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Instead, estimating many statistical models (known as data dredging), selective reporting only statistically significant findings, and HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known) are examples of questionable research practices. In medicine, irreproducible studies have six features in common: investigators not being... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 422 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Low statistical power
According to Deakin University professor Tom Stanley and colleagues, one plausible reason studies fail to replicate is low statistical power. This happens for three reasons. First, a replication study with low power is unlikely to succeed since, by definition, it has a low probability to detect a... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 492 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
The same statistical test with the same significance level will have lower statistical power if the effect size is small under the alternative hypothesis. Complex inheritable traits are typically correlated with a large number of genes, each of small effect size, so high power requires a large sample size. In particula... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 501 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Another problem with meta-analysis is that bad studies are "infectious" in the sense that one bad study might cause the entire meta-analysis to overestimate statistical significance.
P-hacking
Various statistical methods can be applied to make the p-value appear smaller than it really is. This need not be malicious,... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 427 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Optional stopping is a practice where one collects data until some stopping criterion is reached. Though a valid procedure, it is easily misused. The problem is that p-value of an optionally stopped statistical test is larger than it seems. Intuitively, this is because the p-value is supposed to be the sum of all event... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 400 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Statistical heterogeneity
As also reported by Stanley and colleagues, a further reason studies might fail to replicate is high heterogeneity of the to-be-replicated effects. In meta-analysis, "heterogeneity" refers to the variance in research findings that results from there being no single true effect size. Instead, ... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 390 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In their analysis of 200 meta-analyses of psychological effects, Stanley and colleagues found a median percent of heterogeneity of I-squared = 74%. According to the authors, this level of heterogeneity can be considered "huge". It is three times larger than the random sampling variance of effect sizes measured in their... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 471 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Bayesian explanation
In the framework of Bayesian probability, by Bayes' theorem, rejecting the null hypothesis at significance level 5% does not mean that the posterior probability for the alternative hypothesis is 95%, and the posterior probability is also different from the probability of replication. Consider a si... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 373 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Furthermore, when the null hypothesis is rejected, it might not be evidence for the substantial alternative hypothesis. In soft sciences, many hypotheses can predict a correlation between two variables. Thus, evidence against the null hypothesis "there is no correlation" is no evidence for one of the many alternative h... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 375 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Base rate fallacy
According to philosopher Alexander Bird, a possible reason for the low rates of replicability in certain scientific fields is that a majority of tested hypotheses are false a priori. On this view, low rates of replicability could be consistent with quality science. Relatedly, the expectation that mos... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 487 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
When effects are wrongly stated as relevant in the literature, failure to detect this by replication will lead to the canonization of such false facts.
A 2021 study found that papers in leading general interest, psychology and economics journals with findings that could not be replicated tend to be cited more over tim... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 450 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Credibility revolution
Some researchers in psychology indicate that the replication crisis is a foundation for a "credibility revolution", where changes in standards by which psychological science are evaluated may include emphasizing transparency and openness, preregistering research projects, and replicating researc... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 419 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Meta-research continues to be conducted to identify the roots of the crisis and to address them. Methods of addressing the crisis include pre-registration of scientific studies and clinical trials as well as the founding of organizations such as CONSORT and the EQUATOR Network that issue guidelines for methodology and ... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 512 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
The journal Psychological Science has encouraged the preregistration of studies and the reporting of effect sizes and confidence intervals. The editor in chief also noted that the editorial staff will be asking for replication of studies with surprising findings from examinations using small sample sizes before allowin... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 483 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Although statisticians are unanimous that the use of "p < 0.05" as a standard for significance provides weaker evidence than is generally appreciated, there is a lack of unanimity about what should be done about it. Some have advocated that Bayesian methods should replace p-values. This has not happened on a wide scale... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 457 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Cross-validation
One common statistical problem is overfitting, that is, when researchers fit a regression model over a large number of variables but a small number of data points. For example, a typical fMRI study of emotion, personality, and social cognition has fewer than 100 subjects, but each subject has 10,000 v... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 434 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Replication database
There has been a concern that replication attempts have been growing. As a result, this may lead to lead to research waste. In turn, this has led to a need to systematically track replication attempts. As a result, several databases have been created (e.g.). The databases have created a Replicatio... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 486 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Emphasize triangulation, not just replication
Psychologist Marcus R. Munafò and Epidemiologist George Davey Smith argue, in a piece published by Nature, that research should emphasize triangulation, not just replication, to protect against flawed ideas. They claim that,
Complex systems paradigm
The dominant scienti... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 413 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Open data, open source software and open source hardware all are critical to enabling reproducibility in the sense of validation of the original data analysis. The use of proprietary software, the lack of the publication of analysis software and the lack of open data prevents the replication of studies. Unless software... | Replication crisis | Wikipedia | 381 | 44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In geometry, a motion is an isometry of a metric space. For instance, a plane equipped with the Euclidean distance metric is a metric space in which a mapping associating congruent figures is a motion. More generally, the term motion is a synonym for surjective isometry in metric geometry, including elliptic geometry a... | Motion (geometry) | Wikipedia | 474 | 36132944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20%28geometry%29 | Mathematics | Geometry: General | null |
History
An early appreciation of the role of motion in geometry was given by Alhazen (965 to 1039). His work "Space and its Nature" uses comparisons of the dimensions of a mobile body to quantify the vacuum of imaginary space. He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use of motion ... | Motion (geometry) | Wikipedia | 431 | 36132944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20%28geometry%29 | Mathematics | Geometry: General | null |
In 1914 D. M. Y. Sommerville used the idea of a geometric motion to establish the idea of distance in hyperbolic geometry when he wrote Elements of Non-Euclidean Geometry. He explains:
By a motion or displacement in the general sense is not meant a change of position of a single point or any bounded figure, but a displ... | Motion (geometry) | Wikipedia | 455 | 36132944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20%28geometry%29 | Mathematics | Geometry: General | null |
Climate change is greatly impacting Canada's environment and landscapes. Extreme weather has become more frequent and severe because of the continued release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The number of climate change–related events, such as the 2021 British Columbia Floods and an increasing number of forest ... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 507 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The WRI's Climate Analysis Indicators Tool estimates that, between 1950 and 2000, Canada had the highest greenhouse gas emissions per capita of any first world countries. In 2020, of all the G20 countries, Canada was second only to Saudi Arabia for greenhouse gas emissions per capita.
Canada has one of the heaviest cl... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 489 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Canadian domestic aviation industry, represented largely by the country's two main airlines (Air Canada and Westjet), produced 7.1 Mt COeq in 2017 and account for 1% of Canada's total greenhouse gas emission.
Fossil fuel production
The most pollutant industry in terms of GHG emissions in Canada is the oil and ga... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 494 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
According to Environment and Climate Change Canada "warming over the 20th century is indisputable and largely due to human activities" adding "Canada's rate of warming is about twice the global rate: a 2° C increase globally means a 3 to 4 °C increase for Canada".
ECCC lists impacts of climate change consistent with g... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 496 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The extreme weather events of greatest concern in Canada include heavy rain and snow falls, heat waves, and drought. They are linked to flooding and landslides, water shortages, forest fires, reduced air quality, as well as costs related to damage to property and infrastructure, business disruptions, and increased illn... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 469 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
As to 2019, climate change has already increased wildfires frequency and power in Canada, especially in Alberta. "We are seeing climate change in action," says University of Alberta wildland fire Prof. Mike Flannigan. "The Fort McMurray fire was to six times more likely because of climate change. The 2017 record-break... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 494 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Public Health Agency of Canada reported that the number of reported Lyme disease cases in Canada increased from 144 cases in 2009 to 2,025 cases in 2017. Dr. Duncan Webster, an infectious disease consultant at Saint John Regional Hospital, links this increase in disease incidence to the increase in the population o... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 330 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Inuit are also losing their access to ringed seal and polar bears, two key animals that are essential to the traditional Inuit diet. Climate change has led to drastic drops in the ringed seal population, which has led to serious harm to the Inuit subsistence winter economy. The ringed seal is the most prevalent sub... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 461 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Wood industry
Climate change causes challenges for the sustainable management and conservation of forests. It will have a direct impact on the productivity of the wood industry, as well as the health and regeneration of trees. The assisted migration of forests has been proposed as way to help the wood industry adapt t... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 428 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change, Trudeau's national climate strategy, was released in August 2017. Provincial premiers (except Saskatchewan and Manitoba) adopted the proposal on December 9, 2016. The core of the proposal is to implement carbon pricing regimes nationwide. The federal minister o... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 468 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Canada is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol. However, the Liberal government that later signed the accord took little action towards meeting Canada's greenhouse gas emission targets. Although Canada committed itself to a 6% reduction below the 1990 levels for the 2008–2012 as a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the coun... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 441 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In the mid-2000s, mitigation measures in some provinces moved forward, though the federal government under Stephen Harper was did not develop a federal monitoring and credible reduction regime. Several provincial governments established programs to reduce emissions in their respective territories. These measure were la... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 485 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In November 2015, Premier Rachel Notley unveiled plans to increase the province's carbon tax to $20 per tonne in 2017, increasing further to $30 per tonne by 2018. This policy shift came about partly because of the rejection of the Keystone XL pipeline, which the premier likened to a "kick in the teeth". The province's... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 497 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In August 2007, the Ontario government released Go Green: Ontario's Action Plan on Climate Change. The plan established three targets: a 6% reduction in emissions by 2014, 15% by 2020 and 80% by 2050. The government has committed to report annually on the actions it is taking to reduce emissions and adapt to climate ch... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 426 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
On June 7, 2018, the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario under Doug Ford was elected to a majority government. Since then there has been a great deal of controversy regarding the environmental policies of his government. Among the changes to environmental policy by Ford's government were the withdrawal of Ontario... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 474 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
On November 23, 2009, the Quebec government pledged to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 20% below the 1990 base year level by 2020, a goal similar to that adopted by the European Union. The government intends to achieve its target by promoting public transit, electric vehicles and intermodal freight transport. Th... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 472 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In a 2021 survey, Nanos Research found that 30% of Canadians reported that climate change was their top worry, 2nd place behind inflation (36%) and ahead of the COVID-19 pandemic (29%).
Canadians think the threat posed by climate change is higher than their United States counterparts do, but slightly below the median ... | Climate change in Canada | Wikipedia | 511 | 24886645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Canada | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the surroundings through the detection of stimuli. Although, in some cultures, five human senses were traditionally identified as such (namely sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing), many more are now recogni... | Sense | Wikipedia | 500 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Sensory organs are organs that sense and transduce stimuli. Humans have various sensory organs (i.e. eyes, ears, skin, nose, and mouth) that correspond to a respective visual system (sense of vision), auditory system (sense of hearing), somatosensory system (sense of touch), olfactory system (sense of smell), and gusta... | Sense | Wikipedia | 365 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Sensory modality refers to the way that information is encoded, which is similar to the idea of transduction. The main sensory modalities can be described on the basis of how each is transduced. Listing all the different sensory modalities, which can number as many as 17, involves separating the major senses into more ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 417 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
The cells that interpret information about the environment can be either (1) a neuron that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites embedded in tissue that would receive a sensation; (2) a neuron that has an encapsulated ending in which the sensory nerve endings are encapsulated in connective tissue that enhances their ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 431 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they transduce. The different types of functional receptor cell types are mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors (osmoreceptor), thermoreceptors, electroreceptors (in certain mammals and fish), and nociceptors. Physical stimuli, suc... | Sense | Wikipedia | 478 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Signal detection theory quantifies the experience of the subject to the presentation of a stimulus in the presence of noise. There is internal noise and there is external noise when it comes to signal detection. The internal noise originates from static in the nervous system. For example, an individual with closed eyes... | Sense | Wikipedia | 452 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Perception occurs when nerves that lead from the sensory organs (e.g. eye) to the brain are stimulated, even if that stimulation is unrelated to the target signal of the sensory organ. For example, in the case of the eye, it does not matter whether light or something else stimulates the optic nerve, that stimulation wi... | Sense | Wikipedia | 508 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Some examples of human absolute thresholds for the nine to 21 external senses.
Multimodal perception
Humans respond more strongly to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together, an effect called the superadditive effect of multisensory integration. Neurons that respond to both visual and ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 480 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
The three types of cone opsins, being sensitive to different wavelengths of light, provide us with color vision. By comparing the activity of the three different cones, the brain can extract color information from visual stimuli. For example, a bright blue light that has a wavelength of approximately 450 nm would activ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 492 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
According to Gestalt psychology, people perceive the whole of something even if it is not there. The Gestalt's Law of Organization states that people have seven factors that help to group what is seen into patterns or groups: Common Fate, Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Symmetry, Continuity, and Past Experience.
The L... | Sense | Wikipedia | 376 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that is made possible by the structures of the ear. The large, fleshy structure on the lateral aspect of the head is known as the auricle. At the end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane, or ear drum, which vibrates after it is stru... | Sense | Wikipedia | 488 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Auditory cognitive psychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that is dedicated to the auditory system. The main point is to understand why humans are able to use sound in thinking outside of actually saying it.
Relating to auditory cognitive psychology is psychoacoustics. Psychoacoustics is more directed at peopl... | Sense | Wikipedia | 497 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Low frequency vibrations are sensed by mechanoreceptors called Merkel cells, also known as type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors. Merkel cells are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings foun... | Sense | Wikipedia | 487 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Salty and sour taste submodalities are triggered by the cations and , respectively. The other taste modalities result from food molecules binding to a G protein–coupled receptor. A G protein signal transduction system ultimately leads to depolarization of the gustatory cell. The sweet taste is the sensitivity of gusta... | Sense | Wikipedia | 439 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or the olfactory system, is also responsive to chemical stimuli. Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory receptors (388 functional ones according to one 2003 study), each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of features and, thus,... | Sense | Wikipedia | 432 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
The vestibular sense, or sense of balance (equilibrium), is the sense that contributes to the perception of balance (equilibrium), spatial orientation, direction, or acceleration (equilibrioception). Along with audition, the inner ear is responsible for encoding information about equilibrium. A similar mechanoreceptor—... | Sense | Wikipedia | 499 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
An internal sensation and perception also known as interoception is "any sense that is normally stimulated from within the body". These involve numerous sensory receptors in internal organs. Interoception is thought to be atypical in clinical conditions such as alexithymia.
Specific receptors include:
Hunger is gove... | Sense | Wikipedia | 485 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely.
Smell
An example of smell in non-mammals is that of sharks, which combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine the direction ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 331 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Vision
Cats have the ability to see in low light, which is due to muscles surrounding their irides–which contract and expand their pupils–as well as to the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image.
Pit vipers, pythons and some boas have organs that allow them to detect infrared light, such that ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 373 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Magnetoception (or magnetoreception) is the ability to detect the direction one is facing based on the Earth's magnetic field. Directional awareness is most commonly observed in birds, which rely on their magnetic sense to navigate during migration. It has also been observed in insects such as bees. Cattle make use of ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 466 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
A dolphin can detect electric fields in water using electroreceptors in vibrissal crypts arrayed in pairs on its snout and which evolved from whisker motion sensors. These electroreceptors can detect electric fields as weak as 4.6 microvolts per centimeter, such as those generated by contracting muscles and pumping gil... | Sense | Wikipedia | 249 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in various families of snakes. Essentially, it allows these reptiles to "see" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm to a degree of accuracy such that a blind rattlesnake can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it strikes. It w... | Sense | Wikipedia | 497 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the gas bladder to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the weather fish and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they ... | Sense | Wikipedia | 452 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
However, plants can perceive the world around them, and might be able to emit airborne sounds similar to "screaming" when stressed. Those noises could not be detectable by human ears, but organisms with a hearing range that can hear ultrasonic frequencies—like mice, bats or perhaps other plants—could hear the plants' c... | Sense | Wikipedia | 510 | 23416874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense | Biology and health sciences | Biology | null |
Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is conventionally called the electrostatic force or Coulomb force. Although the law was known earlier, it was first publish... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 473 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
In 1600, English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the Neo-Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 486 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
The torsion balance consists of a bar suspended from its middle by a thin fiber. The fiber acts as a very weak torsion spring. In Coulomb's experiment, the torsion balance was an insulating rod with a metal-coated ball attached to one end, suspended by a silk thread. The ball was charged with a known charge of static e... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 491 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
For a linear charge distribution (a good approximation for charge in a wire) where gives the charge per unit length at position , and is an infinitesimal element of length,
For a surface charge distribution (a good approximation for charge on a plate in a parallel plate capacitor) where gives the charge per unit ar... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 477 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
An electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space the Coulomb force experienced by a unit test charge. The strength and direction of the Coulomb force on a charge depends on the electric field established by other charges that it finds itself in, such that . In the simplest case, the field i... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 390 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
Deriving Coulomb's law from Gauss's law
Strictly speaking, Coulomb's law cannot be derived from Gauss's law alone, since Gauss's law does not give any information regarding the curl of (see Helmholtz decomposition and Faraday's law). However, Coulomb's law can be proven from Gauss's law if it is assumed, in addition,... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 418 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
This form of solutions need not obey Newton's third law as is the case in the framework of special relativity (yet without violating relativistic-energy momentum conservation). Note that the expression for electric field reduces to Coulomb's law for non-relativistic speeds of the point charge and that the magnetic fiel... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 483 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
It is possible to verify Coulomb's law with a simple experiment. Consider two small spheres of mass and same-sign charge , hanging from two ropes of negligible mass of length . The forces acting on each sphere are three: the weight , the rope tension and the electric force . In the equilibrium state:
and
Dividing ... | Coulomb's law | Wikipedia | 270 | 26288711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s%20law | Physical sciences | Electrostatics | null |
Reperfusion therapy is a medical treatment to restore blood flow, either through or around, blocked arteries, typically after a heart attack (myocardial infarction (MI)). Reperfusion therapy includes drugs and surgery. The drugs are thrombolytics and fibrinolytics used in a process called thrombolysis. Surgeries perfor... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 412 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
Myocardial infarction
Thrombolytic therapy is indicated for the treatment of STEMI – if it can begin within 12 hours of the onset of symptoms, and the person is eligible based on exclusion criteria, and a coronary angioplasty is not immediately available. Thrombolysis is most effective in the first 2 hours. After 12 ho... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 454 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
Failure
Thrombolytic therapy to abort a myocardial infarction is not always effective. The degree of effectiveness of a thrombolytic agent is dependent on the time since the myocardial infarction began, with the best results occurring if the thrombolytic is used within two hours of the onset of symptoms. Failure rates ... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 299 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
The benefit of prompt, primary angioplasty over thrombolytic therapy for acute STEMI is now well established. When performed rapidly, an angioplasty restores flow in the blocked artery in more than 95% of patients compared with the reperfusion rate of about 65% achieved by thrombolysis. Logistic and economic obstacles... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 396 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
A PCI involves performing a coronary angiogram to determine the location of the infarcting vessel, followed by balloon angioplasty (and frequently deployment of an intracoronary stent) of the stenosed arterial segment. In some settings, an extraction catheter may be used to attempt to aspirate (remove) the thrombus pr... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 467 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
Coronary artery bypass surgery involves an artery or vein from the patient being implanted to bypass narrowings or occlusions in the coronary arteries. Several arteries and veins can be used, however internal mammary artery grafts have demonstrated significantly better long-term patency rates than great saphenous vein ... | Reperfusion therapy | Wikipedia | 219 | 26293276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion%20therapy | Biology and health sciences | Treatments | Health |
Marine chemistry, also known as ocean chemistry or chemical oceanography, is the study of the chemical composition and processes of the world’s oceans, including the interactions between seawater, the atmosphere, the seafloor, and marine organisms. This field encompasses a wide range of topics, such as the cycling of e... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 363 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
DOM is a critical component of the ocean's carbon pool and includes many molecules such as amino acids, sugars, and lipids. It represents about 90% of the total organic carbon in marine environments. Colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) is estimated to range from 20-70% of the carbon content of the oceans, being hig... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 488 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Several different metabolisms are present in hydrothermal vent ecosystems. Many marine microorganisms, including Thiomicrospira, Halothiobacillus, and Beggiatoa, are capable of oxidizing sulfur compounds, including elemental sulfur and the often toxic compound H2S. H2S is abundant in hydrothermal vents, formed through ... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 427 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Seafloor spreading on mid-ocean ridges is a global scale ion-exchange system. Hydrothermal vents at spreading centers introduce various amounts of iron, sulfur, manganese, silicon and other elements into the ocean, some of which are recycled into the ocean crust. Helium-3, an isotope that accompanies volcanism from the... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 486 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
The early 20th century saw significant advancements in marine chemistry, particularly with more accurate analytical techniques. Scientists like Martin Knudsen created the Knudsen Bottle, an instrument used to collect water samples from different ocean depths. Over the past three decades (1970s, 19802, and 1990s), a com... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 444 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Advanced analytical equipment such as mass spectrometers and chromatographs are applied to detect trace elements, isotopes, and organic compounds. This allows for precisely measuring nutrients, gases, and pollutants in marine environments. In recent years, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and remote sensing techno... | Marine chemistry | Wikipedia | 125 | 23423919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20chemistry | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
The Corsican Donkey, , , is a breed of domestic donkey from the Mediterranean island of Corsica, a région and territorial collectivity of France. It is not recognised by the Ministère de l'agriculture, de l'agroalimentaire et de la forêt, the French ministry of agriculture, or by the Haras Nationaux, the French nationa... | Corsican donkey | Wikipedia | 336 | 43282386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican%20donkey | Biology and health sciences | Donkeys | Animals |
The ocean temperature plays a crucial role in the global climate system, ocean currents and for marine habitats. It varies depending on depth, geographical location and season. Not only does the temperature differ in seawater, so does the salinity. Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar w... | Ocean temperature | Wikipedia | 444 | 31961126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20temperature | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Deep ocean water is the name for cold, salty water found deep below the surface of Earth's oceans. Deep ocean water makes up about 90% of the volume of the oceans. Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature of around 0-3°C. Its salinity is about 3.5% or 35 ppt (parts per thousand).
Relevance
Ocean temperature an... | Ocean temperature | Wikipedia | 485 | 31961126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20temperature | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
There are various devices to measure ocean temperatures at different depths. These include the Nansen bottle, bathythermograph, CTD, or ocean acoustic tomography. Moored and drifting buoys also measure sea surface temperatures. Examples are those deployed by the Global Drifter Program and the National Data Buoy Center... | Ocean temperature | Wikipedia | 463 | 31961126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20temperature | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Varying temperatures associated with sunlight and air temperatures at different latitudes cause ocean currents. Prevailing winds and the different densities of saline and fresh water are another cause of currents. Air tends to be warmed and thus rise near the equator, then cool and thus sink slightly further poleward. ... | Ocean temperature | Wikipedia | 408 | 31961126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20temperature | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science |
Cell polarity refers to spatial differences in shape, structure, and function within a cell. Almost all cell types exhibit some form of polarity, which enables them to carry out specialized functions. Classical examples of polarized cells are described below, including epithelial cells with apical-basal polarity, neuro... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 456 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
A neuron receives signals from neighboring cells through branched, cellular extensions called dendrites. The neuron then propagates an electrical signal down a specialized axon extension from the basal pole to the synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to propagate the signal to another neuron or effector cell (... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 280 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
Budding yeast
The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a model system for eukaryotic biology in which many of the fundamental elements of polarity development have been elucidated. Yeast cells share many features of cell polarity with other organisms, but feature fewer protein components. In yeast, polarity is ... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 401 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
The bodies of vertebrate animals are asymmetric along three axes: anterior-posterior (head to tail), dorsal-ventral (spine to belly), and left-right (for example, our heart is on the left side of our body). These polarities arise within the developing embryo through a combination of several processes: 1) asymmetric cel... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 254 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
Molecular basis
Cell polarity arises primarily through the localization of specific proteins to specific areas of the cell membrane. This localization often requires both the recruitment of cytoplasmic proteins to the cell membrane and polarized vesicle transport along cytoskeletal filaments to deliver transmembrane pr... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 369 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
Spontaneous symmetry breaking can be explained by amplification of stochastic fluctuations of molecules due to non-linear chemical kinetics. The mathematical basis for this biological phenomenon was established by Alan Turing in his 1953 paper 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis.' While Turing initially attempted to e... | Cell polarity | Wikipedia | 360 | 21942008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20polarity | Biology and health sciences | Cell processes | Biology |
Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an import... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 406 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
History
The 2018 book 'Pharming animals: a global history of antibiotics in food production (1935–2017)' summarises the central role antibiotics have played in agriculture: "Since their advent during the 1930s, antibiotics have not only had a dramatic impact on human medicine, but also on food production. On farms, wha... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 271 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
The use of antibiotics to treat and prevent disease has followed a similar path to that used in human medicine in terms of therapeutic and metaphylactic applications to treat and manage disease and improve population health, and the application of case-by-case strategic preventative treatments when animals are deemed a... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 327 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
Growth stimulation
In 1910 in the United States, a meat shortage resulted in protests and boycotts. After this and other shortages, the public demanded government research into stabilization of food supplies. Since the 1900s, livestock production on United States farms has had to rear larger quantities of animals over ... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 502 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
Bacteria can alter their genetic inheritance through two main ways, either by mutating their genetic material or acquiring a new one from other bacteria. The latter being the most important for causing antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains in animals and humans. One of the methods bacteria can obtain new genes is throu... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 351 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
The European Medicines Agency (EMA) Antimicrobial Advice Ad Hoc Expert Group (AMEG) also published an updated categorisation of different antibiotics in veterinary medicine by the antibiotic resistance risk to humans of using them alongside the need to treat disease in animals for health and welfare reasons. The catego... | Antibiotic use in livestock | Wikipedia | 326 | 40364158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20use%20in%20livestock | Technology | Animal husbandry | null |
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