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While working at Los Alamos during the war, Tuck and Stanislaw Ulam had built an unsuccessful fusion system using shaped charge explosives, but it did not work. Tuck was joined by Australian Peter Thonemann, who had worked on fusion theory, and the two arranged funding through Clarendon to build a small device like the... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - First machines | 330 | 1,568 | null |
Section: Early results. In 1950 Fuchs admitted to passing UK and U.S. atomic secrets to the USSR. As fusion devices generated high energy neutrons, which could be used to enrich nuclear fuel for bombs, the UK immediately classified all their fusion research. This meant the teams could no longer work in the open environ... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Early results | 319 | 1,513 | null |
Section: Stabilised pinch. Early studies of the phenomenon suggested one solution to the problem was to increase the compression rate. In this approach, the compression would be started and stopped so rapidly that the bulk of the plasma would not have time to move; instead, a shock wave created by this rapid compressio... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Stabilised pinch | 330 | 1,652 | null |
Calculations showed that this stabilised pinch would dramatically improve confinement times, and the older concepts "suddenly seemed obsolete". Marshall Rosenbluth, recently arrived at Los Alamos, began a detailed theoretical study of the pinch concept. With his wife Arianna W. Rosenbluth and Richard Garwin, he develop... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Stabilised pinch | 188 | 942 | null |
Section: ZETA begins construction. U.S. researchers planned to test both fast pinch and stabilised pinch by modifying their existing small-scale machines. In the UK, Thomson once again pressed for funding for a larger machine. This time he was much more warmly received, and initial funding of £200,000 was provided in l... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - ZETA begins construction | 323 | 1,504 | null |
Later amendments to the design increased this to 200,000 amps. It included both types of stabilisation; its aluminium walls acted as the metal shield, and a series of secondary magnets ringed the torus. Windows placed in the gaps between the toroidal magnets allowed direct inspection of the plasma. In July 1954, the AE... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - ZETA begins construction | 199 | 943 | null |
Section: Soviet visit and the push to declassify. From 1953 the U.S. had increasingly concentrated on the fast pinch concept. Some of these machines had produced neutrons, and these were initially associated with fusion. There was so much excitement that several other researchers quickly entered the field as well. Amon... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Soviet visit and the push to declassify | 345 | 1,731 | null |
Kurchatov's speech revealed the Soviet efforts to produce fast pinch devices similar to the American designs, and their problems with instabilities in the plasmas. Kurchatov noted that they had also seen neutrons being released, and had initially believed them to be from fusion. But as they examined the numbers, it bec... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Soviet visit and the push to declassify | 316 | 1,548 | null |
Section: Promising results. ZETA started operation in mid-August 1957, initially with hydrogen. These runs demonstrated that ZETA was not suffering from the same stability problems that earlier pinch machines had seen and their plasmas were lasting for milliseconds, up from microseconds, a full three orders of magnitud... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Promising results | 349 | 1,774 | null |
Section: Prestige politics. The news was too good to keep bottled up. Tantalising leaks started appearing in September. In October, Thonemann, Cockcroft and William P. Thompson hinted that interesting results would be following. In November a UKAEA spokesman noted "The indications are that fusion has been achieved". Ba... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Prestige politics | 304 | 1,501 | null |
was dragging its feet because it was unable to replicate the British results. Things came to a head on 12 December when a former member of parliament, Anthony Nutting, wrote a New York Herald Tribune article claiming: Some people have suggested darkly to me that the real reason for this American reluctance to have this... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Prestige politics | 284 | 1,437 | null |
Section: Early concerns. When the information-sharing agreement was signed in November a further benefit was realised: teams from the various labs were allowed to visit each other. The U.S. team, including Stirling Colgate, Lyman Spitzer, Jim Tuck and Arthur Edward Ruark, all visited ZETA and concluded there was a "maj... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Early concerns | 323 | 1,670 | null |
Section: Public release, worldwide interest. The long-planned release of fusion data was announced to the public in mid-January. Considerable material from the UK's ZETA and Sceptre devices was released in depth in the 25 January 1958 edition of Nature, which also included results from Los Alamos' Perhapsatron S-3, Col... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Public release, worldwide interest | 333 | 1,637 | null |
So in no case have the neutrons been definitely proved to be due to the random motion of the deuterium associated with a temperature on the order of five million degrees ... Their origin, will, however, become clear as soon as the number of neutrons produced can be increased by increasing current and temperatures. The ... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Public release, worldwide interest | 337 | 1,617 | null |
generally gave equal support to both programmes. Newspapers from the rest of the world were more favourable to the UK; Radio Moscow went so far to publicly congratulate the UK while failing to mention the U.S. results at all. As ZETA continued to generate positive results, plans were made to build a follow-on machine. ... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Public release, worldwide interest | 214 | 1,073 | null |
Section: Further scepticism, retraction of claims. Spitzer had already concluded that known theory suggested that the ZETA was nowhere near the temperatures the team was claiming, and during the publicity surrounding the release of the work, he suggested that "Some unknown mechanism would appear to be involved". Other ... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Further scepticism, retraction of claims | 329 | 1,595 | null |
To further demonstrate this he had the machine run with the current in the discharge current running "backwards". Had the neutrons been from fusion, the net velocity should have been zero, that is, they should have been travelling in random directions. The measurements showed this was not the case, not only was there a... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Further scepticism, retraction of claims | 346 | 1,748 | null |
Section: Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on. Beginning in 1955, Cockcroft had pressed for the establishment of a new site for the construction of multiple prototype power-producing fission reactors. This was strongly opposed by Christopher Hinton, and a furious debate broke out within the UKAEA over the issue. Cockcr... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on | 335 | 1,640 | null |
A new proposal soon took its place, the Intermediate-Current Stability Experiment (ICSE). ICSE was designed to take advantage of further stabilising effects noticed in M-theory, which suggested that very fast pinches would cause the current to flow only in the outer layer of the plasma, which should be much more stable... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on | 339 | 1,513 | null |
New diagnostic techniques demonstrated that the electron energies were very low, on the order of 10 eV (approximately 100,000 K) while ion temperatures were somewhat higher at 100 eV. Both of these pointed to a rapid loss of energy in the plasma, which in turn suggested the fuel was turbulent and escaping confinement t... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on | 295 | 1,444 | null |
Section: Thomson scattering and tokamaks. ZETA's failure was due to limited information; using the best available measurements, ZETA was returning several signals that suggested the neutrons were due to fusion. The original temperature measures were made by examining the Doppler shifting of the spectral lines of the at... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Thomson scattering and tokamaks | 341 | 1,867 | null |
Work slowed dramatically as teams around the world tried to better understand the physics of the plasmas in their devices. Pfirsch and Schluter were the first to make a significant advance, suggesting that much larger and more powerful machines would be needed to correct these problems. An attitude of pessimism took ro... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Thomson scattering and tokamaks | 338 | 1,713 | null |
The resulting paper was published in November 1969 and convinced the fusion research field that the tokamak was indeed reaching the levels of performance the Soviets claimed. The result was a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world, and it remains the most studied device in the fusion field. Tokam... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Thomson scattering and tokamaks | 328 | 1,666 | null |
Section: Reversed field pinch. In 1965, the newly opened Culham laboratory hosted what had become a periodic meeting of international fusion researchers. Of all the work presented, only two papers on stabilised pinch were present, both on ZETA. Spitzer did not mention them during the opening comments. Normally, the pul... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Reversed field pinch | 344 | 1,768 | null |
Although the stabilising force was lower than the force available in the pinch, it lasted considerably longer. It appeared that a reactor could be built that would approach the Lawson criterion from a different direction, using extended confinement times rather than increased density. This was similar to the stellarato... | Wikipedia - ZETA (fusion reactor) - Reversed field pinch | 230 | 1,239 | null |
Article: Army Nuclear Power Program. The Army Nuclear Power Program (ANPP) was a program of the United States Army to develop small pressurized water and boiling water nuclear power reactors to generate electrical and space-heating energy primarily at remote, relatively inaccessible sites. The ANPP had several accompli... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - Summary | 184 | 947 | null |
Section: Background. There was interest in the possible application of nuclear power to land-based military needs as early as 1952. A memo from the Secretary of Defense, dated 10 February 1954, assigned the Army the responsibility for "developing nuclear power plants to supply heat and electricity at remote and relativ... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - Background | 347 | 1,886 | null |
Reliable operation. Infrequent refueling and maintenance. Reduced crew size, with ultimate goal of unattended operation. Transportability, mobility, and reaction times compatible with the mission or equipment to be supported. Improved cost-effectiveness. The AEC ultimately concluded that the probability of achieving th... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - Background | 188 | 1,047 | null |
Section: List of plants. Eight plants were constructed. Due to the requirement for a small physical size, all these reactors other than the MH-1A used highly enriched uranium (HEU). The MH-1A had more space to work with, and more weight-carrying capacity, so this was a low-enrichment reactor; i.e., larger and heavier. ... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 339 | 1,534 | null |
Belvoir were the only training facility for shore-based military power plants. The plant cooled its condensers using the waters of the Potomac River. For about the first 10 years of its operation, the SM-1 unknowingly released tritium into the waters of the Chesapeake Bay, until the development of the Packard Tri-Carb ... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 347 | 1,698 | null |
The nuclear fission reaction directly heated the water, flashing a large amount into steam. Melting aluminum reacted with water producing hydrogen gas. The exploding fuel plates, violent metal-water reaction, and expanding water vapor pressed upwards on the water above the core, sending a pressure wave that struck the ... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 346 | 1,650 | null |
It was later established that Byrnes (the reactor operator) had lifted the rod and caused the excursion, Legg (the shift supervisor) was standing on top of the reactor vessel and was impaled and pinned to the ceiling, and McKinley, the trainee who stood nearby, was later found alive by rescuers. All three men succumbed... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 335 | 1,621 | null |
The PM-2A was the only reactor besides SL-1 that had a central control rod that could startup the reactor on its own. We gave explicit instructions on the 8th of January that this reactor, which was shut down at the time, would not be started until we had reviewed the situation. It was necessary for us to issue instruc... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 338 | 1,586 | null |
This plant was shut down in 1968. PM-1 operated at a uranium-235 enrichment of 93 percent. PM-3A: 1.75 MW electric, plus heating and desalinization. McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Owned by the Navy. Initial criticality March 3, 1962, decommissioned 1972. The PM-3A, located at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, was designed by th... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 348 | 1,497 | null |
After decommissioning, the plant was cut into pieces and transported to the US for burial. The soil surrounding the tanks had become radioactive, so it was also removed and transported to Port Hueneme Naval Base, California, where it was incorporated into asphalt pavement. SM-1A: 2 MW electric, plus heating. Fort Greel... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 346 | 1,515 | null |
It remained moored at Gatun Lake in the Panama Canal from 1968 until 1977, when it was towed back to Ft. Belvoir for decommissioning. This reactor used low-enrichment uranium (LEU) in the range of 4 to 7 percent. It was moved to the James River Reserve Fleet in 1978 for SAFSTOR. The MH-1A had an elaborate analog-comput... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 307 | 1,510 | null |
The reactor and associated trailers would produce liquid fuels for tanks, trucks, armored personnel carriers, and aircraft and drastically reduce the vulnerable petroleum logistical supply chain. The associated trailers would use chemical conversion processes to convert the reactor's waste heat energy into useful fuels... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - List of plants | 167 | 874 | null |
Section: Significant accomplishments. References for this list include the DOE document, the Suid book, and the Briefing Book. Detailed designs for pressurized and boiling water reactors, as well as gas-cooled and liquid-metal cooled reactors. First nuclear power plant with a containment structure (SM-1) First use of s... | Wikipedia - Army Nuclear Power Program - Significant accomplishments | 240 | 1,045 | null |
Section: Evolution of BORAX. This series of tests began in 1952 with the construction of the BORAX-I nuclear reactor. BORAX-I experiment proved that a reactor using direct boiling of water would be practical, rather than unstable, because of the bubble formation in the core. Subsequently, the reactor was used for power... | Wikipedia - BORAX experiments - Evolution of BORAX | 313 | 1,445 | null |
It was linked to the local power grid for about an hour on July 17, 1955. BORAX-III provided 2,000 kW to power nearby Arco, Idaho (500 kW), the BORAX test facility (500 kW), and partially powered the National Reactor Testing Station (after 2004, the Idaho National Laboratory) (1,000 kW). Thus, Arco became the first com... | Wikipedia - BORAX experiments - Evolution of BORAX | 189 | 837 | null |
Section: BORAX-I destructive test and cleanup. Test synopsis: The (test was) carried out by withdrawing four of the five control rods far enough to make the reactor critical at a very low power level. The fifth rod was then fired from the core by means of a spring. In this test, the rod was ejected in approximately 0.2... | Wikipedia - BORAX experiments - BORAX-I destructive test and cleanup | 309 | 1,381 | null |
Since 1987, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has classified the burial ground as Superfund site Operable Unit 6-01, one of two such sites (along with SL-1) at the Idaho National Laboratory. In 1995, the EPA ordered the primary remedy of the burial ground to be: "Containment by capping with an engineere... | Wikipedia - BORAX experiments - BORAX-I destructive test and cleanup | 171 | 871 | null |
Article: Centrus Energy. Centrus Energy Corp. (formerly USEC Inc.) is an American company that supplies nuclear fuel for use in nuclear power plants and works to develop and deploy centrifuge technology to produce enriched uranium for commercial and government uses, including for national security. In 2019, Centrus beg... | Wikipedia - Centrus Energy - Summary | 214 | 1,038 | null |
Section: History. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 created the United States Enrichment Corporation out of the Department of Energy as a state owned enterprise to enrich uranium for civilian use, and in July 1993 USEC took over DOE facilities. USEC was fully privatized by the U.S. government on July 28, 1998, through an i... | Wikipedia - Centrus Energy - History | 254 | 1,301 | null |
A demonstration gas centrifuge plant was being built at Piketon for initial commercial operation in 2009, while a full-sized plant is planned there for operation in 2012. However, in July 2009 the DOE did not grant a $2 billion loan guarantee for the planned uranium-enrichment facility in Piketon, "causing the initiati... | Wikipedia - Centrus Energy - History | 330 | 1,594 | null |
USEC was the executive agent in the U.S./Russia Highly Enriched Uranium Purchase Agreement, implemented under the Megatons to Megawatts Program. On December 16, 2013, USEC announced that it had reached an agreement with a majority of its debt holders to file a prearranged and voluntary Chapter 11 bankruptcy restructuri... | Wikipedia - Centrus Energy - History | 315 | 1,523 | null |
Section: History. Some of the byproducts and waste from Kerr-McGee's uranium and thorium processing at its Cushing, Oklahoma refinery were transported to Cimarron in the 1960s. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) issued Radioactive Materials License SNM-928 in 1965 to Kerr-McGee Corporation for the uranium fuel fabricat... | Wikipedia - Cimarron Fuel Fabrication Site - History | 345 | 1,508 | null |
Section: Investigations. In January 1975, the United States General Accounting Office (GAO) sent a report to Congress entitled, Federal Investigations Into Certain Health, Safety, Quality Control and Criminal Allegations at Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corporation. The report, signed by the Comptroller General of the United Stat... | Wikipedia - Cimarron Fuel Fabrication Site - Investigations | 203 | 1,036 | null |
Section: Karen Silkwood. Karen Silkwood was employed by Kerr-McGee's Cimarron facility when she died in a mysterious car crash on November 13, 1974. At the time, she was engaged in whistleblowing activities to expose what she and the Oil, Chemical & Atomic Workers Union believed were unsafe practices and falsification ... | Wikipedia - Cimarron Fuel Fabrication Site - Karen Silkwood | 233 | 1,079 | null |
Article: DIII-D (tokamak). DIII-D is a tokamak that has been operated since the late 1980s by General Atomics (GA) in San Diego, California, for the United States Department of Energy. The DIII-D National Fusion Facility is part of the ongoing effort to achieve magnetically confined fusion. The mission of the DIII-D Re... | Wikipedia - DIII-D (tokamak) - Summary | 317 | 1,470 | null |
Section: DIII-D research program. The DIII-D research program is a large international collaboration, with over 600 users participating from more than 100 institutions. General Atomics operates the San Diego–based facility for the Department of Energy through the Office of Fusion Energy Sciences. Research in DIII-D aim... | Wikipedia - DIII-D (tokamak) - DIII-D research program | 257 | 1,343 | null |
Section: History. In May 1974, AEC selected General Atomics to build the Doublet III magnetic fusion experiment based on the success of earlier Doublet I and II magnetic confinement experiments. In Feb 1978, the Doublet III fusion experiment achieved its first operation with plasma at General Atomics. The machine was l... | Wikipedia - DIII-D (tokamak) - History | 206 | 1,052 | null |
Section: History. General Atomics was founded on July 18, 1955, in San Diego, California, by Frederic de Hoffmann with assistance from notable physicists Edward Teller and Freeman Dyson. The company was originally part of the General Atomic division of General Dynamics "for harnessing the power of nuclear technologies"... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - History | 343 | 1,639 | null |
Cassidy Jr. joined the corporation. In 1993, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI) was created with Neal Blue as Chairman-CEO and Thomas J. Cassidy as president. In 1994, GA-ASI spun off as an affiliate. On March 15, 2010, Rear Adm. Thomas J. Cassidy stepped down as president of GA-ASI's Aircraft Systems ... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - History | 342 | 1,521 | null |
Section: Affiliated companies. General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI) – GA-ASI's Aircraft Systems Group produces the Predator series of remotely piloted aircraft used in the Kosovo, Iraq, and Afghanistan conflicts. GA-ASI's Reconnaissance Systems Group provides tactical reconnaissance radars, as well as hi... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - Affiliated companies | 306 | 1,669 | null |
TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes and General Atomics), with over 65 facilities in 22 countries, is a supplier of nuclear research reactors for university, industrial, government, and medical applications. Originally designed to meet requirements for operator training, educational programs including nuclear research,... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - Affiliated companies | 316 | 1,794 | null |
Jointly owned by Honeywell Inc. Cotter Corporation – headquartered in Denver, Colorado. Through its various mining and milling operations, Cotter has produced uranium, vanadium, molybdenum, silver, lead, zinc, copper, selenium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, and limestone. Originally incorporated in 1956 in New Mexico as a ... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - Affiliated companies | 317 | 1,624 | null |
Section: Awards. 2013 Neal Blue, CEO of General Atomics, receives the 29th Annual International von Karman Wings Award 2008 North American Frost & Sullivan Award for Company of the Year 2008 Defense News Top 100, Ranked #57 Frost & Sullivan 2006 Business Development Strategy Leadership Award, presented for Gains in the... | Wikipedia - General Atomics - Awards | 202 | 1,066 | null |
Article: National Enrichment Facility. The National Enrichment Facility (NEF) is a nuclear facility for the enrichment of uranium associated with the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The plant uses a gas centrifuge technology known as Zippe-type centrifuges. It is located 5 miles (8.0 km) east of Eunice, New Mexico. The... | Wikipedia - National Enrichment Facility - Summary | 295 | 1,341 | null |
Section: History. The museum was initially sited in 1969 on the grounds of Sandia Base (now Kirtland Air Force Base) in an old 90 mm anti-aircraft gun repair facility, and named "Sandia Atomic Museum". It was the result of a six-year effort to establish a museum to tell the story of the base and the development of nucl... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - History | 339 | 1,686 | null |
When the museum relocated to Albuquerque's museum district, the site had inadequate space for outdoor exhibits. In January 2005, NAMF asked DOE/NNSA (National Nuclear Security Administration) for 12 acres (4.9 hectares) of land at the intersection of Eubank and Southern Boulevards in southeast Albuquerque for construct... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - History | 350 | 1,728 | null |
Section: Exhibits and displays. Section source: NMoNSH The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting information about scientific, historical, and cultural aspects of the Atomic Age. Permanent exhibits focus on the following: Pioneers of the Atom – An interactive display that introduces the individuals who quest... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays | 307 | 1,592 | null |
These exhibits include a series of displays striving for an objective examination of the history leading up to and the policy decisions regarding the deployment of the first nuclear weapons code-named Little Boy and Fat Man. The exhibit includes the text of comments by Manhattan Project staff (including a contentious E... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays | 298 | 1,601 | null |
Cold War – An examination of the strategic conflict between the United States and the USSR in the second half of the 20th century, through US nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands and at the Nevada Test Site, Soviet nuclear development, the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, and leading to the eventual collapse of th... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays | 237 | 1,198 | null |
Nano – An interactive exhibition where visitors can imagine and discover a world they cannot see and learn about big ideas from the small nanoscience world. (This display is now part of Little Albert's Lab.) Energy Encounter – A series of displays focusing on the civilian use of nuclear power, including: history of nuc... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays | 322 | 1,694 | null |
What's Up With U(ranium) – An exhibit that seeks to engage visitors in answering questions like "where does uranium come from," "how does it move through the environment," "how does it affect us," and "is it radioactive?" Uranium; Enriching Your Future – A partially interactive exhibit that explains how nuclear power c... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays | 198 | 967 | null |
Section: Exhibits and displays > Noteworthy artifacts. replicas of Little Boy and Fat Man the only full size replica of the "Gadget" and Trinity Test Tower assorted modern nuclear bombs and warheads a WE.177 bomb (British nuclear weapon deployed from the 1960s until 1998) a Norden bombsight two of the actual B28 bomb c... | Wikipedia - National Museum of Nuclear Science & History - Exhibits and displays > Noteworthy artifacts | 333 | 1,631 | null |
Article: Nuclear Fuel Services. Nuclear Fuel Services Inc. (NFS) is an American company that has been a major supplier of fuel for the United States Navy's fleet of nuclear-powered vessels since the 1960s. In recent years it has also reprocessed weapons-grade uranium into nuclear reactor fuel. It operates a 65-acre (26... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Fuel Services - Summary | 335 | 1,595 | null |
Article: Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980. Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980, 42 U.S.C. § 9701, established nuclear safety policy for nuclear power plants supplying electric energy and electricity generation within the United States. The Act authori... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Summary | 205 | 1,147 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > Congressional Objectives. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9701 (a) Congress finds that — (1) Nuclear energy is one of the two major energy sources available for electric energy production in the United States during the balance of the 20th century. (2) Continued development of nuclear power i... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Congressional Objectives | 341 | 1,829 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > Definitions. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9702 For the purposes of this Act — (1) "Secretary" means the Secretary of U.S. Department of Energy (2) "Government agency" means any department, agency, commission, or independent establishment in the United States federal executive departments, ... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Definitions | 158 | 770 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > Establishment of Research, Development, and Demonstration Program for Improving the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9703 (a) The Secretary shall establish a research, development, and demonstration program to carry out the purpose of this Act. As part of such p... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Establishment of Research, Development, and Demonstration Program for Improving the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants | 274 | 1,584 | null |
As part of such program, the Secretary shall at a minimum — (1) Refine further the assessment of risk factors associated with the generic design and operation of nuclear power plants to determine the degree and consequences of propagation of failures of systems, subsystems, and components, including consideration of th... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Establishment of Research, Development, and Demonstration Program for Improving the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants | 372 | 2,090 | null |
These investigations shall include, but not be limited to the following : (A) Fuel element failure at higher than standard burn-up levels (B) Fuel cladding interactions (C) Fuel and cladding interactions with coolant under various temperatures and pressures (D) Thermohydraulics behavior in the reactor core (E) Mechanis... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Establishment of Research, Development, and Demonstration Program for Improving the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants | 217 | 1,122 | null |
That the Secretary shall accept only the number of samples of such fuel, component, or system necessary to carry out such examination and analysis (7) Identify the aptitudes, training, and manning levels which are necessary to assure reliable operator performance under normal, abnormal, and emergency conditions. (b) In... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Establishment of Research, Development, and Demonstration Program for Improving the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants | 309 | 1,775 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > National Reactor Engineering Simulator. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9704 (a) The Secretary, in consultation with the Commission and the Advisory Committee, shall initiate a study of the need for and feasibility of establishing a reactor engineering simulator facility at a national laborat... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > National Reactor Engineering Simulator | 313 | 1,680 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > Federal Nuclear Operations Corps. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9705 (a) The Secretary, in cooperation with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, shall initiate a study as to the sufficiency of efforts in the United States to provide specially trained professionals to operate the controls of n... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Federal Nuclear Operations Corps | 248 | 1,364 | null |
Section: Proclamation of the Act > Comprehensive Program Management Plan. 42 U.S.C. Chapter 104 § 9707 (a) The Secretary is authorized and directed to prepare a comprehensive program management plan for the conduct of research, development, and demonstration activities under this Act consistent with the provisions of t... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Comprehensive Program Management Plan | 251 | 1,418 | null |
(c) Concurrently with the submission of the President's annual budget to the Congress for each year after the year in which the comprehensive plan is initially transmitted under subsection (b), the Secretary shall transmit to the Congress a detailed description of the comprehensive plan as then in effect. The detailed ... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980 - Proclamation of the Act > Comprehensive Program Management Plan | 220 | 1,216 | null |
Article: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is a federally funded research and development center in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1943, the laboratory is sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and administered by UT–Battelle, LLC. Established in 1943, ORN... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Summary | 210 | 1,095 | null |
Section: Overview. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by UT–Battelle, a limited liability partnership between the University of Tennessee and the Battelle Memorial Institute, formed in 2000 for that purpose. The annual budget is US$2.4 billion. As of 2021 there is a staff of 5,700 working at ORNL, around 2,000 of... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Overview | 193 | 944 | null |
Section: History. In 1934 the Freel Farm Mound Site, an archaeological site and burial mound of the Late Woodland period was excavated. The site is currently inundated by Melton Hill Lake. The city of Oak Ridge was established by the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the Clinton Engineer Works in 1942 on isolated farm... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 338 | 1,674 | null |
Instead, it was used for scientific research. In 1946 the first medical isotopes were produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals. The quantity and variety of radionuclides produced by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s. ORNL was the only Western sourc... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 344 | 1,703 | null |
Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory. In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered desalination plants, where deserts met the sea, to provide water. The project, called Water for Peace, was backed by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson a... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 345 | 1,701 | null |
In the 1970s, the prospect of fusion power was strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. A tokamak called ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin. After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however,... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 326 | 1,603 | null |
The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one in Switzerland and the final by remaining European states. ORNL was involved in analyzing the damage to the core of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station after the accident in 1979. The 1980s brought more... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 348 | 1,854 | null |
By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted, the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted. In 1989 the former executive officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Alvin Trivelpiece, became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000. In 1992 whistleblower Charles... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - History | 191 | 978 | null |
Section: Areas of research. ORNL conducts research and development activities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly bel... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research | 345 | 1,921 | null |
Section: Areas of research > Energy. The laboratory has a long history of energy research; nuclear reactor experiments have been conducted since the end of World War II in 1945. Because of the availability of reactors and high-performance computing resources, an emphasis on improving the efficiency of nuclear reactors ... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > Energy | 333 | 1,874 | null |
Section: Areas of research > Biology. Biological research covers ecology, forestry, genomics, computational biology, structural biology and bioinformatics. The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of the biofuel process to improve the energy security of the United States. The program aims to m... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > Biology | 215 | 1,164 | null |
Section: Areas of research > Neutron science. There are two neutron sources at ORNL; the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) and the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS). HFIR provides neutrons in a stable beam resulting from a constant nuclear reaction whereas SNS, a particle accelerator, produces pulses of neutrons. HFIR wen... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > Neutron science | 243 | 1,126 | null |
Section: Areas of research > Materials. Between 2002 and 2008 ORNL partnered with Caterpillar Inc. to develop a new steel for their diesel engines that can withstand large temperature fluctuations. The new material, named CF8C Plus, is based on conventional CF8C stainless steel with added manganese and nitrogen; the re... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > Materials | 264 | 1,420 | null |
Section: Areas of research > Security. ORNL provides resources to the United States Department of Homeland Security and other defense programs. The Global Security and Nonproliferation (GS&N) program develops and implements policies, both US based and international, to prevent the proliferation of nuclear material. The... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > Security | 175 | 959 | null |
Section: Areas of research > High-performance computing. ORNL has been the site of various supercomputers, home to the fastest on several occasions. In 1953, ORNL partnered with the Argonne National Laboratory to build ORACLE (Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine), a computer to research nuclear physics, che... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > High-performance computing | 315 | 1,317 | null |
As of June 2020, Summit was the world's second fastest [clocked] supercomputer with 202,752 CPU cores, 27,648 Nvidia Tesla GPUs, and 250 Petabytes of storage, having lost the top position to the Japanese Fugaku supercomputer. In May 2022, the ORNL Frontier system broke the exascale barrier, achieving 1.102 exaflop/s us... | Wikipedia - Oak Ridge National Laboratory - Areas of research > High-performance computing | 324 | 1,494 | null |
Article: Plutonium Finishing Plant. The Plutonium Finishing Plant, also known as the Z Plant, was part of the Hanford Site plutonium production complex in Washington state. During World War II, Hanford produced plutonium nitrate (Pu(NO3)2), which was shipped to the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory, where it wa... | Wikipedia - Plutonium Finishing Plant - Summary | 329 | 1,603 | null |
Plutonium was valuable, and reducing waste saved landfill dispatches and preserved the long-term radiological safety of the area by not burying the highly contaminated waste. The Plutonium Finishing Plant reclaimed solid waste in its RECUPLEX facility, combustible waste in the 232-Z Incinerator, and liquid waste in the... | Wikipedia - Plutonium Finishing Plant - Summary | 224 | 1,131 | null |
Section: Background. During World War II, the Manhattan Project built the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) to produce plutonium for use in atomic bombs. At the HEW, three nuclear reactors bred plutonium by irradiating uranium. The irradiated uranium slugs were sent to three radiochemical separation plants, where the pluton... | Wikipedia - Plutonium Finishing Plant - Background | 325 | 1,546 | null |
The new operator of the HEW, General Electric, was asked to design a new facility that would handle the rest of the plutonium finishing process. This involved the conversion of plutonium nitrate to plutonium oxalate (Pu(C2O4)2, then plutonium dioxide (PuO2), and finally into metallic plutonium suitable for use in weapo... | Wikipedia - Plutonium Finishing Plant - Background | 157 | 773 | null |
Section: Design and construction. In December 1946, a representative from General Electric visited the plutonium finishing and fabricating facility at the Defense Production (DP) West Building at the Los Alamos Laboratory to study its operation. Company representatives paid Los Alamos a second visit in the spring of 19... | Wikipedia - Plutonium Finishing Plant - Design and construction | 332 | 1,701 | null |
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