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However, in recent years, other producers have increased production and China has increased export quotas, leading to higher supply, lower cost, and greater viability of large-scale use of variable-speed generators. Glass fiber is the most common material for reinforcement. Its demand has grown due to growth in constru... | Wikipedia - Wind turbine - Technology > Material supply | 152 | 752 | null |
Section: Small wind turbines. Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small ... | Wikipedia - Wind turbine - Small wind turbines | 182 | 910 | null |
Section: Wind turbine spacing. On most horizontal wind turbine farms, a spacing of about 6–10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms, distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economical, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reache... | Wikipedia - Wind turbine - Wind turbine spacing | 163 | 884 | null |
Section: Operability > Maintenance. Wind turbines need regular maintenance to stay reliable and available. In the best case turbines are available to generate energy 98% of the time. Ice accretion on turbine blades has been found to greatly reduce the efficiency of wind turbines, which is a common challenge in cold cli... | Wikipedia - Wind turbine - Operability > Maintenance | 173 | 895 | null |
Section: Operability > Demolition and recycling. Some wind turbines which are out of use are recycled or repowered. 85% of turbine materials are easily reused or recycled, but the blades, made of a composite material, are more difficult to process. Interest in recycling blades varies in different markets and depends on... | Wikipedia - Wind turbine - Operability > Demolition and recycling | 265 | 1,410 | null |
Section: History. When the windmills of the 18th century included the feature of rotor orientation via the rotation of the nacelle, an actuation mechanism able to provide that turning moment was necessary. Initially the windmills used ropes or chains extending from the nacelle to the ground in order to allow the rotati... | Wikipedia - Yaw drive - History | 246 | 1,215 | null |
Article: Acceptance testing. In engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests. In systems engineering, it may involve black-box testing perfor... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - Summary | 280 | 1,455 | null |
Section: Overview. Testing is a set of activities conducted to facilitate the discovery and/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test. Each test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including co... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - Overview | 308 | 1,692 | null |
Section: Process. The acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration. The acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers on which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow,... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - Process | 267 | 1,437 | null |
Section: User acceptance testing. User acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user. It is not system testing (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accep... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - User acceptance testing | 347 | 1,773 | null |
User tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on showstopper defects, such as software crashes; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier unit testing, integration testing, and system testing... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - User acceptance testing | 295 | 1,500 | null |
Section: Acceptance testing in extreme programming. Acceptance testing is a term used in agile software development methodologies, particularly extreme programming, referring to the functional testing of a user story by the software development team during the implementation phase. The customer specifies scenarios to t... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - Acceptance testing in extreme programming | 176 | 1,036 | null |
Section: Types of acceptance testing. Typical types of acceptance testing include the following User acceptance testing This may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be per... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - Types of acceptance testing | 306 | 1,736 | null |
Section: List of acceptance-testing frameworks. Concordion, Specification by example (SbE) framework Concordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET Cucumber, a behavior-driven development (BDD) acceptance test framework Capybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications Behat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP Le... | Wikipedia - Acceptance testing - List of acceptance-testing frameworks | 204 | 977 | null |
Section: Overview. Under an EPC contract, a contractor is obliged to deliver a complete facility to a developer who needs only "turn a key" to start operating the facility; hence EPC contracts are sometimes called turnkey construction contracts. In addition to delivering a complete facility, the contractor must deliver... | Wikipedia - Engineering, procurement, and construction - Overview | 304 | 1,575 | null |
Section: History. The term Facilities Engineer emerged in the 1990s from the already existing vocation of a Plant Engineer. This evolution occurred in order to match the rapid advancements in technology at the time. There was a need for a more specialized and dynamic type of engineer, while still having the general bac... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - History | 228 | 1,298 | null |
Section: Responsibilities. Facilities engineers have the responsibility of establishing different projects in support of the plant's design and operation needs to be able to ensure an efficient and all the different aspects of safety are met up to standard. The industries that Facilities engineers can go into are the o... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Responsibilities | 322 | 1,911 | null |
In short, the responsibilities entail any type of engineering support that goes on at the facilities' location in addition to the construction and renovation of the facilities themselves. While, a facilities engineer working for the Indian Health Service would be responsible to ensure that health care facilities and re... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Responsibilities | 248 | 1,480 | null |
Section: Careers. Facilities engineering is a broad study of engineering that makes it difficult to put facilities engineers into one category of jobs. According to a survey by Buildings.com the most common career fields for facilities engineer are construction, project management, facility management, energy managemen... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Careers | 157 | 979 | null |
Section: Day to Day Operations. Operations Engineer Ensure a company's operations are working properly Inspect operations, equipment and machinery Plan for maintenance and upgrade machinery Reduce or protect the company's product from defects Specialist Engineer Running diagnostics and test on specific machinery Determ... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Day to Day Operations | 278 | 1,746 | null |
Section: Training. Due to a major advancement in industrial and commercial construction, in conjunction with a highly increased emphasis on energy efficiency, it is not uncommon for colleges and universities to have courses and degrees specifically allocated to facilities engineering. For example, in the late 1990s Pur... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Training | 321 | 1,915 | null |
Section: Educational Requirements. Facilities engineers are not required to have at least a bachelor's degree but most of them do for experience and it is not unusual to see many facilities engineers with master's degrees in the given fields. They must have that degree in either structural engineering, mechanical engin... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Educational Requirements | 239 | 1,368 | null |
Section: Employment. Additionally the US Department of Defense (DoD) has created a Facilities Engineering career field as part of the Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics workforce. That career field is not limited to indoor environments. In the DoD, the field also encompasses Real Estate, Ranges and the management o... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Employment | 182 | 936 | null |
Section: Areas of Research. The research done by facilities engineer is involved in the energy sector. Facilities engineer try to find new ways in order to improve efficiency and save power for industrial equipment and buildings. This has pushed many innovations in the move to green buildings and energy storage. The gr... | Wikipedia - Facilities engineering - Areas of Research | 159 | 886 | null |
Article: Liquidated damages. Liquidated damages, also referred to as liquidated and ascertained damages (LADs), are damages whose amount the parties designate during the formation of a contract for the injured party to collect as compensation upon a specific breach (e.g., late performance). This is most applicable wher... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Summary | 263 | 1,275 | null |
Section: Common law. Generally, at common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if its purpose is to punish the party in breach rather than to compensate the injured party, in which case it is referred to as a penal or penalty clause. One reason for this is that the enforcement of the term would, in eff... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Common law | 343 | 1,770 | null |
Section: Common law > Case law. In the case of construction contracts, courts have occasionally refused to enforce liquidated damages provisions, choosing to follow the doctrine of concurrent delay when both parties have contributed to the overall delay of the project. In the 2015 case of Unaoil Ltd v Leighton Offshore... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Common law > Case law | 231 | 1,150 | null |
Section: Common law > The law applied to bank and credit card charges > United Kingdom. UK bank and credit card customers were being charged as much as £39 for a single transaction taking them over their credit limit. Consumers argued these charges were well beyond the cost of sending a computerised letter. In 2007 the... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Common law > The law applied to bank and credit card charges > United Kingdom | 332 | 1,705 | null |
Section: Common law > The law applied to bank and credit card charges > Australia. In 2012, the High Court of Australia allowed an appeal against findings of the Federal Court of Australia that 'exception fees' imposed by the ANZ Bank could not constitute an unenforceable penalty. The High Court found that fees were no... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Common law > The law applied to bank and credit card charges > Australia | 341 | 1,700 | null |
Section: Other legal systems > Civil law. Civil law systems generally impose less severe restrictions on liquidated damages. For example, Article 1226 of the French Civil Code provides for clause pénale, a variant of liquidated damages which combines compensatory and coercive elements. Judges may adjust excessive contr... | Wikipedia - Liquidated damages - Other legal systems > Civil law | 297 | 1,521 | null |
Article: Lump sum turnkey. Lump sum turnkey (LSTK) is a combination of the business-contract concepts of lump sum and turnkey. Lump sum is a noun which means a complete payment consisting of a single sum of money while turnkey is an adjective of a product or service which means product or service will be ready to use u... | Wikipedia - Lump sum turnkey - Summary | 161 | 726 | null |
Article: Turnkey. A turnkey, a turnkey project, or a turnkey operation (also spelled turn-key) is a type of project that is constructed so that it can be sold to any buyer as a completed product. This is contrasted with build to order, where the constructor builds an item to the buyer's exact specifications, or when an... | Wikipedia - Turnkey - Summary | 284 | 1,410 | null |
Section: Common usage. Turnkey refers to something that is ready for immediate use, generally used in the sale or supply of goods or services. The word is a reference to the fact that the customer, upon receiving the product, just needs to turn the ignition key to make it operational, or that the key just needs to be t... | Wikipedia - Turnkey - Common usage | 347 | 1,759 | null |
Section: Specific usage. The term turnkey is also often used in the technology industry, most commonly to describe pre-built computer "packages" in which everything needed to perform a certain type of task (e.g. audio editing) is put together by the supplier and sold as a bundle. This often includes a computer with pre... | Wikipedia - Turnkey - Specific usage | 311 | 1,571 | null |
Section: Physical processes in electromagnetic vortex intensifiers. Intensification of technological processes and chemical reactions is achieved due to intensive mixing and dispersion, acoustic and electromagnetic treatment, high local pressure and electrolysis of processed components. Electromagnetic devices with a v... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic vortex intensifier with ferromagnetic particles - Physical processes in electromagnetic vortex intensifiers | 183 | 938 | null |
Section: Industrial application of electromagnetic vortex intensifiers. Examples of industrial applications of these devices for intensifying processes are: preparation of food emulsions preparation of multicomponent suspensions with vulcanizing and gelling agents (sulfur, zinc oxide, soot, kaolin, sodium silicofluorid... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic vortex intensifier with ferromagnetic particles - Industrial application of electromagnetic vortex intensifiers | 221 | 984 | null |
Section: Issues of electromechanics and device design. The main parameters that characterize the rotating magnetic field created by a three-phase inductor in the working area of the apparatus in the absence of ferromagnetic particles include: the number of pairs of magnetic poles, the angular speed of their rotation; m... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic vortex intensifier with ferromagnetic particles - Issues of electromechanics and device design | 241 | 1,178 | null |
The choice of salient-pole inductor design was associated mainly with simplified manufacturing technology, ease of operation, repair and cooling. In the central part of the working area of these devices, the magnetic field in the absence of ferromagnetic particles is close to uniform: the hodograph of the magnetic indu... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic vortex intensifier with ferromagnetic particles - Issues of electromechanics and device design | 345 | 1,641 | null |
If necessary, the device includes power converters of voltage and frequency from the supply network. Methods for monitoring and controlling the operation of the vortex layer and technological lines based on it are also being improved. In scientific and technical developments related to issues of the electromechanics of... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic vortex intensifier with ferromagnetic particles - Issues of electromechanics and device design | 164 | 935 | null |
Article: Rupture disc. A rupture disc, also known as a pressure safety disc, burst disc, bursting disc, or burst diaphragm, is a non-reclosing pressure relief safety device that, in most uses, protects a pressure vessel, equipment or system from overpressurization or potentially damaging vacuum conditions. A rupture di... | Wikipedia - Rupture disc - Summary | 348 | 1,667 | null |
Rupture discs are very often used in combination with safety relief valves, isolating the valves from the process, thereby saving on valve maintenance and creating a leak-tight pressure relief solution. It is sometimes possible and preferable for highest reliability, though at higher initial cost, to avoid the use of e... | Wikipedia - Rupture disc - Summary | 289 | 1,465 | null |
Section: Two disc technologies. There are two rupture disc technologies used in all rupture discs, forward-acting (tension loaded) and reverse buckling (compression). Both technologies can be paired with a bursting disc indicator to provide a visual and electrical indication of failure. In the traditional forward-actin... | Wikipedia - Rupture disc - Two disc technologies | 337 | 1,724 | null |
This can lead to extremely thin discs (similar to tin foil) that are highly prone to damage and have a higher chance of forming pinhole leaks due to corrosion. These discs are still successfully used today and are preferred in some situations. Reverse buckling rupture discs are the inversion of the forward-acting disc.... | Wikipedia - Rupture disc - Two disc technologies | 241 | 1,232 | null |
Section: Blowout panel > Military applications. Blow-off panels are used in ammunition compartments of some tanks to protect the crew in case of ammunition explosion, turning a catastrophic kill into a lesser firepower kill. Blowout panels are installed in several modern main battle tanks, including the M1 Abrams. In m... | Wikipedia - Rupture disc - Blowout panel > Military applications | 263 | 1,398 | null |
Article: Valve actuator. A valve actuator is the mechanism for opening and closing a valve. Manually operated valves require someone in attendance to adjust them using a direct or geared mechanism attached to the valve stem. Power-operated actuators, using gas pressure, hydraulic pressure or electricity, allow a valve ... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Summary | 236 | 1,166 | null |
Section: Types > Pneumatic. Air (or other gas) pressure is the power source for pneumatic valve actuators. They are used on linear or quarter-turn valves. Air pressure acts on a piston or bellows diaphragm creating linear force on a valve stem. Alternatively, a quarter-turn vane-type actuator produces torque to provide... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Types > Pneumatic | 205 | 928 | null |
Section: Actuator movement. A linear actuator opens and closes valves that can be operated via linear force, the type sometimes called a "rising stem" valve. These types of valves include globe valves, rising stem ball valves, control valves and gate valves. The two main types of linear actuators are diaphragm and pist... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Actuator movement | 345 | 1,618 | null |
If there is a spring inside of the actuator, it will force the valve open or closed and will keep it in that position while power is restored. An actuator may be specified "fail open" or "fail close" to describe its behavior. In the case of an electric actuator, losing power will keep the valve stationary unless there ... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Actuator movement | 156 | 721 | null |
Section: Features of an electric actuator > Valve attachment (4). The valve attachment consists of two elements. First: The flange used to firmly connect the actuator to the counterpart on the valve side. The higher the torque to be transmitted, the larger the flange required. Second: The output drive type used to tran... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Features of an electric actuator > Valve attachment (4) | 162 | 739 | null |
Section: Features of an electric actuator > Actuator controls (6). Both actuator signals and operation commands of the DCS are processed within the actuator controls. This task can in principle be assumed by external controls, e.g. a PLC. Modern actuators include integral controls which process signals locally without ... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Features of an electric actuator > Actuator controls (6) | 165 | 772 | null |
Section: Functions > Automatic switching off in the end positions. After receiving an operation command, the actuator moves the valve in direction OPEN or CLOSE. When reaching the end position, an automatic switch-off procedure is started. Two fundamentally different switch-off mechanisms can be used. The controls swit... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Functions > Automatic switching off in the end positions | 157 | 789 | null |
Section: Functions > Safety functions. The torque switching is not only used for torque seating in the end position, but it also serves as overload protection over the whole travel and protects the valve against excessive torque. If excessive torque acts upon the closing element in an intermediate position, e.g. due to... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Functions > Safety functions | 201 | 1,044 | null |
Section: Functions > Process control functions. Due to increasing decentralisation in automation technology and the introduction of micro processors, more and more functions have been transferred from the DCS to the field devices. The data volume to be transmitted was reduced accordingly, in particular by the introduct... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Functions > Process control functions | 169 | 931 | null |
Section: Service conditions. Actuators are specified for the desired life and reliability for a given set of application service conditions. In addition to the static and dynamic load and response time required for the valve, the actuator must withstand the temperature range, corrosion environment and other conditions ... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Service conditions | 160 | 893 | null |
Section: Service conditions > Explosion protection. Actuators are used in applications where potentially explosive atmospheres may occur. This includes among others refineries, pipelines, oil and gas exploration or even mining. When a potentially explosive gas-air-mixture or gas-dust-mixture occurs, the actuator must n... | Wikipedia - Valve actuator - Service conditions > Explosion protection | 214 | 1,023 | null |
Section: Life. After studying chemistry with a focus on physical chemistry at the University of Dortmund, he became a research assistant for Ulfert Onken at the same university in 1976 in the field of chemical engineering. During his doctorate, he helped set up the Dortmund Data Bank. After completing his doctorate as ... | Wikipedia - Wolfgang Arlt - Life | 342 | 1,690 | null |
Section: Scope of functions. The software system is modular. The functionalities of the COMOS platform support the digital transformation of a plant via the object-oriented database and a special layer technology that permits joint and consistent work on data and documents. Object properties or attributes can be change... | Wikipedia - COMOS - Scope of functions | 327 | 1,857 | null |
Section: Usage. The term exit criteria is often used in research and development, but it could be applicable to any field where business process reengineering is (or could be) applied. The benefits of business process re-engineering — including the use of terms such as this one — could include: understanding goals clea... | Wikipedia - Exit criteria - Usage | 214 | 1,147 | null |
Article: Industrial process control. Industrial process control (IPC) or simply process control is a system used in modern manufacturing which uses the principles of control theory and physical industrial control systems to monitor, control and optimize continuous industrial production processes using control algorithm... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Summary | 347 | 1,948 | null |
This creates a continuous closed-loop cycle of measurement, comparison, control action, and re-evaluation which guarantees that the process remains within established parameters. The HMI (Human-Machine Interface) acts as the "control panel" for the IPC system where small number of human operators can monitor the proces... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Summary | 334 | 1,940 | null |
Mining operations are optimized with IPC monitoring ore crushing and adjusting conveyor belt speeds for maximum output. Dredging benefits from precise control of suction pressure, dredging depth and sediment discharge rate by IPC, ensuring efficient and sustainable practices. Pulp and paper production leverages IPC to ... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Summary | 215 | 1,240 | null |
Section: History. Early process control breakthroughs came most frequently in the form of water control devices. Ktesibios of Alexandria is credited for inventing float valves to regulate water level of water clocks in the 3rd century BC. In the 1st century AD, Heron of Alexandria invented a water valve similar to the ... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - History | 311 | 1,638 | null |
Section: Development of modern process control operations. Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Development of modern process control operations | 336 | 1,887 | null |
Section: Control model. To determine the fundamental model for any process, the inputs and outputs of the system are defined differently than for other chemical processes. The balance equations are defined by the control inputs and outputs rather than the material inputs. The control model is a set of equations used to... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Control model | 231 | 1,150 | null |
Section: Types. Processes can be characterized as batch, continuous, or hybrid. Batch applications require that specific quantities of raw materials be combined in specific ways for particular duration to produce an intermediate or end result. One example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally require... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Types | 238 | 1,344 | null |
Section: Control loops. The fundamental building block of any industrial control system is the control loop, which controls just one process variable. An example is shown in the accompanying diagram, where the flow rate in a pipe is controlled by a PID controller, assisted by what is effectively a cascaded loop in the ... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Control loops | 216 | 1,146 | null |
Section: Economic advantages. The economic nature of many products manufactured in batch and continuous processes require highly efficient operation due to thin margins. The competing factor in process control is that products must meet certain specifications in order to be satisfactory. These specifications can come i... | Wikipedia - Industrial process control - Economic advantages | 266 | 1,511 | null |
Article: Instrumentation and control engineering. Instrumentation and control engineering (ICE) is a branch of engineering that studies the measurement and control of process variables, and the design and implementation of systems that incorporate them. Process variables include pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, p... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation and control engineering - Summary | 244 | 1,503 | null |
Section: As academic discipline. Instrumentation and control engineering is a vital field of study offered at many universities worldwide at both the graduate and postgraduate levels. This discipline integrates principles from various branches of engineering, providing a comprehensive understanding of the design, analy... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation and control engineering - As academic discipline | 339 | 2,063 | null |
Article: Instrumentation in petrochemical industries. Instrumentation is used to monitor and control the process plant in the oil, gas and petrochemical industries. Instrumentation ensures that the plant operates within defined parameters to produce materials of consistent quality and within the required specifications... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Summary | 175 | 994 | null |
Section: The elements of instrumentation. Instrumentation includes sensing devices to measure process parameters such as pressure, temperature, liquid level, flow, velocity, composition, density, weight; and mechanical and electrical parameters such as vibration, position, power, current and voltage. The measured value... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - The elements of instrumentation | 350 | 1,771 | null |
Section: Temperature instrumentation. Oil, gas and petrochemical processes are undertaken at specific temperatures. Measurement of temperature of fluids in the petrochemical industry is undertaken by temperature elements (TE). These can be Thermocouples or Platinum Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs). The latter ar... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Temperature instrumentation | 332 | 1,728 | null |
Conversely if the temperature falls the controller acts to close the TCV which reduces the heat transfer increasing the temperature of the first fluid. In the case of heating medium with the falling temperature of the first fluid the controller would act to open the TCV to increase the flow of heating medium thereby ra... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Temperature instrumentation | 332 | 1,632 | null |
Section: Pressure instrumentation. Oil, gas and petrochemical processes are undertaken at specific operating pressures. Pressure is measured by pressure sensors (PE) which send pressure (PT) signals to pressure controllers (PIC). Pressure vessels and tanks are fitted with local pressure indicators (PI). In the petroche... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Pressure instrumentation | 333 | 1,696 | null |
Section: Flow instrumentation. The throughput of a petrochemical plant is measured and controlled by flow instrumentation. Flow measuring devices devices (FE) include vortex, positive displacement (PD), differential pressure (DP), coriolis, ultrasonic, and rotameters. The flow through compressors, see schematic, is con... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Flow instrumentation | 350 | 1,666 | null |
Section: Level instrumentation. The level measurement of liquids in pressure vessels and tanks in the petrochemical industry is undertaken by differential pressure level meters, radar, magnetostrictive, nucleonic, magnetic float and pneumatic bubbler instruments. Level instrumentation determines the height of liquids b... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Level instrumentation | 313 | 1,477 | null |
High and low level alarms (LAH and LAL) warn operating personnel that levels are outside predefined limits. Further deviation (LAHH and LALL) initiates a shutdown either to close emergency shutdown valves (ESDV) on the inlet to the vessel or on the liquid outlet lines. As with high and low pressure instrumentation the ... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Level instrumentation | 347 | 1,747 | null |
Section: Analyser instrumentation. A wide range of analysis instruments are used in the oil, gas and petrochemical industries. Chromatography – to measure the quality of product or reactants Density (oil) – for custody metering of liquids Dewpoint (water dewpoint and hydrocarbon dewpoint) to check the efficiency of deh... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Analyser instrumentation | 162 | 783 | null |
Section: Other instrumentation. Major pumps and compressors are provided with vibration sensors (VT) to give operating personnel a warning (VA) of potential mechanical problems with the machine. Rupture discs (PSE) and pressure safety valves (PSV) are self-actuated and provide no immediate indication that they have rup... | Wikipedia - Instrumentation in petrochemical industries - Other instrumentation | 339 | 1,624 | null |
Article: Modular process skid. A modular process skid is a process system contained within a frame that allows the process system to be easily transported (skid mount). Individual skids can contain complete process systems and multiple process skids can be combined to create larger process systems or entire portable pl... | Wikipedia - Modular process skid - Summary | 201 | 1,095 | null |
Section: Skid design and layout. Process skids are designed to contain a complete process system, a complete unit of operations or to organize a manufacturing process into logical units. All skids have the following characteristics in common: Portable design– because they are self-contained units, built within frames, ... | Wikipedia - Modular process skid - Skid design and layout | 226 | 1,241 | null |
Section: Formation of oxygenic photogranules. Anaerobic and aerobic granule formation are typically postulated to be driven by hydrodynamic shear and washout. Oxygenic photogranules do form when exposed to hydrodynamic shear in sequencing batch reactors; however, they also form under static batch&. They can form over t... | Wikipedia - Oxygenic photogranules - Formation of oxygenic photogranules | 310 | 1,405 | null |
Section: Contents and function. A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is defined as follows: A diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process. In the process industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes. The instrume... | Wikipedia - Piping and instrumentation diagram - Contents and function | 270 | 1,342 | null |
They usually contain the following information: Mechanical equipment, including: Pressure vessels, columns, tanks, pumps, compressors, heat exchangers, furnaces, wellheads, fans, cooling towers, turbo-expanders, pig traps (see 'symbols' below) Bursting discs, restriction orifices, strainers and filters, steam traps, mo... | Wikipedia - Piping and instrumentation diagram - Contents and function | 337 | 1,696 | null |
Section: Identification and reference designation. Based on STANDARD ANSI/ISA S5.1 and ISO 14617-6, the P&ID is used for the identification of measurements within the process. The identifications consist of up to 5 letters. The first identification letter is for the measured value, the second is a modifier, 3rd indicat... | Wikipedia - Piping and instrumentation diagram - Identification and reference designation | 255 | 1,256 | null |
Section: Thermal/non-thermal plasma. Thermal plasmas. can be technically generated, for example, by inductive coupling of high-frequency fields in the MHz range (ICP: Inductively coupled plasma) or by direct current coupling (arc discharges). A thermal plasma is characterized by the fact that electrons, ions and neutra... | Wikipedia - Plasmalysis - Thermal/non-thermal plasma | 292 | 1,369 | null |
Section: Technical aspects. To generate a nonthermal plasma at atmospheric pressure, a working gas (molecular or inert gas, e.g. air, nitrogen, argon, helium) is passed through an electric field. Electrons originating from ionization processes can be accelerated in this field to trigger impact ionization processes. If ... | Wikipedia - Plasmalysis - Technical aspects | 274 | 1,214 | null |
Section: Applications of atmospheric pressure plasmas. Atmospheric-pressure plasmas have been used for a variety of industrial applications, including volatile organic compound (VOC) removal, exhaust gas emission treatment and polymer surface and food treatment. For decades, non-thermal plasmas have also been used to g... | Wikipedia - Plasmalysis - Applications of atmospheric pressure plasmas | 225 | 1,228 | null |
Section: Dissociation mechanisms of gases and liquids. In the following section XH stands for any hydrogen compound, e.g. CH- and NH-compounds. Thermal dissociation: gaseous hydrogen molecules are being dissociated at temperatures above 3000 K e.g. in a plasma. At temperatures above 3500 K H2 und O2 are dissociated. el... | Wikipedia - Plasmalysis - Dissociation mechanisms of gases and liquids | 333 | 1,067 | null |
Section: Types of devolatilizers for polymer melt > Static devolatilizers. Static devolatilizers include: Falling strand devolatilizers: Polymer is partitioned into many individual strands which fall down in a vacuum chamber. Diffusion moves volatiles into the gas phase, which are then collected via a vacuum system. Th... | Wikipedia - Polymer devolatilization - Types of devolatilizers for polymer melt > Static devolatilizers | 213 | 948 | null |
Section: Types of devolatilizers for polymer melt > Moving devolatilizers. Co-rotating twin screw extruders: The polymer solution is brought into a co-rotating twin screw extruders, where it is subjected to shear and mechanical energy input and where vapors are drawn off. This type of machine allows different pressures... | Wikipedia - Polymer devolatilization - Types of devolatilizers for polymer melt > Moving devolatilizers | 215 | 909 | null |
Section: Business and management. Business process, activities that produce a specific service or product for customers Business process modeling, activity of representing processes of an enterprise in order to deliver improvements Manufacturing process management, a collection of technologies and methods used to defin... | Wikipedia - Process - Business and management | 162 | 1,041 | null |
Section: Science and technology > Mathematics. In probability theory: Branching process, a Markov process that models a population Diffusion process, a solution to a stochastic differential equation Empirical process, a stochastic process that describes the proportion of objects in a system in a given state Lévy proces... | Wikipedia - Process - Science and technology > Mathematics | 155 | 836 | null |
Section: Semiconductor industry. Semiconductor process engineers face the unique challenge of transforming raw materials into high-tech devices. Common semiconductor devices include Integrated Circuits (ICs), Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs), solar cells, and solid-state lasers. To produce these and other semiconductor dev... | Wikipedia - Process (engineering) - Semiconductor industry | 190 | 1,051 | null |
Section: CPRET. The Association Française d'Ingénierie Système has developed a process definition dedicated to Systems engineering (SE), but open to all domains. The CPRET representation integrates the process Mission and Environment in order to offer an external standpoint. Several models may correspond to a single de... | Wikipedia - Process (engineering) - CPRET | 303 | 1,696 | null |
Section: CPRET > CPRET through examples. The purpose of the following examples is to illustrate the definitions with concrete cases. These examples come from the Engineering field but also from other fields to show that the CPRET definition of processes is not limited to the System Engineering context. Examples of proc... | Wikipedia - Process (engineering) - CPRET > CPRET through examples | 203 | 1,185 | null |
Section: Documentation. Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors, and to construction contractors. In or... | Wikipedia - Process design - Documentation | 292 | 1,628 | null |
Section: Recommended chemical engineering books. Sinnott and Towler (2009). Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design (5th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0750685511. Ullmann's (2004). Chemical Engineering and Plant Design. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31111-8. Moran... | Wikipedia - Process design - Recommended chemical engineering books | 349 | 1,053 | null |
and Harriott, P. (2004). Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (7th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-284823-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Seader, J. D. & Henley, Ernest J. (1998). Separation Process Principles. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-58626-9. Chopey, Nicholas P. (2004). Handbook of ... | Wikipedia - Process design - Recommended chemical engineering books | 347 | 1,025 | null |
Section: Typical content of a process flow diagram. Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process include the following: Process piping Major equipment items Connections with other systems Major bypass and recirculation (recycle) streams Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.... | Wikipedia - Process flow diagram - Typical content of a process flow diagram | 150 | 848 | null |
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