pelican\"), [wood stork](/wiki/Wood_stork \"Wood stork\"), [snowy egret](/wiki/Snowy_egret \"Snowy egret\"), [great blue heron](/wiki/Great_blue_heron \"Great blue heron\") and [loggerhead sea turtles](/wiki/Loggerhead_sea_turtle \"Loggerhead sea turtle\") are endangered species present in Brevard.<http://www.nbbd.com/godo/pinwr/PelicanIsland.pdf> {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}",
"The Space Coast contains most of the sites included in the Florida East Coast portion of the \"[Great Florida Birding Trail](/wiki/Great_Florida_Birding_Trail \"Great Florida Birding Trail\").\"[Great Florida Birding Trail \\- Winter 1999 Trail Update](http://floridabirdingtrail.com/updtwntr99.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729002033/http://floridabirdingtrail.com/updtwntr99\\.htm \\|date\\=2007\\-07\\-29 }}",
"The Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival (Space Coast Flyways Festival) is held in January.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nbbd.com/fly/\\|title\\=Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival\\|website\\=www.nbbd.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}} It attracts about 5,000 attendees,{{Cite news \\| first\\=Jim \\| last\\=Waymer \\| title\\=Up in the air \\| url\\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20140120/NEWS01/301200005/Up\\-air\\-Will\\-languishing\\-lagoon\\-lower\\-bird\\-numbers\\-\\| newspaper\\=Florida Today \\| location\\=Melbourne, Florida\\| pages\\= 1A \\| date\\=January 20, 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=January 31, 2014}} the third largest in the US.",
"The Welcome Back Songbirds Festival is held at the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge in April.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nbbd.com/npr/miwa/Habi\\-Chat/03summer\\-habichat.pdf\\|title\\=Microsoft Word \\- 3F870F38\\-20F0\\-2010CD.doc\\|website\\=nbbd.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}}",
"In 1987, Brevard hosted the last [dusky seaside sparrow](/wiki/Dusky_seaside_sparrow \"Dusky seaside sparrow\"), now extinct.[extinct species](http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1999/projects/group4/Decker/extinct.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808024153/http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1999/projects/group4/Decker/extinct.html \\|date\\=2007\\-08\\-08 }} There have been only two such avian failures since listing of endangered species began in 1973\\. This event has presented a challenge to ensure that other environmental concerns are addressed in a timely manner.",
"The [Florida scrub jay](/wiki/Florida_scrub_jay \"Florida scrub jay\") has been thought to be threatened in the county for many years, because the species is territorial and cannot move to better grounds when its habitat is jeopardized. In 2009, the [Brevard Zoo](/wiki/Brevard_Zoo \"Brevard Zoo\") is moving the remaining 15 scrub jay families native to [Palm Bay](/wiki/Palm_Bay%2C_Florida \"Palm Bay, Florida\") to Buck Lake Conservation Area in [Mims](/wiki/Mims%2C_Florida \"Mims, Florida\").{{cite news \\| first\\=Jim \\| last\\=Waymer \\| title\\=A new home, new hope for scrub jay \\| url\\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20091220/NEWS01/912200323/1010/NEWS0302/A\\+new\\+home\\+\\+new\\+hope\\+for\\+scrub\\+jay \\| publisher\\=Florida Today \\| location\\=Melbourne, Florida \\| pages\\=1A \\| date\\=20 December 2009 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105170628/http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20091220/NEWS01/912200323/1010/news0302/A\\+new\\+home\\+\\+new\\+hope\\+for\\+scrub\\+jay \\| archive\\-date\\=5 January 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"In 2010, officials rescued 3,000 [loggerhead turtles](/wiki/Loggerhead_turtle \"Loggerhead turtle\") from [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia \"Hypothermia\"), brought about by unseasonably cold weather in early January.{{cite news \\| first\\=Brian \\| last\\=Scoloff \\| title\\=Warmed up turtles off and paddling \\| url\\=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US\\_SEA\\_TURTLES\\_COLD?SITE\\=KMIZTV\\&SECTION\\=HOME\\&TEMPLATE\\=DEFAULT \\| work\\=Florida Today \\| agency\\=Associated Press \\| location\\=Melbourne, Florida \\| pages\\=6B \\| date\\=16 January 2010 }}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"### Floral pests",
"Native flora is threatened by various [invasive plants](/wiki/List_of_invasive_species \"List of invasive species\"), including the Brazilian pepper (*[Schinus terebinthifolius](/wiki/Schinus_terebinthifolius \"Schinus terebinthifolius\")*).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eelbrevard.com/pubs/pepperfree2003\\.pdf\\|title\\=Brevard County Florida Page Error\\|website\\=www.eelbrevard.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2018}} Possession and cultivation of this tree is illegal. Large numbers of volunteers periodically cut down these invaders, particularly along waterways. The Australian pine (*[Casuarina](/wiki/Casuarina \"Casuarina\")* spp.) is being actively attacked.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090110/NEWS01/901100317/1006 \\|title\\= \\|website\\=www.floridatoday.com \\|access\\-date\\=January 10, 2009}}{{title missing\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"Other foreign pests include the Asian [ambrosia beetle](/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle \"Ambrosia beetle\") (*[Xyleborus glabratus](/wiki/Xyleborus_glabratus \"Xyleborus glabratus\")*) [threatens](/wiki/Laurel_wilt \"Laurel wilt\") the local [avocado](/wiki/Avocado \"Avocado\") industry and redbay trees (*[Persea](/wiki/Persea \"Persea\") [borbonia](/wiki/Persea_borbonia \"Persea borbonia\")*).[http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090128/NEWS01/901280314/1006/news01\\&referrer\\=NEWSFRONTCAROUSEL](http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20090128/NEWS01/901280314/1006/news01&referrer=NEWSFRONTCAROUSEL) The fungus they carry destroyed 95% of redbays in the county by 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://brevard.ifas.ufl.edu/PDF/Newsletter\\_JulAug2009\\.pdf \\|title\\=Be on the lookout for avocado problems \\|author\\=Linda Seals \\|date\\=July 2009 \\|work\\=Ag and More \\|publisher\\=Brevard County Extension Service \\|page\\=5 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616094834/http://brevard.ifas.ufl.edu/PDF/Newsletter\\_JulAug2009\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=June 16, 2010 }}",
""
] |
Football
--------
During the 1880s Hewitt and other Point McLeay Mission Indigenous Australians would travel to Adelaide to play Australian rules football matches against city teams.{{cite news\|date\=28 April 1923\|title\=Kensington—Old and New\|volume\=LXXX\|page\=14\|newspaper\=\[\[The Observer (Adelaide)\|Observer]]\|issue\=5,961\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article165701156\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=18 January 2022}} During their stays in Adelaide the Point McLeay players would often sleep under the trees at [Unley Park](/wiki/Unley_Park%2C_South_Australia "Unley Park, South Australia").
### Strathalbyn plays Point McLeay (1884\)
On 26 July 1884 the first game between the Strathalbyn Football Club and Point McLeay, in Strathalbyn.{{cite news\|date\=31 July 1884\|title\=Football Notes.\|volume\=XVII\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Southern Argus]]\|issue\=960\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article96928620\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Strathalbyn won this first encounter five goals to nil with Hewitt named among the best players for Point Mcleay. On 2 August 1884 Strathalbyn travelled to Milang to play the footballers of Point McLeay.{{cite news\|date\=7 August 1884\|title\=Football Notes.\|volume\=XVII\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Southern Argus]]\|issue\=961\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article96928207\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Strahyalbyn won the game whilst Hewitt was named among Point McLeay's best players. On 16 August 1884 a rematch between Strathalbyn and Point McLeay took place, this time in [Strathalbyn](/wiki/Strathalbyn%2C_South_Australia "Strathalbyn, South Australia").{{cite news\|date\=21 August 1884\|title\=Football Notes.\|volume\=XVII\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Southern Argus]]\|issue\=963\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article96927773\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Strathalbyn won the game two goals, six behinds to Point McLeay's five behinds. Hewitt was named as one of Point McLeay's best players.
### Exhibition games (1885\)
On 29 May 1885 a football match on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") was organised by the SAFA between an All\-Indigenous team (titled 'Aboriginals') captained by Hewitt and a combined team (titled 'Wanderers') selected by retired [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club "Port Adelaide Football Club") player [Thomas Smith](/wiki/Thomas_Smith_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Thomas Smith (Australian footballer)") composed of players from Port Juniors, LeFevre Peninsula, Fitzroy and Kingston.{{cite news\|date\=30 May 1885\|title\=Wanderers v Aboriginals\|volume\=XLII\|page\=20\|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]]\|issue\=2278\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article160739293\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=18 January 2022}} The 'Wanderers' side benefited by the inclusion of James "Joker" Hall and Harold Haldane of [South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club "South Adelaide Football Club") and George McKee and Edward "Ted" Woods of [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club").{{cite news\|date\=30 May 1885\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XVII\|page\=6\|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\|Evening Journal]]\|issue\=4992\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article198396842\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Meanwhile, the 'Aboriginals' side, predominantly made up of those from Point McLeay, was supplemented by six Indigenous player from the [LeFevre Peninsula](/wiki/Lefevre_Peninsula "Lefevre Peninsula").{{cite news\|date\=30 May 1885\|title\=The Adelaide Oval.\|volume\=XLII\|page\=20\|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]]\|issue\=2278\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article160739293\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} Before the game started there was some criticism that the Wanderers team would be too strong for the All\-Indigenous team. The match was very close and ended in a draw with most who attended the game holding the view that Hewitt's side had the better of the play.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article36307358 \|title\=Football \|newspaper\=\[\[The South Australian Advertiser]] \|volume\=XXVII \|issue\=8304 \|date\=30 May 1885 \|access\-date\=17 February 2017 \|page\=7 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} The All\-Indigenous team played the match barefoot.{{cite news\|date\=30 May 1885\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XXVII\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[The South Australian Advertiser]]\|issue\=8304\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article36307358\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}}
On 2 June 1885, after the success of the 'Wanderers v Aboriginals' game, another match involving Hewitt and other Indigenous players was organised and played on Adelaide Oval. This second game was advertised as the 'Point MacLeay Blackfellows v. Wanderers'.{{cite news\|date\=2 June 1885\|title\=Advertising\|volume\=L\|page\=1\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=12,028\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article44527191\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} For this second match the Wanderers side featured about 12 prominent SAFA players.{{cite news\|date\=3 June 1885\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XXII\|page\=5 (Afternoon Edition.)\|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]]\|issue\=6,429\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208348787\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Hewitt was again captain of the Point MacLeay team. The Point MacLeay team would win this second match by one goal.
[thumb\|right\|250px\|In 1885 Hewitt's [Point McLeay](/wiki/Raukkan%2C_South_Australia "Raukkan, South Australia") side drew against senior [SAFA](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") side [Old Adelaide](/wiki/Old_Adelaide_Football_Club "Old Adelaide Football Club") (pictured) on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval").](/wiki/File:Adelaide_Football_Club_1886.jpg "Adelaide Football Club 1886.jpg")
In July 1885 the Point McLeay team returned to Adelaide to play another series of games.{{cite news\|date\=6 July 1885\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XXVIII\|page\=6\|newspaper\=\[\[The South Australian Advertiser]]\|issue\=8335\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article36309534\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} By this time the Indigenous Point McLeay players had developed a reputation in Adelaide. On 6 July 1885 a match on Adelaide Oval between Point McLeay and senior SAFA club [Old Adelaide](/wiki/Old_Adelaide_Football_Club "Old Adelaide Football Club") attracted a, then respectable, crowd of 3,000 with Hewitt again captain. The Point McLeay team would impressively record a draw against Old Adelaide.
On 6 July 1885, Hewitt captained the Point McLeay team against a side composed Prince Alfred and Whinham College players with the college team winning by 1 goal.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article36309680 \|title\=Football. \|newspaper\=\[\[The South Australian Advertiser]] \|volume\=XXVIII \|issue\=8338 \|date\=9 July 1885 \|access\-date\=11 November 2017 \|page\=7 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
### South Australian Football Association (1889–1892\)
On the 22 June 1889 Hewitt made his senior debut for Medindie in the [South Australian Football Association (SAFA)](/wiki/South_Australian_National_Football_League "South Australian National Football League") in a game against [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club "Port Adelaide Football Club") at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval").{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article24479169 \|title\=Football \|newspaper\=\[\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\|The Advertiser]] \|volume\=XXXI \|issue\=9573 \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=24 June 1889 \|access\-date\=11 November 2017 \|page\=5 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} In the lead up to this game some of Medindie's senior players were unavailable leading that club to offer Hewitt the opportunity to make his SAFA debut.{{cite news\|date\=24 June 1889\|title\=Football\|volume\=XXXI\|page\=5\|newspaper\=\[\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\|The Advertiser]]\|issue\=9573\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article24479169\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} The [Port Adelaide News](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_News "Port Adelaide News"), a local newspaper at the time, wrote a glowing appraisal of his play stating "The Medindies had their full strength; Hewit, an aboriginal, was a decided acquisition, and although he played barefooted was about the best man amongst them, his alacrity all through the game eliciting the applause of the spectators. He, too, appeared to have a thorough knowledge of the rules of the game, as he never had a mark given against him the whole of the afternoon."{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article195886013 \|title\=Football \|newspaper\=\[\[Port Adelaide News and Lefevre's Peninsula Advertiser]] \|volume\=XII \|issue\=830 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=28 June 1889 \|access\-date\=20 July 2017 \|page\=2 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Hewitt noted with pride after the match that most of the players on his team were members of the Blue Ribbon Army but was disappointed that around nine of the best Point McLeay footballers were unable to play in the match.
On 29 June 1889 Hewitt had retained his place in the Medindie side and was joined by another Indigenous Australian, Alfie Spender, in a match against Norwood on [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide "Kensington Oval, Adelaide").{{cite news\|date\=1 July 1889\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XXI\|page\=4 (Second Edition)\|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\|Evening Journal]]\|issue\=5874\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article199869753\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} Norwood proved too strong for Medindie who failed to score against [the eventual premiers](/wiki/1889_SAFA_Grand_Final "1889 SAFA Grand Final").
On the 13 July 1889 Hewitt and Medindie organised to bring the Point McLeay football team to [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide "Kensington Oval, Adelaide") to play Medindie with boomerang demonstrations during the breaks.1889 'The Spirit Of The Insolvency Laws.', *South Australian Register (Adelaide, SA : 1839–1900\)*, 13 July, p. 5\., viewed 11 Nov 2017, [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article54594346](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article54594346)
In June 1891, the *South Australia Register* highlighted Hewitt's game for Medindie in a win against [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SAFA%29 "Adelaide Football Club (SAFA)") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide "Kensington Oval, Adelaide") insisting that "A word of praise must be given to Harry Hewitt, the aboriginal. Only once during the game, when he got hold of the ball, was he caught and spoiled. His running especially deserves recording, and he ought to prove of great benefit to the Medindies".{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article48104958 \|title\=Football \|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]] \|volume\=LVI \|issue\=13,899 \|date\=1 June 1891 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=7 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Another newspaper, the Adelaide Observer considered him a unanimous best afield for the match.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article160180209 \|title\=Football \|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]] \|volume\=XLVIII \|issue\=2592 \|date\=6 June 1891 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=20 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
On 1 August 1891, Hewitt played for {{AFL Por}} against a travelling [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval").{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article91566123 \|title\=The Fitzroy Matches \|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Chronicle]] \|volume\=XXXIV \|issue\=1,720 \|date\=8 August 1891 \|access\-date\=9 April 2017 \|page\=15 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide's captain [Ken McKenzie](/wiki/Ken_McKenzie_%28footballer%2C_born_1865%29 "Ken McKenzie (footballer, born 1865)") positioned Hewitt in the team's full\-back line at the start of the match.{{cite news\|date\=3 August 1891\|title\=Football.\|volume\=XXVIII\|page\=4\|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]]\|issue\=8,303\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208570324\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} In the third quarter Hewitt "cleverly" set up a goal that was kicked by John McKenzie, brother of Ken.{{cite news\|date\=3 August 1891\|title\=Football.\|volume\=LVI\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=13,953\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article48236906\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} During the game the Port Adelaide supporters voiced their criticism regarding a holding the ball call made against Hewitt by umpire Schaeffer. Port Adelaide defeated Fitzroy by 2 goals.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208570324 \|title\=Football. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]] \|volume\=XXVIII \|issue\=8,303 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=3 August 1891 \|access\-date\=20 July 2017 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
{{S\-start}}
! colspan\="7" \|Harry Hewitt's top level Australian rules football matches
\|\-
!Date
!Team
!Opponent
!Ground
!Crowd
!Result
!
\|\-
\|22 June 1889
\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club "Port Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval")
\|
\|Loss
\|['Football'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article24479169), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 24 June 1889, p. 5\., viewed 12 Nov 2017
\|\-
\|29 June 1889
\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club")
\|[Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide "Kensington Oval, Adelaide")
\|
\|Loss
\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article199869753), *Evening Journal* (Adelaide), 1 July 1889, p. 4\. (SECOND EDITION), viewed 12 Nov 2017
\|\-
\|23 May 1891
\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club")
\|[South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club "South Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval")
\|
\|Loss
\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article24793602), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 25 May 1891, p. 3\., viewed 12 Nov 2017
\|\-
\|30 May 1891
\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SAFA%29 "Adelaide Football Club (SAFA)")
\|[Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide "Kensington Oval, Adelaide")
\|
\|Win
\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article198409931), *Evening Journal* (Adelaide), 1 June 1891, p. 3\. (SECOND EDITION), viewed 12 Nov 2017
\|\-
\|1 August 1891
\|[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club "Port Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Fitzroy (VFA)](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club")
\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval")
\|4000
\|Win
\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article48236906), *South Australian Register* (Adelaide), 3 August 1891, p. 7\., viewed 12 Nov 2017
\|\-
\|2 July 1892
\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club")
\|[South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club "South Adelaide Football Club")
\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval")
\|300
\|Win
\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article25331691), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 4 July 1892, p. 6\., viewed 12 Nov 2017
{{S\-end}}
### Later football years
[thumb\|right\|250px\|The Southern South Australia team that played in the Annual 'North–South' game at the Adelaide Oval on August 18, 1894\. Hewitt is pictured at the far right of the middle row.](/wiki/File:South_football_team_australia.jpg "South football team australia.jpg")
In 1892 Hewitt was selected in a representative side from the Southern half of South Australia to play a team representing the Northern half with players from 31 clubs across the state having players submitted.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208515925 \|title\=Football Notes. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]] \|volume\=XXIX \|issue\=8,558 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=4 June 1892 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=6 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Hewitt's Southern side would win the match with the *South Australian Chronicle* praising the play of himself and fellow Point McLeay teammate Wilson stating that "A feature of the game was the introduction of four natives from the Point Mcleay station, and as far as two of them — J. Wilson and Harry Hewitt are concerned they played the game of the forty in the first half, and subsequently did splendid service for their side. Both are strongly\-built men, play a gentlemanly game, and are most unselfish. Wilson in the ruck and Hewitt roving treated the spectators to some clever football, their agility in nonplussing their opponents and exceedingly smart passing on from one to another being unsurpassed, and the spectators time after time expressed their approval of the brilliancy of their work."{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article92293571 \|title\=North v. South. \|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Chronicle]] \|volume\=XXXV \|issue\=1,767 \|date\=2 July 1892 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=15 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
During 1897 Hewitt played for the Milang Football Club.{{cite journal\|last\=Hughes\|first\=Karen\|date\=12 August 2012\|title\=Micro\-Histories and Things That Matter\|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10\.1080/08164649\.2012\.700260?needAccess\=true\|journal\=Australian Feminist Studies\|volume\=27\|issue\=73\|pages\=272\|doi\=10\.1080/08164649\.2012\.700260\|s2cid\=146796012\|via\=tandfonline}} During that year one third of the Milang team were Indigenous Australians.Hughes, Karen (12 August 2012\). "Micro\-Histories and Things That Matter". *Australian Feminist Studies*. **27** (73\): 273 – via tandfonline. Hewitt also played for Goolwa in 1897\.{{cite news\|date\=3 June 1897\|title\=Football Notes.\|volume\=XXXI\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Southern Argus]]\|issue\=1,650\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article98924303\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=22 January 2022}}
### Football legacy
Hewitt is considered to be the first Indigenous Australian to play in the SANFL, known as the SAFA in 1889\.
In 2020 the Port Adelaide Football Club, for the Australian Football League's (AFL) [Sir Doug Nicholls Indigenous Round](/wiki/Indigenous_Round "Indigenous Round"), produced a guernsey that featured the names of all its Indigenous Australian players up until that point in time, including Hewitt.{{Cite news\|last\=Rucci\|first\=Michaelangelo\|date\=19 August 2020\|title\=Port Gazette: Our Indigenous soul\|work\=portadelaidefc.com.au\|url\=https://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/797714/port\-gazette\-our\-indigenous\-soul\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}}
|
[
"Football\n--------",
"During the 1880s Hewitt and other Point McLeay Mission Indigenous Australians would travel to Adelaide to play Australian rules football matches against city teams.{{cite news\\|date\\=28 April 1923\\|title\\=Kensington—Old and New\\|volume\\=LXXX\\|page\\=14\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Observer (Adelaide)\\|Observer]]\\|issue\\=5,961\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article165701156\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022}} During their stays in Adelaide the Point McLeay players would often sleep under the trees at [Unley Park](/wiki/Unley_Park%2C_South_Australia \"Unley Park, South Australia\").",
"### Strathalbyn plays Point McLeay (1884\\)",
"On 26 July 1884 the first game between the Strathalbyn Football Club and Point McLeay, in Strathalbyn.{{cite news\\|date\\=31 July 1884\\|title\\=Football Notes.\\|volume\\=XVII\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Southern Argus]]\\|issue\\=960\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article96928620\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Strathalbyn won this first encounter five goals to nil with Hewitt named among the best players for Point Mcleay. On 2 August 1884 Strathalbyn travelled to Milang to play the footballers of Point McLeay.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 August 1884\\|title\\=Football Notes.\\|volume\\=XVII\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Southern Argus]]\\|issue\\=961\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article96928207\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Strahyalbyn won the game whilst Hewitt was named among Point McLeay's best players. On 16 August 1884 a rematch between Strathalbyn and Point McLeay took place, this time in [Strathalbyn](/wiki/Strathalbyn%2C_South_Australia \"Strathalbyn, South Australia\").{{cite news\\|date\\=21 August 1884\\|title\\=Football Notes.\\|volume\\=XVII\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Southern Argus]]\\|issue\\=963\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article96927773\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Strathalbyn won the game two goals, six behinds to Point McLeay's five behinds. Hewitt was named as one of Point McLeay's best players.",
"### Exhibition games (1885\\)",
"On 29 May 1885 a football match on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") was organised by the SAFA between an All\\-Indigenous team (titled 'Aboriginals') captained by Hewitt and a combined team (titled 'Wanderers') selected by retired [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Port Adelaide Football Club\") player [Thomas Smith](/wiki/Thomas_Smith_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Thomas Smith (Australian footballer)\") composed of players from Port Juniors, LeFevre Peninsula, Fitzroy and Kingston.{{cite news\\|date\\=30 May 1885\\|title\\=Wanderers v Aboriginals\\|volume\\=XLII\\|page\\=20\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]]\\|issue\\=2278\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article160739293\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022}} The 'Wanderers' side benefited by the inclusion of James \"Joker\" Hall and Harold Haldane of [South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club \"South Adelaide Football Club\") and George McKee and Edward \"Ted\" Woods of [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\").{{cite news\\|date\\=30 May 1885\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XVII\\|page\\=6\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\\|Evening Journal]]\\|issue\\=4992\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article198396842\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Meanwhile, the 'Aboriginals' side, predominantly made up of those from Point McLeay, was supplemented by six Indigenous player from the [LeFevre Peninsula](/wiki/Lefevre_Peninsula \"Lefevre Peninsula\").{{cite news\\|date\\=30 May 1885\\|title\\=The Adelaide Oval.\\|volume\\=XLII\\|page\\=20\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]]\\|issue\\=2278\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article160739293\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} Before the game started there was some criticism that the Wanderers team would be too strong for the All\\-Indigenous team. The match was very close and ended in a draw with most who attended the game holding the view that Hewitt's side had the better of the play.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article36307358 \\|title\\=Football \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The South Australian Advertiser]] \\|volume\\=XXVII \\|issue\\=8304 \\|date\\=30 May 1885 \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2017 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} The All\\-Indigenous team played the match barefoot.{{cite news\\|date\\=30 May 1885\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XXVII\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The South Australian Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=8304\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article36307358\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}}",
"On 2 June 1885, after the success of the 'Wanderers v Aboriginals' game, another match involving Hewitt and other Indigenous players was organised and played on Adelaide Oval. This second game was advertised as the 'Point MacLeay Blackfellows v. Wanderers'.{{cite news\\|date\\=2 June 1885\\|title\\=Advertising\\|volume\\=L\\|page\\=1\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=12,028\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article44527191\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} For this second match the Wanderers side featured about 12 prominent SAFA players.{{cite news\\|date\\=3 June 1885\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XXII\\|page\\=5 (Afternoon Edition.)\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]]\\|issue\\=6,429\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208348787\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Hewitt was again captain of the Point MacLeay team. The Point MacLeay team would win this second match by one goal.\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|In 1885 Hewitt's [Point McLeay](/wiki/Raukkan%2C_South_Australia \"Raukkan, South Australia\") side drew against senior [SAFA](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") side [Old Adelaide](/wiki/Old_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Old Adelaide Football Club\") (pictured) on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\").](/wiki/File:Adelaide_Football_Club_1886.jpg \"Adelaide Football Club 1886.jpg\")\nIn July 1885 the Point McLeay team returned to Adelaide to play another series of games.{{cite news\\|date\\=6 July 1885\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XXVIII\\|page\\=6\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The South Australian Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=8335\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article36309534\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} By this time the Indigenous Point McLeay players had developed a reputation in Adelaide. On 6 July 1885 a match on Adelaide Oval between Point McLeay and senior SAFA club [Old Adelaide](/wiki/Old_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Old Adelaide Football Club\") attracted a, then respectable, crowd of 3,000 with Hewitt again captain. The Point McLeay team would impressively record a draw against Old Adelaide.",
"On 6 July 1885, Hewitt captained the Point McLeay team against a side composed Prince Alfred and Whinham College players with the college team winning by 1 goal.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article36309680 \\|title\\=Football. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The South Australian Advertiser]] \\|volume\\=XXVIII \\|issue\\=8338 \\|date\\=9 July 1885 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2017 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"### South Australian Football Association (1889–1892\\)",
"On the 22 June 1889 Hewitt made his senior debut for Medindie in the [South Australian Football Association (SAFA)](/wiki/South_Australian_National_Football_League \"South Australian National Football League\") in a game against [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Port Adelaide Football Club\") at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article24479169 \\|title\\=Football \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\\|The Advertiser]] \\|volume\\=XXXI \\|issue\\=9573 \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=24 June 1889 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2017 \\|page\\=5 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} In the lead up to this game some of Medindie's senior players were unavailable leading that club to offer Hewitt the opportunity to make his SAFA debut.{{cite news\\|date\\=24 June 1889\\|title\\=Football\\|volume\\=XXXI\\|page\\=5\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\\|The Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=9573\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article24479169\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} The [Port Adelaide News](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_News \"Port Adelaide News\"), a local newspaper at the time, wrote a glowing appraisal of his play stating \"The Medindies had their full strength; Hewit, an aboriginal, was a decided acquisition, and although he played barefooted was about the best man amongst them, his alacrity all through the game eliciting the applause of the spectators. He, too, appeared to have a thorough knowledge of the rules of the game, as he never had a mark given against him the whole of the afternoon.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article195886013 \\|title\\=Football \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Port Adelaide News and Lefevre's Peninsula Advertiser]] \\|volume\\=XII \\|issue\\=830 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=28 June 1889 \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2017 \\|page\\=2 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Hewitt noted with pride after the match that most of the players on his team were members of the Blue Ribbon Army but was disappointed that around nine of the best Point McLeay footballers were unable to play in the match.",
"On 29 June 1889 Hewitt had retained his place in the Medindie side and was joined by another Indigenous Australian, Alfie Spender, in a match against Norwood on [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide \"Kensington Oval, Adelaide\").{{cite news\\|date\\=1 July 1889\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XXI\\|page\\=4 (Second Edition)\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\\|Evening Journal]]\\|issue\\=5874\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article199869753\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} Norwood proved too strong for Medindie who failed to score against [the eventual premiers](/wiki/1889_SAFA_Grand_Final \"1889 SAFA Grand Final\").",
"On the 13 July 1889 Hewitt and Medindie organised to bring the Point McLeay football team to [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide \"Kensington Oval, Adelaide\") to play Medindie with boomerang demonstrations during the breaks.1889 'The Spirit Of The Insolvency Laws.', *South Australian Register (Adelaide, SA : 1839–1900\\)*, 13 July, p. 5\\., viewed 11 Nov 2017, [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article54594346](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article54594346)",
"In June 1891, the *South Australia Register* highlighted Hewitt's game for Medindie in a win against [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SAFA%29 \"Adelaide Football Club (SAFA)\") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide \"Kensington Oval, Adelaide\") insisting that \"A word of praise must be given to Harry Hewitt, the aboriginal. Only once during the game, when he got hold of the ball, was he caught and spoiled. His running especially deserves recording, and he ought to prove of great benefit to the Medindies\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article48104958 \\|title\\=Football \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]] \\|volume\\=LVI \\|issue\\=13,899 \\|date\\=1 June 1891 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Another newspaper, the Adelaide Observer considered him a unanimous best afield for the match.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article160180209 \\|title\\=Football \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]] \\|volume\\=XLVIII \\|issue\\=2592 \\|date\\=6 June 1891 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=20 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"On 1 August 1891, Hewitt played for {{AFL Por}} against a travelling [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article91566123 \\|title\\=The Fitzroy Matches \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Chronicle]] \\|volume\\=XXXIV \\|issue\\=1,720 \\|date\\=8 August 1891 \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2017 \\|page\\=15 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide's captain [Ken McKenzie](/wiki/Ken_McKenzie_%28footballer%2C_born_1865%29 \"Ken McKenzie (footballer, born 1865)\") positioned Hewitt in the team's full\\-back line at the start of the match.{{cite news\\|date\\=3 August 1891\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=XXVIII\\|page\\=4\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]]\\|issue\\=8,303\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208570324\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} In the third quarter Hewitt \"cleverly\" set up a goal that was kicked by John McKenzie, brother of Ken.{{cite news\\|date\\=3 August 1891\\|title\\=Football.\\|volume\\=LVI\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=13,953\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article48236906\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} During the game the Port Adelaide supporters voiced their criticism regarding a holding the ball call made against Hewitt by umpire Schaeffer. Port Adelaide defeated Fitzroy by 2 goals.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208570324 \\|title\\=Football. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]] \\|volume\\=XXVIII \\|issue\\=8,303 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=3 August 1891 \\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2017 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"{{S\\-start}}\n! colspan\\=\"7\" \\|Harry Hewitt's top level Australian rules football matches\n\\|\\-\n!Date\n!Team\n!Opponent\n!Ground\n!Crowd\n!Result\n!\n\\|\\-\n\\|22 June 1889\n\\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Port Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\")\n\\|\n\\|Loss\n\\|['Football'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article24479169), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 24 June 1889, p. 5\\., viewed 12 Nov 2017\n\\|\\-\n\\|29 June 1889\n\\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\")\n\\|[Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide \"Kensington Oval, Adelaide\")\n\\|\n\\|Loss\n\\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article199869753), *Evening Journal* (Adelaide), 1 July 1889, p. 4\\. (SECOND EDITION), viewed 12 Nov 2017\n\\|\\-\n\\|23 May 1891\n\\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club \"South Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\")\n\\|\n\\|Loss\n\\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article24793602), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 25 May 1891, p. 3\\., viewed 12 Nov 2017\n\\|\\-\n\\|30 May 1891\n\\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SAFA%29 \"Adelaide Football Club (SAFA)\")\n\\|[Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval%2C_Adelaide \"Kensington Oval, Adelaide\")\n\\|\n\\|Win\n\\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article198409931), *Evening Journal* (Adelaide), 1 June 1891, p. 3\\. (SECOND EDITION), viewed 12 Nov 2017\n\\|\\-\n\\|1 August 1891\n\\|[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Port Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Fitzroy (VFA)](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\")\n\\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\")\n\\|4000\n\\|Win\n\\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article48236906), *South Australian Register* (Adelaide), 3 August 1891, p. 7\\., viewed 12 Nov 2017\n\\|\\-\n\\|2 July 1892\n\\|[Medindie](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club \"South Adelaide Football Club\")\n\\|[Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\")\n\\|300\n\\|Win\n\\|['Football.'](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article25331691), *The Advertiser* (Adelaide), 4 July 1892, p. 6\\., viewed 12 Nov 2017\n{{S\\-end}}",
"### Later football years",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|The Southern South Australia team that played in the Annual 'North–South' game at the Adelaide Oval on August 18, 1894\\. Hewitt is pictured at the far right of the middle row.](/wiki/File:South_football_team_australia.jpg \"South football team australia.jpg\")\nIn 1892 Hewitt was selected in a representative side from the Southern half of South Australia to play a team representing the Northern half with players from 31 clubs across the state having players submitted.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208515925 \\|title\\=Football Notes. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]] \\|volume\\=XXIX \\|issue\\=8,558 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=4 June 1892 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=6 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Hewitt's Southern side would win the match with the *South Australian Chronicle* praising the play of himself and fellow Point McLeay teammate Wilson stating that \"A feature of the game was the introduction of four natives from the Point Mcleay station, and as far as two of them — J. Wilson and Harry Hewitt are concerned they played the game of the forty in the first half, and subsequently did splendid service for their side. Both are strongly\\-built men, play a gentlemanly game, and are most unselfish. Wilson in the ruck and Hewitt roving treated the spectators to some clever football, their agility in nonplussing their opponents and exceedingly smart passing on from one to another being unsurpassed, and the spectators time after time expressed their approval of the brilliancy of their work.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article92293571 \\|title\\=North v. South. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Chronicle]] \\|volume\\=XXXV \\|issue\\=1,767 \\|date\\=2 July 1892 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=15 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"During 1897 Hewitt played for the Milang Football Club.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Hughes\\|first\\=Karen\\|date\\=12 August 2012\\|title\\=Micro\\-Histories and Things That Matter\\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10\\.1080/08164649\\.2012\\.700260?needAccess\\=true\\|journal\\=Australian Feminist Studies\\|volume\\=27\\|issue\\=73\\|pages\\=272\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/08164649\\.2012\\.700260\\|s2cid\\=146796012\\|via\\=tandfonline}} During that year one third of the Milang team were Indigenous Australians.Hughes, Karen (12 August 2012\\). \"Micro\\-Histories and Things That Matter\". *Australian Feminist Studies*. **27** (73\\): 273 – via tandfonline. Hewitt also played for Goolwa in 1897\\.{{cite news\\|date\\=3 June 1897\\|title\\=Football Notes.\\|volume\\=XXXI\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Southern Argus]]\\|issue\\=1,650\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article98924303\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2022}}",
"### Football legacy",
"Hewitt is considered to be the first Indigenous Australian to play in the SANFL, known as the SAFA in 1889\\.",
"In 2020 the Port Adelaide Football Club, for the Australian Football League's (AFL) [Sir Doug Nicholls Indigenous Round](/wiki/Indigenous_Round \"Indigenous Round\"), produced a guernsey that featured the names of all its Indigenous Australian players up until that point in time, including Hewitt.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Rucci\\|first\\=Michaelangelo\\|date\\=19 August 2020\\|title\\=Port Gazette: Our Indigenous soul\\|work\\=portadelaidefc.com.au\\|url\\=https://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/797714/port\\-gazette\\-our\\-indigenous\\-soul\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}}",
""
] |
Cricket
-------
On 15 April 1882 the North Adelaide Cricket Club travelled to Milang to play a team of locals supplemented by some residents of Point McLeay including Hewitt.{{cite news\|date\=17 April 1882\|title\=Cricket. Easter Tour.\|volume\=XIX\|page\=3 (SECOND EDITION)\|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]]\|issue\=5,477\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208257892\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} The Milang and Point McLeay combination defeated North Adelaide by 9 runs. In a match report for this game noted that "Wilson and Hewett (natives) at wicket and point respectively particularly distinguished themselves."[thumb\|right\|250px\|[Murray River](/wiki/Murray_River "Murray River") paddle steamer 'Bourke' transported the Milang Cricket Club players to Point McLeay in 1885](/wiki/File:PS_Bourke%2C_River_Murray%2C_South_Australia%2C_c1886.jpeg "PS Bourke, River Murray, South Australia, c1886.jpeg")
On 9 November 1885 the Milang Cricket Club travelled via a paddle steamer called the 'Bourke' to Point McLeay to play a game against the missions Indigenous population.{{cite news\|date\=19 November 1885\|title\=Milang Cricket Club.\|volume\=XVIII\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Southern Argus]]\|issue\=1028\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article96929527\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} Hewitt took 6 wickets for 12 runs during Milang's second innings. The Point McLeay team won by 16 runs.
[thumb\|left\|250px\|In 1887 Hewitt stayed on the grounds of the [Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition](/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition "Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition") on the same week that he played some cricket matches in Adelaide.](/wiki/File:Jubilee_Exhibition_Building_1885.jpg "Jubilee Exhibition Building 1885.jpg")
On 21 November 1887 a cricket match between the 'Wanderers v. Aboriginals' was played on Adelaide Oval with the latter team made up of players from Point McLeay including Hewitt.{{cite news\|date\=22 November 1887\|title\=Cricket.\|volume\=LII\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=12,800\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article46827928\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} The 'Wanderers' team which won the match included Arthur Ernest Ayers, son of [Henry Ayers](/wiki/Henry_Ayers "Henry Ayers"). On 23 November 1887 the Point McLeay team played the Torrenside Cricket Club on [Jubilee Oval](/wiki/Jubilee_Oval_%28Adelaide%29 "Jubilee Oval (Adelaide)"). It was reported that the Point McLeay residents whilst visiting Adelaide stayed on the [Jubilee Exhibition Building](/wiki/Jubilee_Exhibition_Building "Jubilee Exhibition Building") grounds and were not allowed to leave the area without permission and were not to do so alone.{{cite news\|date\=24 November 1887\|title\=Our Aboriginal Visitors.\|volume\=LII\|page\=5\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=12,802\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article46834507\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} The Point McLeay residents were, in addition to the cricket match, in Adelaide to see the [1887 Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition](/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition "Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition").
In 1892, Hewitt had a batting average of 130 for Point McLeay in the local competition.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article219209888 \|title\=Sporting Notes. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Areas' Express]] \|volume\=XVII \|issue\=1,330 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=13 January 1893 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=2 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} On 15 January 1892 Hewitt played for a side called 'The Federals' against Medindie where he scored 126 runs.{{cite news\|date\=15 January 1892\|title\=Cricket Notes.\|volume\=XXXIV\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\|The Advertiser]]\|issue\=10372\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article24811374\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} On 12 March 1892 Hewitt scored 107 runs, not out, for Point McLeay in a win over [Mount Barker](/wiki/Mount_Barker%2C_South_Australia "Mount Barker, South Australia") in [Littlehampton](/wiki/Littlehampton%2C_South_Australia "Littlehampton, South Australia").{{cite news\|date\=18 March 1892\|title\=Cricket. Mount Barker v. Point MacLeay.\|volume\=12\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[The Mount Barker Courier and Onkaparinga and Gumeracha Advertiser]]\|issue\=598\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article147622345\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} In a match report of the Littlehampton game it was said that "the bowlers did not have much trouble with the other natives, but Hewitt's long stand quite demoralised the team". In light of these performances a regular writer for the South Australian Register wrote under the pseudonym 'Point' showed support for Hewitt writing "Excellent performances these. Go on, Harry, my boy, keep at it, and may you get into an intercolonial before long".{{cite news\|date\=9 April 1892\|title\=Cricket Notes.\|volume\=LVII\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=14,167\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article48232707\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}}
In 1893 Hewitt played in the 'North v. South' match on Adelaide Oval for the latter team.{{cite news\|date\=7 January 1893\|title\=Cricket\|volume\=XXXV\|page\=14\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Chronicle]]\|issue\=1,794\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article92304899\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} In the first innings Hewitt scored 42 runs before being bowled by [John Humphreys](/wiki/John_Humphreys_%28cricketer%29 "John Humphreys (cricketer)").{{cite news\|date\=7 January 1893\|title\=The Adelaide Oval.\|volume\=XXX\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]]\|issue\=8,738\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208377817\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} In the second innings Hewitt lost his wicket on the first ball.{{cite news\|date\=9 January 1893\|title\=Cricket.\|volume\=XXX\|page\=4\|newspaper\=\[\[The Express and Telegraph]]\|issue\=8,739\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article208377961\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} The South team would end up winning the match.
In 1894 an Indigenous cricket team featuring Hewitt trounced a white team in Goolwa 116 to 33\.{{cite news\|date\=28 December 1894\|title\=A Lake Excursion.\|volume\=15\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[The Mount Barker Courier and Onkaparinga and Gumeracha Advertiser]]\|issue\=743\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article147630366\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} Hewitt was the leading runs scorer registering 51\.
In 1895 whilst playing for a Northern Adelaide cricket team known as the Federal eleven against a side representing [Prospect](/wiki/Prospect%2C_South_Australia "Prospect, South Australia"), Hewitt scored 144 not out. During Christmas week in 1895 Hewitt was selected to play on Adelaide Oval in a match between 'South\-West v. South\-East' for the latter side.{{cite news\|date\=20 December 1895\|title\=Parliament.\|volume\=XVIII\|page\=2\|newspaper\=\[\[The Narracoorte Herald]]\|issue\=1,755\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article147092890\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}}
In an 1897 edition of "Cricket Notes" in the *Adelaide Evening Journal*, when discussing local country cricketers in South Australia, he was described as being "The best batsman we met was the evergreen Harry Hewitt at Port Victor, whose batting, bowling, and fielding were worthy of his palmiest days".{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article207894594 \|title\=Cricket. \|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\|Evening Journal]] \|volume\=XXIX \|issue\=8256 \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=1 May 1897 \|access\-date\=21 July 2017 \|page\=7 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} During the 1897\-98 cricket season playing for the Goolwa Cricket Club, Hewitt averaged 64\.75 runs batting and bowled with an economy of 7\.37\.{{cite news\|date\=23 July 1898\|title\=Cricket.\|volume\=LV\|page\=19\|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]]\|issue\=2,964\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162326657\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}}
In July 1898 Hewitt wrote to a [South Australian District Cricket](/wiki/South_Australian_Grade_Cricket_League "South Australian Grade Cricket League") club asking if he could play. In 1898 Hewitt captained the Point McLeay cricket team against a team representing [Clare](/wiki/Clare%2C_South_Australia "Clare, South Australia") in Clare.{{cite news\|date\=7 October 1898\|title\=The Stanley Show.\|volume\=XXX\|page\=2\|newspaper\=\[\[The Northern Argus\|Northern Argus]]\|issue\=2,464\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article97313188\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=18 January 2022}} During a break in the game the Point McLeay players provided boomerang throwing demonstrations.
During Easter in 1899 the [Port Adelaide Cricket Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Cricket_Club "Port Adelaide Cricket Club") travelled to the [Murray Mouth](/wiki/Murray_Mouth "Murray Mouth") via paddle steamer 'Singapore' to play a game against the Goolwa Cricket Club.{{cite news\|date\=7 April 1899\|title\=Cricket.\|volume\=XXXI\|page\=3\|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\|Evening Journal]]\|issue\=8843\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article207918032\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=22 January 2022}} During this match Hewitt played for Goolwa and was said to have been "in good bowling form, and secured the best average". John McKenzie, retired Port Adelaide footballer, was captain of the cricket club at this time.{{cite news\|date\=7 October 1899\|title\=Cricket.\|volume\=LVI\|page\=25\|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]]\|issue\=3,027\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162411383\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=22 January 2022}} When Hewitt played for Port Adelaide in 1891, McKenzie was a teammate.
On 9 February 1901 the [Sturt Cricket Club](/wiki/Sturt_Cricket_Club "Sturt Cricket Club") opened their new pavilion on [Unley Oval](/wiki/Unley_Oval "Unley Oval") with a match against a combined team representing Point McLeay and Point Pierce captained by Hewitt.{{cite news\|date\=11 February 1901\|title\=New Pavilion, Unley Oval.\|volume\=LXVI\|page\=7\|newspaper\=\[\[South Australian Register]]\|issue\=16,925\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article54555583\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=20 January 2022}} On 11 February 1901 the Point McLeay and Point Pierce cricket teams played each other on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") with Hewitt playing for the former.{{cite news\|date\=12 February 1901\|title\=Natives at Cricket.\|volume\=XLIII\|page\=9\|newspaper\=\[\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\|The Advertiser]]\|issue\=13,204\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article4818634\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=21 January 2022}} Point Pierce won this match by 23 runs.
In his last season of cricket for a club representing [Victor Harbor](/wiki/Victor_Harbor%2C_South_Australia "Victor Harbor, South Australia"), Hewitt averaged 70 runs for the season.
### Cricket technique
[thumb\|170px\|Hewitt (right) posing for a photo in Victor Harbor around 1905 with Tommy Wagner (left).{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article164808899 \|title\=Out among the people \|newspaper\=\[\[The Observer (Adelaide)\|The Observer]] \|volume\=LXXXVII \|issue\=4,561 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=20 November 1930 \|access\-date\=21 January 2022 \|page\=56 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}](/wiki/File:Harryhewitt_cricket_victorharbor.jpg "Harryhewitt cricket victorharbor.jpg")
It was said that as a cricketer Hewitt possessed a "very fine [late cut](/wiki/Batting_%28cricket%29%23Cut "Batting (cricket)#Cut") stroke".{{cite news\|date\=22 May 1925\|title\=Football Notes.\|volume\=XIII\|page\=2\|newspaper\=\[\[The Victor Harbor Times And Encounter Bay And Lower Murray Pilot]]\|issue\=663\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article163753036\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=18 January 2022}} Hewitt was described as having an "unusual stance at the wicket, but knew how to hit the ball with considerable power—and where to place it".{{cite news\|date\=1 February 1957\|title\=Natives Death Recalled\|volume\=46\|page\=4\|newspaper\=\[\[Victor Harbour Times]]\|issue\=2279\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article186015082\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}} In regards to his running between the wickets it was stated that "Harry would be at the opposite wicket almost before the other fellow knew what was happening". He was described as a "wonderful" fielder.
> "Harry Hewitt in the realm of sport had few equals. At cricket he was quite an entertainment, especially at the wicket. I often tried to bowl him out, but without success. It was like bowling at a well\-charred stump. Harry with his pants rolled knee high, no boots, standing right in line with the wicket, stern end almost to bowler, head low down, looking over left shoulder, and those flashing black eyes, made the more conspicuous by the large whites showing, was a most formidable object to bowl at."{{cite news\|date\=5 November 1930\|title\=Harry Hewitt\|volume\=XCV\|page\=6\|newspaper\=\[\[The Register News\-pictorial]]\|issue\=27,839\|location\=South Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article53918158\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=19 January 2022}}
|
[
"Cricket\n-------",
"On 15 April 1882 the North Adelaide Cricket Club travelled to Milang to play a team of locals supplemented by some residents of Point McLeay including Hewitt.{{cite news\\|date\\=17 April 1882\\|title\\=Cricket. Easter Tour.\\|volume\\=XIX\\|page\\=3 (SECOND EDITION)\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]]\\|issue\\=5,477\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208257892\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} The Milang and Point McLeay combination defeated North Adelaide by 9 runs. In a match report for this game noted that \"Wilson and Hewett (natives) at wicket and point respectively particularly distinguished themselves.\"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|[Murray River](/wiki/Murray_River \"Murray River\") paddle steamer 'Bourke' transported the Milang Cricket Club players to Point McLeay in 1885](/wiki/File:PS_Bourke%2C_River_Murray%2C_South_Australia%2C_c1886.jpeg \"PS Bourke, River Murray, South Australia, c1886.jpeg\")\nOn 9 November 1885 the Milang Cricket Club travelled via a paddle steamer called the 'Bourke' to Point McLeay to play a game against the missions Indigenous population.{{cite news\\|date\\=19 November 1885\\|title\\=Milang Cricket Club.\\|volume\\=XVIII\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Southern Argus]]\\|issue\\=1028\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article96929527\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} Hewitt took 6 wickets for 12 runs during Milang's second innings. The Point McLeay team won by 16 runs.\n[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|In 1887 Hewitt stayed on the grounds of the [Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition](/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition \"Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition\") on the same week that he played some cricket matches in Adelaide.](/wiki/File:Jubilee_Exhibition_Building_1885.jpg \"Jubilee Exhibition Building 1885.jpg\")\nOn 21 November 1887 a cricket match between the 'Wanderers v. Aboriginals' was played on Adelaide Oval with the latter team made up of players from Point McLeay including Hewitt.{{cite news\\|date\\=22 November 1887\\|title\\=Cricket.\\|volume\\=LII\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=12,800\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article46827928\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} The 'Wanderers' team which won the match included Arthur Ernest Ayers, son of [Henry Ayers](/wiki/Henry_Ayers \"Henry Ayers\"). On 23 November 1887 the Point McLeay team played the Torrenside Cricket Club on [Jubilee Oval](/wiki/Jubilee_Oval_%28Adelaide%29 \"Jubilee Oval (Adelaide)\"). It was reported that the Point McLeay residents whilst visiting Adelaide stayed on the [Jubilee Exhibition Building](/wiki/Jubilee_Exhibition_Building \"Jubilee Exhibition Building\") grounds and were not allowed to leave the area without permission and were not to do so alone.{{cite news\\|date\\=24 November 1887\\|title\\=Our Aboriginal Visitors.\\|volume\\=LII\\|page\\=5\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=12,802\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article46834507\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} The Point McLeay residents were, in addition to the cricket match, in Adelaide to see the [1887 Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition](/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition \"Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition\").",
"In 1892, Hewitt had a batting average of 130 for Point McLeay in the local competition.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article219209888 \\|title\\=Sporting Notes. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Areas' Express]] \\|volume\\=XVII \\|issue\\=1,330 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=13 January 1893 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=2 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} On 15 January 1892 Hewitt played for a side called 'The Federals' against Medindie where he scored 126 runs.{{cite news\\|date\\=15 January 1892\\|title\\=Cricket Notes.\\|volume\\=XXXIV\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\\|The Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=10372\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article24811374\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} On 12 March 1892 Hewitt scored 107 runs, not out, for Point McLeay in a win over [Mount Barker](/wiki/Mount_Barker%2C_South_Australia \"Mount Barker, South Australia\") in [Littlehampton](/wiki/Littlehampton%2C_South_Australia \"Littlehampton, South Australia\").{{cite news\\|date\\=18 March 1892\\|title\\=Cricket. Mount Barker v. Point MacLeay.\\|volume\\=12\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Mount Barker Courier and Onkaparinga and Gumeracha Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=598\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article147622345\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} In a match report of the Littlehampton game it was said that \"the bowlers did not have much trouble with the other natives, but Hewitt's long stand quite demoralised the team\". In light of these performances a regular writer for the South Australian Register wrote under the pseudonym 'Point' showed support for Hewitt writing \"Excellent performances these. Go on, Harry, my boy, keep at it, and may you get into an intercolonial before long\".{{cite news\\|date\\=9 April 1892\\|title\\=Cricket Notes.\\|volume\\=LVII\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=14,167\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article48232707\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}}",
"In 1893 Hewitt played in the 'North v. South' match on Adelaide Oval for the latter team.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 January 1893\\|title\\=Cricket\\|volume\\=XXXV\\|page\\=14\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Chronicle]]\\|issue\\=1,794\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article92304899\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} In the first innings Hewitt scored 42 runs before being bowled by [John Humphreys](/wiki/John_Humphreys_%28cricketer%29 \"John Humphreys (cricketer)\").{{cite news\\|date\\=7 January 1893\\|title\\=The Adelaide Oval.\\|volume\\=XXX\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]]\\|issue\\=8,738\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208377817\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} In the second innings Hewitt lost his wicket on the first ball.{{cite news\\|date\\=9 January 1893\\|title\\=Cricket.\\|volume\\=XXX\\|page\\=4\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express and Telegraph]]\\|issue\\=8,739\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article208377961\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} The South team would end up winning the match.",
"In 1894 an Indigenous cricket team featuring Hewitt trounced a white team in Goolwa 116 to 33\\.{{cite news\\|date\\=28 December 1894\\|title\\=A Lake Excursion.\\|volume\\=15\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Mount Barker Courier and Onkaparinga and Gumeracha Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=743\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article147630366\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} Hewitt was the leading runs scorer registering 51\\.",
"In 1895 whilst playing for a Northern Adelaide cricket team known as the Federal eleven against a side representing [Prospect](/wiki/Prospect%2C_South_Australia \"Prospect, South Australia\"), Hewitt scored 144 not out. During Christmas week in 1895 Hewitt was selected to play on Adelaide Oval in a match between 'South\\-West v. South\\-East' for the latter side.{{cite news\\|date\\=20 December 1895\\|title\\=Parliament.\\|volume\\=XVIII\\|page\\=2\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Narracoorte Herald]]\\|issue\\=1,755\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article147092890\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}}",
"In an 1897 edition of \"Cricket Notes\" in the *Adelaide Evening Journal*, when discussing local country cricketers in South Australia, he was described as being \"The best batsman we met was the evergreen Harry Hewitt at Port Victor, whose batting, bowling, and fielding were worthy of his palmiest days\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article207894594 \\|title\\=Cricket. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\\|Evening Journal]] \\|volume\\=XXIX \\|issue\\=8256 \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=1 May 1897 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2017 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} During the 1897\\-98 cricket season playing for the Goolwa Cricket Club, Hewitt averaged 64\\.75 runs batting and bowled with an economy of 7\\.37\\.{{cite news\\|date\\=23 July 1898\\|title\\=Cricket.\\|volume\\=LV\\|page\\=19\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]]\\|issue\\=2,964\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162326657\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}}",
"In July 1898 Hewitt wrote to a [South Australian District Cricket](/wiki/South_Australian_Grade_Cricket_League \"South Australian Grade Cricket League\") club asking if he could play. In 1898 Hewitt captained the Point McLeay cricket team against a team representing [Clare](/wiki/Clare%2C_South_Australia \"Clare, South Australia\") in Clare.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 October 1898\\|title\\=The Stanley Show.\\|volume\\=XXX\\|page\\=2\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Northern Argus\\|Northern Argus]]\\|issue\\=2,464\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article97313188\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022}} During a break in the game the Point McLeay players provided boomerang throwing demonstrations.",
"During Easter in 1899 the [Port Adelaide Cricket Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Cricket_Club \"Port Adelaide Cricket Club\") travelled to the [Murray Mouth](/wiki/Murray_Mouth \"Murray Mouth\") via paddle steamer 'Singapore' to play a game against the Goolwa Cricket Club.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 April 1899\\|title\\=Cricket.\\|volume\\=XXXI\\|page\\=3\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\\|Evening Journal]]\\|issue\\=8843\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article207918032\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2022}} During this match Hewitt played for Goolwa and was said to have been \"in good bowling form, and secured the best average\". John McKenzie, retired Port Adelaide footballer, was captain of the cricket club at this time.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 October 1899\\|title\\=Cricket.\\|volume\\=LVI\\|page\\=25\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]]\\|issue\\=3,027\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162411383\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2022}} When Hewitt played for Port Adelaide in 1891, McKenzie was a teammate.",
"On 9 February 1901 the [Sturt Cricket Club](/wiki/Sturt_Cricket_Club \"Sturt Cricket Club\") opened their new pavilion on [Unley Oval](/wiki/Unley_Oval \"Unley Oval\") with a match against a combined team representing Point McLeay and Point Pierce captained by Hewitt.{{cite news\\|date\\=11 February 1901\\|title\\=New Pavilion, Unley Oval.\\|volume\\=LXVI\\|page\\=7\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[South Australian Register]]\\|issue\\=16,925\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article54555583\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2022}} On 11 February 1901 the Point McLeay and Point Pierce cricket teams played each other on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") with Hewitt playing for the former.{{cite news\\|date\\=12 February 1901\\|title\\=Natives at Cricket.\\|volume\\=XLIII\\|page\\=9\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\\|The Advertiser]]\\|issue\\=13,204\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article4818634\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}} Point Pierce won this match by 23 runs.",
"In his last season of cricket for a club representing [Victor Harbor](/wiki/Victor_Harbor%2C_South_Australia \"Victor Harbor, South Australia\"), Hewitt averaged 70 runs for the season.",
"### Cricket technique",
"[thumb\\|170px\\|Hewitt (right) posing for a photo in Victor Harbor around 1905 with Tommy Wagner (left).{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article164808899 \\|title\\=Out among the people \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Observer (Adelaide)\\|The Observer]] \\|volume\\=LXXXVII \\|issue\\=4,561 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=20 November 1930 \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022 \\|page\\=56 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}](/wiki/File:Harryhewitt_cricket_victorharbor.jpg \"Harryhewitt cricket victorharbor.jpg\")\nIt was said that as a cricketer Hewitt possessed a \"very fine [late cut](/wiki/Batting_%28cricket%29%23Cut \"Batting (cricket)#Cut\") stroke\".{{cite news\\|date\\=22 May 1925\\|title\\=Football Notes.\\|volume\\=XIII\\|page\\=2\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Victor Harbor Times And Encounter Bay And Lower Murray Pilot]]\\|issue\\=663\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article163753036\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022}} Hewitt was described as having an \"unusual stance at the wicket, but knew how to hit the ball with considerable power—and where to place it\".{{cite news\\|date\\=1 February 1957\\|title\\=Natives Death Recalled\\|volume\\=46\\|page\\=4\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Victor Harbour Times]]\\|issue\\=2279\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article186015082\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}} In regards to his running between the wickets it was stated that \"Harry would be at the opposite wicket almost before the other fellow knew what was happening\". He was described as a \"wonderful\" fielder.",
"",
"> \"Harry Hewitt in the realm of sport had few equals. At cricket he was quite an entertainment, especially at the wicket. I often tried to bowl him out, but without success. It was like bowling at a well\\-charred stump. Harry with his pants rolled knee high, no boots, standing right in line with the wicket, stern end almost to bowler, head low down, looking over left shoulder, and those flashing black eyes, made the more conspicuous by the large whites showing, was a most formidable object to bowl at.\"{{cite news\\|date\\=5 November 1930\\|title\\=Harry Hewitt\\|volume\\=XCV\\|page\\=6\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Register News\\-pictorial]]\\|issue\\=27,839\\|location\\=South Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article53918158\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2022}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Overview of historic development
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Church of Rauris](/wiki/File:Rauris_Kirche.jpg "Rauris Kirche.jpg")
The valley of Rauris is one of the lesser valleys in the Tauern that is permanently populated. Archeological findings show that these passes were used by ancient people near the Rauriser Tauern (Hochtor). A gilt neck\-ring was found on the Maschlalm which originated from the time of [La Tène](/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture "La Tène culture") in about 400 B.C. In the centre of Rauris six silver\-coins were found, of which three show the head of [Philip II of Macedon](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon "Philip II of Macedon"), who reigned 360 to 336 B.C. on the [Balkan](/wiki/Balkan "Balkan").
Further findings are a small Hercules\-statue from Roman\-times, a bronze\-sword from 1300 B.C., older than a scarab discovered from the time of [Ramses II](/wiki/Ramses_II "Ramses II") in about 1200 B.C.
### The settlement
The valley was first settled in the south. This began with the founding of Schwaigen in the 12th century. The present\-day place of Rauris was named after the Gaisbach earlier. It was first mentioned in 1120\. The name "Rurise" appeared for the first time in 1122, when Bishop Heinrich of Freising handed over two yards to his brother Count Friedrich of Peilstein, and marked the whole valley.
### Rauris as a resting point
By 1230, Wörth was an important resting point for people and vehicles passing south over the Tauern ([Seidlwinkl](/wiki/Seidlwinkl "Seidlwinkl")) to the mining\-area in ([Hüttwinkl](/wiki/H%C3%BCttwinkl "Hüttwinkl")).
The valley of Seidlwinkl was the eastern gateway to the Tauern (Hochtor), its advantage being that it could be open for longer. The importance of the valley led to the construction of the original Rauriser Tauernhaus that gave shelter and warmth to passing tradesmen. Much like the existing pass houses in other valleys. The Rauriser Tauernhaus got the right to sell drinks in 1491\.
### Construction of the church in Rauris
In 1203 the delighted Chrysant of Einöd constructed a chapel in honour of St. Michael. In 1339, the reconstruction of the church was applied for and in just 15 years was completed. In documents from 1411, it has been discovered that the church was reconstructed once again. However, there has only been a consecrated and independent parish of Rauris since 1858\. The parish\-church of Rauris is called the Church of Saint Martin and Saint James.
### Gold\-mining
The valley gained providence and wealth through gold\-mining. From 1377 to 1802, Rauris held an independent country and mountain\-court. Mining reached its peak from the 15th to 16th centuries. The houses of the mine\-workers still testify to the affluence of this time with bow\-gates and bay windows. By 1500, the valley had more than 3\.000 inhabitants.
### Construction of the weather station
Gold\-operator [Ignaz Rojacher](/wiki/Ignaz_Rojacher "Ignaz Rojacher"), who lived in the 19th century, built the weather station on [Sonnblick](/wiki/Sonnblick "Sonnblick") (3\.105m / 10\.687 feet) in 1886 as a worldwide first and the then most highly situated meteorological observation station.
The cable car which supplied the weather station on Sonnblick was completed in 1954\. Until then, everything which was required had to be carried from the valley to the summit.
### The 20th century
After gold\-mining almost came to a complete end at the beginning of the 20th century in Raurisertal, attempts were made to try and revive the industry.
However, at the beginning of talks within the Rauris community, proposals to recreate the industry were rejected in fear that it could damage the environment and the region's tourism prospects.
### The Town
In 1478, the name "market town" was used as a title for Rauris. This was confirmed in 1884 by Emperor Franz Josef and again in 1928 more recently.
In 1732, 166 Protestants had to leave the Raurisertal during the Protestant\-expulsion.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Overview of historic development",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Church of Rauris](/wiki/File:Rauris_Kirche.jpg \"Rauris Kirche.jpg\")\nThe valley of Rauris is one of the lesser valleys in the Tauern that is permanently populated. Archeological findings show that these passes were used by ancient people near the Rauriser Tauern (Hochtor). A gilt neck\\-ring was found on the Maschlalm which originated from the time of [La Tène](/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture \"La Tène culture\") in about 400 B.C. In the centre of Rauris six silver\\-coins were found, of which three show the head of [Philip II of Macedon](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\"), who reigned 360 to 336 B.C. on the [Balkan](/wiki/Balkan \"Balkan\").",
"Further findings are a small Hercules\\-statue from Roman\\-times, a bronze\\-sword from 1300 B.C., older than a scarab discovered from the time of [Ramses II](/wiki/Ramses_II \"Ramses II\") in about 1200 B.C.",
"### The settlement",
"The valley was first settled in the south. This began with the founding of Schwaigen in the 12th century. The present\\-day place of Rauris was named after the Gaisbach earlier. It was first mentioned in 1120\\. The name \"Rurise\" appeared for the first time in 1122, when Bishop Heinrich of Freising handed over two yards to his brother Count Friedrich of Peilstein, and marked the whole valley.",
"### Rauris as a resting point",
"By 1230, Wörth was an important resting point for people and vehicles passing south over the Tauern ([Seidlwinkl](/wiki/Seidlwinkl \"Seidlwinkl\")) to the mining\\-area in ([Hüttwinkl](/wiki/H%C3%BCttwinkl \"Hüttwinkl\")).",
"The valley of Seidlwinkl was the eastern gateway to the Tauern (Hochtor), its advantage being that it could be open for longer. The importance of the valley led to the construction of the original Rauriser Tauernhaus that gave shelter and warmth to passing tradesmen. Much like the existing pass houses in other valleys. The Rauriser Tauernhaus got the right to sell drinks in 1491\\.",
"### Construction of the church in Rauris",
"In 1203 the delighted Chrysant of Einöd constructed a chapel in honour of St. Michael. In 1339, the reconstruction of the church was applied for and in just 15 years was completed. In documents from 1411, it has been discovered that the church was reconstructed once again. However, there has only been a consecrated and independent parish of Rauris since 1858\\. The parish\\-church of Rauris is called the Church of Saint Martin and Saint James.",
"### Gold\\-mining",
"The valley gained providence and wealth through gold\\-mining. From 1377 to 1802, Rauris held an independent country and mountain\\-court. Mining reached its peak from the 15th to 16th centuries. The houses of the mine\\-workers still testify to the affluence of this time with bow\\-gates and bay windows. By 1500, the valley had more than 3\\.000 inhabitants.",
"### Construction of the weather station",
"Gold\\-operator [Ignaz Rojacher](/wiki/Ignaz_Rojacher \"Ignaz Rojacher\"), who lived in the 19th century, built the weather station on [Sonnblick](/wiki/Sonnblick \"Sonnblick\") (3\\.105m / 10\\.687 feet) in 1886 as a worldwide first and the then most highly situated meteorological observation station.",
"The cable car which supplied the weather station on Sonnblick was completed in 1954\\. Until then, everything which was required had to be carried from the valley to the summit.",
"### The 20th century",
"After gold\\-mining almost came to a complete end at the beginning of the 20th century in Raurisertal, attempts were made to try and revive the industry.",
"However, at the beginning of talks within the Rauris community, proposals to recreate the industry were rejected in fear that it could damage the environment and the region's tourism prospects.",
"### The Town",
"In 1478, the name \"market town\" was used as a title for Rauris. This was confirmed in 1884 by Emperor Franz Josef and again in 1928 more recently.",
"In 1732, 166 Protestants had to leave the Raurisertal during the Protestant\\-expulsion.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Rocca was born in [Chur](/wiki/Chur "Chur"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/101795\|title\=Giorgio Rocca profile \|website\=Olympedia.org \|publisher\=\[\[OlyMADmen]]\|accessdate\=19 March 2021}} His father is [Italian](/wiki/Italians "Italians") from [Livigno](/wiki/Livigno "Livigno") and his mother is [Romansh](/wiki/Romansh_people "Romansh people") from [Scuol](/wiki/Scuol "Scuol") in the [Lower Engadine](/wiki/Lower_Engadine "Lower Engadine"). He made his debut in the Alpine Skiing World Cup on 6 January 1996 in [Flachau](/wiki/Flachau "Flachau"). However, Rocca broke his right knee and was forced off the tour for a year. In March 1997 he scored his first point\-scoring result in the World Cup, at the [Shigakogen](/wiki/Shigakogen "Shigakogen") slalom. He scored his first top ten finish in November 1998, at the [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen "Aspen") slalom.
One year later Rocca finally secured his first podium finish, scoring a third place in the renowned [Kitzbühel](/wiki/Kitzb%C3%BChel "Kitzbühel") slalom. In 1999 he won the bronze medal at the [Alpine World Skiing Championships](/wiki/Alpine_World_Skiing_Championships "Alpine World Skiing Championships") in [Vail](/wiki/Vail "Vail"). Rocca began to be considered the legitimate heir of Italy's Alberto Tomba, who had just retired. This responsibility however, seemed to crush Rocca and stunted his progress, together with another knee accident.
After two difficult seasons, in 2001 Rocca was again on the podium, with second places in Aspen and [Madonna di Campiglio](/wiki/Madonna_di_Campiglio "Madonna di Campiglio"). In January 2003, after another 2nd in the [Sestriere](/wiki/Sestriere "Sestriere") slalom, Rocca finally won his first World Cup race on the [Lauberhorn](/wiki/Lauberhorn_ski_races "Lauberhorn ski races") piste at [Wengen](/wiki/Wengen "Wengen") in Switzerland. In the [2005 season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup "2004–05 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup") he took two victories at [Chamonix](/wiki/Chamonix "Chamonix") and [Flachau](/wiki/Flachau "Flachau"), and two bronze medals at his home World Championship in [Bormio](/wiki/Bormio "Bormio"), in the slalom and the combined. Rocca won again in February 2005, this time at [Kranjska Gora](/wiki/Kranjska_Gora "Kranjska Gora"), and for a while was in contention for the Slalom World Cup title for the season.{{cite web\|url\=https://data.fis\-ski.com/global\-links/statistics/competitors\-having\-more\-than\-one\-podium.html?place\=\&season\=ALL\§or\=AL\&nbr\=4\&gender\=M\&category\=WC\&positions\=2\&nation\=\&discipline\=ALL\&Submit\=SEARCH\|title\=COMPETITORS HAVING MORE THAN ONE PODIUM\|publisher\=fis\-ski.com\|accessdate\=12 February 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://data.fis\-ski.com/global\-links/statistics/competitors\-having\-more\-than\-one\-podium.html?place\=\&sea\|title\=COMPETITORS HAVING MORE THAN ONE TOP 10 POSITION\|publisher\=fis\-ski.com\|accessdate\=12 February 2018}}
Rocca started the [2005/2006](/wiki/2006_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2006 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season with an impressive series of five wins a row in the first five slalom races. He explained his notable improvements from a psychological point of view, as he had taken advantage of the help of a team of [psychologists](/wiki/Sport_psychology "Sport psychology") to solve the alleged fragility that had thwarted him in past seasons.
Rocca currently lives in [Livigno](/wiki/Livigno "Livigno"). In his career he competed for [C.S. Carabinieri](/wiki/Centro_Sportivo_Carabinieri "Centro Sportivo Carabinieri").
He recited the [Olympic oath](/wiki/Olympic_oath "Olympic oath") at the [2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics_Opening_Ceremony "2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony"). It was at these Olympics that he was hoping to win gold in his strongest event: slalom, after his great success in the world championships, so he decided to focus on this event. He did not enter the Giant Slalom or [Super\-G](/wiki/Super-G "Super-G") as originally planned, however he did compete in the Combined race where he placed 5th with a total time of 3:10\.74\. In the Slalom he was the first starter but he straddled at the second gate, throwing away his chances of being champion.
In January 2010, Rocca confirmed his retirement from competition, bringing forward plans to end his racing career at the end of the season due to his sustaining a groin injury in training which prevented him from competing at the [2010 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics "2010 Winter Olympics").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\-45270020100109 \|title\=Retiring Rocca ruled out of Vancouver \|last\=Meadows \|first\=Mark \|date\=9 January 2010\|editor\-last\=O'Brien \|editor\-first\=John\|website\=\[\[reuters.com]]\|access\-date\=28 January 2018}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Rocca was born in [Chur](/wiki/Chur \"Chur\"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/101795\\|title\\=Giorgio Rocca profile \\|website\\=Olympedia.org \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[OlyMADmen]]\\|accessdate\\=19 March 2021}} His father is [Italian](/wiki/Italians \"Italians\") from [Livigno](/wiki/Livigno \"Livigno\") and his mother is [Romansh](/wiki/Romansh_people \"Romansh people\") from [Scuol](/wiki/Scuol \"Scuol\") in the [Lower Engadine](/wiki/Lower_Engadine \"Lower Engadine\"). He made his debut in the Alpine Skiing World Cup on 6 January 1996 in [Flachau](/wiki/Flachau \"Flachau\"). However, Rocca broke his right knee and was forced off the tour for a year. In March 1997 he scored his first point\\-scoring result in the World Cup, at the [Shigakogen](/wiki/Shigakogen \"Shigakogen\") slalom. He scored his first top ten finish in November 1998, at the [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen \"Aspen\") slalom.",
"One year later Rocca finally secured his first podium finish, scoring a third place in the renowned [Kitzbühel](/wiki/Kitzb%C3%BChel \"Kitzbühel\") slalom. In 1999 he won the bronze medal at the [Alpine World Skiing Championships](/wiki/Alpine_World_Skiing_Championships \"Alpine World Skiing Championships\") in [Vail](/wiki/Vail \"Vail\"). Rocca began to be considered the legitimate heir of Italy's Alberto Tomba, who had just retired. This responsibility however, seemed to crush Rocca and stunted his progress, together with another knee accident.",
"After two difficult seasons, in 2001 Rocca was again on the podium, with second places in Aspen and [Madonna di Campiglio](/wiki/Madonna_di_Campiglio \"Madonna di Campiglio\"). In January 2003, after another 2nd in the [Sestriere](/wiki/Sestriere \"Sestriere\") slalom, Rocca finally won his first World Cup race on the [Lauberhorn](/wiki/Lauberhorn_ski_races \"Lauberhorn ski races\") piste at [Wengen](/wiki/Wengen \"Wengen\") in Switzerland. In the [2005 season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup \"2004–05 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup\") he took two victories at [Chamonix](/wiki/Chamonix \"Chamonix\") and [Flachau](/wiki/Flachau \"Flachau\"), and two bronze medals at his home World Championship in [Bormio](/wiki/Bormio \"Bormio\"), in the slalom and the combined. Rocca won again in February 2005, this time at [Kranjska Gora](/wiki/Kranjska_Gora \"Kranjska Gora\"), and for a while was in contention for the Slalom World Cup title for the season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.fis\\-ski.com/global\\-links/statistics/competitors\\-having\\-more\\-than\\-one\\-podium.html?place\\=\\&season\\=ALL\\§or\\=AL\\&nbr\\=4\\&gender\\=M\\&category\\=WC\\&positions\\=2\\&nation\\=\\&discipline\\=ALL\\&Submit\\=SEARCH\\|title\\=COMPETITORS HAVING MORE THAN ONE PODIUM\\|publisher\\=fis\\-ski.com\\|accessdate\\=12 February 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.fis\\-ski.com/global\\-links/statistics/competitors\\-having\\-more\\-than\\-one\\-podium.html?place\\=\\&sea\\|title\\=COMPETITORS HAVING MORE THAN ONE TOP 10 POSITION\\|publisher\\=fis\\-ski.com\\|accessdate\\=12 February 2018}}",
"Rocca started the [2005/2006](/wiki/2006_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2006 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season with an impressive series of five wins a row in the first five slalom races. He explained his notable improvements from a psychological point of view, as he had taken advantage of the help of a team of [psychologists](/wiki/Sport_psychology \"Sport psychology\") to solve the alleged fragility that had thwarted him in past seasons.",
"Rocca currently lives in [Livigno](/wiki/Livigno \"Livigno\"). In his career he competed for [C.S. Carabinieri](/wiki/Centro_Sportivo_Carabinieri \"Centro Sportivo Carabinieri\").",
"He recited the [Olympic oath](/wiki/Olympic_oath \"Olympic oath\") at the [2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics_Opening_Ceremony \"2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony\"). It was at these Olympics that he was hoping to win gold in his strongest event: slalom, after his great success in the world championships, so he decided to focus on this event. He did not enter the Giant Slalom or [Super\\-G](/wiki/Super-G \"Super-G\") as originally planned, however he did compete in the Combined race where he placed 5th with a total time of 3:10\\.74\\. In the Slalom he was the first starter but he straddled at the second gate, throwing away his chances of being champion.",
"In January 2010, Rocca confirmed his retirement from competition, bringing forward plans to end his racing career at the end of the season due to his sustaining a groin injury in training which prevented him from competing at the [2010 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics \"2010 Winter Olympics\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\\-45270020100109 \\|title\\=Retiring Rocca ruled out of Vancouver \\|last\\=Meadows \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=9 January 2010\\|editor\\-last\\=O'Brien \\|editor\\-first\\=John\\|website\\=\\[\\[reuters.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2018}}",
""
] |
Managerial career
-----------------
### Sutton United
Gradi managed Sutton United from 1976 to 1977\.
### Wimbledon
He took over as manager of [Wimbledon](/wiki/Wimbledon_F.C. "Wimbledon F.C.") in January 1978, helping the [Plough Lane](/wiki/Plough_Lane_%281912%E2%80%9398%29 "Plough Lane (1912–98)") side win promotion from the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division "Football League Fourth Division") in [1978–79](/wiki/1978-79_in_English_football "1978-79 in English football"), although they were relegated after only one season in the [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division"). They were well on course for an immediate return to the Third Division when in February 1981 an offer came for Gradi to manage struggling [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division") side [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C."). Palace chairman [Ron Noades](/wiki/Ron_Noades "Ron Noades") had only recently left Wimbledon himself and saw Gradi as the ideal man to save his new purchase from relegation.{{fact\|date\=August 2021}}
### Crystal Palace
Gradi's time at [Selhurst Park](/wiki/Selhurst_Park "Selhurst Park") was not a success, as he failed to save Crystal Palace from relegation, and he resigned the following November after a disappointing start to the [1981–82](/wiki/1981-82_in_English_football "1981-82 in English football") season.
### Crewe Alexandra
After a spell coaching at Leyton Orient, Gradi returned to management on 9 June 1983, when he accepted an offer to manage [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. "Crewe Alexandra F.C."), a team who regularly finished near the bottom of the Fourth Division and had been forced to apply for re\-election on several occasions in order to avoid slipping into the [Northern Premier League](/wiki/Northern_Premier_League "Northern Premier League") and, since its creation in 1979, the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference "Football Conference"). His first season signings included [Mark Leonard](/wiki/Mark_Leonard_%28footballer%29 "Mark Leonard (footballer)") from [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. "Tranmere Rovers F.C."), [John Crabbe](/wiki/John_Crabbe_%28footballer%29 "John Crabbe (footballer)") from [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. "Hereford United F.C.") and [David Pullar](/wiki/David_Pullar "David Pullar") from [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. "Exeter City F.C."){{cite book\|last1\=Hornbrook\|first1\=Jules\|title\=The Gradi Years\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Jules Hornbrook\|location\=Crewe\|isbn\=0953887707\|page\=14}} as Gradi looked to build an academy structure to develop players that could be sold to help fund the player development programme. Among his first transfer successes were [Dave Waller](/wiki/Dave_Waller "Dave Waller") (sold to [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. "Shrewsbury Town F.C.")), [Gary Blissett](/wiki/Gary_Blissett "Gary Blissett") (sold to [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. "Brentford F.C.")) and [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 "Geoff Thomas (footballer, born 1964)") (sold to Crystal Palace);{{cite book\|last1\=Thomas\|first1\=Geoff\|title\=Riding Through The Storm: My Fight Back to Fitness on the Tour de France\|date\=2008\|publisher\=Hachette\|location\=London}} gradually the club moved forward.
In [1988–89](/wiki/1988-89_in_English_football "1988-89 in English football"), after six seasons of steady progress, they won promotion to end 25 years in the league's basement division. Gradi signed a then unheard\-of ten\-year contract with Crewe.Conn, D. (2005\), p.259\. They went back down again two years later, but in 1994 won promotion to [Division Two](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") and three years after that they reached [Division One](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division") for the first time in their history.
Shortly after the 1994 promotion, Gradi became the League's longest\-serving manager. By 2002 he was one of just two managers, the other being [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson"), to have held their position since before 1990\. He later joined the club's [Board of Directors](/wiki/Board_of_Directors "Board of Directors").
Gradi's contract with Crewe was one of the most controversial in the Football League; it included a clause giving him a percentage of the profit on any player sold to another club.Conn, D. (2005\), p.257\.
#### Talent spotting
{{Quote box\|width\=250\|align\=right\|quote\="Dario is honest, diligent and remarkable. He did a great job at Crewe and proved himself to be one of our best managers."\|source\=\[\[Bobby Robson\|Sir Bobby Robson]]{{cite news\|url\=http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\|title\=Dario Gradi Football Hall of Fame profile\|access\-date\=19 November 2007\|publisher\=English Football Hall of Fame\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115234525/http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\|archive\-date\=15 November 2007\|df\=dmy\-all}}}}
His keen eye for spotting and rearing young talent is what has gained him some recognition in football. He entered into discussions with Portugal's [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica "S.L. Benfica") over the vacant managerial spot in the 1980s, and was linked with the post of [FA](/wiki/The_Football_Association "The Football Association") Technical Director in 1996\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/2331129\.stm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021226011023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/2331129\.stm\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Gradi stays at Crewe\|date\=15 October 2002\|archive\-date\=26 December 2002\|via\=news.bbc.co.uk}}
During the 1980s and 1990s Gradi helped launch the careers of many players who went on to play top division and international football. These include [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 "David Platt (footballer)"), [Rob Jones](/wiki/Rob_Jones_%28footballer_born_1971%29 "Rob Jones (footballer born 1971)"), [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer_born_1964%29 "Geoff Thomas (footballer born 1964)"), [Danny Murphy](/wiki/Danny_Murphy_%28footballer_born_1977%29 "Danny Murphy (footballer born 1977)"), [Ashley Ward](/wiki/Ashley_Ward "Ashley Ward"), [Wayne Collins](/wiki/Wayne_Collins_%28footballer%29 "Wayne Collins (footballer)"), [Seth Johnson](/wiki/Seth_Johnson "Seth Johnson"), [Robbie Savage](/wiki/Robbie_Savage "Robbie Savage") and [Neil Lennon](/wiki/Neil_Lennon "Neil Lennon"). Gradi's success continued into the 2000s, when he helped players including [Rob Hulse](/wiki/Rob_Hulse "Rob Hulse"), [Dean Ashton](/wiki/Dean_Ashton "Dean Ashton"), [David Vaughan](/wiki/David_Vaughan_%28footballer%29 "David Vaughan (footballer)"), [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28footballer_born_1987%29 "Michael O'Connor (footballer born 1987)"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%28footballer_born_1987%29 "Billy Jones (footballer born 1987)"), [Nicky Maynard](/wiki/Nicky_Maynard "Nicky Maynard") and [Ashley Westwood](/wiki/Ashley_Westwood_%28footballer_born_1990%29 "Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1990)").
Crewe Alexandra won the PFA Bobby Moore Fair Play trophy 12 times in 15 years during Gradi's reign.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a%3D108479 \|title\=Crewe Alexandra – We've Won It 12 Times \|access\-date\=9 May 2008 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174651/http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a\=108479 \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016 }}
#### End of managerial career
On 20 April 2007, Gradi announced that with effect from 1 July he would relinquish first\-team responsibilities, becoming technical director while gradually handing over to new first\-team coach [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 "Steve Holland (footballer)"), with Neil Baker remaining as assistant manager. Gradi was then the [longest serving manager](/wiki/List_of_English_Football_League_managers_by_date_of_appointment "List of English Football League managers by date of appointment") of an English Football League club. Gradi told the club website:
> I didn't want to be a 75\-year\-old manager working seven days a week, 52 weeks a year. That is not healthy for the future of the club. I will probably drop dead doing the job at some point but I wanted to put that day off a bit. This is a better way to do things, to introduce this gradual transition because it will take some of the workload off me.{{Cite web \| last \= Times Online and agencies \| title \= Gradi reaches end of the line at Crewe\-Sport\-Football\-League One\-TimesOnline \| work \= Times Online \| access\-date \=20 April 2007 \| date \= 20 April 2007 \| url \= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\_one/article1682979\.ece \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20130505153752/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\_one/article1682979\.ece \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date \= 5 May 2013 \| location\=London}}
On 18 November 2008, Gradi resumed control of Crewe's first team on a caretaker basis after a poor start to the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_in_English_football "2008-09 in English football") season under Steve Holland had left the club bottom of League One.{{Cite web \| title \= Gradi replaces Holland at Crewe\| work \= BBC Sport\| access\-date \=18 November 2008 \| date \= 18 November 2008 \| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/7736343\.stm}} He was in charge for just over a month before [Gudjon Thordarson](/wiki/Gu%C3%B0j%C3%B3n_%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0arson "Guðjón Þórðarson") was announced as his successor on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve "Christmas Eve") 2008\.[Thordarson appointed Crewe boss](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/7799134.stm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227003812/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/7799134\.stm \|date\=27 December 2008 }} BBC Sport; 24 December 2008 Gradi remained in charge of the team for two games during the Christmas period, with Thordarson taking over on 29 December. Following the sacking of Thordarson on 2 October 2009,[Thordarson sacked as Crewe boss](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091002101248/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/8286658.stm) BBC Sport; 2 October 2009 Gradi was again reinstated as caretaker manager which the board of directors then stated would be until further notice.
After returning as manager in 2009, on 10 November 2011 it was announced that Gradi had chosen to step down as manager, returning to his position as Director of Football. Gradi's assistant manager [Steve Davis](/wiki/Steve_Davis_%28footballer_born_1965%29 "Steve Davis (footballer born 1965)"), who had played for Crewe under Gradi from 1983 to 1987, was appointed as manager with immediate effect.[Dario Gradi steps down as Crewe Alexandra manager](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/15675372.stm), BBC Sport, 10 November 2011\. Retrieved on 10 November 2011\.
Gradi announced his retirement from all positions at Crewe Alexandra on 7 October 2019, at the age of 78, ending his 36\-year association with the club.{{cite news \|last1\=Morse \|first1\=Peter \|title\=Dario Gradi retires from positions at Crewe Alex \|url\=https://www.cheshire\-live.co.uk/sport/football/dario\-gradi\-retires\-positions\-crewe\-17044705 \|access\-date\=7 October 2019 \|work\=Cheshire Live \|date\=7 October 2019}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49963883\|title\=Dario Gradi retires from Crewe Alexandra director of football and board roles\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=7 October 2019}}
|
[
"Managerial career\n-----------------",
"### Sutton United",
"Gradi managed Sutton United from 1976 to 1977\\.",
"### Wimbledon",
"He took over as manager of [Wimbledon](/wiki/Wimbledon_F.C. \"Wimbledon F.C.\") in January 1978, helping the [Plough Lane](/wiki/Plough_Lane_%281912%E2%80%9398%29 \"Plough Lane (1912–98)\") side win promotion from the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division \"Football League Fourth Division\") in [1978–79](/wiki/1978-79_in_English_football \"1978-79 in English football\"), although they were relegated after only one season in the [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\"). They were well on course for an immediate return to the Third Division when in February 1981 an offer came for Gradi to manage struggling [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\") side [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\"). Palace chairman [Ron Noades](/wiki/Ron_Noades \"Ron Noades\") had only recently left Wimbledon himself and saw Gradi as the ideal man to save his new purchase from relegation.{{fact\\|date\\=August 2021}}",
"### Crystal Palace",
"Gradi's time at [Selhurst Park](/wiki/Selhurst_Park \"Selhurst Park\") was not a success, as he failed to save Crystal Palace from relegation, and he resigned the following November after a disappointing start to the [1981–82](/wiki/1981-82_in_English_football \"1981-82 in English football\") season.",
"### Crewe Alexandra",
"After a spell coaching at Leyton Orient, Gradi returned to management on 9 June 1983, when he accepted an offer to manage [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. \"Crewe Alexandra F.C.\"), a team who regularly finished near the bottom of the Fourth Division and had been forced to apply for re\\-election on several occasions in order to avoid slipping into the [Northern Premier League](/wiki/Northern_Premier_League \"Northern Premier League\") and, since its creation in 1979, the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference \"Football Conference\"). His first season signings included [Mark Leonard](/wiki/Mark_Leonard_%28footballer%29 \"Mark Leonard (footballer)\") from [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. \"Tranmere Rovers F.C.\"), [John Crabbe](/wiki/John_Crabbe_%28footballer%29 \"John Crabbe (footballer)\") from [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. \"Hereford United F.C.\") and [David Pullar](/wiki/David_Pullar \"David Pullar\") from [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. \"Exeter City F.C.\"){{cite book\\|last1\\=Hornbrook\\|first1\\=Jules\\|title\\=The Gradi Years\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Jules Hornbrook\\|location\\=Crewe\\|isbn\\=0953887707\\|page\\=14}} as Gradi looked to build an academy structure to develop players that could be sold to help fund the player development programme. Among his first transfer successes were [Dave Waller](/wiki/Dave_Waller \"Dave Waller\") (sold to [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. \"Shrewsbury Town F.C.\")), [Gary Blissett](/wiki/Gary_Blissett \"Gary Blissett\") (sold to [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. \"Brentford F.C.\")) and [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Geoff Thomas (footballer, born 1964)\") (sold to Crystal Palace);{{cite book\\|last1\\=Thomas\\|first1\\=Geoff\\|title\\=Riding Through The Storm: My Fight Back to Fitness on the Tour de France\\|date\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Hachette\\|location\\=London}} gradually the club moved forward.",
"In [1988–89](/wiki/1988-89_in_English_football \"1988-89 in English football\"), after six seasons of steady progress, they won promotion to end 25 years in the league's basement division. Gradi signed a then unheard\\-of ten\\-year contract with Crewe.Conn, D. (2005\\), p.259\\. They went back down again two years later, but in 1994 won promotion to [Division Two](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") and three years after that they reached [Division One](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\") for the first time in their history.",
"Shortly after the 1994 promotion, Gradi became the League's longest\\-serving manager. By 2002 he was one of just two managers, the other being [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\"), to have held their position since before 1990\\. He later joined the club's [Board of Directors](/wiki/Board_of_Directors \"Board of Directors\").",
"Gradi's contract with Crewe was one of the most controversial in the Football League; it included a clause giving him a percentage of the profit on any player sold to another club.Conn, D. (2005\\), p.257\\.",
"#### Talent spotting",
"{{Quote box\\|width\\=250\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\"Dario is honest, diligent and remarkable. He did a great job at Crewe and proved himself to be one of our best managers.\"\\|source\\=\\[\\[Bobby Robson\\|Sir Bobby Robson]]{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\\|title\\=Dario Gradi Football Hall of Fame profile\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2007\\|publisher\\=English Football Hall of Fame\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115234525/http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2007\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}}}\nHis keen eye for spotting and rearing young talent is what has gained him some recognition in football. He entered into discussions with Portugal's [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica \"S.L. Benfica\") over the vacant managerial spot in the 1980s, and was linked with the post of [FA](/wiki/The_Football_Association \"The Football Association\") Technical Director in 1996\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/2331129\\.stm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021226011023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/2331129\\.stm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Gradi stays at Crewe\\|date\\=15 October 2002\\|archive\\-date\\=26 December 2002\\|via\\=news.bbc.co.uk}}",
"During the 1980s and 1990s Gradi helped launch the careers of many players who went on to play top division and international football. These include [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 \"David Platt (footballer)\"), [Rob Jones](/wiki/Rob_Jones_%28footballer_born_1971%29 \"Rob Jones (footballer born 1971)\"), [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer_born_1964%29 \"Geoff Thomas (footballer born 1964)\"), [Danny Murphy](/wiki/Danny_Murphy_%28footballer_born_1977%29 \"Danny Murphy (footballer born 1977)\"), [Ashley Ward](/wiki/Ashley_Ward \"Ashley Ward\"), [Wayne Collins](/wiki/Wayne_Collins_%28footballer%29 \"Wayne Collins (footballer)\"), [Seth Johnson](/wiki/Seth_Johnson \"Seth Johnson\"), [Robbie Savage](/wiki/Robbie_Savage \"Robbie Savage\") and [Neil Lennon](/wiki/Neil_Lennon \"Neil Lennon\"). Gradi's success continued into the 2000s, when he helped players including [Rob Hulse](/wiki/Rob_Hulse \"Rob Hulse\"), [Dean Ashton](/wiki/Dean_Ashton \"Dean Ashton\"), [David Vaughan](/wiki/David_Vaughan_%28footballer%29 \"David Vaughan (footballer)\"), [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28footballer_born_1987%29 \"Michael O'Connor (footballer born 1987)\"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%28footballer_born_1987%29 \"Billy Jones (footballer born 1987)\"), [Nicky Maynard](/wiki/Nicky_Maynard \"Nicky Maynard\") and [Ashley Westwood](/wiki/Ashley_Westwood_%28footballer_born_1990%29 \"Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1990)\").",
"Crewe Alexandra won the PFA Bobby Moore Fair Play trophy 12 times in 15 years during Gradi's reign.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a%3D108479 \\|title\\=Crewe Alexandra – We've Won It 12 Times \\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174651/http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a\\=108479 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016 }}",
"#### End of managerial career",
"On 20 April 2007, Gradi announced that with effect from 1 July he would relinquish first\\-team responsibilities, becoming technical director while gradually handing over to new first\\-team coach [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 \"Steve Holland (footballer)\"), with Neil Baker remaining as assistant manager. Gradi was then the [longest serving manager](/wiki/List_of_English_Football_League_managers_by_date_of_appointment \"List of English Football League managers by date of appointment\") of an English Football League club. Gradi told the club website:",
"> I didn't want to be a 75\\-year\\-old manager working seven days a week, 52 weeks a year. That is not healthy for the future of the club. I will probably drop dead doing the job at some point but I wanted to put that day off a bit. This is a better way to do things, to introduce this gradual transition because it will take some of the workload off me.{{Cite web \\| last \\= Times Online and agencies \\| title \\= Gradi reaches end of the line at Crewe\\-Sport\\-Football\\-League One\\-TimesOnline \\| work \\= Times Online \\| access\\-date \\=20 April 2007 \\| date \\= 20 April 2007 \\| url \\= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\\_one/article1682979\\.ece \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20130505153752/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\\_one/article1682979\\.ece \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date \\= 5 May 2013 \\| location\\=London}}",
"",
"On 18 November 2008, Gradi resumed control of Crewe's first team on a caretaker basis after a poor start to the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_in_English_football \"2008-09 in English football\") season under Steve Holland had left the club bottom of League One.{{Cite web \\| title \\= Gradi replaces Holland at Crewe\\| work \\= BBC Sport\\| access\\-date \\=18 November 2008 \\| date \\= 18 November 2008 \\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/7736343\\.stm}} He was in charge for just over a month before [Gudjon Thordarson](/wiki/Gu%C3%B0j%C3%B3n_%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0arson \"Guðjón Þórðarson\") was announced as his successor on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve \"Christmas Eve\") 2008\\.[Thordarson appointed Crewe boss](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/7799134.stm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227003812/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/7799134\\.stm \\|date\\=27 December 2008 }} BBC Sport; 24 December 2008 Gradi remained in charge of the team for two games during the Christmas period, with Thordarson taking over on 29 December. Following the sacking of Thordarson on 2 October 2009,[Thordarson sacked as Crewe boss](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091002101248/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/8286658.stm) BBC Sport; 2 October 2009 Gradi was again reinstated as caretaker manager which the board of directors then stated would be until further notice.",
"After returning as manager in 2009, on 10 November 2011 it was announced that Gradi had chosen to step down as manager, returning to his position as Director of Football. Gradi's assistant manager [Steve Davis](/wiki/Steve_Davis_%28footballer_born_1965%29 \"Steve Davis (footballer born 1965)\"), who had played for Crewe under Gradi from 1983 to 1987, was appointed as manager with immediate effect.[Dario Gradi steps down as Crewe Alexandra manager](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/15675372.stm), BBC Sport, 10 November 2011\\. Retrieved on 10 November 2011\\.",
"Gradi announced his retirement from all positions at Crewe Alexandra on 7 October 2019, at the age of 78, ending his 36\\-year association with the club.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Morse \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=Dario Gradi retires from positions at Crewe Alex \\|url\\=https://www.cheshire\\-live.co.uk/sport/football/dario\\-gradi\\-retires\\-positions\\-crewe\\-17044705 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2019 \\|work\\=Cheshire Live \\|date\\=7 October 2019}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49963883\\|title\\=Dario Gradi retires from Crewe Alexandra director of football and board roles\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=7 October 2019}}",
""
] |
### Crewe Alexandra
After a spell coaching at Leyton Orient, Gradi returned to management on 9 June 1983, when he accepted an offer to manage [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. "Crewe Alexandra F.C."), a team who regularly finished near the bottom of the Fourth Division and had been forced to apply for re\-election on several occasions in order to avoid slipping into the [Northern Premier League](/wiki/Northern_Premier_League "Northern Premier League") and, since its creation in 1979, the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference "Football Conference"). His first season signings included [Mark Leonard](/wiki/Mark_Leonard_%28footballer%29 "Mark Leonard (footballer)") from [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. "Tranmere Rovers F.C."), [John Crabbe](/wiki/John_Crabbe_%28footballer%29 "John Crabbe (footballer)") from [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. "Hereford United F.C.") and [David Pullar](/wiki/David_Pullar "David Pullar") from [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. "Exeter City F.C."){{cite book\|last1\=Hornbrook\|first1\=Jules\|title\=The Gradi Years\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Jules Hornbrook\|location\=Crewe\|isbn\=0953887707\|page\=14}} as Gradi looked to build an academy structure to develop players that could be sold to help fund the player development programme. Among his first transfer successes were [Dave Waller](/wiki/Dave_Waller "Dave Waller") (sold to [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. "Shrewsbury Town F.C.")), [Gary Blissett](/wiki/Gary_Blissett "Gary Blissett") (sold to [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. "Brentford F.C.")) and [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 "Geoff Thomas (footballer, born 1964)") (sold to Crystal Palace);{{cite book\|last1\=Thomas\|first1\=Geoff\|title\=Riding Through The Storm: My Fight Back to Fitness on the Tour de France\|date\=2008\|publisher\=Hachette\|location\=London}} gradually the club moved forward.
In [1988–89](/wiki/1988-89_in_English_football "1988-89 in English football"), after six seasons of steady progress, they won promotion to end 25 years in the league's basement division. Gradi signed a then unheard\-of ten\-year contract with Crewe.Conn, D. (2005\), p.259\. They went back down again two years later, but in 1994 won promotion to [Division Two](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") and three years after that they reached [Division One](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division") for the first time in their history.
Shortly after the 1994 promotion, Gradi became the League's longest\-serving manager. By 2002 he was one of just two managers, the other being [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson"), to have held their position since before 1990\. He later joined the club's [Board of Directors](/wiki/Board_of_Directors "Board of Directors").
Gradi's contract with Crewe was one of the most controversial in the Football League; it included a clause giving him a percentage of the profit on any player sold to another club.Conn, D. (2005\), p.257\.
#### Talent spotting
{{Quote box\|width\=250\|align\=right\|quote\="Dario is honest, diligent and remarkable. He did a great job at Crewe and proved himself to be one of our best managers."\|source\=\[\[Bobby Robson\|Sir Bobby Robson]]{{cite news\|url\=http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\|title\=Dario Gradi Football Hall of Fame profile\|access\-date\=19 November 2007\|publisher\=English Football Hall of Fame\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115234525/http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\|archive\-date\=15 November 2007\|df\=dmy\-all}}}}
His keen eye for spotting and rearing young talent is what has gained him some recognition in football. He entered into discussions with Portugal's [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica "S.L. Benfica") over the vacant managerial spot in the 1980s, and was linked with the post of [FA](/wiki/The_Football_Association "The Football Association") Technical Director in 1996\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/2331129\.stm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021226011023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/2331129\.stm\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Gradi stays at Crewe\|date\=15 October 2002\|archive\-date\=26 December 2002\|via\=news.bbc.co.uk}}
During the 1980s and 1990s Gradi helped launch the careers of many players who went on to play top division and international football. These include [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 "David Platt (footballer)"), [Rob Jones](/wiki/Rob_Jones_%28footballer_born_1971%29 "Rob Jones (footballer born 1971)"), [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer_born_1964%29 "Geoff Thomas (footballer born 1964)"), [Danny Murphy](/wiki/Danny_Murphy_%28footballer_born_1977%29 "Danny Murphy (footballer born 1977)"), [Ashley Ward](/wiki/Ashley_Ward "Ashley Ward"), [Wayne Collins](/wiki/Wayne_Collins_%28footballer%29 "Wayne Collins (footballer)"), [Seth Johnson](/wiki/Seth_Johnson "Seth Johnson"), [Robbie Savage](/wiki/Robbie_Savage "Robbie Savage") and [Neil Lennon](/wiki/Neil_Lennon "Neil Lennon"). Gradi's success continued into the 2000s, when he helped players including [Rob Hulse](/wiki/Rob_Hulse "Rob Hulse"), [Dean Ashton](/wiki/Dean_Ashton "Dean Ashton"), [David Vaughan](/wiki/David_Vaughan_%28footballer%29 "David Vaughan (footballer)"), [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28footballer_born_1987%29 "Michael O'Connor (footballer born 1987)"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%28footballer_born_1987%29 "Billy Jones (footballer born 1987)"), [Nicky Maynard](/wiki/Nicky_Maynard "Nicky Maynard") and [Ashley Westwood](/wiki/Ashley_Westwood_%28footballer_born_1990%29 "Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1990)").
Crewe Alexandra won the PFA Bobby Moore Fair Play trophy 12 times in 15 years during Gradi's reign.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a%3D108479 \|title\=Crewe Alexandra – We've Won It 12 Times \|access\-date\=9 May 2008 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174651/http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a\=108479 \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016 }}
#### End of managerial career
On 20 April 2007, Gradi announced that with effect from 1 July he would relinquish first\-team responsibilities, becoming technical director while gradually handing over to new first\-team coach [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 "Steve Holland (footballer)"), with Neil Baker remaining as assistant manager. Gradi was then the [longest serving manager](/wiki/List_of_English_Football_League_managers_by_date_of_appointment "List of English Football League managers by date of appointment") of an English Football League club. Gradi told the club website:
> I didn't want to be a 75\-year\-old manager working seven days a week, 52 weeks a year. That is not healthy for the future of the club. I will probably drop dead doing the job at some point but I wanted to put that day off a bit. This is a better way to do things, to introduce this gradual transition because it will take some of the workload off me.{{Cite web \| last \= Times Online and agencies \| title \= Gradi reaches end of the line at Crewe\-Sport\-Football\-League One\-TimesOnline \| work \= Times Online \| access\-date \=20 April 2007 \| date \= 20 April 2007 \| url \= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\_one/article1682979\.ece \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20130505153752/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\_one/article1682979\.ece \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date \= 5 May 2013 \| location\=London}}
On 18 November 2008, Gradi resumed control of Crewe's first team on a caretaker basis after a poor start to the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_in_English_football "2008-09 in English football") season under Steve Holland had left the club bottom of League One.{{Cite web \| title \= Gradi replaces Holland at Crewe\| work \= BBC Sport\| access\-date \=18 November 2008 \| date \= 18 November 2008 \| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/7736343\.stm}} He was in charge for just over a month before [Gudjon Thordarson](/wiki/Gu%C3%B0j%C3%B3n_%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0arson "Guðjón Þórðarson") was announced as his successor on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve "Christmas Eve") 2008\.[Thordarson appointed Crewe boss](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/7799134.stm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227003812/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\_alexandra/7799134\.stm \|date\=27 December 2008 }} BBC Sport; 24 December 2008 Gradi remained in charge of the team for two games during the Christmas period, with Thordarson taking over on 29 December. Following the sacking of Thordarson on 2 October 2009,[Thordarson sacked as Crewe boss](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091002101248/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/8286658.stm) BBC Sport; 2 October 2009 Gradi was again reinstated as caretaker manager which the board of directors then stated would be until further notice.
After returning as manager in 2009, on 10 November 2011 it was announced that Gradi had chosen to step down as manager, returning to his position as Director of Football. Gradi's assistant manager [Steve Davis](/wiki/Steve_Davis_%28footballer_born_1965%29 "Steve Davis (footballer born 1965)"), who had played for Crewe under Gradi from 1983 to 1987, was appointed as manager with immediate effect.[Dario Gradi steps down as Crewe Alexandra manager](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/15675372.stm), BBC Sport, 10 November 2011\. Retrieved on 10 November 2011\.
Gradi announced his retirement from all positions at Crewe Alexandra on 7 October 2019, at the age of 78, ending his 36\-year association with the club.{{cite news \|last1\=Morse \|first1\=Peter \|title\=Dario Gradi retires from positions at Crewe Alex \|url\=https://www.cheshire\-live.co.uk/sport/football/dario\-gradi\-retires\-positions\-crewe\-17044705 \|access\-date\=7 October 2019 \|work\=Cheshire Live \|date\=7 October 2019}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49963883\|title\=Dario Gradi retires from Crewe Alexandra director of football and board roles\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=7 October 2019}}
|
[
"### Crewe Alexandra",
"After a spell coaching at Leyton Orient, Gradi returned to management on 9 June 1983, when he accepted an offer to manage [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. \"Crewe Alexandra F.C.\"), a team who regularly finished near the bottom of the Fourth Division and had been forced to apply for re\\-election on several occasions in order to avoid slipping into the [Northern Premier League](/wiki/Northern_Premier_League \"Northern Premier League\") and, since its creation in 1979, the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference \"Football Conference\"). His first season signings included [Mark Leonard](/wiki/Mark_Leonard_%28footballer%29 \"Mark Leonard (footballer)\") from [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. \"Tranmere Rovers F.C.\"), [John Crabbe](/wiki/John_Crabbe_%28footballer%29 \"John Crabbe (footballer)\") from [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. \"Hereford United F.C.\") and [David Pullar](/wiki/David_Pullar \"David Pullar\") from [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. \"Exeter City F.C.\"){{cite book\\|last1\\=Hornbrook\\|first1\\=Jules\\|title\\=The Gradi Years\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Jules Hornbrook\\|location\\=Crewe\\|isbn\\=0953887707\\|page\\=14}} as Gradi looked to build an academy structure to develop players that could be sold to help fund the player development programme. Among his first transfer successes were [Dave Waller](/wiki/Dave_Waller \"Dave Waller\") (sold to [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. \"Shrewsbury Town F.C.\")), [Gary Blissett](/wiki/Gary_Blissett \"Gary Blissett\") (sold to [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. \"Brentford F.C.\")) and [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Geoff Thomas (footballer, born 1964)\") (sold to Crystal Palace);{{cite book\\|last1\\=Thomas\\|first1\\=Geoff\\|title\\=Riding Through The Storm: My Fight Back to Fitness on the Tour de France\\|date\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Hachette\\|location\\=London}} gradually the club moved forward.",
"In [1988–89](/wiki/1988-89_in_English_football \"1988-89 in English football\"), after six seasons of steady progress, they won promotion to end 25 years in the league's basement division. Gradi signed a then unheard\\-of ten\\-year contract with Crewe.Conn, D. (2005\\), p.259\\. They went back down again two years later, but in 1994 won promotion to [Division Two](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") and three years after that they reached [Division One](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\") for the first time in their history.",
"Shortly after the 1994 promotion, Gradi became the League's longest\\-serving manager. By 2002 he was one of just two managers, the other being [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\"), to have held their position since before 1990\\. He later joined the club's [Board of Directors](/wiki/Board_of_Directors \"Board of Directors\").",
"Gradi's contract with Crewe was one of the most controversial in the Football League; it included a clause giving him a percentage of the profit on any player sold to another club.Conn, D. (2005\\), p.257\\.",
"#### Talent spotting",
"{{Quote box\\|width\\=250\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\"Dario is honest, diligent and remarkable. He did a great job at Crewe and proved himself to be one of our best managers.\"\\|source\\=\\[\\[Bobby Robson\\|Sir Bobby Robson]]{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\\|title\\=Dario Gradi Football Hall of Fame profile\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2007\\|publisher\\=English Football Hall of Fame\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115234525/http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/dariogradi.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2007\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}}}\nHis keen eye for spotting and rearing young talent is what has gained him some recognition in football. He entered into discussions with Portugal's [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica \"S.L. Benfica\") over the vacant managerial spot in the 1980s, and was linked with the post of [FA](/wiki/The_Football_Association \"The Football Association\") Technical Director in 1996\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/2331129\\.stm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021226011023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/2331129\\.stm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Gradi stays at Crewe\\|date\\=15 October 2002\\|archive\\-date\\=26 December 2002\\|via\\=news.bbc.co.uk}}",
"During the 1980s and 1990s Gradi helped launch the careers of many players who went on to play top division and international football. These include [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 \"David Platt (footballer)\"), [Rob Jones](/wiki/Rob_Jones_%28footballer_born_1971%29 \"Rob Jones (footballer born 1971)\"), [Geoff Thomas](/wiki/Geoff_Thomas_%28footballer_born_1964%29 \"Geoff Thomas (footballer born 1964)\"), [Danny Murphy](/wiki/Danny_Murphy_%28footballer_born_1977%29 \"Danny Murphy (footballer born 1977)\"), [Ashley Ward](/wiki/Ashley_Ward \"Ashley Ward\"), [Wayne Collins](/wiki/Wayne_Collins_%28footballer%29 \"Wayne Collins (footballer)\"), [Seth Johnson](/wiki/Seth_Johnson \"Seth Johnson\"), [Robbie Savage](/wiki/Robbie_Savage \"Robbie Savage\") and [Neil Lennon](/wiki/Neil_Lennon \"Neil Lennon\"). Gradi's success continued into the 2000s, when he helped players including [Rob Hulse](/wiki/Rob_Hulse \"Rob Hulse\"), [Dean Ashton](/wiki/Dean_Ashton \"Dean Ashton\"), [David Vaughan](/wiki/David_Vaughan_%28footballer%29 \"David Vaughan (footballer)\"), [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28footballer_born_1987%29 \"Michael O'Connor (footballer born 1987)\"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%28footballer_born_1987%29 \"Billy Jones (footballer born 1987)\"), [Nicky Maynard](/wiki/Nicky_Maynard \"Nicky Maynard\") and [Ashley Westwood](/wiki/Ashley_Westwood_%28footballer_born_1990%29 \"Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1990)\").",
"Crewe Alexandra won the PFA Bobby Moore Fair Play trophy 12 times in 15 years during Gradi's reign.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a%3D108479 \\|title\\=Crewe Alexandra – We've Won It 12 Times \\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174651/http://www.crewe.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a\\=108479 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016 }}",
"#### End of managerial career",
"On 20 April 2007, Gradi announced that with effect from 1 July he would relinquish first\\-team responsibilities, becoming technical director while gradually handing over to new first\\-team coach [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 \"Steve Holland (footballer)\"), with Neil Baker remaining as assistant manager. Gradi was then the [longest serving manager](/wiki/List_of_English_Football_League_managers_by_date_of_appointment \"List of English Football League managers by date of appointment\") of an English Football League club. Gradi told the club website:",
"> I didn't want to be a 75\\-year\\-old manager working seven days a week, 52 weeks a year. That is not healthy for the future of the club. I will probably drop dead doing the job at some point but I wanted to put that day off a bit. This is a better way to do things, to introduce this gradual transition because it will take some of the workload off me.{{Cite web \\| last \\= Times Online and agencies \\| title \\= Gradi reaches end of the line at Crewe\\-Sport\\-Football\\-League One\\-TimesOnline \\| work \\= Times Online \\| access\\-date \\=20 April 2007 \\| date \\= 20 April 2007 \\| url \\= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\\_one/article1682979\\.ece \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20130505153752/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/league\\_one/article1682979\\.ece \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date \\= 5 May 2013 \\| location\\=London}}",
"",
"On 18 November 2008, Gradi resumed control of Crewe's first team on a caretaker basis after a poor start to the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_in_English_football \"2008-09 in English football\") season under Steve Holland had left the club bottom of League One.{{Cite web \\| title \\= Gradi replaces Holland at Crewe\\| work \\= BBC Sport\\| access\\-date \\=18 November 2008 \\| date \\= 18 November 2008 \\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/7736343\\.stm}} He was in charge for just over a month before [Gudjon Thordarson](/wiki/Gu%C3%B0j%C3%B3n_%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0arson \"Guðjón Þórðarson\") was announced as his successor on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve \"Christmas Eve\") 2008\\.[Thordarson appointed Crewe boss](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/7799134.stm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227003812/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe\\_alexandra/7799134\\.stm \\|date\\=27 December 2008 }} BBC Sport; 24 December 2008 Gradi remained in charge of the team for two games during the Christmas period, with Thordarson taking over on 29 December. Following the sacking of Thordarson on 2 October 2009,[Thordarson sacked as Crewe boss](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091002101248/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/crewe_alexandra/8286658.stm) BBC Sport; 2 October 2009 Gradi was again reinstated as caretaker manager which the board of directors then stated would be until further notice.",
"After returning as manager in 2009, on 10 November 2011 it was announced that Gradi had chosen to step down as manager, returning to his position as Director of Football. Gradi's assistant manager [Steve Davis](/wiki/Steve_Davis_%28footballer_born_1965%29 \"Steve Davis (footballer born 1965)\"), who had played for Crewe under Gradi from 1983 to 1987, was appointed as manager with immediate effect.[Dario Gradi steps down as Crewe Alexandra manager](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/15675372.stm), BBC Sport, 10 November 2011\\. Retrieved on 10 November 2011\\.",
"Gradi announced his retirement from all positions at Crewe Alexandra on 7 October 2019, at the age of 78, ending his 36\\-year association with the club.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Morse \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=Dario Gradi retires from positions at Crewe Alex \\|url\\=https://www.cheshire\\-live.co.uk/sport/football/dario\\-gradi\\-retires\\-positions\\-crewe\\-17044705 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2019 \\|work\\=Cheshire Live \\|date\\=7 October 2019}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49963883\\|title\\=Dario Gradi retires from Crewe Alexandra director of football and board roles\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=7 October 2019}}",
""
] |
Lawsuit
-------
### District Court
Garcia asked Google to take down the film from YouTube on eight occasions pursuant to the [Digital Millennium Copyright Act](/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act "Digital Millennium Copyright Act"). After Google declined, Garcia sued the company on September 26, 2012, in federal district court in California.{{Cite journal \|last\=Downey \|first\=Anne \|date\=February 2015 \|title\=Does an actress own the copyright in her 5\-second movie performance? \|url\=https://www.hodgsonruss.com/media/publication/790\_AFD%20the%20Bulletin%202%2015\.pdf \|journal\=Bar Association of Erie County Library \|volume\=54 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=1 \|via\=HEIN Online}} She claimed that the film's continued existence on YouTube violated her [copyright](/wiki/Copyright "Copyright") interest in her performance in the film. She applied to the court for a temporary restraining order to force Google to take down the film.
The district court treated Garcia's application for a temporary restraining order as an application for a preliminary injunction. To succeed on a claim for preliminary injunction, Garcia had to show four factors: a likelihood that she would succeed on the merits of the copyright claim, the likelihood that irreparable harm will result if the court does not grant the injunction, and the balance of the equity to the parties and the public interest in granting or denying relief. The court denied the application "because Garcia had delayed in bringing the action, had failed to demonstrate 'that the requested preliminary relief would prevent any alleged harm' and was unlikely to succeed on the merits because she'd granted Youssef an implied license to use her performance in the film."
In a declaration given by David Hardy, president of DMCA Solutions, YouTube's typical notice\-and\-counter\-notice process is described. Hardy then shares his conversations with YouTube over the Innocence of Muslims video and characterizes YouTube's responses as purposeful delay tactics and feigning ignorance on copyright law{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.scribd.com/doc/110425886/Declaration\-of\-David\-Hardy\|title\=Declaration of David Hardy \| PDF}}
### U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
The Ninth Circuit reversed the district court's decision denying Garcia a preliminary injunction, forcing Google to take down all copies of *Innocence of Muslims* from YouTube. The Ninth Circuit also remanded the case for retrial on the merits of Garcia's copyright claim.
#### Ninth Circuit opinion
The Ninth Circuit held that Garcia was entitled to a preliminary injunction because she was likely to succeed on the merits of her copyright claim. The court determined that Garcia likely owned an independent, copyrightable interest in her own performance in the film. Specifically, the court explained that Garcia's performance was "fixed" and that her "body language, facial expression and reactions to other actors and elements of a scene" constituted sufficient originality, both requirements of the [Copyright Act of 1976](/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976 "Copyright Act of 1976"). Further, the court concluded that Garcia never intended to be a "joint author," so Youssef had no co\-ownership of her performance in the film.
Additionally, the court determined that Garcia was not an "employee" for purposes of transferring her ownership interest in her performance under the Copyright Act. The court pointed out that the term "employee" refers "to a hired party in a conventional employer relationship." According to the court, because "Youssef hired Garcia for a specific task, she only worked for three days and she claims she received no health or other traditional employment benefits" suggests that she was not an "employee" under the statute. Garcia never transferred her interest in writing, either.
On November 12, 2014, the full Ninth Circuit voted to rehear the case [en banc](/wiki/En_banc "En banc").*[Garcia v. Google](http://www.shadesofgraylaw.com/media/Garcia-v-Google.Order-re-Rehearing-En-Banc-00050587xA1ADA.pdf)*, no. 12\-57302 (9th Cir. Nov. 12, 2014\)(order). As part of that order, the court vacated its prior opinion, meaning that it can no longer be cited and is not binding on lower courts. The order has no effect on the injunction, meaning that Google still may not post the allegedly infringing portions of the film, at least for the time being.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}}
In May 2015, in an [en banc](/wiki/En_banc "En banc") opinion, the Ninth Circuit reversed the panel's decision, vacating the order for the preliminary injunction.{{cite news \|last1\=Chappell \|first1\=Bill\|title\=Google Wins Copyright And Speech Case Over 'Innocence Of Muslims' Video \|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo\-way/2015/05/18/407732594/google\-wins\-copyright\-and\-speech\-case\-over\-innocence\-of\-muslims\-video \|access\-date\=May 18, 2015 \|work\=NPR \|date\=May 18, 2015}}{{cite news \|last1\=Gardner \|first1\=Eriq \|title\=Controversial 'Innocence of Muslims' Ruling Reversed By Appeals Court \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr\-esq/controversial\-innocence\-muslims\-ruling\-reversed\-796530 \|access\-date\=May 18, 2015 \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter\|date\=May 18, 2015}}*[Garcia v. Google](http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general/2015/05/18/12-57302%20EB%20opinion.pdf)*, no. 12\-57302 (9th Cir. May 18, 2015\)(*en banc*).
|
[
"Lawsuit\n-------",
"### District Court",
"Garcia asked Google to take down the film from YouTube on eight occasions pursuant to the [Digital Millennium Copyright Act](/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act \"Digital Millennium Copyright Act\"). After Google declined, Garcia sued the company on September 26, 2012, in federal district court in California.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Downey \\|first\\=Anne \\|date\\=February 2015 \\|title\\=Does an actress own the copyright in her 5\\-second movie performance? \\|url\\=https://www.hodgsonruss.com/media/publication/790\\_AFD%20the%20Bulletin%202%2015\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Bar Association of Erie County Library \\|volume\\=54 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=1 \\|via\\=HEIN Online}} She claimed that the film's continued existence on YouTube violated her [copyright](/wiki/Copyright \"Copyright\") interest in her performance in the film. She applied to the court for a temporary restraining order to force Google to take down the film.",
"The district court treated Garcia's application for a temporary restraining order as an application for a preliminary injunction. To succeed on a claim for preliminary injunction, Garcia had to show four factors: a likelihood that she would succeed on the merits of the copyright claim, the likelihood that irreparable harm will result if the court does not grant the injunction, and the balance of the equity to the parties and the public interest in granting or denying relief. The court denied the application \"because Garcia had delayed in bringing the action, had failed to demonstrate 'that the requested preliminary relief would prevent any alleged harm' and was unlikely to succeed on the merits because she'd granted Youssef an implied license to use her performance in the film.\"",
"In a declaration given by David Hardy, president of DMCA Solutions, YouTube's typical notice\\-and\\-counter\\-notice process is described. Hardy then shares his conversations with YouTube over the Innocence of Muslims video and characterizes YouTube's responses as purposeful delay tactics and feigning ignorance on copyright law{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.scribd.com/doc/110425886/Declaration\\-of\\-David\\-Hardy\\|title\\=Declaration of David Hardy \\| PDF}}",
"### U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit",
"The Ninth Circuit reversed the district court's decision denying Garcia a preliminary injunction, forcing Google to take down all copies of *Innocence of Muslims* from YouTube. The Ninth Circuit also remanded the case for retrial on the merits of Garcia's copyright claim.",
"#### Ninth Circuit opinion",
"The Ninth Circuit held that Garcia was entitled to a preliminary injunction because she was likely to succeed on the merits of her copyright claim. The court determined that Garcia likely owned an independent, copyrightable interest in her own performance in the film. Specifically, the court explained that Garcia's performance was \"fixed\" and that her \"body language, facial expression and reactions to other actors and elements of a scene\" constituted sufficient originality, both requirements of the [Copyright Act of 1976](/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976 \"Copyright Act of 1976\"). Further, the court concluded that Garcia never intended to be a \"joint author,\" so Youssef had no co\\-ownership of her performance in the film.",
"Additionally, the court determined that Garcia was not an \"employee\" for purposes of transferring her ownership interest in her performance under the Copyright Act. The court pointed out that the term \"employee\" refers \"to a hired party in a conventional employer relationship.\" According to the court, because \"Youssef hired Garcia for a specific task, she only worked for three days and she claims she received no health or other traditional employment benefits\" suggests that she was not an \"employee\" under the statute. Garcia never transferred her interest in writing, either.",
"On November 12, 2014, the full Ninth Circuit voted to rehear the case [en banc](/wiki/En_banc \"En banc\").*[Garcia v. Google](http://www.shadesofgraylaw.com/media/Garcia-v-Google.Order-re-Rehearing-En-Banc-00050587xA1ADA.pdf)*, no. 12\\-57302 (9th Cir. Nov. 12, 2014\\)(order). As part of that order, the court vacated its prior opinion, meaning that it can no longer be cited and is not binding on lower courts. The order has no effect on the injunction, meaning that Google still may not post the allegedly infringing portions of the film, at least for the time being.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}",
"In May 2015, in an [en banc](/wiki/En_banc \"En banc\") opinion, the Ninth Circuit reversed the panel's decision, vacating the order for the preliminary injunction.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Chappell \\|first1\\=Bill\\|title\\=Google Wins Copyright And Speech Case Over 'Innocence Of Muslims' Video \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo\\-way/2015/05/18/407732594/google\\-wins\\-copyright\\-and\\-speech\\-case\\-over\\-innocence\\-of\\-muslims\\-video \\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2015 \\|work\\=NPR \\|date\\=May 18, 2015}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gardner \\|first1\\=Eriq \\|title\\=Controversial 'Innocence of Muslims' Ruling Reversed By Appeals Court \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr\\-esq/controversial\\-innocence\\-muslims\\-ruling\\-reversed\\-796530 \\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2015 \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|date\\=May 18, 2015}}*[Garcia v. Google](http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general/2015/05/18/12-57302%20EB%20opinion.pdf)*, no. 12\\-57302 (9th Cir. May 18, 2015\\)(*en banc*).",
""
] |
Ecology
-------
The park is considered representative of the ecology of the [Mid\-Boreal Lowland Ecoregion](/wiki/Mid-Boreal_Lowland_Ecoregion "Mid-Boreal Lowland Ecoregion") within the [Boreal Plains Ecozone](/wiki/Boreal_Plains_Ecozone_%28CEC%29 "Boreal Plains Ecozone (CEC)"). [Black spruce](/wiki/Picea_mariana "Picea mariana") grows in stands in low lying areas transitioning to mixed stands of black spruce, [Jack pine](/wiki/Jack_pine "Jack pine"), [white spruce](/wiki/Picea_glauca "Picea glauca"), and [trembling aspen](/wiki/Populus_tremuloides "Populus tremuloides") on drier ridges. [Willow](/wiki/Willow "Willow") and [red\-osier dogwood](/wiki/Cornus_sericea "Cornus sericea") form the shrub layer on wetter sites with [hazel](/wiki/Hazel "Hazel") and [heaths](/wiki/Ericaceae "Ericaceae") on drier sites. Ground cover is composed of mosses and low growing vascular plants.
Bogs and [fens](/wiki/Fen "Fen")—wetland communities characterized by the presence of [peat](/wiki/Peat "Peat")—predominate away from the shores of Lake Winnipeg and the Mantagao River. Bogs are characterized by [ombrotrophic](/wiki/Ombrotrophic "Ombrotrophic") conditions—isolated from groundwater, acidic and low in nutrients. Fens are [minerotrophic](/wiki/Minerotrophic "Minerotrophic")—the minerals in the groundwater modify the chemistry of the water. In the park where the groundwater is in contact with bedrock or till containing [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 "Lime (material)"), water is mildly acid to alkaline.
In some areas, the ridge and swale topography lead to a patterned bog called a [string bog](/wiki/String_bog "String bog"). In other areas, flat bogs develop in low\-lying flat land. [Plateau bogs](/wiki/Raised_bog%23Plateau_bog "Raised bog#Plateau bog") develop slowly over time and can stand up to {{convert\|2\|m\|ft}} above the surrounding ground level. Water track fens are found where groundwater flows are stronger; horizontal fens where groundwater slowly seeps from the mineral soil below the peat. Vegetation associated with these wetlands in the park include [tamarack](/wiki/Larix_laricina "Larix laricina"), [swamp birch](/wiki/Betula_pumila "Betula pumila"), [Labrador tea](/wiki/Labrador_tea "Labrador tea"), [leatherleaf](/wiki/Chamaedaphne "Chamaedaphne"), [bog rosemary](/wiki/Andromeda_polifolia "Andromeda polifolia"), [sedges](/wiki/Cyperaceae "Cyperaceae"), [grasses](/wiki/Poaceae "Poaceae"), and mosses ( particularly [sphagnum](/wiki/Sphagnum "Sphagnum"), [feather mosses](/wiki/Hypnales "Hypnales") and [brown mosses](/wiki/Amblystegiaceae "Amblystegiaceae")).
The Mantagao River provides spawning habitat for [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike "Northern pike"), [walleye](/wiki/Walleye "Walleye"), [lake whitefish](/wiki/Lake_whitefish "Lake whitefish") and [freshwater drum](/wiki/Freshwater_drum "Freshwater drum").
The park is located within the [Boreal Taiga Plains](/wiki/Boreal_Taiga_Plains "Boreal Taiga Plains") [Bird Conservation Region](/wiki/Bird_Conservation_Region "Bird Conservation Region").{{cite web\|title\=Bird Conservation Regions \|url\=https://www.birdscanada.org/bird\-science/nabci\-bird\-conservation\-regions \|website\=x \|publisher\=Bird Studies Canada on behalf of the North American Bird Conservation Initiative \|access\-date\=16 July 2022 \|date\=2014}} The abundance and variety of water habitats in this region provide breeding habitat for waterfowl.{{cite web \|title\=Bird Conservation Region Descriptions: A Supplement to the North American Bird Conservation Initiative Bird Conservation Regions Map \|url\=https://www.birdscanada.org/download/gislab/bcrdescriptions\_original.pdf \|publisher\=North American Bird Conservation Initiative \|access\-date\=17 July 2022 \|date\=September 2000}} The river mouth and the adjacent bay are used as staging areas in the fall for migrating waterfowl. Birds found in this region include:
* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{columns\-list\|colwidth\=15em\|
\*\[\[Black scoter]]
\*\[\[Hudsonian whimbrel]]
\*\[\[Rock ptarmigan]]
\*\[\[Willow ptarmigan]]
\*\[\[Grey\-cheeked thrush]]
\*\[\[American tree sparrow]]
\*\[\[Short\-billed dowitcher]]
\*\[\[Common redpoll]]
\*\[\[Harris's sparrow]]
\*\[\[Northern shrike]]
\*\[\[Blackpoll warbler]]
\*\[\[Fox sparrow]]
\*\[\[Rough\-legged buzzard\|Rough\-legged hawk]]
}}
Large mammals known to occur in the park include [moose](/wiki/Moose "Moose"), [white\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer "White-tailed deer"), and [wolf](/wiki/Wolf "Wolf").
|
[
"Ecology\n-------",
"The park is considered representative of the ecology of the [Mid\\-Boreal Lowland Ecoregion](/wiki/Mid-Boreal_Lowland_Ecoregion \"Mid-Boreal Lowland Ecoregion\") within the [Boreal Plains Ecozone](/wiki/Boreal_Plains_Ecozone_%28CEC%29 \"Boreal Plains Ecozone (CEC)\"). [Black spruce](/wiki/Picea_mariana \"Picea mariana\") grows in stands in low lying areas transitioning to mixed stands of black spruce, [Jack pine](/wiki/Jack_pine \"Jack pine\"), [white spruce](/wiki/Picea_glauca \"Picea glauca\"), and [trembling aspen](/wiki/Populus_tremuloides \"Populus tremuloides\") on drier ridges. [Willow](/wiki/Willow \"Willow\") and [red\\-osier dogwood](/wiki/Cornus_sericea \"Cornus sericea\") form the shrub layer on wetter sites with [hazel](/wiki/Hazel \"Hazel\") and [heaths](/wiki/Ericaceae \"Ericaceae\") on drier sites. Ground cover is composed of mosses and low growing vascular plants.",
"Bogs and [fens](/wiki/Fen \"Fen\")—wetland communities characterized by the presence of [peat](/wiki/Peat \"Peat\")—predominate away from the shores of Lake Winnipeg and the Mantagao River. Bogs are characterized by [ombrotrophic](/wiki/Ombrotrophic \"Ombrotrophic\") conditions—isolated from groundwater, acidic and low in nutrients. Fens are [minerotrophic](/wiki/Minerotrophic \"Minerotrophic\")—the minerals in the groundwater modify the chemistry of the water. In the park where the groundwater is in contact with bedrock or till containing [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 \"Lime (material)\"), water is mildly acid to alkaline.",
"In some areas, the ridge and swale topography lead to a patterned bog called a [string bog](/wiki/String_bog \"String bog\"). In other areas, flat bogs develop in low\\-lying flat land. [Plateau bogs](/wiki/Raised_bog%23Plateau_bog \"Raised bog#Plateau bog\") develop slowly over time and can stand up to {{convert\\|2\\|m\\|ft}} above the surrounding ground level. Water track fens are found where groundwater flows are stronger; horizontal fens where groundwater slowly seeps from the mineral soil below the peat. Vegetation associated with these wetlands in the park include [tamarack](/wiki/Larix_laricina \"Larix laricina\"), [swamp birch](/wiki/Betula_pumila \"Betula pumila\"), [Labrador tea](/wiki/Labrador_tea \"Labrador tea\"), [leatherleaf](/wiki/Chamaedaphne \"Chamaedaphne\"), [bog rosemary](/wiki/Andromeda_polifolia \"Andromeda polifolia\"), [sedges](/wiki/Cyperaceae \"Cyperaceae\"), [grasses](/wiki/Poaceae \"Poaceae\"), and mosses ( particularly [sphagnum](/wiki/Sphagnum \"Sphagnum\"), [feather mosses](/wiki/Hypnales \"Hypnales\") and [brown mosses](/wiki/Amblystegiaceae \"Amblystegiaceae\")).",
"The Mantagao River provides spawning habitat for [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike \"Northern pike\"), [walleye](/wiki/Walleye \"Walleye\"), [lake whitefish](/wiki/Lake_whitefish \"Lake whitefish\") and [freshwater drum](/wiki/Freshwater_drum \"Freshwater drum\").",
"The park is located within the [Boreal Taiga Plains](/wiki/Boreal_Taiga_Plains \"Boreal Taiga Plains\") [Bird Conservation Region](/wiki/Bird_Conservation_Region \"Bird Conservation Region\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Bird Conservation Regions \\|url\\=https://www.birdscanada.org/bird\\-science/nabci\\-bird\\-conservation\\-regions \\|website\\=x \\|publisher\\=Bird Studies Canada on behalf of the North American Bird Conservation Initiative \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2022 \\|date\\=2014}} The abundance and variety of water habitats in this region provide breeding habitat for waterfowl.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bird Conservation Region Descriptions: A Supplement to the North American Bird Conservation Initiative Bird Conservation Regions Map \\|url\\=https://www.birdscanada.org/download/gislab/bcrdescriptions\\_original.pdf \\|publisher\\=North American Bird Conservation Initiative \\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2022 \\|date\\=September 2000}} The river mouth and the adjacent bay are used as staging areas in the fall for migrating waterfowl. Birds found in this region include:\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{columns\\-list\\|colwidth\\=15em\\|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Black scoter]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Hudsonian whimbrel]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Rock ptarmigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Willow ptarmigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Grey\\-cheeked thrush]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[American tree sparrow]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Short\\-billed dowitcher]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Common redpoll]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Harris's sparrow]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Northern shrike]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Blackpoll warbler]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Fox sparrow]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Rough\\-legged buzzard\\|Rough\\-legged hawk]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}",
"Large mammals known to occur in the park include [moose](/wiki/Moose \"Moose\"), [white\\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer \"White-tailed deer\"), and [wolf](/wiki/Wolf \"Wolf\").",
""
] |
Career
------
{{BLP sources section\|date\=January 2018}}
After graduating from NIDA, Stafford joined the cast of *[Head Start](/wiki/Head_Start_%28TV_series%29 "Head Start (TV series)")* as bisexual film\-maker Basia Lem. Stafford revealed that she chose *Head Start* as her first television role because it was a great launching pad for her career.
She also made a guest appearance on Network Ten's [*The Lost World*](/wiki/The_Lost_World_%28TV_series%29 "The Lost World (TV series)"). She has also had parts in [Network Ten](/wiki/Network_Ten "Network Ten")'s mini\-series *[Small Claims](/wiki/Small_Claims_%28telemovie%29 "Small Claims (telemovie)")*, and the Australian movies *[Gettin' Square](/wiki/Gettin%27_Square "Gettin' Square")* and *[Hell Has Harbour Views](/wiki/Hell_Has_Harbour_Views "Hell Has Harbour Views")*.
After a forty\-episode season of *Head Start*, Freya won a role on Network Ten's *[White Collar Blue](/wiki/White_Collar_Blue "White Collar Blue")*, an Australian cop drama, as Detective Senior Constable Harriet Walker. *White Collar Blue* screened for two seasons on Australian television, before being axed by the network whilst the cast and crew were on holiday after wrapping production on the second season. Stafford did not work for three months after then re\-commenced her acting career.
Stafford appeared in [Network Ten](/wiki/Network_Ten "Network Ten")'s first installment of the mini\-series *[Small Claims](/wiki/Small_Claims "Small Claims")* as Melinda Fehlers, and the Australian crime\-comedy *[Gettin' Square](/wiki/Gettin%27_Square "Gettin' Square")*, which included several internationally well\-known actors, such as [David Wenham](/wiki/David_Wenham "David Wenham") (the Lord of the Rings) and [Timothy Spall](/wiki/Timothy_Spall "Timothy Spall"). Stafford played the part of Annie Flynn, parole officer for the central character, Barry Wirth's ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington "Sam Worthington")) brother Joey, and also Barry's love interest.
In 2003, she was a presenter at the 45th Australian Film Institute (AFI) awards. She also appeared in the ABC's adaptation of [Richard Beasley](/wiki/Richard_Beasley_%28author%29 "Richard Beasley (author)")'s novel *[Hell Has Harbour Views](/wiki/Hell_Has_Harbour_Views_%28film%29 "Hell Has Harbour Views (film)")* as lawyer Jill Bishop. In late 2006, she starred in [Bell Shakespeare](/wiki/Bell_Shakespeare "Bell Shakespeare")'s production of [The Tempest](/wiki/The_Tempest "The Tempest"), as Miranda. She also guest starred in the 2006 episode *Mind Games* of [All Saints](/wiki/All_Saints_%28TV_series%29 "All Saints (TV series)").
She starred in a 2007 American pilot *Them*, which was subsequently not picked up as a series. In 2009, she appeared as lead in a six\-part drama series premiered on Sunday, 19 April, on ABC1, 'Dirt Game'. Dirt Game is a co\-production between Harvey Taft Production, ABC TV and Screen Australia and developed and produced with the assistance of Film Victoria. She stars also in the horror film *[The Clinic](/wiki/The_Clinic_%282010_film%29 "The Clinic (2010 film)")* who was directed by James Rabbitts.[AFM '09: Little Film Company Selling 'The Clinic'](http://www.bloody-disgusting.com/news/18035), bloody\-disgusting.com; accessed 22 January 2018\.
In July 2011, it was announced that Stafford had joined the cast of *[Neighbours](/wiki/Neighbours "Neighbours")* as [Emilia Jovanovic](/wiki/Emilia_Jovanovic "Emilia Jovanovic").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/confidential/freya\-back\-after\-bike\-accident/story\-e6frf96x\-1226094092756\|title\=Freya Stafford joins Neighbours after bike accident\|date\=14 July 2011\|work\=\[\[Herald Sun]]\|publisher\=\[\[The Herald and Weekly Times]]\|accessdate\=13 July 2011}} In September 2012, Stafford began appearing in the [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)") drama *[Mrs Biggs](/wiki/Mrs_Biggs "Mrs Biggs")* as Julie Flower.{{cite web\|url\=http://if.com.au/2012/01/19/inprod/Mrs\-Biggs/QUSXFMTMZI.html\|title\=Mrs Biggs\|date\=25 September 2012\|work\=\[\[If Magazine]]\|publisher\=The Intermedia Group\|accessdate\=2 October 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905141833/http://if.com.au/2012/01/19/inprod/Mrs\-Biggs/QUSXFMTMZI.html\|archive\-date\=5 September 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} In 2014 she made a cameo appearance in the movie *[Predestination](/wiki/Predestination "Predestination")*.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=January 2018}}\nAfter graduating from NIDA, Stafford joined the cast of *[Head Start](/wiki/Head_Start_%28TV_series%29 \"Head Start (TV series)\")* as bisexual film\\-maker Basia Lem. Stafford revealed that she chose *Head Start* as her first television role because it was a great launching pad for her career.",
"She also made a guest appearance on Network Ten's [*The Lost World*](/wiki/The_Lost_World_%28TV_series%29 \"The Lost World (TV series)\"). She has also had parts in [Network Ten](/wiki/Network_Ten \"Network Ten\")'s mini\\-series *[Small Claims](/wiki/Small_Claims_%28telemovie%29 \"Small Claims (telemovie)\")*, and the Australian movies *[Gettin' Square](/wiki/Gettin%27_Square \"Gettin' Square\")* and *[Hell Has Harbour Views](/wiki/Hell_Has_Harbour_Views \"Hell Has Harbour Views\")*.",
"After a forty\\-episode season of *Head Start*, Freya won a role on Network Ten's *[White Collar Blue](/wiki/White_Collar_Blue \"White Collar Blue\")*, an Australian cop drama, as Detective Senior Constable Harriet Walker. *White Collar Blue* screened for two seasons on Australian television, before being axed by the network whilst the cast and crew were on holiday after wrapping production on the second season. Stafford did not work for three months after then re\\-commenced her acting career.",
"Stafford appeared in [Network Ten](/wiki/Network_Ten \"Network Ten\")'s first installment of the mini\\-series *[Small Claims](/wiki/Small_Claims \"Small Claims\")* as Melinda Fehlers, and the Australian crime\\-comedy *[Gettin' Square](/wiki/Gettin%27_Square \"Gettin' Square\")*, which included several internationally well\\-known actors, such as [David Wenham](/wiki/David_Wenham \"David Wenham\") (the Lord of the Rings) and [Timothy Spall](/wiki/Timothy_Spall \"Timothy Spall\"). Stafford played the part of Annie Flynn, parole officer for the central character, Barry Wirth's ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington \"Sam Worthington\")) brother Joey, and also Barry's love interest.",
"In 2003, she was a presenter at the 45th Australian Film Institute (AFI) awards. She also appeared in the ABC's adaptation of [Richard Beasley](/wiki/Richard_Beasley_%28author%29 \"Richard Beasley (author)\")'s novel *[Hell Has Harbour Views](/wiki/Hell_Has_Harbour_Views_%28film%29 \"Hell Has Harbour Views (film)\")* as lawyer Jill Bishop. In late 2006, she starred in [Bell Shakespeare](/wiki/Bell_Shakespeare \"Bell Shakespeare\")'s production of [The Tempest](/wiki/The_Tempest \"The Tempest\"), as Miranda. She also guest starred in the 2006 episode *Mind Games* of [All Saints](/wiki/All_Saints_%28TV_series%29 \"All Saints (TV series)\").",
"She starred in a 2007 American pilot *Them*, which was subsequently not picked up as a series. In 2009, she appeared as lead in a six\\-part drama series premiered on Sunday, 19 April, on ABC1, 'Dirt Game'. Dirt Game is a co\\-production between Harvey Taft Production, ABC TV and Screen Australia and developed and produced with the assistance of Film Victoria. She stars also in the horror film *[The Clinic](/wiki/The_Clinic_%282010_film%29 \"The Clinic (2010 film)\")* who was directed by James Rabbitts.[AFM '09: Little Film Company Selling 'The Clinic'](http://www.bloody-disgusting.com/news/18035), bloody\\-disgusting.com; accessed 22 January 2018\\.",
"In July 2011, it was announced that Stafford had joined the cast of *[Neighbours](/wiki/Neighbours \"Neighbours\")* as [Emilia Jovanovic](/wiki/Emilia_Jovanovic \"Emilia Jovanovic\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/confidential/freya\\-back\\-after\\-bike\\-accident/story\\-e6frf96x\\-1226094092756\\|title\\=Freya Stafford joins Neighbours after bike accident\\|date\\=14 July 2011\\|work\\=\\[\\[Herald Sun]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Herald and Weekly Times]]\\|accessdate\\=13 July 2011}} In September 2012, Stafford began appearing in the [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") drama *[Mrs Biggs](/wiki/Mrs_Biggs \"Mrs Biggs\")* as Julie Flower.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://if.com.au/2012/01/19/inprod/Mrs\\-Biggs/QUSXFMTMZI.html\\|title\\=Mrs Biggs\\|date\\=25 September 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[If Magazine]]\\|publisher\\=The Intermedia Group\\|accessdate\\=2 October 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905141833/http://if.com.au/2012/01/19/inprod/Mrs\\-Biggs/QUSXFMTMZI.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 2014 she made a cameo appearance in the movie *[Predestination](/wiki/Predestination \"Predestination\")*.",
""
] |
Life
----
Bolesław's father died in 1296 when he was only five years old. His mother, the Duchess Elisabeth and his paternal uncle [Bolko I](/wiki/Bolko_I%2C_Duke_of_Schweidnitz-Jauer "Bolko I, Duke of Schweidnitz-Jauer") became Regents. Both soon died, Bolko in 1301 and Elisabeth in 1304\. Between 1301\-02 the official guardianship of Henry V's sons was taken by [Henry of Würben](/wiki/Henry_of_W%C3%BCrben "Henry of Würben"), Bishop of Wrocław, but after almost a year he was removed from this post for his alleged prodigality. By that time, King [Wenceslaus II of Bohemia](/wiki/Wenceslaus_II_of_Bohemia "Wenceslaus II of Bohemia") was determined to take advantage of the wealth and strategic location of the Duchy of Wrocław. In 1302 the young Bolesław was sent to the court of Prague and was betrothed to the seven\-year\-old Princess Margareta (cs: *Markéta*; pl: *Małgorzata*), the King's youngest daughter, within the year – 13 January 1303 (New Year's Day was 1 April in that era). The wedding took place five years later, in 1308\.
Bolesław was clearly favored by the King, threatening the closest male relatives of the King, who saw the young Duke of Legnica (Liegnitz) as a potential rival for the throne. When King Wenceslaus II died suddenly in 1305, his son [Wenceslaus III](/wiki/Wenceslaus_III_of_Bohemia "Wenceslaus III of Bohemia") succeeded him. When Wenceslaus III was murdered one year later, in [Olomouc](/wiki/Olomouc "Olomouc"), Bolesław began his fight for the Bohemian throne taking the title of "*haeres Regni Poloniae*" (heir of the Polish Kingdom).
Bolesław's forces, as Duke of Legnica\-Wrocław (Liegnitz\-Breslau) were inadequate to effectively compete with the other candidates for the Přemyslid throne: [Rudolph III of Austria](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Austria "Rudolph III of Austria"), [Henry of Carinthia](/wiki/Henry_of_Carinthia "Henry of Carinthia") and [John of Luxemburg](/wiki/John_of_Luxemburg "John of Luxemburg"). Bolesław lost his attempt to rule the Polish Kingdom after he failed to control Kalisz during 1306–1307, finally losing Kalisz to Duke [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III%2C_Duke_of_Silesia-Glogau "Henry III, Duke of Silesia-Glogau") of [Głogów](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w "Głogów"). Bolesław's only substantial gain was [Opava (Troppau)](/wiki/Opava "Opava") in 1308 after Duke [Nikolaus I](/wiki/Nicholas_I%2C_Duke_of_Troppau "Nicholas I, Duke of Troppau") surrendered to him. Bolesław then renounced his claim two years later (11 June 1311\) after a treaty in Olomouc, paying 8,000 pieces of silver. Opava was then merged with the Bohemian crown and restored to Nikolaus I's son and heir, [Nikolaus II](/wiki/Nicholas_II%2C_Duke_of_Troppau "Nicholas II, Duke of Troppau"), in 1318\.
Bolesław's political ambitions exhausted his finances. In 1311, Bolesław was pressured into dividing his lands between his younger brothers [Henry](/wiki/Henry_VI_the_Good "Henry VI the Good") and [Władysław](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_of_Legnica "Władysław of Legnica"). The Duchy was divided into three parts: [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw "Wrocław"), [Legnica](/wiki/Legnica "Legnica") and [Brzeg (Brieg)](/wiki/Brzeg "Brzeg"). As the eldest brother, Bolesław got first choice. He chose the smallest and least prosperous Brzeg (Brieg), surprising everyone. The monetary compensation offered by the prince who took Brieg would have allowed Bolesław to continue his fight for the Bohemian throne. Bolesław tried to regain Wrocław (Breslau) from his brother Henry VI but was unsuccessful.
Initially, Bolesław seemed to accept his fate, but one year later he managed to deprive his youngest brother Władysław from the Duchy of Legnica (Liegnitz) because Władysław wasn't able to pay his part of the monetary compensation for Brieg.
In 1312 Bolesław and Henry VI entered into an alliance with the ruler of [Lesser Poland](/wiki/Lesser_Poland "Lesser Poland"), [Władysław I Łokietek](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_I_the_Elbow-high "Władysław I the Elbow-high") and with their combined forces began an expeditionary trip against the Dukes of [Głogów](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w "Głogów"), under the pretext that the late Duke [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III%2C_Duke_of_Silesia-Glogau "Henry III, Duke of Silesia-Glogau") was directly responsible for the premature death of Henry V, father of the Dukes of Legnica (Liegnitz) and Wrocław (Breslau). The war lasted five years, 1312–1317\. Finally Władysław I Łokietek took most of [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland "Greater Poland"), his allies taking the towns of [Uraz](/wiki/Uraz%2C_Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship "Uraz, Lower Silesian Voivodeship") (to Henry VI), and [Wołów](/wiki/Wo%C5%82%C3%B3w "Wołów") and [Lubiąż](/wiki/Lubi%C4%85%C5%BC "Lubiąż") (to Bolesław).
After this victory, Bolesław tried to reassert himself in the succession struggle for the Kingdom of Bohemia, then in the possession of John of Luxemburg. Bolesław received his reward in 1321–1322 when King John appointed him Governor of Bohemia during his trip to Germany and Italy.
In Silesia, Bolesław and his brothers Henry VI, [Bolko II of Opole](/wiki/Bolko_II_of_Opole "Bolko II of Opole") and Władysław I Łokietek formed a coalition and went to war against the Dukes of Głogów (Glogau) in 1321\. This time they were successful, primarily due to Bolesław. On 10 August 1323, a peace treaty was signed in Wrocław (Breslau). Duke [Konrad I of Oleśnica](/wiki/Konrad_I_of_Ole%C5%9Bnica "Konrad I of Oleśnica") ceded the Duchy of [Namysłów](/wiki/Namys%C5%82%C3%B3w "Namysłów") with the fortresses of Namysłów, [Byczyna](/wiki/Byczyna "Byczyna") and [Kluczbork](/wiki/Kluczbork "Kluczbork").
By 1322, relations between Bolesław and his younger brother Henry VI began to deteriorate. Henry refused to support the aggressive politics of his brother when he signed a peace treaty with Konrad of Oleśnica regarding the possession of Wrocław (Breslau). Bolesław offered to exchange his district of Legnica (Liegnitz) for Wrocław (Breslau). Henry VI refused, and the war between the brothers was imminent. Henry established contacts with the new King of Poland Władysław I Łokietek, promised him homage and was named his heir in exchange for aid. Władysław declined the offer because he feared a direct confrontation with the Kingdom of Bohemia. Henry then asked the help of [Emperor Louis IV](/wiki/Louis_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor"). On 20 April 1324, the Duke of Wrocław declared himself a vassal of the Empire. In return, Louis IV guaranteed the succession of Henry VI's lands to his daughters, prompting Bolesław to attack. Wrocław's defenses held, and Henry VI maintained control.
In 1327 the situation changed completely. John of Luxemburg persuaded Henry VI to break his alliance with the Emperor to become a vassal of Bohemia. In exchange, he received the [County of Glatz](/wiki/County_of_Kladsko "County of Kladsko") during his lifetime and a high pension, from the King.
Bolesław made a final attempt to capture Wrocław in 1327\-28, during King John absence from Bohemia. Once again, he failed.
In 1329, Bolesław's youngest brother Władysław (who had been stripped of his Duchy of Legnica in 1312\) unexpectedly returned to Silesia. Having been declared a vassal of Bohemia, Władysław took possession of Legnica in the name of King John, leaving Bolesław in a critical situation. Bolesław did not have the resources for a war against King John so, on 9 May 1329 in Wrocław, Bolesław declared himself a vassal of the Kingdom of Bohemia.
After losing his independence, Bolesław ceased trying to gain territories. As a vassal of John of Luxemburg, he took part during 1329\-31 in King John's military expeditions to [Lusatia (Lausitz)](/wiki/Lusatia "Lusatia") and [Głogów (Glogau)](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w "Głogów").
[thumbnail\|left\|250px\|Bolesław III's [seal](/wiki/Seal_%28device%29 "Seal (device)"), dated to 1337\.](/wiki/File:Boles%C5%82aw_III_Rozrzutny_seal_1337.PNG "Bolesław III Rozrzutny seal 1337.PNG")
Bolesław's sumptuous lifestyle and constant travel (notably to the Congress of [Visegrád](/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d "Visegrád") of 1335\) put him in a difficult financial situation. He continually increased taxes in his Duchy (towns of [Chocianów](/wiki/Chocian%C3%B3w "Chocianów") and [Chojnów](/wiki/Chojn%C3%B3w "Chojnów")).
Bolesław's oldest son [Wenceslaus I](/wiki/Wenceslaus_I_of_Legnica "Wenceslaus I of Legnica") rebelled against his father, claiming his part of the inheritance. The Duke didn't want a conflict with his son, and in 1338 he gave Wenceslaus the Duchy of Namysłów. Four years later (1342\), he finally gave his sons Wenceslaus I and [Louis I](/wiki/Louis_I_the_Fair "Louis I the Fair") the joint government of the Duchy of Legnica. In exchange, Wenceslaus returned to Namysłów, which Bolesław almost immediately sold to King Casimir III the Great. After his abdication, Bolesław retired to Brieg with his second wife Katharina Šubić, of [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia"), to Brieg, where he remained until his death on 21 April 1352\. He was buried in [Lubiąż Abbey](/wiki/Lubi%C4%85%C5%BC_Abbey "Lubiąż Abbey").
Although his coffers were now reduced, Bolesław didn't give up to his lavish lifestyle. He attended the marriage of King [Casimir III the Great](/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great "Casimir III the Great") and [Adelaide of Hesse](/wiki/Adelaide_of_Hesse "Adelaide of Hesse") in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań") in 1341, and the coronation of [Charles IV of Luxemburg](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor"), King of [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia "Bohemia"), Bolesław to sell the town of [Grodków](/wiki/Grodk%C3%B3w "Grodków") to the Bishop of Wrocław, [Preczlaw von Pogarell](/wiki/Preczlaw_von_Pogarell "Preczlaw von Pogarell") on 19 January 1344\.
Bolesław was twice excommunicated by the Church: for the delay in paying the [tithing](/wiki/Tithe "Tithe") in 1337, and when he sequestered Church property in 1340\. The excommunication was removed on his deathbed at the insistence of his sons. Bolesław was quite generous to the Church, despite their unstable relation, contributing to Lubiąż Abbey, and founding two monasteries (Franciscan and Dominican), in Brieg.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Bolesław's father died in 1296 when he was only five years old. His mother, the Duchess Elisabeth and his paternal uncle [Bolko I](/wiki/Bolko_I%2C_Duke_of_Schweidnitz-Jauer \"Bolko I, Duke of Schweidnitz-Jauer\") became Regents. Both soon died, Bolko in 1301 and Elisabeth in 1304\\. Between 1301\\-02 the official guardianship of Henry V's sons was taken by [Henry of Würben](/wiki/Henry_of_W%C3%BCrben \"Henry of Würben\"), Bishop of Wrocław, but after almost a year he was removed from this post for his alleged prodigality. By that time, King [Wenceslaus II of Bohemia](/wiki/Wenceslaus_II_of_Bohemia \"Wenceslaus II of Bohemia\") was determined to take advantage of the wealth and strategic location of the Duchy of Wrocław. In 1302 the young Bolesław was sent to the court of Prague and was betrothed to the seven\\-year\\-old Princess Margareta (cs: *Markéta*; pl: *Małgorzata*), the King's youngest daughter, within the year – 13 January 1303 (New Year's Day was 1 April in that era). The wedding took place five years later, in 1308\\.",
"Bolesław was clearly favored by the King, threatening the closest male relatives of the King, who saw the young Duke of Legnica (Liegnitz) as a potential rival for the throne. When King Wenceslaus II died suddenly in 1305, his son [Wenceslaus III](/wiki/Wenceslaus_III_of_Bohemia \"Wenceslaus III of Bohemia\") succeeded him. When Wenceslaus III was murdered one year later, in [Olomouc](/wiki/Olomouc \"Olomouc\"), Bolesław began his fight for the Bohemian throne taking the title of \"*haeres Regni Poloniae*\" (heir of the Polish Kingdom).",
"Bolesław's forces, as Duke of Legnica\\-Wrocław (Liegnitz\\-Breslau) were inadequate to effectively compete with the other candidates for the Přemyslid throne: [Rudolph III of Austria](/wiki/Rudolph_III_of_Austria \"Rudolph III of Austria\"), [Henry of Carinthia](/wiki/Henry_of_Carinthia \"Henry of Carinthia\") and [John of Luxemburg](/wiki/John_of_Luxemburg \"John of Luxemburg\"). Bolesław lost his attempt to rule the Polish Kingdom after he failed to control Kalisz during 1306–1307, finally losing Kalisz to Duke [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III%2C_Duke_of_Silesia-Glogau \"Henry III, Duke of Silesia-Glogau\") of [Głogów](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w \"Głogów\"). Bolesław's only substantial gain was [Opava (Troppau)](/wiki/Opava \"Opava\") in 1308 after Duke [Nikolaus I](/wiki/Nicholas_I%2C_Duke_of_Troppau \"Nicholas I, Duke of Troppau\") surrendered to him. Bolesław then renounced his claim two years later (11 June 1311\\) after a treaty in Olomouc, paying 8,000 pieces of silver. Opava was then merged with the Bohemian crown and restored to Nikolaus I's son and heir, [Nikolaus II](/wiki/Nicholas_II%2C_Duke_of_Troppau \"Nicholas II, Duke of Troppau\"), in 1318\\.",
"Bolesław's political ambitions exhausted his finances. In 1311, Bolesław was pressured into dividing his lands between his younger brothers [Henry](/wiki/Henry_VI_the_Good \"Henry VI the Good\") and [Władysław](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_of_Legnica \"Władysław of Legnica\"). The Duchy was divided into three parts: [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw \"Wrocław\"), [Legnica](/wiki/Legnica \"Legnica\") and [Brzeg (Brieg)](/wiki/Brzeg \"Brzeg\"). As the eldest brother, Bolesław got first choice. He chose the smallest and least prosperous Brzeg (Brieg), surprising everyone. The monetary compensation offered by the prince who took Brieg would have allowed Bolesław to continue his fight for the Bohemian throne. Bolesław tried to regain Wrocław (Breslau) from his brother Henry VI but was unsuccessful.",
"Initially, Bolesław seemed to accept his fate, but one year later he managed to deprive his youngest brother Władysław from the Duchy of Legnica (Liegnitz) because Władysław wasn't able to pay his part of the monetary compensation for Brieg.",
"In 1312 Bolesław and Henry VI entered into an alliance with the ruler of [Lesser Poland](/wiki/Lesser_Poland \"Lesser Poland\"), [Władysław I Łokietek](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_I_the_Elbow-high \"Władysław I the Elbow-high\") and with their combined forces began an expeditionary trip against the Dukes of [Głogów](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w \"Głogów\"), under the pretext that the late Duke [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III%2C_Duke_of_Silesia-Glogau \"Henry III, Duke of Silesia-Glogau\") was directly responsible for the premature death of Henry V, father of the Dukes of Legnica (Liegnitz) and Wrocław (Breslau). The war lasted five years, 1312–1317\\. Finally Władysław I Łokietek took most of [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland \"Greater Poland\"), his allies taking the towns of [Uraz](/wiki/Uraz%2C_Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship \"Uraz, Lower Silesian Voivodeship\") (to Henry VI), and [Wołów](/wiki/Wo%C5%82%C3%B3w \"Wołów\") and [Lubiąż](/wiki/Lubi%C4%85%C5%BC \"Lubiąż\") (to Bolesław).",
"After this victory, Bolesław tried to reassert himself in the succession struggle for the Kingdom of Bohemia, then in the possession of John of Luxemburg. Bolesław received his reward in 1321–1322 when King John appointed him Governor of Bohemia during his trip to Germany and Italy.",
"In Silesia, Bolesław and his brothers Henry VI, [Bolko II of Opole](/wiki/Bolko_II_of_Opole \"Bolko II of Opole\") and Władysław I Łokietek formed a coalition and went to war against the Dukes of Głogów (Glogau) in 1321\\. This time they were successful, primarily due to Bolesław. On 10 August 1323, a peace treaty was signed in Wrocław (Breslau). Duke [Konrad I of Oleśnica](/wiki/Konrad_I_of_Ole%C5%9Bnica \"Konrad I of Oleśnica\") ceded the Duchy of [Namysłów](/wiki/Namys%C5%82%C3%B3w \"Namysłów\") with the fortresses of Namysłów, [Byczyna](/wiki/Byczyna \"Byczyna\") and [Kluczbork](/wiki/Kluczbork \"Kluczbork\").",
"By 1322, relations between Bolesław and his younger brother Henry VI began to deteriorate. Henry refused to support the aggressive politics of his brother when he signed a peace treaty with Konrad of Oleśnica regarding the possession of Wrocław (Breslau). Bolesław offered to exchange his district of Legnica (Liegnitz) for Wrocław (Breslau). Henry VI refused, and the war between the brothers was imminent. Henry established contacts with the new King of Poland Władysław I Łokietek, promised him homage and was named his heir in exchange for aid. Władysław declined the offer because he feared a direct confrontation with the Kingdom of Bohemia. Henry then asked the help of [Emperor Louis IV](/wiki/Louis_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor\"). On 20 April 1324, the Duke of Wrocław declared himself a vassal of the Empire. In return, Louis IV guaranteed the succession of Henry VI's lands to his daughters, prompting Bolesław to attack. Wrocław's defenses held, and Henry VI maintained control.",
"In 1327 the situation changed completely. John of Luxemburg persuaded Henry VI to break his alliance with the Emperor to become a vassal of Bohemia. In exchange, he received the [County of Glatz](/wiki/County_of_Kladsko \"County of Kladsko\") during his lifetime and a high pension, from the King.",
"Bolesław made a final attempt to capture Wrocław in 1327\\-28, during King John absence from Bohemia. Once again, he failed.",
"In 1329, Bolesław's youngest brother Władysław (who had been stripped of his Duchy of Legnica in 1312\\) unexpectedly returned to Silesia. Having been declared a vassal of Bohemia, Władysław took possession of Legnica in the name of King John, leaving Bolesław in a critical situation. Bolesław did not have the resources for a war against King John so, on 9 May 1329 in Wrocław, Bolesław declared himself a vassal of the Kingdom of Bohemia.",
"After losing his independence, Bolesław ceased trying to gain territories. As a vassal of John of Luxemburg, he took part during 1329\\-31 in King John's military expeditions to [Lusatia (Lausitz)](/wiki/Lusatia \"Lusatia\") and [Głogów (Glogau)](/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3w \"Głogów\").",
"[thumbnail\\|left\\|250px\\|Bolesław III's [seal](/wiki/Seal_%28device%29 \"Seal (device)\"), dated to 1337\\.](/wiki/File:Boles%C5%82aw_III_Rozrzutny_seal_1337.PNG \"Bolesław III Rozrzutny seal 1337.PNG\")",
"Bolesław's sumptuous lifestyle and constant travel (notably to the Congress of [Visegrád](/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d \"Visegrád\") of 1335\\) put him in a difficult financial situation. He continually increased taxes in his Duchy (towns of [Chocianów](/wiki/Chocian%C3%B3w \"Chocianów\") and [Chojnów](/wiki/Chojn%C3%B3w \"Chojnów\")).",
"Bolesław's oldest son [Wenceslaus I](/wiki/Wenceslaus_I_of_Legnica \"Wenceslaus I of Legnica\") rebelled against his father, claiming his part of the inheritance. The Duke didn't want a conflict with his son, and in 1338 he gave Wenceslaus the Duchy of Namysłów. Four years later (1342\\), he finally gave his sons Wenceslaus I and [Louis I](/wiki/Louis_I_the_Fair \"Louis I the Fair\") the joint government of the Duchy of Legnica. In exchange, Wenceslaus returned to Namysłów, which Bolesław almost immediately sold to King Casimir III the Great. After his abdication, Bolesław retired to Brieg with his second wife Katharina Šubić, of [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\"), to Brieg, where he remained until his death on 21 April 1352\\. He was buried in [Lubiąż Abbey](/wiki/Lubi%C4%85%C5%BC_Abbey \"Lubiąż Abbey\").",
"Although his coffers were now reduced, Bolesław didn't give up to his lavish lifestyle. He attended the marriage of King [Casimir III the Great](/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great \"Casimir III the Great\") and [Adelaide of Hesse](/wiki/Adelaide_of_Hesse \"Adelaide of Hesse\") in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\") in 1341, and the coronation of [Charles IV of Luxemburg](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor\"), King of [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\"), Bolesław to sell the town of [Grodków](/wiki/Grodk%C3%B3w \"Grodków\") to the Bishop of Wrocław, [Preczlaw von Pogarell](/wiki/Preczlaw_von_Pogarell \"Preczlaw von Pogarell\") on 19 January 1344\\.",
"Bolesław was twice excommunicated by the Church: for the delay in paying the [tithing](/wiki/Tithe \"Tithe\") in 1337, and when he sequestered Church property in 1340\\. The excommunication was removed on his deathbed at the insistence of his sons. Bolesław was quite generous to the Church, despite their unstable relation, contributing to Lubiąż Abbey, and founding two monasteries (Franciscan and Dominican), in Brieg.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{More citations needed section\|date\=February 2021}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|An American cast\-iron [Dutch oven](/wiki/Dutch_oven "Dutch oven"), 1896](/wiki/File:Dutch_Oven_-McClures_Magazine.jpg "Dutch Oven -McClures Magazine.jpg")
In Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Japan, there is a long history of cooking with cast\-iron vessels. The first mention of a cast\-iron kettle in English appeared in 679 or 680, though this wasn't the first use of metal vessels for cooking. The term *pot* came into use in 1180\. Both terms referred to a vessel capable of withstanding the direct heat of a fire.{{cite book \|last1\=Ragsdale \|first1\=John G. \|title\=Dutch Ovens Chronicled: Their use in the United States \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=The University of Arkansas Press \|location\=Fayetteville \|isbn\=978\-1\-55728\-690\-1 \|page\=1}} Cast\-iron [cauldrons](/wiki/Cauldron "Cauldron") and cooking pots were valued as kitchen items for their durability and their ability to retain heat evenly, thus improving the quality of cooked meals.
In Europe and the United States, before the introduction of the [kitchen stove](/wiki/Kitchen_stove "Kitchen stove") in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the [hearth](/wiki/Hearth "Hearth"), and cooking pots and pans were either designed for use in the hearth, or to be suspended within it. Cast\-iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand in the coals. In addition to Dutch ovens with three or four feet, which [Abraham Darby I](/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I "Abraham Darby I") secured a patent in 1708 to produce,{{cite book \|last1\=Ragsdale \|first1\=John G. \|title\=Dutch Ovens Chronicled: Their use in the United States \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=The University of Arkansas Press \|location\=Fayetteville \|isbn\=978\-1\-55728\-690\-1 \|page\=3}} a commonly used cast\-iron cooking pan called a spider had a handle and three legs allowing it to stand upright over campfires as well as in the coals and ashes of a fireplace.
Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms came into use when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast\-iron [skillet](/wiki/Skillet "Skillet").
Cast\-iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers during the first half of the 20th century. It was an inexpensive, yet durable cookware. Most American households had at least one cast\-iron cooking pan. Popular manufacturers included [Griswold](/wiki/Griswold_Manufacturing "Griswold Manufacturing"), which began production in 1865, [Wagner](/wiki/Wagner_Manufacturing_Company "Wagner Manufacturing Company") in 1891, and [Blacklock Foundry](/wiki/Lodge_%28company%29 "Lodge (company)") in 1896\. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel\-coated cast\-iron cookware.
Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as [teflon](/wiki/Teflon "Teflon")\-coated [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum "Aluminum") [non\-stick cookware](/wiki/Non-stick_pan "Non-stick pan") was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. The decline in daily use of cast\-iron cookware contributed to the closure of nearly all the iron cookware manufacturers in the United States. Many went out of business in the 1920s as seen in the [List of cast\-iron cookware manufacturers](/wiki/List_of_cast-iron_cookware_manufacturers "List of cast-iron cookware manufacturers"). Others were absorbed by other cookware manufacturers.
Today, of the large selection of cookware that can be purchased from kitchen suppliers, cast iron comprises only a small fraction. However, the durability and reliability of cast iron as a cooking tool has ensured its survival. Cast\-iron pots and pans from the 19th and 20th century continue to see daily use to the present day. They are also highly sought after by antique collectors and dealers.{{cite web\|last1\=Carroll\|first1\=Louise\|title\=Skilled in skillets: Dentist's hobby forged in cast iron history\|url\=http://www.timesonline.com/news/20180418/skilled\-in\-skillets\-dentists\-hobby\-forged\-in\-cast\-iron\-history\|work\=The Times\|access\-date\=9 May 2018}} Cast iron has also seen a resurgence of its popularity in specialty markets. Through [cooking shows](/wiki/Cooking_shows "Cooking shows"), celebrity chefs have brought renewed attention to traditional cooking methods, especially the use of cast iron.{{Cite news\|last1\=Park\|first1\=Eleanore\|title\=Eat Joyfully, and Other Wise Advice form Nigella Lawson\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/eat\-joyfully\-and\-other\-wise\-advice\-from\-nigella\-lawson\-1523558251\|journal\=Wall Street Journal\|access\-date\=9 May 2018\|date\=2018\-04\-12}} In the 2010s, small startup companies began producing cast\-iron cookware designs for specialty cooking markets.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2021}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|An American cast\\-iron [Dutch oven](/wiki/Dutch_oven \"Dutch oven\"), 1896](/wiki/File:Dutch_Oven_-McClures_Magazine.jpg \"Dutch Oven -McClures Magazine.jpg\")\nIn Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Japan, there is a long history of cooking with cast\\-iron vessels. The first mention of a cast\\-iron kettle in English appeared in 679 or 680, though this wasn't the first use of metal vessels for cooking. The term *pot* came into use in 1180\\. Both terms referred to a vessel capable of withstanding the direct heat of a fire.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ragsdale \\|first1\\=John G. \\|title\\=Dutch Ovens Chronicled: Their use in the United States \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=The University of Arkansas Press \\|location\\=Fayetteville \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55728\\-690\\-1 \\|page\\=1}} Cast\\-iron [cauldrons](/wiki/Cauldron \"Cauldron\") and cooking pots were valued as kitchen items for their durability and their ability to retain heat evenly, thus improving the quality of cooked meals.",
"In Europe and the United States, before the introduction of the [kitchen stove](/wiki/Kitchen_stove \"Kitchen stove\") in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the [hearth](/wiki/Hearth \"Hearth\"), and cooking pots and pans were either designed for use in the hearth, or to be suspended within it. Cast\\-iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand in the coals. In addition to Dutch ovens with three or four feet, which [Abraham Darby I](/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I \"Abraham Darby I\") secured a patent in 1708 to produce,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ragsdale \\|first1\\=John G. \\|title\\=Dutch Ovens Chronicled: Their use in the United States \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=The University of Arkansas Press \\|location\\=Fayetteville \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55728\\-690\\-1 \\|page\\=3}} a commonly used cast\\-iron cooking pan called a spider had a handle and three legs allowing it to stand upright over campfires as well as in the coals and ashes of a fireplace.",
"Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms came into use when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast\\-iron [skillet](/wiki/Skillet \"Skillet\").",
"Cast\\-iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers during the first half of the 20th century. It was an inexpensive, yet durable cookware. Most American households had at least one cast\\-iron cooking pan. Popular manufacturers included [Griswold](/wiki/Griswold_Manufacturing \"Griswold Manufacturing\"), which began production in 1865, [Wagner](/wiki/Wagner_Manufacturing_Company \"Wagner Manufacturing Company\") in 1891, and [Blacklock Foundry](/wiki/Lodge_%28company%29 \"Lodge (company)\") in 1896\\. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel\\-coated cast\\-iron cookware.",
"Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as [teflon](/wiki/Teflon \"Teflon\")\\-coated [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum \"Aluminum\") [non\\-stick cookware](/wiki/Non-stick_pan \"Non-stick pan\") was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. The decline in daily use of cast\\-iron cookware contributed to the closure of nearly all the iron cookware manufacturers in the United States. Many went out of business in the 1920s as seen in the [List of cast\\-iron cookware manufacturers](/wiki/List_of_cast-iron_cookware_manufacturers \"List of cast-iron cookware manufacturers\"). Others were absorbed by other cookware manufacturers.",
"Today, of the large selection of cookware that can be purchased from kitchen suppliers, cast iron comprises only a small fraction. However, the durability and reliability of cast iron as a cooking tool has ensured its survival. Cast\\-iron pots and pans from the 19th and 20th century continue to see daily use to the present day. They are also highly sought after by antique collectors and dealers.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Carroll\\|first1\\=Louise\\|title\\=Skilled in skillets: Dentist's hobby forged in cast iron history\\|url\\=http://www.timesonline.com/news/20180418/skilled\\-in\\-skillets\\-dentists\\-hobby\\-forged\\-in\\-cast\\-iron\\-history\\|work\\=The Times\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2018}} Cast iron has also seen a resurgence of its popularity in specialty markets. Through [cooking shows](/wiki/Cooking_shows \"Cooking shows\"), celebrity chefs have brought renewed attention to traditional cooking methods, especially the use of cast iron.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Park\\|first1\\=Eleanore\\|title\\=Eat Joyfully, and Other Wise Advice form Nigella Lawson\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/eat\\-joyfully\\-and\\-other\\-wise\\-advice\\-from\\-nigella\\-lawson\\-1523558251\\|journal\\=Wall Street Journal\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2018\\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-12}} In the 2010s, small startup companies began producing cast\\-iron cookware designs for specialty cooking markets.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Baptistry of Pisa
He is well known to be the original architect of the [Baptistry of Pisa](/wiki/Baptistry_%28Pisa%29 "Baptistry (Pisa)"), in [Piazza dei Miracoli](/wiki/Piazza_dei_Miracoli "Piazza dei Miracoli"), as we can read in the sign he left inside the building, with the date 1152 (1153 *[stile pisano](/wiki/Stile_pisano "Stile pisano")*):
{{center\|MCLIII, MENSE AUGUSTI FUNDATA FUIT HAEC ECCLESIA}}
{{center\|DEUSTESALVET MAGISTER HUIUS OPERISTranslation from Latin: "This church was founded in the month of August, 1153\. God save you, master of this work."}}
Although he did the original project, the present Baptistery was different from his idea. In fact, he constructed only the first part, the ground floor. The building was continued after his death by [Nicola Pisano](/wiki/Nicola_Pisano "Nicola Pisano"), a century after its foundation, and then completed by [Giovanni Pisano](/wiki/Giovanni_Pisano "Giovanni Pisano"). They changed many things in the final form of the building, which was intended to be simpler with no gothic cusps and no dome, just a small, and high, pyramidal roof. This was connected to the fact that he wanted to resemble the Anastasis in the basilica of the [Holy Sepulchre](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre "Church of the Holy Sepulchre") in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"). Maybe Diotisalvi wanted to replicate his previous work of the church of Holy Sepulchre in Pisa, 40 years before.
### Church of Santo Sepolcro in Pisa
The Church of [Holy Sepulchre](/wiki/Santo_Sepolcro_%28Pisa%29 "Santo Sepolcro (Pisa)") was built in the first part of the 12th century. There is proof that it existed in 1113\. The church has an octagonal shape and a pyramidal roof. Inside the belltower, there is a sign where *Deustesalvet* claims to be the *fabricator*, i.e. constructor of the building. The inside was meant to resemble the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, while the outside was meant to resemble the [Dome of the Rock](/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock "Dome of the Rock"), also in Jerusalem, wrongly called for a long time by Europeans "Mosque of Omar", because at that time it was believed to be the [Temple of Solomon](/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple "Solomon's Temple"). There are many churches in Europe dedicated to the Holy Sepulchre in an octagonal or circular shape. We can cite the one in [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna "Bologna"), Italy, inside the complex of [Santo Stefano](/wiki/Santo_Stefano%2C_Bologna "Santo Stefano, Bologna"), or the one in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge "Cambridge"), or the [Temple Church](/wiki/Temple_Church "Temple Church") in [London](/wiki/London "London"), [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom").
### Professional title
He was *fabricator* in 1113, and *magister* in 1153\. That means he refined his art in some school, maybe the construction works of the [cathedral of Pisa](/wiki/Piazza_dei_Miracoli "Piazza dei Miracoli").
### Other possible works
He did some other works, but without signing them.
#### Chapel of Saint Agatha
The chapel of Saint Agatha, a small chapel behind the church of [Saint Paul *a Ripa d'Arno*](/wiki/San_Paolo_a_Ripa_d%27Arno "San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno"). The small building was maybe originally built in 1063 by the monks, but the present shape was by a Diotisalvi. The first certification of the existence of the chapel is in 1132, maybe after the architect worked on it. It is in the usual octagonal shape, with a pyramidal roof.
#### Bell tower of San Nicola
The bell tower of the church of [St Nicholas](/wiki/San_Nicola_%28Pisa%29 "San Nicola (Pisa)") has an octagonal shape and a pyramidal roof, as all the other buildings by Diotisalvi. It was built in 1170, although there are no proofs, but only hypotheses. The bell\-chamber instead is hexagonal with one window in every side. Inside there is a winding staircase, with a wall only on the external part, unlikely the [Leaning Tower of Pisa](/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa "Leaning Tower of Pisa"). It was separated from the nearby buildings in origin, and it is slightly tilting.
#### Leaning Tower of Pisa
Recent studies attribute by analogies also the famous [Leaning Tower of Pisa](/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa "Leaning Tower of Pisa") (1173\) to magister Diotisalvi. The shape, the construction, and the affinity with the belltower of St. Nicholas all bring to mind the work of Diotisalvi. Like the Baptistery, the tower was not completed by him; maybe, just like the Baptistery, Giovanni Pisano was the last architect. That should explain why there is no pyramidal roof like all the other buildings
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Baptistry of Pisa",
"He is well known to be the original architect of the [Baptistry of Pisa](/wiki/Baptistry_%28Pisa%29 \"Baptistry (Pisa)\"), in [Piazza dei Miracoli](/wiki/Piazza_dei_Miracoli \"Piazza dei Miracoli\"), as we can read in the sign he left inside the building, with the date 1152 (1153 *[stile pisano](/wiki/Stile_pisano \"Stile pisano\")*):\n{{center\\|MCLIII, MENSE AUGUSTI FUNDATA FUIT HAEC ECCLESIA}}\n{{center\\|DEUSTESALVET MAGISTER HUIUS OPERISTranslation from Latin: \"This church was founded in the month of August, 1153\\. God save you, master of this work.\"}}\nAlthough he did the original project, the present Baptistery was different from his idea. In fact, he constructed only the first part, the ground floor. The building was continued after his death by [Nicola Pisano](/wiki/Nicola_Pisano \"Nicola Pisano\"), a century after its foundation, and then completed by [Giovanni Pisano](/wiki/Giovanni_Pisano \"Giovanni Pisano\"). They changed many things in the final form of the building, which was intended to be simpler with no gothic cusps and no dome, just a small, and high, pyramidal roof. This was connected to the fact that he wanted to resemble the Anastasis in the basilica of the [Holy Sepulchre](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre \"Church of the Holy Sepulchre\") in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\"). Maybe Diotisalvi wanted to replicate his previous work of the church of Holy Sepulchre in Pisa, 40 years before.",
"### Church of Santo Sepolcro in Pisa",
"The Church of [Holy Sepulchre](/wiki/Santo_Sepolcro_%28Pisa%29 \"Santo Sepolcro (Pisa)\") was built in the first part of the 12th century. There is proof that it existed in 1113\\. The church has an octagonal shape and a pyramidal roof. Inside the belltower, there is a sign where *Deustesalvet* claims to be the *fabricator*, i.e. constructor of the building. The inside was meant to resemble the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, while the outside was meant to resemble the [Dome of the Rock](/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock \"Dome of the Rock\"), also in Jerusalem, wrongly called for a long time by Europeans \"Mosque of Omar\", because at that time it was believed to be the [Temple of Solomon](/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple \"Solomon's Temple\"). There are many churches in Europe dedicated to the Holy Sepulchre in an octagonal or circular shape. We can cite the one in [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna \"Bologna\"), Italy, inside the complex of [Santo Stefano](/wiki/Santo_Stefano%2C_Bologna \"Santo Stefano, Bologna\"), or the one in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge \"Cambridge\"), or the [Temple Church](/wiki/Temple_Church \"Temple Church\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").",
"### Professional title",
"He was *fabricator* in 1113, and *magister* in 1153\\. That means he refined his art in some school, maybe the construction works of the [cathedral of Pisa](/wiki/Piazza_dei_Miracoli \"Piazza dei Miracoli\").",
"### Other possible works",
"He did some other works, but without signing them.",
"#### Chapel of Saint Agatha",
"The chapel of Saint Agatha, a small chapel behind the church of [Saint Paul *a Ripa d'Arno*](/wiki/San_Paolo_a_Ripa_d%27Arno \"San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno\"). The small building was maybe originally built in 1063 by the monks, but the present shape was by a Diotisalvi. The first certification of the existence of the chapel is in 1132, maybe after the architect worked on it. It is in the usual octagonal shape, with a pyramidal roof.",
"#### Bell tower of San Nicola",
"The bell tower of the church of [St Nicholas](/wiki/San_Nicola_%28Pisa%29 \"San Nicola (Pisa)\") has an octagonal shape and a pyramidal roof, as all the other buildings by Diotisalvi. It was built in 1170, although there are no proofs, but only hypotheses. The bell\\-chamber instead is hexagonal with one window in every side. Inside there is a winding staircase, with a wall only on the external part, unlikely the [Leaning Tower of Pisa](/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa \"Leaning Tower of Pisa\"). It was separated from the nearby buildings in origin, and it is slightly tilting.",
"#### Leaning Tower of Pisa",
"Recent studies attribute by analogies also the famous [Leaning Tower of Pisa](/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa \"Leaning Tower of Pisa\") (1173\\) to magister Diotisalvi. The shape, the construction, and the affinity with the belltower of St. Nicholas all bring to mind the work of Diotisalvi. Like the Baptistery, the tower was not completed by him; maybe, just like the Baptistery, Giovanni Pisano was the last architect. That should explain why there is no pyramidal roof like all the other buildings",
""
] |
History
-------
Predecessors of the 258th Field Artillery Regiment fought in the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War"), the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), and the [Global War on Terrorism](/wiki/Global_War_on_Terrorism "Global War on Terrorism"). The 258th Field Artillery is one of only nineteen [Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812](/wiki/Army_National_Guard_units_with_campaign_credit_for_the_War_of_1812 "Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812").
### Early history
[thumb\|The Washington Greys in 1858](/wiki/File:Washington_Greys_8th_Regt._N.Y.S.T._Colonel_George_Lyons_Commandant_on_special_duty_at_Camp_Washington_Quarantine%2C_St._I._%28i.e.%2C_Staten_Island%29_Sept._11th_to_28th_1858_by_order_of_the_Commander_in_LCCN2003655731.jpg "Washington Greys 8th Regt. N.Y.S.T. Colonel George Lyons Commandant on special duty at Camp Washington Quarantine, St. I. (i.e., Staten Island) Sept. 11th to 28th 1858 by order of the Commander in LCCN2003655731.jpg")
The 258th Field Artillery Regiment can trace its origins to the formation of an artillery battery in 1784 under the command of Capt. Jacob Sebring. On April 30, 1789, Capt. Sebring's battery formed part of the escort for General [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington")'s inauguration in New York City. Since that time the battery and its descendants have proudly claimed the title "Washington Grays" due to the gray coats of their uniform during that time.
The regiment was formed on October 9, 1809, as the 4th Regiment, New York State Artillery, organized from existing batteries. It was redesignated on June 13, 1812, as the 3rd Regiment, New York State Artillery. The unit was brought into federal service for the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812") in 1812, and again in 1814\.
The regiment served with distinction during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812") at [Fort Gansevoort](/wiki/Fort_Gansevoort "Fort Gansevoort") and [Fort Green](/wiki/Fort_Greene_Park "Fort Greene Park") defending the harbor of New York.
In 1847, it was redesignated as the **[8th New York Regiment](/wiki/8th_New_York_Infantry_Regiment "8th New York Infantry Regiment"), [New York State Militia](/wiki/New_York_State_Militia "New York State Militia")** (NYSM).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/1\-258fa.htm \|access\-date\=12 March 2018 \|title\=1st Battalion \- 258th Field Artillery Regiment \|website\=GlobalSecurity.org}} and throughout the first half of the 19th century was called for service in many civil disturbances including the [Flour Riot](/wiki/Flour_riot_of_1837 "Flour riot of 1837"), [Abolition Riot](/wiki/Abolition_Riot_of_1836 "Abolition Riot of 1836"), [Stone Cutter's Riot](https://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/tag/nyu-stonecutters-riot/) (1835\), Stevedore Riot (1836\), [Croton Water Riot](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/712841), [Great Fire](/wiki/Great_New_York_City_Fire_of_1845 "Great New York City Fire of 1845") (1845\), [Astor Place Riot](/wiki/Astor_Place_Riot "Astor Place Riot") (1849\), [Police Riot](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_riot "New York City Police riot") (1857\), [Dead Rabbit Riot](/wiki/Dead_Rabbits_riot "Dead Rabbits riot") (1857\), [Sepoy Riot](/wiki/Staten_Island_Quarantine_War "Staten Island Quarantine War")
1858\), and Quarantine Riot (1858\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\-history/conflict/spanish\-american\-war\-1898/8th\-regiment\-infantry\|title\=8th Regiment Infantry New York Volunteers Spanish\-American War :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}
### American Civil War
[thumb\|right\|255px\|"Elmira Cornet Band," of the "8th New York State Milita",Arlington, Va. June 1861](/wiki/File:%22Elmira_Cornet_Band%2C%22_Thirty-third_Regiment%2C_of_the_New_York_State_Volunteers%2C_July_1861_LCCN2013648631.jpg)
The unit served three periods of federal service in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"). As the 8th NYSM, the unit was organized in April, 1861 for 90 days' service, leaving New York state for Washington, D.C., on the 20th and mustering in to federal service on the 26th. It served in the [defenses of Washington](/wiki/Defenses_of_Washington "Defenses of Washington"), DC until July. The unit was part of Porter's 1st Brigade, Hunter's 2nd Division, McDowell's [Army of Northeast Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac "Army of the Potomac") at the [First Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run "First Battle of Bull Run") on July 21, 1861\.*[The Manassas Campaign, Virginia, July 21, 1861 \- Union order of battle](http://www.firstbullrun.co.uk/NEV/index.html); [Manassas National Battlefield Park \- The Battle of First Manassas, Union order of battle](http://www.nps.gov/mana/historyculture/union-order-of-battle-first-manassas.htm); Official Records, Series I, Volume II, pages, [314\-315](http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;idno=waro0002;node=waro0002%3A6;view=image;seq=330;size=100;page=root).* The 8th returned to New York City, mustering out there on August 2, 1861\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyinf1\.htm\#19\|title\=History \- New York Infantry (Part 1\)\|website\=www.civilwararchive.com}} Following redesignation as the **8th Regiment, [New York National Guard](/wiki/New_York_National_Guard_%28American_Civil_War%29 "New York National Guard (American Civil War)")**, the unit was mustered in again on May 29, 1862, for 90 days' service. It served in the defenses of Washington, D.C., as part of the garrison of that city, and was mustered out of service on September 9, 1862\. It was called up for a third time in June, 1863, for 30 days' service in response to Robert E. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania in June of that year. It served in [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania"), as part of the garrison of that city and 1st Brigade, 1st Division, [Dept. of the Susquehanna](/wiki/Department_of_the_Susquehanna "Department of the Susquehanna"), and was mustered out of service on July 23, 1863\. During its service the regiment lost by death, killed in action, 64 enlisted men; of wounds received in action, 29 enlisted men; of disease and other causes, I officer, 39 enlisted men; total, 1 officer, 132 enlisted men; aggregate, 133; of whom 20 enlisted men died in the hands of the enemy. Colonel Felix Prince Salm received authority, May 11, 1863, to reorganize the 8th Regiment, of infantry, mustered out by reason of expiration of service, for a term of service of three years. This authority was revoked, October 14, 1863, and the men enlisted were assigned to the [178th New York Infantry](/wiki/178th_New_York_Infantry_Regiment "178th New York Infantry Regiment").{{cite book \|last1\=Phisterer \|first1\=Frederick \|title\=New York in the war of the rebellion, 1861 to 1865 \|date\=1912 \|publisher\=Albany, J. B. Lyon company, state printers \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/newyorkinwarofre03phisrich/newyorkinwarofre03phisrich\_djvu.txt}}{{source\-attribution}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyinf1\.htm\#21\|title\=History \- New York Infantry (Part 1\)\|website\=www.civilwararchive.com}}{{cite web\|title\=8th Infantry Regiment\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\-history/infantry/8th\-infantry\-regiment\|access\-date\=19 August 2024}}
The 8th also had an artillery battery known as "Varian's 1st Troop Washington Grays". This battery mustered into federal service on April 19, 1861, and left New York for Annapolis, Maryland. On May 18 moved near a [lighthouse at Smith's Point](/wiki/Smith_Point_Light "Smith Point Light") on Chesapeake Bay. Outpost duty in Northern Virginia through June 17\. Attached to Keyes' Brigade, Tyler's Division, McDowell's [Army of Northeast Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_Northeast_Virginia "Army of Northeast Virginia"), to July. Mustered out July 20, 1861, the day before the First Battle of Bull Run. The unit's guns served in the battle with Blenkers' Brigade, Miles' Division as "Brookwood's New York Battery" under Captain Charles Brookwood, manned by detachments from the 8th Militia and [29th New York Volunteer Infantry](/wiki/29th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment "29th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment"). The battery was federalized again with the remainder of the regiment in June–July, 1863 as above.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyart4\.htm\#varians\|title\=History \- New York Artillery (Part 4\)\|website\=www.civilwararchive.com}}
The 4th Independent Battery Light Artillery was recruited and organized in New York City as Company L, Artillery Company, Serrell's Engineers, and part of the 1st Troop, Washington Greys. It was mustered in the United States service for three years at Staten Island on October 24, 1861, and left the State the next day commanded by. Capt. James E. Smith. Later in October it received its arms, [Parrott guns](/wiki/Parrott_rifle "Parrott rifle"), and was designated Battery C, and a few weeks later, Battery D, N. Y. Light Artillery. December 7, 1861, it received its numerical designation from the State. It took part in the following engagements: [Siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown_%281862%29 "Siege of Yorktown (1862)"), [Williamsburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Williamsburg "Battle of Williamsburg"), [Fair Oaks](/wiki/Battle_of_Fair_Oaks_%26_Darbytown_Road "Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road"), [Seven Days](/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles "Seven Days Battles"), [Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg "Battle of Fredericksburg"), [Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville "Battle of Chancellorsville"), [Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg"), [Auburn](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Auburn "Second Battle of Auburn"), [Bristoe Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Bristoe_Station "Battle of Bristoe Station") and the [Mine Run campaign](/wiki/Battle_of_Mine_Run "Battle of Mine Run"). It was discontinued on Dec. 4, 1863, commanded by 1st Lieut. William T. McLean and its members were transferred to the [1st N. Y. engineers](/wiki/1st_New_York_Engineer_Regiment "1st New York Engineer Regiment"), the 5th and 15th N. Y. batteries, and Battery B, ist N. Y. artillery. The 4th lost during service 5 men killed and mortally wounded, and 1 officer and 11 men died of disease and other causes. The Battery distinguished itself at [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg"), where it materially aided in seizing and retaining [Little Round Top](/wiki/Little_Round_Top "Little Round Top") from [John Bell Hood](/wiki/John_Bell_Hood "John Bell Hood") Division. At the time of the assault by Hood’s Division of the [Confederate Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army"), this battery, supported by the [4th Maine Infantry Regiment](/wiki/4th_Maine_Infantry_Regiment "4th Maine Infantry Regiment"), formed the extreme left of the [Third Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28Union_Army%29 "III Corps (Union Army)") line. Three guns of the two sections in action on this crest were captured by the Confederates. The third section was in position to the right and continued the action until nearly 6 p.m., its loss during this battle being 2 killed, 10 wounded, and 1 missing.{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/index.php/?cID\=1817\|title\=4th Independent Battery Light Artillery :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/index.php/?cID\=3005\|title\=4th New York Independent Battery's Monument at Gettysburg :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\-history/artillery/4th\-independent\-battery\-light\-artillery/historical\-sketch\|title\=Historical Sketch of the 4th New York Independent Battery :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://civilwarintheeast.com/us\-regiments\-batteries/new\-york\-regiments\-and\-batteries/varians\-new\-york\-militia\-battery/\|title\=Varian's New York Militia Battery}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/union\-monuments/new\-york/new\-york\-artillery\-and\-engineers/4th\-new\-york\-independent\-battery/\|title\=Monument to the 4th New York Independent Battery at Gettysburg}}
In August 1861, the detachments of the 8th NYSM and 29th NY Vols. that had served the 1st Troop's guns were reorganized as the **2nd New York Independent Battery**, Light Artillery (Blenker's Battery). The unit served in Washington, D.C., until April 1862, operating in the Shenandoah Valley to August 1862, fighting in the [Battle of Cross Keys](/wiki/Battle_of_Cross_Keys "Battle of Cross Keys") and [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run "Second Battle of Bull Run"). In early May 1863, the unit was in the [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville "Battle of Chancellorsville"). After transferring three\-year men to Battery I, 1st New York Light Artillery, the unit mustered out on June 13, 1863\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyart3\.htm\#2ndind\|title\=History \- New York Artillery (Part 3\)\|website\=www.civilwararchive.com}}
On May 13, 1847, a detachment was constituted in the New York State Militia as the 14th Regiment.
It was Mustered into Federal service May 23, 1861 in Washington, D.C. and Redesignated 7 December 1861 as the [84th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment](/wiki/14th_Regiment_%28New_York_State_Militia%29 "14th Regiment (New York State Militia)"). During its service the regiment lost by death, killed in action, 5 officers, 83 enlisted men; of wounds received in action, 3 officers, 61 enlisted men; of disease and other causes, 74 enlisted men; total, 8 officers, 218 enlisted men; aggregate, 226; of whom 17 enlisted men died in the hands of the enemy.{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\-history/infantry\-1/84th\-infantry\-regiment\|title\=84th Infantry Regiment :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}
It was Mustered out of Federal service June 6, 1864 in New York City. It was Reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 14th Infantry Regiment.
Mustered into Federal service 13–16 May 1898 at Hempstead as the 14th New York Volunteer Infantry; mustered out of Federal service 27 October 1898 in Brooklyn, NY.{{Cite web\|url\=https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/0258fa.htm\|title\=258th Field Artillery Regiment \| Lineage and Honors \| U.S. Army Center of Military History (CMH)\|website\=history.army.mil}}
In the second half of the 19th century, the 8th Regiment was called out for several strikes and riots such as the [Orange Riot](/wiki/Orange_Riots "Orange Riots") (1871\), the [Great Railroad Strike](/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877 "Great Railroad Strike of 1877") (1877\), the [Brooklyn Trolley Strike](https://www.bklynlibrary.org/blog/2014/08/25/great-trolley-strike-1895) (1895\) and [New York City Draft Riots](/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots "New York City draft riots") (1863\).
### Spanish–American War through 1913
The 8th briefly returned to federal service in 1898 during the Spanish–American War as the 8th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, mustering in by May 19 and mustering out on November 3\. It did not deploy outside the United States. In 1906 the 8th Infantry Regiment was reorganized and redesignated as the 8th Infantry Battalion. It was reorganized and redesignated 21 January 1908 as the 8th Infantry Regiment. It was then converted and redesignated 23 January 1908 as the 8th Artillery District, Coast Artillery Corps.
### World War I
The 8th Artillery District was reorganized and redesignated 10 August 1914 as the 8th Coast Defense Command, [Coast Artillery Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Coast_Artillery_Corps "United States Army Coast Artillery Corps"), [New York National Guard](/wiki/New_York_Army_National_Guard "New York Army National Guard"). In 1917 the unit relocated from Manhattan to the new [Kingsbridge Armory](/wiki/Kingsbridge_Armory "Kingsbridge Armory") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx "The Bronx"). Mustered into Federal service 22 July 1917 at New York; drafted into Federal service 5 August 1917\. Companies of the 8th Coast Defense Command were reorganized and redesignated 22 January–1 February 1918 as elements of the 58th Artillery (Coast Artillery Corps), the [Coast Defenses of Southern New York](/wiki/Coast_Defenses_of_Southern_New_York "Coast Defenses of Southern New York"), and the [Coast Defenses of Eastern New York](/wiki/Coast_Defenses_of_Eastern_New_York "Coast Defenses of Eastern New York"). Men were drawn from the Headquarters and Supply Companies of the 58th Artillery's Coast Defenses of Eastern New York and the Third Battalion of the Coast Defenses of Baltimore. On April 6, 1918, Battery F formed the guard of honor for President Wilson in Baltimore, and he commended it for its performance.
The regiment trained for war in [Fort Totten](/wiki/Fort_Totten_%28Queens%29 "Fort Totten (Queens)") and Fort Schuyler, New York. Throughout May its battalions departed from [Hoboke](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey "Hoboken, New Jersey") for [France](/wiki/France "France"). Its total number assembled in Brest reached 66 officers and 1,811 men by May 31\. They then departed for training alongside the French army at [Ambazac](/wiki/Ambazac "Ambazac"). On June 2, the 58th Artillery was assigned to the 32nd Artillery Brigade, and equipped with breech\-loaded Vickers Mk 6\. 8\-inch howitzers. They were mounted on two types of “caterpillars,” engines of agricultural origin that generated up to 75 or 120 horsepower.
On October 20, the regiment departed for the front and its three battalions were divided. The First and Second Battalions established camp at Montjoie near Manonville during the [St. Mihiel Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel "Battle of Saint-Mihiel"). Meanwhile, the Third Battalion moved to the Adrian barracks near Jezainville.
After establishing camps, the battalions began scouting ideal locations to set up their batteries, and then the work of camouflaging, setting up telephone wires, and digging in. The First Battalion set up its guns in the valley of Foret des Vencheres, firing its first shot on October 31, and its last of the war only four minutes before the signing of the armistice on November 11\. On the night of November 8, the battalion’s batteries were scouted and strafed by German airplanes. The sortee was followed by severe and accurate shelling with explosives and gas. One shell scored a direct hit on Battery A’s powder dump. The shelling killed one man, the regiment’s only man to die in action during the war.
The Second Battalion was also assigned to Foret des Vencheres. Its targets on the German side of no\-man’s\-land were Onville, Waville, Vandelainville, and Pagny\-sur\-Moselle. A few days prior to the armistice, the Second Battalion advanced to Sainte Marie Farm just northeast of Vilcey. For the caliber of the unit’s guns, the position was very close to the German lines and the troops who set up the position suffered twenty casualties, wounded, from shelling and gas. The battalion was intended to assist an advance on the Metz front that never took place because the armistice was signed on November 11\.
The Third Battalion was assigned to positions at Meurthe\-et\-Moselle and directed its fire on German positions near Vittonville.
New York elements of the 58th Artillery (Coast Artillery Corps) demobilized 7 May 1919 at Camp Upton, New York; elements of the Coast Defenses of Southern New York in December 1918 at [Fort Wadsworth](/wiki/Fort_Wadsworth "Fort Wadsworth"), New York; and elements of the Coast Defenses of Eastern New York in December 1918 at [Fort Totten](/wiki/Fort_Totten_%28Queens%29 "Fort Totten (Queens)"), New York.{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\-history/conflict/world\-war\-1\-1914\-1918/58th\-artillery\|title\=58th Artillery, Coast Artillery Corps :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}
### Interwar period
The former 8th Coast Defense Command was consolidated with the 8th Coast Defense Command, New York Guard, and reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 193rd Field Artillery with headquarters federally recognized 11 May 1921 at Bronx. It was redesignated as the 258th Field Artillery ([155 mm gun](/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918 "155 mm gun M1918")) on 28 November 1921 and assigned to [II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 "II Corps (United States)").{{cite book \| last1 \= McKenney \| first1 \= Janice E. \| title \= US Army Center of Military History (CMH) Publication 60\-11, Army Lineage Series, Field Artillery, Part 2 \| url \= https://history.army.mil/catalog/pubs/60/60\-11\.html \| pages \= 1285–1295 \| location \= Washington, DC \| publisher \= US Army Center of Military History \| year \= 2010 }}{{cite book \| last1 \= Clay \| first1 \= Steven E. \| title \= US Army Order of Battle 1919–1941, vol. 2 \|url\=https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat\-studies\-institute/csi\-books/OrderofBattle2\.pdf \| publisher \= Combat Studies Institute Press \| location \= Fort Leavenworth, Kansas \| year \= 2010 \| pages \= 843–844 }}
### World War II
On 3 February 1941 the regiment was inducted into federal service and moved to [Fort Ethan Allen](/wiki/Fort_Ethan_Allen "Fort Ethan Allen"), Vermont; assigned to 71st Field Artillery Brigade, [VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 "VI Corps (United States)"). Moved to [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks "Madison Barracks"), NY on 2 June 1941; moved to [Pine Camp](/wiki/Pine_Camp "Pine Camp"), NY on 18 May 1942\. On 8 February 1943 the regiment was broken up (triangularized) in accordance with an Army\-wide reorganization. It became the 258th Field Artillery Group (former Headquarters \& Headquarters Battery), 258th Field Artillery Battalion (former 1st Battalion) and the 991st Field Artillery Battalion (former 2nd Battalion).{{sfn\|Stanton\|1991\|p\=391}} All were deployed to Europe.
The **258th Field Artillery Group** departed the [New York port of embarkation](/wiki/New_York_port_of_embarkation "New York port of embarkation") on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to Normandy, France on 8 July 1944\. Moved into Holland on 16 September 1944 and Germany 19 November 1944\. The unit was at Alsfeld, Germany in August 1945\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. Returned to [Boston Port of Embarkation](/wiki/Boston_Port_of_Embarkation "Boston Port of Embarkation") 24 September 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\|Stanton\|1991\|p\=361}}
The **258th Field Artillery Battalion** was a [self\-propelled unit](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery "Self-propelled artillery") equipped with twelve 155 mm [M12 gun motor carriages](/wiki/M12_gun_motor_carriage "M12 gun motor carriage"). It departed the New York port of embarkation on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to France on 2 July 1944\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. In August 1945 the unit was at Lehrbach, Germany. Returned to Boston port of embarkation 18 December 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\|Stanton\|1991\|p\=405}}
The **991st Field Artillery Battalion** departed the New York port of embarkation on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to France on 11 July 1944\. It was attached to the [3rd Armored Division](/wiki/3rd_Armored_Division_%28United_States%29 "3rd Armored Division (United States)") or [VII Corps](/wiki/VII_Corps_%28United_States%29 "VII Corps (United States)") for most of the war, as a self\-propelled unit equipped with twelve 155 mm M12 gun motor carriages. Batteries were detached to support divisions in combat as necessary. The 991st FA landed on Omaha Beach, Normandy on July 11, 1944 where it was bombed and strafed by German airplanes within hours of landing. Battery B of the 991st was credited with firing the first shells into German soil and Battery C was given credit for its role in the capture of Aachen. The 991st was also the first American unit to use captured 155 mm enemy shells. The Germans were using captured French [Canon de 155 mm GPF](/wiki/Canon_de_155_mm_GPF "Canon de 155 mm GPF") guns ([German designation](/wiki/German_designations_of_foreign_artillery_in_World_War_II "German designations of foreign artillery in World War II") 15\.5 cm K 418(f)), similar to the GPF\-derived [155 mm gun M1918](/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918 "155 mm gun M1918") on the [M12 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M12_gun_motor_carriage "M12 gun motor carriage") the 991st was armed with.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.3ad.com/history/wwll/feature.pages/991st.pages/991st.history.htm\|title\=991st FA Bn Unit History \- WW II\|website\=www.3ad.com}} The 991st also deployed a single pilot [M40 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M40_gun_motor_carriage "M40 gun motor carriage") with the [155 mm "Long Tom" gun](/wiki/155_mm_Gun_M1 "155 mm Gun M1").Hunnicutt – *Sherman: A History of the American Medium Tank*, p 353\-355, 570\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Ardennes\-Alsace (Battle of the Bulge), Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. The unit was in Allstedt, Germany in August 1945\. Returned to Boston Port of Embarkation 15 November 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\|Stanton\|1991\|p\=424}}
### After World War II
[thumb\|left\|300px\|Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 258th Field Artillery, in formation, 9 September 2006](/wiki/File:HHB_1-258_FA.JPG "HHB 1-258 FA.JPG")
In 1957 the battalion of the 258th FA at [Kingsbridge Armory](/wiki/Kingsbridge_Armory "Kingsbridge Armory") had all four batteries equipped with [105 mm](/wiki/M101_howitzer "M101 howitzer") towed artillery pieces. In 1959 all the units were switched to [155 mm](/wiki/M114_155_mm_howitzer "M114 155 mm howitzer") towed. At some time prior to 1962, the unit again changed to [8\-inch howitzer](/wiki/M115_howitzer "M115 howitzer") towed. Additionally, in 1962 one battery was upgraded to the [Honest John Rocket](/wiki/MGR-1_Honest_John "MGR-1 Honest John").
1st Battalion (155mm towed), 2nd Bn (105mm towed), 3rd Bn (105mm towed), and the 4th Rocket/Howitzer Battalion armed with 8" Howitzer and Honest John Rocket were all located in the Kingsbridge Armory, Bronx, NY. They were part of the [42nd Infantry Division Artillery](/wiki/42nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "42nd Infantry Division (United States)") (DIVARTY). The 3rd Battalion was deactivated first; then in 1967 the 2nd Battalion, followed in 1973 by the 4th Battalion.
In 2001, During the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks"), members of the 258 FA were among the first to arrive at the scene of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and for the next several weeks actively assisted in the security and relief efforts at the site.
In 2004, B Battery (temporarily redesignated Company G 89th Military Police Brigade) commanded by CPT Seth Morgulas (now Colonel and commander of the 369th Sustainment Brigade) and C Battery commanded by CPT Andrew Espinoza deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II/III. B Battery was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation for its service.
In 2008, the 1st Battalion, 258th Field Artillery was composed of three batteries and a support company. Battery A was located in [New Windsor](/wiki/New_Windsor%2C_New_York "New Windsor, New York"), New York.{{Cite web\|url\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\=1229008264\|title\=A Battery 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\|date\=11 December 2008\|website\=dmna.ny.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-27}} Battery B in [Bronx](/wiki/Bronx%2C_New_York "Bronx, New York"), New York.{{Cite web\|url\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\=1229008265\|title\=B Battery 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\|date\=11 December 2008\|website\=dmna.ny.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-27}} Headquarters and Headquarters Battery was in [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_New_York "Jamaica, New York"), New York{{Cite web\|url\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\=1229008263\|title\=HHB 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\|date\=11 December 2008\|website\=dmna.ny.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-27}} and Company G, 427th BSB in Jamaica, NY.{{Cite web\|url\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\=1229008269\|title\=G Co. 427 Brigade Support Battalion, NYARNG\|date\=11 December 2008\|website\=dmna.ny.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-27}} The battalion was equipped with the [M119 105 mm towed howitzer](/wiki/M119_howitzer "M119 howitzer").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.army.mil/article/45660/borrowed\-no\-morethe\-new\-york\-army\-national\-guards\-only\-artillery\-unit\-fields\-new\-weapon/\|title\=Borrowed No More:The New York Army National Guard's only artillery unit fields new weapon\|date\=24 September 2010\|website\=www.army.mil}} It was planned that the battalion would re\-equip with the [M777 155 mm towed howitzer](/wiki/M777_howitzer "M777 howitzer") in 2019, at [Fort Sill](/wiki/Fort_Sill "Fort Sill"), OK.
Since 2001 the battalion has sent soldiers to both [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom") and [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom"). It is part of the [27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team](/wiki/27th_Infantry_Brigade_Combat_Team "27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team"), part of the [42nd Infantry Division](/wiki/42nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "42nd Infantry Division (United States)").{{citation needed\|date\=June 2018}}
### Campaign participation credit
* **[War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812")**: Streamer without inscription
* **[American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War")**: [First Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run "First Battle of Bull Run"), [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run "Second Battle of Bull Run"), [Battle of Antietam](/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam "Battle of Antietam"), [Battle of Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg "Battle of Fredericksburg"), [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville "Battle of Chancellorsville"), [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg"), [Battle of the Wilderness](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness "Battle of the Wilderness"), [Battle of Spotsylvania Court House](/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House "Battle of Spotsylvania Court House"), Virginia 1861, Virginia 1862, Virginia 1863
* **[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")**: [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme "Second Battle of the Somme"), Ypres\-Lys, [Meuse\-Argonne](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne "Meuse-Argonne"), Flanders 1918, Lorraine 1918
* **[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")**: Central Pacific, Bismarck Archipelago, Eastern Mandates, [Battle of Leyte](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte "Battle of Leyte"), [Battle of Luzon](/wiki/Battle_of_Luzon "Battle of Luzon"), Western Pacific, Southern Philippines (with arrowhead), Ryukyus, [Tunisia Campaign](/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign "Tunisia Campaign"),Naples\-Foggia, Rome\-Arno, [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy_landings "Normandy landings") (with arrowhead), Northern France, Rhineland,Ardennes\-Alsace, Central Europe
* **[Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War")** : [First UN Counter Offensive](/wiki/UN_May%E2%80%93June_1951_counteroffensive "UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive"), [CCF Spring Offensive](/wiki/Chinese_spring_offensive "Chinese spring offensive"), UN Summer\-Fall Offensive, Second Korean Winter, Korea, Summer\-Fall 1952, Third Korean Winter, Korea, Summer 1953
* **[War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism "War on Terrorism")**: [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom"), [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom")
Headquarters Battery (Jamaica), 1st Battalion, additionally entitled to:
* **[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")**: Champagne\-Marne, Aisne\-Marne, St. Mihiel, Champagne 1918
* **[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")**: North Apennines, Po Valley
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Predecessors of the 258th Field Artillery Regiment fought in the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\"), the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), and the [Global War on Terrorism](/wiki/Global_War_on_Terrorism \"Global War on Terrorism\"). The 258th Field Artillery is one of only nineteen [Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812](/wiki/Army_National_Guard_units_with_campaign_credit_for_the_War_of_1812 \"Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812\").",
"### Early history",
"[thumb\\|The Washington Greys in 1858](/wiki/File:Washington_Greys_8th_Regt._N.Y.S.T._Colonel_George_Lyons_Commandant_on_special_duty_at_Camp_Washington_Quarantine%2C_St._I._%28i.e.%2C_Staten_Island%29_Sept._11th_to_28th_1858_by_order_of_the_Commander_in_LCCN2003655731.jpg \"Washington Greys 8th Regt. N.Y.S.T. Colonel George Lyons Commandant on special duty at Camp Washington Quarantine, St. I. (i.e., Staten Island) Sept. 11th to 28th 1858 by order of the Commander in LCCN2003655731.jpg\")\nThe 258th Field Artillery Regiment can trace its origins to the formation of an artillery battery in 1784 under the command of Capt. Jacob Sebring. On April 30, 1789, Capt. Sebring's battery formed part of the escort for General [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\")'s inauguration in New York City. Since that time the battery and its descendants have proudly claimed the title \"Washington Grays\" due to the gray coats of their uniform during that time.",
"The regiment was formed on October 9, 1809, as the 4th Regiment, New York State Artillery, organized from existing batteries. It was redesignated on June 13, 1812, as the 3rd Regiment, New York State Artillery. The unit was brought into federal service for the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\") in 1812, and again in 1814\\.",
"The regiment served with distinction during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\") at [Fort Gansevoort](/wiki/Fort_Gansevoort \"Fort Gansevoort\") and [Fort Green](/wiki/Fort_Greene_Park \"Fort Greene Park\") defending the harbor of New York.\nIn 1847, it was redesignated as the **[8th New York Regiment](/wiki/8th_New_York_Infantry_Regiment \"8th New York Infantry Regiment\"), [New York State Militia](/wiki/New_York_State_Militia \"New York State Militia\")** (NYSM).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/1\\-258fa.htm \\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2018 \\|title\\=1st Battalion \\- 258th Field Artillery Regiment \\|website\\=GlobalSecurity.org}} and throughout the first half of the 19th century was called for service in many civil disturbances including the [Flour Riot](/wiki/Flour_riot_of_1837 \"Flour riot of 1837\"), [Abolition Riot](/wiki/Abolition_Riot_of_1836 \"Abolition Riot of 1836\"), [Stone Cutter's Riot](https://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/tag/nyu-stonecutters-riot/) (1835\\), Stevedore Riot (1836\\), [Croton Water Riot](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/712841), [Great Fire](/wiki/Great_New_York_City_Fire_of_1845 \"Great New York City Fire of 1845\") (1845\\), [Astor Place Riot](/wiki/Astor_Place_Riot \"Astor Place Riot\") (1849\\), [Police Riot](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_riot \"New York City Police riot\") (1857\\), [Dead Rabbit Riot](/wiki/Dead_Rabbits_riot \"Dead Rabbits riot\") (1857\\), [Sepoy Riot](/wiki/Staten_Island_Quarantine_War \"Staten Island Quarantine War\")\n1858\\), and Quarantine Riot (1858\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\\-history/conflict/spanish\\-american\\-war\\-1898/8th\\-regiment\\-infantry\\|title\\=8th Regiment Infantry New York Volunteers Spanish\\-American War :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}",
"### American Civil War",
"[thumb\\|right\\|255px\\|\"Elmira Cornet Band,\" of the \"8th New York State Milita\",Arlington, Va. June 1861](/wiki/File:%22Elmira_Cornet_Band%2C%22_Thirty-third_Regiment%2C_of_the_New_York_State_Volunteers%2C_July_1861_LCCN2013648631.jpg)\nThe unit served three periods of federal service in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"). As the 8th NYSM, the unit was organized in April, 1861 for 90 days' service, leaving New York state for Washington, D.C., on the 20th and mustering in to federal service on the 26th. It served in the [defenses of Washington](/wiki/Defenses_of_Washington \"Defenses of Washington\"), DC until July. The unit was part of Porter's 1st Brigade, Hunter's 2nd Division, McDowell's [Army of Northeast Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac \"Army of the Potomac\") at the [First Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run \"First Battle of Bull Run\") on July 21, 1861\\.*[The Manassas Campaign, Virginia, July 21, 1861 \\- Union order of battle](http://www.firstbullrun.co.uk/NEV/index.html); [Manassas National Battlefield Park \\- The Battle of First Manassas, Union order of battle](http://www.nps.gov/mana/historyculture/union-order-of-battle-first-manassas.htm); Official Records, Series I, Volume II, pages, [314\\-315](http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;idno=waro0002;node=waro0002%3A6;view=image;seq=330;size=100;page=root).* The 8th returned to New York City, mustering out there on August 2, 1861\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyinf1\\.htm\\#19\\|title\\=History \\- New York Infantry (Part 1\\)\\|website\\=www.civilwararchive.com}} Following redesignation as the **8th Regiment, [New York National Guard](/wiki/New_York_National_Guard_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"New York National Guard (American Civil War)\")**, the unit was mustered in again on May 29, 1862, for 90 days' service. It served in the defenses of Washington, D.C., as part of the garrison of that city, and was mustered out of service on September 9, 1862\\. It was called up for a third time in June, 1863, for 30 days' service in response to Robert E. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania in June of that year. It served in [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\"), as part of the garrison of that city and 1st Brigade, 1st Division, [Dept. of the Susquehanna](/wiki/Department_of_the_Susquehanna \"Department of the Susquehanna\"), and was mustered out of service on July 23, 1863\\. During its service the regiment lost by death, killed in action, 64 enlisted men; of wounds received in action, 29 enlisted men; of disease and other causes, I officer, 39 enlisted men; total, 1 officer, 132 enlisted men; aggregate, 133; of whom 20 enlisted men died in the hands of the enemy. Colonel Felix Prince Salm received authority, May 11, 1863, to reorganize the 8th Regiment, of infantry, mustered out by reason of expiration of service, for a term of service of three years. This authority was revoked, October 14, 1863, and the men enlisted were assigned to the [178th New York Infantry](/wiki/178th_New_York_Infantry_Regiment \"178th New York Infantry Regiment\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Phisterer \\|first1\\=Frederick \\|title\\=New York in the war of the rebellion, 1861 to 1865 \\|date\\=1912 \\|publisher\\=Albany, J. B. Lyon company, state printers \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/newyorkinwarofre03phisrich/newyorkinwarofre03phisrich\\_djvu.txt}}{{source\\-attribution}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyinf1\\.htm\\#21\\|title\\=History \\- New York Infantry (Part 1\\)\\|website\\=www.civilwararchive.com}}{{cite web\\|title\\=8th Infantry Regiment\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\\-history/infantry/8th\\-infantry\\-regiment\\|access\\-date\\=19 August 2024}}",
"The 8th also had an artillery battery known as \"Varian's 1st Troop Washington Grays\". This battery mustered into federal service on April 19, 1861, and left New York for Annapolis, Maryland. On May 18 moved near a [lighthouse at Smith's Point](/wiki/Smith_Point_Light \"Smith Point Light\") on Chesapeake Bay. Outpost duty in Northern Virginia through June 17\\. Attached to Keyes' Brigade, Tyler's Division, McDowell's [Army of Northeast Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_Northeast_Virginia \"Army of Northeast Virginia\"), to July. Mustered out July 20, 1861, the day before the First Battle of Bull Run. The unit's guns served in the battle with Blenkers' Brigade, Miles' Division as \"Brookwood's New York Battery\" under Captain Charles Brookwood, manned by detachments from the 8th Militia and [29th New York Volunteer Infantry](/wiki/29th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment \"29th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment\"). The battery was federalized again with the remainder of the regiment in June–July, 1863 as above.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyart4\\.htm\\#varians\\|title\\=History \\- New York Artillery (Part 4\\)\\|website\\=www.civilwararchive.com}}",
"The 4th Independent Battery Light Artillery was recruited and organized in New York City as Company L, Artillery Company, Serrell's Engineers, and part of the 1st Troop, Washington Greys. It was mustered in the United States service for three years at Staten Island on October 24, 1861, and left the State the next day commanded by. Capt. James E. Smith. Later in October it received its arms, [Parrott guns](/wiki/Parrott_rifle \"Parrott rifle\"), and was designated Battery C, and a few weeks later, Battery D, N. Y. Light Artillery. December 7, 1861, it received its numerical designation from the State. It took part in the following engagements: [Siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown_%281862%29 \"Siege of Yorktown (1862)\"), [Williamsburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Williamsburg \"Battle of Williamsburg\"), [Fair Oaks](/wiki/Battle_of_Fair_Oaks_%26_Darbytown_Road \"Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road\"), [Seven Days](/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles \"Seven Days Battles\"), [Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg \"Battle of Fredericksburg\"), [Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville \"Battle of Chancellorsville\"), [Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\"), [Auburn](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Auburn \"Second Battle of Auburn\"), [Bristoe Station](/wiki/Battle_of_Bristoe_Station \"Battle of Bristoe Station\") and the [Mine Run campaign](/wiki/Battle_of_Mine_Run \"Battle of Mine Run\"). It was discontinued on Dec. 4, 1863, commanded by 1st Lieut. William T. McLean and its members were transferred to the [1st N. Y. engineers](/wiki/1st_New_York_Engineer_Regiment \"1st New York Engineer Regiment\"), the 5th and 15th N. Y. batteries, and Battery B, ist N. Y. artillery. The 4th lost during service 5 men killed and mortally wounded, and 1 officer and 11 men died of disease and other causes. The Battery distinguished itself at [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\"), where it materially aided in seizing and retaining [Little Round Top](/wiki/Little_Round_Top \"Little Round Top\") from [John Bell Hood](/wiki/John_Bell_Hood \"John Bell Hood\") Division. At the time of the assault by Hood’s Division of the [Confederate Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\"), this battery, supported by the [4th Maine Infantry Regiment](/wiki/4th_Maine_Infantry_Regiment \"4th Maine Infantry Regiment\"), formed the extreme left of the [Third Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28Union_Army%29 \"III Corps (Union Army)\") line. Three guns of the two sections in action on this crest were captured by the Confederates. The third section was in position to the right and continued the action until nearly 6 p.m., its loss during this battle being 2 killed, 10 wounded, and 1 missing.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/index.php/?cID\\=1817\\|title\\=4th Independent Battery Light Artillery :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/index.php/?cID\\=3005\\|title\\=4th New York Independent Battery's Monument at Gettysburg :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\\-history/artillery/4th\\-independent\\-battery\\-light\\-artillery/historical\\-sketch\\|title\\=Historical Sketch of the 4th New York Independent Battery :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://civilwarintheeast.com/us\\-regiments\\-batteries/new\\-york\\-regiments\\-and\\-batteries/varians\\-new\\-york\\-militia\\-battery/\\|title\\=Varian's New York Militia Battery}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/union\\-monuments/new\\-york/new\\-york\\-artillery\\-and\\-engineers/4th\\-new\\-york\\-independent\\-battery/\\|title\\=Monument to the 4th New York Independent Battery at Gettysburg}}",
"In August 1861, the detachments of the 8th NYSM and 29th NY Vols. that had served the 1st Troop's guns were reorganized as the **2nd New York Independent Battery**, Light Artillery (Blenker's Battery). The unit served in Washington, D.C., until April 1862, operating in the Shenandoah Valley to August 1862, fighting in the [Battle of Cross Keys](/wiki/Battle_of_Cross_Keys \"Battle of Cross Keys\") and [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run \"Second Battle of Bull Run\"). In early May 1863, the unit was in the [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville \"Battle of Chancellorsville\"). After transferring three\\-year men to Battery I, 1st New York Light Artillery, the unit mustered out on June 13, 1863\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unnyart3\\.htm\\#2ndind\\|title\\=History \\- New York Artillery (Part 3\\)\\|website\\=www.civilwararchive.com}}",
"On May 13, 1847, a detachment was constituted in the New York State Militia as the 14th Regiment.\nIt was Mustered into Federal service May 23, 1861 in Washington, D.C. and Redesignated 7 December 1861 as the [84th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment](/wiki/14th_Regiment_%28New_York_State_Militia%29 \"14th Regiment (New York State Militia)\"). During its service the regiment lost by death, killed in action, 5 officers, 83 enlisted men; of wounds received in action, 3 officers, 61 enlisted men; of disease and other causes, 74 enlisted men; total, 8 officers, 218 enlisted men; aggregate, 226; of whom 17 enlisted men died in the hands of the enemy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\\-history/infantry\\-1/84th\\-infantry\\-regiment\\|title\\=84th Infantry Regiment :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}\nIt was Mustered out of Federal service June 6, 1864 in New York City. It was Reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 14th Infantry Regiment. \nMustered into Federal service 13–16 May 1898 at Hempstead as the 14th New York Volunteer Infantry; mustered out of Federal service 27 October 1898 in Brooklyn, NY.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/0258fa.htm\\|title\\=258th Field Artillery Regiment \\| Lineage and Honors \\| U.S. Army Center of Military History (CMH)\\|website\\=history.army.mil}}",
"In the second half of the 19th century, the 8th Regiment was called out for several strikes and riots such as the [Orange Riot](/wiki/Orange_Riots \"Orange Riots\") (1871\\), the [Great Railroad Strike](/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877 \"Great Railroad Strike of 1877\") (1877\\), the [Brooklyn Trolley Strike](https://www.bklynlibrary.org/blog/2014/08/25/great-trolley-strike-1895) (1895\\) and [New York City Draft Riots](/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots \"New York City draft riots\") (1863\\).",
"### Spanish–American War through 1913",
"The 8th briefly returned to federal service in 1898 during the Spanish–American War as the 8th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, mustering in by May 19 and mustering out on November 3\\. It did not deploy outside the United States. In 1906 the 8th Infantry Regiment was reorganized and redesignated as the 8th Infantry Battalion. It was reorganized and redesignated 21 January 1908 as the 8th Infantry Regiment. It was then converted and redesignated 23 January 1908 as the 8th Artillery District, Coast Artillery Corps.",
"### World War I",
"The 8th Artillery District was reorganized and redesignated 10 August 1914 as the 8th Coast Defense Command, [Coast Artillery Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Coast_Artillery_Corps \"United States Army Coast Artillery Corps\"), [New York National Guard](/wiki/New_York_Army_National_Guard \"New York Army National Guard\"). In 1917 the unit relocated from Manhattan to the new [Kingsbridge Armory](/wiki/Kingsbridge_Armory \"Kingsbridge Armory\") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\"). Mustered into Federal service 22 July 1917 at New York; drafted into Federal service 5 August 1917\\. Companies of the 8th Coast Defense Command were reorganized and redesignated 22 January–1 February 1918 as elements of the 58th Artillery (Coast Artillery Corps), the [Coast Defenses of Southern New York](/wiki/Coast_Defenses_of_Southern_New_York \"Coast Defenses of Southern New York\"), and the [Coast Defenses of Eastern New York](/wiki/Coast_Defenses_of_Eastern_New_York \"Coast Defenses of Eastern New York\"). Men were drawn from the Headquarters and Supply Companies of the 58th Artillery's Coast Defenses of Eastern New York and the Third Battalion of the Coast Defenses of Baltimore. On April 6, 1918, Battery F formed the guard of honor for President Wilson in Baltimore, and he commended it for its performance.",
"The regiment trained for war in [Fort Totten](/wiki/Fort_Totten_%28Queens%29 \"Fort Totten (Queens)\") and Fort Schuyler, New York. Throughout May its battalions departed from [Hoboke](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey \"Hoboken, New Jersey\") for [France](/wiki/France \"France\"). Its total number assembled in Brest reached 66 officers and 1,811 men by May 31\\. They then departed for training alongside the French army at [Ambazac](/wiki/Ambazac \"Ambazac\"). On June 2, the 58th Artillery was assigned to the 32nd Artillery Brigade, and equipped with breech\\-loaded Vickers Mk 6\\. 8\\-inch howitzers. They were mounted on two types of “caterpillars,” engines of agricultural origin that generated up to 75 or 120 horsepower.",
"On October 20, the regiment departed for the front and its three battalions were divided. The First and Second Battalions established camp at Montjoie near Manonville during the [St. Mihiel Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel \"Battle of Saint-Mihiel\"). Meanwhile, the Third Battalion moved to the Adrian barracks near Jezainville.",
"After establishing camps, the battalions began scouting ideal locations to set up their batteries, and then the work of camouflaging, setting up telephone wires, and digging in. The First Battalion set up its guns in the valley of Foret des Vencheres, firing its first shot on October 31, and its last of the war only four minutes before the signing of the armistice on November 11\\. On the night of November 8, the battalion’s batteries were scouted and strafed by German airplanes. The sortee was followed by severe and accurate shelling with explosives and gas. One shell scored a direct hit on Battery A’s powder dump. The shelling killed one man, the regiment’s only man to die in action during the war. \nThe Second Battalion was also assigned to Foret des Vencheres. Its targets on the German side of no\\-man’s\\-land were Onville, Waville, Vandelainville, and Pagny\\-sur\\-Moselle. A few days prior to the armistice, the Second Battalion advanced to Sainte Marie Farm just northeast of Vilcey. For the caliber of the unit’s guns, the position was very close to the German lines and the troops who set up the position suffered twenty casualties, wounded, from shelling and gas. The battalion was intended to assist an advance on the Metz front that never took place because the armistice was signed on November 11\\.",
"The Third Battalion was assigned to positions at Meurthe\\-et\\-Moselle and directed its fire on German positions near Vittonville.\nNew York elements of the 58th Artillery (Coast Artillery Corps) demobilized 7 May 1919 at Camp Upton, New York; elements of the Coast Defenses of Southern New York in December 1918 at [Fort Wadsworth](/wiki/Fort_Wadsworth \"Fort Wadsworth\"), New York; and elements of the Coast Defenses of Eastern New York in December 1918 at [Fort Totten](/wiki/Fort_Totten_%28Queens%29 \"Fort Totten (Queens)\"), New York.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit\\-history/conflict/world\\-war\\-1\\-1914\\-1918/58th\\-artillery\\|title\\=58th Artillery, Coast Artillery Corps :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}}",
"### Interwar period",
"The former 8th Coast Defense Command was consolidated with the 8th Coast Defense Command, New York Guard, and reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 193rd Field Artillery with headquarters federally recognized 11 May 1921 at Bronx. It was redesignated as the 258th Field Artillery ([155 mm gun](/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918 \"155 mm gun M1918\")) on 28 November 1921 and assigned to [II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"II Corps (United States)\").{{cite book \\| last1 \\= McKenney \\| first1 \\= Janice E. \\| title \\= US Army Center of Military History (CMH) Publication 60\\-11, Army Lineage Series, Field Artillery, Part 2 \\| url \\= https://history.army.mil/catalog/pubs/60/60\\-11\\.html \\| pages \\= 1285–1295 \\| location \\= Washington, DC \\| publisher \\= US Army Center of Military History \\| year \\= 2010 }}{{cite book \\| last1 \\= Clay \\| first1 \\= Steven E. \\| title \\= US Army Order of Battle 1919–1941, vol. 2 \\|url\\=https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat\\-studies\\-institute/csi\\-books/OrderofBattle2\\.pdf \\| publisher \\= Combat Studies Institute Press \\| location \\= Fort Leavenworth, Kansas \\| year \\= 2010 \\| pages \\= 843–844 }}",
"### World War II",
"On 3 February 1941 the regiment was inducted into federal service and moved to [Fort Ethan Allen](/wiki/Fort_Ethan_Allen \"Fort Ethan Allen\"), Vermont; assigned to 71st Field Artillery Brigade, [VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"VI Corps (United States)\"). Moved to [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks \"Madison Barracks\"), NY on 2 June 1941; moved to [Pine Camp](/wiki/Pine_Camp \"Pine Camp\"), NY on 18 May 1942\\. On 8 February 1943 the regiment was broken up (triangularized) in accordance with an Army\\-wide reorganization. It became the 258th Field Artillery Group (former Headquarters \\& Headquarters Battery), 258th Field Artillery Battalion (former 1st Battalion) and the 991st Field Artillery Battalion (former 2nd Battalion).{{sfn\\|Stanton\\|1991\\|p\\=391}} All were deployed to Europe.",
"The **258th Field Artillery Group** departed the [New York port of embarkation](/wiki/New_York_port_of_embarkation \"New York port of embarkation\") on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to Normandy, France on 8 July 1944\\. Moved into Holland on 16 September 1944 and Germany 19 November 1944\\. The unit was at Alsfeld, Germany in August 1945\\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. Returned to [Boston Port of Embarkation](/wiki/Boston_Port_of_Embarkation \"Boston Port of Embarkation\") 24 September 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\\|Stanton\\|1991\\|p\\=361}}",
"The **258th Field Artillery Battalion** was a [self\\-propelled unit](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery \"Self-propelled artillery\") equipped with twelve 155 mm [M12 gun motor carriages](/wiki/M12_gun_motor_carriage \"M12 gun motor carriage\"). It departed the New York port of embarkation on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to France on 2 July 1944\\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. In August 1945 the unit was at Lehrbach, Germany. Returned to Boston port of embarkation 18 December 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\\|Stanton\\|1991\\|p\\=405}}",
"The **991st Field Artillery Battalion** departed the New York port of embarkation on 22 January 1944, arrived in England on 28 January 1944 and moved to France on 11 July 1944\\. It was attached to the [3rd Armored Division](/wiki/3rd_Armored_Division_%28United_States%29 \"3rd Armored Division (United States)\") or [VII Corps](/wiki/VII_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"VII Corps (United States)\") for most of the war, as a self\\-propelled unit equipped with twelve 155 mm M12 gun motor carriages. Batteries were detached to support divisions in combat as necessary. The 991st FA landed on Omaha Beach, Normandy on July 11, 1944 where it was bombed and strafed by German airplanes within hours of landing. Battery B of the 991st was credited with firing the first shells into German soil and Battery C was given credit for its role in the capture of Aachen. The 991st was also the first American unit to use captured 155 mm enemy shells. The Germans were using captured French [Canon de 155 mm GPF](/wiki/Canon_de_155_mm_GPF \"Canon de 155 mm GPF\") guns ([German designation](/wiki/German_designations_of_foreign_artillery_in_World_War_II \"German designations of foreign artillery in World War II\") 15\\.5 cm K 418(f)), similar to the GPF\\-derived [155 mm gun M1918](/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918 \"155 mm gun M1918\") on the [M12 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M12_gun_motor_carriage \"M12 gun motor carriage\") the 991st was armed with.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.3ad.com/history/wwll/feature.pages/991st.pages/991st.history.htm\\|title\\=991st FA Bn Unit History \\- WW II\\|website\\=www.3ad.com}} The 991st also deployed a single pilot [M40 gun motor carriage](/wiki/M40_gun_motor_carriage \"M40 gun motor carriage\") with the [155 mm \"Long Tom\" gun](/wiki/155_mm_Gun_M1 \"155 mm Gun M1\").Hunnicutt – *Sherman: A History of the American Medium Tank*, p 353\\-355, 570\\. Campaign credit includes the Normandy, Northern France, Ardennes\\-Alsace (Battle of the Bulge), Rhineland, and Central Europe campaigns. The unit was in Allstedt, Germany in August 1945\\. Returned to Boston Port of Embarkation 15 November 1945 and inactivated the next day.{{sfn\\|Stanton\\|1991\\|p\\=424}}",
"### After World War II",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 258th Field Artillery, in formation, 9 September 2006](/wiki/File:HHB_1-258_FA.JPG \"HHB 1-258 FA.JPG\")\nIn 1957 the battalion of the 258th FA at [Kingsbridge Armory](/wiki/Kingsbridge_Armory \"Kingsbridge Armory\") had all four batteries equipped with [105 mm](/wiki/M101_howitzer \"M101 howitzer\") towed artillery pieces. In 1959 all the units were switched to [155 mm](/wiki/M114_155_mm_howitzer \"M114 155 mm howitzer\") towed. At some time prior to 1962, the unit again changed to [8\\-inch howitzer](/wiki/M115_howitzer \"M115 howitzer\") towed. Additionally, in 1962 one battery was upgraded to the [Honest John Rocket](/wiki/MGR-1_Honest_John \"MGR-1 Honest John\").",
"1st Battalion (155mm towed), 2nd Bn (105mm towed), 3rd Bn (105mm towed), and the 4th Rocket/Howitzer Battalion armed with 8\" Howitzer and Honest John Rocket were all located in the Kingsbridge Armory, Bronx, NY. They were part of the [42nd Infantry Division Artillery](/wiki/42nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"42nd Infantry Division (United States)\") (DIVARTY). The 3rd Battalion was deactivated first; then in 1967 the 2nd Battalion, followed in 1973 by the 4th Battalion.",
"In 2001, During the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\"), members of the 258 FA were among the first to arrive at the scene of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and for the next several weeks actively assisted in the security and relief efforts at the site.",
"In 2004, B Battery (temporarily redesignated Company G 89th Military Police Brigade) commanded by CPT Seth Morgulas (now Colonel and commander of the 369th Sustainment Brigade) and C Battery commanded by CPT Andrew Espinoza deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II/III. B Battery was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation for its service.",
"In 2008, the 1st Battalion, 258th Field Artillery was composed of three batteries and a support company. Battery A was located in [New Windsor](/wiki/New_Windsor%2C_New_York \"New Windsor, New York\"), New York.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\\=1229008264\\|title\\=A Battery 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\\|date\\=11 December 2008\\|website\\=dmna.ny.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-27}} Battery B in [Bronx](/wiki/Bronx%2C_New_York \"Bronx, New York\"), New York.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\\=1229008265\\|title\\=B Battery 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\\|date\\=11 December 2008\\|website\\=dmna.ny.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-27}} Headquarters and Headquarters Battery was in [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_New_York \"Jamaica, New York\"), New York{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\\=1229008263\\|title\\=HHB 1 Battalion 258th Field Artillery, NYARNG\\|date\\=11 December 2008\\|website\\=dmna.ny.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-27}} and Company G, 427th BSB in Jamaica, NY.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dmna.ny.gov/units/?unit\\=1229008269\\|title\\=G Co. 427 Brigade Support Battalion, NYARNG\\|date\\=11 December 2008\\|website\\=dmna.ny.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-27}} The battalion was equipped with the [M119 105 mm towed howitzer](/wiki/M119_howitzer \"M119 howitzer\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.army.mil/article/45660/borrowed\\-no\\-morethe\\-new\\-york\\-army\\-national\\-guards\\-only\\-artillery\\-unit\\-fields\\-new\\-weapon/\\|title\\=Borrowed No More:The New York Army National Guard's only artillery unit fields new weapon\\|date\\=24 September 2010\\|website\\=www.army.mil}} It was planned that the battalion would re\\-equip with the [M777 155 mm towed howitzer](/wiki/M777_howitzer \"M777 howitzer\") in 2019, at [Fort Sill](/wiki/Fort_Sill \"Fort Sill\"), OK.",
"Since 2001 the battalion has sent soldiers to both [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\") and [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\"). It is part of the [27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team](/wiki/27th_Infantry_Brigade_Combat_Team \"27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team\"), part of the [42nd Infantry Division](/wiki/42nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"42nd Infantry Division (United States)\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2018}}",
"### Campaign participation credit",
"* **[War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\")**: Streamer without inscription\n* **[American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\")**: [First Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run \"First Battle of Bull Run\"), [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run \"Second Battle of Bull Run\"), [Battle of Antietam](/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam \"Battle of Antietam\"), [Battle of Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg \"Battle of Fredericksburg\"), [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville \"Battle of Chancellorsville\"), [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\"), [Battle of the Wilderness](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness \"Battle of the Wilderness\"), [Battle of Spotsylvania Court House](/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House \"Battle of Spotsylvania Court House\"), Virginia 1861, Virginia 1862, Virginia 1863\n* **[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\")**: [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme \"Second Battle of the Somme\"), Ypres\\-Lys, [Meuse\\-Argonne](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne \"Meuse-Argonne\"), Flanders 1918, Lorraine 1918\n* **[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")**: Central Pacific, Bismarck Archipelago, Eastern Mandates, [Battle of Leyte](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte \"Battle of Leyte\"), [Battle of Luzon](/wiki/Battle_of_Luzon \"Battle of Luzon\"), Western Pacific, Southern Philippines (with arrowhead), Ryukyus, [Tunisia Campaign](/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign \"Tunisia Campaign\"),Naples\\-Foggia, Rome\\-Arno, [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy_landings \"Normandy landings\") (with arrowhead), Northern France, Rhineland,Ardennes\\-Alsace, Central Europe\n* **[Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\")** : [First UN Counter Offensive](/wiki/UN_May%E2%80%93June_1951_counteroffensive \"UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive\"), [CCF Spring Offensive](/wiki/Chinese_spring_offensive \"Chinese spring offensive\"), UN Summer\\-Fall Offensive, Second Korean Winter, Korea, Summer\\-Fall 1952, Third Korean Winter, Korea, Summer 1953\n* **[War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism \"War on Terrorism\")**: [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\"), [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\")",
"Headquarters Battery (Jamaica), 1st Battalion, additionally entitled to:",
"* **[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\")**: Champagne\\-Marne, Aisne\\-Marne, St. Mihiel, Champagne 1918\n* **[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")**: North Apennines, Po Valley"
] |
Character History
-----------------
In the beginning of the series, Whitley Gilbert was the spoiled Southern belle of Gilbert Hall, but viewers watched Whitley evolve over the seasons. [Denise Huxtable](/wiki/Denise_Huxtable "Denise Huxtable") and Whitley shared a room briefly before Denise went back to Jaleesa. Later in the 1st season, Whitley befriended Millie. At the end of the season, Whitley loaned [Dwayne Wayne](/wiki/Dwayne_Wayne "Dwayne Wayne") money so that he could go on his date with Denise.
When Denise left the show, Whitley and Dwayne became friends and ultimately each other's love interest; their attraction developed through the next 2 seasons of the show. Despite this, Whitley dated Julian Day during Season 3\. The relationship ended when Julian took Whitley out to a fancy dinner to ask Whitley to move in with him instead of proposing as she'd expected. At the end of the third season, Whitley decided to stay in school for another year to get the degree she really wanted.
At the start of the fourth season, Whitley became interested in Dwayne to such a degree that she schemed how Kinu, Dwayne's girlfriend at the time, might break up with him. She even went on a date with his best friend, Ron.
During her continued studies, Whitley became the dorm director of Height Hall named after her family.
Dwayne ultimately realized his true feelings for Whitley and eventually proposed (she accepted). Whitley began to put a lot of pressure on Dwayne which led to him going out with another woman for coffee. When he told her, Whitley broke off the engagement. Dwayne and Whitley became mean to each other.
Whitley got her dream job buying corporate art. She was very good at it, but after she was sexually harassed by her boss, she decided to file a complaint against him, but was unable to prove it.
Later, Whitley started going out with Byron Douglas, who was running for senator. Dwayne became very jealous. Whitley decided to clear the air with Dwayne and finally put their relationship in the past. The conversation turned into a fight, and they ended up sleeping together. Whitley confessed what happened with Dwayne to Byron, and she and Byron decided it was time to become an official couple. After winning the election, Byron proposed to Whitley. At the wedding, Dwayne showed Whitley he still loved her and asked her to marry him with the now famous plea “Baby, please, please!” Whitley agreed and they got married right away. During their honeymoon, they were in Los Angeles and were caught in the middle of the riots.
During the final season of the show, they found a nice house to live in, which they rented from a French professor at Hillman. Whitley was laid off from her job as an art buyer, which led to a series of episodes forcing her to deal with the ups and downs of real life (unemployment and job searches). She eventually took a job as teacher in the inner city. This led to her developing a relationship tutoring one of her young students struggling with learning through the use of conventional methods. The student, a female, shows an interest in sports which inspires Dwayne (with the original idea for the game coming from his best friend Ron Johnson) to develop an educational video game (Grammar Boy). He decides to pitch the game to Kinishewa which landed him a job paying $80,000 a year (in Japan). The final episode follows Whitley and Dwayne as they announce the news that they are expecting their first child and moving to Japan.
|
[
"Character History\n-----------------",
"In the beginning of the series, Whitley Gilbert was the spoiled Southern belle of Gilbert Hall, but viewers watched Whitley evolve over the seasons. [Denise Huxtable](/wiki/Denise_Huxtable \"Denise Huxtable\") and Whitley shared a room briefly before Denise went back to Jaleesa. Later in the 1st season, Whitley befriended Millie. At the end of the season, Whitley loaned [Dwayne Wayne](/wiki/Dwayne_Wayne \"Dwayne Wayne\") money so that he could go on his date with Denise.",
"When Denise left the show, Whitley and Dwayne became friends and ultimately each other's love interest; their attraction developed through the next 2 seasons of the show. Despite this, Whitley dated Julian Day during Season 3\\. The relationship ended when Julian took Whitley out to a fancy dinner to ask Whitley to move in with him instead of proposing as she'd expected. At the end of the third season, Whitley decided to stay in school for another year to get the degree she really wanted.",
"At the start of the fourth season, Whitley became interested in Dwayne to such a degree that she schemed how Kinu, Dwayne's girlfriend at the time, might break up with him. She even went on a date with his best friend, Ron.",
"During her continued studies, Whitley became the dorm director of Height Hall named after her family.",
"Dwayne ultimately realized his true feelings for Whitley and eventually proposed (she accepted). Whitley began to put a lot of pressure on Dwayne which led to him going out with another woman for coffee. When he told her, Whitley broke off the engagement. Dwayne and Whitley became mean to each other.",
"Whitley got her dream job buying corporate art. She was very good at it, but after she was sexually harassed by her boss, she decided to file a complaint against him, but was unable to prove it.\nLater, Whitley started going out with Byron Douglas, who was running for senator. Dwayne became very jealous. Whitley decided to clear the air with Dwayne and finally put their relationship in the past. The conversation turned into a fight, and they ended up sleeping together. Whitley confessed what happened with Dwayne to Byron, and she and Byron decided it was time to become an official couple. After winning the election, Byron proposed to Whitley. At the wedding, Dwayne showed Whitley he still loved her and asked her to marry him with the now famous plea “Baby, please, please!” Whitley agreed and they got married right away. During their honeymoon, they were in Los Angeles and were caught in the middle of the riots.",
"During the final season of the show, they found a nice house to live in, which they rented from a French professor at Hillman. Whitley was laid off from her job as an art buyer, which led to a series of episodes forcing her to deal with the ups and downs of real life (unemployment and job searches). She eventually took a job as teacher in the inner city. This led to her developing a relationship tutoring one of her young students struggling with learning through the use of conventional methods. The student, a female, shows an interest in sports which inspires Dwayne (with the original idea for the game coming from his best friend Ron Johnson) to develop an educational video game (Grammar Boy). He decides to pitch the game to Kinishewa which landed him a job paying $80,000 a year (in Japan). The final episode follows Whitley and Dwayne as they announce the news that they are expecting their first child and moving to Japan.",
""
] |
Sources on druid beliefs and practices
--------------------------------------
### Greek and Roman records
[thumb\|[Édouard Zier](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Fran%C3%A7ois_Zier "Édouard François Zier"), "Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans"{{snd}}from [Cassell](/wiki/John_Cassell "John Cassell")'s *History of England*, Vol. I](/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg "Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans.jpg")
The earliest surviving literary evidence of druids emerges from the classical world of Greece and Rome. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott "Stuart Piggott") compared the attitude of the Classical authors toward the druids as being similar to the relationship that had existed in the 15th and 18th centuries between Europeans and the societies that they were just encountering in other parts of the world, such as the Americas and the South Sea Islands. He highlighted the attitude of "[primitivism](/wiki/Primitivism "Primitivism")" in both Early Modern Europeans and Classical authors, owing to their perception that these newly encountered societies had less technological development and were backward in socio\-political development.[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") p. 91\.
Historian [Nora Chadwick](/wiki/Nora_Chadwick "Nora Chadwick"), in a categorization subsequently adopted by Piggott, divided the Classical accounts of the druids into two groups, distinguished by their approach to the subject as well as their chronological contexts. She calls the first of these groups the "Posidonian" tradition after one of its primary exponents, Posidonious, and notes that it takes a largely critical attitude towards the Iron Age societies of Western Europe that emphasizes their "barbaric" qualities. The second of these two groups is termed the "Alexandrian" group, being centred on the scholastic traditions of [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"); she notes that it took a more sympathetic and idealized attitude toward these foreign peoples.[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") pp. 91–92\. Piggott drew parallels between this categorisation and the ideas of "hard primitivism" and "soft primitivism" identified by [historians of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas "History of ideas") [A. O. Lovejoy](/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy "Arthur Oncken Lovejoy") and [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas "Franz Boas").[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") p. 92\.
One school of thought has suggested that all of these accounts are inherently unreliable, and might be entirely fictional. They have suggested that the idea of the druid might have been a fiction created by Classical writers to reinforce the idea of the barbaric "other" who existed beyond the civilized Greco\-Roman world, thereby legitimizing the expansion of the Roman Empire into these areas.[Aldhouse\-Green (2010\)](/wiki/%23Ald10 "#Ald10") p. xv.
The earliest record of the druids comes from two Greek texts of c. 300 BCE: a history of philosophy written by [Sotion](/wiki/Sotion "Sotion") of Alexandria, and a study of magic widely attributed to [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"). Both texts are now lost, but are quoted in the 2nd century CE work *Vitae* by [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius "Diogenes Laërtius").Diogenes Laërtius. *Vitae*. Introduction, section 1\.
{{Quote
\|Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldaei, among the Indians the Gymnosophistae, and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called druids and semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on magic, and Sotion in the twenty\-third book of his ''Succession of Philosophers''.
\|\[\[Diogenes Laërtius]]
\|Vitae, Introduction, Section 1{{cite web \|url\=http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \|title\=Diogenes Laërtius Lives of the Philosophers: Thales, translated by C. D. Yonge \|work\=classicpersuasion.org \|access\-date\=2012\-08\-24 \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730093059/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}}}
Subsequent Greek and Roman texts from the 3rd century BCE refer to "[barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian "Barbarian") philosophers",{{cite journal \|author\=Webster, Jane \|title\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\-conquest Gaul and Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=30 \|year\=1999 \|pages\=1–20, 2–4\|doi\=10\.2307/526671 \|jstor\=526671 \|s2cid\=162214983 }} Twenty references are presented in tabular form. possibly in reference to the Gaulish druids.
#### Julius Caesar
[thumb\|upright\|Julius Caesar, the Roman general and later [dictator](/wiki/Roman_dictator "Roman dictator"), who wrote the most important source for the Druids in Britain](/wiki/File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar_%28100-44_BC%29.JPG "Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG")
The earliest extant text that describes druids in detail is [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar")'s *[Commentarii de Bello Gallico](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico "Commentarii de Bello Gallico")*, book VI, written in the 50s or 40s BCE. A general who was intent on conquering Gaul and Britain, Caesar described the druids as being concerned with "divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions". He said they played an important part in Gaulish society, being one of the two respected classes along with the *equites* (in Rome the name for members of a privileged class above the common people, but also "horsemen") and that they performed the function of judges.
Caesar wrote that the druids recognized the authority of a single leader, who would rule until his death, when a successor would be chosen by vote or through conflict. He remarked that to settle disputes between tribes, they met annually at a sacred place at the borders of the [Carnute](/wiki/Carnutes "Carnutes") territoty, which is said to be the center of Gaul. They viewed Britain as the centre of druidic study; and that they were not found among the German tribes to the east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine"). According to Caesar, many young men were trained to be druids, during which time they had to learn all the associated lore by heart. He also said that their main teaching was "the souls do not perish, but after death pass from one to another". They were concerned with "the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the world of nature, and the power and might of the immortal gods", indicating they were involved with not only such common aspects of religion as [theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") and [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology "Cosmology"), but also [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"). Caesar held that they were "administrators" during rituals of [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice "Human sacrifice"), for which criminals were usually used, and that the method was by burning in a [wicker man](/wiki/Wicker_man "Wicker man").
Though he had first\-hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as [Fustel de Coulanges](/wiki/Fustel_de_Coulanges "Fustel de Coulanges"){{cite book \|author\=de Coulanges, Fustel \|author\-link\=Fustel de Coulanges \|year\=1891 \|title\=La Gaule romaine \|location\=Paris \|page\=3}} was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did [Aulus Hirtius](/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius "Aulus Hirtius"), who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars after Caesar's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druids so they would appear both civilized (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both "a society worth including in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire")" and one that required civilizing with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") pp. 04–05\. Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids.{{cite book \|author\=Dunham, Sean B. \|year\=1995 \|article\=Caesar's perception of Gallic social structures \|title\=Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State \|editor1\=Arnold, Bettina \|editor2\=Gibson, D. Blair \|location\=Cambridge \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book \|author\=Maier, Bernhard \|year\=2003 \|title\=The Celts \|location\=Edinburgh \|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press \|pages\=65–66}} Daphne Nash believed it "not unlikely" that he "greatly exaggerates" both the centralized system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.{{cite journal \|author\=Nash, Daphne \|year\=1976 \|title\=Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic ethnography \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=7 \|page\=126\|doi\=10\.2307/525767 \|jstor\=525767 \|s2cid\=162816167 }}
Other historians have accepted that Caesar's account might be more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealized tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BC, before the pan\-Gallic confederation led by the [Arverni](/wiki/Arverni "Arverni") was smashed in 121 BC, followed by the invasions of [Teutones](/wiki/Teutones "Teutones") and [Cimbri](/wiki/Cimbri "Cimbri"), rather than on the demoralized and disunited Gaul of his own time.DeWitt (1938\) p 324 ff. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid\-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.{{cite journal \|author\=Creighton \|title\=Visions of power: Imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=26 \|year\=1995 \|pages\=285–301; especially 296ff\|doi\=10\.2307/526880 \|jstor\=526880 \|s2cid\=154772745 }} Other scholars see the Roman conquest itself as the main reason for the decline of the druid orders.{{cite journal \|author\=Webster, Jane \|title\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\-conquest Gaul and Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=30 \|year\=1999 \|pages\=1–20\|doi\=10\.2307/526671 \|jstor\=526671 \|s2cid\=162214983 }} with full bibliography. Archaeologist [Miranda Aldhouse\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green "Miranda Aldhouse-Green") (2010\) asserted that Caesar offered both "our richest textual source" regarding the druids, and "one of the most reliable". She defended the accuracy of his accounts by highlighting that while he may have embellished some of his accounts to justify Roman imperial conquest, it was "inherently unlikely" that he constructed a fictional class system for Gaul and Britain, particularly considering that he was accompanied by a number of other Roman senators who would have also been sending reports on the conquest to Rome, and who would have challenged his inclusion of serious falsifications.
#### Cicero, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Tacitus
[thumb\|Roman soldiers killing druids and burning their groves on [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey"), as described by [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus")](/wiki/File:Romans_murdering_Druids_and_burning_their_groves_cropped.jpg "Romans murdering Druids and burning their groves cropped.jpg")
Other classical writers also commented on the druids and their practices. Caesar's contemporary, [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero"), noted that he had met a Gallic druid, [Divitiacus](/wiki/Diviciacus_%28Aedui%29 "Diviciacus (Aedui)"), of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus supposedly knew much about the natural world and performed divination through [augury](/wiki/Augury "Augury"). Whether Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure, and wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish\-sounding (and thereby presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") p. 5\.
Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long afterward was [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus "Diodorus Siculus"), who published this description in his *Bibliotheca historicae* in 36 BCE. Alongside the druids, or as he called them, *drouidas*, who he believed to be philosophers and theologians, he remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society, who he called *bardous*, or [bards](/wiki/Bard "Bard"). Such an idea was expanded upon by [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo "Strabo"), writing in the 20s CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures:{{cite book \|author\=Strabo \|author\-link\=Strabo \|title\=Geographica \|at\=IV.4\.4–5}}
* the poets and singers known as *bardoi*,
* the diviners and specialists in the natural world known as *o'vateis*, and
* those who studied "moral philosophy", the *druidai*.
The Roman writer [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), who was himself a senator and historian, described how when the Roman army, led by [Suetonius Paulinus](/wiki/Suetonius_Paulinus "Suetonius Paulinus"), attacked the island of Mona ([Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey"); [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language "Welsh language"): *Ynys Môn*), the legionaries were awestruck on landing, by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He says these "terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before". The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the [sacred groves](/wiki/Sacred_grove "Sacred grove") of Mona were cut down.[Tacitus](/wiki/%23Tac "#Tac") 14\.30\. Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain, but portrays them negatively, as ignorant savages.[Rutherford (1978\)](/wiki/%23Rut78 "#Rut78") p. 45\.
### Irish and Welsh records
In the Middle Ages, after Ireland and Wales were [Christianized](/wiki/Christianization "Christianization"), druids appear in a number of written sources, mainly tales and stories such as *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge "Táin Bó Cúailnge")*, and in the [hagiographies](/wiki/Hagiography "Hagiography") of various saints. These were all written by Christian monks.
#### Irish literature and law codes
In Irish\-language literature, druids (*draoithe*, plural of *draoi*) are [sorcerers](/wiki/Magician_%28paranormal%29 "Magician (paranormal)") with [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural "Supernatural") powers, who are respected in society, particularly for their ability to do [divination](/wiki/Divination "Divination"). *[Dictionary of the Irish Language](/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Irish_Language "Dictionary of the Irish Language")* defines a *druí* (which has numerous variant forms, including *draoi*) as a magician, wizard, or diviner.{{cite web \|title\=Drui \|url\=http://edil.qub.ac.uk/advanced\_search?q\=dru%C3%AD\&search\_in\=headword\#search\_results \|website\=\[\[Dictionary of the Irish Language]] (eDIL) \|publisher\=\[\[Royal Irish Academy]] (RIA)\|access\-date\=11 February 2016}} In the literature, the druids cast spells and turn people into animals or stones, or curse peoples' crops to be blighted.{{Cite web\|title\=An Encyclopædia of Architecture: Historical, Theoretical, and Practical : Joseph Gwilt : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|url\=https://archive.org/details/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-27\|website\=Internet Archive\|language\=en}}
When druids are portrayed in early Irish sagas and in saints' lives that are set in pre\-Christian Ireland, they are usually given high social status. The evidence of the law\-texts, which were first written\-down in the 600s and 700s CE, suggests that with the coming of Christianity, the role of the druid in Irish society was rapidly reduced to that of a sorcerer who could be consulted to cast spells or do healing magic, and that his standing declined accordingly.Kelly, *A Guide to Early Irish Law*, pp. 59–60\. According to the early legal tract *Bretha Crólige*, the sick\-maintenance due to a druid, satirist, and brigand (*díberg*) is no more than that which is due to a *[bóaire](/wiki/B%C3%B3aire "Bóaire")* (an ordinary freeman). Another law\-text, *[Uraicecht Becc](/wiki/Uraicecht_Becc "Uraicecht Becc")* ('small primer'), gives the druid a place among the *dóer\-nemed*, or professional classes, which depend upon a patron for their status, along with wrights, blacksmiths, and entertainers, as opposed to the *[fili](/wiki/Fili "Fili")*, who alone enjoyed free *nemed*\-status.Kelly, *A Guide to Early Irish Law*, p. 60\.
#### Welsh literature
While druids featured prominently in many medieval Irish sources, they were far rarer in their Welsh counterparts. Unlike the Irish texts, the Welsh term commonly seen as referring to the druids, *{{lang\|cy\|dryw}}*, was used to refer purely to [prophets](/wiki/Prophet "Prophet") and not to sorcerers or pagan priests. Historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton "Ronald Hutton") noted that there were two explanations for the use of the term in Wales: the first was that it was a survival from the pre\-Christian era, when *dryw* had been ancient priests; the second was that the Welsh had borrowed the term from the Irish, as had the English (who used the terms *dry* and *drycraeft* to refer to magicians and [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 "Magic (paranormal)") respectively, most probably influenced by the Irish terms).[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") p. 47\.
|
[
"Sources on druid beliefs and practices\n--------------------------------------",
"### Greek and Roman records",
"[thumb\\|[Édouard Zier](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Fran%C3%A7ois_Zier \"Édouard François Zier\"), \"Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans\"{{snd}}from [Cassell](/wiki/John_Cassell \"John Cassell\")'s *History of England*, Vol. I](/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg \"Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans.jpg\")",
"The earliest surviving literary evidence of druids emerges from the classical world of Greece and Rome. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott \"Stuart Piggott\") compared the attitude of the Classical authors toward the druids as being similar to the relationship that had existed in the 15th and 18th centuries between Europeans and the societies that they were just encountering in other parts of the world, such as the Americas and the South Sea Islands. He highlighted the attitude of \"[primitivism](/wiki/Primitivism \"Primitivism\")\" in both Early Modern Europeans and Classical authors, owing to their perception that these newly encountered societies had less technological development and were backward in socio\\-political development.[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") p. 91\\.",
"Historian [Nora Chadwick](/wiki/Nora_Chadwick \"Nora Chadwick\"), in a categorization subsequently adopted by Piggott, divided the Classical accounts of the druids into two groups, distinguished by their approach to the subject as well as their chronological contexts. She calls the first of these groups the \"Posidonian\" tradition after one of its primary exponents, Posidonious, and notes that it takes a largely critical attitude towards the Iron Age societies of Western Europe that emphasizes their \"barbaric\" qualities. The second of these two groups is termed the \"Alexandrian\" group, being centred on the scholastic traditions of [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"); she notes that it took a more sympathetic and idealized attitude toward these foreign peoples.[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") pp. 91–92\\. Piggott drew parallels between this categorisation and the ideas of \"hard primitivism\" and \"soft primitivism\" identified by [historians of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas \"History of ideas\") [A. O. Lovejoy](/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy \"Arthur Oncken Lovejoy\") and [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas \"Franz Boas\").[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") p. 92\\.",
"One school of thought has suggested that all of these accounts are inherently unreliable, and might be entirely fictional. They have suggested that the idea of the druid might have been a fiction created by Classical writers to reinforce the idea of the barbaric \"other\" who existed beyond the civilized Greco\\-Roman world, thereby legitimizing the expansion of the Roman Empire into these areas.[Aldhouse\\-Green (2010\\)](/wiki/%23Ald10 \"#Ald10\") p. xv.",
"The earliest record of the druids comes from two Greek texts of c. 300 BCE: a history of philosophy written by [Sotion](/wiki/Sotion \"Sotion\") of Alexandria, and a study of magic widely attributed to [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"). Both texts are now lost, but are quoted in the 2nd century CE work *Vitae* by [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius \"Diogenes Laërtius\").Diogenes Laërtius. *Vitae*. Introduction, section 1\\.\n{{Quote\n\\|Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldaei, among the Indians the Gymnosophistae, and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called druids and semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on magic, and Sotion in the twenty\\-third book of his ''Succession of Philosophers''.\n\\|\\[\\[Diogenes Laërtius]]\n\\|Vitae, Introduction, Section 1{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \\|title\\=Diogenes Laërtius Lives of the Philosophers: Thales, translated by C. D. Yonge \\|work\\=classicpersuasion.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-24 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730093059/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}}}\nSubsequent Greek and Roman texts from the 3rd century BCE refer to \"[barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian \"Barbarian\") philosophers\",{{cite journal \\|author\\=Webster, Jane \\|title\\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\\-conquest Gaul and Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=30 \\|year\\=1999 \\|pages\\=1–20, 2–4\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526671 \\|jstor\\=526671 \\|s2cid\\=162214983 }} Twenty references are presented in tabular form. possibly in reference to the Gaulish druids.",
"#### Julius Caesar",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Julius Caesar, the Roman general and later [dictator](/wiki/Roman_dictator \"Roman dictator\"), who wrote the most important source for the Druids in Britain](/wiki/File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar_%28100-44_BC%29.JPG \"Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG\")",
"The earliest extant text that describes druids in detail is [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\")'s *[Commentarii de Bello Gallico](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\")*, book VI, written in the 50s or 40s BCE. A general who was intent on conquering Gaul and Britain, Caesar described the druids as being concerned with \"divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions\". He said they played an important part in Gaulish society, being one of the two respected classes along with the *equites* (in Rome the name for members of a privileged class above the common people, but also \"horsemen\") and that they performed the function of judges.",
"Caesar wrote that the druids recognized the authority of a single leader, who would rule until his death, when a successor would be chosen by vote or through conflict. He remarked that to settle disputes between tribes, they met annually at a sacred place at the borders of the [Carnute](/wiki/Carnutes \"Carnutes\") territoty, which is said to be the center of Gaul. They viewed Britain as the centre of druidic study; and that they were not found among the German tribes to the east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\"). According to Caesar, many young men were trained to be druids, during which time they had to learn all the associated lore by heart. He also said that their main teaching was \"the souls do not perish, but after death pass from one to another\". They were concerned with \"the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the world of nature, and the power and might of the immortal gods\", indicating they were involved with not only such common aspects of religion as [theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") and [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology \"Cosmology\"), but also [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"). Caesar held that they were \"administrators\" during rituals of [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice \"Human sacrifice\"), for which criminals were usually used, and that the method was by burning in a [wicker man](/wiki/Wicker_man \"Wicker man\").",
"Though he had first\\-hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as [Fustel de Coulanges](/wiki/Fustel_de_Coulanges \"Fustel de Coulanges\"){{cite book \\|author\\=de Coulanges, Fustel \\|author\\-link\\=Fustel de Coulanges \\|year\\=1891 \\|title\\=La Gaule romaine \\|location\\=Paris \\|page\\=3}} was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did [Aulus Hirtius](/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius \"Aulus Hirtius\"), who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars after Caesar's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druids so they would appear both civilized (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both \"a society worth including in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\")\" and one that required civilizing with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") pp. 04–05\\. Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids.{{cite book \\|author\\=Dunham, Sean B. \\|year\\=1995 \\|article\\=Caesar's perception of Gallic social structures \\|title\\=Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State \\|editor1\\=Arnold, Bettina \\|editor2\\=Gibson, D. Blair \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book \\|author\\=Maier, Bernhard \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=The Celts \\|location\\=Edinburgh \\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press \\|pages\\=65–66}} Daphne Nash believed it \"not unlikely\" that he \"greatly exaggerates\" both the centralized system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Nash, Daphne \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic ethnography \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=7 \\|page\\=126\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/525767 \\|jstor\\=525767 \\|s2cid\\=162816167 }}",
"Other historians have accepted that Caesar's account might be more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealized tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BC, before the pan\\-Gallic confederation led by the [Arverni](/wiki/Arverni \"Arverni\") was smashed in 121 BC, followed by the invasions of [Teutones](/wiki/Teutones \"Teutones\") and [Cimbri](/wiki/Cimbri \"Cimbri\"), rather than on the demoralized and disunited Gaul of his own time.DeWitt (1938\\) p 324 ff. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid\\-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Creighton \\|title\\=Visions of power: Imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=26 \\|year\\=1995 \\|pages\\=285–301; especially 296ff\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526880 \\|jstor\\=526880 \\|s2cid\\=154772745 }} Other scholars see the Roman conquest itself as the main reason for the decline of the druid orders.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Webster, Jane \\|title\\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\\-conquest Gaul and Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=30 \\|year\\=1999 \\|pages\\=1–20\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526671 \\|jstor\\=526671 \\|s2cid\\=162214983 }} with full bibliography. Archaeologist [Miranda Aldhouse\\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green \"Miranda Aldhouse-Green\") (2010\\) asserted that Caesar offered both \"our richest textual source\" regarding the druids, and \"one of the most reliable\". She defended the accuracy of his accounts by highlighting that while he may have embellished some of his accounts to justify Roman imperial conquest, it was \"inherently unlikely\" that he constructed a fictional class system for Gaul and Britain, particularly considering that he was accompanied by a number of other Roman senators who would have also been sending reports on the conquest to Rome, and who would have challenged his inclusion of serious falsifications.",
"#### Cicero, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Tacitus",
"[thumb\\|Roman soldiers killing druids and burning their groves on [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\"), as described by [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\")](/wiki/File:Romans_murdering_Druids_and_burning_their_groves_cropped.jpg \"Romans murdering Druids and burning their groves cropped.jpg\")\nOther classical writers also commented on the druids and their practices. Caesar's contemporary, [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\"), noted that he had met a Gallic druid, [Divitiacus](/wiki/Diviciacus_%28Aedui%29 \"Diviciacus (Aedui)\"), of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus supposedly knew much about the natural world and performed divination through [augury](/wiki/Augury \"Augury\"). Whether Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure, and wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish\\-sounding (and thereby presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") p. 5\\.",
"Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long afterward was [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus \"Diodorus Siculus\"), who published this description in his *Bibliotheca historicae* in 36 BCE. Alongside the druids, or as he called them, *drouidas*, who he believed to be philosophers and theologians, he remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society, who he called *bardous*, or [bards](/wiki/Bard \"Bard\"). Such an idea was expanded upon by [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo \"Strabo\"), writing in the 20s CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures:{{cite book \\|author\\=Strabo \\|author\\-link\\=Strabo \\|title\\=Geographica \\|at\\=IV.4\\.4–5}}\n* the poets and singers known as *bardoi*,\n* the diviners and specialists in the natural world known as *o'vateis*, and\n* those who studied \"moral philosophy\", the *druidai*.",
"The Roman writer [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), who was himself a senator and historian, described how when the Roman army, led by [Suetonius Paulinus](/wiki/Suetonius_Paulinus \"Suetonius Paulinus\"), attacked the island of Mona ([Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\"); [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language \"Welsh language\"): *Ynys Môn*), the legionaries were awestruck on landing, by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He says these \"terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before\". The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the [sacred groves](/wiki/Sacred_grove \"Sacred grove\") of Mona were cut down.[Tacitus](/wiki/%23Tac \"#Tac\") 14\\.30\\. Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain, but portrays them negatively, as ignorant savages.[Rutherford (1978\\)](/wiki/%23Rut78 \"#Rut78\") p. 45\\.",
"### Irish and Welsh records",
"In the Middle Ages, after Ireland and Wales were [Christianized](/wiki/Christianization \"Christianization\"), druids appear in a number of written sources, mainly tales and stories such as *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge \"Táin Bó Cúailnge\")*, and in the [hagiographies](/wiki/Hagiography \"Hagiography\") of various saints. These were all written by Christian monks.",
"#### Irish literature and law codes",
"In Irish\\-language literature, druids (*draoithe*, plural of *draoi*) are [sorcerers](/wiki/Magician_%28paranormal%29 \"Magician (paranormal)\") with [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural \"Supernatural\") powers, who are respected in society, particularly for their ability to do [divination](/wiki/Divination \"Divination\"). *[Dictionary of the Irish Language](/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Irish_Language \"Dictionary of the Irish Language\")* defines a *druí* (which has numerous variant forms, including *draoi*) as a magician, wizard, or diviner.{{cite web \\|title\\=Drui \\|url\\=http://edil.qub.ac.uk/advanced\\_search?q\\=dru%C3%AD\\&search\\_in\\=headword\\#search\\_results \\|website\\=\\[\\[Dictionary of the Irish Language]] (eDIL) \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Irish Academy]] (RIA)\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2016}} In the literature, the druids cast spells and turn people into animals or stones, or curse peoples' crops to be blighted.{{Cite web\\|title\\=An Encyclopædia of Architecture: Historical, Theoretical, and Practical : Joseph Gwilt : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-27\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|language\\=en}}",
"When druids are portrayed in early Irish sagas and in saints' lives that are set in pre\\-Christian Ireland, they are usually given high social status. The evidence of the law\\-texts, which were first written\\-down in the 600s and 700s CE, suggests that with the coming of Christianity, the role of the druid in Irish society was rapidly reduced to that of a sorcerer who could be consulted to cast spells or do healing magic, and that his standing declined accordingly.Kelly, *A Guide to Early Irish Law*, pp. 59–60\\. According to the early legal tract *Bretha Crólige*, the sick\\-maintenance due to a druid, satirist, and brigand (*díberg*) is no more than that which is due to a *[bóaire](/wiki/B%C3%B3aire \"Bóaire\")* (an ordinary freeman). Another law\\-text, *[Uraicecht Becc](/wiki/Uraicecht_Becc \"Uraicecht Becc\")* ('small primer'), gives the druid a place among the *dóer\\-nemed*, or professional classes, which depend upon a patron for their status, along with wrights, blacksmiths, and entertainers, as opposed to the *[fili](/wiki/Fili \"Fili\")*, who alone enjoyed free *nemed*\\-status.Kelly, *A Guide to Early Irish Law*, p. 60\\.",
"#### Welsh literature",
"While druids featured prominently in many medieval Irish sources, they were far rarer in their Welsh counterparts. Unlike the Irish texts, the Welsh term commonly seen as referring to the druids, *{{lang\\|cy\\|dryw}}*, was used to refer purely to [prophets](/wiki/Prophet \"Prophet\") and not to sorcerers or pagan priests. Historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton \"Ronald Hutton\") noted that there were two explanations for the use of the term in Wales: the first was that it was a survival from the pre\\-Christian era, when *dryw* had been ancient priests; the second was that the Welsh had borrowed the term from the Irish, as had the English (who used the terms *dry* and *drycraeft* to refer to magicians and [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 \"Magic (paranormal)\") respectively, most probably influenced by the Irish terms).[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") p. 47\\.",
""
] |
### Greek and Roman records
[thumb\|[Édouard Zier](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Fran%C3%A7ois_Zier "Édouard François Zier"), "Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans"{{snd}}from [Cassell](/wiki/John_Cassell "John Cassell")'s *History of England*, Vol. I](/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg "Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans.jpg")
The earliest surviving literary evidence of druids emerges from the classical world of Greece and Rome. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott "Stuart Piggott") compared the attitude of the Classical authors toward the druids as being similar to the relationship that had existed in the 15th and 18th centuries between Europeans and the societies that they were just encountering in other parts of the world, such as the Americas and the South Sea Islands. He highlighted the attitude of "[primitivism](/wiki/Primitivism "Primitivism")" in both Early Modern Europeans and Classical authors, owing to their perception that these newly encountered societies had less technological development and were backward in socio\-political development.[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") p. 91\.
Historian [Nora Chadwick](/wiki/Nora_Chadwick "Nora Chadwick"), in a categorization subsequently adopted by Piggott, divided the Classical accounts of the druids into two groups, distinguished by their approach to the subject as well as their chronological contexts. She calls the first of these groups the "Posidonian" tradition after one of its primary exponents, Posidonious, and notes that it takes a largely critical attitude towards the Iron Age societies of Western Europe that emphasizes their "barbaric" qualities. The second of these two groups is termed the "Alexandrian" group, being centred on the scholastic traditions of [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"); she notes that it took a more sympathetic and idealized attitude toward these foreign peoples.[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") pp. 91–92\. Piggott drew parallels between this categorisation and the ideas of "hard primitivism" and "soft primitivism" identified by [historians of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas "History of ideas") [A. O. Lovejoy](/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy "Arthur Oncken Lovejoy") and [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas "Franz Boas").[Piggott (1975\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 "#Pig75") p. 92\.
One school of thought has suggested that all of these accounts are inherently unreliable, and might be entirely fictional. They have suggested that the idea of the druid might have been a fiction created by Classical writers to reinforce the idea of the barbaric "other" who existed beyond the civilized Greco\-Roman world, thereby legitimizing the expansion of the Roman Empire into these areas.[Aldhouse\-Green (2010\)](/wiki/%23Ald10 "#Ald10") p. xv.
The earliest record of the druids comes from two Greek texts of c. 300 BCE: a history of philosophy written by [Sotion](/wiki/Sotion "Sotion") of Alexandria, and a study of magic widely attributed to [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"). Both texts are now lost, but are quoted in the 2nd century CE work *Vitae* by [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius "Diogenes Laërtius").Diogenes Laërtius. *Vitae*. Introduction, section 1\.
{{Quote
\|Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldaei, among the Indians the Gymnosophistae, and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called druids and semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on magic, and Sotion in the twenty\-third book of his ''Succession of Philosophers''.
\|\[\[Diogenes Laërtius]]
\|Vitae, Introduction, Section 1{{cite web \|url\=http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \|title\=Diogenes Laërtius Lives of the Philosophers: Thales, translated by C. D. Yonge \|work\=classicpersuasion.org \|access\-date\=2012\-08\-24 \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730093059/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}}}
Subsequent Greek and Roman texts from the 3rd century BCE refer to "[barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian "Barbarian") philosophers",{{cite journal \|author\=Webster, Jane \|title\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\-conquest Gaul and Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=30 \|year\=1999 \|pages\=1–20, 2–4\|doi\=10\.2307/526671 \|jstor\=526671 \|s2cid\=162214983 }} Twenty references are presented in tabular form. possibly in reference to the Gaulish druids.
#### Julius Caesar
[thumb\|upright\|Julius Caesar, the Roman general and later [dictator](/wiki/Roman_dictator "Roman dictator"), who wrote the most important source for the Druids in Britain](/wiki/File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar_%28100-44_BC%29.JPG "Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG")
The earliest extant text that describes druids in detail is [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar")'s *[Commentarii de Bello Gallico](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico "Commentarii de Bello Gallico")*, book VI, written in the 50s or 40s BCE. A general who was intent on conquering Gaul and Britain, Caesar described the druids as being concerned with "divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions". He said they played an important part in Gaulish society, being one of the two respected classes along with the *equites* (in Rome the name for members of a privileged class above the common people, but also "horsemen") and that they performed the function of judges.
Caesar wrote that the druids recognized the authority of a single leader, who would rule until his death, when a successor would be chosen by vote or through conflict. He remarked that to settle disputes between tribes, they met annually at a sacred place at the borders of the [Carnute](/wiki/Carnutes "Carnutes") territoty, which is said to be the center of Gaul. They viewed Britain as the centre of druidic study; and that they were not found among the German tribes to the east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine"). According to Caesar, many young men were trained to be druids, during which time they had to learn all the associated lore by heart. He also said that their main teaching was "the souls do not perish, but after death pass from one to another". They were concerned with "the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the world of nature, and the power and might of the immortal gods", indicating they were involved with not only such common aspects of religion as [theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") and [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology "Cosmology"), but also [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"). Caesar held that they were "administrators" during rituals of [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice "Human sacrifice"), for which criminals were usually used, and that the method was by burning in a [wicker man](/wiki/Wicker_man "Wicker man").
Though he had first\-hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as [Fustel de Coulanges](/wiki/Fustel_de_Coulanges "Fustel de Coulanges"){{cite book \|author\=de Coulanges, Fustel \|author\-link\=Fustel de Coulanges \|year\=1891 \|title\=La Gaule romaine \|location\=Paris \|page\=3}} was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did [Aulus Hirtius](/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius "Aulus Hirtius"), who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars after Caesar's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druids so they would appear both civilized (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both "a society worth including in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire")" and one that required civilizing with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") pp. 04–05\. Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids.{{cite book \|author\=Dunham, Sean B. \|year\=1995 \|article\=Caesar's perception of Gallic social structures \|title\=Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State \|editor1\=Arnold, Bettina \|editor2\=Gibson, D. Blair \|location\=Cambridge \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book \|author\=Maier, Bernhard \|year\=2003 \|title\=The Celts \|location\=Edinburgh \|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press \|pages\=65–66}} Daphne Nash believed it "not unlikely" that he "greatly exaggerates" both the centralized system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.{{cite journal \|author\=Nash, Daphne \|year\=1976 \|title\=Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic ethnography \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=7 \|page\=126\|doi\=10\.2307/525767 \|jstor\=525767 \|s2cid\=162816167 }}
Other historians have accepted that Caesar's account might be more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealized tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BC, before the pan\-Gallic confederation led by the [Arverni](/wiki/Arverni "Arverni") was smashed in 121 BC, followed by the invasions of [Teutones](/wiki/Teutones "Teutones") and [Cimbri](/wiki/Cimbri "Cimbri"), rather than on the demoralized and disunited Gaul of his own time.DeWitt (1938\) p 324 ff. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid\-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.{{cite journal \|author\=Creighton \|title\=Visions of power: Imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=26 \|year\=1995 \|pages\=285–301; especially 296ff\|doi\=10\.2307/526880 \|jstor\=526880 \|s2cid\=154772745 }} Other scholars see the Roman conquest itself as the main reason for the decline of the druid orders.{{cite journal \|author\=Webster, Jane \|title\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\-conquest Gaul and Britain \|journal\=Britannia \|volume\=30 \|year\=1999 \|pages\=1–20\|doi\=10\.2307/526671 \|jstor\=526671 \|s2cid\=162214983 }} with full bibliography. Archaeologist [Miranda Aldhouse\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green "Miranda Aldhouse-Green") (2010\) asserted that Caesar offered both "our richest textual source" regarding the druids, and "one of the most reliable". She defended the accuracy of his accounts by highlighting that while he may have embellished some of his accounts to justify Roman imperial conquest, it was "inherently unlikely" that he constructed a fictional class system for Gaul and Britain, particularly considering that he was accompanied by a number of other Roman senators who would have also been sending reports on the conquest to Rome, and who would have challenged his inclusion of serious falsifications.
#### Cicero, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Tacitus
[thumb\|Roman soldiers killing druids and burning their groves on [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey"), as described by [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus")](/wiki/File:Romans_murdering_Druids_and_burning_their_groves_cropped.jpg "Romans murdering Druids and burning their groves cropped.jpg")
Other classical writers also commented on the druids and their practices. Caesar's contemporary, [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero"), noted that he had met a Gallic druid, [Divitiacus](/wiki/Diviciacus_%28Aedui%29 "Diviciacus (Aedui)"), of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus supposedly knew much about the natural world and performed divination through [augury](/wiki/Augury "Augury"). Whether Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure, and wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish\-sounding (and thereby presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") p. 5\.
Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long afterward was [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus "Diodorus Siculus"), who published this description in his *Bibliotheca historicae* in 36 BCE. Alongside the druids, or as he called them, *drouidas*, who he believed to be philosophers and theologians, he remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society, who he called *bardous*, or [bards](/wiki/Bard "Bard"). Such an idea was expanded upon by [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo "Strabo"), writing in the 20s CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures:{{cite book \|author\=Strabo \|author\-link\=Strabo \|title\=Geographica \|at\=IV.4\.4–5}}
* the poets and singers known as *bardoi*,
* the diviners and specialists in the natural world known as *o'vateis*, and
* those who studied "moral philosophy", the *druidai*.
The Roman writer [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), who was himself a senator and historian, described how when the Roman army, led by [Suetonius Paulinus](/wiki/Suetonius_Paulinus "Suetonius Paulinus"), attacked the island of Mona ([Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey"); [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language "Welsh language"): *Ynys Môn*), the legionaries were awestruck on landing, by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He says these "terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before". The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the [sacred groves](/wiki/Sacred_grove "Sacred grove") of Mona were cut down.[Tacitus](/wiki/%23Tac "#Tac") 14\.30\. Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain, but portrays them negatively, as ignorant savages.[Rutherford (1978\)](/wiki/%23Rut78 "#Rut78") p. 45\.
|
[
"### Greek and Roman records",
"[thumb\\|[Édouard Zier](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Fran%C3%A7ois_Zier \"Édouard François Zier\"), \"Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans\"{{snd}}from [Cassell](/wiki/John_Cassell \"John Cassell\")'s *History of England*, Vol. I](/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg \"Druids Inciting the Britons to Oppose the Landing of the Romans.jpg\")",
"The earliest surviving literary evidence of druids emerges from the classical world of Greece and Rome. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott \"Stuart Piggott\") compared the attitude of the Classical authors toward the druids as being similar to the relationship that had existed in the 15th and 18th centuries between Europeans and the societies that they were just encountering in other parts of the world, such as the Americas and the South Sea Islands. He highlighted the attitude of \"[primitivism](/wiki/Primitivism \"Primitivism\")\" in both Early Modern Europeans and Classical authors, owing to their perception that these newly encountered societies had less technological development and were backward in socio\\-political development.[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") p. 91\\.",
"Historian [Nora Chadwick](/wiki/Nora_Chadwick \"Nora Chadwick\"), in a categorization subsequently adopted by Piggott, divided the Classical accounts of the druids into two groups, distinguished by their approach to the subject as well as their chronological contexts. She calls the first of these groups the \"Posidonian\" tradition after one of its primary exponents, Posidonious, and notes that it takes a largely critical attitude towards the Iron Age societies of Western Europe that emphasizes their \"barbaric\" qualities. The second of these two groups is termed the \"Alexandrian\" group, being centred on the scholastic traditions of [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"); she notes that it took a more sympathetic and idealized attitude toward these foreign peoples.[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") pp. 91–92\\. Piggott drew parallels between this categorisation and the ideas of \"hard primitivism\" and \"soft primitivism\" identified by [historians of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas \"History of ideas\") [A. O. Lovejoy](/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy \"Arthur Oncken Lovejoy\") and [Franz Boas](/wiki/Franz_Boas \"Franz Boas\").[Piggott (1975\\)](/wiki/%23Pig75 \"#Pig75\") p. 92\\.",
"One school of thought has suggested that all of these accounts are inherently unreliable, and might be entirely fictional. They have suggested that the idea of the druid might have been a fiction created by Classical writers to reinforce the idea of the barbaric \"other\" who existed beyond the civilized Greco\\-Roman world, thereby legitimizing the expansion of the Roman Empire into these areas.[Aldhouse\\-Green (2010\\)](/wiki/%23Ald10 \"#Ald10\") p. xv.",
"The earliest record of the druids comes from two Greek texts of c. 300 BCE: a history of philosophy written by [Sotion](/wiki/Sotion \"Sotion\") of Alexandria, and a study of magic widely attributed to [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"). Both texts are now lost, but are quoted in the 2nd century CE work *Vitae* by [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius \"Diogenes Laërtius\").Diogenes Laërtius. *Vitae*. Introduction, section 1\\.\n{{Quote\n\\|Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldaei, among the Indians the Gymnosophistae, and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called druids and semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on magic, and Sotion in the twenty\\-third book of his ''Succession of Philosophers''.\n\\|\\[\\[Diogenes Laërtius]]\n\\|Vitae, Introduction, Section 1{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \\|title\\=Diogenes Laërtius Lives of the Philosophers: Thales, translated by C. D. Yonge \\|work\\=classicpersuasion.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-24 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730093059/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlintro.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}}}\nSubsequent Greek and Roman texts from the 3rd century BCE refer to \"[barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian \"Barbarian\") philosophers\",{{cite journal \\|author\\=Webster, Jane \\|title\\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\\-conquest Gaul and Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=30 \\|year\\=1999 \\|pages\\=1–20, 2–4\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526671 \\|jstor\\=526671 \\|s2cid\\=162214983 }} Twenty references are presented in tabular form. possibly in reference to the Gaulish druids.",
"#### Julius Caesar",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Julius Caesar, the Roman general and later [dictator](/wiki/Roman_dictator \"Roman dictator\"), who wrote the most important source for the Druids in Britain](/wiki/File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar_%28100-44_BC%29.JPG \"Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG\")",
"The earliest extant text that describes druids in detail is [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\")'s *[Commentarii de Bello Gallico](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\")*, book VI, written in the 50s or 40s BCE. A general who was intent on conquering Gaul and Britain, Caesar described the druids as being concerned with \"divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions\". He said they played an important part in Gaulish society, being one of the two respected classes along with the *equites* (in Rome the name for members of a privileged class above the common people, but also \"horsemen\") and that they performed the function of judges.",
"Caesar wrote that the druids recognized the authority of a single leader, who would rule until his death, when a successor would be chosen by vote or through conflict. He remarked that to settle disputes between tribes, they met annually at a sacred place at the borders of the [Carnute](/wiki/Carnutes \"Carnutes\") territoty, which is said to be the center of Gaul. They viewed Britain as the centre of druidic study; and that they were not found among the German tribes to the east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\"). According to Caesar, many young men were trained to be druids, during which time they had to learn all the associated lore by heart. He also said that their main teaching was \"the souls do not perish, but after death pass from one to another\". They were concerned with \"the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the world of nature, and the power and might of the immortal gods\", indicating they were involved with not only such common aspects of religion as [theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") and [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology \"Cosmology\"), but also [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"). Caesar held that they were \"administrators\" during rituals of [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice \"Human sacrifice\"), for which criminals were usually used, and that the method was by burning in a [wicker man](/wiki/Wicker_man \"Wicker man\").",
"Though he had first\\-hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as [Fustel de Coulanges](/wiki/Fustel_de_Coulanges \"Fustel de Coulanges\"){{cite book \\|author\\=de Coulanges, Fustel \\|author\\-link\\=Fustel de Coulanges \\|year\\=1891 \\|title\\=La Gaule romaine \\|location\\=Paris \\|page\\=3}} was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did [Aulus Hirtius](/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius \"Aulus Hirtius\"), who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars after Caesar's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druids so they would appear both civilized (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both \"a society worth including in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\")\" and one that required civilizing with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") pp. 04–05\\. Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids.{{cite book \\|author\\=Dunham, Sean B. \\|year\\=1995 \\|article\\=Caesar's perception of Gallic social structures \\|title\\=Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State \\|editor1\\=Arnold, Bettina \\|editor2\\=Gibson, D. Blair \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book \\|author\\=Maier, Bernhard \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=The Celts \\|location\\=Edinburgh \\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press \\|pages\\=65–66}} Daphne Nash believed it \"not unlikely\" that he \"greatly exaggerates\" both the centralized system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Nash, Daphne \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic ethnography \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=7 \\|page\\=126\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/525767 \\|jstor\\=525767 \\|s2cid\\=162816167 }}",
"Other historians have accepted that Caesar's account might be more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealized tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BC, before the pan\\-Gallic confederation led by the [Arverni](/wiki/Arverni \"Arverni\") was smashed in 121 BC, followed by the invasions of [Teutones](/wiki/Teutones \"Teutones\") and [Cimbri](/wiki/Cimbri \"Cimbri\"), rather than on the demoralized and disunited Gaul of his own time.DeWitt (1938\\) p 324 ff. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid\\-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Creighton \\|title\\=Visions of power: Imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=26 \\|year\\=1995 \\|pages\\=285–301; especially 296ff\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526880 \\|jstor\\=526880 \\|s2cid\\=154772745 }} Other scholars see the Roman conquest itself as the main reason for the decline of the druid orders.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Webster, Jane \\|title\\=At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post\\-conquest Gaul and Britain \\|journal\\=Britannia \\|volume\\=30 \\|year\\=1999 \\|pages\\=1–20\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/526671 \\|jstor\\=526671 \\|s2cid\\=162214983 }} with full bibliography. Archaeologist [Miranda Aldhouse\\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green \"Miranda Aldhouse-Green\") (2010\\) asserted that Caesar offered both \"our richest textual source\" regarding the druids, and \"one of the most reliable\". She defended the accuracy of his accounts by highlighting that while he may have embellished some of his accounts to justify Roman imperial conquest, it was \"inherently unlikely\" that he constructed a fictional class system for Gaul and Britain, particularly considering that he was accompanied by a number of other Roman senators who would have also been sending reports on the conquest to Rome, and who would have challenged his inclusion of serious falsifications.",
"#### Cicero, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Tacitus",
"[thumb\\|Roman soldiers killing druids and burning their groves on [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\"), as described by [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\")](/wiki/File:Romans_murdering_Druids_and_burning_their_groves_cropped.jpg \"Romans murdering Druids and burning their groves cropped.jpg\")\nOther classical writers also commented on the druids and their practices. Caesar's contemporary, [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\"), noted that he had met a Gallic druid, [Divitiacus](/wiki/Diviciacus_%28Aedui%29 \"Diviciacus (Aedui)\"), of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus supposedly knew much about the natural world and performed divination through [augury](/wiki/Augury \"Augury\"). Whether Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure, and wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish\\-sounding (and thereby presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") p. 5\\.",
"Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long afterward was [Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus \"Diodorus Siculus\"), who published this description in his *Bibliotheca historicae* in 36 BCE. Alongside the druids, or as he called them, *drouidas*, who he believed to be philosophers and theologians, he remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society, who he called *bardous*, or [bards](/wiki/Bard \"Bard\"). Such an idea was expanded upon by [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo \"Strabo\"), writing in the 20s CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures:{{cite book \\|author\\=Strabo \\|author\\-link\\=Strabo \\|title\\=Geographica \\|at\\=IV.4\\.4–5}}\n* the poets and singers known as *bardoi*,\n* the diviners and specialists in the natural world known as *o'vateis*, and\n* those who studied \"moral philosophy\", the *druidai*.",
"The Roman writer [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), who was himself a senator and historian, described how when the Roman army, led by [Suetonius Paulinus](/wiki/Suetonius_Paulinus \"Suetonius Paulinus\"), attacked the island of Mona ([Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\"); [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language \"Welsh language\"): *Ynys Môn*), the legionaries were awestruck on landing, by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He says these \"terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before\". The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the [sacred groves](/wiki/Sacred_grove \"Sacred grove\") of Mona were cut down.[Tacitus](/wiki/%23Tac \"#Tac\") 14\\.30\\. Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain, but portrays them negatively, as ignorant savages.[Rutherford (1978\\)](/wiki/%23Rut78 \"#Rut78\") p. 45\\.",
""
] |
History of reception
--------------------
### Prohibition and decline under Roman rule
In the [Gallic Wars](/wiki/Gallic_Wars "Gallic Wars") of 58–51 BCE, the Roman army, led by [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar"), conquered the many tribal chiefdoms of Gaul, and annexed it as a part of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic"). According to accounts produced in the following centuries, the new rulers of [Roman Gaul](/wiki/Roman_Gaul "Roman Gaul") subsequently introduced measures to wipe\-out the druids from that country. According to [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder"), writing in the 70s CE, it was the emperor [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius "Tiberius") (ruled 14–37 CE) who introduced laws which banned not only druidic practices, but also other native soothsayers and healers– a move which Pliny applauded, believing that it would end human sacrifice in Gaul.[Pliny](/wiki/%23Pli "#Pli") XXX.13\. A somewhat different account of Roman legal attacks upon the druids was made by [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), writing in the 2nd century CE, when he stated that Rome's first emperor, [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus") (ruled 27 BCE–14 CE), had decreed that no\-one could be both a druid and a Roman citizen, and that this was followed by a law passed by the later emperor [Claudius](/wiki/Claudius "Claudius") (ruled 41–54 CE) which "thoroughly suppressed" the druids by banning their religious practices.{{cite book \|author\=Suetonius \|author\-link\=Suetonius \|title\=Claudius \|at\=XXV.5}}
### Possible late survival of Insular druid orders
{{Further\|Christianization of Ireland\|Christianization of Wales\|Taliesin}}
The best evidence of a druidic tradition in the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles") is the independent cognate of the [Celtic](/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language "Proto-Celtic language") *\*druwid\-* in [Insular Celtic](/wiki/Insular_Celtic "Insular Celtic"): The Old Irish *druídecht* survives in the meaning of 'magic', and the Welsh *dryw* in the meaning of 'seer'.
While the druids as a priestly caste were extinct with the [Christianization of Wales](/wiki/Christianization_of_Wales "Christianization of Wales"), complete by the 7th century at the latest, the offices of [bard](/wiki/Bard "Bard") and of "seer" ({{lang\-cy\|dryw}}) persisted in [medieval Wales](/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages "Wales in the High Middle Ages") into the 13th century.
Minister Macauley (1764\) reported the existence of five druidic altars, including a large circle of stones fixed perpendicularly in the ground near the Stallir House on [Boreray](/wiki/Boreray%2C_St_Kilda "Boreray, St Kilda") near the westernmost settlement of the UK [St, Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda%2C_Scotland "St Kilda, Scotland").{{cite book \|author1\=Macaulay, Kenneth \|title\=The history of St. Kilda \|date\=1764 \|pages\=53–58 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/bim\_eighteenth\-century\_the\-history\-of\-st\-kilda\_macaulay\-kenneth\_1764/mode/2up}}
Classics professor Phillip Freeman discusses a later reference to 'dryades', which he translates as 'druidesses', writing, "The fourth century A.D. collection of imperial biographies known as the *[Historia Augusta](/wiki/Historia_Augusta "Historia Augusta")* contains three short passages involving Gaulish women called 'dryades' ('druidesses'). He points out that "In all of these, the women may not be direct heirs of the druids who were supposedly extinguished by the Romans{{snd}}but in any case they do show that the druidic function of prophecy continued among the natives in Roman Gaul."{{cite book \|author\=Freeman, Phillip \|title\=War, Women \& Druids: Eyewitness reports and early accounts \|publisher\=University of Texas Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-292\-72545\-4 \|pages\=49–50\|date\=October 2002 }} Additionally, female druids are mentioned in later Irish mythology, including the legend of [Fionn mac Cumhaill](/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill "Fionn mac Cumhaill"), who, according to the 12th century *[The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn](/wiki/The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn "The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn")*, is raised by the woman druid [Bodhmall](/wiki/Bodhmall "Bodhmall") and her companion, another wise\-woman.
### Christian historiography and hagiography
The story of [Vortigern](/wiki/Vortigern "Vortigern"), as reported by [Nennius](/wiki/Nennius "Nennius"), gives one of the very few glimpses of possible druidic survival in Britain after the Roman arrival. He wrote that after being excommunicated by [Germanus of Auxerre](/wiki/Germanus_of_Auxerre "Germanus of Auxerre"), the British leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to help him.
In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In [Adamnan](/wiki/Adamnan "Adamnan")'s *vita* of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of [Lóegaire mac Néill](/wiki/L%C3%B3egaire_mac_N%C3%A9ill "Lóegaire mac Néill"), the [High King of Ireland](/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland "High King of Ireland"), at the coming of [Saint Patrick](/wiki/Saint_Patrick "Saint Patrick"). They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and [Saint Columba](/wiki/Saint_Columba "Saint Columba") by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561 CE), a druid made an *airbe drtiad* ("fence of protection"?) around one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by that phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word *druí* is always used to render the [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") word *magus*, and in one passage, St Columba speaks of Jesus as his druid. Similarly, a life of Saint [Beuno](/wiki/Beuno "Beuno") states that when he died, he had a vision of "all the saints and druids".
[Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus "Sulpicius Severus")' *vita* of [Martin of Tours](/wiki/Martin_of_Tours "Martin of Tours") relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites of [sacrifice](/wiki/Sacrifice "Sacrifice"), "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of [demons](/wiki/Demon "Demon") veiled with a white covering". So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavoured, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body." Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus", the hagiographer points out, "he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.users.csbsju.edu/\~eknuth/npnf2\-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html\#tp \|title\=Hagiography \|author\=Knuth, E. \|website\=csbsju.edu \|access\-date\=2005\-07\-04 \|archive\-date\=2006\-09\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909225230/http://www.users.csbsju.edu/\~eknuth/npnf2\-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html\#tp \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Romanticism and later revivals
{{Main\|Celtic revival\|Neo\-Druidism}}
[thumb\|right\|Druid statue in [Croome Court](/wiki/Croome_Court "Croome Court"), [Malvern Hills](/wiki/Malvern_Hills_District "Malvern Hills District"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire "Worcestershire")](/wiki/File:Croome_Park_Worcs_HeSn_Druid_statue_2.jpg "Croome Park Worcs HeSn Druid statue 2.jpg")
From the 18th century, England and Wales saw a revival of interest in the druids. [John Aubrey](/wiki/John_Aubrey "John Aubrey") (1626–1697\) had been the first modern writer to (incorrectly) connect [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge "Stonehenge") and other [megalithic](/wiki/Megalith "Megalith") monuments with the druids. Since Aubrey's theory was confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for this idea were readers of [William Stukeley](/wiki/William_Stukeley "William Stukeley") (1687–1765\).The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick "T. D. Kendrick"), *The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory* (London: Methuen) 1927\. It is incorrectly believed that [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland "John Toland") (1670–1722\) founded the [Ancient Druid Order](/wiki/Ancient_Druid_Order "Ancient Druid Order"); however, the research of historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton "Ronald Hutton") has revealed that the ADO was founded by George Watson MacGregor Reid in 1909\.{{cite book \|last1\=Parker Pearson \|first1\=Michael \|author1\-link\=Mike Parker Pearson \|title\=Stonehenge: a brief history \|date\=2023 \|publisher\=\[\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \|location\=London \|isbn\=9781350192232 \|page\=136}} The order never used (and still does not use) the title "Archdruid" for any member, but falsely credited [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake "William Blake") as having been its "Chosen Chief" from 1799–1827, without corroboration in Blake's numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives instead from the pseudo\-[Ossianic](/wiki/Ossian "Ossian") epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, "clothing itself in the dark stole of moral sanctity"— in the precincts of Westminster Abbey— "it dwelt amid the druid terrors", is generic rather than specifically neo\-druidic.Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, "William Blake, Painter", *The Huntington Library Bulletin*, No. 10 (October 1936, pp 135–148\) p. 139\. [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland "John Toland") was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. The roles of [bards](/wiki/Bards "Bards") in 10th century Wales had been established by [Hywel Dda](/wiki/Hywel_Dda "Hywel Dda") and it was during the 18th century that the idea arose that druids had been their predecessors.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \|title\=Ancient Druids of Wales \|website\=National Museum of Wales \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117120901/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-17 \|url\-status\=dead}}
The 19th century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the *[Gallic Wars](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico "Commentarii de Bello Gallico")*, that under cultural\-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st century BCE resistance among the [Gauls](/wiki/Gauls "Gauls"), was examined and dismissed before World War II,{{cite journal \|author\=DeWitt, Norman J. \|title\=The Druids and Romanization \|journal\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \|volume\=69 \|year\=1938 \|pages\=319–332 \|quote\=Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti\-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early \[\[Roman Gaul]] ...\|doi\=10\.2307/283182 \|jstor\=283182 }} His inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. though it remains current in folk history.
Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism"). [Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand "François-René de Chateaubriand")'s novel *Les Martyrs* (1809\) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. [Opera](/wiki/Opera "Opera") provides a barometer of well\-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: In 1817 [Giovanni Pacini](/wiki/Giovanni_Pacini "Giovanni Pacini") brought druids to the stage in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste") with an opera to a libretto by [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani "Felice Romani") about a druid priestess, *La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul* ("The Priestess of [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul "Irminsul")"). [Vincenzo Bellini](/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini "Vincenzo Bellini")'s druidic opera, *[Norma](/wiki/Norma_%28opera%29 "Norma (opera)")* was a fiasco at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala "La Scala"), when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani "Felice Romani") reused some of the pseudo\-druidical background of *La Sacerdotessa* to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of [Medea](/wiki/Medea "Medea"), as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [Alexandre Soumet](/wiki/Alexandre_Soumet "Alexandre Soumet"): the chaste goddess (*casta diva*) addressed in *Norma*{{'}}s hit aria is the moon goddess, worshipped in the "grove of the [Irmin](/wiki/Irminenschaft "Irminenschaft") statue".
[thumb\|Edward Williams, known for his bardic name, "Iolo Morganwg"](/wiki/File:Iolomorganwg.jpg "Iolomorganwg.jpg")
A central figure in 19th century Romanticist, Neo\-druid revival, is Welshman Edward Williams, better known as [Iolo Morganwg](/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg "Iolo Morganwg"). His writings, published posthumously as *The Iolo Manuscripts* (1849\) and *Barddas* (1862\), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams said that he had collected ancient knowledge in a "[Gorsedd](/wiki/Gorsedd "Gorsedd") of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. While bits and pieces of the *Barddas* still turn up in some "[Neo\-Druidic](/wiki/Neo-Druidism "Neo-Druidism")" works, the documents are not considered relevant to ancient practice by most scholars.
Another Welshman, [William Price](/wiki/William_Price_%28physician%29 "William Price (physician)") (4 March 1800{{snd}}23 January 1893\), a physician known for his support of [Welsh nationalism](/wiki/Welsh_nationalism "Welsh nationalism"), [Chartism](/wiki/Chartism "Chartism"), and his involvement with the Neo\-Druidic religious movement, has been recognized as a significant figure of 19th century Wales. He was arrested for cremating his deceased son, a practice he believed to be a druid ritual, but won his case; this in turn led to the [Cremation Act 1902](/wiki/Cremation_Act_1902 "Cremation Act 1902").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\-bin/anw/fulldesc\_nofr?inst\_id\=1\&coll\_id\=669\&expand\= \|title\=Price, William, Dr., (Llantrisant), papers \|access\-date\=2006\-09\-27 \|date\=May 2003 \|publisher\=Archives Network Wales \|archive\-date\=2020\-05\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523123214/https://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\-bin/anw/fulldesc\_nofr?inst\_id\=1\&coll\_id\=669\&expand\= \|url\-status\=dead }}[Powell (2005\)](/wiki/%23Pow05 "#Pow05") p. 3\.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") p. 253\.
In 1927 [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick "T. D. Kendrick") sought to dispel the pseudo\-historical aura that had accrued to druids,{{cite book \|author\-link\=T. D. Kendrick \|author\=Kendrick, T. D. \|title\=The Druids: A study in Keltic prehistory \|location\=London, U.K. \|publisher\=Methuen \|year\=1927}} asserting, "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about Druidism";Kendrick 1927:viii. Neo\-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids.
Some strands of contemporary Neo\-Druidism are a continuation of the 18th century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second\-hand sources and theorists. Some are [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism "Monotheism"). Others, such as the largest druid group in the world, the [Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids](/wiki/Order_of_Bards%2C_Ovates_and_Druids "Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids"), draw on a wide range of sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo\-Druid groups may be [Neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism "Neopaganism"), [occultist](/wiki/Occultist "Occultist"), Christian or non\-specifically spiritual.
### Modern scholarship
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Druidic ceremony for the Autumn Equinox on top of [Primrose Hill](/wiki/Primrose_Hill "Primrose Hill") in London](/wiki/File:Druids_on_Primrose_Hill_Autumn_Equinox.jpg "Druids on Primrose Hill Autumn Equinox.jpg")
In the 20th century, as new forms of textual criticism and archaeological methods were developed, allowing for greater accuracy in understanding the past, various historians and archaeologists published books on the subject of the druids, and came to their own conclusions. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott "Stuart Piggott"), the author of *The Druids* (1968\), accepted the Greco\-Roman accounts, and considered the druids to be a barbaric and savage priesthood who performed human sacrifices.[Piggott (1968\)](/wiki/%23Pig68 "#Pig68") pp. 92–98\. This conclusion was largely supported by another archaeologist\- Anne Ross, the author of *Pagan Celtic Britain* (1967\) and *The Life and Death of a Druid Prince* (1989\), though she believed that they were essentially tribal priests, having more in common with the [shamans](/wiki/Shamans "Shamans") of tribal societies than with the classical philosophers.[Ross (1967\)](/wiki/%23Ros67 "#Ros67") pp. 52–56\. Ross' conclusion was largely accepted by two other prominent archaeologists to write on the subject: [Miranda Aldhouse\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green "Miranda Aldhouse-Green")[Aldhouse\-Green (1997\)](/wiki/%23Ald97 "#Ald97") pp. 31–33\.\- the author of *The Gods of the Celts* (1986\), *Exploring the World of the Druids* (1997\), and *Caesar's Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood* (2010\); and [Barry Cunliffe](/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe "Barry Cunliffe")\- the author of *Iron Age Communities in Britain* (1991\) and *The Ancient Celts* (1997\).[Cunliffe (2005\)](/wiki/%23Cun05 "#Cun05") pp. 518–520\.
|
[
"History of reception\n--------------------",
"### Prohibition and decline under Roman rule",
"In the [Gallic Wars](/wiki/Gallic_Wars \"Gallic Wars\") of 58–51 BCE, the Roman army, led by [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\"), conquered the many tribal chiefdoms of Gaul, and annexed it as a part of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"). According to accounts produced in the following centuries, the new rulers of [Roman Gaul](/wiki/Roman_Gaul \"Roman Gaul\") subsequently introduced measures to wipe\\-out the druids from that country. According to [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\"), writing in the 70s CE, it was the emperor [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius \"Tiberius\") (ruled 14–37 CE) who introduced laws which banned not only druidic practices, but also other native soothsayers and healers– a move which Pliny applauded, believing that it would end human sacrifice in Gaul.[Pliny](/wiki/%23Pli \"#Pli\") XXX.13\\. A somewhat different account of Roman legal attacks upon the druids was made by [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), writing in the 2nd century CE, when he stated that Rome's first emperor, [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\") (ruled 27 BCE–14 CE), had decreed that no\\-one could be both a druid and a Roman citizen, and that this was followed by a law passed by the later emperor [Claudius](/wiki/Claudius \"Claudius\") (ruled 41–54 CE) which \"thoroughly suppressed\" the druids by banning their religious practices.{{cite book \\|author\\=Suetonius \\|author\\-link\\=Suetonius \\|title\\=Claudius \\|at\\=XXV.5}}",
"### Possible late survival of Insular druid orders",
"{{Further\\|Christianization of Ireland\\|Christianization of Wales\\|Taliesin}}\nThe best evidence of a druidic tradition in the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\") is the independent cognate of the [Celtic](/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language \"Proto-Celtic language\") *\\*druwid\\-* in [Insular Celtic](/wiki/Insular_Celtic \"Insular Celtic\"): The Old Irish *druídecht* survives in the meaning of 'magic', and the Welsh *dryw* in the meaning of 'seer'.",
"While the druids as a priestly caste were extinct with the [Christianization of Wales](/wiki/Christianization_of_Wales \"Christianization of Wales\"), complete by the 7th century at the latest, the offices of [bard](/wiki/Bard \"Bard\") and of \"seer\" ({{lang\\-cy\\|dryw}}) persisted in [medieval Wales](/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages \"Wales in the High Middle Ages\") into the 13th century.",
"Minister Macauley (1764\\) reported the existence of five druidic altars, including a large circle of stones fixed perpendicularly in the ground near the Stallir House on [Boreray](/wiki/Boreray%2C_St_Kilda \"Boreray, St Kilda\") near the westernmost settlement of the UK [St, Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda%2C_Scotland \"St Kilda, Scotland\").{{cite book \\|author1\\=Macaulay, Kenneth \\|title\\=The history of St. Kilda \\|date\\=1764 \\|pages\\=53–58 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bim\\_eighteenth\\-century\\_the\\-history\\-of\\-st\\-kilda\\_macaulay\\-kenneth\\_1764/mode/2up}}",
"Classics professor Phillip Freeman discusses a later reference to 'dryades', which he translates as 'druidesses', writing, \"The fourth century A.D. collection of imperial biographies known as the *[Historia Augusta](/wiki/Historia_Augusta \"Historia Augusta\")* contains three short passages involving Gaulish women called 'dryades' ('druidesses'). He points out that \"In all of these, the women may not be direct heirs of the druids who were supposedly extinguished by the Romans{{snd}}but in any case they do show that the druidic function of prophecy continued among the natives in Roman Gaul.\"{{cite book \\|author\\=Freeman, Phillip \\|title\\=War, Women \\& Druids: Eyewitness reports and early accounts \\|publisher\\=University of Texas Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-292\\-72545\\-4 \\|pages\\=49–50\\|date\\=October 2002 }} Additionally, female druids are mentioned in later Irish mythology, including the legend of [Fionn mac Cumhaill](/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill \"Fionn mac Cumhaill\"), who, according to the 12th century *[The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn](/wiki/The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn \"The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn\")*, is raised by the woman druid [Bodhmall](/wiki/Bodhmall \"Bodhmall\") and her companion, another wise\\-woman.",
"### Christian historiography and hagiography",
"The story of [Vortigern](/wiki/Vortigern \"Vortigern\"), as reported by [Nennius](/wiki/Nennius \"Nennius\"), gives one of the very few glimpses of possible druidic survival in Britain after the Roman arrival. He wrote that after being excommunicated by [Germanus of Auxerre](/wiki/Germanus_of_Auxerre \"Germanus of Auxerre\"), the British leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to help him.",
"In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In [Adamnan](/wiki/Adamnan \"Adamnan\")'s *vita* of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of [Lóegaire mac Néill](/wiki/L%C3%B3egaire_mac_N%C3%A9ill \"Lóegaire mac Néill\"), the [High King of Ireland](/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland \"High King of Ireland\"), at the coming of [Saint Patrick](/wiki/Saint_Patrick \"Saint Patrick\"). They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and [Saint Columba](/wiki/Saint_Columba \"Saint Columba\") by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561 CE), a druid made an *airbe drtiad* (\"fence of protection\"?) around one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by that phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word *druí* is always used to render the [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") word *magus*, and in one passage, St Columba speaks of Jesus as his druid. Similarly, a life of Saint [Beuno](/wiki/Beuno \"Beuno\") states that when he died, he had a vision of \"all the saints and druids\".",
"[Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus \"Sulpicius Severus\")' *vita* of [Martin of Tours](/wiki/Martin_of_Tours \"Martin of Tours\") relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites of [sacrifice](/wiki/Sacrifice \"Sacrifice\"), \"because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of [demons](/wiki/Demon \"Demon\") veiled with a white covering\". So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: \"Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavoured, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body.\" Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: \"Thus\", the hagiographer points out, \"he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.users.csbsju.edu/\\~eknuth/npnf2\\-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html\\#tp \\|title\\=Hagiography \\|author\\=Knuth, E. \\|website\\=csbsju.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2005\\-07\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-09\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909225230/http://www.users.csbsju.edu/\\~eknuth/npnf2\\-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html\\#tp \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Romanticism and later revivals",
"{{Main\\|Celtic revival\\|Neo\\-Druidism}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Druid statue in [Croome Court](/wiki/Croome_Court \"Croome Court\"), [Malvern Hills](/wiki/Malvern_Hills_District \"Malvern Hills District\"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire \"Worcestershire\")](/wiki/File:Croome_Park_Worcs_HeSn_Druid_statue_2.jpg \"Croome Park Worcs HeSn Druid statue 2.jpg\")\nFrom the 18th century, England and Wales saw a revival of interest in the druids. [John Aubrey](/wiki/John_Aubrey \"John Aubrey\") (1626–1697\\) had been the first modern writer to (incorrectly) connect [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge \"Stonehenge\") and other [megalithic](/wiki/Megalith \"Megalith\") monuments with the druids. Since Aubrey's theory was confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for this idea were readers of [William Stukeley](/wiki/William_Stukeley \"William Stukeley\") (1687–1765\\).The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick \"T. D. Kendrick\"), *The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory* (London: Methuen) 1927\\. It is incorrectly believed that [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland \"John Toland\") (1670–1722\\) founded the [Ancient Druid Order](/wiki/Ancient_Druid_Order \"Ancient Druid Order\"); however, the research of historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton \"Ronald Hutton\") has revealed that the ADO was founded by George Watson MacGregor Reid in 1909\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Parker Pearson \\|first1\\=Michael \\|author1\\-link\\=Mike Parker Pearson \\|title\\=Stonehenge: a brief history \\|date\\=2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=9781350192232 \\|page\\=136}} The order never used (and still does not use) the title \"Archdruid\" for any member, but falsely credited [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\") as having been its \"Chosen Chief\" from 1799–1827, without corroboration in Blake's numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives instead from the pseudo\\-[Ossianic](/wiki/Ossian \"Ossian\") epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, \"clothing itself in the dark stole of moral sanctity\"— in the precincts of Westminster Abbey— \"it dwelt amid the druid terrors\", is generic rather than specifically neo\\-druidic.Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, \"William Blake, Painter\", *The Huntington Library Bulletin*, No. 10 (October 1936, pp 135–148\\) p. 139\\. [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland \"John Toland\") was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. The roles of [bards](/wiki/Bards \"Bards\") in 10th century Wales had been established by [Hywel Dda](/wiki/Hywel_Dda \"Hywel Dda\") and it was during the 18th century that the idea arose that druids had been their predecessors.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \\|title\\=Ancient Druids of Wales \\|website\\=National Museum of Wales \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117120901/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The 19th century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the *[Gallic Wars](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\")*, that under cultural\\-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st century BCE resistance among the [Gauls](/wiki/Gauls \"Gauls\"), was examined and dismissed before World War II,{{cite journal \\|author\\=DeWitt, Norman J. \\|title\\=The Druids and Romanization \\|journal\\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \\|volume\\=69 \\|year\\=1938 \\|pages\\=319–332 \\|quote\\=Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti\\-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early \\[\\[Roman Gaul]] ...\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/283182 \\|jstor\\=283182 }} His inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. though it remains current in folk history.",
"Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\"). [Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand \"François-René de Chateaubriand\")'s novel *Les Martyrs* (1809\\) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. [Opera](/wiki/Opera \"Opera\") provides a barometer of well\\-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: In 1817 [Giovanni Pacini](/wiki/Giovanni_Pacini \"Giovanni Pacini\") brought druids to the stage in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\") with an opera to a libretto by [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani \"Felice Romani\") about a druid priestess, *La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul* (\"The Priestess of [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul \"Irminsul\")\"). [Vincenzo Bellini](/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini \"Vincenzo Bellini\")'s druidic opera, *[Norma](/wiki/Norma_%28opera%29 \"Norma (opera)\")* was a fiasco at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala \"La Scala\"), when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani \"Felice Romani\") reused some of the pseudo\\-druidical background of *La Sacerdotessa* to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of [Medea](/wiki/Medea \"Medea\"), as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [Alexandre Soumet](/wiki/Alexandre_Soumet \"Alexandre Soumet\"): the chaste goddess (*casta diva*) addressed in *Norma*{{'}}s hit aria is the moon goddess, worshipped in the \"grove of the [Irmin](/wiki/Irminenschaft \"Irminenschaft\") statue\".",
"[thumb\\|Edward Williams, known for his bardic name, \"Iolo Morganwg\"](/wiki/File:Iolomorganwg.jpg \"Iolomorganwg.jpg\")\nA central figure in 19th century Romanticist, Neo\\-druid revival, is Welshman Edward Williams, better known as [Iolo Morganwg](/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg \"Iolo Morganwg\"). His writings, published posthumously as *The Iolo Manuscripts* (1849\\) and *Barddas* (1862\\), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams said that he had collected ancient knowledge in a \"[Gorsedd](/wiki/Gorsedd \"Gorsedd\") of Bards of the Isles of Britain\" he had organized. While bits and pieces of the *Barddas* still turn up in some \"[Neo\\-Druidic](/wiki/Neo-Druidism \"Neo-Druidism\")\" works, the documents are not considered relevant to ancient practice by most scholars.",
"Another Welshman, [William Price](/wiki/William_Price_%28physician%29 \"William Price (physician)\") (4 March 1800{{snd}}23 January 1893\\), a physician known for his support of [Welsh nationalism](/wiki/Welsh_nationalism \"Welsh nationalism\"), [Chartism](/wiki/Chartism \"Chartism\"), and his involvement with the Neo\\-Druidic religious movement, has been recognized as a significant figure of 19th century Wales. He was arrested for cremating his deceased son, a practice he believed to be a druid ritual, but won his case; this in turn led to the [Cremation Act 1902](/wiki/Cremation_Act_1902 \"Cremation Act 1902\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\\-bin/anw/fulldesc\\_nofr?inst\\_id\\=1\\&coll\\_id\\=669\\&expand\\= \\|title\\=Price, William, Dr., (Llantrisant), papers \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-09\\-27 \\|date\\=May 2003 \\|publisher\\=Archives Network Wales \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523123214/https://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\\-bin/anw/fulldesc\\_nofr?inst\\_id\\=1\\&coll\\_id\\=669\\&expand\\= \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Powell (2005\\)](/wiki/%23Pow05 \"#Pow05\") p. 3\\.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") p. 253\\.",
"In 1927 [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick \"T. D. Kendrick\") sought to dispel the pseudo\\-historical aura that had accrued to druids,{{cite book \\|author\\-link\\=T. D. Kendrick \\|author\\=Kendrick, T. D. \\|title\\=The Druids: A study in Keltic prehistory \\|location\\=London, U.K. \\|publisher\\=Methuen \\|year\\=1927}} asserting, \"a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about Druidism\";Kendrick 1927:viii. Neo\\-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids.",
"Some strands of contemporary Neo\\-Druidism are a continuation of the 18th century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second\\-hand sources and theorists. Some are [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism \"Monotheism\"). Others, such as the largest druid group in the world, the [Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids](/wiki/Order_of_Bards%2C_Ovates_and_Druids \"Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids\"), draw on a wide range of sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo\\-Druid groups may be [Neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism \"Neopaganism\"), [occultist](/wiki/Occultist \"Occultist\"), Christian or non\\-specifically spiritual.",
"### Modern scholarship",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Druidic ceremony for the Autumn Equinox on top of [Primrose Hill](/wiki/Primrose_Hill \"Primrose Hill\") in London](/wiki/File:Druids_on_Primrose_Hill_Autumn_Equinox.jpg \"Druids on Primrose Hill Autumn Equinox.jpg\")\nIn the 20th century, as new forms of textual criticism and archaeological methods were developed, allowing for greater accuracy in understanding the past, various historians and archaeologists published books on the subject of the druids, and came to their own conclusions. Archaeologist [Stuart Piggott](/wiki/Stuart_Piggott \"Stuart Piggott\"), the author of *The Druids* (1968\\), accepted the Greco\\-Roman accounts, and considered the druids to be a barbaric and savage priesthood who performed human sacrifices.[Piggott (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Pig68 \"#Pig68\") pp. 92–98\\. This conclusion was largely supported by another archaeologist\\- Anne Ross, the author of *Pagan Celtic Britain* (1967\\) and *The Life and Death of a Druid Prince* (1989\\), though she believed that they were essentially tribal priests, having more in common with the [shamans](/wiki/Shamans \"Shamans\") of tribal societies than with the classical philosophers.[Ross (1967\\)](/wiki/%23Ros67 \"#Ros67\") pp. 52–56\\. Ross' conclusion was largely accepted by two other prominent archaeologists to write on the subject: [Miranda Aldhouse\\-Green](/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green \"Miranda Aldhouse-Green\")[Aldhouse\\-Green (1997\\)](/wiki/%23Ald97 \"#Ald97\") pp. 31–33\\.\\- the author of *The Gods of the Celts* (1986\\), *Exploring the World of the Druids* (1997\\), and *Caesar's Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood* (2010\\); and [Barry Cunliffe](/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe \"Barry Cunliffe\")\\- the author of *Iron Age Communities in Britain* (1991\\) and *The Ancient Celts* (1997\\).[Cunliffe (2005\\)](/wiki/%23Cun05 \"#Cun05\") pp. 518–520\\.",
""
] |
### Romanticism and later revivals
{{Main\|Celtic revival\|Neo\-Druidism}}
[thumb\|right\|Druid statue in [Croome Court](/wiki/Croome_Court "Croome Court"), [Malvern Hills](/wiki/Malvern_Hills_District "Malvern Hills District"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire "Worcestershire")](/wiki/File:Croome_Park_Worcs_HeSn_Druid_statue_2.jpg "Croome Park Worcs HeSn Druid statue 2.jpg")
From the 18th century, England and Wales saw a revival of interest in the druids. [John Aubrey](/wiki/John_Aubrey "John Aubrey") (1626–1697\) had been the first modern writer to (incorrectly) connect [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge "Stonehenge") and other [megalithic](/wiki/Megalith "Megalith") monuments with the druids. Since Aubrey's theory was confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for this idea were readers of [William Stukeley](/wiki/William_Stukeley "William Stukeley") (1687–1765\).The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick "T. D. Kendrick"), *The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory* (London: Methuen) 1927\. It is incorrectly believed that [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland "John Toland") (1670–1722\) founded the [Ancient Druid Order](/wiki/Ancient_Druid_Order "Ancient Druid Order"); however, the research of historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton "Ronald Hutton") has revealed that the ADO was founded by George Watson MacGregor Reid in 1909\.{{cite book \|last1\=Parker Pearson \|first1\=Michael \|author1\-link\=Mike Parker Pearson \|title\=Stonehenge: a brief history \|date\=2023 \|publisher\=\[\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \|location\=London \|isbn\=9781350192232 \|page\=136}} The order never used (and still does not use) the title "Archdruid" for any member, but falsely credited [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake "William Blake") as having been its "Chosen Chief" from 1799–1827, without corroboration in Blake's numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives instead from the pseudo\-[Ossianic](/wiki/Ossian "Ossian") epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, "clothing itself in the dark stole of moral sanctity"— in the precincts of Westminster Abbey— "it dwelt amid the druid terrors", is generic rather than specifically neo\-druidic.Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, "William Blake, Painter", *The Huntington Library Bulletin*, No. 10 (October 1936, pp 135–148\) p. 139\. [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland "John Toland") was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. The roles of [bards](/wiki/Bards "Bards") in 10th century Wales had been established by [Hywel Dda](/wiki/Hywel_Dda "Hywel Dda") and it was during the 18th century that the idea arose that druids had been their predecessors.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \|title\=Ancient Druids of Wales \|website\=National Museum of Wales \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117120901/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-17 \|url\-status\=dead}}
The 19th century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the *[Gallic Wars](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico "Commentarii de Bello Gallico")*, that under cultural\-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st century BCE resistance among the [Gauls](/wiki/Gauls "Gauls"), was examined and dismissed before World War II,{{cite journal \|author\=DeWitt, Norman J. \|title\=The Druids and Romanization \|journal\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \|volume\=69 \|year\=1938 \|pages\=319–332 \|quote\=Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti\-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early \[\[Roman Gaul]] ...\|doi\=10\.2307/283182 \|jstor\=283182 }} His inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. though it remains current in folk history.
Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism"). [Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand "François-René de Chateaubriand")'s novel *Les Martyrs* (1809\) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. [Opera](/wiki/Opera "Opera") provides a barometer of well\-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: In 1817 [Giovanni Pacini](/wiki/Giovanni_Pacini "Giovanni Pacini") brought druids to the stage in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste") with an opera to a libretto by [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani "Felice Romani") about a druid priestess, *La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul* ("The Priestess of [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul "Irminsul")"). [Vincenzo Bellini](/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini "Vincenzo Bellini")'s druidic opera, *[Norma](/wiki/Norma_%28opera%29 "Norma (opera)")* was a fiasco at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala "La Scala"), when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani "Felice Romani") reused some of the pseudo\-druidical background of *La Sacerdotessa* to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of [Medea](/wiki/Medea "Medea"), as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [Alexandre Soumet](/wiki/Alexandre_Soumet "Alexandre Soumet"): the chaste goddess (*casta diva*) addressed in *Norma*{{'}}s hit aria is the moon goddess, worshipped in the "grove of the [Irmin](/wiki/Irminenschaft "Irminenschaft") statue".
[thumb\|Edward Williams, known for his bardic name, "Iolo Morganwg"](/wiki/File:Iolomorganwg.jpg "Iolomorganwg.jpg")
A central figure in 19th century Romanticist, Neo\-druid revival, is Welshman Edward Williams, better known as [Iolo Morganwg](/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg "Iolo Morganwg"). His writings, published posthumously as *The Iolo Manuscripts* (1849\) and *Barddas* (1862\), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams said that he had collected ancient knowledge in a "[Gorsedd](/wiki/Gorsedd "Gorsedd") of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. While bits and pieces of the *Barddas* still turn up in some "[Neo\-Druidic](/wiki/Neo-Druidism "Neo-Druidism")" works, the documents are not considered relevant to ancient practice by most scholars.
Another Welshman, [William Price](/wiki/William_Price_%28physician%29 "William Price (physician)") (4 March 1800{{snd}}23 January 1893\), a physician known for his support of [Welsh nationalism](/wiki/Welsh_nationalism "Welsh nationalism"), [Chartism](/wiki/Chartism "Chartism"), and his involvement with the Neo\-Druidic religious movement, has been recognized as a significant figure of 19th century Wales. He was arrested for cremating his deceased son, a practice he believed to be a druid ritual, but won his case; this in turn led to the [Cremation Act 1902](/wiki/Cremation_Act_1902 "Cremation Act 1902").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\-bin/anw/fulldesc\_nofr?inst\_id\=1\&coll\_id\=669\&expand\= \|title\=Price, William, Dr., (Llantrisant), papers \|access\-date\=2006\-09\-27 \|date\=May 2003 \|publisher\=Archives Network Wales \|archive\-date\=2020\-05\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523123214/https://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\-bin/anw/fulldesc\_nofr?inst\_id\=1\&coll\_id\=669\&expand\= \|url\-status\=dead }}[Powell (2005\)](/wiki/%23Pow05 "#Pow05") p. 3\.[Hutton (2009\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 "#Hut09") p. 253\.
In 1927 [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick "T. D. Kendrick") sought to dispel the pseudo\-historical aura that had accrued to druids,{{cite book \|author\-link\=T. D. Kendrick \|author\=Kendrick, T. D. \|title\=The Druids: A study in Keltic prehistory \|location\=London, U.K. \|publisher\=Methuen \|year\=1927}} asserting, "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about Druidism";Kendrick 1927:viii. Neo\-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids.
Some strands of contemporary Neo\-Druidism are a continuation of the 18th century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second\-hand sources and theorists. Some are [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism "Monotheism"). Others, such as the largest druid group in the world, the [Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids](/wiki/Order_of_Bards%2C_Ovates_and_Druids "Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids"), draw on a wide range of sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo\-Druid groups may be [Neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism "Neopaganism"), [occultist](/wiki/Occultist "Occultist"), Christian or non\-specifically spiritual.
|
[
"### Romanticism and later revivals",
"{{Main\\|Celtic revival\\|Neo\\-Druidism}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Druid statue in [Croome Court](/wiki/Croome_Court \"Croome Court\"), [Malvern Hills](/wiki/Malvern_Hills_District \"Malvern Hills District\"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire \"Worcestershire\")](/wiki/File:Croome_Park_Worcs_HeSn_Druid_statue_2.jpg \"Croome Park Worcs HeSn Druid statue 2.jpg\")\nFrom the 18th century, England and Wales saw a revival of interest in the druids. [John Aubrey](/wiki/John_Aubrey \"John Aubrey\") (1626–1697\\) had been the first modern writer to (incorrectly) connect [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge \"Stonehenge\") and other [megalithic](/wiki/Megalith \"Megalith\") monuments with the druids. Since Aubrey's theory was confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for this idea were readers of [William Stukeley](/wiki/William_Stukeley \"William Stukeley\") (1687–1765\\).The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick \"T. D. Kendrick\"), *The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory* (London: Methuen) 1927\\. It is incorrectly believed that [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland \"John Toland\") (1670–1722\\) founded the [Ancient Druid Order](/wiki/Ancient_Druid_Order \"Ancient Druid Order\"); however, the research of historian [Ronald Hutton](/wiki/Ronald_Hutton \"Ronald Hutton\") has revealed that the ADO was founded by George Watson MacGregor Reid in 1909\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Parker Pearson \\|first1\\=Michael \\|author1\\-link\\=Mike Parker Pearson \\|title\\=Stonehenge: a brief history \\|date\\=2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=9781350192232 \\|page\\=136}} The order never used (and still does not use) the title \"Archdruid\" for any member, but falsely credited [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\") as having been its \"Chosen Chief\" from 1799–1827, without corroboration in Blake's numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives instead from the pseudo\\-[Ossianic](/wiki/Ossian \"Ossian\") epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, \"clothing itself in the dark stole of moral sanctity\"— in the precincts of Westminster Abbey— \"it dwelt amid the druid terrors\", is generic rather than specifically neo\\-druidic.Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, \"William Blake, Painter\", *The Huntington Library Bulletin*, No. 10 (October 1936, pp 135–148\\) p. 139\\. [John Toland](/wiki/John_Toland \"John Toland\") was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. The roles of [bards](/wiki/Bards \"Bards\") in 10th century Wales had been established by [Hywel Dda](/wiki/Hywel_Dda \"Hywel Dda\") and it was during the 18th century that the idea arose that druids had been their predecessors.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \\|title\\=Ancient Druids of Wales \\|website\\=National Museum of Wales \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117120901/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1937/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The 19th century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the *[Gallic Wars](/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\")*, that under cultural\\-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st century BCE resistance among the [Gauls](/wiki/Gauls \"Gauls\"), was examined and dismissed before World War II,{{cite journal \\|author\\=DeWitt, Norman J. \\|title\\=The Druids and Romanization \\|journal\\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \\|volume\\=69 \\|year\\=1938 \\|pages\\=319–332 \\|quote\\=Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti\\-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early \\[\\[Roman Gaul]] ...\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/283182 \\|jstor\\=283182 }} His inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. though it remains current in folk history.",
"Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\"). [Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand \"François-René de Chateaubriand\")'s novel *Les Martyrs* (1809\\) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. [Opera](/wiki/Opera \"Opera\") provides a barometer of well\\-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: In 1817 [Giovanni Pacini](/wiki/Giovanni_Pacini \"Giovanni Pacini\") brought druids to the stage in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\") with an opera to a libretto by [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani \"Felice Romani\") about a druid priestess, *La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul* (\"The Priestess of [Irminsul](/wiki/Irminsul \"Irminsul\")\"). [Vincenzo Bellini](/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini \"Vincenzo Bellini\")'s druidic opera, *[Norma](/wiki/Norma_%28opera%29 \"Norma (opera)\")* was a fiasco at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala \"La Scala\"), when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, [Felice Romani](/wiki/Felice_Romani \"Felice Romani\") reused some of the pseudo\\-druidical background of *La Sacerdotessa* to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of [Medea](/wiki/Medea \"Medea\"), as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [Alexandre Soumet](/wiki/Alexandre_Soumet \"Alexandre Soumet\"): the chaste goddess (*casta diva*) addressed in *Norma*{{'}}s hit aria is the moon goddess, worshipped in the \"grove of the [Irmin](/wiki/Irminenschaft \"Irminenschaft\") statue\".",
"[thumb\\|Edward Williams, known for his bardic name, \"Iolo Morganwg\"](/wiki/File:Iolomorganwg.jpg \"Iolomorganwg.jpg\")\nA central figure in 19th century Romanticist, Neo\\-druid revival, is Welshman Edward Williams, better known as [Iolo Morganwg](/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg \"Iolo Morganwg\"). His writings, published posthumously as *The Iolo Manuscripts* (1849\\) and *Barddas* (1862\\), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams said that he had collected ancient knowledge in a \"[Gorsedd](/wiki/Gorsedd \"Gorsedd\") of Bards of the Isles of Britain\" he had organized. While bits and pieces of the *Barddas* still turn up in some \"[Neo\\-Druidic](/wiki/Neo-Druidism \"Neo-Druidism\")\" works, the documents are not considered relevant to ancient practice by most scholars.",
"Another Welshman, [William Price](/wiki/William_Price_%28physician%29 \"William Price (physician)\") (4 March 1800{{snd}}23 January 1893\\), a physician known for his support of [Welsh nationalism](/wiki/Welsh_nationalism \"Welsh nationalism\"), [Chartism](/wiki/Chartism \"Chartism\"), and his involvement with the Neo\\-Druidic religious movement, has been recognized as a significant figure of 19th century Wales. He was arrested for cremating his deceased son, a practice he believed to be a druid ritual, but won his case; this in turn led to the [Cremation Act 1902](/wiki/Cremation_Act_1902 \"Cremation Act 1902\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\\-bin/anw/fulldesc\\_nofr?inst\\_id\\=1\\&coll\\_id\\=669\\&expand\\= \\|title\\=Price, William, Dr., (Llantrisant), papers \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-09\\-27 \\|date\\=May 2003 \\|publisher\\=Archives Network Wales \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523123214/https://www.archivesnetworkwales.info/cgi\\-bin/anw/fulldesc\\_nofr?inst\\_id\\=1\\&coll\\_id\\=669\\&expand\\= \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Powell (2005\\)](/wiki/%23Pow05 \"#Pow05\") p. 3\\.[Hutton (2009\\)](/wiki/%23Hut09 \"#Hut09\") p. 253\\.",
"In 1927 [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick \"T. D. Kendrick\") sought to dispel the pseudo\\-historical aura that had accrued to druids,{{cite book \\|author\\-link\\=T. D. Kendrick \\|author\\=Kendrick, T. D. \\|title\\=The Druids: A study in Keltic prehistory \\|location\\=London, U.K. \\|publisher\\=Methuen \\|year\\=1927}} asserting, \"a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about Druidism\";Kendrick 1927:viii. Neo\\-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids.",
"Some strands of contemporary Neo\\-Druidism are a continuation of the 18th century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second\\-hand sources and theorists. Some are [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism \"Monotheism\"). Others, such as the largest druid group in the world, the [Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids](/wiki/Order_of_Bards%2C_Ovates_and_Druids \"Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids\"), draw on a wide range of sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo\\-Druid groups may be [Neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism \"Neopaganism\"), [occultist](/wiki/Occultist \"Occultist\"), Christian or non\\-specifically spiritual.",
""
] |
Professional work
-----------------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Corella in a 2005 performance as Aminta, from Frederick Ashton's ballet *Sylvia*](/wiki/File:Angel_Corella_as_Aminta.jpg "Angel Corella as Aminta.jpg")
Angel Corella has performed as a guest artist with such companies as [The Royal Ballet](/wiki/The_Royal_Ballet "The Royal Ballet") in London, the La Scala Ballet in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"), the [New York City Ballet](/wiki/New_York_City_Ballet "New York City Ballet"), the Australian Ballet, the Ballet of Tokyo, the Asami Maki Ballet, Ballet Contemporaneo de [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas "Caracas"), the National Ballet of [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") and the [Kirov Ballet](/wiki/Kirov_Ballet "Kirov Ballet") at the [Mariinsky Theatre](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre "Mariinsky Theatre") in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg "St. Petersburg"), Russia.
In recent years Corella has danced for an array of world leaders including [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II "Queen Elizabeth II") of the United Kingdom, [Queen Sofía of Spain](/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_of_Spain "Queen Sofía of Spain"), [Princess Letizia of Spain](/wiki/Princess_Letizia_of_Spain "Princess Letizia of Spain"), the [Duchess of Alba](/wiki/Duchess_of_Alba "Duchess of Alba") and United States Presidents [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama"), [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") and [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush"). He has on several occasions been a guest at the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House").
In 2006, Corella established the touring show *[Kings of the Dance](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Dance "Kings of the Dance")* alongside fellow leading men [Gudrun Bojesen](/wiki/Gudrun_Bojesen "Gudrun Bojesen") of [The Royal Danish Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Danish_Ballet "Royal Danish Ballet"); [Johan Kobborg](/wiki/Johan_Kobborg "Johan Kobborg") of the Royal Ballet; [Ethan Stiefel](/wiki/Ethan_Stiefel "Ethan Stiefel") of ABT; and [Nikolay Tsiskaridze](/wiki/Nikolay_Tsiskaridze "Nikolay Tsiskaridze") of the [Bolshoi Ballet](/wiki/Bolshoi_Ballet "Bolshoi Ballet"). which premiered, at the [Orange County Performing Arts Center](/wiki/Orange_County_Performing_Arts_Center "Orange County Performing Arts Center") in Costa Mesa, CA, immediately followed by an East Coast premiere at [City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center"). In 2007, *Kings of the Dance* toured to Russia with performances in St. Petersburg, Moscow, ad [Perm](/wiki/Perm%2C_Russia "Perm, Russia"), Russia. The next year, Angel Corella was the sole returning original cast member to perform it at the Mariinsky Festival. Since its inception, the franchise has been continued by various other dancers.
Corella also devised an annual touring group entitled *Angel Corella and stars of American Ballet* which performed throughout Spain for seven years.
Corella has also collaborated for gala performances with a variety of artists including actress [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler "Bette Midler"), violinist [Ara Malikian](/wiki/Ara_Malikian "Ara Malikian") as well as opera singers [Cecilia Bartoli](/wiki/Cecilia_Bartoli "Cecilia Bartoli") and [Ainhoa Arteta](/wiki/Ainhoa_Arteta "Ainhoa Arteta").
After having danced in the operatic production *[La Gioconda](/wiki/La_Gioconda_%28opera%29 "La Gioconda (opera)")* at New York's [Metropolitan Opera House](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_%28Lincoln_Center%29 "Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)"), Barcelona's [Liceu](/wiki/Liceu "Liceu") opera house, Madrid's [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real "Teatro Real") and the Teatro dell'Opera in Rome, Corella made his debut with the [Paris Opera](/wiki/Paris_Opera "Paris Opera") in 2013\.
He has had the opportunity to partner many well\-known ballerinas including [Alessandra Ferri](/wiki/Alessandra_Ferri "Alessandra Ferri"), [Xiomara Reyes](/wiki/Xiomara_Reyes "Xiomara Reyes"), [Julie Kent](/wiki/Julie_Kent_%28dancer%29 "Julie Kent (dancer)"), [Gillian Murphy](/wiki/Gillian_Murphy "Gillian Murphy"), [Diana Vishneva](/wiki/Diana_Vishneva "Diana Vishneva"), [Alina Cojocaru](/wiki/Alina_Cojocaru "Alina Cojocaru"), [Nina Ananiashvili](/wiki/Nina_Ananiashvili "Nina Ananiashvili"), [Paloma Herrera](/wiki/Paloma_Herrera "Paloma Herrera"), [Irina Dvorovenko](/wiki/Irina_Dvorovenko "Irina Dvorovenko"), [Viktoria Tereshkina](/wiki/Viktoria_Tereshkina "Viktoria Tereshkina"), [Alina Somova](/wiki/Alina_Somova "Alina Somova"), [Evgenia Obraztsova](/wiki/Evgenia_Obraztsova "Evgenia Obraztsova"), [Alexandra Ansanelli](/wiki/Alexandra_Ansanelli "Alexandra Ansanelli"), Michele Wiles, [Stella Abrera](/wiki/Stella_Abrera "Stella Abrera"), Letizia Giuliani, [Leanne Benjamin](/wiki/Leanne_Benjamin "Leanne Benjamin") and [Lucia Lacarra](/wiki/Lucia_Lacarra "Lucia Lacarra"), among others.
Encouraging of young professionals, he is a regular judge at several prestigious dance competitions such as the International Ballet and Choreography competition (Beijing) and has also taught at the various summer programs and leading dance schools including the [Royal Ballet School](/wiki/Royal_Ballet_School "Royal Ballet School") in London.
|
[
"Professional work\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Corella in a 2005 performance as Aminta, from Frederick Ashton's ballet *Sylvia*](/wiki/File:Angel_Corella_as_Aminta.jpg \"Angel Corella as Aminta.jpg\")\nAngel Corella has performed as a guest artist with such companies as [The Royal Ballet](/wiki/The_Royal_Ballet \"The Royal Ballet\") in London, the La Scala Ballet in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"), the [New York City Ballet](/wiki/New_York_City_Ballet \"New York City Ballet\"), the Australian Ballet, the Ballet of Tokyo, the Asami Maki Ballet, Ballet Contemporaneo de [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas \"Caracas\"), the National Ballet of [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") and the [Kirov Ballet](/wiki/Kirov_Ballet \"Kirov Ballet\") at the [Mariinsky Theatre](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre \"Mariinsky Theatre\") in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\"), Russia.",
"In recent years Corella has danced for an array of world leaders including [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II \"Queen Elizabeth II\") of the United Kingdom, [Queen Sofía of Spain](/wiki/Queen_Sof%C3%ADa_of_Spain \"Queen Sofía of Spain\"), [Princess Letizia of Spain](/wiki/Princess_Letizia_of_Spain \"Princess Letizia of Spain\"), the [Duchess of Alba](/wiki/Duchess_of_Alba \"Duchess of Alba\") and United States Presidents [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"), [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") and [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\"). He has on several occasions been a guest at the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\").",
"In 2006, Corella established the touring show *[Kings of the Dance](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Dance \"Kings of the Dance\")* alongside fellow leading men [Gudrun Bojesen](/wiki/Gudrun_Bojesen \"Gudrun Bojesen\") of [The Royal Danish Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Danish_Ballet \"Royal Danish Ballet\"); [Johan Kobborg](/wiki/Johan_Kobborg \"Johan Kobborg\") of the Royal Ballet; [Ethan Stiefel](/wiki/Ethan_Stiefel \"Ethan Stiefel\") of ABT; and [Nikolay Tsiskaridze](/wiki/Nikolay_Tsiskaridze \"Nikolay Tsiskaridze\") of the [Bolshoi Ballet](/wiki/Bolshoi_Ballet \"Bolshoi Ballet\"). which premiered, at the [Orange County Performing Arts Center](/wiki/Orange_County_Performing_Arts_Center \"Orange County Performing Arts Center\") in Costa Mesa, CA, immediately followed by an East Coast premiere at [City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\"). In 2007, *Kings of the Dance* toured to Russia with performances in St. Petersburg, Moscow, ad [Perm](/wiki/Perm%2C_Russia \"Perm, Russia\"), Russia. The next year, Angel Corella was the sole returning original cast member to perform it at the Mariinsky Festival. Since its inception, the franchise has been continued by various other dancers.",
"Corella also devised an annual touring group entitled *Angel Corella and stars of American Ballet* which performed throughout Spain for seven years.",
"Corella has also collaborated for gala performances with a variety of artists including actress [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler \"Bette Midler\"), violinist [Ara Malikian](/wiki/Ara_Malikian \"Ara Malikian\") as well as opera singers [Cecilia Bartoli](/wiki/Cecilia_Bartoli \"Cecilia Bartoli\") and [Ainhoa Arteta](/wiki/Ainhoa_Arteta \"Ainhoa Arteta\").",
"After having danced in the operatic production *[La Gioconda](/wiki/La_Gioconda_%28opera%29 \"La Gioconda (opera)\")* at New York's [Metropolitan Opera House](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_%28Lincoln_Center%29 \"Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)\"), Barcelona's [Liceu](/wiki/Liceu \"Liceu\") opera house, Madrid's [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real \"Teatro Real\") and the Teatro dell'Opera in Rome, Corella made his debut with the [Paris Opera](/wiki/Paris_Opera \"Paris Opera\") in 2013\\.",
"He has had the opportunity to partner many well\\-known ballerinas including [Alessandra Ferri](/wiki/Alessandra_Ferri \"Alessandra Ferri\"), [Xiomara Reyes](/wiki/Xiomara_Reyes \"Xiomara Reyes\"), [Julie Kent](/wiki/Julie_Kent_%28dancer%29 \"Julie Kent (dancer)\"), [Gillian Murphy](/wiki/Gillian_Murphy \"Gillian Murphy\"), [Diana Vishneva](/wiki/Diana_Vishneva \"Diana Vishneva\"), [Alina Cojocaru](/wiki/Alina_Cojocaru \"Alina Cojocaru\"), [Nina Ananiashvili](/wiki/Nina_Ananiashvili \"Nina Ananiashvili\"), [Paloma Herrera](/wiki/Paloma_Herrera \"Paloma Herrera\"), [Irina Dvorovenko](/wiki/Irina_Dvorovenko \"Irina Dvorovenko\"), [Viktoria Tereshkina](/wiki/Viktoria_Tereshkina \"Viktoria Tereshkina\"), [Alina Somova](/wiki/Alina_Somova \"Alina Somova\"), [Evgenia Obraztsova](/wiki/Evgenia_Obraztsova \"Evgenia Obraztsova\"), [Alexandra Ansanelli](/wiki/Alexandra_Ansanelli \"Alexandra Ansanelli\"), Michele Wiles, [Stella Abrera](/wiki/Stella_Abrera \"Stella Abrera\"), Letizia Giuliani, [Leanne Benjamin](/wiki/Leanne_Benjamin \"Leanne Benjamin\") and [Lucia Lacarra](/wiki/Lucia_Lacarra \"Lucia Lacarra\"), among others.",
"Encouraging of young professionals, he is a regular judge at several prestigious dance competitions such as the International Ballet and Choreography competition (Beijing) and has also taught at the various summer programs and leading dance schools including the [Royal Ballet School](/wiki/Royal_Ballet_School \"Royal Ballet School\") in London.",
""
] |
Barcelona Ballet
----------------
{{Main\|Barcelona Ballet}}
In April 2008, Corella established the first classical ballet company in Spain in 20 years, the Corella Ballet, Castilla y Leon; in February 2012, it moved to Barcelona and became the Barcelona Ballet.
The company had its world premiere in La Granja, Segovia, Spain on 11 July 2008 performing a mixed program of [Clark Tippet](/wiki/Clark_Tippet "Clark Tippet")'s *[Bruch Violin Concerto](/wiki/Bruch_Violin_Concerto_%28ballet%29 "Bruch Violin Concerto (ballet)")*, [Stanton Welch](/wiki/Stanton_Welch "Stanton Welch")'s *[Clear](/wiki/Clear_%28ballet%29 "Clear (ballet)")* and [Twyla Tharp](/wiki/Twyla_Tharp "Twyla Tharp")'s *[In the Upper Room](/wiki/In_the_Upper_Room "In the Upper Room")*. Its first full\-length ballet was *[La Bayadère](/wiki/La_Bayad%C3%A8re "La Bayadère")* (staging by Natalia Makarova) on 4 September 2008 at the [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real "Teatro Real") in Madrid, Spain.
Barcelona Ballet has since gone on to expand its repertoire and gain a great following across both Spain and the rest of the world. They are a touring company performing in many theatres across Spain, including [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real "Teatro Real"), Madrid and the [Liceu](/wiki/Liceu "Liceu"), Barcelona. They have performed internationally at the [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center") in March 2010 as well as at the [Los Angeles Music Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Music_Center "Los Angeles Music Center") and Santa Barbara, California. They have toured cities such as New Orleans, Seattle, Charleston, the [Spoleto Festival](/wiki/Spoleto_Festival "Spoleto Festival") and the Guadalajara book festival, Mexico in November 2010\.
Their repertoire includes *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake "Swan Lake")*, suites from *[Le Corsaire](/wiki/Le_Corsaire "Le Corsaire")* and *[The Sleeping Beauty](/wiki/The_Sleeping_Beauty_%28ballet%29 "The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)")*, [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine "George Balanchine")'s *[Tschaikovsky Pas de Deux](/wiki/Tschaikovsky_Pas_de_Deux "Tschaikovsky Pas de Deux")* and *[Apollo](/wiki/Apollo_%28ballet%29 "Apollo (ballet)")* pas de deux, [Christopher Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon "Christopher Wheeldon")'s *[After the Rain](/wiki/After_the_Rain_%28ballet%29 "After the Rain (ballet)")* pas de deux, [María Pagés](/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Pag%C3%A9s "María Pagés")' *[SOLEÁ](/wiki/SOLE%C3%81 "SOLEÁ")* pas de deux, and the pas de deuxs from *[Diana and Actaeon](/wiki/Diana_and_Actaeon_%28ballet%29 "Diana and Actaeon (ballet)")*, *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote_%28ballet%29 "Don Quixote (ballet)")* and *[Satanella](/wiki/Le_Diable_amoureux_%28ballet%29 "Le Diable amoureux (ballet)")*; [Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine "George Balanchine")'s *[Who Cares?](/wiki/Who_Cares%3F_%28ballet%29 "Who Cares? (ballet)")*, [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins "Jerome Robbins")'s *[Fancy Free](/wiki/Fancy_Free_%28ballet%29 "Fancy Free (ballet)")*, [Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon "Christopher Wheeldon")'s *[DGV: Danse à Grande Vitesse](/wiki/DGV:Danse_%C3%A0_Grande_Vitesse "Danse à Grande Vitesse")* and *[VIII](/wiki/VIII_%28ballet%29 "VIII (ballet)")*, [Welch](/wiki/Stanton_Welch "Stanton Welch")'s *[We got it good](/wiki/We_got_it_good "We got it good")*, [Russell Ducker](/wiki/Russell_Ducker "Russell Ducker")'s *[Epimitheus](/wiki/Epimitheus "Epimitheus")*, [Vasiliov](/wiki/Vladimir_Vasiliov "Vladimir Vasiliov") and [Kasatkina](/wiki/Natalia_Kasatkina "Natalia Kasatkina")'s *[Sunny Duet](/wiki/Sunny_Duet "Sunny Duet")*, [Leonid Lavrovsky](/wiki/Bolshoi_Ballet "Bolshoi Ballet")'s *[Walpurgisnacht](/wiki/Walpurgisnacht_%28Lavrovsky%29 "Walpurgisnacht (Lavrovsky)")*, Corella, [Ducker](/wiki/Russell_Ducker "Russell Ducker") \& [Radev](/wiki/Kirill_Radev "Kirill Radev")'s *[Suspended in Time](/wiki/Suspended_in_Time "Suspended in Time")*, Corella's *[String Sextet](/wiki/String_Sextet "String Sextet")*, *[Paquita](/wiki/Paquita "Paquita")* [Joseph Mazilier](/wiki/Joseph_Mazilier "Joseph Mazilier"), *Facing the light* *Radev*, and the Suite of [*Sleeping beauty*](/wiki/The_Sleeping_Beauty_%28ballet%29 "The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)") after [*Petipa*](/wiki/Marius_Petipa "Marius Petipa").
Barcelona Ballet returned to [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center") in April 2012 with a world premiere of "Palpito" by Spanish choreographers Rojas y Rodriguez as well as visiting Purchase, NY, Detroit, Houston.
In early 2013 Corella made the decision to dissolve the company to pursue other projects, indicating that he would likely head to the United States for professional reasons.
Corella continues to perform internationally, collaborating with various artists and choreographers, and was appointed as the Artistic Director of the [Philadelphia Ballet](/wiki/Philadelphia_Ballet "Philadelphia Ballet") in July, 2014\.
|
[
"Barcelona Ballet\n----------------",
"{{Main\\|Barcelona Ballet}}",
"In April 2008, Corella established the first classical ballet company in Spain in 20 years, the Corella Ballet, Castilla y Leon; in February 2012, it moved to Barcelona and became the Barcelona Ballet.",
"The company had its world premiere in La Granja, Segovia, Spain on 11 July 2008 performing a mixed program of [Clark Tippet](/wiki/Clark_Tippet \"Clark Tippet\")'s *[Bruch Violin Concerto](/wiki/Bruch_Violin_Concerto_%28ballet%29 \"Bruch Violin Concerto (ballet)\")*, [Stanton Welch](/wiki/Stanton_Welch \"Stanton Welch\")'s *[Clear](/wiki/Clear_%28ballet%29 \"Clear (ballet)\")* and [Twyla Tharp](/wiki/Twyla_Tharp \"Twyla Tharp\")'s *[In the Upper Room](/wiki/In_the_Upper_Room \"In the Upper Room\")*. Its first full\\-length ballet was *[La Bayadère](/wiki/La_Bayad%C3%A8re \"La Bayadère\")* (staging by Natalia Makarova) on 4 September 2008 at the [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real \"Teatro Real\") in Madrid, Spain.",
"Barcelona Ballet has since gone on to expand its repertoire and gain a great following across both Spain and the rest of the world. They are a touring company performing in many theatres across Spain, including [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real \"Teatro Real\"), Madrid and the [Liceu](/wiki/Liceu \"Liceu\"), Barcelona. They have performed internationally at the [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\") in March 2010 as well as at the [Los Angeles Music Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Music_Center \"Los Angeles Music Center\") and Santa Barbara, California. They have toured cities such as New Orleans, Seattle, Charleston, the [Spoleto Festival](/wiki/Spoleto_Festival \"Spoleto Festival\") and the Guadalajara book festival, Mexico in November 2010\\.",
"Their repertoire includes *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake \"Swan Lake\")*, suites from *[Le Corsaire](/wiki/Le_Corsaire \"Le Corsaire\")* and *[The Sleeping Beauty](/wiki/The_Sleeping_Beauty_%28ballet%29 \"The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)\")*, [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine \"George Balanchine\")'s *[Tschaikovsky Pas de Deux](/wiki/Tschaikovsky_Pas_de_Deux \"Tschaikovsky Pas de Deux\")* and *[Apollo](/wiki/Apollo_%28ballet%29 \"Apollo (ballet)\")* pas de deux, [Christopher Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon \"Christopher Wheeldon\")'s *[After the Rain](/wiki/After_the_Rain_%28ballet%29 \"After the Rain (ballet)\")* pas de deux, [María Pagés](/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Pag%C3%A9s \"María Pagés\")' *[SOLEÁ](/wiki/SOLE%C3%81 \"SOLEÁ\")* pas de deux, and the pas de deuxs from *[Diana and Actaeon](/wiki/Diana_and_Actaeon_%28ballet%29 \"Diana and Actaeon (ballet)\")*, *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote_%28ballet%29 \"Don Quixote (ballet)\")* and *[Satanella](/wiki/Le_Diable_amoureux_%28ballet%29 \"Le Diable amoureux (ballet)\")*; [Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine \"George Balanchine\")'s *[Who Cares?](/wiki/Who_Cares%3F_%28ballet%29 \"Who Cares? (ballet)\")*, [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins \"Jerome Robbins\")'s *[Fancy Free](/wiki/Fancy_Free_%28ballet%29 \"Fancy Free (ballet)\")*, [Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon \"Christopher Wheeldon\")'s *[DGV: Danse à Grande Vitesse](/wiki/DGV:Danse_%C3%A0_Grande_Vitesse \"Danse à Grande Vitesse\")* and *[VIII](/wiki/VIII_%28ballet%29 \"VIII (ballet)\")*, [Welch](/wiki/Stanton_Welch \"Stanton Welch\")'s *[We got it good](/wiki/We_got_it_good \"We got it good\")*, [Russell Ducker](/wiki/Russell_Ducker \"Russell Ducker\")'s *[Epimitheus](/wiki/Epimitheus \"Epimitheus\")*, [Vasiliov](/wiki/Vladimir_Vasiliov \"Vladimir Vasiliov\") and [Kasatkina](/wiki/Natalia_Kasatkina \"Natalia Kasatkina\")'s *[Sunny Duet](/wiki/Sunny_Duet \"Sunny Duet\")*, [Leonid Lavrovsky](/wiki/Bolshoi_Ballet \"Bolshoi Ballet\")'s *[Walpurgisnacht](/wiki/Walpurgisnacht_%28Lavrovsky%29 \"Walpurgisnacht (Lavrovsky)\")*, Corella, [Ducker](/wiki/Russell_Ducker \"Russell Ducker\") \\& [Radev](/wiki/Kirill_Radev \"Kirill Radev\")'s *[Suspended in Time](/wiki/Suspended_in_Time \"Suspended in Time\")*, Corella's *[String Sextet](/wiki/String_Sextet \"String Sextet\")*, *[Paquita](/wiki/Paquita \"Paquita\")* [Joseph Mazilier](/wiki/Joseph_Mazilier \"Joseph Mazilier\"), *Facing the light* *Radev*, and the Suite of [*Sleeping beauty*](/wiki/The_Sleeping_Beauty_%28ballet%29 \"The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)\") after [*Petipa*](/wiki/Marius_Petipa \"Marius Petipa\").",
"Barcelona Ballet returned to [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\") in April 2012 with a world premiere of \"Palpito\" by Spanish choreographers Rojas y Rodriguez as well as visiting Purchase, NY, Detroit, Houston.",
"In early 2013 Corella made the decision to dissolve the company to pursue other projects, indicating that he would likely head to the United States for professional reasons.",
"Corella continues to perform internationally, collaborating with various artists and choreographers, and was appointed as the Artistic Director of the [Philadelphia Ballet](/wiki/Philadelphia_Ballet \"Philadelphia Ballet\") in July, 2014\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
While the dancing troupe of a college was practicing for a competition, one of their members get injured. To fill up the space, the teacher decides to join Pavani who's a very attractive girl from the junior batch and the new roommate of Vihangi who's a leading dancer in the troupe. Vihangi is in love with a boy named Samudra who's also a leading dancer in the troupe, but even though she gives him so many hints about that, he never seems to understand. Time flies and after they leave college everyone's on their own separate paths in life.
Samudra becomes a famous dancer in the country. His parents arrange for him a marriage to a family his father is friends with and the proposed girl turns out to be Pavani from his college. They're both surprised and start to think they just met each other's soulmates. They then happily marry and move to their own house. On the same day, Samudra hands over a pile of letters and asks Pavani to check them and separate the bills for him and Pavani comes across a letter from Vihangi in the pile. The letter says she's carrying Samudra's baby with all her love which makes Pavani stressed out. She doesn't tell this to Samudra. Samudra finds Pavani stressed out, so to make her happy, he decides to take her on a ride in his fast car and they are met with an accident where Pavani dies. Samudra is left alone with the guilt that he killed his own wife.
### 8 years Later
Vihangi's daughter, Sayuri grows up and lives with her mother and grandfather. But she never has seen her father. Even though Vihangi is a great dancer, Sayuri hates dancing. One day at school, Sayuri finds a pretty, young lady (Pavani's soul) playing the piano in a quiet place at her school and the lady speaks to her. Pavani says she knows Vihangi and asks Sayuri if she knows who her father is. As the person who received that letter and destroyed it, she felt like it was her responsibility to introduce Samudra to Sayuri. Pavani convinces Sayuri to dance in the inter\-school ballet competition and practices her for that, promising, in the end, she would bring her father to her. Sayuri agrees.
A colleague of Samudra visits him during one of Samudra's visits to Sri Lanka and says Vihangi is now a teacher at a rural school and they decide to go see their old friend. But they couldn't meet her as she wasn't home that day.
A few days later Samudra receives an invitation as the chief guest for the winner's welcoming ceremony from the school of the winner of a competition he judged recently. During the ceremony, when the compere asks Sayuri who taught her to dance so well, she tells her father taught and adds that she's never seen him. It turns out that Vihangi's daughter is the winner. Vihangi invites Samudra to come over to her place for tea and Samudra politely asks her why her husband isn't home in reply she says he never came home and recalls the party on their last day of college where everything happened after everyone got drunk and high. Samudra then realizes that Sayuri is his daughter, but Vihangi says it's okay to stay away from things because she doesn't want another woman on earth to be left alone feeling the same as her. Samudra explains to her how his life collapsed as Pavani died due to his carelessness. In the end, Vihangi forgives Samudra and they both forget their dull pasts, and Sayuri finds her father and they live happily ever after as a beautiful family, all thanks to Pavani.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"While the dancing troupe of a college was practicing for a competition, one of their members get injured. To fill up the space, the teacher decides to join Pavani who's a very attractive girl from the junior batch and the new roommate of Vihangi who's a leading dancer in the troupe. Vihangi is in love with a boy named Samudra who's also a leading dancer in the troupe, but even though she gives him so many hints about that, he never seems to understand. Time flies and after they leave college everyone's on their own separate paths in life.",
"Samudra becomes a famous dancer in the country. His parents arrange for him a marriage to a family his father is friends with and the proposed girl turns out to be Pavani from his college. They're both surprised and start to think they just met each other's soulmates. They then happily marry and move to their own house. On the same day, Samudra hands over a pile of letters and asks Pavani to check them and separate the bills for him and Pavani comes across a letter from Vihangi in the pile. The letter says she's carrying Samudra's baby with all her love which makes Pavani stressed out. She doesn't tell this to Samudra. Samudra finds Pavani stressed out, so to make her happy, he decides to take her on a ride in his fast car and they are met with an accident where Pavani dies. Samudra is left alone with the guilt that he killed his own wife.",
"### 8 years Later",
"Vihangi's daughter, Sayuri grows up and lives with her mother and grandfather. But she never has seen her father. Even though Vihangi is a great dancer, Sayuri hates dancing. One day at school, Sayuri finds a pretty, young lady (Pavani's soul) playing the piano in a quiet place at her school and the lady speaks to her. Pavani says she knows Vihangi and asks Sayuri if she knows who her father is. As the person who received that letter and destroyed it, she felt like it was her responsibility to introduce Samudra to Sayuri. Pavani convinces Sayuri to dance in the inter\\-school ballet competition and practices her for that, promising, in the end, she would bring her father to her. Sayuri agrees.",
"A colleague of Samudra visits him during one of Samudra's visits to Sri Lanka and says Vihangi is now a teacher at a rural school and they decide to go see their old friend. But they couldn't meet her as she wasn't home that day.",
"A few days later Samudra receives an invitation as the chief guest for the winner's welcoming ceremony from the school of the winner of a competition he judged recently. During the ceremony, when the compere asks Sayuri who taught her to dance so well, she tells her father taught and adds that she's never seen him. It turns out that Vihangi's daughter is the winner. Vihangi invites Samudra to come over to her place for tea and Samudra politely asks her why her husband isn't home in reply she says he never came home and recalls the party on their last day of college where everything happened after everyone got drunk and high. Samudra then realizes that Sayuri is his daughter, but Vihangi says it's okay to stay away from things because she doesn't want another woman on earth to be left alone feeling the same as her. Samudra explains to her how his life collapsed as Pavani died due to his carelessness. In the end, Vihangi forgives Samudra and they both forget their dull pasts, and Sayuri finds her father and they live happily ever after as a beautiful family, all thanks to Pavani.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
The founder, born Jeanne Haze in the [Prince\-Bishopric of Liège](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge "Prince-Bishopric of Liège"), was forced into exile with her family in Germany when [French Revolutionary Army](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army "French Revolutionary Army") forces occupied her principality. Her father died during that period, leaving the family in poverty.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.daughtersofthecross.org.uk/history1\.html\|work\=Daughters of the Cross of Liège\|title\=Our History\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031185107/http://www.daughtersofthecross.org.uk/history1\.html\|archivedate\=2013\-10\-31}}
Her family returned to Liège. After their return, because of their own experiences, Haze and her sister Ferdinande felt drawn to help people in most need. When their mother died in 1820, the sisters wanted to enter a religious community, but were not able to do so due to the restrictions of [Church law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Canon law (Catholic Church)") at the time. In an answer to a request by their [pastor](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor"), [Canon](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 "Canon (priest)") Cloes, the [Dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 "Dean (Christianity)") of [St Bartholomew](/wiki/St_Bartholomew%27s_Church%2C_Li%C3%A8ge "St Bartholomew's Church, Liège") [Collegiate Church](/wiki/Collegiate_Church "Collegiate Church"), the sisters opened a school for poor children in the parish in 1829 in the home of the [curate](/wiki/Curate "Curate") of the [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish"), Canon Jean\-Guillaume Habets. The creation of an independent [Kingdom of Belgium](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Belgium "Kingdom of Belgium") the following year allowed them to establish the school officially as a Catholic institution.
[thumb\|200px\|The emblem of the Daughters of the Cross of Liège](/wiki/File:Daughters_of_the_Cross.jpg "Daughters of the Cross.jpg")
Soon other young women joined the pair in their desire to follow the [consecrated life](/wiki/Consecrated_life "Consecrated life"). Habets, originally skeptical of their desire, came to support them. He helped the group to write their Constitutions.
On September 8, 1833, the Haze sisters professed perpetual [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows "Religious vows"), receiving the names Mother Marie Thérèse and Mother Aloysia in the [Carmelite](/wiki/Carmelite "Carmelite") Church of Potay, next to their own convent. Two other companions, Sisters Clara and Constance, made their temporary vows for one year and two [postulants](/wiki/Postulant "Postulant") began their [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate "Novitiate"). Thus the Congregation of the Daughters of the Cross was established under a Rule of life based on [Ignatian spirituality](/wiki/Ignatian_spirituality "Ignatian spirituality").
The Daughters of the Cross of Liège took over the administration of a women's prison in 1841 and a house for the rehabilitation of prostitutes the following year. In 1843 they opened a shelter for the homeless, which housed 125 residents.
The congregation was formally approved by [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI "Pope Gregory XVI") on October 1, 1845, thereby raised to the status of a congregation of [pontifical right](/wiki/Pontifical_right "Pontifical right"). By that time the congregation had grown to 84 Sisters who operated 4 schools, with a total enrollment of about 1,000 girls. Of those girls, 80% were given a free education. Their constitutions were approved by [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX "Pope Pius IX") in 1851\.
She was the foundress of the school "St. Teresa's Secondary School" in Kidderpore.
### Expansion
The sisters began to serve in other countries with their establishing a foundation in Germany in 1849\. At the invitation of the [Vicar Apostolic](/wiki/Vicar_Apostolic "Vicar Apostolic") of [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay "Bombay"), they opened schools in the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj") in 1861\. This led to their working in the United Kingdom in 1863\.
#### United States
Source:{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thecatholicconnection.org/?p\=7757 \|title\=The Catholic Connection}}
In 1855, Auguste Martin, the Bishop of the Diocese of [Natchitoches, Louisiana](/wiki/Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana "Natchitoches, Louisiana"), held conversations with Mother Mary Hyacinth (1816–1897\) of the Daughters of the Cross to ask for missionary workers in [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"). Her order was interested in teaching in America. Permission was granted by the Bishop of France for ten nuns to undertake this task. On Oct. 19, 1855, the Daughters of the Cross arrived in Avoyelles Parish. In 1860, John Pierre invited them to [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") to found a school next door to [Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Catholic_Church_%28Shreveport%2C_Louisiana%29 "Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)"), which remained open until 1954\. By 1870, the order had opened six schools in North Louisiana. In totality, 21 schools in the state were established by the Order over the years, including St John Berchmans Catholic School in [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") in 1949\.
After the Civil War's end in 1866, Pierre advised the order about a parcel of land south of Shreveport that would be an excellent location for a girl's boarding school. Hyacinth then purchased 100 acres and a building. **St. Vincent’s Academy** opened in October, 1868, as a day and boarding school solely for girls. It was accredited to confer high school diplomas and college degrees, as well as to teach first through 12th grades.
The school's enrollment continued to rise until a devastating [Yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever "Yellow fever") epidemic in 1873\. Subsequent growth was mostly due to the efforts of Napoleon Joseph Roulleaux, who was chaplain of the convent and school. In 1906, a fire destroyed the school but the buildings were rebuilt with a gothic design from clay bricks on the same property. In September, 1962, the academy was transferred to a new site on Fairfield Avenue, where it remained until its closure due to economic struggles at the end of the 1987–88 session, culminating in 119 years of devoted service by the Daughters of the Cross. St. Vincent's Academy declined to consider a merger at the time with [Loyola College Prep](/wiki/Loyola_College_Prep "Loyola College Prep"), which was a local all\-male Catholic high school founded by the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits") in 1902\.
Only a very small number of nuns from the order remain in the Northern Louisiana community. They are retired and are no longer involved in the operations of any of the numerous remaining schools the order founded in the region. The Order of the Daughters of the Cross, overall, now has a very limited and declining active presence in the United States, primarily restricted to ministries of caring for seniors, the sick, dying, and the home bound, which are organized and conducted under the auspices of the United Kingdom province. In 1958, four nuns from the Daughters of the Cross of England had come to [Tracy, California](/wiki/Tracy%2C_California "Tracy, California") to open St. Bernard's School. Over the years their ministry expanded to Angel's Camp, Lockford, Manteca, San Andreas, and Stockton, but having gained no new recruits, they have since left Tracy.
#### United Kingdom
Haze sent her sisters to England in 1863\. In the United Kingdom, the Daughters of the Cross are constituted as a [registered charity](/wiki/Charitable_organization "Charitable organization"). In 2006–7 it had a gross income of £56,197,000,{{EW charity\|1068661}} making it one of the 100 largest charities in the United Kingdom.
##### Schools
* [St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls](/wiki/St_Philomena%27s_Catholic_High_School_for_Girls "St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls"), [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton "Carshalton"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey")
##### Charities
* St Anthony's Hospital, [Cheam](/wiki/Cheam "Cheam"), Surrey, England
* St Raphael's Hospice, Cheam, Surrey, England
* St Elizabeth's Centre, [Much Hadham](/wiki/Much_Hadham "Much Hadham"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire "Hertfordshire"), England. Centre specialising in education and care for individuals of all ages with a range of complex medical and educational needs. Comprises St Elizabeth's School; St Elizabeth's College (post 19\) and St Elizabeth's Care Home.
* Holy Cross Hospital, [Haslemere](/wiki/Haslemere "Haslemere"), Surrey, England
* St Michael's Hospital, [Hayle](/wiki/Hayle "Hayle"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall")
* [Holy Cross College](/wiki/Holy_Cross_College_%28UK%29 "Holy Cross College (UK)"), [Bury, Greater Manchester](/wiki/Bury%2C_Greater_Manchester "Bury, Greater Manchester"), England
* [St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_Convent_Grammar_School%2C_Donaghmore "St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore"), [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone "County Tyrone"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")
#### India
* St. Joseph's Convent High School, Panchgani, Maharashtra
* St. Joseph's High School, Matigara, West Bengal
* St. Agnes' Convent School, Howrah, West Bengal
* St. Mary's Girls' Higher Secondary School, Gayaganga, West Bengal
* St. Helen's School, Kurseong, West Bengal
* St. Teresa's Secondary School, [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore "Kidderpore"), West Bengal
* St. Paul's Boarding \& Day School, Kidderpore, West Bengal
* St. Joseph's Convent, Bandra, Mumbai, Maharashtra
* Sacred Heart Convent School, Keshwapur, Hubli, Karnataka
* St. Joseph's Primary School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's High School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's Convent International School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's High School, Agripada, Mumbai
* Vimal Miriam Primary School, Anand, Gujarat
* Vimal Miriam High School, Anand, Gujarat
* St. Joseph's Convent School \|\| Rourkela, Odisha
* Nirmala Girls High School, Kainsara, Sundargarh, Odisha
* Daughters of the Cross Convent, Jorethang, South Sikkim.
#### Pakistan
* [St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)](/wiki/St_Joseph%27s_Convent_School_%28Karachi%29 "St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)")
* [St. Joseph's College (Karachi)](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College_%28Karachi%29 "St. Joseph's College (Karachi)")
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"The founder, born Jeanne Haze in the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Liège](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge \"Prince-Bishopric of Liège\"), was forced into exile with her family in Germany when [French Revolutionary Army](/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army \"French Revolutionary Army\") forces occupied her principality. Her father died during that period, leaving the family in poverty.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.daughtersofthecross.org.uk/history1\\.html\\|work\\=Daughters of the Cross of Liège\\|title\\=Our History\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031185107/http://www.daughtersofthecross.org.uk/history1\\.html\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-10\\-31}}",
"Her family returned to Liège. After their return, because of their own experiences, Haze and her sister Ferdinande felt drawn to help people in most need. When their mother died in 1820, the sisters wanted to enter a religious community, but were not able to do so due to the restrictions of [Church law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Canon law (Catholic Church)\") at the time. In an answer to a request by their [pastor](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\"), [Canon](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 \"Canon (priest)\") Cloes, the [Dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 \"Dean (Christianity)\") of [St Bartholomew](/wiki/St_Bartholomew%27s_Church%2C_Li%C3%A8ge \"St Bartholomew's Church, Liège\") [Collegiate Church](/wiki/Collegiate_Church \"Collegiate Church\"), the sisters opened a school for poor children in the parish in 1829 in the home of the [curate](/wiki/Curate \"Curate\") of the [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\"), Canon Jean\\-Guillaume Habets. The creation of an independent [Kingdom of Belgium](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Belgium \"Kingdom of Belgium\") the following year allowed them to establish the school officially as a Catholic institution.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|The emblem of the Daughters of the Cross of Liège](/wiki/File:Daughters_of_the_Cross.jpg \"Daughters of the Cross.jpg\")\nSoon other young women joined the pair in their desire to follow the [consecrated life](/wiki/Consecrated_life \"Consecrated life\"). Habets, originally skeptical of their desire, came to support them. He helped the group to write their Constitutions.",
"On September 8, 1833, the Haze sisters professed perpetual [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows \"Religious vows\"), receiving the names Mother Marie Thérèse and Mother Aloysia in the [Carmelite](/wiki/Carmelite \"Carmelite\") Church of Potay, next to their own convent. Two other companions, Sisters Clara and Constance, made their temporary vows for one year and two [postulants](/wiki/Postulant \"Postulant\") began their [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate \"Novitiate\"). Thus the Congregation of the Daughters of the Cross was established under a Rule of life based on [Ignatian spirituality](/wiki/Ignatian_spirituality \"Ignatian spirituality\").",
"The Daughters of the Cross of Liège took over the administration of a women's prison in 1841 and a house for the rehabilitation of prostitutes the following year. In 1843 they opened a shelter for the homeless, which housed 125 residents.",
"The congregation was formally approved by [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI \"Pope Gregory XVI\") on October 1, 1845, thereby raised to the status of a congregation of [pontifical right](/wiki/Pontifical_right \"Pontifical right\"). By that time the congregation had grown to 84 Sisters who operated 4 schools, with a total enrollment of about 1,000 girls. Of those girls, 80% were given a free education. Their constitutions were approved by [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\") in 1851\\.\nShe was the foundress of the school \"St. Teresa's Secondary School\" in Kidderpore.",
"### Expansion",
"The sisters began to serve in other countries with their establishing a foundation in Germany in 1849\\. At the invitation of the [Vicar Apostolic](/wiki/Vicar_Apostolic \"Vicar Apostolic\") of [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay \"Bombay\"), they opened schools in the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj \"British Raj\") in 1861\\. This led to their working in the United Kingdom in 1863\\.",
"#### United States",
"Source:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thecatholicconnection.org/?p\\=7757 \\|title\\=The Catholic Connection}}",
"In 1855, Auguste Martin, the Bishop of the Diocese of [Natchitoches, Louisiana](/wiki/Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana \"Natchitoches, Louisiana\"), held conversations with Mother Mary Hyacinth (1816–1897\\) of the Daughters of the Cross to ask for missionary workers in [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"). Her order was interested in teaching in America. Permission was granted by the Bishop of France for ten nuns to undertake this task. On Oct. 19, 1855, the Daughters of the Cross arrived in Avoyelles Parish. In 1860, John Pierre invited them to [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") to found a school next door to [Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Catholic_Church_%28Shreveport%2C_Louisiana%29 \"Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)\"), which remained open until 1954\\. By 1870, the order had opened six schools in North Louisiana. In totality, 21 schools in the state were established by the Order over the years, including St John Berchmans Catholic School in [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") in 1949\\.",
"After the Civil War's end in 1866, Pierre advised the order about a parcel of land south of Shreveport that would be an excellent location for a girl's boarding school. Hyacinth then purchased 100 acres and a building. **St. Vincent’s Academy** opened in October, 1868, as a day and boarding school solely for girls. It was accredited to confer high school diplomas and college degrees, as well as to teach first through 12th grades.",
"The school's enrollment continued to rise until a devastating [Yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever \"Yellow fever\") epidemic in 1873\\. Subsequent growth was mostly due to the efforts of Napoleon Joseph Roulleaux, who was chaplain of the convent and school. In 1906, a fire destroyed the school but the buildings were rebuilt with a gothic design from clay bricks on the same property. In September, 1962, the academy was transferred to a new site on Fairfield Avenue, where it remained until its closure due to economic struggles at the end of the 1987–88 session, culminating in 119 years of devoted service by the Daughters of the Cross. St. Vincent's Academy declined to consider a merger at the time with [Loyola College Prep](/wiki/Loyola_College_Prep \"Loyola College Prep\"), which was a local all\\-male Catholic high school founded by the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\") in 1902\\.",
"Only a very small number of nuns from the order remain in the Northern Louisiana community. They are retired and are no longer involved in the operations of any of the numerous remaining schools the order founded in the region. The Order of the Daughters of the Cross, overall, now has a very limited and declining active presence in the United States, primarily restricted to ministries of caring for seniors, the sick, dying, and the home bound, which are organized and conducted under the auspices of the United Kingdom province. In 1958, four nuns from the Daughters of the Cross of England had come to [Tracy, California](/wiki/Tracy%2C_California \"Tracy, California\") to open St. Bernard's School. Over the years their ministry expanded to Angel's Camp, Lockford, Manteca, San Andreas, and Stockton, but having gained no new recruits, they have since left Tracy.",
"#### United Kingdom",
"Haze sent her sisters to England in 1863\\. In the United Kingdom, the Daughters of the Cross are constituted as a [registered charity](/wiki/Charitable_organization \"Charitable organization\"). In 2006–7 it had a gross income of £56,197,000,{{EW charity\\|1068661}} making it one of the 100 largest charities in the United Kingdom.",
"##### Schools",
"* [St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls](/wiki/St_Philomena%27s_Catholic_High_School_for_Girls \"St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls\"), [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton \"Carshalton\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\")",
"##### Charities",
"* St Anthony's Hospital, [Cheam](/wiki/Cheam \"Cheam\"), Surrey, England\n* St Raphael's Hospice, Cheam, Surrey, England\n* St Elizabeth's Centre, [Much Hadham](/wiki/Much_Hadham \"Much Hadham\"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire \"Hertfordshire\"), England. Centre specialising in education and care for individuals of all ages with a range of complex medical and educational needs. Comprises St Elizabeth's School; St Elizabeth's College (post 19\\) and St Elizabeth's Care Home.\n* Holy Cross Hospital, [Haslemere](/wiki/Haslemere \"Haslemere\"), Surrey, England\n* St Michael's Hospital, [Hayle](/wiki/Hayle \"Hayle\"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\")\n* [Holy Cross College](/wiki/Holy_Cross_College_%28UK%29 \"Holy Cross College (UK)\"), [Bury, Greater Manchester](/wiki/Bury%2C_Greater_Manchester \"Bury, Greater Manchester\"), England\n* [St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_Convent_Grammar_School%2C_Donaghmore \"St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore\"), [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone \"County Tyrone\"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\")",
"#### India",
"* St. Joseph's Convent High School, Panchgani, Maharashtra\n* St. Joseph's High School, Matigara, West Bengal\n* St. Agnes' Convent School, Howrah, West Bengal\n* St. Mary's Girls' Higher Secondary School, Gayaganga, West Bengal\n* St. Helen's School, Kurseong, West Bengal\n* St. Teresa's Secondary School, [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore \"Kidderpore\"), West Bengal\n* St. Paul's Boarding \\& Day School, Kidderpore, West Bengal\n* St. Joseph's Convent, Bandra, Mumbai, Maharashtra\n* Sacred Heart Convent School, Keshwapur, Hubli, Karnataka\n* St. Joseph's Primary School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's High School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's Convent International School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's High School, Agripada, Mumbai\n* Vimal Miriam Primary School, Anand, Gujarat\n* Vimal Miriam High School, Anand, Gujarat\n* St. Joseph's Convent School \\|\\| Rourkela, Odisha\n* Nirmala Girls High School, Kainsara, Sundargarh, Odisha\n* Daughters of the Cross Convent, Jorethang, South Sikkim.",
"#### Pakistan",
"* [St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)](/wiki/St_Joseph%27s_Convent_School_%28Karachi%29 \"St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)\")\n* [St. Joseph's College (Karachi)](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College_%28Karachi%29 \"St. Joseph's College (Karachi)\")"
] |
### Expansion
The sisters began to serve in other countries with their establishing a foundation in Germany in 1849\. At the invitation of the [Vicar Apostolic](/wiki/Vicar_Apostolic "Vicar Apostolic") of [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay "Bombay"), they opened schools in the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj") in 1861\. This led to their working in the United Kingdom in 1863\.
#### United States
Source:{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thecatholicconnection.org/?p\=7757 \|title\=The Catholic Connection}}
In 1855, Auguste Martin, the Bishop of the Diocese of [Natchitoches, Louisiana](/wiki/Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana "Natchitoches, Louisiana"), held conversations with Mother Mary Hyacinth (1816–1897\) of the Daughters of the Cross to ask for missionary workers in [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"). Her order was interested in teaching in America. Permission was granted by the Bishop of France for ten nuns to undertake this task. On Oct. 19, 1855, the Daughters of the Cross arrived in Avoyelles Parish. In 1860, John Pierre invited them to [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") to found a school next door to [Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Catholic_Church_%28Shreveport%2C_Louisiana%29 "Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)"), which remained open until 1954\. By 1870, the order had opened six schools in North Louisiana. In totality, 21 schools in the state were established by the Order over the years, including St John Berchmans Catholic School in [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") in 1949\.
After the Civil War's end in 1866, Pierre advised the order about a parcel of land south of Shreveport that would be an excellent location for a girl's boarding school. Hyacinth then purchased 100 acres and a building. **St. Vincent’s Academy** opened in October, 1868, as a day and boarding school solely for girls. It was accredited to confer high school diplomas and college degrees, as well as to teach first through 12th grades.
The school's enrollment continued to rise until a devastating [Yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever "Yellow fever") epidemic in 1873\. Subsequent growth was mostly due to the efforts of Napoleon Joseph Roulleaux, who was chaplain of the convent and school. In 1906, a fire destroyed the school but the buildings were rebuilt with a gothic design from clay bricks on the same property. In September, 1962, the academy was transferred to a new site on Fairfield Avenue, where it remained until its closure due to economic struggles at the end of the 1987–88 session, culminating in 119 years of devoted service by the Daughters of the Cross. St. Vincent's Academy declined to consider a merger at the time with [Loyola College Prep](/wiki/Loyola_College_Prep "Loyola College Prep"), which was a local all\-male Catholic high school founded by the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits") in 1902\.
Only a very small number of nuns from the order remain in the Northern Louisiana community. They are retired and are no longer involved in the operations of any of the numerous remaining schools the order founded in the region. The Order of the Daughters of the Cross, overall, now has a very limited and declining active presence in the United States, primarily restricted to ministries of caring for seniors, the sick, dying, and the home bound, which are organized and conducted under the auspices of the United Kingdom province. In 1958, four nuns from the Daughters of the Cross of England had come to [Tracy, California](/wiki/Tracy%2C_California "Tracy, California") to open St. Bernard's School. Over the years their ministry expanded to Angel's Camp, Lockford, Manteca, San Andreas, and Stockton, but having gained no new recruits, they have since left Tracy.
#### United Kingdom
Haze sent her sisters to England in 1863\. In the United Kingdom, the Daughters of the Cross are constituted as a [registered charity](/wiki/Charitable_organization "Charitable organization"). In 2006–7 it had a gross income of £56,197,000,{{EW charity\|1068661}} making it one of the 100 largest charities in the United Kingdom.
##### Schools
* [St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls](/wiki/St_Philomena%27s_Catholic_High_School_for_Girls "St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls"), [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton "Carshalton"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey")
##### Charities
* St Anthony's Hospital, [Cheam](/wiki/Cheam "Cheam"), Surrey, England
* St Raphael's Hospice, Cheam, Surrey, England
* St Elizabeth's Centre, [Much Hadham](/wiki/Much_Hadham "Much Hadham"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire "Hertfordshire"), England. Centre specialising in education and care for individuals of all ages with a range of complex medical and educational needs. Comprises St Elizabeth's School; St Elizabeth's College (post 19\) and St Elizabeth's Care Home.
* Holy Cross Hospital, [Haslemere](/wiki/Haslemere "Haslemere"), Surrey, England
* St Michael's Hospital, [Hayle](/wiki/Hayle "Hayle"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall")
* [Holy Cross College](/wiki/Holy_Cross_College_%28UK%29 "Holy Cross College (UK)"), [Bury, Greater Manchester](/wiki/Bury%2C_Greater_Manchester "Bury, Greater Manchester"), England
* [St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_Convent_Grammar_School%2C_Donaghmore "St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore"), [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone "County Tyrone"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")
#### India
* St. Joseph's Convent High School, Panchgani, Maharashtra
* St. Joseph's High School, Matigara, West Bengal
* St. Agnes' Convent School, Howrah, West Bengal
* St. Mary's Girls' Higher Secondary School, Gayaganga, West Bengal
* St. Helen's School, Kurseong, West Bengal
* St. Teresa's Secondary School, [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore "Kidderpore"), West Bengal
* St. Paul's Boarding \& Day School, Kidderpore, West Bengal
* St. Joseph's Convent, Bandra, Mumbai, Maharashtra
* Sacred Heart Convent School, Keshwapur, Hubli, Karnataka
* St. Joseph's Primary School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's High School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's Convent International School, Bandra, Mumbai
* St. Joseph's High School, Agripada, Mumbai
* Vimal Miriam Primary School, Anand, Gujarat
* Vimal Miriam High School, Anand, Gujarat
* St. Joseph's Convent School \|\| Rourkela, Odisha
* Nirmala Girls High School, Kainsara, Sundargarh, Odisha
* Daughters of the Cross Convent, Jorethang, South Sikkim.
#### Pakistan
* [St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)](/wiki/St_Joseph%27s_Convent_School_%28Karachi%29 "St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)")
* [St. Joseph's College (Karachi)](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College_%28Karachi%29 "St. Joseph's College (Karachi)")
|
[
"### Expansion",
"The sisters began to serve in other countries with their establishing a foundation in Germany in 1849\\. At the invitation of the [Vicar Apostolic](/wiki/Vicar_Apostolic \"Vicar Apostolic\") of [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay \"Bombay\"), they opened schools in the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj \"British Raj\") in 1861\\. This led to their working in the United Kingdom in 1863\\.",
"#### United States",
"Source:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thecatholicconnection.org/?p\\=7757 \\|title\\=The Catholic Connection}}",
"In 1855, Auguste Martin, the Bishop of the Diocese of [Natchitoches, Louisiana](/wiki/Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana \"Natchitoches, Louisiana\"), held conversations with Mother Mary Hyacinth (1816–1897\\) of the Daughters of the Cross to ask for missionary workers in [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"). Her order was interested in teaching in America. Permission was granted by the Bishop of France for ten nuns to undertake this task. On Oct. 19, 1855, the Daughters of the Cross arrived in Avoyelles Parish. In 1860, John Pierre invited them to [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") to found a school next door to [Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Catholic_Church_%28Shreveport%2C_Louisiana%29 \"Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Shreveport, Louisiana)\"), which remained open until 1954\\. By 1870, the order had opened six schools in North Louisiana. In totality, 21 schools in the state were established by the Order over the years, including St John Berchmans Catholic School in [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") in 1949\\.",
"After the Civil War's end in 1866, Pierre advised the order about a parcel of land south of Shreveport that would be an excellent location for a girl's boarding school. Hyacinth then purchased 100 acres and a building. **St. Vincent’s Academy** opened in October, 1868, as a day and boarding school solely for girls. It was accredited to confer high school diplomas and college degrees, as well as to teach first through 12th grades.",
"The school's enrollment continued to rise until a devastating [Yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever \"Yellow fever\") epidemic in 1873\\. Subsequent growth was mostly due to the efforts of Napoleon Joseph Roulleaux, who was chaplain of the convent and school. In 1906, a fire destroyed the school but the buildings were rebuilt with a gothic design from clay bricks on the same property. In September, 1962, the academy was transferred to a new site on Fairfield Avenue, where it remained until its closure due to economic struggles at the end of the 1987–88 session, culminating in 119 years of devoted service by the Daughters of the Cross. St. Vincent's Academy declined to consider a merger at the time with [Loyola College Prep](/wiki/Loyola_College_Prep \"Loyola College Prep\"), which was a local all\\-male Catholic high school founded by the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\") in 1902\\.",
"Only a very small number of nuns from the order remain in the Northern Louisiana community. They are retired and are no longer involved in the operations of any of the numerous remaining schools the order founded in the region. The Order of the Daughters of the Cross, overall, now has a very limited and declining active presence in the United States, primarily restricted to ministries of caring for seniors, the sick, dying, and the home bound, which are organized and conducted under the auspices of the United Kingdom province. In 1958, four nuns from the Daughters of the Cross of England had come to [Tracy, California](/wiki/Tracy%2C_California \"Tracy, California\") to open St. Bernard's School. Over the years their ministry expanded to Angel's Camp, Lockford, Manteca, San Andreas, and Stockton, but having gained no new recruits, they have since left Tracy.",
"#### United Kingdom",
"Haze sent her sisters to England in 1863\\. In the United Kingdom, the Daughters of the Cross are constituted as a [registered charity](/wiki/Charitable_organization \"Charitable organization\"). In 2006–7 it had a gross income of £56,197,000,{{EW charity\\|1068661}} making it one of the 100 largest charities in the United Kingdom.",
"##### Schools",
"* [St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls](/wiki/St_Philomena%27s_Catholic_High_School_for_Girls \"St Philomena's Catholic High School for Girls\"), [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton \"Carshalton\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\")",
"##### Charities",
"* St Anthony's Hospital, [Cheam](/wiki/Cheam \"Cheam\"), Surrey, England\n* St Raphael's Hospice, Cheam, Surrey, England\n* St Elizabeth's Centre, [Much Hadham](/wiki/Much_Hadham \"Much Hadham\"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire \"Hertfordshire\"), England. Centre specialising in education and care for individuals of all ages with a range of complex medical and educational needs. Comprises St Elizabeth's School; St Elizabeth's College (post 19\\) and St Elizabeth's Care Home.\n* Holy Cross Hospital, [Haslemere](/wiki/Haslemere \"Haslemere\"), Surrey, England\n* St Michael's Hospital, [Hayle](/wiki/Hayle \"Hayle\"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\")\n* [Holy Cross College](/wiki/Holy_Cross_College_%28UK%29 \"Holy Cross College (UK)\"), [Bury, Greater Manchester](/wiki/Bury%2C_Greater_Manchester \"Bury, Greater Manchester\"), England\n* [St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_Convent_Grammar_School%2C_Donaghmore \"St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School, Donaghmore\"), [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone \"County Tyrone\"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\")",
"#### India",
"* St. Joseph's Convent High School, Panchgani, Maharashtra\n* St. Joseph's High School, Matigara, West Bengal\n* St. Agnes' Convent School, Howrah, West Bengal\n* St. Mary's Girls' Higher Secondary School, Gayaganga, West Bengal\n* St. Helen's School, Kurseong, West Bengal\n* St. Teresa's Secondary School, [Kidderpore](/wiki/Kidderpore \"Kidderpore\"), West Bengal\n* St. Paul's Boarding \\& Day School, Kidderpore, West Bengal\n* St. Joseph's Convent, Bandra, Mumbai, Maharashtra\n* Sacred Heart Convent School, Keshwapur, Hubli, Karnataka\n* St. Joseph's Primary School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's High School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's Convent International School, Bandra, Mumbai\n* St. Joseph's High School, Agripada, Mumbai\n* Vimal Miriam Primary School, Anand, Gujarat\n* Vimal Miriam High School, Anand, Gujarat\n* St. Joseph's Convent School \\|\\| Rourkela, Odisha\n* Nirmala Girls High School, Kainsara, Sundargarh, Odisha\n* Daughters of the Cross Convent, Jorethang, South Sikkim.",
"#### Pakistan",
"* [St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)](/wiki/St_Joseph%27s_Convent_School_%28Karachi%29 \"St Joseph's Convent School (Karachi)\")\n* [St. Joseph's College (Karachi)](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College_%28Karachi%29 \"St. Joseph's College (Karachi)\")"
] |
Biography
---------
Mary Biddinger received an Honors B.A. in English with a Creative Writing Subconcentration from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan"). She also holds an [MFA](/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts "Master of Fine Arts") in Poetry from [Bowling Green State University](/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University "Bowling Green State University"), and a Ph.D. in English with Creative Dissertation from the [University of Illinois at Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Chicago "University of Illinois at Chicago").
Biddinger is the author of the poetry collections *Prairie Fever* (Steel Toe Books, 2007\),{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.wku.edu/\~tom.hunley/steeltoebooks/prairiefever.htm \|title\=Steel Toe Books \- Prairie Fever by Mary Biddinger \|access\-date\=2009\-02\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305115643/http://www.wku.edu/\~tom.hunley/steeltoebooks/prairiefever.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-03\-05 \|url\-status\=dead }} *Saint Monica* (Black Lawrence Press, 2011\),{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/saint\-monica/\|title\=Saint Monica\|date\=April 2011}} *O Holy Insurgency* (Black Lawrence Press, 2013\),{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/o\-holy\-insurgency/\|title \= O Holy Insurgency\|date \= 26 February 2013}} and *A Sunny Place with Adequate Water* (Black Lawrence Press, 2014\).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/a\-sunny\-place\-with\-adequate\-water/\|title\=A Sunny Place with Adequate Water\|date\=15 May 2014}} Her poems have appeared in numerous literary magazines, including *Copper Nickel*, *[Crazyhorse](/wiki/Crazyhorse_%28magazine%29 "Crazyhorse (magazine)")*, *[Guernica](/wiki/Guernica_%28magazine%29 "Guernica (magazine)")*,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.guernicamag.com/poetry/risk\-management\-memo\-continuing\-education/\|title \= Risk Management Memo: Continuing Education\|date \= November 2012}} *[Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_%28magazine%29 "Gulf Coast (magazine)")*, *[The Iowa Review](/wiki/The_Iowa_Review "The Iowa Review")*, *[32 poems](/wiki/32_poems "32 poems")*, *[Ninth Letter](/wiki/Ninth_Letter "Ninth Letter")*, *[North American Review](/wiki/North_American_Review "North American Review")*, *[Ploughshares](/wiki/Ploughshares "Ploughshares")*,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.pshares.org/authors/author\-detail.cfm?authorID\=1981\|title \= Read by Author \| Ploughshares}} and *[Third Coast](/wiki/Third_Coast_%28magazine%29 "Third Coast (magazine)")*. Biddinger is the recipient of a 2015 National Endowment for the Arts Creative Writing Fellowship in poetry.
She is a professor in the Department of English[Biography. Biddinger](http://www.uakron.edu/colleges/artsci/depts/english/bios/biddinger.php) uakron.edu {{dead link\|date\=June 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} at the [University of Akron](/wiki/University_of_Akron "University of Akron"), and was Director of the NEOMFA: Northeast Ohio Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing program from 2009 to 2012\. Biddinger teaches courses in poetry writing, craft and theory of poetry, and literature.
Biddinger is the editor of the Akron Series in Poetry,[University of Akron Press. Poetry](http://www3.uakron.edu/uapress/poetry.html) uakron.edu {{dead link\|date\=June 2023}} which sponsors the annual [Akron Poetry Prize](/wiki/Akron_Poetry_Prize "Akron Poetry Prize")[Poetry Prize](http://www3.uakron.edu/uapress/poetryprize.html) University of Akron {{dead link\|date\=June 2023}} and publishes three poetry collections every year. Biddinger also serves as co\-editor, with [John Gallaher](/wiki/John_Gallaher "John Gallaher"), of the Akron Series in Contemporary Poetics at the [University of Akron Press](/wiki/University_of_Akron_Press "University of Akron Press"). The first volume, titled *[The Monkey and the Wrench: Essays into Contemporary Poetics](https://www.amazon.com/dp/1931968918)*, was published in January, 2011\.
In 2007, Biddinger founded *[Barn Owl Review](/wiki/Barn_Owl_Review "Barn Owl Review")*, an independent literary magazine published in [Akron](/wiki/Akron "Akron"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Mary Biddinger received an Honors B.A. in English with a Creative Writing Subconcentration from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\"). She also holds an [MFA](/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts \"Master of Fine Arts\") in Poetry from [Bowling Green State University](/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University \"Bowling Green State University\"), and a Ph.D. in English with Creative Dissertation from the [University of Illinois at Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Chicago \"University of Illinois at Chicago\").",
"Biddinger is the author of the poetry collections *Prairie Fever* (Steel Toe Books, 2007\\),{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wku.edu/\\~tom.hunley/steeltoebooks/prairiefever.htm \\|title\\=Steel Toe Books \\- Prairie Fever by Mary Biddinger \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305115643/http://www.wku.edu/\\~tom.hunley/steeltoebooks/prairiefever.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} *Saint Monica* (Black Lawrence Press, 2011\\),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/saint\\-monica/\\|title\\=Saint Monica\\|date\\=April 2011}} *O Holy Insurgency* (Black Lawrence Press, 2013\\),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/o\\-holy\\-insurgency/\\|title \\= O Holy Insurgency\\|date \\= 26 February 2013}} and *A Sunny Place with Adequate Water* (Black Lawrence Press, 2014\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blacklawrence.com/a\\-sunny\\-place\\-with\\-adequate\\-water/\\|title\\=A Sunny Place with Adequate Water\\|date\\=15 May 2014}} Her poems have appeared in numerous literary magazines, including *Copper Nickel*, *[Crazyhorse](/wiki/Crazyhorse_%28magazine%29 \"Crazyhorse (magazine)\")*, *[Guernica](/wiki/Guernica_%28magazine%29 \"Guernica (magazine)\")*,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.guernicamag.com/poetry/risk\\-management\\-memo\\-continuing\\-education/\\|title \\= Risk Management Memo: Continuing Education\\|date \\= November 2012}} *[Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_%28magazine%29 \"Gulf Coast (magazine)\")*, *[The Iowa Review](/wiki/The_Iowa_Review \"The Iowa Review\")*, *[32 poems](/wiki/32_poems \"32 poems\")*, *[Ninth Letter](/wiki/Ninth_Letter \"Ninth Letter\")*, *[North American Review](/wiki/North_American_Review \"North American Review\")*, *[Ploughshares](/wiki/Ploughshares \"Ploughshares\")*,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pshares.org/authors/author\\-detail.cfm?authorID\\=1981\\|title \\= Read by Author \\| Ploughshares}} and *[Third Coast](/wiki/Third_Coast_%28magazine%29 \"Third Coast (magazine)\")*. Biddinger is the recipient of a 2015 National Endowment for the Arts Creative Writing Fellowship in poetry.",
"She is a professor in the Department of English[Biography. Biddinger](http://www.uakron.edu/colleges/artsci/depts/english/bios/biddinger.php) uakron.edu {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} at the [University of Akron](/wiki/University_of_Akron \"University of Akron\"), and was Director of the NEOMFA: Northeast Ohio Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing program from 2009 to 2012\\. Biddinger teaches courses in poetry writing, craft and theory of poetry, and literature.",
"Biddinger is the editor of the Akron Series in Poetry,[University of Akron Press. Poetry](http://www3.uakron.edu/uapress/poetry.html) uakron.edu {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2023}} which sponsors the annual [Akron Poetry Prize](/wiki/Akron_Poetry_Prize \"Akron Poetry Prize\")[Poetry Prize](http://www3.uakron.edu/uapress/poetryprize.html) University of Akron {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2023}} and publishes three poetry collections every year. Biddinger also serves as co\\-editor, with [John Gallaher](/wiki/John_Gallaher \"John Gallaher\"), of the Akron Series in Contemporary Poetics at the [University of Akron Press](/wiki/University_of_Akron_Press \"University of Akron Press\"). The first volume, titled *[The Monkey and the Wrench: Essays into Contemporary Poetics](https://www.amazon.com/dp/1931968918)*, was published in January, 2011\\.",
"In 2007, Biddinger founded *[Barn Owl Review](/wiki/Barn_Owl_Review \"Barn Owl Review\")*, an independent literary magazine published in [Akron](/wiki/Akron \"Akron\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\").",
""
] |
Career
------
He was a diplomat who served as the Ecuadorean ambassador to a number of countries. Benites served as a Professor and earned an honorary doctorate from the [University of Montevideo](/wiki/University_of_the_Republic%2C_Uruguay "University of the Republic, Uruguay") in [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay"). He worked as a journalist, a role in which he later said he was against dictatorship. In the 1930s he spent eight months in jail. Whilst in jail—an experience he described as "interesting"—he wrote a biography of [Francisco de Orellana](/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana "Francisco de Orellana").[Ecuador Diplomat at Assembly Helm](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19730921&id=xVoaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2CgEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7441,251912), The Milwaukee Journal, September 21, 1973, accessed April 2010
Benites was Ecuador's ambassador to Uruguay from 1947 to 1952\. In 1954 he took on a similar role in [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia") until 1956 when he spent a brief period as ambassador to Argentina. At the end of 1956 he took up the role of ambassador to Uruguay to August 1960\. He then became the Permanent representative at the United Nations.
Benites published short stories and poems as well as longer studies of the Ecuadoran hero [Eugenio Espejo](/wiki/Eugenio_Espejo "Eugenio Espejo") and [Francisco de Orellana](/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana "Francisco de Orellana"), the Spanish [conquistador](/wiki/Conquistador "Conquistador") who travelled the length of the [River Amazon](/wiki/River_Amazon "River Amazon") and founded Benites' home city.
In 1965, Benites led the Ecuadorian delegation to a meeting for the Denuclearization of Latin America which was held in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City "Mexico City"). He continued to work for denuclearization and in 1971 he became the first official Secretary\-General of [OPANAL](/wiki/OPANAL "OPANAL")[SECRETARY GENERALS](http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Secret-Gral/ant_sgrali.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716152542/http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Secret\-Gral/ant\_sgrali.htm \|date\=2011\-07\-16 }}, OPANAL.org, accessed April 2010 an international organization which promotes [nuclear disarmament](/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament "Nuclear disarmament"). He only resigned this post when he was told that he was a strong candidate to be the United Nations' next Secretary General.
An anecdote of Benites reports that an Asian UN delegate said to Benites that he liked his speech but did not like the vote that he cast. Benites said "The arguments are my own, but the vote was my government's instruction".
He became the 28th President of the United Nations General Assembly in 1973\.{{Cite web\|title\=Présidents de l'Assemblée générale\|url\=https://www.un.org/pga/70/fr/president/presidents\-of\-the\-general\-assembly/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-30\|website\=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies\|language\=fr\-FR}} By this time he was a veteran at the UN, having been to eighteen general assemblies, at twelve of these he had been Ecuador's main delegate. In his maiden speech as President, following his appointment, he had the honour of admitting the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas "Bahamas") and both [East](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") into the United Nations. The admission of the two halves of Germany was an important moment as the UN had been formed as a reaction to [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") which had been initiated by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). This brought the total number of nations in the U.N. to 135 and at the time the prospective candidates were [North](/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea").[Germanys join UN](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1964&dat=19730919&id=95MyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XLcFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2914,1736136), Palm Beach Post, accessed April 2010
Benites was one of 11 General Assembly presidents who were summoned back to the United Nations in 1985 to advise on how the UN could increase its impact.[Historic meeting of Assembly presidents discusses ways to increase impact of United Nations](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_v22/ai_3795603), UN Chronicle, 05 Apr, 2010\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He was a diplomat who served as the Ecuadorean ambassador to a number of countries. Benites served as a Professor and earned an honorary doctorate from the [University of Montevideo](/wiki/University_of_the_Republic%2C_Uruguay \"University of the Republic, Uruguay\") in [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\"). He worked as a journalist, a role in which he later said he was against dictatorship. In the 1930s he spent eight months in jail. Whilst in jail—an experience he described as \"interesting\"—he wrote a biography of [Francisco de Orellana](/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana \"Francisco de Orellana\").[Ecuador Diplomat at Assembly Helm](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19730921&id=xVoaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2CgEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7441,251912), The Milwaukee Journal, September 21, 1973, accessed April 2010",
"Benites was Ecuador's ambassador to Uruguay from 1947 to 1952\\. In 1954 he took on a similar role in [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\") until 1956 when he spent a brief period as ambassador to Argentina. At the end of 1956 he took up the role of ambassador to Uruguay to August 1960\\. He then became the Permanent representative at the United Nations.",
"Benites published short stories and poems as well as longer studies of the Ecuadoran hero [Eugenio Espejo](/wiki/Eugenio_Espejo \"Eugenio Espejo\") and [Francisco de Orellana](/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana \"Francisco de Orellana\"), the Spanish [conquistador](/wiki/Conquistador \"Conquistador\") who travelled the length of the [River Amazon](/wiki/River_Amazon \"River Amazon\") and founded Benites' home city.",
"In 1965, Benites led the Ecuadorian delegation to a meeting for the Denuclearization of Latin America which was held in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\"). He continued to work for denuclearization and in 1971 he became the first official Secretary\\-General of [OPANAL](/wiki/OPANAL \"OPANAL\")[SECRETARY GENERALS](http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Secret-Gral/ant_sgrali.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716152542/http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Secret\\-Gral/ant\\_sgrali.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-16 }}, OPANAL.org, accessed April 2010 an international organization which promotes [nuclear disarmament](/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament \"Nuclear disarmament\"). He only resigned this post when he was told that he was a strong candidate to be the United Nations' next Secretary General.",
"An anecdote of Benites reports that an Asian UN delegate said to Benites that he liked his speech but did not like the vote that he cast. Benites said \"The arguments are my own, but the vote was my government's instruction\".",
"He became the 28th President of the United Nations General Assembly in 1973\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Présidents de l'Assemblée générale\\|url\\=https://www.un.org/pga/70/fr/president/presidents\\-of\\-the\\-general\\-assembly/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-30\\|website\\=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies\\|language\\=fr\\-FR}} By this time he was a veteran at the UN, having been to eighteen general assemblies, at twelve of these he had been Ecuador's main delegate. In his maiden speech as President, following his appointment, he had the honour of admitting the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas \"Bahamas\") and both [East](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") into the United Nations. The admission of the two halves of Germany was an important moment as the UN had been formed as a reaction to [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") which had been initiated by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"). This brought the total number of nations in the U.N. to 135 and at the time the prospective candidates were [North](/wiki/North_Korea \"North Korea\") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\").[Germanys join UN](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1964&dat=19730919&id=95MyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XLcFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2914,1736136), Palm Beach Post, accessed April 2010",
"Benites was one of 11 General Assembly presidents who were summoned back to the United Nations in 1985 to advise on how the UN could increase its impact.[Historic meeting of Assembly presidents discusses ways to increase impact of United Nations](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_v22/ai_3795603), UN Chronicle, 05 Apr, 2010\\.",
""
] |
Before Junior Eurovision
------------------------
### National selection
In a joint organised event, Bulgarian broadcasters [BNT](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Television "Bulgarian National Television") and [bTV](/wiki/BTV_%28Bulgaria%29 "BTV (Bulgaria)"), opened submissions between 3–23 July for singers aged between 10\-15 to send their audio or video recordings to the Slavi Show team. After the deadline, a professional jury of music experts selected the best ones to proceed to the audition heats round. The selected singers were invited to perform live, in a series of audition heats, in front of a different jury made up of music experts and representatives from the three organisations to select the acts going forward to a live shows.{{cite web\|last1\=Fisher\|first1\=Luke James\|title\=Bulgarian broadcasters unite again to find 2015 representative\|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=bulgarian\_broadcasters\_unite\_again\_to\_find\_2015\_representative\|website\=junioreurovision.tv\|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union\|accessdate\=17 August 2015\|date\=3 July 2015}} The process to select the representative began on 17 August 2015 during the "Slavi's Show", the programme in which [Krisia](/wiki/Krisia_Todorova "Krisia Todorova"), [Hasan \& Ibrahim](/wiki/Hasan_%26_Ibrahim "Hasan & Ibrahim") were discovered. The selection procedure included internal heats, semi\-finals and a national final which were broadcast during prime time. A total of 24 stars were internally selected to compete at the live semi\-finals where a three\-person professional jury, made up of the faces behind last year’s entry "[Planet of the Children](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Children "Planet of the Children")" ([Slavi Trifonov](/wiki/Slavi_Trifonov "Slavi Trifonov") and Evgeni Dimitrov) and Orlin Pavlov, would select 8 finalists out of 12\. The audience, through SMS voting, were in charge of deciding the other 4 finalists. The winning participant who would represent Bulgaria on home soil, was selected by a 50/50 combination of both [telephone vote](/wiki/Televoting "Televoting") and the votes of [jury](/wiki/Jury "Jury") members made up of music professionals. The song that the winning artist would perform at the Junior Eurovision Song Contest was chosen internally by the national broadcaster and announced at a later date.{{cite web \|last1\=Fisher \|first1\=Luke James \|date\=16 August 2015 \|title\=Bulgarian jury confirmed; National Selection kicks\-off tomorrow! \|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=bulgarian\_jury\_confirmed\_national\_selection\_kicks\-off\_tomorrow \|website\=junioreurovision.tv \|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union \|accessdate\=17 August 2015}}
#### Heats
{{legend\|\#90EE90\|Advanced to the semi\-finals}}
{{col\-begin}}
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 1: 17 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Eleonora Ivanova | Elisabeta Tasheva |
| Eliya Todorova | Gabriela Yordanova |
| Ivan Stoyanov | Ivana Baldarkova |
| Kristian Pavlov | Liliya Stoyanova |
| Mariya Bakardzhieva | Maya Stoycheva |
| Mila Angelova | Nikol Kaneva |
| Nora Karaslavov | Rosen Petrov |
| Yuliana Mur | Zara Uzunova |
|
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 2: 18 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Anna Drumeva | Dilyan \& Kostadin Dyankov |
| Gabriela Ivanova | Georgi Todorov |
| Kristalena Stoyanova | Kristiana Kirilova |
| Lora Gerdzhikova | Mariya Bozhinova |
| Mariya Dimova | Patrisiya Simeonova |
| Simona Ivanova | Stanimira Ruseva |
| Svetlana Radoslavova | Teodor Palazov |
| Valentina Kuncheva | Viktoriya Glavcheva |
| Viktoriya Maneva | |
|
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 3: 19 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Aleksana Stamova | Aleksandar Tanev |
| Aleksandrina Mehandzhiyska | Alisa Krasteva |
| Dimitrina Germanova | Eleonora Dimitrova |
| Elinor Palazova | Ivanina Balkova |
| Ivo\-Konstantin Nachev | Katrin Tsolova |
| Pavel Pintev | Petya Georgieva |
| Preslava Petrova | Teodora Lilova |
| Teodora Todorova | Valentina Nikova |
| Yana Krasteva | Yana Sabanova |
|
{{col\-end}}
{{col\-begin}}
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 4: 24 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Borislava Tsekova | Daliya Isam Al\-Atar |
| Evgeniya Stoyanova | Gabriela Gaydadzhieva |
| Hristina Grebcheva | Kristina Pashkova |
| Lyubomira Busheva | Moyra Yankova |
| Nikol Palascheva | Petar Bechev |
| Radko Petkov | Raya Krumova |
| Simona Krasteva | Stefani Aleksieva |
| Vesela Asenova | VIVA |
| Zhasmin Stoyanova | |
|
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 5: 25 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Elena Bancheva | Gergana Todorova |
| Ivona Georgieva | Mariam Mavrova |
| Mariya\-Magdalena Yordanova | Monika Petrova |
| Niya Yaneva | Pavel Mateev |
| Petya Kostova | Stilyana Stoynova |
| Valentina Demireva | Vesela Paunova |
|
{{col\-break}}
| \+ Heat 6: 26 August 2015 |
| --- |
| Aleksandra Zlateva | Andrea Nacheva |
| Andzhela Naku | Daniela Stoyanova |
| Dara Ekimova | Filip Filchev |
| Gabriela Tsvetkova | Gabriela Zhivkova |
| Ivana Vasileva | Kalina Popova |
| Preslava Tsankova | Valentin Kalenov \& Nikoleta Sachkova |
| Viktoriya Anastasova | Viktoriya Tsankova |
|
{{col\-end}}
#### Semi\-final 1
The first semi\-final took place on 31 August. Eleonora Ivanova, Pavel Mateev and Ivan Stoyanov advanced to the final.{{cite web\|last1\=Fisher\|first1\=Luke James\|title\=Three through with Semifinal 2 tonight in Bulgaria\|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=three\_through\_with\_semifinal\_2\_tonight\_in\_bulgaria\|website\=junioreurovision.tv\|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union\|accessdate\=1 September 2015\|date\=1 September 2015}} The semi\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band "Ku-Ku Band")' \- the resident band of "Slavi's show". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.{{cite web \|last1\=Fisher \|first1\=Luke James \|date\=31 August 2015 \|title\=Bulgarian Semifinals begin \|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=tonight\_bulgarian\_semifinals\_begin \|website\=junioreurovision.tv \|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union \|accessdate\=1 September 2015}}
Key legend
{{legend\|\#90EE90\|Jury qualifier}}
{{legend\|\#E0B0FF\|Televote qualifier}}
| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 |
Eleonora Ivanova
"[Wrecking Ball](/wiki/Wrecking_Ball_%28Miley_Cyrus_song%29 "Wrecking Ball (Miley Cyrus song)")" ([Miley Cyrus](/wiki/Miley_Cyrus "Miley Cyrus"))
Advanced || 2 | Aleksandrina Mehandzhiyska
"[The Edge of Glory](/wiki/The_Edge_of_Glory "The Edge of Glory")" ([Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga "Lady Gaga"))
Eliminated |
3 |
Pavel Mateev
"Nikoi" (Grafa)
Advanced || 4 | Preslava Petrova
"[One Night Only](/wiki/One_Night_Only_%28song%29 "One Night Only (song)")" ([Jennifer Hudson](/wiki/Jennifer_Hudson "Jennifer Hudson"))
Eliminated |
| 5 | Yuliana Mur
"Nashe lyato" ([Lili Ivanova](/wiki/Lili_Ivanova "Lili Ivanova"))
Eliminated |
6 |
Ivan Stoyanov
"[Mercy](/wiki/Mercy_%28Duffy_song%29 "Mercy (Duffy song)")" ([Duffy](/wiki/Duffy_%28singer%29 "Duffy (singer)"))
Advanced ||
#### Semi\-final 2
The second semi\-final took place on 1 September. Lora Gerdzhikova, Simona Ivanova and Filip Filchev advanced to the final.{{cite web\|last1\=Fisher\|first1\=Luke James\|title\=Semifinal 3 Tonight after more finalists chosen in Bulgaria\|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=semifinal\_3\_tonight\_after\_more\_finalists\_chosen\_in\_bulgaria\|website\=junioreurovision.tv\|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union\|accessdate\=3 September 2015\|date\=2 September 2015}} The semi\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band "Ku-Ku Band")' \- the resident band of "Slavi's show". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.
| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Alisa Krasteva
"[Price Tag](/wiki/Price_Tag "Price Tag")" ([Jessie J](/wiki/Jessie_J "Jessie J"))
Eliminated |
|
2 |
Lora Gerdzhikova
"[Impossible](/wiki/Impossible_%28Shontelle_song%29 "Impossible (Shontelle song)")" ([Shontelle](/wiki/Shontelle "Shontelle"))
Advanced || 3 |Teodor Palazov
"[New York, New York](/wiki/Theme_from_New_York%2C_New_York "Theme from New York, New York")" ([Liza Minnelli](/wiki/Liza_Minnelli "Liza Minnelli"))
Eliminated |
| 4 | Kristiana Kirilova
"Dusha" ([Diana Express](/wiki/Diana_Express "Diana Express"))
Eliminated |
5 |
Simona Ivanova
"Je Veux" ([Zaz](/wiki/Zaz_%28singer%29 "Zaz (singer)"))
Advanced |
6 |
Filip Filchev
"[Easy](/wiki/Easy_%28Commodores_song%29 "Easy (Commodores song)")" ([Commodores](/wiki/Commodores "Commodores"))
Advanced ||
##### Semi\-final 3
The third semi\-final took place on 2 September. Andrea Nacheva, Gabriela Yordanova and Dilyan \& Kostadin Dyankov advanced to the final.{{cite web\|last1\=Fisher\|first1\=Luke James\|title\=Final Bulgarian semifinal tonight\|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=final\_bulgarian\_semifinal\_tonight\|website\=junioreurovision.tv\|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union\|accessdate\=3 September 2015\|date\=3 September 2015}} The semi\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band "Ku-Ku Band")' \- the resident band of "Slavi's show". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.
| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 |
Andrea Nacheva
"Nobody's Wife" ([Anouk](/wiki/Anouk_%28singer%29 "Anouk (singer)"))
Advanced || 2 | Dimitrina Germanova
"Az iskam" (Revolyutsiya Z)
Eliminated |
| 3 | Nikol Kaneva
"[Proud Mary](/wiki/Proud_Mary "Proud Mary")" ([Creedence Clearwater Revival](/wiki/Creedence_Clearwater_Revival "Creedence Clearwater Revival"))
Eliminated |
4 |
Gabriela Yordanova
"[Something's Got a Hold on Me](/wiki/Something%27s_Got_a_Hold_on_Me "Something's Got a Hold on Me")" ([Etta James](/wiki/Etta_James "Etta James"))
Advanced || 5 |Borislava Tsekova
"Lale li si, zyumbyul li si" (*Bulgarian folk song*)
Eliminated |
6 |
Dilyan \& Kostadin Dyankov
"[Give In to Me](/wiki/Give_In_to_Me "Give In to Me")" ([Michael Jackson](/wiki/Michael_Jackson "Michael Jackson"))
Advanced ||
##### Semi\-final 4
The fourth and last semi\-final took place on 3 September. Radko Petkov, Mariam Mavrova and Gergana Todorova advanced to the final.{{cite web \|last1\=Fisher \|first1\=Luke James \|date\=3 September 2015 \|title\=Bulgaria ready with 12 finalists for 8 September National Final \|url\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\=bulgaria\_ready\_with\_12\_finalists\_for\_8\_september\_national\_final \|website\=junioreurovision.tv \|publisher\=European Broadcasting Union \|accessdate\=3 September 2015}} The semi\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band "Ku-Ku Band")' \- the resident band of "Slavi's show". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.
| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
1 |
Radko Petkov
"[Lane Moje](/wiki/Lane_Moje "Lane Moje")" ([Željko Joksimović](/wiki/%C5%BDeljko_Joksimovi%C4%87 "Željko Joksimović"))
Advanced || 2 |Nora Karaslavov
"[I'll Be Your Shelter](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Your_Shelter "I'll Be Your Shelter")" ([Taylor Dayne](/wiki/Taylor_Dayne "Taylor Dayne"))
Eliminated |
| 3 |Petya Georgieva
"Vse taka" ([Nevena Tsoneva](/wiki/Nevena_Tsoneva "Nevena Tsoneva"))
Eliminated |
| 4 |Rosen Petrov
"[Listen to Your Heart](/wiki/Listen_to_Your_Heart_%28Roxette_song%29 "Listen to Your Heart (Roxette song)")" ([Roxette](/wiki/Roxette "Roxette"))
Eliminated |
|
5 |
Mariam Mavrova
"[Feeling Good](/wiki/Feeling_Good "Feeling Good")" ([Cy Grant](/wiki/Cy_Grant "Cy Grant"))
Advanced ||
6 |
Gergana Todorova
"[My Kind of Love](/wiki/My_Kind_of_Love_%28song%29 "My Kind of Love (song)")" ([Emeli Sandé](/wiki/Emeli_Sand%C3%A9 "Emeli Sandé"))
Advanced ||
##### Final
The live final took place on the 8 September 2015\. The results were determined by a 50/50 combination of both televote and the jury made up of music professionals.
| Draw | Artist | Song (original artist) | Jury | Televote | Total | Place |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Dilyan \& Kostadin Dyankov
"[I Don't Want to Miss a Thing](/wiki/I_Don%27t_Want_to_Miss_a_Thing "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing")" ([Aerosmith](/wiki/Aerosmith "Aerosmith"))
1 |
2 |
3 |
12 |
| 2 | Mariam Mavrova
"[Think](/wiki/Think_%28Aretha_Franklin_song%29 "Think (Aretha Franklin song)")" ([Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin"))
6 |
7 |
13 |
6 |
| 3 | Pavel Mateev
"Vincero pedero" ([Mario Frangoulis](/wiki/Mario_Frangoulis "Mario Frangoulis"))
2 |
4 |
6 |
10 |
| 4 | Simona Ivanova
"[Heroes](/wiki/Heroes_%28M%C3%A5ns_Zelmerl%C3%B6w_song%29 "Heroes (Måns Zelmerlöw song)")" ([Måns Zelmerlöw](/wiki/M%C3%A5ns_Zelmerl%C3%B6w "Måns Zelmerlöw"))
8 |
8 |
16 |
5 |
| 5 | Gergana Todorova
"[Molitva](/wiki/Molitva "Molitva")" ([Marija Šerifović](/wiki/Marija_%C5%A0erifovi%C4%87 "Marija Šerifović"))
10 |
9 |
19 |
4 |
| 6 |Lora Gerdzhikova
"Slyap den" ([Signal](/wiki/Signal_%28band%29 "Signal (band)"))
3 |
1 |
4 |
11 |
| 7 | Ivan Stoyanov
"Zhestokaya lyubov" ([Philipp Kirkorov](/wiki/Philipp_Kirkorov "Philipp Kirkorov"))
12 |
10 |
22 |
2 |
| 8 | Andrea Nacheva
"[We Are the Champions](/wiki/We_Are_the_Champions "We Are the Champions")" ([Queen](/wiki/Queen_%28band%29 "Queen (band)"))
7 |
3 |
10 |
9 |
| 9 | Filip Filchev
"[I Feel Good](/wiki/I_Got_You_%28I_Feel_Good%29 "I Got You (I Feel Good)")" ([James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown "James Brown"))
4 |
6 |
10 |
7 |
| 10 |Radko Petkov
"[The Hardest Thing](/wiki/The_Hardest_Thing_%28To%C5%A1e_Proeski_song%29 "The Hardest Thing (Toše Proeski song)")" ([Toše Proeski](/wiki/To%C5%A1e_Proeski "Toše Proeski"))
9 |
12 |
21 |
3 |
| 11 |Eleonora Ivanova
"[Halo](/wiki/Halo_%28Beyonc%C3%A9_song%29 "Halo (Beyoncé song)")" ([Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 "Beyoncé"))
5 |
5 |
10 |
8 |
12 |
Gabriela Yordanova
"Osadeni dushi" ([Lili Ivanova](/wiki/Lili_Ivanova "Lili Ivanova"))
11 |
11 |
22 |
1 ||
### Song selection
On 16 October 2015, the title of the Bulgarian song was revealed. The song would be called "Colour of Hope" *(Tsvetut na nadezhdata)*. It was officially presented on 18 October 2015 during the show "The day starts on Sunday with Georgi Lyubenov" on [BNT](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Television "Bulgarian National Television"). It was also revealed that Gabriela would be accompanied by the runner\-up of the national selection, Ivan Stoyanov.
|
[
"Before Junior Eurovision\n------------------------",
"### National selection",
"In a joint organised event, Bulgarian broadcasters [BNT](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Television \"Bulgarian National Television\") and [bTV](/wiki/BTV_%28Bulgaria%29 \"BTV (Bulgaria)\"), opened submissions between 3–23 July for singers aged between 10\\-15 to send their audio or video recordings to the Slavi Show team. After the deadline, a professional jury of music experts selected the best ones to proceed to the audition heats round. The selected singers were invited to perform live, in a series of audition heats, in front of a different jury made up of music experts and representatives from the three organisations to select the acts going forward to a live shows.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Fisher\\|first1\\=Luke James\\|title\\=Bulgarian broadcasters unite again to find 2015 representative\\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=bulgarian\\_broadcasters\\_unite\\_again\\_to\\_find\\_2015\\_representative\\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv\\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union\\|accessdate\\=17 August 2015\\|date\\=3 July 2015}} The process to select the representative began on 17 August 2015 during the \"Slavi's Show\", the programme in which [Krisia](/wiki/Krisia_Todorova \"Krisia Todorova\"), [Hasan \\& Ibrahim](/wiki/Hasan_%26_Ibrahim \"Hasan & Ibrahim\") were discovered. The selection procedure included internal heats, semi\\-finals and a national final which were broadcast during prime time. A total of 24 stars were internally selected to compete at the live semi\\-finals where a three\\-person professional jury, made up of the faces behind last year’s entry \"[Planet of the Children](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Children \"Planet of the Children\")\" ([Slavi Trifonov](/wiki/Slavi_Trifonov \"Slavi Trifonov\") and Evgeni Dimitrov) and Orlin Pavlov, would select 8 finalists out of 12\\. The audience, through SMS voting, were in charge of deciding the other 4 finalists. The winning participant who would represent Bulgaria on home soil, was selected by a 50/50 combination of both [telephone vote](/wiki/Televoting \"Televoting\") and the votes of [jury](/wiki/Jury \"Jury\") members made up of music professionals. The song that the winning artist would perform at the Junior Eurovision Song Contest was chosen internally by the national broadcaster and announced at a later date.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fisher \\|first1\\=Luke James \\|date\\=16 August 2015 \\|title\\=Bulgarian jury confirmed; National Selection kicks\\-off tomorrow! \\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=bulgarian\\_jury\\_confirmed\\_national\\_selection\\_kicks\\-off\\_tomorrow \\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv \\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union \\|accessdate\\=17 August 2015}}",
"#### Heats",
"{{legend\\|\\#90EE90\\|Advanced to the semi\\-finals}}\n{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 1: 17 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Eleonora Ivanova | Elisabeta Tasheva |\n| Eliya Todorova | Gabriela Yordanova |\n| Ivan Stoyanov | Ivana Baldarkova |\n| Kristian Pavlov | Liliya Stoyanova |\n| Mariya Bakardzhieva | Maya Stoycheva |\n| Mila Angelova | Nikol Kaneva |\n| Nora Karaslavov | Rosen Petrov |\n| Yuliana Mur | Zara Uzunova |\n|",
"{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 2: 18 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Anna Drumeva | Dilyan \\& Kostadin Dyankov |\n| Gabriela Ivanova | Georgi Todorov |\n| Kristalena Stoyanova | Kristiana Kirilova |\n| Lora Gerdzhikova | Mariya Bozhinova |\n| Mariya Dimova | Patrisiya Simeonova |\n| Simona Ivanova | Stanimira Ruseva |\n| Svetlana Radoslavova | Teodor Palazov |\n| Valentina Kuncheva | Viktoriya Glavcheva |\n| Viktoriya Maneva | |\n|",
"{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 3: 19 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Aleksana Stamova | Aleksandar Tanev |\n| Aleksandrina Mehandzhiyska | Alisa Krasteva |\n| Dimitrina Germanova | Eleonora Dimitrova |\n| Elinor Palazova | Ivanina Balkova |\n| Ivo\\-Konstantin Nachev | Katrin Tsolova |\n| Pavel Pintev | Petya Georgieva |\n| Preslava Petrova | Teodora Lilova |\n| Teodora Todorova | Valentina Nikova |\n| Yana Krasteva | Yana Sabanova |\n|",
"{{col\\-end}}\n{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 4: 24 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Borislava Tsekova | Daliya Isam Al\\-Atar |\n| Evgeniya Stoyanova | Gabriela Gaydadzhieva |\n| Hristina Grebcheva | Kristina Pashkova |\n| Lyubomira Busheva | Moyra Yankova |\n| Nikol Palascheva | Petar Bechev |\n| Radko Petkov | Raya Krumova |\n| Simona Krasteva | Stefani Aleksieva |\n| Vesela Asenova | VIVA |\n| Zhasmin Stoyanova | |\n|",
"{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 5: 25 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Elena Bancheva | Gergana Todorova |\n| Ivona Georgieva | Mariam Mavrova |\n| Mariya\\-Magdalena Yordanova | Monika Petrova |\n| Niya Yaneva | Pavel Mateev |\n| Petya Kostova | Stilyana Stoynova |\n| Valentina Demireva | Vesela Paunova |\n|",
"{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ Heat 6: 26 August 2015 |\n| --- |\n| Aleksandra Zlateva | Andrea Nacheva |\n| Andzhela Naku | Daniela Stoyanova |\n| Dara Ekimova | Filip Filchev |\n| Gabriela Tsvetkova | Gabriela Zhivkova |\n| Ivana Vasileva | Kalina Popova |\n| Preslava Tsankova | Valentin Kalenov \\& Nikoleta Sachkova |\n| Viktoriya Anastasova | Viktoriya Tsankova |\n|",
"{{col\\-end}}",
"#### Semi\\-final 1",
"The first semi\\-final took place on 31 August. Eleonora Ivanova, Pavel Mateev and Ivan Stoyanov advanced to the final.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Fisher\\|first1\\=Luke James\\|title\\=Three through with Semifinal 2 tonight in Bulgaria\\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=three\\_through\\_with\\_semifinal\\_2\\_tonight\\_in\\_bulgaria\\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv\\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union\\|accessdate\\=1 September 2015\\|date\\=1 September 2015}} The semi\\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band \"Ku-Ku Band\")' \\- the resident band of \"Slavi's show\". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fisher \\|first1\\=Luke James \\|date\\=31 August 2015 \\|title\\=Bulgarian Semifinals begin \\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=tonight\\_bulgarian\\_semifinals\\_begin \\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv \\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union \\|accessdate\\=1 September 2015}}\nKey legend\n{{legend\\|\\#90EE90\\|Jury qualifier}}\n{{legend\\|\\#E0B0FF\\|Televote qualifier}}",
"",
"",
"| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"1 |\n Eleonora Ivanova",
"\"[Wrecking Ball](/wiki/Wrecking_Ball_%28Miley_Cyrus_song%29 \"Wrecking Ball (Miley Cyrus song)\")\" ([Miley Cyrus](/wiki/Miley_Cyrus \"Miley Cyrus\"))",
"Advanced || 2 | Aleksandrina Mehandzhiyska",
"\"[The Edge of Glory](/wiki/The_Edge_of_Glory \"The Edge of Glory\")\" ([Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga \"Lady Gaga\"))",
"Eliminated |",
"3 |\nPavel Mateev",
"\"Nikoi\" (Grafa)",
"Advanced || 4 | Preslava Petrova",
"\"[One Night Only](/wiki/One_Night_Only_%28song%29 \"One Night Only (song)\")\" ([Jennifer Hudson](/wiki/Jennifer_Hudson \"Jennifer Hudson\"))",
"Eliminated |\n| 5 | Yuliana Mur",
"\"Nashe lyato\" ([Lili Ivanova](/wiki/Lili_Ivanova \"Lili Ivanova\"))",
"Eliminated |",
"6 |\n Ivan Stoyanov",
"\"[Mercy](/wiki/Mercy_%28Duffy_song%29 \"Mercy (Duffy song)\")\" ([Duffy](/wiki/Duffy_%28singer%29 \"Duffy (singer)\"))",
"Advanced ||",
"#### Semi\\-final 2",
"The second semi\\-final took place on 1 September. Lora Gerdzhikova, Simona Ivanova and Filip Filchev advanced to the final.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Fisher\\|first1\\=Luke James\\|title\\=Semifinal 3 Tonight after more finalists chosen in Bulgaria\\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=semifinal\\_3\\_tonight\\_after\\_more\\_finalists\\_chosen\\_in\\_bulgaria\\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv\\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union\\|accessdate\\=3 September 2015\\|date\\=2 September 2015}} The semi\\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band \"Ku-Ku Band\")' \\- the resident band of \"Slavi's show\". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.",
"| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Alisa Krasteva",
"\"[Price Tag](/wiki/Price_Tag \"Price Tag\")\" ([Jessie J](/wiki/Jessie_J \"Jessie J\"))",
"Eliminated |\n|",
"2 |\n Lora Gerdzhikova",
"\"[Impossible](/wiki/Impossible_%28Shontelle_song%29 \"Impossible (Shontelle song)\")\" ([Shontelle](/wiki/Shontelle \"Shontelle\"))",
"Advanced || 3 |Teodor Palazov",
"\"[New York, New York](/wiki/Theme_from_New_York%2C_New_York \"Theme from New York, New York\")\" ([Liza Minnelli](/wiki/Liza_Minnelli \"Liza Minnelli\"))",
"Eliminated |\n| 4 | Kristiana Kirilova",
"\"Dusha\" ([Diana Express](/wiki/Diana_Express \"Diana Express\"))",
"Eliminated |",
"5 |\n Simona Ivanova",
"\"Je Veux\" ([Zaz](/wiki/Zaz_%28singer%29 \"Zaz (singer)\"))",
"Advanced |\n 6 |\nFilip Filchev",
"\"[Easy](/wiki/Easy_%28Commodores_song%29 \"Easy (Commodores song)\")\" ([Commodores](/wiki/Commodores \"Commodores\"))",
"Advanced ||",
"",
"##### Semi\\-final 3",
"The third semi\\-final took place on 2 September. Andrea Nacheva, Gabriela Yordanova and Dilyan \\& Kostadin Dyankov advanced to the final.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Fisher\\|first1\\=Luke James\\|title\\=Final Bulgarian semifinal tonight\\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=final\\_bulgarian\\_semifinal\\_tonight\\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv\\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union\\|accessdate\\=3 September 2015\\|date\\=3 September 2015}} The semi\\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band \"Ku-Ku Band\")' \\- the resident band of \"Slavi's show\". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.",
"| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"1 |\n Andrea Nacheva",
"\"Nobody's Wife\" ([Anouk](/wiki/Anouk_%28singer%29 \"Anouk (singer)\"))",
"Advanced || 2 | Dimitrina Germanova",
"\"Az iskam\" (Revolyutsiya Z)",
"Eliminated |\n| 3 | Nikol Kaneva",
"\"[Proud Mary](/wiki/Proud_Mary \"Proud Mary\")\" ([Creedence Clearwater Revival](/wiki/Creedence_Clearwater_Revival \"Creedence Clearwater Revival\"))",
"Eliminated |",
"4 |\nGabriela Yordanova",
"\"[Something's Got a Hold on Me](/wiki/Something%27s_Got_a_Hold_on_Me \"Something's Got a Hold on Me\")\" ([Etta James](/wiki/Etta_James \"Etta James\"))",
"Advanced || 5 |Borislava Tsekova",
"\"Lale li si, zyumbyul li si\" (*Bulgarian folk song*)",
"Eliminated |",
"6 |\n Dilyan \\& Kostadin Dyankov",
"\"[Give In to Me](/wiki/Give_In_to_Me \"Give In to Me\")\" ([Michael Jackson](/wiki/Michael_Jackson \"Michael Jackson\"))",
"Advanced ||",
"",
"##### Semi\\-final 4",
"The fourth and last semi\\-final took place on 3 September. Radko Petkov, Mariam Mavrova and Gergana Todorova advanced to the final.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fisher \\|first1\\=Luke James \\|date\\=3 September 2015 \\|title\\=Bulgaria ready with 12 finalists for 8 September National Final \\|url\\=http://www.junioreurovision.tv/page/blog?id\\=bulgaria\\_ready\\_with\\_12\\_finalists\\_for\\_8\\_september\\_national\\_final \\|website\\=junioreurovision.tv \\|publisher\\=European Broadcasting Union \\|accessdate\\=3 September 2015}} The semi\\-final was hosted by Petya Dikova and Boris Soltariyski. Six children each performed a three\\-minute pop song together with the '[Ku\\-Ku Band](/wiki/Ku-Ku_Band \"Ku-Ku Band\")' \\- the resident band of \"Slavi's show\". The public was able to choose their favourite of the six to go to the final, by voting online and by SMS. The jury chose another two artists, making a total of three from each show and 12 finalists overall.",
"| Draw | Artist | Song (Original artist) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|",
"1 |\nRadko Petkov",
"\"[Lane Moje](/wiki/Lane_Moje \"Lane Moje\")\" ([Željko Joksimović](/wiki/%C5%BDeljko_Joksimovi%C4%87 \"Željko Joksimović\"))",
"Advanced || 2 |Nora Karaslavov",
"\"[I'll Be Your Shelter](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Your_Shelter \"I'll Be Your Shelter\")\" ([Taylor Dayne](/wiki/Taylor_Dayne \"Taylor Dayne\"))",
"Eliminated |\n| 3 |Petya Georgieva",
"\"Vse taka\" ([Nevena Tsoneva](/wiki/Nevena_Tsoneva \"Nevena Tsoneva\"))",
"Eliminated |\n| 4 |Rosen Petrov",
"\"[Listen to Your Heart](/wiki/Listen_to_Your_Heart_%28Roxette_song%29 \"Listen to Your Heart (Roxette song)\")\" ([Roxette](/wiki/Roxette \"Roxette\"))",
"Eliminated |\n|",
"5 |\nMariam Mavrova",
"\"[Feeling Good](/wiki/Feeling_Good \"Feeling Good\")\" ([Cy Grant](/wiki/Cy_Grant \"Cy Grant\"))",
"Advanced ||",
"6 |\nGergana Todorova",
"\"[My Kind of Love](/wiki/My_Kind_of_Love_%28song%29 \"My Kind of Love (song)\")\" ([Emeli Sandé](/wiki/Emeli_Sand%C3%A9 \"Emeli Sandé\"))",
"Advanced ||",
"",
"##### Final",
"The live final took place on the 8 September 2015\\. The results were determined by a 50/50 combination of both televote and the jury made up of music professionals.",
"| Draw | Artist | Song (original artist) | Jury | Televote | Total | Place |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Dilyan \\& Kostadin Dyankov",
"\"[I Don't Want to Miss a Thing](/wiki/I_Don%27t_Want_to_Miss_a_Thing \"I Don't Want to Miss a Thing\")\" ([Aerosmith](/wiki/Aerosmith \"Aerosmith\"))",
"1 |\n 2 |\n 3 |\n 12 |\n| 2 | Mariam Mavrova",
"\"[Think](/wiki/Think_%28Aretha_Franklin_song%29 \"Think (Aretha Franklin song)\")\" ([Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\"))",
"6 |\n 7 |\n 13 |\n 6 |\n| 3 | Pavel Mateev",
"\"Vincero pedero\" ([Mario Frangoulis](/wiki/Mario_Frangoulis \"Mario Frangoulis\"))",
"2 |\n 4 |\n 6 |\n 10 |\n| 4 | Simona Ivanova",
"\"[Heroes](/wiki/Heroes_%28M%C3%A5ns_Zelmerl%C3%B6w_song%29 \"Heroes (Måns Zelmerlöw song)\")\" ([Måns Zelmerlöw](/wiki/M%C3%A5ns_Zelmerl%C3%B6w \"Måns Zelmerlöw\"))",
"8 |\n 8 |\n 16 |\n 5 |\n| 5 | Gergana Todorova",
"\"[Molitva](/wiki/Molitva \"Molitva\")\" ([Marija Šerifović](/wiki/Marija_%C5%A0erifovi%C4%87 \"Marija Šerifović\"))",
"10 |\n 9 |\n 19 |\n 4 |\n| 6 |Lora Gerdzhikova",
"\"Slyap den\" ([Signal](/wiki/Signal_%28band%29 \"Signal (band)\"))",
"3 |\n 1 |\n 4 |\n 11 |\n| 7 | Ivan Stoyanov",
"\"Zhestokaya lyubov\" ([Philipp Kirkorov](/wiki/Philipp_Kirkorov \"Philipp Kirkorov\"))",
"12 |\n 10 |\n 22 |\n 2 |\n| 8 | Andrea Nacheva",
"\"[We Are the Champions](/wiki/We_Are_the_Champions \"We Are the Champions\")\" ([Queen](/wiki/Queen_%28band%29 \"Queen (band)\"))",
"7 |\n 3 |\n 10 |\n 9 |\n| 9 | Filip Filchev",
"\"[I Feel Good](/wiki/I_Got_You_%28I_Feel_Good%29 \"I Got You (I Feel Good)\")\" ([James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown \"James Brown\"))",
"4 |\n 6 |\n 10 |\n 7 |\n| 10 |Radko Petkov",
"\"[The Hardest Thing](/wiki/The_Hardest_Thing_%28To%C5%A1e_Proeski_song%29 \"The Hardest Thing (Toše Proeski song)\")\" ([Toše Proeski](/wiki/To%C5%A1e_Proeski \"Toše Proeski\"))",
"9 |\n 12 |\n 21 |\n 3 |\n| 11 |Eleonora Ivanova",
"\"[Halo](/wiki/Halo_%28Beyonc%C3%A9_song%29 \"Halo (Beyoncé song)\")\" ([Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 \"Beyoncé\"))",
"5 |\n 5 |\n 10 |\n 8 |",
"12 |\n Gabriela Yordanova",
"\"Osadeni dushi\" ([Lili Ivanova](/wiki/Lili_Ivanova \"Lili Ivanova\"))",
"11 |\n 11 |\n 22 |\n 1 ||",
"",
"### Song selection",
"On 16 October 2015, the title of the Bulgarian song was revealed. The song would be called \"Colour of Hope\" *(Tsvetut na nadezhdata)*. It was officially presented on 18 October 2015 during the show \"The day starts on Sunday with Georgi Lyubenov\" on [BNT](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Television \"Bulgarian National Television\"). It was also revealed that Gabriela would be accompanied by the runner\\-up of the national selection, Ivan Stoyanov.",
""
] |
Products
--------
Pilen made at least 50 different models, in the most convoluted story of diecast seconds and recasts of any successful diecast manufacturer.Colleccion Auto Pilen. No date (late 1970s). Small catalog of Auto Pilen featuring 30 vehicles. Ibi, Alicante, Spain: Pilen SA. Dies were apparently used or copied from a variety of other companies including [Dinky](/wiki/Dinky_Toys "Dinky Toys"), [Corgi](/wiki/Corgi_Toys "Corgi Toys"), [Solido](/wiki/Solido "Solido"), [Mebetoys](/wiki/Mebetoys "Mebetoys"), [Tekno](/wiki/Tekno_%28toy_manufacturer%29 "Tekno (toy manufacturer)"), Politoys ([Polistil](/wiki/Polistil "Polistil")), and possibly some [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28toy_manufacturer%29 "Mercury (toy manufacturer)") models.
### European cars
Vehicles in Auto Pilen's lineup were mostly European and included Ferraris, Porsches, Renaults, Citroens, Mercedes\-Benz, Volvos and some American cars as well. There was also a line of at least eight Formula One cars in 1/43 scale from the 1960s including BRM, Ferrari, Lola\-Climax, Lotus\-Climax, Cooper\-Maserati, Brabham, and Honda. A few helicopters and airplanes were available. Numbering for the regular 1:43 series began with an "M" (perhaps reminiscent of Politoys M\-Series) and went from 300 to 500\.
Since this was a Spanish company, FIATs are not shown as FIAT, rather they are SEATs (pronounced 'say\-ott'). This was FIAT under license in Spain – starting in the 1960s – long before Volkswagen took control of SEAT. Thus it is the [SEAT 600](/wiki/SEAT_600 "SEAT 600"), the [SEAT 850](/wiki/SEAT_850 "SEAT 850") Spyder, the [SEAT 127](/wiki/SEAT_127 "SEAT 127"), etc.
### Build quality
For all the complexity of origins of the models, however, the products were uniformly of very high quality. Most were done in a refined and handsome manner, with evenly applied colors.{{sfn\|Sinclair\|1979\|p\=392}} The paint application was often in a brighter, almost *spectraflame* (though that is a Mattel term) appearance.{{sfn\|Johnson\|1998\|p\=15}} There were many opening features and hoods, trunks, and doors matched the bodies with satisfying precision. Finished parts were thin and svelte and models appear much like Solido – not heavy\-handed like some British Dinkys and Corgis.
Tyres were rubber and wheels authentically matched each model – where a generic one was necessary, a handsome wire wheel was employed similar to those seen on [Politoys](/wiki/Polistil "Polistil") M Series. Sometimes the chemical reaction in the rubber compound of the wheels could cause melting of the plastic on the base plates of the display cases, but unlike [Sablon diecast](/wiki/Sablon_diecast "Sablon diecast") made in Belgium (which also had Spanish associations) whose plastic wheels all melted with contact with rubber tyres, the problem was avoided on Pilen models by using metal wheels.
These models did not appear rushed into production, though some have experienced cracking of faulty zinc alloy conglomerate 15 to 20 years later. Pilen in the mid\-1970s was right up with other 1:43 scale companies packaging their models in clear plastic display cases. The screws used to hold models to the orange and yellow plastic bases, however, held them tightly and the tyres often melt and become fused to the plastic of the bases. This is due to a chemical reaction to a softener in the rubber of the tyres. With a bit of coaxing, usually the tyres pull free from the base with no damage.
Typical Pilen brochures were thin narrow folded strips 1 3/4 inches wide which normally advertised thirty cars. On the opposite side, the collector was reminded that five of these strips could be collected and remitted to receive a key chain from "Escuderia" Pilen – such diecast trinkets had been traditional Pilen products for some years. Auto Pilen models were the main diecast toys seen in Spanish department stores El Corte Ingles and Galerias Preciados in Spain in the late 1970s.
|
[
"Products\n--------",
"Pilen made at least 50 different models, in the most convoluted story of diecast seconds and recasts of any successful diecast manufacturer.Colleccion Auto Pilen. No date (late 1970s). Small catalog of Auto Pilen featuring 30 vehicles. Ibi, Alicante, Spain: Pilen SA. Dies were apparently used or copied from a variety of other companies including [Dinky](/wiki/Dinky_Toys \"Dinky Toys\"), [Corgi](/wiki/Corgi_Toys \"Corgi Toys\"), [Solido](/wiki/Solido \"Solido\"), [Mebetoys](/wiki/Mebetoys \"Mebetoys\"), [Tekno](/wiki/Tekno_%28toy_manufacturer%29 \"Tekno (toy manufacturer)\"), Politoys ([Polistil](/wiki/Polistil \"Polistil\")), and possibly some [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28toy_manufacturer%29 \"Mercury (toy manufacturer)\") models.",
"### European cars",
"Vehicles in Auto Pilen's lineup were mostly European and included Ferraris, Porsches, Renaults, Citroens, Mercedes\\-Benz, Volvos and some American cars as well. There was also a line of at least eight Formula One cars in 1/43 scale from the 1960s including BRM, Ferrari, Lola\\-Climax, Lotus\\-Climax, Cooper\\-Maserati, Brabham, and Honda. A few helicopters and airplanes were available. Numbering for the regular 1:43 series began with an \"M\" (perhaps reminiscent of Politoys M\\-Series) and went from 300 to 500\\.",
"Since this was a Spanish company, FIATs are not shown as FIAT, rather they are SEATs (pronounced 'say\\-ott'). This was FIAT under license in Spain – starting in the 1960s – long before Volkswagen took control of SEAT. Thus it is the [SEAT 600](/wiki/SEAT_600 \"SEAT 600\"), the [SEAT 850](/wiki/SEAT_850 \"SEAT 850\") Spyder, the [SEAT 127](/wiki/SEAT_127 \"SEAT 127\"), etc.",
"### Build quality",
"For all the complexity of origins of the models, however, the products were uniformly of very high quality. Most were done in a refined and handsome manner, with evenly applied colors.{{sfn\\|Sinclair\\|1979\\|p\\=392}} The paint application was often in a brighter, almost *spectraflame* (though that is a Mattel term) appearance.{{sfn\\|Johnson\\|1998\\|p\\=15}} There were many opening features and hoods, trunks, and doors matched the bodies with satisfying precision. Finished parts were thin and svelte and models appear much like Solido – not heavy\\-handed like some British Dinkys and Corgis.",
"Tyres were rubber and wheels authentically matched each model – where a generic one was necessary, a handsome wire wheel was employed similar to those seen on [Politoys](/wiki/Polistil \"Polistil\") M Series. Sometimes the chemical reaction in the rubber compound of the wheels could cause melting of the plastic on the base plates of the display cases, but unlike [Sablon diecast](/wiki/Sablon_diecast \"Sablon diecast\") made in Belgium (which also had Spanish associations) whose plastic wheels all melted with contact with rubber tyres, the problem was avoided on Pilen models by using metal wheels.",
"These models did not appear rushed into production, though some have experienced cracking of faulty zinc alloy conglomerate 15 to 20 years later. Pilen in the mid\\-1970s was right up with other 1:43 scale companies packaging their models in clear plastic display cases. The screws used to hold models to the orange and yellow plastic bases, however, held them tightly and the tyres often melt and become fused to the plastic of the bases. This is due to a chemical reaction to a softener in the rubber of the tyres. With a bit of coaxing, usually the tyres pull free from the base with no damage.",
"Typical Pilen brochures were thin narrow folded strips 1 3/4 inches wide which normally advertised thirty cars. On the opposite side, the collector was reminded that five of these strips could be collected and remitted to receive a key chain from \"Escuderia\" Pilen – such diecast trinkets had been traditional Pilen products for some years. Auto Pilen models were the main diecast toys seen in Spanish department stores El Corte Ingles and Galerias Preciados in Spain in the late 1970s.",
""
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.