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In 2023, the WHO declared that 'there is no safe amount of alcohol consumption' and that 'the risk to the drinker's health starts from the first drop of any alcoholic beverage.' National agencies are aligning with the WHO's recommendations and increasingly advocating for abstinence from alcohol consumption. They highli... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 491 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Reports from the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and since suggested that Russian soldiers are drinking significant amount of alcohol (as well as consuming harder drugs), which increases their losses. Some reports suggest that on occasion, alcohol and drugs have been provided to the lower quality troops by their co... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 508 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviors that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes o... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 505 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Hazing has a long-standing presence in college fraternities, often involving alcohol as a form of punishment. This can lead to dangerous levels of intoxication and severe ethanol poisoning, sometimes resulting in fatalities. High serum ethanol levels are common among affected students.
Definition
Binge drinking refer... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 427 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
According to a 2022 study, recreational heavy drinking and intoxication have become increasingly prevalent among Nigerian youth in Benin City. Traditionally, alcohol use was more accepted for men, while youth drinking was often taboo. Today, many young people engage in heavy drinking for pleasure and excitement. Peer n... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 374 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Definitions
Light drinking, moderate drinking, responsible drinking, and social drinking are often used interchangeably, but with slightly different connotations:
Light drinking - "Alcohol has been found to increase risk for cancer, and for some types of cancer, the risk increases even at low levels of alcohol consump... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 429 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
While social drinking often involves moderation, it does not strictly emphasize safety or specific quantities, unlike moderate drinking. Social settings can involve peer pressure to drink more than intended, which can be a risk factor for excessive alcohol consumption. Regularly socializing over drinks can lead to a hi... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 105 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Self-medication
The therapeutic index for ethanol is 10%.
Alcohol can have analgesic (pain-relieving) effects, which is why some people with chronic pain turn to alcohol to self-medicate and try to alleviate their physical discomfort.
People with social anxiety disorder commonly self-medicate with alcohol to overcom... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 442 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
"Hair of the dog", short for "hair of the dog that bit you", is a colloquial expression in the English language predominantly used to refer to alcohol that is consumed as a hangover remedy (with the aim of lessening the effects of a hangover). Many other languages have their own phrase to describe the same concept. The... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 503 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
In South Africa, some populations have rates as high as 9%.
Miscarriage
Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion, is the death and expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it can survive independently.
Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for miscarriage.
Sudden infant death syndrome
Drinki... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 426 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
An inability to process or exhibit emotions in a proper manner has been shown to exist in people who consume excessive amounts of alcohol and those who were exposed to alcohol while fetuses (FAexp). Also, a significant portion (40–60%) of alcoholics experience emotional blindness. Impairments in theory of mind, as well... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 500 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcohol can cause nausea and vomiting in sufficiently high amounts (varying by person).
Alcohol stimulates gastric juice production, even when food is not present, and as a result, its consumption stimulates acidic secretions normally intended to digest protein molecules. Consequently, the excess acidity may harm the ... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 508 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Holiday heart syndrome, also known as alcohol-induced atrial arrhythmias, is a syndrome defined by an irregular heartbeat and palpitations associated with high levels of ethanol consumption. Holiday heart syndrome was discovered in 1978 when Philip Ettinger discovered the connection between arrhythmia and alcohol consu... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 508 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcohol's overall effect on health is uncertain. While some studies suggest moderate consumption might have some benefit, others find any amount increases health risks. This uncertainty is due to conflicting research methods and potential biases, including counting former drinkers as abstainers and the possibility of a... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 504 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
While many people associate alcohol's effects with intoxication, the long-term impact of alcohol on the brain can be severe. Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, can lead to alcohol-related brain damage that occurs after a relatively short period of time. This brain damage increases the risk of alcohol-related d... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 465 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcoholic beverages have been classified as carcinogenic by leading health organizations for more than two decades, including the WHO's IARC (Group 1 carcinogens) and the U.S. NTP, raising concerns about the potential cancer risk associated with alcohol consumption.
In 2023 the WHO highlighted a statistic: nearly half... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 493 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) is a disease in which the long-term consumption of alcohol leads to heart failure. ACM is a type of dilated cardiomyopathy. The heart is unable to pump blood efficiently, leading to heart failure. It can affect other parts of the body if the heart failure is severe. It is most common in m... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 502 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) is a specific group of symptoms and metabolic state related to alcohol use. Symptoms often include abdominal pain, vomiting, agitation, a fast respiratory rate, and a specific "fruity" smell. Consciousness is generally normal. Complications may include sudden death.
Mental disorders
Alcoho... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 478 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Moderate alcohol consumption by breastfeeding mothers can significantly affect infants and cause breastfeeding difficulties. Even one or two drinks, including beer, may reduce milk intake by 20 to 23%, leading to increased agitation and poor sleep patterns. Regular heavy drinking (more than two drinks daily) can shorte... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 512 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for Dupuytren's contracture.
The majority of those with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease experience respiratory reactions to alcohol.
Interactions
Disorders
COVID-19
A 2023 study suggests a link between alcohol consumption and worse COVID-19 outcomes. Researchers analyzed... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 506 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcohol induced dose dumping (AIDD)
Alcohol-induced dose dumping (AIDD) is by definition an unintended rapid release of large amounts of a given drug, when administered through a modified-release dosage while co-ingesting ethanol. This is considered a pharmaceutical disadvantage due to the high risk of causing drug-in... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 473 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Metronidazole is an antibacterial agent that kills bacteria by damaging cellular DNA and hence cellular function. Metronidazole is usually given to people who have diarrhea caused by Clostridioides difficile bacteria. Patients who are taking metronidazole are sometimes advised to avoid alcohol, even after 1 hour follow... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 427 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
The rate-limiting steps for the elimination of ethanol are in common with certain other substances. As a result, the blood alcohol concentration can be used to modify the rate of metabolism of toxic alcohols, such as methanol and ethylene glycol. Methanol itself is not highly toxic, but its metabolites formaldehyde and... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 427 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
After oral ingestion, ethanol is absorbed via the stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Ethanol is highly water-soluble and diffuses passively throughout the entire body, including the brain. Soon after ingestion, it begins to be metabolized, 90% or more by the liver. One standard drink is sufficient to almost c... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 496 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
In the US, the DEA has claimed illegal drugs are more deadly than alcohol, citing CDC data from 2000 showing similar death counts despite alcohol's wider use. However, this comparison is disputed; a JAMA article reported alcohol-related deaths in 2000 as 85,000, significantly higher than the DEA's figure of 18,539.
To... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 359 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Ethanol is also known chemically as alcohol, ethyl alcohol, or drinking alcohol. It is a simple alcohol with a molecular formula of C2H6O and a molecular weight of 46.0684 g/mol. The molecular formula of ethanol may also be written as CH3−CH2−OH or as C2H5−OH. The latter can also be thought of as an ethyl group linked ... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 498 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
The Lucas test differentiates between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
Production
Ethanol is produced naturally as a byproduct of the metabolic processes of yeast and hence is present in any yeast habitat, including even endogenously in humans, but it does not cause raised blood alcohol content as seen in th... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 432 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
The popular story dates the etymology of the term Dutch courage to English soldiers fighting in the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652–1674) and perhaps as early as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). One version states that jenever (or Dutch gin) was used by English soldiers for its calming effects before battle, and for its purpo... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 383 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
The Bratt System was a system that was used in Sweden (1919–1955) and similarly in Finland (1944–1970) to control alcohol consumption, by rationing of liquor. Every citizen allowed to consume alcohol was given a booklet called a motbok (viinakortti in Finland), in which a stamp was added each time a purchase was made a... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 499 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
Alcohol education is the practice of disseminating disinformation about the effects of alcohol on health, as well as society and the family unit.
Alcohol as a gateway drug
Alcohol and nicotine prime the brain for a heightened response to other drugs and are, like marijuana, also typically used before a person progres... | Alcohol (drug) | Wikipedia | 108 | 43173137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28drug%29 | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and pharmacology | null |
In quantum mechanics, the variational method is one way of finding approximations to the lowest energy eigenstate or ground state, and some excited states. This allows calculating approximate wavefunctions such as molecular orbitals. The basis for this method is the variational principle.
The method consists of choosi... | Variational method (quantum mechanics) | Wikipedia | 441 | 37487265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variational%20method%20%28quantum%20mechanics%29 | Physical sciences | Quantum mechanics | Physics |
This, in general, is not an easy task, since we are looking for a global minimum and finding the zeroes of the partial derivatives of over all is not sufficient. If is expressed as a linear combination of other functions ( being the coefficients), as in the Ritz method, there is only one minimum and the problem is s... | Variational method (quantum mechanics) | Wikipedia | 505 | 37487265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variational%20method%20%28quantum%20mechanics%29 | Physical sciences | Quantum mechanics | Physics |
The variational principle formulated above is the basis of the variational method used in quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry to find approximations to the ground state.
Another facet in variational principles in quantum mechanics is that since and can be varied separately (a fact arising due to the complex natu... | Variational method (quantum mechanics) | Wikipedia | 426 | 37487265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variational%20method%20%28quantum%20mechanics%29 | Physical sciences | Quantum mechanics | Physics |
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years differently so as to make th... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 501 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Description
The Gregorian calendar, like the Julian calendar, is a solar calendar with 12 months of 28–31 days each. The year in both calendars consists of 365 days, with a leap day being added to February in the leap years. The months and length of months in the Gregorian calendar are the same as for the Julian calend... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 368 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
The Gregorian calendar was a reform of the Julian calendar. It was instituted by papal bull Inter gravissimas dated 24 February 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar is named. The motivation for the adjustment was to bring the date for the celebration of Easter to the time of year in which it was celebrate... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 467 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Preparation
In 1545, the Council of Trent authorised Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for mo... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 239 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Ancient tables provided the Sun's mean longitude. The German mathematician Christopher Clavius, the architect of the Gregorian calendar, noted that the tables agreed neither on the time when the Sun passed through the vernal equinox nor on the length of the mean tropical year. Tycho Brahe also noticed discrepancies. Th... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 298 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Lilius's proposals had two components. First, he proposed a correction to the length of the year. The mean tropical year is 365.24219 days long. A commonly used value in Lilius's time, from the Alfonsine tables, is 365.2425463 days. As the average length of a Julian year is 365.25 days, the Julian year is almost 11 min... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 508 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
When the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday, 4 October 1582 was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected).
... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 473 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. For example, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the Annexe to their Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 ... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 460 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Up to 28 February in the calendar being converted , add one day less or subtract one day more than the calculated value. Give February the appropriate number of days for the calendar being converted . When subtracting days to calculate the Gregorian equivalent of 29 February (Julian), 29 February is discounted. Thus if... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 477 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1 January. For such countries, a specific date when a "1 January year" became the norm, can be identified. In other countries, the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back and forth as fashion and influence from othe... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 505 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Extending the Gregorian calendar backwards to dates preceding its official introduction produces a proleptic calendar, which should be used with some caution. For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 481 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
January (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Janus", the Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings
February (28 days in common and 29 in leap years), from Latin , "Month of the Februa", the Roman festival of purgation and purification, cognate with fever, the Etruscan death god Februus ("Purifier"), and the Pr... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 460 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Variations appeared in Mother Goose and continue to be taught at schools. The unhelpfulness of such involved mnemonics has been parodied as "Thirty days hath September/ But all the rest I can't remember" but it has also been called "probably the only sixteenth-century poem most ordinary citizens know by heart". A commo... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 411 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Accuracy
The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long. This approximation has an error of about one day per 3,030 years with respect to the current value of the mean tropical y... | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 494 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Proposed reforms
The following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar:
Holocene calendar
International Fixed Calendar (also called the International Perpetual calendar)
World Calendar
World Season Calendar
Leap week calendars
Pax Calendar
Symmetry454
Hanke–Henry Permanent Calendar | Gregorian calendar | Wikipedia | 48 | 23306251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian%20calendar | Technology | Timekeeping | null |
Climate change feedbacks are natural processes that impact how much global temperatures will increase for a given amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Positive feedbacks amplify global warming while negative feedbacks diminish it. Feedbacks influence both the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the amount o... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 493 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Planck response is the additional thermal radiation objects emit as they get warmer. Whether Planck response is a climate change feedback depends on the context. In climate science the Planck response can be treated as an intrinsic part of warming that is separate from radiative feedbacks and carbon cycle feedbacks... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 495 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Most extensive "grey body" properties of Earth that influence the outgoing radiation are usually postulated to be encompassed by the other GCM feedback components, and to be distributed in accordance with a particular forcing-feedback formulation of the climate system. Ideally the Planck response strength obtained fro... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 465 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The atmosphere's temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. Since emission of infrared radiation varies with temperature, longwave radiation escaping to space from the relatively cold upper atmosphere is less than that emitted toward the ground from the lower atmosphere. Thus, the strength of the greenhouse ... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 211 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The presence of ice cover and sea ice makes the North Pole and the South Pole colder than they would have been without it. During glacial periods, additional ice increases the reflectivity and thus lowers absorption of solar radiation, cooling the planet. But when warming occurs and the ice melts, darker land or open w... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 435 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Seen from below, clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface, which has a warming effect; seen from above, clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, leading to a cooling effect. Low clouds are bright and very reflective, so they lead to strong cooling, while high clouds are too thin and trans... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 403 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
There are positive and negative climate feedbacks from Earth's carbon cycle. Negative feedbacks are large, and play a great role in the studies of climate inertia or of dynamic (time-dependent) climate change. Because they are considered relatively insensitive to temperature changes, they are sometimes considered separ... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 380 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Following Le Chatelier's principle, the chemical equilibrium of the Earth's carbon cycle will shift in response to anthropogenic emissions. The primary driver of this is the ocean, which absorbs anthropogenic via the so-called solubility pump. At present this accounts for only about one third of the current emissions... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 473 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Release of gases of biological origin would be affected by global warming, and this includes climate-relevant gases such as methane, nitrous oxide or dimethyl sulfide. Others, such as dimethyl sulfide released from oceans, have indirect effects. Emissions of methane from land (particularly from wetlands) and of nitrous... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 428 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The first stage would be the effect from ice melt on thermohaline circulation. Because meltwater is completely fresh, it makes it harder for the surface layer of water to sink beneath the lower layers, and this disrupts the exchange of oxygen, nutrients and heat between the layers. This would act as a negative feedback... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 347 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Methane hydrates or methane clathrates are frozen compounds where a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water, forming a solid similar to ice. On Earth, they generally lie beneath sediments on the ocean floors, (approximately below the sea level). Around 2008, there was a serious concern t... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 417 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Collectively the feedbacks may be approximated by the linearized parameter λ and the perturbed temperature ΔT because all components of λ (assumed to be first-order to act independently and additively) are also functions of temperature, albeit to varying extents, by definition for a thermodynamic system:
.
Some feedba... | Climate change feedbacks | Wikipedia | 421 | 26198824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20feedbacks | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Forth Bridge is a cantilever railway bridge across the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland, west of central Edinburgh. Completed in 1890, it is considered a symbol of Scotland (having been voted Scotland's greatest man-made wonder in 2016), and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was designed by English enginee... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 452 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
It had proven difficult to engineer a suspension bridge that was able to carry railway traffic, and Thomas Bouch, engineer to the North British Railway (NBR) and Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, was in 1863–1864 working on a single-track girder bridge crossing the Forth near Charlestown, where the river is around wide, ... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 499 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
After the Tay Bridge collapsed in 1879, confidence in Bouch dried up and the work stopped. The public inquiry into the disaster, chaired by Henry Cadogan Rothery, found the Tay Bridge to be "badly designed, badly constructed and badly maintained", with Bouch being "mainly to blame" for the defects in construction and m... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 500 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
The bridge is built on the principle of the cantilever bridge, where a cantilever beam supports a light central girder, a principle that has been used for thousands of years in the construction of bridges. In order to illustrate the use of tension and compression in the bridge, a demonstration in 1887 had the Japanese ... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 492 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
The Bill for the construction of the bridge was passed on 19 May 1882 after an eight-day enquiry, the only objections being from rival railway companies. On 21 December, the contract was let to Sir Thomas Tancred, T. H. Falkiner and Joseph Philips, civil engineers and contractor, and Sir William Arrol & Co. Arrol was a... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 489 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
In April 1883, construction of a landing stage at Inchgarvie commenced. Extant buildings, including fortifications built in the 15th century, were roofed over to increase the available space, and the rock at the west of the island was cut down to a level above high water, and a seawall was built to protect against lar... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 474 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
These caissons were constructed and assembled in Glasgow by the Arrol Brothers, namesakes of but unconnected to W. Arrol, before being dismantled and transported to South Queensferry. The caissons were then built up to a large extent before being floated to their final resting-places. The first caisson, for the south-w... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 406 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
The four South Queensferry caissons were all sunk by the pneumatic method, and are identical in design except for differences in height. A T shaped jetty was built at the site of the South Queensferry piers, to allow one caisson to be attached to each corner, and when launched the caissons were attached to the jetty an... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 482 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Building the cantilevers
The tubular members were constructed in the No. 2 workshop further up the hill at South Queensferry. To bend plates into the required shape, they were first heated in a gas furnace, and then pressed into the correct curve. The curved plates were then assembled on a mandrel, and holes drilled fo... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 489 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Accidents and deaths
At its peak, approximately 4,600 workers were employed in the bridge's construction. Wilhelm Westhofen recorded in 1890 that 57 people died. In 2005 the Forth Bridge Memorial Committee was set up to erect a monument to those lost, and a team of local historians set out to name all those who died. A... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 393 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Race to the North
Before the opening of the Forth Bridge, the railway journey from London to Aberdeen had taken about 13 hours running from and using the London and North Western Railway and Caledonian Railway on a west coast route. With competition opened along the east coast route from the Great Northern, North East... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 364 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Spitfires from 603 "City of Edinburgh" Squadron RAF intercepted the raiders and during the attack shot down the first German aircraft downed over Britain in the war. One bomber came down in the water off Port Seton on the East Lothian coast and another off Crail on the coast of Fife. After the War it was learned that a... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 449 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
In 1882 the NBR were given powers to purchase the bridge, which it never exercised. At the time of the 1923 Grouping, the bridge was still jointly owned by the same four railways, and so it became jointly owned by these companies' successors, the London Midland and Scottish Railway (30%) and the London and North Easter... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 450 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Work started in 2002 to repaint the bridge fully for the first time in its history, in a £130 million contract awarded to Balfour Beatty. Up to of scaffolding was on the bridge at any time, and computer modelling was used to analyse the additional wind load on the structure. The bridge was encapsulated in a climate co... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 413 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
In general culture
The location of the Forth Bridge has seen it featured in other cultural forms. In the build up to the Millennium celebrations a countdown clock sponsored by the Royal Bank of Scotland was attached to the top of the Bridge in 1998. Iain Banks wrote the novel The Bridge, which is mainly set on a ficti... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 502 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
"Operation Forth Bridge" was the title of the plans for the funeral of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 2021.
Visitor attraction
Network Rail plans to add a visitor centre to the bridge, which would include a viewing platform on top of the North Queensferry side, or a bridge climbing experience to the South Queens... | Forth Bridge | Wikipedia | 157 | 41672549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth%20Bridge | Technology | Bridges | null |
Otitis externa, also called swimmer's ear, is inflammation of the ear canal. It often presents with ear pain, swelling of the ear canal, and occasionally decreased hearing. Typically there is pain with movement of the outer ear. A high fever is typically not present except in severe cases.
Otitis externa may be acute ... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 394 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
Tenderness of pinna is the predominant complaint and the only symptom directly related to the severity of acute external otitis. Unlike other forms of ear infections, there is tenderness in outer ear, i.e., the pain of acute external otitis is worsened when the outer ear is touched or pulled gently. Pushing the tragus,... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 369 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
Fungal ear canal infections, also known as otomycosis, range from inconsequential to extremely severe. Fungi can be saprophytic, in which there are no symptoms and the fungus simply co-exists in the ear canal in a commensal relationship with the host, in which case the only physical finding is the presence of a fungus.... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 491 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
Infections
The majority of cases are due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, followed by a great number of other gram-positive and gram-negative species. Candida albicans and Aspergillus species are the most common fungal pathogens responsible for the condition.
Diagnosis
When the ear is inspected, th... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 479 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
The skin of the bony ear canal is unique, in that it is not movable but is closely attached to the bone, and it is almost paper-thin. For these reasons, it is easily abraded or torn by even minimal physical force. Inflammation of the ear canal skin typically begins with a physical insult, most often from injury caused ... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 510 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
Medications
Effective solutions for the ear canal include acidifying and drying agents, used either singly or in combination. When the ear canal skin is inflamed from the acute otitis externa, the use of dilute acetic acid may be painful.
Burow's solution is a very effective remedy against both bacterial and fungal ex... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 475 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
Cleaning
Removal of debris (wax, shed skin, and pus) from the ear canal promotes direct contact of the prescribed medication with the infected skin and shortens recovery time. When canal swelling has progressed to the point where the ear canal is blocked, ear drops may not penetrate far enough into the ear canal to be ... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 348 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
external otitis
Necrotizing external otitis (malignant otitis externa) is an uncommon form of external otitis that occurs mainly in elderly diabetics, being somewhat more likely and more severe when the diabetes is poorly controlled. Even less commonly, it can develop due to a severely compromised immune system. Beginn... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 468 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
The infecting organism is almost always pseudomonas aeruginosa, but it can instead be fungal (aspergillus or mucor). MOE and SBO are not amenable to surgery, but exploratory surgery may facilitate the culture of unusual organism(s) that are not responding to empirically used anti-pseudomonal antibiotics (ciprofloxacin ... | Otitis externa | Wikipedia | 447 | 30871736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20externa | Biology and health sciences | Infectious diseases by site | Health |
The north magnetic pole, also known as the magnetic north pole, is a point on the surface of Earth's Northern Hemisphere at which the planet's magnetic field points vertically downward (in other words, if a magnetic compass needle is allowed to rotate in three dimensions, it will point straight down). There is only one... | North magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 512 | 30871810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
History
Early European navigators, cartographers and scientists believed that compass needles were attracted to a hypothetical "magnetic island" somewhere in the far north (see Rupes Nigra), or to Polaris, the pole star. The idea that Earth itself acts as essentially a giant magnet was first proposed in 1600, by the E... | North magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 397 | 30871810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
Frank O. Klein, the director of the project, noticed that the fluxgate compass did not behave as erratically as expected—it oscillated no more than 1 to 2 degrees over much of the region—and began to study northern terrestrial magnetism. With the cooperation of many of his squadron teammates in obtaining many hundreds ... | North magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 477 | 30871810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
Exploration
The first team of novices to reach the magnetic north pole did so in 1996, led by David Hempleman-Adams. It included the first British woman Sue Stockdale and first Swedish woman to reach the Pole. The team also successfully tracked the location of the Magnetic North Pole on behalf of the University of Otta... | North magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 512 | 30871810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
As a first-order approximation, Earth's magnetic field can be modeled as a simple dipole (like a bar magnet), tilted about 10° with respect to Earth's rotation axis (which defines the geographic north and geographic south poles) and centered at Earth's center. The north and south geomagnetic poles are the antipodal poi... | North magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 349 | 30871810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
The south magnetic pole, also known as the magnetic south pole, is the point on Earth's Southern Hemisphere where the geomagnetic field lines are directed perpendicular to the nominal surface. The Geomagnetic South Pole, a related point, is the south pole of an ideal dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field that most... | South magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 486 | 30871821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
The south magnetic pole has also been estimated by fits to global sets of data such as the World Magnetic Model (WMM) and the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF). For earlier years back to about 1600, the model GUFM1 is used, based on a compilation of data from ship logs.
South geomagnetic pole
Earth's g... | South magnetic pole | Wikipedia | 202 | 30871821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20magnetic%20pole | Physical sciences | Geophysics | Earth science |
The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System. It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water. Although water is thought to reside de... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 507 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Jupiter has powerful storms, often accompanied by lightning strikes. The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water. They are sites of strong upward motion of the air, which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds. The storms form mainly in... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 411 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately ... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 245 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure. The upper clouds, located in the pressure range 0.6–0.9 bar, are made of ammonia ice. Below these ammonia ice clouds, denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide ((NH4)SH) or ammonium sulfide ((NH4)2S, between 1–2 bar) and water (3–7 bar) are thought to exi... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 309 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow, polar aurorae and X-ray emissions. Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere. The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere (800–1000 K) have not been explained ye... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 391 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen () and helium. The helium abundance is relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is , which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value. The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understo... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 429 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Earth- and spacecraft-based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the isotopic ratios in Jupiter's atmosphere. As of July 2003, the accepted value for the deuterium abundance is , which probably represents the primordial value in the protosolar nebula that gave birth to the Solar System. The ratio of nitrogen ... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 383 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows (winds), called jets. The eastward (prograde) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts (going away from the equator), whereas westward (retrograde) jets mark the transition from belts to zones. Such flow velocity patterns mean that the jets' eastward m... | Atmosphere of Jupiter | Wikipedia | 316 | 30873277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Jupiter | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
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