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Section: Popular culture. In the television show Westworld, hats are used as neuroimaging devices that record experiences and data without the consent or knowledge of the users. This data is mainly used for research for neuromarketing and commercial pursuits, namely the pursuit of immortality. In the Dark Forest novel ... | Wikipedia - Neuroprivacy - Popular culture | 203 | 984 | null |
Section: Definition. Neuroscientist Gina Rippon defines neurosexism as follows: "'Neurosexism' is the practice of claiming that there are fixed differences between female and male brains, which can explain women's inferiority or unsuitability for certain roles." For example, "this includes things such as men being more... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Definition | 235 | 1,116 | null |
Section: History. The history of science contains many examples of scientists and philosophers drawing conclusions about the mental inferiority of women, or their lack of aptitude for certain tasks, on the basis of alleged anatomical differences between male and female brains. In the late 19th century, George J. Romane... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - History | 317 | 1,715 | null |
Section: Examples in science > Empathising–systemising theory. The notion that there are hard-wired differences between male and female brains is particularly explicit in Simon Baron-Cohen's empathising-systematising (E-S) theory. Empathy is defined as the drive to identify and respond appropriately to emotions and tho... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in science > Empathising–systemising theory | 301 | 1,439 | null |
Section: Examples in science > Neuroimaging. In Delusions of Gender, Cordelia Fine criticises work by Ruben and Raquel Gur and collaborators. In the context of explaining the under-representation of women in science and mathematics, she quotes them as claiming that "the greater facility of women with interhemispheric c... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in science > Neuroimaging | 349 | 1,820 | null |
Fine accuses the researchers of downplaying the risk of a false positive after conducting many statistical analyses of past research projects, she argues that using their results as the basis of an explanation for why women are under-represented in scientific fields is inadequate here. Fine also discusses a 2004 neuroi... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in science > Neuroimaging | 184 | 917 | null |
Section: Examples in science > Dispute between Fine and Baron-Cohen. A notable dispute in 2010 between Fine and neuroscientist Simon Baron-Cohen in The Psychologist magazine centred on a study into sex differences in the responses of newborn babies to human faces and mechanical mobiles. The research took babies under 2... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in science > Dispute between Fine and Baron-Cohen | 349 | 1,801 | null |
Section: Examples in science > Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Rebecca Jordan-Young provides a good case study of neurosexism in studies of those with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Because Prenatal Hormone Theory posits early steroid hormones during fetal development as conducive to sex-typical behaviours, stud... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in science > Congenital adrenal hyperplasia | 314 | 1,592 | null |
Section: Examples in scientific communication. The media reporting of the neuroscience of sex differences has also attracted criticism. A high-profile example was the reporting of a 2014 neuroimaging study on sex differences the structural connectome of the human brain. The study used diffusion tensor imaging to invest... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in scientific communication | 194 | 1,125 | null |
Section: Examples in scientific communication > The changing media environment. The way scientific information is passed from the scientific community into the public consciousness has changed with the development of technology, social media, and news platforms. The traditional route from study, to media, to public con... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Examples in scientific communication > The changing media environment | 327 | 1,840 | null |
Section: Methodological issues > Reverse inferences. A reverse inference infers that activation in a particular brain region causes the presence of a mental process. Fine argues that such inferences are routine in the neuroscience of sex differences, yet "the absence of neat one-to-one mapping between brain regions and... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Methodological issues > Reverse inferences | 192 | 1,040 | null |
Section: Methodological issues > Plasticity. Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change as a result of experiences in one's life. Because of the brain's plasticity, it is possible in principle for social phenomena related to gender to influence the organization of a person's brain. Fine has argued that the neur... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Methodological issues > Plasticity | 292 | 1,525 | null |
Section: Methodological issues > Sample sizes. Fine has criticised the small sample sizes that are typical of Functional Neuroimaging (FNI) studies reporting sex differences in the brain. She supports this claim with a meta-analysis. She takes a sample of thirty-nine studies from Medline, Web of Science, and PsycINFO d... | Wikipedia - Neurosexism - Methodological issues > Sample sizes | 240 | 1,117 | null |
Article: Neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic clef... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Summary | 261 | 1,047 | null |
Section: Mechanism and cycle > Synthesis. Neurotransmitters are generally synthesized in neurons and are made up of, or derived from, precursor molecules that are found abundantly in the cell. Classes of neurotransmitters include amino acids, monoamines, and peptides. Monoamines are synthesized by altering a single ami... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Mechanism and cycle > Synthesis | 181 | 783 | null |
Section: Mechanism and cycle > Elimination. In order to avoid continuous activation of receptors on the post-synaptic or target cell, neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are removed through one of three mechanisms: Diffusion – neurotransmitters drift out of the synaptic cleft, w... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Mechanism and cycle > Elimination | 337 | 1,456 | null |
Transporters, or membrane transport proteins, pump neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft back into axon terminals (the presynaptic neuron) where they are stored for reuse. For example, acetylcholine is eliminated by having its acetyl group cleaved by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase; the remaining choline is then ta... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Mechanism and cycle > Elimination | 223 | 950 | null |
Section: Discovery. Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal, a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered. The presence of such a gap sugg... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Discovery | 197 | 972 | null |
Section: Identification. To identify neurotransmitters, the following criteria are typically considered: Synthesis: The chemical must be produced within the neuron or be present in it as a precursor molecule. Release and response: When the neuron is activated, the chemical must be released and elicit a response in targ... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Identification | 342 | 1,720 | null |
Section: Actions. Neurons communicate with each other through synapses, specialized contact points where neurotransmitters transmit signals. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, the action potential can trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then ... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions | 151 | 751 | null |
Section: Actions > Modulation. A neurotransmitter may have an excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory effect on the target cell. The effect is determined by the receptors the neurotransmitter interacts with at the post-synaptic membrane. Neurotransmitter influences trans-membrane ion flow either to increase (excitatory) o... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions > Modulation | 333 | 1,515 | null |
In addition, Type I synapses have round synaptic vesicles, whereas the vesicles of type II synapses are flattened. The material on the presynaptic and post-synaptic membranes is denser in a Type I synapse than it is in a Type II, and the Type I synaptic cleft is wider. Finally, the active zone on a Type I synapse is la... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions > Modulation | 292 | 1,227 | null |
Section: Actions > Neurotransmitter actions. As explained above, the only direct action of a neurotransmitter is to activate a receptor. Therefore, the effects of a neurotransmitter system depend on the connections of the neurons that use the transmitter, and the chemical properties of the receptors. Glutamate is used ... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions > Neurotransmitter actions | 348 | 1,502 | null |
It is main neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction connecting motor nerves to muscles. The paralytic arrow-poison curare acts by blocking transmission at these synapses. Acetylcholine also operates in many regions of the brain as a neuromodulatory, but using different types of receptors, including nicotinic and ... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions > Neurotransmitter actions | 331 | 1,470 | null |
It is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. In the peripheral nervous system, one of the primary roles of norepinephrine is to stimulate the release of the stress hormone epinephrine (i.e. adrenaline) from the adrenal glands. Norepinephrine is involved in the fight-or-flight response and is also affected in anxiety... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Actions > Neurotransmitter actions | 188 | 817 | null |
Section: Types. There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. They are commonly classified into amino acids, monoamines and peptides. Some of the major neurotransmitters are: Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, D-serine, gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine Gasotransmitters: nitric oxide (NO), carbon m... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Types | 325 | 1,082 | null |
Nevertheless, in some cases, a peptide is the primary transmitter at a synapse. Beta-Endorphin is a relatively well-known example of a peptide neurotransmitter because it engages in highly specific interactions with opioid receptors in the central nervous system. Single ions (such as synaptically released zinc) are als... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Types | 331 | 1,451 | null |
Section: Neurotransmitter systems. Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system affects large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission. Major neurotransmitter systems include the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, ... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Neurotransmitter systems | 150 | 644 | null |
Section: Drug effects. Understanding the effects of drugs on neurotransmitters comprises a significant portion of research initiatives in the field of neuroscience. Most neuroscientists involved in this field of research believe that such efforts may further advance our understanding of the circuits responsible for var... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects | 344 | 1,577 | null |
An example of a receptor agonist is morphine, an opiate that mimics effects of the endogenous neurotransmitter β-endorphin to relieve pain. Other drugs interfere with the deactivation of a neurotransmitter after it has been released, thereby prolonging the action of a neurotransmitter. This can be accomplished by block... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects | 321 | 1,406 | null |
After the effects of the drug wear off, an individual can become depressed due to decreased probability of the neurotransmitter binding to a receptor. Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI), which blocks re-uptake of serotonin by the presynaptic cell which increases the amount of serotonin prese... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects | 163 | 671 | null |
Section: Drug effects > Agonists. An agonist is a chemical capable of binding to a receptor, such as a neurotransmitter receptor, and initiating the same reaction typically produced by the binding of the endogenous substance. An agonist of a neurotransmitter will thus initiate the same receptor response as the transmit... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Agonists | 313 | 1,293 | null |
Nicotine, a compound found in tobacco, is a direct agonist of most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, mainly located in cholinergic neurons. Opiates, such as morphine, heroin, hydrocodone, oxycodone, codeine, and methadone, are μ-opioid receptor agonists; this action mediates their euphoriant and pain relieving propert... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Agonists | 276 | 1,070 | null |
Section: Drug effects > Antagonists. An antagonist is a chemical that acts within the body to reduce the physiological activity of another chemical substance (such as an opiate); especially one that opposes the action on the nervous system of a drug or a substance occurring naturally in the body by combining with and b... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Antagonists | 171 | 823 | null |
Section: Drug effects > Antagonists > Drug antagonists. An antagonist drug is one that attaches (or binds) to a site called a receptor without activating that receptor to produce a biological response. It is therefore said to have no intrinsic activity. An antagonist may also be called a receptor "blocker" because they... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Antagonists > Drug antagonists | 320 | 1,594 | null |
Section: Drug effects > Precursors. While intake of neurotransmitter precursors does increase neurotransmitter synthesis, evidence is mixed as to whether neurotransmitter release and postsynaptic receptor firing is increased. Even with increased neurotransmitter release, it is unclear whether this will result in a long... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Precursors | 155 | 714 | null |
Section: Drug effects > Precursors > Catecholamine and trace amine precursors. L-DOPA, a precursor of dopamine that crosses the blood–brain barrier, is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. For depressed patients where low activity of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine is implicated, there is only little evide... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Drug effects > Precursors > Catecholamine and trace amine precursors | 180 | 702 | null |
Section: Diseases and disorders > Dopamine. For example, problems in producing dopamine (mainly in the substantia nigra) can result in Parkinson's disease, a disorder that affects a person's ability to move as they want to, resulting in stiffness, tremors or shaking, and other symptoms. Some studies suggest that having... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Diseases and disorders > Dopamine | 170 | 770 | null |
Section: Neurotransmitter imbalance. Generally, there are no scientifically established "norms" for appropriate levels or "balances" of different neurotransmitters. In most cases, it is practically impossible to measure neurotransmitter levels in the brain or body at any given moment. Neurotransmitters regulate each ot... | Wikipedia - Neurotransmitter - Neurotransmitter imbalance | 319 | 1,592 | null |
Article: Neurotrophin mimetics. Neurotrophin mimetics are small molecules or peptide like molecules that can modulate the action of the neurotrophin receptor. One of the main causes of neurodegeneration involves changes in the expression of neurotrophins (NTs) and/or their receptors (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and p75NTR). Indee... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Summary | 301 | 1,212 | null |
Section: Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkA agonists. Among the TrkA agonists, the small molecule gambogic amide exerts a potent neurotrophic activity decreasing apoptosis in primary hippocampal neurons. The non-peptidic TrkA agonist MT2 protects neurons from Aβ amyloid-mediated death in NGF-deficien... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkA agonists | 312 | 1,305 | null |
Recent studies demonstrated the neurotrophic activity of carvacrol by inducing neurite outgrowth and phosphorylation of TrkA in cells deprived of NGF. The same research group investigated the neurotrophic effect of the well-known antibiotic doxycycline and they found that it prevents amyloid toxicity in a Drosophila mo... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkA agonists | 341 | 1,311 | null |
Section: Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkB agonists. TrkB agonists have received extensive interest from the scientific community resulting in the synthesis and biological evaluation of a large number of mimetics. Deoxygedunin, with a selective TrkB activity, is able to promote axon regeneration in ... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkB agonists | 315 | 1,255 | null |
Furthermore, several combinations of riluzole with other drugs are in clinical trials (NCT02588677, NCT03127267). Brimonidine exerts neuroprotective effects in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) through up-regulation of the expression of BDNF in these cells. It is used in the treatment of glaucoma as eye drops to reduce int... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkB agonists | 338 | 1,207 | null |
Furthermore, the tricyclic dimeric peptide TDP6 acts as a TrkB agonist mimicking BDNF and induces autophosphorylation of TrkB in primary oligodendrocyte cultures, leading to oligodendrocyte myelination. Regarding DHEA derivatives, the C17-spiroepoxy analogue, BNN-20, binds with high affinity to TrkB, showing antiapopto... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > TrkB agonists | 163 | 590 | null |
Section: Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > p75NTR modulators. In this class it is worthwhile to highlight the small non-peptide molecules LM22A-24 and LM11A-31 developed by Longo and Massa. Through the modulation of p75NTR activity, these compounds downregulate degenerative and upregulate trophic signali... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > p75NTR modulators | 296 | 1,154 | null |
Another drug belonging to the class of p75NTR antagonists is THX-B, which inhibits NGF-p75NTR binding and prevents the death of RGCs in axotomy and glaucoma. In addition, in combination with LM22A-24, THX-B delays the loss of retinal structure, prevents RGC degeneration and preserves ganglion cell layer-inner plexiform... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Synthetic small molecule neurotrophin mimetics > p75NTR modulators | 155 | 589 | null |
Section: Natural neurotrophin mimetics. There are a number of natural products with neurotrophic activity, which results from several mechanisms including enhancing BDNF gene transcription, upregulating the expression of BDNF and TrkB, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and CREB signalling. The first disco... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Natural neurotrophin mimetics | 332 | 1,151 | null |
Neurotrophic properties are also possessed by several members of the Lycopodium alkaloids (huperzine A, lyconadins, complanadine A and B, and nankakurine A and B). Studies have shown that huperazine A can elevate the levels of NGF and BDNF. Synthesis of NGF can be upregulated by administration of cyathanediterpenoids s... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Natural neurotrophin mimetics | 346 | 1,198 | null |
Hyperforin, isolated from the herb St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), can stimulate the upregulation of the TrkB receptor. Beside natural products, there are some small molecules of natural origin that exert neurotrophic activities such as: Panaxytriol (promotes NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in PC-12 cells); 7,8-d... | Wikipedia - Neurotrophin mimetics - Natural neurotrophin mimetics | 211 | 662 | null |
Article: Neurotubule. Neurotubules are microtubules found in neurons in nervous tissues. Along with neurofilaments and microfilaments, they form the cytoskeleton of neurons. Neurotubules are undivided hollow cylinders that are made up of tubulin protein polymers and arrays parallel to the plasma membrane in neurons. Ne... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Summary | 343 | 1,531 | null |
Section: Structure and dynamics > Composition. Like microtubules, neurotubules are made up of protein polymers of α-tubulin and β-tubulin, globular proteins that are closely related. They join together to form a dimer, called tubulin. Neurotubules are generally assembled by 13 protofilaments which are polymerized from ... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Structure and dynamics > Composition | 243 | 948 | null |
Section: Structure and dynamics > Polarized neurotubule arrays. Neurons have a polarized neurotubule network. Axons of most neurons contain neurotubules with plus (+) end uniformly pointing towards the axon terminal and minus (-) end orienting towards the cell body, similar to the general orientation of microtubules in... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Structure and dynamics > Polarized neurotubule arrays | 247 | 1,062 | null |
Section: Axonal transport > Fast and slow axonal transportation. The cargoes are transported at a fast rate or a slow rate. The fast axonal transport has a rate of 50–500 mm per day, while the slow axonal transport was found to be 0.4 mm per day in goldfish, 1–10 mm per day in mammalian nerve. Transport of insoluble pr... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Axonal transport > Fast and slow axonal transportation | 202 | 887 | null |
Section: Axonal transport > Anterograde transport and retrograde transport. Anterograde transport refers to the transportation of cargoes from the minus (-) end to the plus (+) end, whereas retrograde transport is the transportation of cargoes in the opposite direction. Anterograde transport is often the transportation... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Axonal transport > Anterograde transport and retrograde transport | 303 | 1,401 | null |
Section: Proteins associated with neurotubules. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are proteins that interact with microtubules by binding to their tubulin subunits and regulating their stability. The MAPs make-up of neurotubules is notably different from microtubules of non-neuronal cells. For example, type II MAP... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Proteins associated with neurotubules | 345 | 1,509 | null |
Section: Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Alzheimer's disease. In Alzheimer's disease, hyperphosphorylation of tau protein causes the dissociation of tau from neurotubules and tau misfolding. The aggregation of misfolded tau forms insoluble neurofibrillary tangles which is a characteristic finding in Al... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Alzheimer's disease | 328 | 1,364 | null |
Section: Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Lissencephaly. Lissencephaly is a rare congenital condition in which the cerebrum loses its folds(gyri) and grooves(sulci), making the brain surface appear smooth. It is caused by defective neuronal migration. The failure of post-mitotic neurons in reaching thei... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Lissencephaly | 326 | 1,362 | null |
Section: Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy is a pathological change in neurons caused by the disruption in the dynamics of neurotubules by chemotherapy drugs, manifesting in pain, numbness, tingling sensation and muscl... | Wikipedia - Neurotubule - Neurological disorders related to neurotubules > Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy | 271 | 1,289 | null |
Article: Nuclear calcium. The concentration of calcium in the cell nucleus can increase in response to signals from the environment. Nuclear calcium is an evolutionary conserved potent regulator of gene expression that allows cells to undergo long-lasting adaptive responses. The 'Nuclear Calcium Hypothesis’ by Hilmar B... | Wikipedia - Nuclear calcium - Summary | 169 | 910 | null |
Section: History. The first experiments to measure intracellular calcium levels via protein expression were based on aequorin, a bioluminescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea. To produce light, however, this enzyme needs the 'fuel' compound coelenteracine, which has to be added to the preparation. This is not prac... | Wikipedia - Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity - History | 294 | 1,337 | null |
Section: Design principles. Genetically encoded sensors are fusion proteins, consisting of a ligand binding domain (sensor) and a fluorescent protein, attached by a short linker (flexible peptide). When the sensor domain binds the correct ligand, it changes conformation. This movement is transferred to the fluorescent ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity - Design principles | 346 | 1,682 | null |
Section: Advantages of optogenetic sensors. can be targeted to specific classes of cells (e.g. astrocytes or pyramidal cells). This allows for optical read-out without spatial resolution, e.g. fiber photometry from deep brain areas. can be targeted to sub-cellular compartments (e.g. synapses, organelles, nucleus) by fu... | Wikipedia - Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity - Advantages of optogenetic sensors | 151 | 642 | null |
Section: Classes of genetically encoded indicators > Intracellular signaling. Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECI): A large class of tools, based on natural calcium binding proteins (calmodulin, troponin). Different affinities, kinetics, and colors (green, red) available. Read-out via fluorescence intensity (s... | Wikipedia - Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity - Classes of genetically encoded indicators > Intracellular signaling | 199 | 930 | null |
Article: Optogenetics. Optogenetics is a biological technique to control the activity of neurons or other cell types with light. This is achieved by expression of light-sensitive ion channels, pumps or enzymes specifically in the target cells. On the level of individual cells, light-activated enzymes and transcription ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Summary | 282 | 1,524 | null |
Section: History. In 1979, Francis Crick suggested that controlling all cells of one type in the brain, while leaving the others more or less unaltered, is a real challenge for neuroscience. Crick speculated that a technology using light might be useful to control neuronal activity with temporal and spatial precision b... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - History | 322 | 1,315 | null |
In 2003, Zemelman and Miesenböck developed a second method for light-dependent activation of neurons in which single ionotropic channels TRPV1, TRPM8 and P2X2 were gated by photocaged ligands in response to light. Beginning in 2004, the Kramer and Isacoff groups developed organic photoswitches or "reversibly caged" com... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - History | 305 | 1,427 | null |
To identify expressing cells, they replaced the cytoplasmic tail of the algal protein with a fluorescent protein YFP, generating the first generally applicable optogenetic tool. They stated in the 2003 paper that "expression of ChR2 in oocytes or mammalian cells may be used as a powerful tool to increase cytoplasmic Ca... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - History | 298 | 1,378 | null |
Pan's first observation of optical activation of retinal neurons with channelrhodopsin was in February 2004 according to Pan, five months before Deisseroth's initial observation in July 2004. Indeed, the transfected neurons became electrically active in response to light, and in 2005 Zhuo-Hua Pan reported successful in... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - History | 309 | 1,397 | null |
In addition, they introduced for the first time vertebrate rhodopsin, a light-activated G protein coupled receptor, as a tool to inhibit neuronal activity via the recruitment of intracellular signaling pathways also in hippocampal neurons and the intact developing chicken embryo. The groups of Alexander Gottschalk and ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - History | 346 | 1,435 | null |
Section: Description. Optogenetics provides millisecond-scale temporal precision which allows the experimenter to keep pace with fast biological information processing (for example, in probing the causal role of specific action potential patterns in defined neurons). Indeed, to probe the neural code, optogenetics by de... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Description | 311 | 1,579 | null |
Additionally, beyond its scientific impact optogenetics represents an important case study in the value of both ecological conservation (as many of the key tools of optogenetics arise from microbial organisms occupying specialized environmental niches), and in the importance of pure basic science as these opsins were s... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Description | 342 | 1,588 | null |
Optogenetic control of well-defined biochemical events within behaving mammals is now also possible. Building on prior work fusing vertebrate opsins to specific G-protein coupled receptors a family of chimeric single-component optogenetic tools was created that allowed researchers to manipulate within behaving mammals ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Description | 347 | 1,762 | null |
To stimulate superficial brain areas such as the cerebral cortex, optical fibers or LEDs can be directly mounted to the skull of the animal. More deeply implanted optical fibers have been used to deliver light to deeper brain areas. Complementary to fiber-tethered approaches, completely wireless techniques have been de... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Description | 217 | 1,074 | null |
Section: Technique. The technique of using optogenetics is flexible and adaptable to the experimenter's needs. Cation-selective channelrhodopsins (e.g. ChR2) are used to excite neurons, anion-conducting channelrhodopsins (e.g. GtACR2) inhibit neuronal activity. Combining these tools into a single construct (e.g. BiPOLE... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Technique | 325 | 1,373 | null |
This technique has allowed for multiple modified optogenetic actuators to be used without the need to create a whole line of transgenic animals every time a new microbial opsin is needed. After the introduction and expression of the microbial opsin, a computer-controlled light source has to be optically coupled to the ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Technique | 205 | 1,000 | null |
Section: Technical challenges > Selective expression. One of the main problems of optogenetics is that not all the cells in question may express the microbial opsin gene at the same level. Thus, even illumination with a defined light intensity will have variable effects on individual cells. Optogenetic stimulation of n... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Technical challenges > Selective expression | 222 | 1,103 | null |
Section: Technical challenges > Kinetics and synchronization. The original channelrhodopsin-2 was slower closing than typical cation channels of cortical neurons, leading to prolonged depolarization and calcium influx. Many channelrhodopsin variants with more favorable kinetics have since been engineered.[55] [56] A di... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Technical challenges > Kinetics and synchronization | 205 | 1,028 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Amygdala. Optogenetic approaches have been used to map neural circuits in the amygdala that contribute to fear conditioning. One such example of a neural circuit is the connection made from the basolateral amygdala to the dorsal-medial prefront... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Amygdala | 213 | 989 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Olfactory bulb. Optogenetic activation of olfactory sensory neurons was critical for demonstrating timing in odor processing and for mechanism of neuromodulatory mediated olfactory guided behaviors (e.g. aggression, mating) In addition, with th... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Olfactory bulb | 209 | 1,017 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Nucleus accumbens. Optogenetics, freely moving mammalian behavior, in vivo electrophysiology, and slice physiology have been integrated to probe the cholinergic interneurons of the nucleus accumbens by direct excitation or inhibition. Despite r... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Nucleus accumbens | 187 | 923 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Prefrontal cortex. In vivo and in vitro recordings from the University of Colorado, Boulder Optophysiology Laboratory of Donald C. Cooper Ph.D. showing individual CAMKII AAV-ChR2 expressing pyramidal neurons within the prefrontal cortex that de... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Prefrontal cortex | 169 | 850 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Heart. Optogenetics was applied on atrial cardiomyocytes to end spiral wave arrhythmias, found to occur in atrial fibrillation, with light. This method is still in the development stage. A recent study explored the possibilities of optogenetics... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Heart | 256 | 1,170 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Spiral ganglion. Optogenetic stimulation of the spiral ganglion in deaf mice restored auditory activity. Optogenetic application onto the cochlear region allows for the stimulation or inhibition of the spiral ganglion cells (SGN). In addition, ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Spiral ganglion | 221 | 1,072 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Brainstem. Optogenetic stimulation of a modified red-light excitable channelrhodopsin (ReaChR) expressed in the facial motor nucleus enabled minimally invasive activation of motoneurons effective in driving whisker movements in mice. One novel ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Brainstem | 178 | 842 | null |
Section: Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Visual system. Studying the visual system using optogenetics can be challenging. Indeed, the light used for optogenetic control may lead to the activation of photoreceptors, as a result of the proximity between primary visual circuits and these... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Visual system | 315 | 1,328 | null |
As its activation peak (515 nm) is close to that of Rhodopsin 1, it is necessary to carefully calibrate the optogenetic illumination as well as the visual stimulus. The factors to take into account are the wavelength of the optogenetic illumination (possibly higher than the activation peak of GtACR1), the size of the s... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Identification of particular neurons and networks > Visual system | 163 | 703 | null |
Section: Applications > Precise temporal control of interventions. The currently available optogenetic actuators allow for the accurate temporal control of the required intervention (i.e. inhibition or excitation of the target neurons) with precision routinely going down to the millisecond level. The temporal precision... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Precise temporal control of interventions | 156 | 798 | null |
Section: Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways. Analogously to how natural light-gated ion channels such as channelrhodopsin-2 allows optical control of ion flux, which is especially useful in neuroscience, natural light-controlled signal transduction proteins also allow optical control of biochemical... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways | 314 | 1,603 | null |
Section: Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways > Photosensitive proteins used in various cell signaling pathways. In addition to phytochromes, which are found in plants and cyanobacteria, LOV domains(Light-oxygen-voltage-sensing domain) from plants and yeast and cryptochrome domains from plants are ot... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways > Photosensitive proteins used in various cell signaling pathways | 324 | 1,561 | null |
Section: Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways > Temporal control of signal transduction with light. The ability to optically control signals for various time durations is being explored to elucidate how cell signaling pathways convert signal duration and response to different outputs. Natural signali... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Applications > Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways > Temporal control of signal transduction with light | 202 | 1,055 | null |
Section: Awards. The powerful impact of optogenetic technology on brain research has been recognized by numerous awards to key players in the field. In 2010, Georg Nagel, Peter Hegemann and Ernst Bamberg were awarded the Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences and they were also among those awarded the Karl Heinz Beckurts P... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Awards | 201 | 927 | null |
In 2012, Bamberg, Deisseroth, Hegemann and Georg Nagel were awarded the Zülch Prize by the Max Planck Society, and Miesenböck was awarded the Baillet Latour Health Prize for "having pioneered optogenetic approaches to manipulate neuronal activity and to control animal behaviour." In 2013, Georg Nagel and Hegemann were ... | Wikipedia - Optogenetics - Awards | 342 | 1,475 | null |
Article: Pain asymbolia. Pain asymbolia, also called pain dissociation, is a condition in which pain is experienced without unpleasantness. This usually results from injury to the brain, lobotomy, cingulotomy, or morphine analgesia. Preexisting lesions of the insula may abolish the aversive quality of painful stimuli w... | Wikipedia - Pain asymbolia - Summary | 231 | 1,036 | null |
Article: Peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two components that make up the nervous system of bilateral animals, with the other part being the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS consists of nerves and ganglia, which lie outside the brain and the spinal cord. The main function of... | Wikipedia - Peripheral nervous system - Summary | 287 | 1,301 | null |
Section: Structure > Somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system includes the sensory nervous system (ex. the somatosensory system) and consists of sensory nerves and somatic nerves, and many nerves which hold both functions. In the head and neck, cranial nerves carry somatosensory data. There are twelve cranial... | Wikipedia - Peripheral nervous system - Structure > Somatic nervous system | 343 | 1,563 | null |
Section: Structure > Somatic nervous system > Cervical spinal nerves (C1–C4). The first 4 cervical spinal nerves, C1 through C4, split and recombine to produce a variety of nerves that serve the neck and back of head. Spinal nerve C1 is called the suboccipital nerve, which provides motor innervation to muscles at the b... | Wikipedia - Peripheral nervous system - Structure > Somatic nervous system > Cervical spinal nerves (C1–C4) | 209 | 905 | null |
Section: Structure > Autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle or cardiac muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac... | Wikipedia - Peripheral nervous system - Structure > Autonomic nervous system | 157 | 747 | null |
Section: Disease. Diseases of the peripheral nervous system can be specific to one or more nerves, or affect the system as a whole. Any peripheral nerve or nerve root can be damaged, called a mononeuropathy. Such injuries can be because of injury or trauma, or compression. Compression of nerves can occur because of a t... | Wikipedia - Peripheral nervous system - Disease | 269 | 1,265 | null |
Section: History. Personality neuroscience is a field built upon the study of personality, which has been a central theme in psychology and evolving through various theoretical perspectives as well as methodological approaches over many years. Specifically, personality neuroscience aims to understand what neurobiologic... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - History | 312 | 1,596 | null |
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