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Relatedly, Murray also suggested that "needs", which is the motivation that drive behaviors, arose as a result of "a physiochemical force in the brain". American psychologist William Sheldon was known for his work on defining three "somatotypes" (i.e., body types: endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs) to personality ... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - History | 313 | 1,504 | null |
Prell experimentally tested the heredity of neuroticism using a twin study paradigm and concluded that "the factor of neuroticism is not a statistical [artifact], but constitutes a biological unit which is inherited as a whole" and "the neurotic predisposition is to a large extent hereditarily determined". Following th... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - History | 163 | 799 | null |
Section: History > Development. Extending from Eysenck's theory on the biological basis of personality, Jeffrey A. Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality and his work that studied the neural mechanisms underlying personality traits set the foundation for the contemporary field in personality neuroscienc... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - History > Development | 340 | 1,812 | null |
Section: Research methodologies > Measuring personality. In the field of personality psychology, there have been two main approaches to define personality traits: Nomothetic approach defines personality traits in terms of dimensions and factors, or typologies comprising an organized group of trait-like characteristics,... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring personality | 270 | 1,358 | null |
Just as the Eysenck model and Golderberg/McCrae and Costa's model disagree fundamentally on the numbers of factors (three versus five, respectively), there exists ongoing debates about the numbers of orthogonal factors that may be sufficient to define the personality space. In recent years, a hierarchal model of the Bi... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring personality | 340 | 1,672 | null |
One of the most commonly used ways to measure personality attributes in personality neuroscience research is the Big-Five personality traits. In addition to the criticism by proponents of the idiographic approach as mentioned above, self-report measures on personality traits in general are susceptible to response biase... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring personality | 341 | 1,759 | null |
The SEEKING energy is used to seek valuable resources for survival, such as food, a mate, or shelter. The LUST energy is used to sustain the human species through reproductive means. The CARE system is significant in order to protect offspring so that they can grow into adults and the species is sustained once again. P... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring personality | 275 | 1,453 | null |
Section: Research methodologies > Measuring brain structures and functions. To study the neurobiological mechanisms, or the structures and functions of the brain, underlying personality, personality neuroscience research employs established methods from neuroscience research. Some of the available neuroscientific metho... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring brain structures and functions | 315 | 1,714 | null |
In addition to examine brain structure and function within localized brain regions, topological network analyses, such as graph theory in network neuroscience, can be conducted across brain regions to map out structural and functional connectivity patterns that vary with inter-individual variation in cognition and beha... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring brain structures and functions | 329 | 1,779 | null |
Molecular genetics is a sub-field in biology that investigates the structure, expression, and functions of genes, informing brain development and functions at the level of the genome. In the context of personality neuroscience, methods in molecular genetics have been used to establish genetic underpinnings of personali... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Research methodologies > Measuring brain structures and functions | 210 | 1,088 | null |
Section: Current research > Big-five personality traits. Neuroticism indicates the general proclivity to experience negative emotions and it is a risk factor as well as strong predictor for a wide range of psychopathology. People high in neuroticism may be extremely vulnerable to negative events and exhibit high levels... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Big-five personality traits | 302 | 1,465 | null |
Extraverts thrive on social interactions with others and are inclined to engage in large social gatherings, whereas introverts may prefer to socialize in smaller groups or alone and engage in more solitary activities. A series of sMRI and fMRI studies have associated extraversion with the structure and function of brai... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Big-five personality traits | 290 | 1,512 | null |
Recent work using the resting-state fMRI data from the Human Connectome Project has demonstrated that the individual functional connectivity matrices predicted openness to experience with accuracy almost on par with predictions for scores on intelligence tests, but not other four personality trait variables under the f... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Big-five personality traits | 317 | 1,704 | null |
Conscientiousness encompasses traits related to self-discipline, organization, and dependability. Individuals high in conscientiousness are often goal-oriented, diligent, organized, and reliable, while those low in this trait may be more spontaneous and flexible. One sMRI study have discovered the association between c... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Big-five personality traits | 244 | 1,228 | null |
Section: Current research > Empathy. Empathy, in the discussion here as a stable trait as in empathetic ability or capacity, can be defined as an affective response that "is similar to one’s perception (directly experienced or imagined) and understanding (cognitive empathy) of the stimulus emotion, with recognition tha... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Empathy | 326 | 1,554 | null |
Section: Current research > Genetic Factors. Prior research focused primarily on the causes of specific traits like extraversion, but 2018 research indicated that these individual traits do not alone determine personality. Researchers looked into the genes that are related to human personality. They identified the gene... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Current research > Genetic Factors | 251 | 1,466 | null |
Section: Challenges and future directions. As an interdisciplinary field that lie between personality psychology and neuroscience, personality neuroscience research may benefit both fields by informing the formation of neuroscience hypotheses and helping interpret findings through theoretical framework developed in per... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Challenges and future directions | 348 | 2,101 | null |
Because of this, many of the previously published studies may be proven to be false positives due to under-powered studies that use small samples. Larger sample sizes are needed to detect smaller effects, which are common in personality neuroscience. A sample size of around 200 is needed to have 80% power and detect a ... | Wikipedia - Personality neuroscience - Challenges and future directions | 229 | 1,334 | null |
Article: Phonetotopy. Phonetotopy is the concept that articulatory features as well as perceptual features of speech sounds are ordered in the brain in a similar way as tone (tonotopy), articulation and its somatosensory feedback (somatotopy), or visual location of an object (retinotopy). It is assumed that a phonetoto... | Wikipedia - Phonetotopy - Summary | 267 | 1,135 | null |
Article: Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell. Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), also called photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGC), or melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs), are a type of neuron in the retina of the mammalian eye. The presence of an additi... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Summary | 224 | 964 | null |
Section: Overview. Compared to the rods and cones, the ipRGCs respond more sluggishly and signal the presence of light over the long term. They represent a very small subset (~1%) of the retinal ganglion cells. Their functional roles are non-image-forming and fundamentally different from those of pattern vision; they p... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Overview | 324 | 1,554 | null |
In rats, they play some role in conscious visual perception, including perception of regular gratings, light levels, and spatial information. Photoreceptive ganglion cells have been isolated in humans, where, in addition to regulating the circadian rhythm, they have been shown to mediate a degree of light recognition i... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Overview | 251 | 1,186 | null |
Section: Structure > ipRGC receptor. These photoreceptor cells project both throughout the retina and into the brain. They contain the photopigment melanopsin in varying quantities along the cell membrane, including on the axons up to the optic disc, the soma, and dendrites of the cell. ipRGCs contain membrane receptor... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Structure > ipRGC receptor | 167 | 677 | null |
Section: Structure > Melanopsin. Unlike other photoreceptor pigments, melanopsin has the ability to act as both the excitable photopigment and as a photoisomerase. Unlike the visual opsins in rod cells and cone cells, which rely on the standard visual cycles for recharging all-trans-retinal back into the photosensitive... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Structure > Melanopsin | 200 | 791 | null |
Section: Structure > Synaptic inputs and outputs > Inputs. ipRGCs are both pre- and postsynaptic to dopaminergic amacrine cells (DA cells) via reciprocal synapses, with ipRGCs sending excitatory signals to the DA cells, and the DA cells sending inhibitory signals to the ipRGCs. These inhibitory signals are mediated thr... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Structure > Synaptic inputs and outputs > Inputs | 192 | 789 | null |
Section: Structure > Synaptic inputs and outputs > Outputs. One postsynaptic target of ipRGCs is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, which serves as the circadian clock in an organism. ipRGCs release both pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating protein (PACAP) and glutamate onto the SCN via a monosynap... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Structure > Synaptic inputs and outputs > Outputs | 257 | 926 | null |
Section: Function > Pupillary light reflex. Using various photoreceptor knockout mice, researchers have identified the role of ipRGCs in both the transient and sustained signaling of the pupillary light reflex (PLR). Transient PLR occurs at dim to moderate light intensities and is a result of phototransduction occurrin... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Function > Pupillary light reflex | 242 | 1,048 | null |
Section: Function > Possible role in conscious sight. Experiments with rodless, coneless humans allowed another possible role for the receptor to be studied. In 2007, a new role was found for the photoreceptive ganglion cell. Zaidi and colleagues showed that in humans the retinal ganglion cell photoreceptor contributes... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Function > Possible role in conscious sight | 347 | 1,631 | null |
Section: Discovery. In 1923, Clyde E. Keeler observed that the pupils in the eyes of blind mice he had accidentally bred still responded to light. The ability of the rodless, coneless mice to retain a pupillary light reflex was suggestive of an additional photoreceptor cell. In the 1980s, research in rod- and cone-defi... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Discovery | 338 | 1,500 | null |
Section: Research > Research in humans. Attempts were made to hunt down the receptor in humans, but humans posed special challenges and demanded a new model. Unlike in other animals, researchers could not ethically induce rod and cone loss either genetically or with chemicals so as to directly study the ganglion cells.... | Wikipedia - Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell - Research > Research in humans | 311 | 1,524 | null |
Article: Postmenopausal confusion. Postmenopausal confusion, also commonly referred to as postmenopausal brain fog, is a group of symptoms of menopause in which women report problems with cognition at a higher frequency during postmenopause than before. Multiple studies on cognitive performance following menopause have... | Wikipedia - Postmenopausal confusion - Summary | 289 | 1,519 | null |
Section: History. Research on menopause as a whole declined with the end of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) studies, but research on the treatment of symptoms associated with menopause—especially the treatment of cognitive decline—continues. The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN), first started in 199... | Wikipedia - Postmenopausal confusion - History | 247 | 1,251 | null |
Section: Presentation. Menopause is a natural decline in the ovarian function of women who reach the age between 45 and 54 years. "About 25 million women pass through menopause worldwide each year, and it has been estimated that, by the year 2030, the world population of menopausal and postmenopausal women will be 1.2 ... | Wikipedia - Postmenopausal confusion - Presentation | 166 | 729 | null |
Section: Treatment > Pharmacological > Hormone therapy. Hormone therapy, also known as estrogen therapy, was previously a common treatment for postmenopausal confusion. However, more recent research indicates that hormone therapy is not an effective treatment for postmenopausal cognitive symptoms. A 2008 Cochrane revie... | Wikipedia - Postmenopausal confusion - Treatment > Pharmacological > Hormone therapy | 295 | 1,562 | null |
Section: Treatment > Non-pharmacological > Supplementation. Soy isoflavones (SIF), a type of phytoestrogen which can be found in soybeans, fruits and nuts, has been shown to improve cognitive outcomes in recent postmenopausal women of less than 10 years. This suggests that the initiation of SIF may have a critical marg... | Wikipedia - Postmenopausal confusion - Treatment > Non-pharmacological > Supplementation | 322 | 1,511 | null |
Article: Postmortem studies. Postmortem studies are a type of neurobiological research, which provides information to researchers and individuals who will have to make medical decisions in the future. Postmortem researchers conduct a longitudinal study of the brain of an individual, who has some sort of phenomenologica... | Wikipedia - Postmortem studies - Summary | 340 | 1,732 | null |
Article: Prefrontal synthesis. Prefrontal synthesis (PFS, also known as mental synthesis) is the conscious purposeful process of synthesizing novel mental images. PFS is neurologically different from the other types of imagination, such as simple memory recall and dreaming. Unlike dreaming, which is spontaneous and not... | Wikipedia - Prefrontal synthesis - Summary | 216 | 1,004 | null |
Section: History of the term. The earliest reference to mental synthesis is found in the doctoral dissertation of S. J. Rowton written in 1864. Paraphrasing Cicero’s description of nature that can only be unified in someone’s mind, S. J. Rowton writes: "... there cannot be one thing unless by a mental synthesis of many... | Wikipedia - Prefrontal synthesis - History of the term | 289 | 1,424 | null |
As a result, "mental synthesis" was adapted to describe the active process of assembling two or more independent objectNEs from memory into novel combinations. The term "prefrontal synthesis" was later proposed for use in place of "mental synthesis" in order to emphasize the role of the PFC and further distance this ty... | Wikipedia - Prefrontal synthesis - History of the term | 178 | 855 | null |
Section: Neuroscience of prefrontal synthesis. The mechanism of PFS is hypothesized to involve synchronization of several independent object-encoding neuronal ensembles (objectNEs). When objectNEs fire out-of-sync, the objects are perceived one at a time. However, once those objectNEs are time-shifted by the lateral pr... | Wikipedia - Prefrontal synthesis - Neuroscience of prefrontal synthesis | 294 | 1,464 | null |
Article: Protomap (neuroscience). The Protomap is a primordial molecular map of the functional areas of the mammalian cerebral cortex during early embryonic development, at a stage when neural stem cells are still the dominant cell type. The protomap is a feature of the ventricular zone, which contains the principal co... | Wikipedia - Protomap (neuroscience) - Summary | 329 | 1,603 | null |
Article: Representational drift. In neuroscience, representational drift is a phenomenon describing the gradual change in how the brain represents information over time, even when the information (and associated perception or behavior) itself remains constant. This contrasts with the idea of stable neural representatio... | Wikipedia - Representational drift - Summary | 266 | 1,590 | null |
Section: Overview. This process is critical in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and economics, as it influences decision-making, learning, and adaptive behavior. For example, animals or humans may reduce their effort to obtain a reward if its perceived value decreases (e.g., due to overconsumption or nega... | Wikipedia - Reward devaluation - Overview | 254 | 1,255 | null |
Article: Ribbon synapse. The ribbon synapse is a type of neuronal synapse characterized by the presence of an electron-dense structure, the synaptic ribbon, that holds vesicles close to the active zone. It is characterized by a tight vesicle-calcium channel coupling that promotes rapid neurotransmitter release and sust... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Summary | 316 | 1,371 | null |
Section: Structure > Microscopic. The photoreceptor ribbon synapse is around 30 nm in thickness. It sticks out into the cytoplasm around 200-1000 nm and anchors along its base to the arciform density which is an electron dense structure that is anchored to the presynaptic membrane. The arciform density is located withi... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Structure > Microscopic | 343 | 1,502 | null |
Section: Structure > Molecular. The molecular composition between conventional neuronal synapse and ribbon synapse is surprisingly dissimilar. At the core of synaptic vesicle exocytosis machinery in vertebrate neuronal synapses is the SNARE complex. The minimally functional SNARE complex includes syntaxin 1, VAMP 1 and... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Structure > Molecular | 331 | 1,399 | null |
The presynaptic cytomatrix proteins Bassoon and Piccolo are both expressed at photoreceptor ribbons, but Piccolo is only expressed at retinal bipolar synaptic ribbons. Bassoon is responsible for attaching itself to the base of the synaptic ribbons and subsequently anchoring the synaptic ribbons. The function of Piccolo... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Structure > Molecular | 318 | 1,441 | null |
Section: Function. Features of the ribbon synapse enable it to process information extremely quickly. Bipolar neurons present a good model for how ribbon synapses function. Information is conveyed from photoreceptor cells to bipolar cells via the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate at the ribbon synapse. Conventi... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Function | 312 | 1,502 | null |
Section: Function > Exocytosis. During exocytosis at the bipolar ribbon synapse, vesicles are seen to pause at the membrane and then upon opening of the calcium channels to promptly release their contents within milliseconds. Like most exocytosis, Ca2+ regulates the release of vesicles from the presynaptic membrane. Di... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Function > Exocytosis | 327 | 1,554 | null |
In fact, the charge distribution of currents is actually normally distributed, supporting the uniquantal release scenario. It has been shown that the skewness of the current amplitude distribution is well explained by different time courses of neurotransmitter release of a single vesicles with a flickering fusion pore.... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Function > Exocytosis | 278 | 1,356 | null |
Section: Function > Endocytosis. A high rate of endocytosis is necessary to counter the high rate of exocytosis during sustained neurotransmitter release at ribbon synapses. Synaptic vesicles need to be recycled for further transmission to occur. These vesicles are directly recycled and because of their mobility, quick... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Function > Endocytosis | 166 | 724 | null |
Section: Research > Loss of hearing and sight in mice. Research has shown that abnormal expression of otoferlin, a ribbon synapse associated protein, impairs exocytosis of ribbon-bound vesicles in auditory inner hair cells. Otoferlin displays similar functional characteristics to synaptotagmin, a synapse associated pro... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Research > Loss of hearing and sight in mice | 209 | 990 | null |
Section: Research > Human implications. Much of the genetic information associated with the proteins observed in laboratory mice are shared with humans. The protein otoferlin is observed phenotypically in human auditory inner hair cells, and abnormal expression has been linked with deafness. In humans, cochlear implant... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Research > Human implications | 152 | 803 | null |
Section: Research > Other areas. Several recent studies have provided evidence that loss-of-function mutations in pre-synaptic proteins of the photoreceptor cells ribbon synapse can cause X-linked congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB) through mutations in the CACNA1F gene, which codes for the αF1-subunit of the ... | Wikipedia - Ribbon synapse - Research > Other areas | 242 | 1,001 | null |
Article: Roundabout family. The Roundabout (Robo) family of proteins are single-pass transmembrane receptors that are highly conserved across many branches of the animal kingdom, from C. elegans to humans. They were first discovered in Drosophila, through a mutant screen for genes involved in axon guidance. The Drosoph... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Summary | 235 | 1,118 | null |
Section: Discovery. A large-scale screen of the Drosophila genome for mutants that exhibited axon guidance defects led to the discovery of the roundabout (robo) mutation. In robo mutants, axons were observed to inappropriately cross and recross the midline. It was subsequently found that the secreted protein Slit was t... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Discovery | 217 | 1,014 | null |
Section: Protein structure. Each member of the Robo family has a similar structure, consisting of five immunoglobulin-like domains, three fibronectin type III (FN3) repeats, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with up to four conserved motifs (CC0-3). In all identified Robo receptors except for vertebrate ... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Protein structure | 151 | 586 | null |
Section: Function > Axonal guidance. In bilaterian animals, including insects and mammals, most axons in the CNS cross the midline during nervous system development. The Robo proteins are critical regulators of midline crossing across species. In Drosophila embryos, Robo1 and Robo2 are required to keep ipsilaterally pr... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Function > Axonal guidance | 274 | 1,216 | null |
Section: Function > Actin cytoskeleton regulation. The binding of Slit to Robo receptors leads to reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. Actin polymerization is regulated by several adaptor proteins that can bind to the cytoplasmic motifs of the Robo receptors. In Drosophila, several signaling proteins downstream of... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Function > Actin cytoskeleton regulation | 162 | 712 | null |
Section: Clinical applications and areas of research > Angiogenesis and tumor suppression. The Robo4 receptor has been linked to angiogenesis in both mice and zebrafish. It is also present in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMVEC) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Exposure of Robo4 to Slit2 inh... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Clinical applications and areas of research > Angiogenesis and tumor suppression | 258 | 1,170 | null |
Section: Clinical applications and areas of research > Robo3/Rig1 and HGPPS. A defect in the Robo3/Rig1 protein results in horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis (HGPPS), a rare genetic disorder. HGPPS is characterized by a lack of horizontal eye movement within the socket (although vertical movement remains ... | Wikipedia - Roundabout family - Clinical applications and areas of research > Robo3/Rig1 and HGPPS | 233 | 1,030 | null |
Section: Applications > Prediction of picture and video quality. One of the most successful applications of Natural Scenes Statistics Models has been perceptual picture and video quality prediction. For example, the Visual Information Fidelity (VIF) algorithm, which is used to measure the degree of distortion of pictur... | Wikipedia - Scene statistics - Applications > Prediction of picture and video quality | 176 | 939 | null |
Section: History and motivation. By 2025, it is estimated that 34 million people in the United States will have dementia. It is extremely important, then, that we establish an effective treatment for people with such symptoms to either reduce, or diminish dementia altogether. In modern-day treatment not involving pharm... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - History and motivation | 349 | 1,790 | null |
Section: Stroke. A stroke can be caused by a few different situations, but the basic result is the same. Blood flow to a section of the brain is stopped, which results in rapid depletion of oxygen and other nutrients in the starved section. The starved section of brain tissue quickly begins to die, and results in a les... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Stroke | 257 | 1,380 | null |
Section: Cognitive ageing. During ageing, many brain functions decline and some are lost, this is referred to as cognitive ageing. In the most extreme cases one might think about the catastrophic results of Alzheimer's disease. Age is the largest risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. However, due to lack of knowledge an... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Cognitive ageing | 174 | 843 | null |
Section: Somatosensory system. The cortical homunculus, or the visual representation of how your brain sees your body, was discovered by Wilder Penfield. a world-famous brain surgeon. Upon ending his career as part of the McGill medical faculty, he served as the director of Neurological Institute. The somatosensory sys... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Somatosensory system | 247 | 1,171 | null |
Section: Sensory stimulation therapies. Sensory stimulation uses rapid stimulation of nerves in a section of skin to drive neuronal changes in the participant. The nerves are electrically stimulated in a fashion referred to as coactivation. In both cases the participant's limb, often hand, is constrained in a device th... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies | 201 | 1,080 | null |
Section: Sensory stimulation therapies > Frequency studies. In January 2008, Ragert et al. explored the impact of frequency of stimulation on sensory stimulation techniques to induce plastic changes. The study investigated if varying the frequency could be used to induce either Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) or Long-term... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies > Frequency studies | 213 | 1,112 | null |
Section: Sensory stimulation therapies > Activity-dependent plasticity and sensory stimulation therapy. Activity-dependent plasticity refers the phenomenon by which neuronal connections changes via repetitive use. This form of plasticity has been used by neuro-rehabilitation clinics to help those recovering from stroke... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies > Activity-dependent plasticity and sensory stimulation therapy | 214 | 1,186 | null |
Section: Sensory stimulation therapies > Impact on cortical maps. Cortical maps are the maps in which parts of our brain, such as the somatosensory system, are described. The cortical maps in our brains do not so much relate to our senses so much as it relates to our sense of physical touch. It has been found that the ... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies > Impact on cortical maps | 151 | 707 | null |
Section: Sensory stimulation therapies > Acupuncture and physiotherapy improving postural control. Patients suffering from hemiparetic stroke often lose their ability to stand upright and hold their posture on their own. Without the ability to control our posture, we lose the ability to move freely and voluntarily, whi... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies > Acupuncture and physiotherapy improving postural control | 337 | 1,565 | null |
Upon testing, the subjects stood on a platform with their heels together and their arms crossed over their chests. The subjects were exposed to perturbations via vibratory stimulus on their calf muscles, which caused anteroposterior movement, or galvanic stimulation of the vestibular nerves, causing lateral movement. T... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Sensory stimulation therapies > Acupuncture and physiotherapy improving postural control | 303 | 1,631 | null |
Section: Conclusion. Sensory stimulation therapy is a developing technique aimed at recovering sensory loss after strokes and restoring losses from ageing. It has not been proven that sensory stimulation therapy can actually improve brain plasticity, nor cognitive function. The paradigm of brain plasticity marked a fun... | Wikipedia - Sensory stimulation therapy - Conclusion | 321 | 1,763 | null |
Article: Single-particle trajectory. Single-particle trajectories (SPTs) consist of a collection of successive discrete points causal in time. These trajectories are acquired from images in experimental data. In the context of cell biology, the trajectories are obtained by the transient activation by a laser of small d... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Summary | 162 | 814 | null |
Section: SPTs allow observing moving molecules inside cells to collect statistics. SPT allowed observing moving particles. These trajectories are used to investigate cytoplasm or membrane organization, but also the cell nucleus dynamics, remodeler dynamics or mRNA production. Due to the constant improvement of the inst... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - SPTs allow observing moving molecules inside cells to collect statistics | 158 | 868 | null |
Section: Extract physical parameters from redundant SPTs. The redundancy of many short (SPTs) is a key feature to extract biophysical information parameters from empirical data at a molecular level. In contrast, long isolated trajectories have been used to extract information along trajectories, destroying the natural ... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Extract physical parameters from redundant SPTs | 343 | 1,324 | null |
First, it is not precise in part because the measured points could be correlated. Second, it cannot be used to compute any physical diffusion coefficient when trajectories consists of switching episodes for example alternating between free and confined diffusion. At low spatiotemporal resolution of the observed traject... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Extract physical parameters from redundant SPTs | 161 | 822 | null |
Section: Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > Langevin and Smoluchowski equations as a model of motion. Statistical methods to extract information from SPTs are based on stochastic models, such as the Langevin equation or its Smoluchowski's limit and associated models that account for addi... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > Langevin and Smoluchowski equations as a model of motion | 272 | 974 | null |
Here Ξ {\displaystyle \Xi } is the δ {\displaystyle \delta } -correlated Gaussian white noise. The force can derived from a potential well U so that F ( x , t ) = − U ′ ( x ) {\displaystyle F(x,t)=-U'(x)} and in that case, the equation takes the form m d 2 x d t 2 + Γ d x d t + ∇ U ( x ) = 2 ε γ d η d t , {\displaystyl... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > Langevin and Smoluchowski equations as a model of motion | 323 | 958 | null |
For example, at very short timescales, when a molecule unbinds from a binding site or escapes from a potential well and the inertia term allows the particles to move away from the attractor and thus prevents immediate rebinding that could plague numerical simulations. In the large friction limit γ → ∞ {\displaystyle \g... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > Langevin and Smoluchowski equations as a model of motion | 273 | 1,015 | null |
Section: Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > General model equations. For a timescale much longer than the elementary molecular collision, the position of a tracked particle is described by a more general overdamped limit of the Langevin stochastic model. Indeed, if the acquisition timesc... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Physical model to recover spatial properties from redundant SPTs > General model equations | 345 | 1,078 | null |
Section: Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimators for the drift and diffusion tensor of a stochastic process. Several empirical estimators have been proposed to recover the local diffusion coefficient, vector field and even organized patterns in the drift, such as potential wells. The construct... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimators for the drift and diffusion tensor of a stochastic process | 206 | 1,068 | null |
The coarse-grained model Eq. 1 is recovered from the conditional moments of the trajectory by computing the increments Δ X = X ( t + Δ t ) − X ( t ) {\displaystyle \Delta X=X(t+\Delta t)-X(t)} : a ( x ) = lim Δ t → 0 E [ Δ X ( t ) ∣ X ( t ) = x ] Δ t , {\displaystyle a(x)=\lim _{\Delta t\rightarrow 0}{\frac {E[\Delta X... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimators for the drift and diffusion tensor of a stochastic process | 340 | 875 | null |
Section: Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation. In practice, the expectations for a and D are estimated by finite sample averages and Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t} is the time-resolution of the recorded trajectories. Formulas for a and D are approximated at the time step Δ t {\displaystyle \D... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 181 | 763 | null |
Considering a sample with N t {\displaystyle N_{t}} trajectories { x i ( t 1 ) , … , x i ( t N s ) } , {\displaystyle \{x^{i}(t_{1}),\dots ,x^{i}(t_{N_{s}})\},} where t j {\displaystyle t_{j}} are the sampling times, the discretization of equation for the drift a ( x k ) = ( a x ( x k ) , a y ( x k ) ) {\displaystyle a... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 350 | 695 | null |
{x_{i+1}^{j}-x_{i}^{j}}{\Delta t}}\right)} a y ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x ~ i j ∈ S ( x k , r ) N s − 1 ( y i + 1 j − y i j Δ t ) , {\displaystyle a_{y}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=0,{\tilde {x}}_{i}^{j}\in S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}\left({\frac {y_{i+1}^{j}-y_{i}^{j}}{\Delta t}}... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 269 | 466 | null |
Similarly, the components of the effective diffusion tensor D ( x k ) {\displaystyle D(x_{k})} are approximated by the empirical sums D x x ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x i ∈ S ( x k , r ) N s − 1 ( x i + 1 j − x i j ) 2 2 Δ t , {\displaystyle D_{xx}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 332 | 601 | null |
S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}{\frac {(y_{i+1}^{j}-y_{i}^{j})^{2}}{2\,\Delta t}},} D x y ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x i ∈ S ( x k , r ) N s − 1 ( x i + 1 j − x i j ) ( y i + 1 j − y i j ) 2 Δ t . {\displaystyle D_{xy}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=0,x_{i}\in S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}{\frac {... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 325 | 643 | null |
{\displaystyle D_{xy}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=0,x_{i}\in S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}{\frac {(x_{i+1}^{j}-x_{i}^{j})(y_{i+1}^{j}-y_{i}^{j})}{2\,\Delta t}}.} The moment estimation requires a large number of trajectories passing through each point, which agrees precisely with the massive data... | Wikipedia - Single-particle trajectory - Statistical analysis of these trajectories > Empirical estimation | 268 | 773 | null |
Section: Efficacy. Along with olfactory implants, smell training is a promising but experimental treatment option. Several individual studies have indicated that smell training can increase olfactory sensitivity. In 2021 a meta-analysis was published that examined research studies of olfactory training for treating los... | Wikipedia - Smell training - Efficacy | 241 | 1,342 | null |
Section: History. The idea was first written about by Thomas Hummel, a German psychologist at the Dresden University of Technology, in his 2009 paper "Effects of olfactory training in patients with olfactory loss". In his original study, Hummel instructed patients with olfactory dysfunction to follow a twice-a-day rout... | Wikipedia - Smell training - History | 188 | 870 | null |
Article: Spaced learning. Spaced learning is a learning method in which highly condensed learning content is repeated three times, with two 10-minute breaks during which distractor activities such as physical activities are performed by the students. It is based on the temporal pattern of stimuli for creating long-term... | Wikipedia - Spaced learning - Summary | 218 | 1,184 | null |
Section: Background. Spaced Learning had been developed by Kelley and his team over years and rather confusingly was not called 'Spaced Learning' at first. Earlier descriptions of Spaced Learning often led to its being misunderstood, and the scientific origins of the approach ignored. When the initial reports of outcom... | Wikipedia - Spaced learning - Background | 327 | 1,769 | null |
Article: Spike response model. The spike response model (SRM) is a spiking neuron model in which spikes are generated by either a deterministic or a stochastic threshold process. In the SRM, the membrane voltage V is described as a linear sum of the postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) caused by spike arrivals to which the e... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Summary | 326 | 1,462 | null |
Section: Model equations for SRM in continuous time. In the SRM, at each moment in time t, a spike can be generated stochastically with instantaneous stochastic intensity or 'escape function' ρ ( t ) = f ( V ( t ) − ϑ ( t ) ) {\displaystyle \rho (t)=f(V(t)-\vartheta (t))} that depends on the momentary difference betwee... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in continuous time | 326 | 972 | null |
The membrane voltage V(t) at time t is given by V ( t ) = ∑ f η ( t − t f ) + ∫ 0 ∞ κ ( s ) I ( t − s ) d s + V r e s t {\displaystyle V(t)=\sum _{f}\eta (t-t^{f})+\int _{0}^{\infty }\kappa (s)I(t-s)\,ds+V_{\mathrm {rest} }} where tf is the firing time of spike number f of the neuron, Vrest is the resting voltage in th... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in continuous time | 317 | 919 | null |
In particular, η ( t − t f ) {\displaystyle \eta (t-t^{f})} describes the time course of the action potential starting at time t f {\displaystyle t^{f}} as well as the spike-afterpotential. The dynamic threshold ϑ ( t ) {\displaystyle \vartheta (t)} is given by ϑ ( t ) = ϑ 0 + ∑ f θ 1 ( t − t f ) {\displaystyle \varthe... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in continuous time | 311 | 852 | null |
In case of a fixed threshold [i.e., θ 1 ( t − t f ) {\displaystyle \theta _{1}(t-t^{f})} =0], the refractory kernel η ( t − t f ) {\displaystyle \eta (t-t^{f})} should include only the spike-afterpotential, but not the shape of the spike itself. A common choice for the 'escape rate' f {\displaystyle f} (that is consist... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in continuous time | 350 | 1,189 | null |
In a network of N SRM neurons 1 ≤ i ≤ N {\displaystyle 1\leq i\leq N} , the membrane voltage of neuron i {\displaystyle i} is given by V i ( t ) = ∑ f η i ( t − t i f ) + ∑ j = 1 N w i j ∑ f ′ ε i j ( t − t j f ′ ) + V r e s t {\displaystyle V_{i}(t)=\sum _{f}\eta _{i}(t-t_{i}^{f})+\sum _{j=1}^{N}w_{ij}\sum _{f'}\varep... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in continuous time | 350 | 782 | null |
Section: Model equations for SRM in discrete time. For simulations, the SRM is usually implemented in discrete time. In time step t n {\displaystyle t_{n}} of duration Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t} , a spike is generated with probability P F ( t n ) = F ( V ( t n ) − ϑ ( t n ) ) {\displaystyle P_{F}(t_{n})=F(V(t_{n})-\v... | Wikipedia - Spike response model - Model equations for SRM in discrete time | 342 | 981 | null |
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