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Conservation
The green iguana is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade is regulated through the CITES permit system. In addition, the green iguana is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, with a mention of habitat depletion from... | Green iguana | Wikipedia | 341 | 42814957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20iguana | Biology and health sciences | Reptiles | null |
India was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected by climate change in 2019. India emits about 3 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about two and a half tons per person, which is less than the world average. The country emits 7% of global emissions, despite having 17% of the world pop... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 505 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Electricity generation
As of September 2021 India generates 39.8% of its electricity from renewable energy sources and 60.2% of its electricity from fossil fuels of which 51% is generated from coal.
Coal fired power stations
As well as coal mining in India, the country also imports coal to burn in coal-fired power s... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 497 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Meghalaya and other northeastern states are concerned that rising sea levels will submerge much of Bangladesh and spawn a refugee crisis. If severe climate changes occurs, Bangladesh and parts of India that border it may lose vast tracts of coastal land.
Thousands of people have been displaced by ongoing sea level ris... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 501 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Health impacts
Air pollution, which reflects sunlight, and irrigation, which cools the air by evaporation, have counteracted climate change since 1970. These two factors do however increase the impact of heat waves, as both lead to increased mortality.
Heat waves
Heat waves' frequency and power are increasing in In... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 510 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
By the year 2050, India is expected to witness a significant increase in climate-related displacement, with around 45 million people compelled to migrate from their homes due to climate disasters. This number is three times higher than the current count of individuals being displaced because of extreme weather events. ... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 506 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
India has made significant strides in the energy sector and the country is now a global leader in renewable energy.
Policies and legislation
The Indian Government as well as various state governments have taken certain steps in accordance with India's energy policy and the Paris Agreement. Following are some of those... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 483 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
India does not have a carbon tax, but since 2010 the country has had a tax on both domestically produced and imported coal, which powers more than half of its electricity generation. Originally set at per tonne of coal, it was raised to ₹100 in 2014 and ₹200 in 2015. As of 2020 the coal tax stands at per tonne.
Inte... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 365 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
A research project conducted between 2014 and 2018 in the five districts (Puri, Khordha, Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara and Bhadrak) of Mahanadi Delta, Odisha and two districts (North and South 24 Parganas) of Indian Bengal Delta (includes the Indian Sundarbans), West Bengal provides evidence on the kinds of adaptations pra... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 480 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
A qualitative analysis of some mainstream Indian newspapers (particularly opinion and editorial pieces) during the release of the IPCC 4th Assessment Report and during the Nobel Peace Prize win by Al Gore and the IPCC found that Indian media strongly pursue the frame of scientific certainty in their coverage of climate... | Climate change in India | Wikipedia | 461 | 61880639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20India | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The physics of a bouncing ball concerns the physical behaviour of bouncing balls, particularly its motion before, during, and after impact against the surface of another body. Several aspects of a bouncing ball's behaviour serve as an introduction to mechanics in high school or undergraduate level physics courses. Howe... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 504 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
The equations imply that the maximum height (H) and range (R) and time of flight (T) of a ball bouncing on a flat surface are given by
Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because li... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 467 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
where ρ is the density of air, CL the lift coefficient, A the cross-sectional area of the ball, and v the velocity of the ball relative to air. The lift coefficient is a complex factor which depends amongst other things on the ratio rω/v, the Reynolds number, and surface roughness. In certain conditions, the lift coeff... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 453 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
where vf and vi are the final and initial velocities of the ball, and uf and ui are the final and initial velocities of the impacting surface, respectively. In the specific case where a ball impacts on an immovable surface, the COR simplifies to
For a ball dropped against a floor, the COR will therefore vary between 0... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 467 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
External conditions such as temperature can change the properties of the impacting surface or of the ball, making them either more flexible or more rigid. This will, in turn, affect the COR. In general, the ball will deform more at higher impact velocities and will accordingly lose more of its energy, decreasing its CO... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 506 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
If the surface is inclined by some amount θ, the entire diagram would be rotated by θ, but the force of gravity would remain pointing downwards (forming an angle θ with the surface). Gravity would then have a component parallel to the surface, which would contribute to friction, and thus contribute to rotation.
In rac... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 454 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
The usual explanation involves considering two separate impacts: the basketball impacting with the floor, and then the basketball impacting with the tennis ball. Assuming perfectly elastic collisions, the basketball impacting the floor at 1 m/s would rebound at 1 m/s. The tennis ball going at 1 m/s would then have a re... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 236 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
Several sports governing bodies regulate the bounciness of a ball through various ways, some direct, some indirect.
AFL: Regulates the gauge pressure of the football to be between and .
FIBA: Regulates the gauge pressure so the basketball bounces between 1035 mm and 1085 mm (bottom of the ball) when it is dropped fr... | Bouncing ball | Wikipedia | 495 | 53002210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing%20ball | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contri... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 450 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Despite the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by the end of 2030, Indonesia has made little progress in reducing emissions in recent years. This can be traced back to the lack of financial support, prevalence of coal-fired power plants, and ongoing deforestation. From 2014 to 2019, Indonesia's emissions ... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 512 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Due to the increased incidence of extreme weather events such as storms and typhoons predicted for the future climate, vulnerable marine environments like coral reefs will experience further damage.
Rises in sea levels already are particularly challenging for Indonesia. Estimates show that around 42 million people liv... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 483 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In Indonesia, peatlands began to accumulate following the last glacial period as a result of the extremely wet climate conditions. One can find between 160 and 270.000 km2 of peatlands of which the biggest part is located on the sub-coastal lowlands. Not only are they home to numerous species, but they serve as a natur... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 386 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Indonesia is home to about 12% of the world's mammals (515 species), ranking it second for fauna diversity after Brazil. The cumulative effect of climate change and anthropological activities have contributed to the decline of animal populations and biodiversity in Indonesia. It has been estimated that 25% of Indonesia... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 483 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Some studies have suggested that climate change induced sea level rise may be minimal compared to the rise induced by lack of water infrastructure and rapid urban development. The Indonesian government views land subsidence, mostly due to over extraction of groundwater, as the primary threat to Jakarta's infrastructure... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 465 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Depending on the region, future climate projections show a complex variability of rainfall. The increasingly severe extreme events like floods and locally higher average precipitation will lead to a surplus of water, while generally higher temperatures along with intense droughts will make for large deficiencies. These... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 492 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Rapid developments can be observed in the transformation process of mangrove ecosystems to aquaculture units. Having the highest coverage on the planet, the degradation and deforestation of Indonesian mangrove environments, is particularly problematic as this type of ecosystem serves as a major carbon sink and creates ... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 477 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Indonesia has taken steps not only to address the interrelated issues of climate change but also the forestry and mining industries. To mitigate deforestation, the government has implemented the Indonesia Forest Moratorium and the REDD+ program, as well as regulations regarding environmental impact assessments and moni... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 478 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The effect of climate change can also be seen in the health of people in Indonesia (heat-related illnesses, respiratory disease, vector-borne disease, waterborne disease, malnutrition). There have been several studies, which show the correlation between the effect of climate change on health issues like the respiratory... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 436 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Paris Agreement
Indonesia is a signatory to the Paris agreement, committing to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by 2030. They have further agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by 90% by 2030, this also includes restoring 12 million hectares of degraded peat... | Climate change in Indonesia | Wikipedia | 319 | 59267487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Indonesia | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over Earth's history. The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins. The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater, which affects density, and the amoun... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 403 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Glaciers and ice caps
Each year about of water from the entire surface of the oceans falls onto the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets as snowfall. Slightly more water returns to the ocean in icebergs, from ice melting at the edges, and from rivers of meltwater flowing from ice sheets to the sea. The change in the t... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 321 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Scientists previously lacked knowledge of changes in terrestrial storage of water. Surveying of water retention by soil absorption and by artificial reservoirs ("impoundment") show that a total of about of water (just under the size of Lake Huron) has been impounded on land since 1930. Such impoundment masked about o... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 491 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
As of the early 2000s, the current rise in sea level observed from tide gauges, of about 3.4 mm/yr, is within the estimate range from the combination of factors above, but active research continues in this field.
Geological influences
At times during Earth's long history, the configuration of the continents and sea ... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 453 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
The Mediterranean Basin's gradual growth as the Neotethys basin, begun in the Jurassic, did not suddenly affect ocean levels. While the Mediterranean was forming during the past 100 million years, the average ocean level was generally 200 metres above current levels. However, the largest known example of marine floodin... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 435 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
During deglaciation between about 19–, sea level rose at extremely high rates as the result of the rapid melting of the British-Irish Sea, Fennoscandian, Laurentide, Barents-Kara, Patagonian, Innuitian ice sheets and parts of the Antarctic ice sheet. At the onset of deglaciation about 19,000 years ago, a brief, at most... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 464 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Recently, it has become widely accepted that late Holocene, 3,000 calendar years ago to present, sea level was nearly stable prior to an acceleration of rate of rise that is variously dated between 1850 and 1900 AD. Late Holocene rates of sea level rise have been estimated using evidence from archaeological sites and l... | Past sea level | Wikipedia | 340 | 47376875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past%20sea%20level | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
The African wolf (see below for other names; Canis lupaster) is a canine native to North Africa, West Africa, the Sahel, northern East Africa, and the Horn of Africa. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. In the Middle Atlas in Morocco, it was sighted in elevations as high as . It is primarily a predator ... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 397 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The African wolf is intermediate in size between the African jackals (L. mesomelas and L. adusta) and the small subspecies of gray wolves, with both sexes weighing , and standing 40 cm in height. There is however a high degree of size variation geographically, with Western and Northern African specimens being larger th... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 447 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
An attempt was also made in 1821 to hybridise the two species in captivity, resulting in the birth of five pups, three of which died before weaning. The two survivors were noted to never play with each other, and had completely contrasting temperaments: One pup inherited the golden jackal's shyness, while the other was... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 421 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The animal's wolf-like qualities were confirmed in 2011, when several golden "jackal" populations in Egypt and the Horn of Africa classed as Canis aureus lupaster were found to have mtDNA sequences more closely resembling those found in gray wolves than those of golden jackals. These wolf-like mtDNA sequences were foun... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 317 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
It was estimated that the African wolf diverged from the wolf–coyote clade 1.0–1.7 million years ago, during the Pleistocene, and therefore its superficial similarity to the golden jackal (particularly in East Africa, where African wolves are similar in size to golden jackals) would be a case of parallel evolution. Con... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 469 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
Admixture with other Canis species
In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare members of the genus Canis. The study supports the African wolf being distinct from the golden jackal, and with the Ethiopian wolf being genetically basal to both. Two genetically distinct African wolf populations exist in northwest... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 419 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The species' display of high individual variation, coupled with the scarcity of samples and the lack of physical barriers on the continent preventing gene flow, brings into question the validity of some of the West African forms. However, a study showed that the genetic divergence of all of the African wolves occurred ... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 367 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The African wolf's courtship rituals are remarkably long, during which the breeding pair remains almost constantly together. Prior to mating, the pair patrols and scent marks its territory. Copulation is preceded by the female holding her tail out and angled in such a way that her genitalia are exposed. The two approac... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 500 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The vocalisations of the African wolf are similar to those of the domestic dog, with seven sounds having been recorded, including howls, barks, growls, whines and cackles. Subspecies can be recognised by differences in their howls. One of the most commonly heard sounds is a high, keening wail, of which there are three ... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 470 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
Distribution and habitat
C. lupaster has a wide range across the upper half of Africa, occurring in Senegal, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Western Sahara, Nigeria, Chad, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, K... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 510 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
In West Africa, the African wolf mostly confines itself to small prey, such as hares, rats, ground squirrels and cane rats. Other prey items include lizards, snakes, and ground-nesting birds, such as francolins and bustards. It also consumes a large amount of insects, including dung beetles, larvae, termites and grassh... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 434 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
African wolves will feed alongside spotted hyenas, though they will be chased if they approach too closely. Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow wolves during the gazelle fawning season, as wolves are effective at tracking and catching young animals. Hyenas do not take to eating wolf flesh readily; four hyenas were rep... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 417 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
Arab Egyptian folklore holds that the wolf can cause chickens to faint from fear by simply passing underneath their roosts, and associates its body parts with various forms of folk magic: placing a wolf's tongue in a house is believed to cause the inhabitants to argue, and its meat is thought to be useful in treating i... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 391 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The African wolf plays a prominent role in the Serer religion's creation myth, where it is viewed as the first living creature created by Roog, the Supreme God and Creator. In one aspect, it can be viewed as an Earth-diver sent to Earth by Roog, in another, as a fallen prophet for disobeying the laws of the divine. The... | African wolf | Wikipedia | 204 | 47398884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20wolf | Biology and health sciences | Canines | Animals |
The ghost pepper, also known as bhüt jolokia ( or 'Ghost pepper' in Assamese), is an interspecific hybrid chili pepper cultivated in Northeast India. It is a hybrid of Capsicum chinense and Capsicum frutescens.
In 2007, Guinness World Records certified that the ghost pepper was the world's hottest chili pepper, 170 ti... | Ghost pepper | Wikipedia | 420 | 42870316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20pepper | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
In 2000, India's Defence Research Laboratory (DRL) reported a Scoville rating for the ghost pepper of 855,000 SHUs, and in 2004 a rating of 1,041,427 SHUs was made using HPLC analysis. For comparison, Tabasco red pepper sauce rates at 2,500–5,000, and pure capsaicin (the chemical responsible for the pungency of pepper ... | Ghost pepper | Wikipedia | 415 | 42870316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20pepper | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
In 2009, scientists at India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) announced plans to use the peppers in hand grenades as a nonlethal method to control rioters with pepper sprays or in self-defence. The DRDO said that ghost pepper-based aerosol sprays could be used as a "safety device", and "civil vari... | Ghost pepper | Wikipedia | 114 | 42870316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20pepper | Biology and health sciences | Botanical fruits used as culinary vegetables | Plants |
Solid acids are acids that are insoluble in the reaction medium. They are often used as heterogeneous catalysts. Many solid acids are zeolites. A variety of techniques are used to quantify the strength of solid acids.
Examples
Examples of inorganic solid acids include silico-aluminates (zeolites, alumina, silico-alu... | Solid acid | Wikipedia | 304 | 41451915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid%20acid | Physical sciences | Concepts | Chemistry |
The dipole repeller is a center of effective repulsion in the large-scale flow of galaxies in the neighborhood of the Milky Way, first detected in 2017.
It is thought to represent a large supervoid, the Dipole Repeller Void.
The dipole repeller is directly opposed to the Shapley Attractor, an over-density of galaxies ... | Dipole repeller | Wikipedia | 445 | 53037756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole%20repeller | Physical sciences | Other notable objects | Astronomy |
Controversy about the Dipole Repeller and its 'repulsive force'
Nevertheless, the discovery of the Dipole Repeller was commented on by astrophysicists and journalists in the mainstream media without using repulsive force . This is the case of Peter Coles, author of the blog "In the dark", Ethan Siegel in an article pu... | Dipole repeller | Wikipedia | 184 | 53037756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole%20repeller | Physical sciences | Other notable objects | Astronomy |
Environmental conflicts, socio-environmental conflict or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are social conflicts caused by environmental degradation or by unequal distribution of environmental resources. The Environmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphas... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 450 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
A 2020 paper mapped the arguments and concerns of environmental defenders in over 2743 conflicts found in the Environmental Justice Atlas (EJAtlas). The analysis found that the industrial sectors most frequently challenged by environmental conflicts were mining (21%), fossil energy (17%), biomass and land uses (15%), a... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 404 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
Ecological distribution conflicts
Ecological Distribution Conflicts (EDCs) were introduced as a concept in 1995 by Joan Martínez-Alier and Martin O'Connor to facilitate more systematic documentation and analysis of environmental conflicts and to produce a more coherent body of academic, activist, and legal work around... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 455 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
However, Martinez Allier and Martin O’Connor noticed that this term focuses solely on the economy, omitting the conflicts that do not occur from economic inequality but from the unequal distribution of environmental resources. In response, in 1995, they coined the term ‘ecological distribution conflict’. This type of c... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 423 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
Finally, the ‘collective action frames’ of movements emerging in response to environmental conflicts becomes very powerful when they challenge the mainstream relationship of human societies with the environment. These frames are often expressed through pithy protest slogans, that scholars refer to as the ‘vocabulary of... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 391 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
Such movements often question the dominant form of valuation of resource uses (i.e. monetary values and cost-benefit analyses) and renegotiate the values deemed relevant for sustainability. Sometimes, particularly when the resistance weakens, demands for monetary compensation are made (in a framework of ‘weak sustainab... | Environmental conflict | Wikipedia | 315 | 70103301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20conflict | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science |
Planet Nine is a hypothetical ninth planet in the outer region of the Solar System. Its gravitational effects could explain the peculiar clustering of orbits for a group of extreme trans-Neptunian objects (ETNOs), bodies beyond Neptune that orbit the Sun at distances averaging more than 250 times that of the Earth i.e.... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 432 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Following the discovery of Neptune in 1846, there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit. The best-known of these theories predicted the existence of a distant planet that was influencing the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. After extensive calculations, Percival Lowell predicted the... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 481 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
At a conference in 2012, Rodney Gomes proposed that an undetected planet was responsible for the orbits of some ETNOs with detached orbits and the large semi-major axis Centaurs, small Solar System bodies that cross the orbits of the giant planets. The proposed Neptune-massed planet would be in a distant eccentric an... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 353 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Planet Nine was initially hypothesized to follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun with an eccentricity of , and its semi-major axis was estimated to be ,
roughly 13–26 times the distance from Neptune to the Sun. It would take the planet between to make one full orbit around the Sun, and its inclination to the eclipt... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 486 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Several possible origins for Planet Nine have been examined, including its ejection from the neighborhood of the known giant planets, capture from another star, and in situ formation. In their initial article, Batygin and Brown proposed that Planet Nine formed closer to the Sun and was ejected into a distant eccentric ... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 387 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
An encounter with another star could also alter the orbit of a distant planet, shifting it from a circular to an eccentric orbit. The in situ formation of a planet at this distance would require a very massive and extensive disk, or the outward drift of solids in a dissipating disk forming a narrow ring from which the ... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 429 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Planet Nine was initially proposed to explain the clustering of orbits, via a mechanism that would also explain the high perihelia of objects like Sedna. The evolution of some of these objects into perpendicular orbits was unexpected, but found to match objects previously observed. The orbits of some objects with perpe... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 482 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Batygin and Brown, looking to refute the mechanism proposed by Trujillo and Sheppard, also examined the orbits of the TNOs with large semi-major axes. After eliminating the objects in Trujillo and Sheppard's original analysis that were unstable due to close approaches to Neptune or were affected by Neptune's mean-motio... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 498 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
In a later article Trujillo and Sheppard noted a correlation between the longitude of perihelion and the argument of perihelion of the TNOs with semi-major axes greater than 150 AU. Those with a longitude of perihelion of 0–120° have arguments of perihelion between 280 and 360°, and those with longitude of perihelion b... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 415 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
In their original analysis Batygin and Brown found that the distribution of the orbits of the first six ETNOs was best reproduced in simulations using a
planet in the following orbit:
semi-major axis ≈ (orbital period 7001.5 )
eccentricity ≈ 0.6, (perihelion ≈ , aphelion ≈ )
inclination ≈ 30° to the ecliptic
... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 234 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Other possible orbits for Planet Nine were also examined, with semi-major axes between and , eccentricities up to 0.8, and a wide range of inclinations. These orbits yield varied results. Batygin and Brown found that orbits of the ETNOs were more likely to have similar tilts if Planet Nine had a higher inclination, bu... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 387 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Planet Nine modifies the orbits of ETNOs via a combination of effects. On very long timescales Planet Nine exerts a torque on the orbits of the ETNOs that varies with the alignment of their orbits with Planet Nine's. The resulting exchanges of angular momentum cause the perihelia to rise, placing them in Sedna-like orb... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 492 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Planet Nine can deliver ETNOs into orbits roughly perpendicular to the ecliptic. Several objects with high inclinations, greater than 50°, and large semi-major axes, above 250 AU, have been observed. These orbits are produced when some low inclination ETNOs enter a secular resonance with Planet Nine upon reaching low e... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 285 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
A population of high-inclination TNOs with semi-major axes less than 100 AU may be generated by the combined effects of Planet Nine and the other giant planets. The ETNOs that enter perpendicular orbits have perihelia low enough for their orbits to intersect those of Neptune or the other giant planets. An encounter wit... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 479 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
2019 estimate
In February 2019, the total of ETNOs that fit the original hypothesis of having semi-major axis of over 250 AU had increased to fourteen objects. The orbit parameters for Planet Nine favored by Batygin and Brown after an analysis using these objects were:
semi-major axis of 400–500 AU;
orbital eccentri... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 510 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Astronomer Renu Malhotra remains agnostic about Planet Nine, but noted that she and her colleagues have found that the orbits of ETNOs seem tilted in a way that is difficult to otherwise explain. "The amount of warp we see is just crazy," she said. "To me, it's the most intriguing evidence for Planet Nine I've run acro... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 435 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Nice Planet #5
Planet Nine has been proposed as a potential remnant of the early Solar System's evolution. According to the Five-planet Nice model, the early Solar System contained five giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and a fifth, now-missing ice giant. Simulations of the Nice model suggest that gravi... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 279 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Temporary or coincidental clustering
The results of the Outer Solar System Survey (OSSOS) suggest that the observed clustering is the result of a combination of observational bias and small number statistics. OSSOS, a well-characterized survey of the outer Solar System with known biases, observed eight objects with sem... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 352 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Simulations of 15 known objects evolving under the influence of Planet Nine also revealed differences from observations. Cory Shankman and his colleagues included Planet Nine in a simulation of many clones (objects with similar orbits) of 15 objects with semi-major axis and perihelion
While they observed alignment of... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 303 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Ann-Marie Madigan and Michael McCourt postulate that an inclination instability in a distant massive belt hypothetically termed a Zderic-Madigan, or ZM belt is responsible for the alignment of the arguments of perihelion of the ETNOs. An inclination instability could occur in such a disk of particles with high eccentri... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 412 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Antranik Sefilian and Jihad Touma propose that a massive disk of moderately eccentric TNOs is responsible for the clustering of the longitudes of perihelion of the ETNOs. This disk would contain 10 Earth-mass of TNOs with aligned orbits and eccentricities that increased with their semi-major axes ranging from zero to 0... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 487 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Trujillo and Sheppard argued in 2014 that a massive planet in a circular orbit with an average distance between and was responsible for the clustering of the arguments of perihelion of twelve TNOs with large semi-major axes. Trujillo and Sheppard identified a clustering near zero degrees of the arguments of perihelio... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 460 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Raúl and Carlos de la Fuente Marcos proposed a similar model but with two distant planets in resonance. An analysis by Carlos and Raúl de la Fuente Marcos with Sverre J. Aarseth confirmed that the observed alignment of the arguments of perihelion could not be due to observational bias. They speculated that instead it w... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 237 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Primordial black hole
In 2019, Jakub Scholtz and James Unwin proposed that a primordial black hole was responsible for the clustering of the orbits of the ETNOs. Their analysis of OGLE gravitational lensing data revealed a population of planetary mass objects in the direction of the galactic bulge more numerous than th... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 439 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Visibility and location
Due to its extreme distance from the Sun, Planet Nine would reflect little sunlight, potentially evading telescope sightings. It is expected to have an apparent magnitude fainter than 22, making it at least 600 times fainter than Pluto. If Planet Nine exists and is close to perihelion, astronome... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 453 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Other researchers have been conducting searches of existing data. David Gerdes, who helped develop the camera used in the Dark Energy Survey, claims that software designed to identify distant Solar System objects such as could find Planet Nine if it was imaged as part of that survey, which covered a quarter of the sou... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 383 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Because the planet is predicted to be visible in the Northern Hemisphere, the primary search is expected to be carried out using the Subaru Telescope, which has both an aperture large enough to see faint objects and a wide field of view to shorten the search. Two teams of astronomers—Batygin and Brown, as well as Truji... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 464 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Measurements of Saturn's orbit by the Cassini probe
Precise observations of Saturn's orbit using data from Cassini suggest that Planet Nine could not be in certain sections of its proposed orbit because its gravity would cause a noticeable effect on Saturn's position. This data neither proves nor disproves that Planet ... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 486 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Analysis of Pluto's orbit
An analysis in 2016 of Pluto's orbit by Holman and Payne found perturbations much larger than predicted by Batygin and Brown's proposed orbit for Planet Nine. Holman and Payne suggested three possible explanations: systematic errors in the measurements of Pluto's orbit; an unmodeled mass in th... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 389 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
An analysis by Sarah Millholland and Gregory Laughlin identified a pattern of commensurabilities (ratios between orbital periods of pairs of objects consistent with both being in resonance with another object) of the ETNOs. They identify five objects that would be near resonances with Planet Nine if it had a semi-major... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 473 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
A 2025 study by Amir Siraj, Christopher F. Chyba, and Scott Tremaine using an expanded sample of 51 ETNOs to inform 300 simulations in the Rebound program, proposed new orbital characteristics for Planet Nine: that its semi-major axis is 290 ± 30 AU, its eccentricity is 0.29 ± 0.13, and its inclination is roughly 6°. T... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 469 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Jokes have been made connecting "Planet Nine" to Ed Wood's 1959 science-fiction horror film Plan 9 from Outer Space. In connection with the Planet Nine hypothesis, the film title recently found its way into academic discourse. In 2016, an article titled Planet Nine from Outer Space about the hypothesized planet in the ... | Planet Nine | Wikipedia | 428 | 49168255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20Nine | Physical sciences | Solar System | Astronomy |
Aquamarine is a pale-blue to light-green variety of the beryl family, with its name relating to water and sea. The color of aquamarine can be changed by heat, with a goal to enhance its physical appearance (though this practice is frowned upon by collectors and jewelers). It is the birth stone of March.
Aquamarine is ... | Aquamarine (gem) | Wikipedia | 474 | 68611391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamarine%20%28gem%29 | Physical sciences | Silicate minerals | Earth science |
Chemical composition
Aquamarine has a chemical composition of , also containing Fe2+. It belongs to the beryl family, being a beryllium aluminum silicate mineral. It is closely related to emerald, morganite, and heliodor. Aquamarine is chemically stable and resistant to most common chemicals and acids. It has a hardne... | Aquamarine (gem) | Wikipedia | 504 | 68611391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamarine%20%28gem%29 | Physical sciences | Silicate minerals | Earth science |
The value of aquamarine is determined by its weight, color, cut, and clarity. Due to its relative abundance, aquamarine is comparatively less expensive than other gemstones within the beryl group, such as emerald or bixbite (red beryl), however it is typically more expensive than similarly colored gemstones such as blu... | Aquamarine (gem) | Wikipedia | 464 | 68611391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamarine%20%28gem%29 | Physical sciences | Silicate minerals | Earth science |
Aquamarine can be found in countries like Afghanistan, China, Kenya, Pakistan, Russia, Mozambique, the United States, Brazil, Nigeria, Madagascar, Zambia, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Malawi, India, Zimbabwe, Australia, Myanmar, and Namibia. The state of Minas Gerais is a major source for aquamarine.
Aquamarine can mostly be ... | Aquamarine (gem) | Wikipedia | 504 | 68611391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamarine%20%28gem%29 | Physical sciences | Silicate minerals | Earth science |
The aquamarine crystals are then sorted according to size, shape, color, and clarity following the initial processing. The gemstones are assessed and graded by gemologists and experts according to predetermined standards, such as the four C's (color, clarity, cut, and carat weight). Only the best aquamarine crystals ar... | Aquamarine (gem) | Wikipedia | 199 | 68611391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamarine%20%28gem%29 | Physical sciences | Silicate minerals | Earth science |
When embedded in an atomic nucleus, neutrons are (usually) stable particles. Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of or (about and or , respectively). Therefore, the half-life for this process (which differs from the mean lifetime by a factor of ) is (about , ).
The beta decay... | Free neutron decay | Wikipedia | 449 | 51503872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20neutron%20decay | Physical sciences | Particle physics: General | Physics |
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