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The Schizanthoideae include annual and biennial plants with tropane alkaloids, without pericyclic fibres, with characteristic hair and pollen grains. The flowers are zygomorphic. The androecium has two stamens and three staminodes, anther dehiscence is explosive. In terms of fruit type, the Schizanthoidae retain the p... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 470 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Capsiceae Dumort
Capsicum L. includes 40 accepted neotropical species
Lycianthes (Dunal) Hassler, some 200 species distributed throughout America and Asia
Datureae G.Don, two genera are perfectly differentiated at both the morphological and molecular levels, Brugmansia includes tree species, while Datura contains he... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 503 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Trianaea Planch. & Linden, six South American species
Subtribe Solandrinae, a monotypical subtribe, differs from Juanulloinae in that its embryos have incumbent cotyledons and semi-inferior ovaries.
Solandra Sw., 10 species from the neotropical regions of America
Lycieae Hunz. has a single genus of woody plants, whi... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 411 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Subtribe Iochrominae (Miers) Hunz., a clade within the Physaleae tribe. contains 37 species, mainly distributed in the Andes, assigned to six genera. The members of this subtribe are characterized by being woody shrubs or small trees with attractive tubular or rotated flowers. They also possess great floral diversity, ... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 481 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Physalis L., the largest genus of the subtribe, with 94 species distributed through the tropical regions of the Americas and with 1 species in China
Quincula Raf. with just 1 species from the south west of the United States and from Mexico
Schraderanthus , monotypic genus from Mexico and Guatemala
Trozelia Raf. with... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 461 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Incertae sedis
The following genera have not yet been placed in any of the recognized subfamilies within the solanaceas (incertae sedis)
Atrichodendron , monotypic genus from Vietnam
Duckeodendron Kuhlmannb, monotypic genus from the Amazon rainforest
Latua , monotypic genus native to Chile
Genera and distribution... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 440 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogenous organic substances produced by plants as a secondary metabolite and which have an intense physiological action on animals even at low doses. Solanaceae are known for having a diverse range of alkaloids. To humans, these alkaloids can be desirable, toxic, or both. The tropanes are t... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 478 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Tropanes: The term "tropane" comes from a genus in which they are found, Atropa (the belladonna genus). Atropa is named after the Greek Fate, Atropos, who cut the thread of life. This nomenclature reflects its toxicity and lethality. They are bicyclic organic nitrogen compounds (IUPAC nomenclature: 8-methyl-8-azabicycl... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 508 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are the most widely used tropane alkaloids in pharmacology and medicine due to their effects on the parasympathetic nervous system. Atropine has a stimulant effect on the central nervous system and heart, whereas scopolamine has a sedative effect. These alkaloids cannot be substituted by any... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 212 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Nicotine: Nicotine (IUPAC nomenclature (S)-3-(1-methylpyrrolidin-2-yl) pyridine) is a pyrrolidine alkaloid produced in large quantities in the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum). Edible Solanaceae such as eggplants, tomatoes, potatoes, and peppers also contain nicotine, but at concentrations 100,000 to 1,000,000 times ... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 463 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
The family Solanaceae contains such important food species as the potato (Solanum tuberosum), the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), the pepper (Capsicum annuum) and the aubergine or eggplant (Solanum melongena). Nicotiana tabacum, originally from South America, is now cultivated throughout the world to produce tobacco.
Ma... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 505 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Solanaceae and the genome
Many of the species belonging to this family, among them tobacco and the tomato, are model organisms that are used for research into fundamental biological questions. One of the aspects of the solanaceas' genomics is an international project that is trying to understand how the same collectio... | Solanaceae | Wikipedia | 201 | 47862520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
The cayenne pepper is a type of Capsicum annuum. It is usually a hot chili pepper used to flavor dishes. Cayenne peppers are a group of tapering, 10 to 25 cm long, generally skinny, mostly red-colored peppers, often with a curved tip and somewhat rippled skin, which hang from the bush as opposed to growing upright. Mos... | Cayenne pepper | Wikipedia | 456 | 47862531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayenne%20pepper | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
In the 19th century, modern cayenne peppers were classified as C. longum, this name was later synonymised with C. frutescens. Cayenne powder, however, has generally been made from the bird's eye peppers, in the 19th century classified as C. minimum.
Varieties
Cayenne peppers are long, tapering, long, generally skinn... | Cayenne pepper | Wikipedia | 397 | 47862531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayenne%20pepper | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
The habanero (; ) is a pungent cultivar of Capsicum chinense chili pepper. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature. The most common color variants are orange and red, but the fruit may also be white, brown, yellow, green, or purple. Typically, a ripe habanero is long. Habanero chilis are very hot, ra... | Habanero | Wikipedia | 451 | 47862537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habanero | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
In 1999, the habanero was listed by Guinness World Records as the world's hottest chili, but it has since been displaced by other peppers. The heat of the habanero does not immediately take effect, but sets in over a period of a few minutes and lasts up to an hour in the mouth. The heat can sometimes be felt in the eso... | Habanero | Wikipedia | 394 | 47862537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habanero | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
Several growers have attempted to selectively breed habanero plants to produce hotter, heavier, and larger peppers. Most habaneros rate between 200,000 and 300,000 on the Scoville scale. In 2004, researchers in Texas created a mild version of the habanero, but retained the traditional aroma and flavor. The milder versi... | Habanero | Wikipedia | 295 | 47862537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habanero | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
The pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) or toor dal is a perennial legume from the family Fabaceae native to the Eastern Hemisphere. The pigeon pea is widely cultivated in tropical and semitropical regions around the world, being commonly consumed in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean.
Etymolo... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 449 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
In India the plant is known by various different names such as
Assamese: ৰহৰ মাহ (rohor mah), মিৰি মাহ (miri-mah)
Bengali: অড়হর (arahar)
Gujarati: તુવેર (tuver)
Hindi: अरहर (arhar), तुवर (tuvar)
Kannada: ತೊಗರಿ ಬೆಳೆ (togari bele), ತೊಗರಿ ಕಾಳು (togari kalu)
Konkani: तोरी (tori)
Malayalam: ആഢകി (adhaki), തുവര (tuv... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 511 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
History and origin
Origin
The closest relatives to the cultivated pigeon pea are Cajanus cajanifolia, Cajanus scarabaeoides and Cajanus kerstingii, native to India and the latter West Africa respectively. Much debate exist over the geographical origin of the species, with some groups claiming origin from the Nile rive... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 482 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Methionine + Cystine combination is the only limiting amino acid combination in pigeon pea. In contrast to the mature seeds, the immature seeds are generally lower in all nutritional values, however they contain a significant amount of vitamin C (39 mg per 100 g serving) and have a slightly higher fat content. Research... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 501 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. With the maize crop failing three out of five years in drought-prone areas of Kenya, a consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea ... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 268 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Pests and diseases
Pigeon pea is affected by a variety of pests and insects that can significantly impact crop yield and quality. They can infest the plant from seedling stage till harvest, therefore pests and diseas are the primary cause for low yields. The major pests are moths include the gram pod borer (Helicoverp... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 377 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Pigeonpea is unique among legumes in that its flowers support both cross-pollination and self-pollination. The bright, nectar-rich flowers attract pollinating insects, allowing natural outcrossing, which averages about 20% but varies with location due to pollinator populations. This level of outcrossing can lead to gen... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 495 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Various methodologies exist in order to remove the pulse from its shell. In earlier days hand pounding was common. Several traditional methods are used that can be broadly classified under two categories: the wet method and the dry method. The Wet method Involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. The Dry method ... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 452 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
In the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, pigeon peas are the main ingredient of a very popular dish called "KBL" - an acronym for "Kadyos" (pigeon pea), "Baboy" (pork), and "Langka" (jackfruit). It is a savory soup with rich flavors coming from the pigeon peas, smoked pork preferably the legs or tail, and sour... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 492 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Unlike in some other parts of the Greater Caribbean, in The Bahamas pigeon peas are used in dried form, light brown in color to make the heartier, heavier, signature Bahamian staple dish "Peas 'n Rice."
Oceania
In Hawaii they are used to make a dish called gandule rice, also called godule rice, gundule rice, and gandu... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 241 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Pigeon pea has been valued for its medicinal properties since prehistoric times in various regions, including Africa, Egypt and Asia. Today, different countries use different parts of the plant to treat a range of diseases as an alternative medicine. In the Republic of Congo the Kongo, Lari, and Dondo people use the sa... | Pigeon pea | Wikipedia | 417 | 47863693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20pea | Biology and health sciences | Pulses | Plants |
Cumin (, ; ; Cuminum cyminum) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native to the Irano-Turanian Region. Its seeds – each one contained within a fruit, which is dried – are used in the cuisines of many cultures in both whole and ground form. Although cumin is used in traditional medicine, there is no high-qualit... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 484 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
Cumin is sometimes confused with caraway (Carum carvi), another spice in the parsley family (Apiaceae). Many European and Asian languages do not distinguish clearly between the two; for example, in Indonesia both are called . Many Slavic and Uralic languages refer to cumin as "Roman caraway" or "spice caraway". The dis... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 480 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
Climatic requirements
Cumin is a drought-tolerant tropical or subtropical crop. It is vulnerable to frost and has a growth season of 120 frost-free days. The optimum growth temperature ranges are between . The Mediterranean climate is most suitable for its growth. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of th... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 385 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing. For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of . The seeds are then... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 511 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. The leaf area index of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and the short statu... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 510 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
Cumin can be used ground or as whole seeds. It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili. It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries.
Traditional
In India, the seeds are powdered and us... | Cumin | Wikipedia | 380 | 47863730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin | Biology and health sciences | Apiales | null |
Kepler-442b (also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-4742.01) is a confirmed near-Earth-sized exoplanet, likely rocky, orbiting within the habitable zone of the K-type main-sequence star Kepler-442, about from Earth in the constellation of Lyra.
The planet orbits its host star at a distance of ab... | Kepler-442b | Wikipedia | 486 | 44970293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-442b | Physical sciences | Notable exoplanets | Astronomy |
Orbit
Kepler-442b orbits its host star with an orbital period of 112 days. It has an orbital radius of about (slightly larger than the distance of Mercury from the Sun, which is approximately ). It receives about 70% of Earth's sunlight from the Sun.
Habitability
The planet is in the habitable zone of its star, a ... | Kepler-442b | Wikipedia | 442 | 44970293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-442b | Physical sciences | Notable exoplanets | Astronomy |
One review essay in 2015 concluded that Kepler-442b, Kepler-186f, and Kepler-62f were likely the best candidates for being potentially habitable planets. Also, according to an index developed in 2015, Kepler-442b is even more likely to be habitable than a hypothetical "Earth twin" with physical and orbital parameters m... | Kepler-442b | Wikipedia | 482 | 44970293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-442b | Physical sciences | Notable exoplanets | Astronomy |
The James Webb Space Telescope and future large ground-based telescopes can then study nearby stars with planets to analyze atmospheres, determine masses, and infer compositions. Additionally, the Square Kilometer Array would significantly improve radio observations over the Arecibo Observatory and Green Bank Telescope... | Kepler-442b | Wikipedia | 54 | 44970293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-442b | Physical sciences | Notable exoplanets | Astronomy |
Clinical neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the scientific study of fundamental mechanisms that underlie diseases and disorders of the brain and central nervous system. It seeks to develop new ways of conceptualizing and diagnosing such disorders and ultimately of developing novel treatments.
A ... | Clinical neuroscience | Wikipedia | 409 | 31926330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical%20neuroscience | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Rethinking curricula to break down intellectual silos
Training translational neuroscientists and clinical investigators
Investigating biomarkers
Improving psychiatric diagnosis
Developing a “Framingham Study of Brain Disorders” (i.e. longitudinal cohort for central nervous system disease)
Identifying developmenta... | Clinical neuroscience | Wikipedia | 451 | 31926330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical%20neuroscience | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Neuropsychiatry is a field that connects the mind and the brain, looking at how both affect each other. It combines ideas from both neurology (the study of the brain and nervous system) and psychiatry (the study of mental health), and focuses on treating problems related to thinking, emotions, and behavior that come fr... | Clinical neuroscience | Wikipedia | 180 | 31926330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical%20neuroscience | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Artificial life (ALife or A-Life) is a field of study wherein researchers examine systems related to natural life, its processes, and its evolution, through the use of simulations with computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. The discipline was named by Christopher Langton, an American computer scientist, in 1986. ... | Artificial life | Wikipedia | 499 | 36122619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20life | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Techniques
Cellular automata were used in the early days of artificial life, and are still often used for ease of scalability and parallelization. Alife and cellular automata share a closely tied history.
Artificial neural networks are sometimes used to model the brain of an agent. Although traditionally more of a... | Artificial life | Wikipedia | 413 | 36122619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20life | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Mathematical models of complex systems are of three types: black-box (phenomenological), white-box (mechanistic, based on the first principles) and grey-box (mixtures of phenomenological and mechanistic models). In black-box models, the individual-based (mechanistic) mechanisms of a complex dynamic system remain hidden... | Artificial life | Wikipedia | 507 | 36122619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20life | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Biochemical-based life is studied in the field of synthetic biology. It involves research such as the creation of synthetic DNA. The term "wet" is an extension of the term "wetware". Efforts toward "wet" artificial life focus on engineering live minimal cells from living bacteria Mycoplasma laboratorium and in building... | Artificial life | Wikipedia | 360 | 36122619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20life | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
Related subjects
Agent-based modeling is used in artificial life and other fields to explore emergence in systems.
Artificial intelligence has traditionally used a top down approach, while alife generally works from the bottom up.
Artificial chemistry started as a method within the alife community to abstract the p... | Artificial life | Wikipedia | 267 | 36122619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20life | Biology and health sciences | Biology basics | Biology |
The guppy (), also known as millionfish or the rainbow fish, is one of the world's most widely distributed tropical fish and one of the most popular freshwater aquarium fish species. It is a member of the family Poeciliidae and, like almost all American members of the family, is live-bearing. Guppies originate from nor... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 334 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Distribution and habitat
Guppies are native to Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Brazil, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. However, guppies have been introduced to many different countries on every continent except Antarctica. Sometimes this has occurred accidentally, but most often as a means of mosquito contro... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 446 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Two generations of guppies per year occur in the wild. Guppies are well developed and capable of independent existence without further parental care by the time they are born. Young guppies school together and perform anti-predator tactics. Brood size is extremely variable, yet some consistent differences exist among p... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 435 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Population regulations
In addition to senescence pattern, resource availability and density also matter in regulation of guppy populations. Guppies reduce their fecundity and reproductive allocation in response to scarce food. When food is abundant, they increase brood size. Differential reproductive allocation can be ... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 405 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Inbreeding avoidance
Inbreeding ordinarily has negative fitness consequences (inbreeding depression), and as a result species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. Numerous inbreeding avoidance... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 472 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Female mating choice may also be influenced by another female's choice. In an experiment, female guppies watched two males, one solitary and the other actively courting another female, and were given a choice between the two. Most females spent a longer time next to the male that was courting. Female guppies' preferenc... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 457 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Risk-taking behaviors such as predator inspection can be evolutionarily stable only when a mechanism prevents selfish individuals from taking advantage of "altruistic" individuals. Guppies may adopt a conditional-approach strategy that resembles tit for tat. According to this hypothesis, guppies would inspect the preda... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 341 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Feeding
Wild guppies feed on algal remains, diatoms, invertebrates, zooplankton, detritus, plant fragments, mineral particles, aquatic insect larvae, and other sources. Algal remains constitute the biggest proportion of wild guppy diet in most cases, but diets vary depending on the specific conditions of food availabil... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 495 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Guppies are highly prolific livebearers. The gestation period of guppies varies considerably, ranging from 20 to 60 days at 25 to 27 C and depending on several environmental factors. Reproduction typically continues through the year, and the female becomes ready for conception again quickly after parturition. Male gupp... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 485 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Guppies prefer a hard-water aquarium with a temperature between and salt levels equivalent to one tablespoon per . They can withstand levels of salinity up to 150% that of normal seawater, which has led to them being occasionally included in marine tropical community tanks, as well as in freshwater tropical tanks. Gup... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 277 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Well-fed adults do not often eat their own young, although sometimes safe zones are required for the fry. Specially designed livebearer birthing tanks, which can be suspended inside the aquarium, are available from aquatic retailers. These also serve to shield the pregnant female from further attention from the males, ... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 437 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Fin rot
Fin rot is primarily caused by bacterial infections, although fungal infections can also be a culprit. The condition manifests through the progressive decay or fraying of the fins, often accompanied by discoloration, usually turning the edges of the fins white, black, or red. The primary causative agents of fi... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 452 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
Several factors can contribute to the onset of swim bladder disease. Overfeeding is a common cause, leading to constipation which may press against the swim bladder. Bacterial or viral infections affecting the swim bladder can also trigger this condition. Physical injury or congenital deformities of the swim bladder ar... | Guppy | Wikipedia | 65 | 23398075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guppy | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | null |
A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the number of daylight hours in a given region. On Earth, seasons are the result of the axial parallelism of Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight th... | Season | Wikipedia | 493 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
The Earth's orbit exhibits approximate axial parallelism, maintaining its direction toward Polaris (the "North Star") year-round. This is one of the primary reasons for the Earth's seasons, as illustrated by the diagram to the right. Minor variation in the direction of the axis, known as axial precession, takes place o... | Season | Wikipedia | 460 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Elliptical Earth orbit
Compared to axial parallelism and axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth's distance to the Sun because of its elliptical orbit. In fact, Earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the S... | Season | Wikipedia | 438 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
The tropical and (to a lesser degree) subtropical regions see little annual fluctuation of sunlight and temperature due to Earth's moderate 23.4-degree tilt being insufficient to appreciably affect the strength of the sun's rays annually. The slight differences between the solstices and the equinoxes cause seasonal shi... | Season | Wikipedia | 431 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
The four seasons have been in use since at least Roman times, as in Rerum rusticarum of Varro Varro says that spring, summer, autumn, and winter start on the 23rd day of the sun's passage through Aquarius, Taurus, Leo, and Scorpio, respectively. Nine years before he wrote, Julius Caesar had reformed the calendar, so Va... | Season | Wikipedia | 383 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
In Sweden and Finland, meteorologists and news outlets use the concept of thermal seasons, which are defined based on mean daily temperatures. The beginning of spring is defined as when the mean daily temperature permanently rises above 0 °C. The beginning of summer is defined as when the temperature permanently rises ... | Season | Wikipedia | 458 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Astronomical timing as the basis for designating the temperate seasons dates back at least to the Julian Calendar used by the ancient Romans. As mentioned above, Varro wrote that spring, summer, autumn, and winter start on the 23rd day of the sun's passage through Aquarius, Taurus, Leo, and Scorpio, respectively, and t... | Season | Wikipedia | 410 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse (with eccentricity exaggerated for effect) goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis—nearest point to the sun) on anywhere fro... | Season | Wikipedia | 503 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Currently, the most common equinox and solstice dates are March 20, June 21, September 22 or 23, and December 21; the four-year average slowly shifts to earlier times as a century progresses. This shift is a full day in about 128 years (compensated mainly by the century "leap year" rules of the Gregorian calendar); as ... | Season | Wikipedia | 417 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. This was the case with the seasons described by the Roman scholar Varro (see above). It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by the Celts, and is still ceremonially observed ... | Season | Wikipedia | 490 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
In the Hindu calendar of tropical and subtropical India, there are six seasons or Ritu that are calendar-based in the sense of having fixed dates: Vasanta (spring), Grishma (summer), Varsha (monsoon), Sharada (autumn), Hemanta (early winter), and Shishira (prevernal or late winter). The six seasons are ascribed to two ... | Season | Wikipedia | 274 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Modern mid-latitude ecological
Six ecological seasons can be distinguished without fixed calendar-based dates like the meteorological and astronomical seasons. Oceanic regions tend to experience the beginning of the hibernal season up to a month later than continental climates. Conversely, prevernal and vernal seasons ... | Season | Wikipedia | 394 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
Indigenous people in polar, temperate and tropical climates of northern Eurasia, the Americas, Africa, Oceania, and Australia have traditionally defined the seasons ecologically by observing the activity of the plants, animals and weather around them. Each separate tribal group traditionally observes different seasons ... | Season | Wikipedia | 489 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
In the tropical parts of Australia in the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory, wet and dry seasons are observed in addition to or in place of temperate season names.
Three seasons
The most historically important of these are the three seasons—flood, growth, and low water—which ... | Season | Wikipedia | 397 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern polar region, the sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last ... | Season | Wikipedia | 449 | 24873453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season | Physical sciences | Earth science | null |
The Red Deer Cave people were a prehistoric population of modern humans known from bones dated to between about 17,830 to c. 11,500 years ago, found in Red Deer Cave (Maludong, ) and Longlin Cave in Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces, in Southwest China.
The fossils exhibit a mix of archaic and modern features and were tent... | Red Deer Cave people | Wikipedia | 489 | 35072403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Deer%20Cave%20people | Biology and health sciences | Homo | Biology |
The dating of the bones has led to confusion and division among researchers. The anatomy of the bones, prior to successful DNA testing, suggested they were archaic humans, like early Homo erectus or Homo habilis who lived around 1.5 million years ago in Africa. In 2013, Curnoe, Ji, and colleagues hypothesised that the ... | Red Deer Cave people | Wikipedia | 414 | 35072403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Deer%20Cave%20people | Biology and health sciences | Homo | Biology |
Curnoe's previous works showed the bones and teeth were remarkably similar to that of archaic humans. The height of the mandibular symphysis at is within the range of modern humans, and the thickness at the range of Neanderthals and Middle Palaeolithic modern humans. The mental foramina (a hole in the mandible) is pl... | Red Deer Cave people | Wikipedia | 358 | 35072403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Deer%20Cave%20people | Biology and health sciences | Homo | Biology |
Classification
There was much initial speculation that the Red Deer Cave people represent an archaic human lineage, though researchers proved reluctant to classify them as an otherwise unknown, or little-known, species. The remains from Red Deer Cave bear morphological similarlities to archaic hominid lineages such as... | Red Deer Cave people | Wikipedia | 359 | 35072403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Deer%20Cave%20people | Biology and health sciences | Homo | Biology |
A mobile application or app is a computer program or software application designed to run on a mobile device such as a phone, tablet, or watch. Mobile applications often stand in contrast to desktop applications which are designed to run on desktop computers, and web applications which run in mobile web browsers rather... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 478 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Some apps are freeware, while others have a price, which can be upfront or a subscription. Some apps also include microtransactions and/or advertising. In any case, the revenue is usually split between the application's creator and the app store. The same app can, therefore, cost a different price depending on the mobi... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 481 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Native app
All apps targeted toward a particular mobile platform are known as native apps. Therefore, an app intended for Apple device does not run in Android devices. As a result, most businesses develop apps for multiple platforms.
While developing native apps, professionals incorporate best-in-class user interface ... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 483 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Mobile user interface (UI) Design is also essential. Mobile UI considers constraints and contexts, screen, input and mobility as outlines for design. The user is often the focus of interaction with their device, and the interface entails components of both hardware and software. User input allows for the users to manip... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 480 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Apple's App Store for iOS and iPadOS was not the first app distribution service, but it ignited the mobile revolution and was opened on July 10, 2008, and as of September 2016, reported over 140 billion downloads. The original AppStore was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs in 1993 by Jesse Tayler at NeXTWorld Expo As of... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 262 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Amazon Appstore is an alternative application store for the Android operating system. It was opened in March 2011 and as of June 2015, the app store has nearly 334,000 apps. The Amazon Appstore's Android Apps can also be installed and run on BlackBerry 10 devices.
BlackBerry World is the application store for BlackBer... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 466 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
App wrapping vs. native app management
Especially when employees "bring your own device" (BYOD), mobile apps can be a significant security risk for businesses, because they transfer unprotected sensitive data to the Internet without knowledge and consent of the users. Reports of stolen corporate data show how quickly c... | Mobile app | Wikipedia | 306 | 33496160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20app | Technology | Computer software | null |
Agrometeorology is the study of weather and use of weather and climate information to enhance or expand agricultural crops or to increase crop production. Agrometeorology mainly involves the interaction of meteorological and hydrological factors, on one hand and agriculture, which encompasses horticulture, animal husba... | Agrometeorology | Wikipedia | 467 | 46383767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrometeorology | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis in which the results of many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to reproduce. Because the reproducibility of empirical results is an essential part of the scientific method, such failures undermine the credibility of theories building on them and po... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 457 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
A hypothesis is generally considered to be supported when the results match the predicted pattern and that pattern of results is found to be statistically significant. Results are considered significant whenever the relative frequency of the observed pattern falls below an arbitrarily chosen value (i.e. the significanc... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 378 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
As testing for full statistical independence is difficult, the full null hypothesis is often reduced to a simplified null hypothesis "the effect size is 0", where "effect size" is a real number that is 0 if the full null hypothesis is true, and the larger the effect size is, the more the null hypothesis is false. For e... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 483 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Statistical power, true positive rate, is the probability of finding the alternative to be true when the alternative hypothesis is true:where is also called the false negative rate. For example, when the test is a one-sided threshold test, then .
Given a statistical test and a data set , the corresponding p-value is ... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 256 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Controversies around social priming research: In the early 2010s, the well-known "elderly-walking" study by social psychologist John Bargh and colleagues failed to replicate in two direct replications. This experiment was part of a series of three studies that had been widely cited throughout the years, was regularly t... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 509 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In the social sciences, the blog Data Colada (whose three authors coined the term "p-hacking" in a 2014 paper) has been credited with contributing to the start of the replication crisis.
University of Virginia professor and cognitive psychologist Barbara A. Spellman has written that many criticisms of research practic... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 429 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In August 2015, the first open empirical study of reproducibility in psychology was published, called The Reproducibility Project: Psychology. Coordinated by psychologist Brian Nosek, researchers redid 100 studies in psychological science from three high-ranking psychology journals (Journal of Personality and Social Ps... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 477 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Results of a 2022 study suggest that many earlier brain–phenotype studies ("brain-wide association studies" (BWAS)) produced invalid conclusions as the replication of such studies requires samples from thousands of individuals due to small effect sizes.
In medicine
Of 49 medical studies from 1990 to 2003 with more t... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 403 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In economics
Economics has lagged behind other social sciences and psychology in its attempts to assess replication rates and increase the number of studies that attempt replication. A 2016 study in the journal Science replicated 18 experimental studies published in two leading economics journals, The American Economi... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 511 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In 2021, a study conducted by University of California, San Diego found that papers that cannot be replicated are more likely to be cited. Nonreplicable publications are often cited more even after a replication study is published.
Causes
There are many proposed causes for the replication crisis.
Historical and soci... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 361 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Publication bias
A major cause of low reproducibility is the publication bias stemming from the fact that statistically non-significant results and seemingly unoriginal replications are rarely published. Only a very small proportion of academic journals in psychology and neurosciences explicitly welcomed submissions o... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 498 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Mathematical errors
Even high-impact journals have a significant fraction of mathematical errors in their use of statistics. For example, 11% of statistical results published in Nature and BMJ in 2001 are "incongruent", meaning that the reported p-value is mathematically different from what it should be if it were cor... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 392 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Philosopher Brian D. Earp and psychologist Jim A. C. Everett argue that, although replication is in the best interests of academics and researchers as a group, features of academic psychological culture discourage replication by individual researchers. They argue that performing replications can be time-consuming, and ... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 473 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Procedural bias
By the Duhem-Quine thesis, scientific results are interpreted by both a substantive theory and a theory of instruments. For example, astronomical observations depend both on the theory of astronomical objects and the theory of telescopes. A large amount of non-replicable research might accumulate if th... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 495 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
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