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The researchers in this study suggested that there are a large number of contributing loci that are related to various psychiatric disorders. Additionally, they, like many others, suggested that the genetic risk of psychiatric disorders involves the combined effects of many common variants with small effects - in other... | Wikipedia - Genetic architecture - Examples | 342 | 1,871 | null |
Article: Genetic code. Genetic code is a set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets or codons) into proteins. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links proteinogenic amino acids in an order specified by messenger... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Summary | 208 | 976 | null |
Section: History. Efforts to understand how proteins are encoded began after DNA's structure was discovered in 1953. The key discoverers, English biophysicist Francis Crick and American biologist James Watson, working together at the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge, hypothesied that information flow... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - History | 337 | 1,652 | null |
Section: History > Codons. The Crick, Brenner, Barnett and Watts-Tobin experiment first demonstrated that codons consist of three DNA bases. Marshall Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei were the first to reveal the nature of a codon in 1961. They used a cell-free system to translate a poly-uracil RNA sequence (i.e., UUU... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - History > Codons | 337 | 1,370 | null |
This work was based upon Ochoa's earlier studies, yielding the latter the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for work on the enzymology of RNA synthesis. Extending this work, Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the code's triplet nature and deciphered its codons. In these experiments, various combinations of... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - History > Codons | 217 | 970 | null |
Section: History > Expanded genetic codes (synthetic biology). In a broad academic audience, the concept of the evolution of the genetic code from the original and ambiguous genetic code to a well-defined ("frozen") code with the repertoire of 20 (+2) canonical amino acids is widely accepted. However, there are differe... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - History > Expanded genetic codes (synthetic biology) | 345 | 1,555 | null |
Section: Features > Reading frame. A reading frame is defined by the initial triplet of nucleotides from which translation starts. It sets the frame for a run of successive, non-overlapping codons, which is known as an "open reading frame" (ORF). For example, the string 5'-AAATGAACG-3' (see figure), if read from the fi... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Features > Reading frame | 306 | 1,170 | null |
Section: Features > Start and stop codons. Translation starts with a chain-initiation codon or start codon. The start codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process. Nearby sequences such as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in E. coli and initiation factors are also required to start translation. The most common start c... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Features > Start and stop codons | 252 | 1,015 | null |
Section: Features > Effect of mutations. During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, mutations, can affect an organism's phenotype, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are typically 1 error in e... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Features > Effect of mutations | 343 | 1,793 | null |
Section: Features > Degeneracy. Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code. This term was given by Bernfield and Nirenberg. The genetic code has redundancy but no ambiguity (see the codon tables below for the full correlation). For example, although codons GAA and GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy), neit... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Features > Degeneracy | 317 | 1,281 | null |
NCN yields amino acid residues that are small in size and moderate in hydropathicity; NAN encodes average size hydrophilic residues. The genetic code is so well-structured for hydropathicity that a mathematical analysis (Singular Value Decomposition) of 12 variables (4 nucleotides x 3 positions) yields a remarkable cor... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Features > Degeneracy | 255 | 1,263 | null |
Section: Alternative genetic codes > Non-standard amino acids. In some proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending on associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA. For example, UGA can code for selenocysteine and UAG can code for pyrrolysine. Selenocysteine came to be seen... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Alternative genetic codes > Non-standard amino acids | 165 | 673 | null |
Section: Alternative genetic codes > Variations. There was originally a simple and widely accepted argument that the genetic code should be universal: namely, that any variation in the genetic code would be lethal to the organism (although Crick had stated that viruses were an exception). This is known as the "frozen a... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Alternative genetic codes > Variations | 305 | 1,496 | null |
In rare cases, certain proteins may use alternative start codons. Surprisingly, variations in the interpretation of the genetic code exist also in human nuclear-encoded genes: In 2016, researchers studying the translation of malate dehydrogenase found that in about 4% of the mRNAs encoding this enzyme the stop codon is... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Alternative genetic codes > Variations | 277 | 1,320 | null |
Section: Alternative genetic codes > Inference. Variant genetic codes used by an organism can be inferred by identifying highly conserved genes encoded in that genome, and comparing its codon usage to the amino acids in homologous proteins of other organisms. For example, the program FACIL infers a genetic code by sear... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Alternative genetic codes > Inference | 219 | 1,006 | null |
Section: Origin. The genetic code is a key part of the history of life, according to one version of which self-replicating RNA molecules preceded life as we know it. This is the RNA world hypothesis. Under this hypothesis, any model for the emergence of the genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer ... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Origin | 337 | 1,647 | null |
Amino acids with similar physical properties also tend to have similar codons, reducing the problems caused by point mutations and mistranslations. Given the non-random genetic triplet coding scheme, a tenable hypothesis for the origin of genetic code could address multiple aspects of the codon table, such as absence o... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Origin | 346 | 1,708 | null |
Hypotheses have addressed a variety of scenarios: Chemical principles govern specific RNA interaction with amino acids. Experiments with aptamers showed that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for their codons. Experiments showed that of 8 amino acids tested, 6 show some RNA triplet-amino acid associat... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Origin | 334 | 1,554 | null |
This feature could allow accurate decoding absent complex translational machinery such as the ribosome, such as before cells began making ribosomes. Information channels: Information-theoretic approaches model the process of translating the genetic code into corresponding amino acids as an error-prone information chann... | Wikipedia - Genetic code - Origin | 341 | 1,786 | null |
Section: History. E.B. Ford was the first geneticist to begin work in this field of study. E.B. Ford worked mostly during the 1950s and is most noted for his work with Maniola jurtina and published a book entitled Ecological Genetics in 1975. This type of evolutionary biological study was only possible after gel electr... | Wikipedia - Genetic ecology - History | 215 | 1,023 | null |
Section: Gene transfer. Genetic information may transfer throughout an ecosystem in multiple ways. The first of which, on the smallest scale, being bacterial gene transfer (see bacterial transformation). Bacteria have the ability to exchange DNA. This DNA exchange, or horizontal gene transfer, may provide various speci... | Wikipedia - Genetic ecology - Gene transfer | 280 | 1,481 | null |
Article: Genetic exceptionalism. Genetic exceptionalism is the belief that genetic information is special and so must be treated differently from other types of medical data or other personally identifiable information. For example, patients are able to obtain information about their blood pressure without involving an... | Wikipedia - Genetic exceptionalism - Summary | 175 | 1,059 | null |
Section: Effects. This imbalance in gene dosage alters the amount of a particular protein relative to all other proteins, and this alternation in the relative amounts of protein can have a variety of phenotypic effects. These effects are depending on how the proteins function and how critical the maintenance of a preci... | Wikipedia - Genetic imbalance - Effects | 274 | 1,319 | null |
Article: Genetic interaction network. Genetic interaction networks represent the functional interactions between pairs of genes in an organism and are useful for understanding the relation between genotype and phenotype. The majority of genes do not code for particular phenotypes. Instead, phenotypes often result from ... | Wikipedia - Genetic interaction network - Summary | 289 | 1,649 | null |
Section: Overview. A genetic interaction occurs when the interactions between two or more genes results in a phenotype that differs from the phenotype expected if the genes were independent of each other. In the context of genetic interaction networks, a genetic interaction is defined as "the difference between an expe... | Wikipedia - Genetic interaction network - Overview | 343 | 1,760 | null |
In the min model, the expected fitness resulting from the mutation of two independent genes is the same as the fitness of the least-fit single mutant. In the additive model, the expected phenotype resulting from the mutation of two independent genes is the sum of the phenotypes due to the individual mutations. In the m... | Wikipedia - Genetic interaction network - Overview | 150 | 735 | null |
Section: Properties of genetic interaction networks. Genetic interaction networks have been studied extensively in several organisms including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Escherichia coli, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Drosophila melanogaster. These studies have given insight into properties of g... | Wikipedia - Genetic interaction network - Properties of genetic interaction networks | 343 | 1,925 | null |
Article: Genetic map function. In genetics, mapping functions are used to model the relationship between map distances (measured in map units or centimorgans) and recombination frequencies, particularly as these measurements relate to regions encompassed between genetic markers. One utility of this approach is that it ... | Wikipedia - Genetic map function - Summary | 185 | 958 | null |
Section: Morgan Mapping Function. Where d is the distance in map units, the Morgan Mapping Function states that the recombination frequency r can be expressed as r = d {\displaystyle \ r=d} . This assumes that one crossover occurs, at most, in an interval between two loci, and that the probability of the occurrence of ... | Wikipedia - Genetic map function - Morgan Mapping Function | 214 | 787 | null |
Section: Comparison and application. Below 10% recombination frequency, there is little mathematical difference between different mapping functions and the relationship between map distance and recombination frequency is linear (that is, 1 map unit = 1% recombination frequency). When genome-wide SNP sampling and mappin... | Wikipedia - Genetic map function - Comparison and application | 165 | 824 | null |
Article: Genetic matchmaking. Genetic matchmaking is the idea of matching couples for romantic relationships based on their biological compatibility. The initial idea was conceptualized by Claus Wedekind through his "sweaty t-shirt" experiment. Males were asked to wear T-shirts for two consecutive nights, and then fema... | Wikipedia - Genetic matchmaking - Summary | 159 | 776 | null |
Section: Research. Following research done by Dr. Wedekind, several studies found corroborating evidence for biological compatibility. Garver-Apgar et al. presented evidence for HLA-dissimilar alleles playing a factor in the healthiness of romantic relationships. They discovered that as the proportion of HLA-similar al... | Wikipedia - Genetic matchmaking - Research | 270 | 1,440 | null |
Section: Reasons for biological compatibility. There are several biological reasons why women would be attracted to and mate with men with dissimilar HLA alleles: Their offspring would have a greater assortment of HLA alleles theoretically giving them a wider diversity of antigens present on the surface of cells compar... | Wikipedia - Genetic matchmaking - Reasons for biological compatibility | 272 | 1,325 | null |
Section: How to predict genetic predisposition. There are several approaches commonly used in the field of genetics to predict a genetic predisposition toward a disease. Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS): studies that identify genetic variants linked to diseases by analyzing genomes across populations. This approa... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - How to predict genetic predisposition | 180 | 1,015 | null |
Section: Genetic predisposition at the molecular level. As individuals, one’s genetic makeup or genotype, which is passed down from their parents, defines how they look and what genetic conditions they could have inherited, or be at risk for. These traits are exclusive, and therefore one's susceptibility to specific di... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - Genetic predisposition at the molecular level | 254 | 1,294 | null |
Section: Genetic disease inheritance patterns. Genetic diseases can be autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, X chromosome-linked recessive, X chromosome-linked dominant or Y chromosome-linked. They will be inherited differently based on their composition. Autosomal inheritance patterns will affect specific autosomes... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - Genetic disease inheritance patterns | 245 | 1,220 | null |
Section: Predisposition to cancer > Breast cancer. Genetic predisposition to breast cancer is categorized into three main risk groups. The first group consists of high-penetrance genes, such as BRCA1, BRCA2, and TP53. Mutations in these genes are inherited and significantly increase an individual's susceptibility to br... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - Predisposition to cancer > Breast cancer | 225 | 1,089 | null |
Section: Predisposition to cancer > Colorectal cancer. Individuals with a genetic predisposition to colorectal cancer can benefit greatly from early and consistent monitoring. Hereditary Colorectal Cancer (HCRC) is typically associated with several genetic syndromes, each characterized by specific gene mutations that p... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - Predisposition to cancer > Colorectal cancer | 252 | 1,264 | null |
Section: Behavioural predisposition. Genetic predisposition can also have an impact on psychological and behavioural phenotypes, as well as physical. An individual’s predisposition towards certain human behaviors can be examined in an attempt to identify behavioural patterns that appear to be historically and evolution... | Wikipedia - Genetic predisposition - Behavioural predisposition | 202 | 1,186 | null |
Article: Genetic resources conservation and sustainable use. Genetic resources means genetic material of actual or potential value where genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity... Genetic resources thus refer to the part of genetic diversit... | Wikipedia - Genetic resources conservation and sustainable use - Summary | 228 | 1,326 | null |
Article: Genetic structure. Genetic structure refers to any pattern in the genetic makeup of individuals within a population. Genetic structure allows for information about an individual to be inferred from other members of the same population. In trivial terms, all populations have genetic structure, because all popul... | Wikipedia - Genetic structure - Summary | 239 | 1,252 | null |
Article: Genetic viability. Genetic viability is the ability of the genes present to allow a cell, organism or population to survive and reproduce. The term is generally used to mean the chance or ability of a population to avoid the problems of inbreeding. Less commonly genetic viability can also be used in respect to... | Wikipedia - Genetic viability - Summary | 232 | 1,170 | null |
Section: Causes for decrease > Genetic viability of particular wolf populations. A small highly inbred population of gray wolves (Canis lupus) residing in Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, USA has been undergoing population decline and is nearing extinction. These gray wolves have been experiencing severe inbreeding... | Wikipedia - Genetic viability - Causes for decrease > Genetic viability of particular wolf populations | 190 | 943 | null |
Article: Genetics. Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Summary | 322 | 1,671 | null |
Section: History. The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in th... | Wikipedia - Genetics - History | 316 | 1,595 | null |
Other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel's work. A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendel's work provided examples where traits were defini... | Wikipedia - Genetics - History | 202 | 1,085 | null |
Section: History > Mendelian genetics. Modern genetics started with Mendel's studies of the nature of inheritance in plants. In his paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brno, Mendel traced the ... | Wikipedia - Genetics - History > Mendelian genetics | 345 | 1,635 | null |
Section: History > Molecular genetics. Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA, and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation: dead bacteria could transfer g... | Wikipedia - Genetics - History > Molecular genetics | 342 | 1,741 | null |
This property is what gives DNA its semi-conservative nature where one strand of new DNA is from an original parent strand. Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works, it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells. In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls... | Wikipedia - Genetics - History > Molecular genetics | 301 | 1,590 | null |
Section: Features of inheritance > Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws. At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete heritable units, called genes, from parents to offspring. This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pe... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Features of inheritance > Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws | 335 | 1,620 | null |
Section: Features of inheritance > Notation and diagrams. Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. A gene is represented by one or a few letters. Often a "+" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene. In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Men... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Features of inheritance > Notation and diagrams | 178 | 817 | null |
Section: Features of inheritance > Multiple gene interactions. Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms these genes generally assort independently of each other. This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for whit... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Features of inheritance > Multiple gene interactions | 347 | 1,687 | null |
Section: Molecular basis for inheritance > DNA and chromosomes. The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of deoxyribose (sugar molecule), a phosphate group, and a base (amine group). There are four types of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). The phosphat... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Molecular basis for inheritance > DNA and chromosomes | 348 | 1,572 | null |
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base-pair sequences. In bacteria, each cell usually con... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Molecular basis for inheritance > DNA and chromosomes | 321 | 1,616 | null |
While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of the two homologous chromosomes, each allele inherited from a different parent. Many sp... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Molecular basis for inheritance > DNA and chromosomes | 182 | 933 | null |
Section: Molecular basis for inheritance > Reproduction. When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy. This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, ... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Molecular basis for inheritance > Reproduction | 347 | 1,888 | null |
Section: Molecular basis for inheritance > Recombination and genetic linkage. The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed. In this way new combinations of gene... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Molecular basis for inheritance > Recombination and genetic linkage | 347 | 1,821 | null |
Section: Gene expression > Genetic code. Genes express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each composed of a sequence of amino acids. The DNA sequence of a gene is used to pro... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Genetic code | 331 | 1,798 | null |
Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are ... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Genetic code | 300 | 1,520 | null |
Section: Gene expression > Nature and nurture. Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism displays. The phrase "nature and nurture" refers to this complementary relationship. The phenotype of an orga... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Nature and nurture | 343 | 1,668 | null |
However, if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, they remain normal and healthy. A common method for determining how genes and environment ("nature and nurture") contribute to a phenotype involves studying identical and fraternal twins, or other siblings of multip... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Nature and nurture | 172 | 870 | null |
Section: Gene expression > Gene regulation. The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that protein... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Gene regulation | 339 | 1,795 | null |
As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells. Within eukaryotes, there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA a... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Gene expression > Gene regulation | 168 | 892 | null |
Section: Genetic change > Mutations. During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very l... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Genetic change > Mutations | 307 | 1,584 | null |
Section: Genetic change > Natural selection and evolution. Mutations alter an organism's genotype and occasionally this causes different phenotypes to appear. Most mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, or reproductive fitness. Mutations that do have an effect are usually detrimental, but occa... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Genetic change > Natural selection and evolution | 308 | 1,748 | null |
Section: Research and technology > Model organisms. Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide variety of organisms, the range of species studied has narrowed. One reason is that when significant research already exists for a given organism, new researchers are more likely to choose it for further st... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Research and technology > Model organisms | 209 | 1,009 | null |
Section: Research and technology > Medicine. Medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease. When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome assoc... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Research and technology > Medicine | 350 | 1,932 | null |
Normally, a cell divides only in response to signals called growth factors and stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells and in response to growth-inhibitory signals. It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies, staying within the epithelium where it is unable to migrate to other organs. To be... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Research and technology > Medicine | 275 | 1,315 | null |
Section: Research and technology > Research methods. DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis, which separates fragments according... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Research and technology > Research methods | 273 | 1,315 | null |
Section: Research and technology > DNA sequencing and genomics. DNA sequencing, one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. The technique of chain-termination sequencing, developed in 1977 by a team led by Frederick ... | Wikipedia - Genetics - Research and technology > DNA sequencing and genomics | 310 | 1,745 | null |
Article: Genetics in fiction. Aspects of genetics including mutation, hybridisation, cloning, genetic engineering, and eugenics have appeared in fiction since the 19th century. Genetics is a young science, having started in 1900 with the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's study on the inheritance of traits in pea plants. D... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Summary | 183 | 973 | null |
Section: Background. Modern genetics began with the work of the monk Gregor Mendel in the 19th century, on the inheritance of traits in pea plants. Mendel found that visible traits, such as whether peas were round or wrinkled, were inherited discretely, rather than by blending the attributes of the two parents. In 1900... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Background | 350 | 1,815 | null |
Section: Genetics themes > Mutants and hybrids. Mutation and hybridisation are widely used in fiction, starting in the 19th century with science fiction works such as Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein and H. G. Wells's 1896 The Island of Dr. Moreau. In her 1977 Biological Themes in Modern Science Fiction, Helen Pa... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Mutants and hybrids | 341 | 1,617 | null |
The DC Universe (from 1939) imagines "metahumans"; the Marvel Universe (from 1961) calls them "mutants", while the Wildstorm (from 1992) and Ultimate Marvel (2000–2015) Universes name them "posthumans". Stan Lee introduced the concept of mutants in the Marvel X-Men books in 1963; the villain Magneto declares his plan t... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Mutants and hybrids | 264 | 1,146 | null |
Section: Genetics themes > Cloning. Cloning, too, is a familiar plot device. Aldous Huxley's 1931 dystopian novel Brave New World imagines the in vitro cloning of fertilised human eggs. Huxley was influenced by J. B. S. Haldane's 1924 non-fiction book Daedalus; or, Science and the Future, which used the Greek myth of D... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Cloning | 340 | 1,491 | null |
Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs. In the long-running British television series Doctor Who, the Fourth Doctor and his companion Leela ... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Cloning | 223 | 1,048 | null |
Section: Genetics themes > Genetic engineering. Genetic engineering features in many science fiction stories. Films such as The Island (2005) and Blade Runner (1982) bring the engineered creature to confront the person who created it or the being it was cloned from, a theme seen in some film versions of Frankenstein. F... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Genetic engineering | 206 | 1,016 | null |
Section: Genetics themes > Eugenics. Eugenics plays a central role in films such as Andrew Niccol's 1997 Gattaca, the title alluding to the letters G, A, T, C for guanine, adenine, thymine, and cytosine, the four nucleobases of DNA. Genetic engineering of humans is unrestricted, resulting in genetic discrimination, los... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Genetics themes > Eugenics | 217 | 1,035 | null |
Section: Myth and oversimplification. The geneticist Dan Koboldt observes that while science and technology play major roles in fiction, from fantasy and science fiction to thrillers, the representation of science in both literature and film is often unrealistic. In Koboldt's view, genetics in fiction is frequently ove... | Wikipedia - Genetics in fiction - Myth and oversimplification | 242 | 1,159 | null |
Section: Background. Adopted from the early Christians in 30 AD, the term nurse was created from the Latin origin nutrire, which means to nurture or nourish. Establishing nursing as one of the oldest forms of healthcare and continues to be a growing field of medicine. Genetics, which is the study of inherited traits an... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Background | 332 | 1,810 | null |
Genetics and genomics are fundamental to the nursing practice because the basis of genetics can recognize individuals at risk for certain illnesses and diseases, identify the risks of certain disease or illnesses when conceiving children, facilitate drug dosage or selection for certain illnesses or specific patients, a... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Background | 339 | 1,835 | null |
Section: Competencies > Development. The genetic and genomic competencies are important to the practice of all nurses regardless of academic preparation, practice setting, role, or specialty. The competencies are significant because they establish a foundation and set of guidelines for the nursing workforce on administ... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Competencies > Development | 343 | 1,901 | null |
After the published competencies were reviewed carefully, the developing of the essential competencies was produced in four phases called the process of consensus. During phase I of the process of consensus, a subset of the committee was created to synthesize competencies from the documents under review that would appl... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Competencies > Development | 258 | 1,546 | null |
Section: Competencies > Essential Competencies. The essential competencies consists of two domains: professional responsibilities and professional practice. Under the professional responsibilities domain, all professional activities by registered nurses are required to fall within the confines of the Nursing: Scope and... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Competencies > Essential Competencies | 348 | 2,059 | null |
Constructs a pedigree from collected family history information using standardized symbols and terminology. Collects personal, health, and developmental histories that consider genetic, environmental, and genomic influences and risks. Conducts comprehensive health and physical assessments which incorporate knowledge ab... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Competencies > Essential Competencies | 326 | 1,965 | null |
Uses health promotion and disease prevention practices to: Considers genetic and genomic influences on personal and environmental risk factors. Incorporates knowledge of genetic and/or genomic risk factors (e.g., a client with a genetic predisposition for high cholesterol who can benefit from a change in lifestyle that... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Competencies > Essential Competencies | 163 | 924 | null |
Section: Issues > Ethical. Ethics pertain to the ‘’rightness’’ and ‘’wrongness’’ of human actions, motives, and conduct. Complicated ethical issues in areas such as justice, privacy, and autonomy, tend to follow both the field of genetics and the field of nursing. Ethical problems and dilemmas arise daily in healthcare... | Wikipedia - Genetics nursing - Issues > Ethical | 295 | 1,592 | null |
Article: Genetics of infertility. About 10–15% of human couples are infertile, unable to conceive. In approximately in half of these cases, the underlying cause is related to the male. The underlying causative factors in the male infertility can be attributed to environmental toxins, systemic disorders such as, hypotha... | Wikipedia - Genetics of infertility - Summary | 318 | 1,495 | null |
Section: NR5A1 roles in sex development and related disorders. Nuclear receptor subfamily 5 group A member 1 (NR5A1), also known as SF1 or Ad4BP (MIM 184757), is located on the long arm of chromosome 9 (9q33.3). The NR5A1 is an orphan nuclear receptor that was first identified following the search for a common regulato... | Wikipedia - Genetics of infertility - NR5A1 roles in sex development and related disorders | 345 | 1,485 | null |
Section: NR5A1 new roles in fertility and infertility. Recently, NR5A1 mutations have been related to human male infertility (MIM 613957). These findings substantially increase the number of NR5A1 mutations reported in humans and show that mutations in NR5A1 can be found in patients with a wide range of phenotypic feat... | Wikipedia - Genetics of infertility - NR5A1 new roles in fertility and infertility | 332 | 1,398 | null |
Section: NR5A1 new roles in fertility and infertility > Small supernumerary marker chromosomes and infertility. Small supernumerary marker chromosome (sSMCs) are extra chromosomes consisting of parts of virtually any other chromosome(s). By definition, they are smaller than one of the smaller chromosomes, chromosome 20... | Wikipedia - Genetics of infertility - NR5A1 new roles in fertility and infertility > Small supernumerary marker chromosomes and infertility | 290 | 1,170 | null |
While only a small percentage of these sSMCs have had their genetic material defined, those that have include sSMCs containing: a) band 11.1 from the short arm of chromosome 15 (notated as (15)q11.1)(this sSMC is associated with premature ovarian failure); b) band ll.2 from the short arm of chromosome 13 (notated as (1... | Wikipedia - Genetics of infertility - NR5A1 new roles in fertility and infertility > Small supernumerary marker chromosomes and infertility | 226 | 797 | null |
Section: Research and potential influences. Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused by genetics alone. For twins exposed to combat in the Vietnam War, a monozygotic (identical) twin with PTSD was associated with an increased risk of the co-twin having PTSD, as compared to dizygotic (non-identical) twins; ad... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences | 200 | 973 | null |
Section: Research and potential influences > Nature vs. nurture. An individual's potential for onset of many psychological disorders is heavily affected by genetic phenotypes, yet this is not the only contributing factor. Environment plays an important role as well, especially for trauma-based disorders such as PTSD, c... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences > Nature vs. nurture | 150 | 834 | null |
Section: Research and potential influences > Effects of neurotransmitters and hormones. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. A 2009 study reported a significant interaction between three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the GABA alpha-2 receptor gene and the seve... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences > Effects of neurotransmitters and hormones | 335 | 1,517 | null |
Section: Research and potential influences > Environmental influences. PTSD is a psychiatric disorder that requires an environmental event that individuals may variously respond to. Because of this, gene-environment studies tend to be the most indicative of their effect on the probability of PTSD than studies of the ma... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences > Environmental influences | 302 | 1,502 | null |
Section: Research and potential influences > Genetic influences. Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the extraneuronal breakdown of catecholamines. The gene that codes for COMT has a functional polymorphism in which a valine has been replaced with a methionine at codon 158. This polymorphis... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences > Genetic influences | 324 | 1,484 | null |
A polymorphism of the serotonin receptor 2A gene has been associated with PTSD in Korean women. The short allele of the promoter region of the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) has been shown to be less efficient than the long allele and is associated with the amygdala response for the extinction of fear conditioning. H... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Research and potential influences > Genetic influences | 248 | 1,159 | null |
Section: Epigenetics. Epigenetic modification is an environmentally induced change in DNA that alters a gene's function rather than its structure. Its biological mechanism typically involves the methylation of cytosine within a gene, which leads to decreased transcription and thus reduced expression of the gene. Epigen... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Epigenetics | 328 | 1,643 | null |
Section: Evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology interprets fear responses as adaptations that may have been useful in the ancestral environment to avoid or cope with various threats. In general, mammals display several defensive behaviors roughly dependent on how close the threat is: avoidance, vigilant immob... | Wikipedia - Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder - Evolutionary psychology | 321 | 1,712 | null |
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