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Other tribes require a minimum blood degree only for tribal members born "off" (outside) the nominal reservation. This is a concept comparable to a combination of the legal principles of Jus soli and Jus sanguinis in the nationality laws of modern sovereign states. The Red Lake Nation of Minnesota declared in 2019 that... | Wikipedia - Blood quantum laws | null | null | null |
Many Native Americans have become used to the idea of "blood quantum". The blood quantum laws have caused problems in Native American families whose members were inaccurately recorded as having differing full or partial descent from particular tribes.At certain times, some state governments classified persons with Afri... | Wikipedia - Blood quantum laws | null | null | null |
Some critics argue that blood quantum laws helped create racism among tribal members. The historian Tony Seybert contends that was why some members of the so-called Five Civilized tribes were slaveholders. The majority of slave owners were of mixed-European ancestry. | Wikipedia - Blood quantum laws | null | null | null |
Some believed they were of higher status than full-blood Indians and people of African ancestry. Other historians contend that the Cherokee and other tribes held slaves because it was in their economic interest and part of the general southeastern culture. Cherokee and other tribes had also traditionally taken captives... | Wikipedia - Blood quantum laws | null | null | null |
Many PAL programming devices accept input in a standard file format, commonly referred to as 'JEDEC files'. They are analogous to software compilers. The languages used as source code for logic compilers are called hardware description languages, or HDLs.PALASM, ABEL and CUPL are frequently used for low-complexity devi... | Wikipedia - Programmable-logic device | null | null | null |
Many PID loops control a mechanical device (for example, a valve). Mechanical maintenance can be a major cost and wear leads to control degradation in the form of either stiction or backlash in the mechanical response to an input signal. The rate of mechanical wear is mainly a function of how often a device is activate... | Wikipedia - PID Controller | null | null | null |
Many Smilodon specimens have been excavated from asphalt seeps that acted as natural carnivore traps. Animals were accidentally trapped in the seeps and became bait for predators that came to scavenge, but these were then trapped themselves. The best-known of such traps are at La Brea in Los Angeles, which have produce... | Wikipedia - Smilodon populator | null | null | null |
Though the trapped animals were buried quickly, predators often managed to remove limb bones from them, but they were themselves often trapped and then scavenged by other predators; 90% of the excavated bones belonged to predators.The Talara Tar Seeps in Peru represent a similar scenario, and have also produced fossils... | Wikipedia - Smilodon populator | null | null | null |
Many Smith Corona "CoronaPrint" word-processor typewriters used a proprietary double-sided 3-inch diskette format named "DataDisk". Confusingly, it was labelled 2.8-inch reflecting the diameter of the magnetic disk itself rather than the media's case. | Wikipedia - Compact Floppy | null | null | null |
Many Sudokus have been found with 17 clues, although finding them is not a trivial task. A paper by Gary McGuire, Bastian Tugemann, and Gilles Civario, released on 1 January 2012, explains how it was proved through an exhaustive computer search that the minimum number of clues in any proper Sudoku is 17. | Wikipedia - Mathematics of Sudoku | null | null | null |
Many TCP variants have been customized for large bandwidth-delay products: HSTCP FAST TCP BIC TCP CUBIC TCP H-TCP Compound TCP Agile-SD | Wikipedia - Bandwidth-delay product | null | null | null |
Many West African languages base their number words on a combination of 5 and 20, derived from thinking of a complete hand or a complete set of digits comprising both fingers and toes. In fact, in some languages, the words for 5 and 20 refer to these body parts (e.g., a word for 20 that means "man complete"). The words... | Wikipedia - Ethnomathematics | null | null | null |
Many World War II German military vehicles, initially (starting in the late 1930s) including all vehicles originally designed to be half-tracks and all later tank designs (after the Panzer IV), had slack-track systems, usually driven by a front-located drive sprocket, the track returning along the tops of a design of o... | Wikipedia - Track-type tractor | null | null | null |
On some surfaces, this can consume enough energy to slow the vehicle down significantly. Overlapped and interleaved wheels improve performance (including fuel consumption) by loading the track more evenly. It also must have extended the life of the tracks and possibly of the wheels. | Wikipedia - Track-type tractor | null | null | null |
The wheels also better protect the vehicle from enemy fire, and mobility is improved when some wheels are missing. This relatively complicated approach has not been used since World War II ended. This may be related more to maintenance than to original cost. | Wikipedia - Track-type tractor | null | null | null |
The torsion bars and bearings may stay dry and clean, but the wheels and tread work in mud, sand, rocks, snow, and other surfaces. In addition, the outer wheels (up to nine of them, some double) had to be removed to access the inner ones. In WWII, vehicles typically had to be maintained for a few months before being de... | Wikipedia - Track-type tractor | null | null | null |
Many Zigbee/IEEE 802.15.4-based wireless data networks operate in the 2.4–2.4835 GHz band, and so are subject to interference from other devices operating in that same band. The definition is for 16 channels numbered 11–26 to occupy the space, each 2 MHz wide and spaced by 5 MHz. The F0 of channel 11 is set at 2.405 GH... | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz | null | null | null |
The exact channel selection depends on the local popular 802.11 channel. For example, in a place that uses 1, 7, and 13 channels, the preference would be for channels 15, 16, 21, and 22. Channel coexistence is possible provided 8 meters of spacing between the 802.11 access point and the 802.15.4 device. | Wikipedia - Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz | null | null | null |
Many algebraic arguments have been provided, which suggest that 1 = 0.999 … {\displaystyle 1=0.999\ldots } They are not mathematical proofs since they are typically based on the fact that the rules for adding and multiplying finite decimals extend to infinite decimals. This is true, but the proof is essentially the sam... | Wikipedia - 0.999... | null | null | null |
39) discusses the argument that, in elementary school, one is taught that 1⁄3=0.333..., so, ignoring all essential subtleties, "multiplying" this identity by 3 gives 1=0.999.... He further says that this argument is unconvincing, because of an unresolved ambiguity over the meaning of the equals sign; a student might th... | Wikipedia - 0.999... | null | null | null |
Students who did not accept the first argument sometimes accept the second argument, but, in Byers's opinion, still have not resolved the ambiguity, and therefore do not understand the representation for infinite decimals. Peressini & Peressini (2007), presenting the same argument, also state that it does not explain t... | Wikipedia - 0.999... | null | null | null |
Many algorithms for factoring polynomials over finite fields include the following three stages: Square-free factorization Distinct-degree factorization Equal-degree factorizationAn important exception is Berlekamp's algorithm, which combines stages 2 and 3. | Wikipedia - Factoring polynomials over finite fields | null | null | null |
Many algorithms for generating association rules have been proposed. Some well-known algorithms are Apriori, Eclat and FP-Growth, but they only do half the job, since they are algorithms for mining frequent itemsets. Another step needs to be done after to generate rules from frequent itemsets found in a database. | Wikipedia - Eclat algorithm | null | null | null |
Many algorithms for the solution of the blind equalization problem have been suggested over the years. However, as one usually has access to only a finite number of samples from the received signal r ( t ) {\displaystyle r(t)} , further restrictions must be imposed over the above models to render the blind equalization... | Wikipedia - Blind equalization | null | null | null |
Many algorithms to generate surrogate data have been proposed. They are usually classified in two groups: Typical realizations: data series are generated as outputs of a well-fitted model to the original data. Constrained realizations: data series are created directly from original data, generally by some suitable tran... | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
Among constrained realizations methods, the most widely used (and thus could be called the classical methods) are: Algorithm 0, or RS (for Random Shuffle): New data are created simply by random permutations of the original series. This concept is also used in permutation tests. The permutations guarantee the same ampli... | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
This method is associated to the null hypothesis of the data being uncorrelated i.i.d noise (possibly Gaussian and measured by a static nonlinear function). Algorithm 1, or RP (for Random Phases; also known as FT, for Fourier Transform): In order to preserve the linear correlation (the periodogram) of the series, surro... | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
Algorithm 2, or AAFT (for Amplitude Adjusted Fourier Transform): This method has approximately the advantages of the two previous ones: it tries to preserve both the linear structure and the amplitude distribution. This method consists of these steps: Scaling the data to a Gaussian distribution (Gaussianization). Perfo... | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
Finally doing a transformation inverse of the first one (de-Gaussianization).The drawback of this method is precisely that the last step changes somewhat the linear structure. Iterative algorithm 2, or IAAFT (for Iterative Amplitude Adjusted Fourier Transform): This algorithm is an iterative version of AAFT. | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
The steps are repeated until the autocorrelation function is sufficiently similar to the original, or until there is no change in the amplitudes.Many other surrogate data methods have been proposed, some based on optimizations to achieve an autocorrelation close to the original one, some based on wavelet transform and ... | Wikipedia - Surrogate data testing | null | null | null |
Many also include: a programming language, allowing users to implement their own algorithms arbitrary-precision numeric operations exact integer arithmetic and number theory functionality Editing of mathematical expressions in two-dimensional form plotting graphs and parametric plots of functions in two and three dimen... | Wikipedia - Symbolic algebra | null | null | null |
Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result, at any time the orientation of the gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector descri... | Wikipedia - Rotation axis | null | null | null |
A carousel provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation a... | Wikipedia - Rotation axis | null | null | null |
Many analytical procedures involve the use of a fluorometer, usually with a single exciting wavelength and single detection wavelength. Because of the sensitivity that the method affords, fluorescent molecule concentrations as low as 1 part per trillion can be measured.Fluorescence in several wavelengths can be detecte... | Wikipedia - Surface-enhanced fluorescence | null | null | null |
Many animals, including most mammals and reptiles, but not humans, have two distinct and segregated olfactory systems: a main olfactory system, which detects volatile stimuli, and an accessory olfactory system, which detects fluid-phase stimuli. Behavioral evidence suggests that these fluid-phase stimuli often function... | Wikipedia - Accessory olfactory system | null | null | null |
Some mammals make a facial expression called flehmen to direct stimuli to this organ. The sensory receptors of the accessory olfactory system are located in the vomeronasal organ. As in the main olfactory system, the axons of these sensory neurons project from the vomeronasal organ to the accessory olfactory bulb, whic... | Wikipedia - Accessory olfactory system | null | null | null |
Many annelids (segmented worms) are capable of regeneration. For example, Chaetopterus variopedatus and Branchiomma nigromaculata can regenerate both anterior and posterior body parts after latitudinal bisection. The relationship between somatic and germline stem cell regeneration has been studied at the molecular leve... | Wikipedia - Limb regeneration | null | null | null |
Furthermore, their close relatives, the branchiobdellids, are also incapable of segmental regeneration. However, certain individuals, like the lumbriculids, can regenerate from only a few segments. | Wikipedia - Limb regeneration | null | null | null |
Segmental regeneration in these animals is epimorphic and occurs through blastema formation. Segmental regeneration has been gained and lost during annelid evolution, as seen in oligochaetes, where head regeneration has been lost three separate times.Along with epimorphosis, some polychaetes like Sabella pavonina exper... | Wikipedia - Limb regeneration | null | null | null |
How prominent morphallactic regeneration is in oligochaetes is currently not well understood. Although relatively under-reported, it is possible that morphallaxis is a common mode of inter-segment regeneration in annelids. Following regeneration in L. variegatus, past posterior segments sometimes become anterior in the... | Wikipedia - Limb regeneration | null | null | null |
Following amputation, most annelids are capable of sealing their body via rapid muscular contraction. Constriction of body muscle can lead to infection prevention. In certain species, such as Limnodrilus, autolysis can be seen within hours after amputation in the ectoderm and mesoderm. Amputation is also thought to cau... | Wikipedia - Limb regeneration | null | null | null |
Many antidepressant drugs acutely increase synaptic levels of the monoamine neurotransmitter, serotonin, but they may also enhance the levels of norepinephrine and dopamine. The observation of this efficacy led to the monoamine hypothesis of depression, which postulates that the deficit of certain neurotransmitters is ... | Wikipedia - Biology of depression | null | null | null |
The main limitation for the monoamine hypothesis of depression is the therapeutic lag between initiation of antidepressant treatment and perceived improvement of symptoms. One explanation for this therapeutic lag is that the initial increase in synaptic serotonin is only temporary, as firing of serotonergic neurons in ... | Wikipedia - Biology of depression | null | null | null |
Many applications can reduce a major portion of manual data entry by populating data fields based upon the entered ISBN using MARC standards technology via the Internet. | Wikipedia - Integrated library system | null | null | null |
Many applications have been proposed using magnetorheological (MR) dampers. While vehicle applications are the most common use of MR dampers, useful medical applications have risen as well, including implants and rehabilitation methods. Since MR dampers are not yet perfect, they are limited in terms of application. Dis... | Wikipedia - Magnetorheological damper | null | null | null |
Many applications of dynamical models convert all energy domains in the system into an electrical circuit and then proceed to analyse the complete system in the electrical domain. There are, however, more generalised methods of representation. One such representation is through the use of bond graphs, introduced by Hen... | Wikipedia - Analogical model | null | null | null |
Likewise Trent used a different representation (linear graphs) and his representation has become associated with the force-current analogy (mobility analogy), but again this is not mandatory.Some authors discourage the use of domain specific terminology for the sake of generalisation. For instance, because much of the ... | Wikipedia - Analogical model | null | null | null |
Many applications of mathematics in geomorphology are related to water. In the soil aspect things like Darcy's law, Stoke's law, and porosity are used. Darcy's law is used when one has a saturated soil that is uniform to describe how fluid flows through that medium. This type of work would fall under hydrogeology. | Wikipedia - Mathematical geophysics | null | null | null |
Stoke's law measures how quickly different sized particles will settle out of a fluid. This is used when doing pipette analysis of soils to find the percentage sand vs silt vs clay. A potential error is it assumes perfectly spherical particles which don't exist. | Wikipedia - Mathematical geophysics | null | null | null |
Stream power is used to find the ability of a river to incise into the river bed. This is applicable to see where a river is likely to fail and change course or when looking at the damage of losing stream sediments on a river system (like downstream of a dam). Differential equations can be used in multiple areas of geo... | Wikipedia - Mathematical geophysics | null | null | null |
Many archaeologists in the West today are employees of national governments or are privately employed instruments of government-derived archaeology legislation. In all cases this legislation is a compromise to some degree or another between the interests of the archaeological remains and the interests of economic devel... | Wikipedia - Archaeological ethics | null | null | null |
Many areas of mathematics began with the study of real world problems, before the underlying rules and concepts were identified and defined as abstract structures. For example, geometry has its origins in the calculation of distances and areas in the real world, and algebra started with methods of solving problems in a... | Wikipedia - Mathematical abstraction | null | null | null |
In the 17th century, Descartes introduced Cartesian co-ordinates which allowed the development of analytic geometry. Further steps in abstraction were taken by Lobachevsky, Bolyai, Riemann and Gauss, who generalised the concepts of geometry to develop non-Euclidean geometries. Later in the 19th century, mathematicians ... | Wikipedia - Mathematical abstraction | null | null | null |
Finally Felix Klein's "Erlangen program" identified the underlying theme of all of these geometries, defining each of them as the study of properties invariant under a given group of symmetries. This level of abstraction revealed connections between geometry and abstract algebra.In mathematics, abstraction can be advan... | Wikipedia - Mathematical abstraction | null | null | null |
Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in other related areas. Patterns from one mathematical object can be generalized to other similar objects in the same class.On the other hand, abstraction can also be disadvantageous in that highly abstract concepts can be difficult to learn. A degree... | Wikipedia - Mathematical abstraction | null | null | null |
Many argue that the next stage of sociocultural evolution consists of a merger with technology, especially information processing technology. Several cumulative major transitions of evolution have transformed life through key innovations in information storage and replication, including RNA, DNA, multicellularity, and ... | Wikipedia - Cultural development | null | null | null |
It increases exponentially, exhibits high-fidelity replication, evolves through differential fitness, is expressed through artificial intelligence (AI), and has facility for virtually limitless recombination. Like previous evolutionary transitions, the potential symbiosis between biological and digital information will... | Wikipedia - Cultural development | null | null | null |
Alternatively, this fusion could create a higher-level superorganism employing a low-conflict division of labor in performing informational tasks...humans already embrace fusions of biology and technology. We spend most of our waking time communicating through digitally mediated channels, ...most transactions on the st... | Wikipedia - Cultural development | null | null | null |
Many arguments are not in the form of the five indemonstrables, and the task is to show how they can be reduced to one of the five types. A simple example of Stoic reduction is reported by Sextus Empiricus: if both p and q, then r; not r; but also p; Therefore not qThis can be reduced to two separate indemonstrable arg... | Wikipedia - Stoic logic | null | null | null |
9–14). The other, the third thema, was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms. | Wikipedia - Stoic logic | null | null | null |
The importance of these rules is not altogether clear. In the 2nd-century BCE Antipater of Tarsus is said to have introduced a simpler method involving the use of fewer themata, although few details survive concerning this. In any case, the themata cannot have been a necessary part of every analysis. | Wikipedia - Stoic logic | null | null | null |
Many arthropods can regenerate limbs and other appendages following either injury or autotomy. Regeneration capacity is constrained by the developmental stage and ability to molt. Crustaceans, which continually molt, can regenerate throughout their lifetimes. While molting cycles are generally hormonally regulated, lim... | Wikipedia - Regeneration (biology) | null | null | null |
Beetle larvae, for example, can regenerate amputated limbs. Fruit fly larvae do not have limbs but can regenerate their appendage primordia, imaginal discs. In both systems, the regrowth of the new tissue delays pupation.Mechanisms underlying appendage limb regeneration in insects and crustaceans are highly conserved. ... | Wikipedia - Regeneration (biology) | null | null | null |
Many aspects of New Zealand mangrove systems have not yet been sufficiently studied; therefore their importance in relation to marine and estuarine species and their role in terms of ecosystem structure and function is inadequately understood. The role played by mangroves in New Zealand estuarine foodwebs is, however, ... | Wikipedia - Ecological values of mangroves | null | null | null |
Many aspects of academic research and industrial research such as in pharmaceuticals, health products, and many others relies on accurate water analysis to identify substances of potential use, to refine those substances and to ensure that when they are manufactured for sale that the chemical composition remains consis... | Wikipedia - Analysis of water chemistry | null | null | null |
Many aspects of the structure-reactivity relationship in organic chemistry can be rationalized through resonance, electron pushing, induction, the eight electron rule, and s-p hybridization, but these are only helpful formalisms and do not represent physical reality. Due to these limitations, a true understanding of ph... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Particles are defined by their associated wavefunction, an equation which contains all information associated with that particle. All information about the system is contained in the wavefunction. This information is extracted from the wavefunction through the use of mathematical operators. | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
The energy associated with a particular wavefunction, perhaps the most important information contained in a wavefunction, can be extracted by solving the Schrödinger equation (above, Ψ is the wavefunction, E is the energy, and Ĥ is the Hamiltonian operator) in which an appropriate Hamiltonian operator is applied. In th... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Due to complex interactions which arise from electron-electron repulsion, algebraic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are only possible for systems with one electron such as the hydrogen atom, H2+, H32+, etc.; however, from these simple models arise all the familiar atomic (s,p,d,f) and bonding (σ,π) orbitals. In s... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Thousands of guesses are often required until a satisfactory solution is found, so such calculations are performed by powerful computers. Importantly, the solutions for atoms with multiple electrons give properties such as diameter and electronegativity which closely mirror experimental data and the patterns found in t... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Instead of four discrete σ-bonds from carbon to each hydrogen atom, theory predicts a set of four bonding molecular orbitals which are delocalized across the entire molecule. Similarly, the true electronic structure of 1,3-butadiene shows delocalized π-bonding molecular orbitals stretching through the entire molecule r... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Chromium tricarbonyl is highly electrophilic due to the withdrawal of electron density from filled chromium d-orbitals into antibonding CO orbitals, and is able to covalently bond to the face of a benzene molecule through delocalized molecular orbitals. The CO ligands inductively draw electron density from benzene thro... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Quantum chemistry can also provide insight into the mechanism of an organic transformation without the collection of any experimental data. Because wavefunctions provide the total energy of a given molecular state, guessed molecular geometries can be optimized to give relaxed molecular structures very similar to those ... | Wikipedia - Physical organic chemistry | null | null | null |
Many attempts to generate scenarios for closed timelike curves have been suggested, and the theory of general relativity does allow them in certain circumstances. Some theoretical solutions in general relativity that contain closed timelike curves would require an infinite universe with certain features that our univer... | Wikipedia - Chronology protection conjecture | null | null | null |
General relativity does not include quantum effects on its own, and a full integration of general relativity and quantum mechanics would require a theory of quantum gravity, but there is an approximate method for modeling quantum fields in the curved spacetime of general relativity, known as semiclassical gravity. Init... | Wikipedia - Chronology protection conjecture | null | null | null |
Calculations showed that this effect would not occur for an ordinary beam of radiation, because it would be "defocused" by the wormhole so that most of a beam emerging from mouth A would spread out and miss mouth B. But when the calculation was done for vacuum fluctuations, it was found that they would spontaneously re... | Wikipedia - Chronology protection conjecture | null | null | null |
Stephen Hawking conjectured that not only would the pileup of vacuum fluctuations still succeed in destroying the wormhole in quantum gravity, but also that the laws of physics would ultimately prevent any type of time machine from forming; this is the chronology protection conjecture.Subsequent works in semiclassical ... | Wikipedia - Chronology protection conjecture | null | null | null |
There are also some arguments from string theory that seem to support chronology protection, but string theory is not yet a complete theory of quantum gravity. Experimental observation of closed timelike curves would of course demonstrate this conjecture to be false, but short of that, if physicists had a theory of qua... | Wikipedia - Chronology protection conjecture | null | null | null |
Many authors and guides use the following template when speaking about logic model: Many refinements and variations have been added to the basic template. For example, many versions of logic models set out a series of outcomes/impacts, explaining in more detail the logic of how an intervention contributes to intended o... | Wikipedia - Logic model | null | null | null |
Many authors do not require rings to have a multiplicative identity element and, accordingly, do not require ring homomorphism to preserve the identity (should it exist). This leads to a rather different category. For distinction we call such algebraic structures rngs and their morphisms rng homomorphisms. | Wikipedia - Category of fields | null | null | null |
The category of all rngs will be denoted by Rng. The category of rings, Ring, is a nonfull subcategory of Rng. It is nonfull because there are rng homomorphisms between rings which do not preserve the identity, and are therefore not morphisms in Ring. | Wikipedia - Category of fields | null | null | null |
The inclusion functor Ring → Rng has a left adjoint which formally adjoins an identity to any rng. The inclusion functor Ring → Rng respects limits but not colimits. The zero ring serves as both an initial and terminal object in Rng (that is, it is a zero object). | Wikipedia - Category of fields | null | null | null |
It follows that Rng, like Grp but unlike Ring, has zero morphisms. These are just the rng homomorphisms that map everything to 0. Despite the existence of zero morphisms, Rng is still not a preadditive category. | Wikipedia - Category of fields | null | null | null |
The pointwise sum of two rng homomorphisms is generally not a rng homomorphism. There is a fully faithful functor from the category of abelian groups to Rng sending an abelian group to the associated rng of square zero. Free constructions are less natural in Rng than they are in Ring. For example, the free rng generate... | Wikipedia - Category of fields | null | null | null |
Many automation systems use PC and laptops to monitor different parameters of machines and production data. Counters may count parameters such as the number of pieces produced, the production batch number, and measurements of the amounts of material used. | Wikipedia - Synchronous counter | null | null | null |
Many bacteria, including Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (MK-7 up to MK-11), but not vitamin K1. In the vitamin K2 synthesizing bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (a... | Wikipedia - Vitamin K | null | null | null |
Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively. Some of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitr... | Wikipedia - Vitamin K | null | null | null |
Many believe that the widespread use of chewing tobacco by baseball players has led to a rampant increase in youth, and particularly teen, use. Additionally, teen use of smokeless tobacco has increased and it is more harmful and dangerous to tobacco user, while use of all tobacco products by teens has decreased. This i... | Wikipedia - Chewing tobacco | null | null | null |
More specifically, moist snuff use increased for males ages 18–24 from 1% of the population to 6.2% of the population, while 65+ male users decreased from 4% to 2.2%.A 2009 survey by The U.S. Centers for Disease Control revealed that 8.9% of U.S. | Wikipedia - Chewing tobacco | null | null | null |
high-school students had used smokeless tobacco on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey. Usage was more common among males (15.0%) than females (2.2%) and among Whites (11.9%) than Blacks (3.3%) or Hispanics (5.1%). The five states with the highest percentage of high-school users were Wyoming (16.2%), No... | Wikipedia - Chewing tobacco | null | null | null |
Many biohacking projects revolve around the modification of life and molecular and genetic engineering. | Wikipedia - Do-it-yourself biology | null | null | null |
Many biological endpoints have been studied including oncogenic transformation, apoptosis, mutations, and chromosomal aberrations. | Wikipedia - Microbeam | null | null | null |
Many biologically active molecules are chiral, including the naturally occurring amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) and sugars. The origin of this homochirality in biology is the subject of much debate. Most scientists believe that Earth life's "choice" of chirality was purely random, and that if carbon-base... | Wikipedia - Optical isomer | null | null | null |
In this case, circularly polarised radiation (which makes up 17% of stellar radiation) could have caused the selective destruction of one chirality of amino acids, leading to a selection bias which ultimately resulted in all life on Earth being homochiral.Enzymes, which are chiral, often distinguish between the two ena... | Wikipedia - Optical isomer | null | null | null |
L-forms of amino acids tend to be tasteless, whereas D-forms tend to taste sweet. Spearmint leaves contain the L-enantiomer of the chemical carvone or R-(−)-carvone and caraway seeds contain the D-enantiomer or S-(+)-carvone. The two smell different to most people because our olfactory receptors are chiral. Chirality i... | Wikipedia - Optical isomer | null | null | null |
Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of prot... | Wikipedia - Tetraprotic acid | null | null | null |
Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids. An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) that is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, de... | Wikipedia - Tetraprotic acid | null | null | null |
In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariabl... | Wikipedia - Tetraprotic acid | null | null | null |
At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO−) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH+3). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or aci... | Wikipedia - Tetraprotic acid | null | null | null |
Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty aci... | Wikipedia - Tetraprotic acid | null | null | null |
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