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Unbiquadium, also known as element 124 or eka-uranium, is a hypothetical chemical element; it has placeholder symbol Ubq and atomic number 124. Unbiquadium and Ubq are the temporary IUPAC name and symbol, respectively, until the element is discovered, confirmed, and a permanent name is decided upon. In the periodic tab...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	476	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
The team reported that they had been able to identify compound nuclei fissioning with half-lives > 10−18 s. This result suggests a strong stabilizing effect at Z = 124 and points to the next proton shell at Z > 120, not at Z = 114 as previously thought. A compound nucleus is a loose combination of nucleons that have no...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	340	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Possible natural occurrence A study in 1976 by a group of American researchers from several universities proposed that primordial superheavy elements, mainly livermorium, unbiquadium, unbihexium, and unbiseptium, could be a cause of unexplained radiation damage (particularly radiohalos) in minerals. Unbiquadium was the...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	398	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Naming Using the 1979 IUPAC recommendations, the element should be temporarily called unbiquadium (symbol Ubq) until it is discovered, the discovery is confirmed, and a permanent name chosen. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendatio...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	393	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
The production of new superheavy elements will require projectiles heavier than 48Ca, which was successfully used in the discovery of elements 114–118, though this necessitates more symmetric reactions which are less favorable. Hence, it is likely that the reactions between 58Fe and a 249Cf or 251Cf target are most pr...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	332	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Unbiquadium is of interest to researchers because of its possible location near the center of an island of stability, a theoretical region comprising longer-lived superheavy nuclei. Such an island of stability was first proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg, specifically predicting a region of st...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	272	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
In this region of the periodic table, N = 184 and N = 228 have been proposed as closed neutron shells, and various atomic numbers have been proposed as closed proton shells, including Z = 124. The island of stability is characterized by longer half-lives of nuclei located near these magic numbers, though the extent of ...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	330	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Increasingly short spontaneous fission half-lives of superheavy nuclei and the possible domination of fission over alpha decay will also probably determine the stability of unbiquadium isotopes. While some fission half-lives constituting a "sea of instability" may be on the order of 10−18 s as a consequence of very low...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	468	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
One predicted oxidation state of unbiquadium is +6, which would exist in the halides UbqX6 (X = a halogen), analogous to the known +6 oxidation state in uranium. Like the other early superactinides, the binding energies of unbiquadium's valence electrons are predicted to be small enough that all six should easily parti...	Unbiquadium	Wikipedia	102	59107356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbiquadium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Unbihexium, also known as element 126 or eka-plutonium, is a hypothetical chemical element; it has atomic number 126 and placeholder symbol Ubh. Unbihexium and Ubh are the temporary IUPAC name and symbol, respectively, until the element is discovered, confirmed, and a permanent name is decided upon. In the periodic tab...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	485	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Possible natural occurrence A study in 1976 by a group of American researchers from several universities proposed that primordial superheavy elements, mainly livermorium, unbiquadium, unbihexium, and unbiseptium, with half-lives exceeding 500 million years could be a cause of unexplained radiation damage (particularly ...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	476	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
The possible extent of primordial superheavy elements on Earth today is uncertain. Even if they are confirmed to have caused the radiation damage long ago, they might now have decayed to mere traces, or even be completely gone. It is also uncertain if such superheavy nuclei may be produced naturally at all, as spontane...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	322	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Prospects for future synthesis Every element from mendelevium onward was produced in fusion-evaporation reactions, culminating in the discovery of the heaviest known element, oganesson, in 2002 and most recently tennessine in 2010. These reactions approached the limit of current technology; for example, the synthesis o...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	440	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Extensions of the nuclear shell model predicted that the next magic numbers after Z = 82 and N = 126 (corresponding to 208Pb, the heaviest stable nucleus) were Z = 126 and N = 184, making 310Ubh the next candidate for a doubly magic nucleus. These speculations led to interest in the stability of unbihexium as early as ...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	294	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Earlier models suggested the existence of long-lived nuclear isomers resistant to spontaneous fission in the region near 310Ubh, with half-lives on the order of millions or billions of years. However, more rigorous calculations as early as the 1970s yielded contradictory results; it is now believed that the island of s...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	295	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
A "sea of instability" defined by very low fission barriers (caused by greatly increasing Coulomb repulsion in superheavy elements) and consequently fission half-lives on the order of 10−18 seconds is predicted across various models. Although the exact limit of stability for half-lives over one microsecond varies, stab...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	386	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
Chemical Unbihexium is expected to be the sixth member of a superactinide series. It may have similarities to plutonium, as both elements have eight valence electrons over a noble gas core. In the superactinide series, the Aufbau principle is expected to break down due to relativistic effects, and an overlap of the ene...	Unbihexium	Wikipedia	477	59107367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbihexium	Physical sciences	Periods	Chemistry
2I/Borisov, originally designated C/2019 Q4 (Borisov), is the first observed rogue comet and the second observed interstellar interloper after ʻOumuamua. It was discovered by the Crimean amateur astronomer and telescope maker Gennadiy Borisov on 29 August 2019 UTC (30 August local time). 2I/Borisov has a heliocentric ...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	491	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
Unlike ʻOumuamua, which had an asteroidal appearance, 2I/Borisov's nucleus was surrounded by a coma, a cloud of dust and gas. Size and shape Early estimates of nucleus 2I/Borisov diameter have ranged from . 2I/Borisov has, unlike Solar System comets, noticeably shrunk during Solar System flyby, losing at least 0.4% ...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	509	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
The 2I/Borisov has also produced a minor amount of neutral nickel emission attributed to an unknown volatile compound of nickel. The nickel to iron abundance ratio is similar to Solar System comets. Trajectory As seen from Earth, the comet was in the northern sky from September until mid-November. It crossed the ecl...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	465	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
Discovery The comet was discovered on 30 August 2019 by amateur astronomer Gennadiy Borisov at his personal observatory MARGO in Nauchnyy, Crimea, using a 0.65 meter telescope he designed and built himself. The discovery has been compared to the discovery of Pluto by Clyde Tombaugh. Tombaugh was also an amateur astron...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	373	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
The last observations were in July 2020, seven months after perihelion. Observation of 2I/Borisov was aided by the fact that the comet was detected while inbound towards the Solar System. ʻOumuamua had been discovered as it was leaving the system, and thus could only be observed for 80 days before it was out of range. ...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	466	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
The comet did come within about 2 AU of the Sun, a distance at which many small comets have been found to disintegrate. The probability that a comet disintegrates strongly depends on the size of its nucleus; Guzik et al. estimated a probability of 10% that this would happen to 2I/Borisov. Jewitt and Luu compared 2I/Bor...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	321	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
The high hyperbolic excess velocity of 2I/Borisov of makes it hard for a spacecraft to reach the comet with existing technology: according to a team of the Initiative for Interstellar Studies, a 202 kg (445 lb) spacecraft could theoretically have been sent in July 2018 to intercept 2I/Borisov using a Falcon Heavy-clas...	2I/Borisov	Wikipedia	214	61747300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2I/Borisov	Physical sciences	Other notable objects	Astronomy
Neon compounds are chemical compounds containing the element neon (Ne) with other molecules or elements from the periodic table. Compounds of the noble gas neon were believed not to exist, but there are now known to be molecular ions containing neon, as well as temporary excited neon-containing molecules called excimer...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	506	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
Van der Waals molecules formed with organic molecules in gas include aniline, dimethyl ether, 1,1-difluoroethylene, pyrimidine, chlorobenzene, cyclopentanone, cyanocyclobutane, and cyclopentadienyl. Ligands Neon can form a very weak bond to a transition metal atom as a ligand, for example Cr(CO)5Ne, Mo(CO)5Ne, and W(C...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	451	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
Neon atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes such as C60 and C70. The isotope 22Ne is strongly enriched in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, by more than 1,000 times its occurrence on Earth. This neon is given off when a meteorite is heated. An explanation for this is that originally when carbon was condensing from the...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	425	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
Neon is pushed into crystals of ammonium iron formate (NH4Fe(HCOO)3) and ammonium nickel formate (NH4Ni(HCOO)3) at 1.5 GPa to yield Ne•NH4Fe(HCOO)3 and Ne•NH4Ni(HCOO)3. The neon atoms become trapped in a cage of five metal triformate units. The windows in the cages are blocked by ammonium ions. Argon does not undergo t...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	507	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
A neon containing molecular anion was unknown for a long time. In 2020 the observation of the molecular anion [B12(CN)11Ne]− was reported. The vacant boron in the anions [B12(CN)11]− is very electrophilic and is able to bind the neon. [B12(CN)11Ne]− was found to be stable up to 50 K and lies significantly above the N...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	434	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
Excimers The molecule exists in an excited state in an excimer lamp using a microhollow cathode. This emits strongly in the vacuum ultraviolet between 75 and 90 nm with a peak at 83 nm. There is a problem in that there is no window material suitable to transmit these short wavelengths, so it must be used in a vacuum. ...	Neon compounds	Wikipedia	421	50530370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds	Physical sciences	Noble gas compounds	Chemistry
486958 Arrokoth (provisional designation ; formerly nicknamed Ultima Thule) is a trans-Neptunian object located in the Kuiper belt. Arrokoth became the farthest and most primitive object in the Solar System visited by a spacecraft when the NASA space probe New Horizons conducted a flyby on 1 January 2019. Arrokoth is a...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	510	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
In November 2019, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) announced the object's permanent official name, Arrokoth. Arrokoth The name Arrokoth was chosen by the New Horizons team to represent the Powhatan people indigenous to the Tidewater region of Virginia and Maryland in the eastern United States. The Hubble S...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	503	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Prior to the New Horizons flyby of Arrokoth, stellar occultations by Arrokoth had provided evidence for its bilobate shape. The first detailed image of Arrokoth confirmed its double-lobed appearance and was described as a "snowman" by Alan Stern, as the lobi appeared distinctively spherical. On 8 February 2019, one mon...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	469	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Preliminary observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2016 revealed that Arrokoth has a red coloration, similar to other Kuiper belt objects and centaurs like Pholus. Arrokoth's color is redder than that of Pluto, thus it belongs to the "ultra red" population of cold classical Kuiper belt objects. The red coloratio...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	446	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Craters The surface of Arrokoth is lightly cratered and smooth in appearance. Arrokoth's surface has few small craters (from in size to the limits of photographic resolution), implying a paucity of impacts throughout its history. The occurrence of impact events in the Kuiper belt is thought to be uncommon, with a ver...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	379	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
The smaller lobus, Weeyo, bears a large depression feature named 'Sky' (previously dubbed 'Maryland' after the home state of the New Horizons team). Assuming Sky has a circular shape, its diameter is , with a depth of . Sky is likely an impact crater that was formed by an object across. Two notably bright streaks of s...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	470	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Akasa Linea, the neck region connecting the two lobi, has a brighter and less red appearance than the surfaces of either lobus. The brightness of Akasa Linea is likely due to a composition of a more reflective material than the surfaces of the lobi. One hypothesis suggests the bright material originated in the depositi...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	332	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Internal structure Topography variations at the limb of Arrokoth suggest that its interior is likely composed of mechanically strong material consisting of mostly amorphous water ice and rocky material. Trace amounts of methane and other volatile gases in the form of vapors may also be present in Arrokoth's interior, ...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	447	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Having an observation arc of 851 days, Arrokoth's orbit is fairly well-determined, with an uncertainty parameter of 2 according to the Minor Planet Center. Hubble Space Telescope observations in May and July 2015 as well as in July and October 2016 have greatly reduced the uncertainties in Arrokoth's orbit, which promp...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	442	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Upon the New Horizons spacecraft's approach to Arrokoth, no rotational light curve amplitude was detected by the spacecraft despite Arrokoth's irregular shape. To explain the lack of its rotational light curve, scientists surmised that Arrokoth is rotating on its side, with its rotational axis pointing nearly directly ...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	509	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Arrokoth is thought to have formed from two separate progenitor objects that formed over time from a rotating cloud of small, icy bodies since the formation of the Solar System 4.6 billion years ago. Arrokoth had likely formed in a colder environment within a dense, opaque region of the early Kuiper belt where the Sun ...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	424	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
In an alternative hypothesis formulated by researchers of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Max Planck Institute in 2020, the flattening of Arrokoth may have resulted from the process of sublimation-driven mass loss over a timescale of several million years after the merging of the lobi. At the time of formation,...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	437	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Arrokoth was discovered on 26 June 2014 using the Hubble Space Telescope during a preliminary survey to find a suitable Kuiper belt object for the New Horizons spacecraft to fly by. Scientists of the New Horizons team were searching for an object in the Kuiper belt that the spacecraft could study after Pluto, and their...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	359	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
Arrokoth is too small and distant for its shape to be observed directly from Earth, but scientists were able to take advantage of an astronomical event called a stellar occultation, in which the object passes in front of a star from the vantage point of Earth. Since the occultation event is only visible from certain pa...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	489	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around Arrokoth, setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of Arrokoth at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based "fence line" of 24 mobile telescop...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	364	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
There were two potentially useful Arrokoth occultations predicted for 2018: one on 16 July and one on 4 August. Neither of these were as good as the three 2017 events. No attempts were made to observe the 16 July 2018 occultation, which took place over the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. For the 4 August 2018 even...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	507	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
The science objectives of the flyby include characterizing the geology and morphology of Arrokoth, and mapping the surface composition (searching for ammonia, carbon monoxide, methane, and water ice). Surveys of the surrounding environment to detect possible orbiting moonlets, a coma, or rings, were conducted. Images w...	486958 Arrokoth	Wikipedia	319	44163394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958%20Arrokoth	Physical sciences	Solar System	Astronomy
The imperial and US customary measurement systems are both derived from an earlier English system of measurement which in turn can be traced back to Ancient Roman units of measurement, and Carolingian and Saxon units of measure. The US Customary system of units was developed and used in the United States after the Ame...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	461	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
After the United States Declaration of Independence the units of measurement in the United States developed into what is now known as customary units. The United Kingdom overhauled its system of measurement in 1826, when it introduced the imperial system of units. This resulted in the two countries having different gal...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	445	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
During Saxon times land was measured both in terms of its economic value and in terms of its size. The Domesday Book used the hide, an economic unit of measure. In other references the furlong and the rood appear to be units related to ploughing procedures. Of particular interest was the rood which was 15 North German ...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	484	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
During the medieval era, agricultural products other than wool were mostly sold by volume, with various bushels and gallons being introduced over the years for different commodities. In the early fourteenth century the wool trade traditionally used the avoirdupois system of weights, a process that was formalized by Edw...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	456	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
The British Weights and Measures Act 1824 repealed all existing British weights and measures legislation, some dating back to the 1300s, and redefined existing units of measure. In particular, a new standard yard and troy pound were manufactured as the standards for length and weight respectively. A new measure, the im...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	430	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
The Weights and Measures Act 1878 overhauled the inspection regime of weights and measures used in trade. The act also reaffirmed the use of the brass standard yard and platinum standard pound as the standards for use in the United Kingdom, reaffirmed the use of apothecaries measures in the pharmaceutical industry, rea...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	498	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
After the passage of the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act 1897, weights and measures in the United Kingdom remained relatively unchanged until after the Second World War. By the middle of the century the difference of 2 parts per million between the British and US standard yards was causing problems—in 1900 a t...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	490	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
Prior to the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies that were to become the United States used the English system of measurement. The Articles of Confederation, which predated the Constitution, gave the central government "the sole and exclusive right and power of...fixing the Standard...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	478	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
Throughout the nineteenth century individual states developed their own standards and in particular a variety of bushels based on weight (mass) rather than volume emerged, dependent on both commodity and state. This lack of uniformity crippled inter-state trade and in 1905 the National Bureau of Standards called a mee...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	436	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
During the twentieth century the principal change in the customary system of weights and measures was an agreement between NIST and the corresponding bodies in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and the United Kingdom, signed in 1960, that redefined the yard and the pound in terms of the metre and the kilogra...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	475	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
Other systems for the measurement of dynamic quantities that used imperial and US customary units are the British Gravitational System (BG) proposed by Arthur Mason Worthington and the English Engineering System (EE). Both systems depend on the gravitational acceleration, and use the pound-force as the unit of force bu...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	331	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
The standard yard and [Troy] pound were lost in 1834 when a fire partially destroyed the Palace of Westminster. Following a report published in 1841 by a commission, a new standard yard and pound were manufactured using the best available secondary sources. Unlike the previous standard, the new pound standard, made of ...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	335	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
In 1866 the United States government legalised use of metric units in contract law, defining them in terms of the equivalent customary units to five significant figures, which was sufficient for purposes of trade. In 1893, under the Mendenhall Order the United States abandoned the 1855 yard as a standard of length and ...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	428	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
Prior to 1960 the imperial and customary yard and the pound were sufficiently close to each other that for most practical purposes the differences in the sizes of units of length, area, volume and mass could be disregarded, though there were differences in usage - for example, in the United States short road distances ...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	511	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
The US Customary system of units makes use of set of dry units of capacity that have a similar set of names to those of liquid capacity, though different volumes: the dry pint having a volume of 33.6 cubic inches (550 ml) against the US fluid pint's volume of 28.875 cubic inches (473 ml) and the imperial pint of 34.68 ...	Imperial and US customary measurement systems	Wikipedia	487	39913055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20and%20US%20customary%20measurement%20systems	Physical sciences	Measurement systems	Basics and measurement
In fluid dynamics, Berman flow is a steady flow created inside a rectangular channel with two equally porous walls. The concept is named after a scientist Abraham S. Berman who formulated the problem in 1953. Flow description Consider a rectangular channel of width much longer than the height. Let the distance between...	Berman flow	Wikipedia	410	54210779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berman%20flow	Physical sciences	Fluid mechanics	Physics
A hypernova is a very energetic supernova which is believed to result from an extreme core collapse scenario. In this case, a massive star (>30 solar masses) collapses to form a rotating black hole emitting twin astrophysical jets and surrounded by an accretion disk. It is a type of stellar explosion that ejects materi...	Hypernova	Wikipedia	279	52880788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernova	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	Astronomy
In February 1997, Dutch-Italian satellite BeppoSAX was able to trace GRB 970508 to a faint galaxy roughly 6 billion light years away. From analyzing the spectroscopic data for both the GRB 970508 and its host galaxy, Bloom et al. concluded in 1998 that a hypernova was the likely cause. That same year, hypernovae were h...	Hypernova	Wikipedia	492	52880788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernova	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	Astronomy
The archetypal hypernova, SN 1998bw, was associated with GRB 980425. Its spectrum showed no hydrogen and no clear helium features, but strong silicon lines identified it as a type Ic supernova. The main absorption lines were extremely broadened and the light curve showed a very rapid brightening phase, reaching the bri...	Hypernova	Wikipedia	417	52880788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernova	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	Astronomy
A star with a core mass slightly below this level — in the range of — will undergo a supernova explosion, but so much of the ejected mass falls back onto the core remnant that it still collapses into a black hole. If such a star is rotating slowly, then it will produce a faint supernova, but if the star is rotating qu...	Hypernova	Wikipedia	451	52880788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernova	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	Astronomy
Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration. A main ...	Open source	Wikipedia	412	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
In 1911, independent automaker Henry Ford won a challenge to the Selden patent. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association) was formed. The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among ...	Open source	Wikipedia	286	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Open source as a term emerged in the late 1990s by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position. In addition, the ambiguity of the term...	Open source	Wikipedia	499	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Some economists agree that open-source is an information good or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero costthis is referred to as the marginal cost of a product...	Open source	Wikipedia	497	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Many open-source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open-source projects are: The rank given is based on the activity regarding projects in online discussions, on GitHub, on search activity in search engines and on the in...	Open source	Wikipedia	382	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration, meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contribu...	Open source	Wikipedia	480	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym). As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial bar...	Open source	Wikipedia	421	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But Eric Raymond and other founders of the open-source movement have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside soft...	Open source	Wikipedia	467	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Open-source hardware is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These com...	Open source	Wikipedia	410	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Open-source colas – cola soft drinks, similar to Coca-Cola and Pepsi, whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages keep their formulas secret and unknown to the general public. Free Beer (originally ...	Open source	Wikipedia	503	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Research – The Science Commons was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc. Research – The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field (OSOTF) is a grid-connected photovoltaic test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modul...	Open source	Wikipedia	238	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats. Open-design – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential. Open-source appropriate te...	Open source	Wikipedia	507	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Open Source Ecology, farm equipment and global village construction kit.	Open source	Wikipedia	12	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
"Open" versus "free" versus "free and open" Free and open-source software (FOSS) or free/libre and open-source software (FLOSS) is openly shared source code that is licensed without any restrictions on usage, modification, or distribution. Confusion persists about this definition because the "free", also known as "lib...	Open source	Wikipedia	326	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
List of free and open-source software packages Open-source license, a copyright license that makes the source code available with a product The Open Source Definition, as used by the Open Source Initiative for open source software Open-source model, a decentralized software development model that encourages open col...	Open source	Wikipedia	195	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Agriculture, economy, manufacturing and production Open-source appropriate technology (OSAT), is designed for environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, economic, and community aspects Open-design movement, development of physical products, machines and systems via publicly shared design information, inclu...	Open source	Wikipedia	371	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Science and medicine Open science, the movement to make scientific research, data and dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring society, amateur or professional Open science data, a type of open data focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze ...	Open source	Wikipedia	278	59126142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20source	Technology	Basics_4	null
Certain lithium compounds, also known as lithium salts, are used as psychiatric medication, primarily for bipolar disorder and for major depressive disorder. Lithium is taken orally (by mouth). Common side effects include increased urination, shakiness of the hands, and increased thirst. Serious side effects include h...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	505	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Bipolar disorder Lithium is primarily used as a maintenance drug in the treatment of bipolar disorder to stabilize mood and prevent manic episodes, but it may also be helpful in the acute treatment of manic episodes. Although recommended by treatment guidelines for the treatment of depression in bipolar disorder, the e...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	468	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
While SSRIs have been mentioned above as a drug class in which lithium is used to augment, there are other classes in which lithium is added to increase effectiveness. Such classes are antipsychotics (used for bipolar disorder) as well as antiepileptic drugs (used for both psychiatric and epileptic cases). Lamotrigine ...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	327	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Alzheimer's disease affects forty-five million people and is the fifth leading cause of death in the 65-plus population. There is no complete cure for the disease, currently. However, lithium is being evaluated for its effectiveness as a potential therapeutic measure. One of the leading causes of Alzheimer's is the hyp...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	395	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Monitoring Those who use lithium should receive regular serum level tests and should monitor thyroid and kidney function for abnormalities, as it interferes with the regulation of sodium and water levels in the body, and can cause dehydration. Dehydration, which is compounded by heat, can result in increasing lithium l...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	496	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Discontinuation symptoms may occur in patients stopping the medication including irritability, restlessness, and somatic symptoms like vertigo, dizziness, or lightheadedness. Symptoms occur within the first week and are generally mild and self-limiting within weeks. Cluster headaches, migraine, and hypnic headache Stu...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	511	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Hypothyroidism The rate of hypothyroidism is around six times higher in people who take lithium. Low thyroid hormone levels in turn increase the likelihood of developing depression. People taking lithium thus should routinely be assessed for hypothyroidism and treated with synthetic thyroxine if necessary. Because lit...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	482	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
As the risks of stopping Lithium can be significant, patients are sometimes recommended to stay on this medicine while pregnant. Careful weighing of the risks and benefits should be made in consultation with a psychiatric physician. For patients who are exposed to lithium, or plan to stay on the medication throughout...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	457	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Hyperparathyroidism Lithium-associated hyperparathyroidism is the leading cause of hypercalcemia in lithium-treated patients. Lithium may lead to exacerbation of pre-existing primary hyperparathyroidism or cause an increased set-point of calcium for parathyroid hormone suppression, leading to parathyroid hyperplasia. ...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	506	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
High doses of haloperidol, fluphenazine, or flupenthixol may be hazardous when used with lithium; irreversible toxic encephalopathy has been reported. Indeed, these and other antipsychotics have been associated with an increased risk of lithium neurotoxicity, even with low therapeutic lithium doses. Classical psychede...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	456	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Lithium both directly and indirectly inhibits GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) which results in the activation of mTOR. This leads to an increase in neuroprotective mechanisms by facilitating the Akt signaling pathway. GSK-3β is a downstream target of monoamine systems. As such, it is directly implicated in cognitio...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	473	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Oxidative metabolism Evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is present in patients with bipolar disorder. Oxidative stress and reduced levels of anti-oxidants (such as glutathione) lead to cell death. Lithium may protect against oxidative stress by up-regulating complexes I and II of the mitochondrial electro...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	394	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
GABA receptors GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays an important role in regulating dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission. It was found that patients with bipolar disorder had lower GABA levels, which results in excitotoxicity and can cause apoptosis (cell loss). Lithium has been shown to increase the l...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	485	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Neurotrophic factors Lithium's actions on Gsk3 result in activation of CREB, leading to higher expression of BDNF. (Valproate, another mood stabilizer, also increases the expression of BDNF.) As expected of increased BDNF expression, chronic lithium treatment leads to increased grey matter volume in brain areas implic...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	400	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Also in 1949, the Australian psychiatrist John Cade and Australian biochemist Shirley Andrews rediscovered the usefulness of lithium salts in treating mania while working at the Royal Park Psychiatric Hospital in Victoria. They were injecting rodents with urine extracts taken from manic patients in an attempt to isolat...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	385	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health
Lithium has now become a part of Western popular culture. Characters in Pi, Premonition, Stardust Memories, American Psycho, Garden State, and An Unmarried Woman all take lithium. It's the chief constituent of the calming drug in Ira Levin's dystopian This Perfect Day. Sirius XM Satellite Radio in North America has a...	Lithium (medication)	Wikipedia	450	39923620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20%28medication%29	Biology and health sciences	Psychiatric drugs	Health

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