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overnment approach. In June 1931, to deal with a very serious banking collapse in [[Central Europe]] that threatened to cause a worldwide financial meltdown, Hoover issued the so-called [[Hoover Moratorium]] that called for a one-year halt in [[reparations]] payments by Germany to France and in the payment of Allied war debts to the United States. The Hoover Moratorium had the effect of temporarily stopping the banking collapse in Europe. In June 1932, a conference canceled all reparations payments by Germany. Hoover's economy was put to the test with the onset of the [[Great Depression]] in 1929. It was his vocal stance on non-intervention that led to public perception that he was a [[laissez-faire]], 'do nothing' president, which his supporters deny. His pro-free-market opponents also deny he was a laissez-faire president and condemn him for being intervenionist. The following is an outline of other actions Hoover took to try to help end the Depression through government taxing and spending: #Signed the [[Emergency Relief and Construction Act]], the nation's first Federal [[unemployment]] assistance. #Increased public works spending. Some of Hoover's efforts to stimulate the economy through public works are as follows: ##Asked Congress for a $400 million increase in the Federal Building Program ##Directed the [[Department of Commerce]] to establish a Division of Public Construction in December 1929 ##Increased subsidies for ship construction through the Federal Shipping Board ##Urged the state governors to also increase their [[public works]] spending, though many failed to take any action. #Signed the [[Federal Home Loan Bank Act]] establishing the [[Federal Home Loan Bank]] system to assist citizens in obtaining financing to purchase a home. #Increased subsidies to the nation's struggling farmers with the [[Agricultural Marketing Act]], but with only limited impact. #Established the President's [[Emergency Relief Organization]] to coordinate local, private relief efforts resulting in over 3,000 relief committees across the U.S. #Urged bankers to form the [[National Credit Corporation]] to assist banks in financial trouble and protect depositors' money. #Actively encouraged businesses to maintain high wages during the Depression, in line with the philosophy, called [[Fordism]], that high wages create prosperity. Most corporations maintained their workers' wages early in the Depression in the hope that more money into the pockets of consumers would end the economic downturn. #Signed the [[Reconstruction Finance Act]]. This act established the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]], which made loans to the states for public works and unemployment relief. In addition, the RFC made loans to banks, railroads and agriculture credit organizations. #Raised tariffs. After hearings held by the [[House Ways and Means Committee]] generated more than 20,000 pages of testimony regarding tariff protection, Congress responded with legislation that Hoover signed despite some misgivings. Instead of protecting American jobs, the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act|Smoot-Hawley tariff]] is widely blamed for setting off a worldwide trade war which only worsened the country's (and the world's) economic ills. [[Image:Hhover.gif|right|thumb|Hoover's White House portrait]] In order to pay for these and other government programs, Hoover agreed to one of the largest tax increases in American history. The [[Revenue Act of 1932]] raised taxes on the highest incomes from 25% to 63%. The [[estate tax]] was doubled and [[corporate tax]]es were raised by almost 15%. Also, a "check tax" was included that placed a 2-cent tax (over 30 cents in today's dollars) on all bank checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin, in ''The Check Tax: Fiscal Folly and The Great Monetary Contraction'', conclude that the check tax was "an important contributing factor to that period's severe monetary contraction." [http://www.terry.uga.edu/~selgin/files/check_tax.pdf] Hoover also encouraged Congress to investigate the [[New York Stock Exchange]], and this pressure resulted in various reforms. For this reason, some hold that Hoover's economics were, in fact, left-wing in character. During the 1932 elections, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] blasted the Republican incumbent for spending and taxing too much, increasing national debt, raising tariffs and blocking trade, as well as placing millions on the dole of the government. Roosevelt attacked Hoover for "reckless and extravagant" spending, of thinking "that we ought to center control of everything in Washington as rapidly as possible," and of leading "the greatest spending administration in peacetime in all of history." Roosevelt's running mate, [[John Nance Garner]], accused the Republican of "leading the country down the path of socialism". These policies pale beside the more drastic steps taken later as part of the [[New Deal]], however, but Hoover's opponents charge that they came too little, and too late. Even as he legislated for changes, he reiterated his view that while people must not suffer from hunger and cold, caring for them must be primarily a local and voluntary responsibility. Even so, New Dealer [[Rexford Tugwell]] <ref> [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldengate/sfeature/sf_30s.html 1930s Engineering], Andrew J. Dunar on [[PBS]] </ref> later remarked that although no one would say so at the time, "practically the whole New Deal was extrapolated from programs that Hoover started." Unemployment rose to 24.9% by the end of Hoover's presidency in 1933, a year that is considered to be the depth of the Great Depression. Even with massive intervention by his successor, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], the economy underwent only limited improvement, with unemployment falling to 14.3% in 1937, and then rising to 19% under a severe recession in 1937-1938 (a contraction labeled a depression by some economists). It was not until the war in the 1940s that the economy recovered fully. (Unemployment did not drop below 9.9% until 1942). Hoover was nominated, by the Republicans, for a second term but was defeated by Roosevelt in the 1932 election. ===The Bonus Army=== {{main|Bonus army}} Thousands of [[World War I]] [[veterans]] and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, D.C., during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of a bonus that had been promised by the [[Adjusted Service Certificate Law]] for payment in 1924. Although offered money by [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] to return home, some members of the "[[Bonus army]]" remained. Washington police attempted to remove the demonstrators from their camp, but they were unsuccessful and the conflict grew. Hoover sent [[U.S. Army]] forces, led by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and aided by junior officers [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[George S. Patton]] to stop a march. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. In the ensuing clash, hundreds of civilians were injured and several were killed. The incident was a black eye for Hoover in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932]] election. ===Administration and Cabinet=== [[Image:HerbertClarkHoover.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hoover listening to the [[radio]].]] {| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left" !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="7"| |- |align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Herbert Hoover]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Charles Curtis]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[Henry L. Stimson]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Andrew Mellon]]'''||align="left"|1929–1932 |- |align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[Ogden L. Mills]]'''||align="left"|1932–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[James W. Good]]'''||align="left"|1929 |- |align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[Patrick J. Hurley]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[William D. Mitchell]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Walter Folger Brown|Walter F. Brown]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Charles F. Adams]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Ray L. Wilbur]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur M. Hyde]]'''||align="left"|1929–1933 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]]||align="left"|'
]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] or [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] to win a majority of their own. Thus coalitions are formed with at least one of the smaller parties. [[Helmut Kohl]]'s CDU governed for years in coalition with the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]], From 1998 to 2005, [[Gerhard Schröder]]'s SPD was in a coalition with the [[German Green Party|Greens]]. If a coalition collapses a [[Motion of Confidence|confidence vote]] is held. A similar situation exists in [[Israel]] with its dozens of parties. The centre-right [[Likud]] thus forms coalitions with far right and orthodox groups, while [[Israeli Labour Party|Labour]] allies itself with more leftist and pacifist parties. In both countries, grand coalitions of the two large parties also occur, but these are rarer and large parties usually prefer to associate with small ones. But if none of the larger parties can receive enough votes to form their preferred coalition, a grand coalition may be the only choice. This is the current situation in Germany: In early elections in September 2005, the CDU/CSU did not garner enough votes to form a coalition with the FDP; similarly the SPD and Greens did not have enough votes to continue their governing coalition. A grand coaltion was formed between the CDU/CSU and the SPD, but partnerships like these usually involve carefully structured cabinets. The CDU/CSU ended up gaining the Chancellory, but the SPD took a majority of cabinet posts. A coalition can consist of any number of parties. In [[Germany]], a coalition rarely consists of more than two parties (where CDU and CSU, two non-competing parties that always form a single [[caucus]], are considered a single party), while in [[Belgium]], where there are separate [[Dutch language]] and [[French language]] parties for each political group, coalitions of six parties are quite common. India's governing coalition, the United Progressive Alliance, consists of fourteen different parties. [[Finland]] experienced it's most stable government since the independence with a five-party coalition established in the [[1990s]]. In [[Australia]], the conservative [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] and [[National Party of Australia|National]] parties are united in an effectively permanent coalition. This coalition has become so stable (at least at a Federal level) and so permanent, that in effect Australia has a [[two-party system]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], coalition governments (known as ''National Governments'') have since [[1915]] only been appointed at times of national crisis. The most prominent was the [[UK National Government|National Government of 1931-1940]]. In other circumstances when no party has had a majority, minority governments have been the rule. However, the devolved government in [[Scotland]] is run by a coalition of [[Scottish Labour]] and the [[Scottish Liberal-Democrats]], as Labour does not have a majority in the [[Scottish Parliament]]. ==Arguments for and against coalition government== Coalition governments often occur in countries that possess an electoral system based upon [[proportional representation]]. Advocates of PR suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensual politics, in that a government comprised of differing parties (often based on different ideologies) would have to concur in regard to governmental policy. Another advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country. People who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony. This is because coalitions would be comprised of different parties with differing beliefs, who may not always agree on the correct path for governmental policy. Sometimes the results of an election are of such nature that the coalitions that are mathematically most probable are ideologically unfeasible, such as in [[Flanders]] or [[Northern Ireland]]. A second problem may be the ability for minor parties to be &quot;[[kingmaker]]s&quot; and especially in close elections, gain far more for their support than their vote would indicate. ==See also== *[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]] *[[cohabitation (government)]] *[[First Past the Post electoral system]] [[Category:Political parties]][[Category:Elections]] [[bg:Коалиция]] [[de:Koalitionsregierung]] [[fr:Gouvernement de coalition]] [[he:קואליציה]] [[nl:Coalitie]] [[yi:קאאליציע]] [[ja:連立政権]] [[fi:Hallituskoalitio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Continuity property</title> <id>6037</id> <revision> <id>23315862</id> <timestamp>2005-09-16T00:23:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brighterorange</username> <id>219031</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>several missing periods ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Punctuation|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''continuity property''' may be presented as follows. :Suppose that ''f'' :&amp;nbsp;[''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' is a [[continuous function]]. Then the [[image (mathematics)|image]] ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) is a closed bounded interval. The theorem is a stronger form of the [[intermediate value theorem]], comprising the three assertions: # The image ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) is an interval. This is the intermediate value theorem. # This image is bounded. # This image interval is closed, so ''f'' attains both its bounds. == Proof of assertion 1 == ''See:'' [[Intermediate value theorem#Proof]] == Proof of assertion 2 == We proceed by contradiction. Suppose ''f'' is unbounded on some interval [''a''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;prime;]. Then if ''a''&amp;prime;&amp;nbsp;&lt; ''c''&amp;prime;&amp;nbsp;&lt; ''b''&amp;prime;, then ''f'' is unbounded on either [''a''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''c''&amp;prime;] or [''c''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;prime;]. This allows us to find an interval [''y'', ''y''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;] on which ''f'' is unbounded for arbitrarily small &amp;delta;. However, this contradicts the continuity of ''f''. Let ''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; be a closed interval of length &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;1 on which ''f'' is unbounded. We recursively define ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;sub;&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; to be a closed interval of width &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;1/''n'' on which ''f'' is unbounded. By the [[nested interval property]], the intersection :&lt;math&gt;B = \bigcap_{n=1}^{\infty} A_n&lt;/math&gt; is non-empty, so define ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to be a point in ''B''. This point is in each ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, and any other point in any ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is at most 1/''n'' away from ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. Letting :&lt;math&gt;C_n = \left(x_0 - \frac{2}{n}, x_0 + \frac{2}{n}\right),&lt;/math&gt; we have ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;sub;&amp;nbsp;''C''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, so ''f'' is unbounded on ''C''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. However, 2/''n'' can be made arbitrarily small, so for all &amp;epsilon; and for all &amp;delta;, there exists an ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin; (''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;,&amp;nbsp;''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;) such that |''f''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)|&amp;nbsp;&gt; &amp;epsilon;. Thus ''f'' is discontinuous at ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, a contradiction. Thus ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) must be bounded. == Proof of assertion 3 == This comes from the [[least upper bound]] property of the real line. By the least upper bound axiom, we know that there is a minimum M such that &lt;math&gt; f(x) &lt; M &lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt; x \in [a,b] &lt;/math&gt; Let &lt;math&gt; A = \{ x \in \mathbb{R} : f(x) \leq M \} &lt;/math&gt; Now A will also have least upper bound m, this must be in [a,b], as &lt;math&gt; A \subseteq [a,b] &lt;/math&gt; and [a,b] contains all its limit points. This point will then be the maximum as &lt;math&gt; f(m) \leq M \mbox{ as } m \in [a,b] &lt;/math&gt; Further &lt;math&gt; f(m) \geq M &lt;/math&gt; as we can find a member of A, b such that f(b) is arbitrarily close to M otherwise M is not minimal, so if f(m)&lt; M,M cannot be an upper bound. Thus &lt;math&gt; f(m) = M &lt;/math&gt; Similarly considering &lt;math&gt; g: [a,b] \to \mathbb{R}, \ g(x) = -f(x) &lt;/math&gt; and noting that &lt;math&gt; \ \ \max g(x) = \min f(x) &lt;/math&gt; we see f obtains its minimum. Thus f obtains its minimum and maximum at at least one point so, by the intermediate value theorem, it obtains all values in between. == Caveats == It is important to note that this theorem only applies to '''continuous real functions'''. It does not apply to the rationals, as these do not satisfy the least upper bound axiom; they are not [[complete]]. To illustrate this consider &lt;math&gt; f: [0,2] \cap \mathbb{Q} \to \mathbb{R} &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt; x \mapsto e^{( - (x - \sqrt{2})^2 )} &lt;/math&gt; f would obtain its maximum value at &lt;math&gt; \sqrt{2} &lt;/math&gt; but this is not in the set. If f is not continuous consider as a counterexample &lt;math&gt; f: [0,1] \to \mathbb{R} &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt; x \mapsto \begin{cases} \frac{1}{x} &amp; \frac{1}{x} \in \mathbb{Z} \\ 0 &amp; \mbox{otherwise} \end{cases} &lt;/math&gt; This is unbounded, but [0,1] is bounded. Further, one should carefully note that the set must be closed, otherwise the maximum and minimum values might not be obtained. &lt;!--Someone might like to add some thoughts about more general functions from any complete set.--&gt;</t
volume of short stories under the title of ''La Maison Tellier''; it reached its twelfth edition in two years; in [[1883]] he finished his first novel, ''Une Vie'' (translated into English as ''A Woman's Life''), twenty-five thousand copies of which were sold in less than a year. In his novels, he concentrated all his observations scattered in his short stories. His second novel ''[[Bel-Ami]]'', which came out in [[1885]], had thirty-seven printings in four months. His editor, Havard, commissioned him to write new masterpieces and, without the slightest effort, his pen produced works of style, description, conception, and penetration. At this time he wrote what many consider to be his greatest novel, ''[[Pierre et Jean]]''. With a natural aversion for society, he loved retirement, solitude, and meditation. He traveled extensively in [[Algeria]], [[Italy]], [[England]], [[Brittany]], [[Sicily]], [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]], and from each voyage he brought back a new volume. He cruised on his private yacht &quot;Bel-Ami&quot;, named after his earlier novel. This feverish life did not prevent him from making friends among the literary celebrities of his day: [[Alexandre Dumas, fils]] had a paternal affection for him; at [[Aix-les-Bains]] he met [[Hippolyte Adolphe Taine|Taine]] and fell under the spell of the philosopher-historian. Flaubert continued to act as his literary godfather. His friendship with the [[Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt|Goncourt]]s was of short duration; his frank and practical nature reacted against the ambience of gossip, scandal, duplicity, and invidious criticism that the two brothers had created around them in the guise of an 18th-century style salon. He hated the human comedy, the social farce. In his latter years he developed an exaggerated love for solitude, a predilection for self-preservation, and a constant fear of death and mania of persecution, compounded by the [[syphilis]] he had contracted in his early days. He was considered insane in [[1891]] and died two years later, a month short of his 43rd birthday, on [[July 6]], [[1893]]. Guy de Maupassant is buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], [[Paris]]. ==Significance== Maupassant is one of the fathers of the modern short story. Unlike the more psychologically oriented [[Ivan Turgenev|Turgenev]] and [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], Maupassant delights in clever plotting, and served as a model for [[Somerset Maugham]] and [[O. Henry]] in this respect. His stories about real or fake jewels (&quot;[[The Necklace|La parure]]&quot;, &quot;Les bijoux&quot;) are imitated with a twist by Maugham (&quot;Mr Know-All&quot;, &quot;A String of Beads&quot;) and Henry James (&quot;[[Paste (story)|Paste]]&quot;). As a stylish writer with a huge popular appeal he may be compared to [[Georges Simenon]]. ==Short Stories== *''[[Boule de Suif|Ball-of-Fat]]'' (1880) *''Mme. Tellier's Establishment'' (1881) *''Mademoiselle Fifi'' (1882) *''Mother Savage'' (1884) *''Miss Harriet'' (1884) *''My Uncle Jules'' (1884) *''A Piece of String'' (1884) *''[[The Necklace]]'' (1885) *''A Way to Wealth'' (1885) *''[[The Horla]]'' (1887) ==External links== *{{gutenberg author|id=Guy_de_Maupassant|name=Guy de Maupassant}} * [[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/12/24/guy-de-maupassant-contes-de-la-becasse-pierrot-1882/ free Audio Book (mp3):] Pierrot, a short story written in 1882 *[http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audio recording of ''The Diamond Necklace''] from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox] *[http://www.cosmoetica.com/B311-DES251.htm Analysis of author's short stories] *[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/maupassa.htm Maupassant online site] *[http://www.online-literature.com/maupassant/ Searchable online index of author's works] [[Category:1850 births|Maupassant, Guy de]] [[Category:1893 deaths|Maupassant, Guy de]] [[Category:French novelists|Maupassant, Guy de]] [[Category:French short story writers|Maupassant, Guy de]] [[Category:Normans|Maupassant, Guy de]] [[bg:Ги дьо Мопасан]] [[de:Guy de Maupassant]] [[et:Guy de Maupassant]] [[es:Guy de Maupassant]] [[eo:Guy de MAUPASSANT]] [[fr:Guy de Maupassant]] [[gl:Guy de Mapaussant]] [[ko:기 드 모파상]] [[io:Guy de Maupassant]] [[it:Guy de Maupassant]] [[he:גי דה מופאסאן]] [[nl:Guy de Maupassant]] [[ja:ギ・ド・モーパッサン]] [[no:Guy de Maupassant]] [[pt:Guy de Maupassant]] [[sk:Guy de Maupassant]] [[sr:Ги де Мопасан]] [[fi:Guy de Maupassant]] [[sv:Guy de Maupassant]] [[tr:Guy de Maupassant]] [[zh:莫泊桑]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guillain-Barré syndrome</title> <id>12275</id> <revision> <id>41941460</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:54:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcadian</username> <id>104523</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Guillain-Barré syndrome | ICD10 = G61.0 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|357.0}} | }} '''Guillain-Barré syndrome''' ('''GBS'''), is an acquired [[autoimmune disorder|immune-mediated inflammatory disorder]] of the [[peripheral nervous system]] (i.e. ''not'' the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]]). It is also called ''acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy'', ''acute idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis'', ''acute idiopathic polyneuritis'', ''French Polio'' and ''Landry's ascending paralysis''. == Overview == The pathologic hallmark of the disease is loss of [[myelin]] in peripheral nerves due to an acute and progressive inflammation of unknown cause. It is suggested that it is an autoimmune disease, in which the sufferer's immune system is triggered into damaging the nerve covering. There is some support for this in that half of all cases occur soon after a microbial infection or respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infection. Many cases developed in people who received the [[1976]] swine [[flu vaccine]]. Peripheral nerves originate in the spinal cord and proceed to their target tissues (mainly muscle, skin and all internal organs). Their most proximal parts emerging from the spinal cord are called nerve roots and the inflammation in most (but not all) typical Guillain-Barré syndrome cases starts in these roots. Therefore, this condition is also referred to as ''acute polyradiculoneuritis''. Recent studies on the disease have demonstrated that approximately 80% of the patients have myelin loss, whereas, in the remaining 20%, the pathologic hallmark of the disease is indeed [[axon]] loss. The cases indicating the demyelinating form (AIDP) are called &quot;acute motor and sensory axonal neuropathy&quot; (AMSAN); the cases showing only motor symptoms (diffuse weakness) are called &quot;acute motor axonal neuropathy&quot; (AMAN). In a different and infrequent variant called [[Miller Fisher syndrome]], patients develop [[ataxia]], loss of [[tendon]] reflexes, and difficulty moving eye muscles but not weakness or sensory loss. All variants of Guillain-Barré syndrome are now supposed to be an [[autoimmune]] disease caused by [[antibody|antibodies]] against a variety of [[ganglioside]]s found in abundant amounts in the peripheral nerve tissue. == Prevalence == GBS is a rare disease affecting about 1 to 2 people in every 100,000 annually. It does not discriminate with regard to the age or sex of sufferers. When diagnosed in young teenagers, it generally does not recur for many years, although when it does, it often does so in the fourth or fifth decade of life, long after the patients may have forgotten the details of the original episode. == Cause == About one half of patients have a history of preceding viral infection within two to four weeks prior to exhibiting the onset of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Guillain-Barré syndrome may also be associated with [[immunization]]s, recent surgery or trauma, pregnancy, [[Hodgkin's disease]], chemo-therapy, and connective tissue diseases. The most frequently associated viral agents are [[cytomegalovirus]] (CMV), [[HIV]], [[measles]] and [[herpes simplex virus]]. A bacterium called ''[[Campylobacter jejuni]]'' has recently been shown to be closely related with certain subtypes of the disease. == Signs and symptoms == Extensive damage of [[myelin]] causes disturbances in peripheral nerve functions, which can be classified as motor (affecting the muscle), sensory (affecting the skin) or autonomic (affecting the internal organs). Therefore, patients usually show two or more of the following symptoms: weakness (often symmetrical, in ascending fashion, leading to respiratory failure in one-third of cases), decreased sensation (numbness, loss of position sense), severe fluctuations in blood pressure, irregularities of heart rate, constipation and incontinence. Additional symptoms may be blurred vision, difficulty moving facial muscles, difficulty swallowing, and drooling. The symptoms are ascending weakness with abnormal sensations and then paralysis of the legs, arms, face and possibly breathing muscles. [[Miller-Fisher Syndrome]], however, is a descending weakness, proceeding in the reverse order of the more common form of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Guillain-Barré syndrome is rarely fatal but there is no direct cure and recovery may need care in an intensive care unit and can take years (although people can recover in a few weeks as well). == Diagnosis == The diagnosis is established by [[electromyography]] examination, [[nerve conduction study|nerve conduction studies]] (NCS), and [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF) examination. Electromyography and NCS show slowing of [[Nerve conduction velocity|conduction velocities]], indicating myelin loss; CSF examination reveals high [[protein]] content with usually normal or slightly elevated cell count, indicating severe nerve damage. These findings are usually prominent after the first week of the disease, so the clinical symptoms and findings are more val
square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (56.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 144.5 km&amp;sup2; (55.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 2.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.9 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.55% water. == Demographics == :''Note: the following demographic information applies only to the city of Dayton proper. For other Dayton-area communities, see their respective articles.'' As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 166,179 people, 67,409 households, and 37,614 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,150.3/km&amp;sup2; (2,979.4/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 77,321 housing units at an average density of 535.2/km&amp;sup2; (1,386.3/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 53.40% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 43.10%% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.65% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.70% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.83% from two or more races. 1.58% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. ===Households=== There are 67,409 households out of which 27.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 20.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 44.2% are non-families. 36.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.04. ===Age structure and gender ratio=== The age structure of Dayton's population is: *under 18 years: 25.1% *18 to 24 years: 14.2% *25 to 44 year: 29.0% *45 to 64 years: 19.6% *65 years of age or older: 12.0% The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 93.1 males, while for every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males. ===Income=== The median income for a household in the city is $27,423, and the median income for a family is $34,978. Males have a median income of $30,816 versus $24,937 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,547. 23.0% of the population and 18.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 32.0% of those under the age of 18 and 15.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. == Points of interest == * [[Cox Arboretum and Gardens MetroPark]] * [[Woodland Cemetery, Dayton, Ohio|Woodland Cemetery and Arboretum]] === Museums === *[[Boonshoft Museum of Discovery]] *[[Carillon Historical Park]] *[[Dayton Art Institute]] *[[Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park]] *[[Dayton International Peace Museum]] *[[Montgomery County Historical Society]] *[[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] *[[SunWatch Indian Village|SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park]] *[[Americas Packard Museum]] == External links == *[http://www.ci.dayton.oh.us/ Official city website] *[http://www.daytondailynews.com Dayton Daily News] *[http://www.daytonmetrolibrary.org/ Dayton Metro Library] *[http://www.daytonhistorybooks.com Dayton History Books Online] *[http://www.dps.k12.oh.us Dayton Public Schools] *[http://www.mvrta.org/ Greater Dayton RTA Bus Lines] *[http://www.ncr.com/history/history.htm History of NCR] *[http://www.med.wright.edu/visitors/nearby.html Visitors' information] (from Wright State University) *[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/daav/index.htm What Dreams We Have, The Wright Brothers and Their Hometown of Dayton, OH] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.762708|-84.196665}} {{Ohio}} [[Category:All-America City]] [[Category:Cities in Ohio]] [[Category:County seats in Ohio]] [[Category:Dayton, Ohio| ]] [[Category:Montgomery County, Ohio]] [[de:Dayton]] [[pl:Dayton (Ohio)]] [[pt:Dayton (Ohio)]] [[sr:Дејтон]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diode</title> <id>8254</id> <revision> <id>41638215</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:33:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hurricane111</username> <id>99272</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv. [[Special:Contributions/216.16.232.98|216.16.232.98]] to last version by Hurricane111</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|Types of diodes]] In [[electronics]], a '''diode''' is a [[component]] that restricts the direction of movement of [[charge carrier]]s. It allows an [[electric current]] to flow in one direction, but essentially blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a [[check valve]]. The first diodes were [[vacuum tube]] devices (called ''[[valves]]'' in the UK), but today the most common diodes are made from ultrapure [[semiconductor]] materials such as [[silicon]] or [[germanium]]. The term was coined by [[William Henry Eccles]] in 1919 from [[Greek and Latin roots|Greek roots]]; ''di'' means 'two', and ''ode'' means 'path'. == [[Thermionic]] or gaseous state diodes == The first diodes were [[vacuum tube]] devices (also known as [[thermionic valve]]s), arrangements of electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in appearance to incandescent [[light bulb]]s. The arrangement of a filament and plate as a diode was invented in [[1904]] by [[John Ambrose Fleming]] (scientific adviser to the [[Marconi Company]]) based on an observation by [[Thomas Edison]]. In vacuum tube diodes, a current is passed through the [[cathode]], a [[filament]] treated with a mixture of [[barium]] and [[strontium]] [[oxide]]s, which are oxides of [[alkaline earth metal]]s. The current heats the filament, causing [[thermionic emission]] of electrons into the vacuum envelope. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode, called the [[anode]], is positively charged, so that it [[electrostatics|electrostatically]] attracts the emitted electrons. However, electrons are not easily released from the unheated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed and hence any reverse flow is a very small current. For much of the 20th century vacuum tube diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in power supplies. Today, tube diodes are only used in niche applications, such as rectifiers in tube guitar and hi-fi amplifiers, and specialized high-voltage equipment. == [[Semiconductor]] diodes == [[Image:Diode symbol.png|right|]] Most modern diodes are based on [[semiconductor]] [[p-n junction]]s. In a p-n diode, [[conventional current]] can flow from the p-type side (the [[anode]]) to the n-type side (the [[cathode]]), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the [[Schottky diode]], is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction. A semiconductor diode's current-[[voltage]], or I-V, characteristic curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called ''[[depletion zone|depletion layer]]'' or ''depletion zone'' which exists at the [[p-n junction]] between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons &quot;recombine&quot;. When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of [[charge carrier]]s and thus behaves as an [[nonconductor|insulator]]. However, the [[depletion width]] cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on'. [[Image:Rectifier_vi_curve.GIF|frame|right|I-V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).]] A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is increased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at least very low) resistance. More precisely, the [[transfer function]] is [[logarithm]]ic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (''see also'' [[signal processing]]). In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 [[volt]]s. The value is different for other diode types - [[Schottky diode]]s can be as low as 0.2 V and [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more depending on the current. Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V, depending on t
rease of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle bronze age ([[16th century BC|1600]]-[[12th century BC|1200 BC]]) [[Tumulus culture]], which is characterised by inhumation burials in [[tumuli]] (barrows). In the eastern [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Körös]] tributaries, the early bronze age first saw the introduction of the [[Mako culture]], followed by the [[Ottomany culture|Ottomany]] and [[Gyulavarsand culture|Gyulavarsand]] cultures. The late bronze age [[urnfield]] culture, ([[13th century BC|1300 BC]]-[[700s BC|700 BC]]) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the [[Lusatian culture]] in eastern [[Germany]] and [[Poland]] (([[1300 BC|1300]]-[[500 BC]]) that continues into the [[Iron Age]]. The Central European bronze age is followed by the iron age [[Hallstatt culture]] ([[700s BC|700]]-[[450 BC]]). [[list of archaeological sites|Important sites]] include: * [[Biskupin]] (Poland) * [[Nebra]] (Germany) * Zug-Sumpf, [[Zug]], [[Switzerland]] ==Nordic Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)== {{main|Nordic Bronze Age}} In northern [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]], bronze age inhabitants manufactured many distinctive and beautiful artifacts, such as the pairs of [[lurer]] horns discovered in Denmark. Some linguists believe that a [[proto-Indo-European language]] was probably introduced to the area around [[20th century BC|2000 BC]], which eventually became the ancestor of the [[Germanic languages]]. This would fit with the evolution of the Nordic bronze age into the most probably Germanic [[pre-Roman iron age]]. The age is divided into the periods I-VI according to [[Oscar Montelius]]. Period Montelius V already belongs to the [[Iron Age]] in other regions. == Bibliography == *Pernicka, E., G.A. Wagner, et al. &quot;''Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean.''&quot; in &lt;u&gt;Troia and the troad: scientific approaches&lt;/u&gt;. Berlin, London: Springer; 2003. pp. 143-172. ISBN 3540437118 == External links == *http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/4162/ Web index Bronze Age in Europe * [http://www.e-mago.co.il/e-magazine/bronzeage.html Back to the Bronze Age?] {{threeagesystem}} [[Category:Bronze Age|*]] [[Category:Prehistory]] [[Category:Periods and stages in archaeology]] [[af:Bronstyd]] [[ar:عصر برونزي]] [[ast:Edá de Bronce]] [[cy:Yr Oes Efydd]] [[da:Bronzealder]] [[de:Bronzezeit]] [[el:Εποχή του Χαλκού]] [[es:Edad de Bronce]] [[eo:Bronzepoko]] [[fr:Âge du bronze]] [[gl:Idade de Bronce]] [[ko:청동기 시대]] [[id:Zaman Perunggu]] [[it:Età del bronzo]] [[he:תקופת הברונזה]] [[lv:Bronzas laikmets]] [[nl:Bronstijd]] [[nds:Bronzetiet]] [[ja:青銅器時代]] [[no:Bronsealderen]] [[pl:Epoka brązu]] [[pt:Idade do bronze]] [[ru:Бронзовый век]] [[simple:Bronze Age]] [[sr:Бронзано доба]] [[sv:Bronsåldern]] [[uk:Бронзовий вік]] [[zh:青铜时代]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BBC News 24</title> <id>4621</id> <revision> <id>41871129</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:59:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>218.126.68.98</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Background */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TV channel| name=BBC News 24| logosize=200px| logofile=BBC News 24 ident.jpg| logoalt=BBC News 24 ident since 2004| launch= [[November 9|9th November]] [[1997]]| share= 0.6% | share as of= Jan '06| share source= [http://www.barb.co.uk/viewingsummary/monthreports.cfm?report=monthgmulti]| owner= [[BBC]]| web= [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news24/ www.bbc.co.uk/news24]| terr serv 1=[[Freeview]]| terr chan 1=Channel 80| sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]| sat chan 1=Channel 503| sat serv 2=[[SES Astra|Astra 2D]]| sat chan 2=11073 V / 22000 / 5/6| cable serv 1=[[NTL]]| cable chan 1=Channel 10 or 125 depending on area| cable serv 2=[[Telewest]]| cable chan 2=Channel 610| cable serv 3=[[Telewest]] (analogue)| cable chan 3=Channel 10 (and default channel)| dummy parameter=| |}} '''BBC News 24''' is [[BBC News]]' 24-hour news [[television]] channel in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], its international counterpart being [[BBC World]]. It first broadcast on [[November 9]] [[1997]] at 17:30 and at first only [[cable television]] subscribers could view the broadcast. In 1998, with the advent of [[digital television]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[satellite]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] viewers were able to view the service. Initially it was difficult to obtain a digital satellite or terrestrial receiver without a subscription to Sky or [[ONdigital]] respectively, but now the channel forms an important part of the [[Freeview]] package of channels. ==Background== The BBC were initially criticised for the cost of running BBC News 24 channel, with so few viewers. Their response was to promote the channel through [[BBC One]] and later also [[BBC Two]], by having them [[simulcast]] News 24 output at night. This has made BBC News 24 available to non-digital viewers receiving BBC One/Two's analogue [[Terrestrial Television|terrestrial]] signals, and this is seen by some as influential (to a certain limited extent) in promoting the take-up of digital television. Following the end of the long running [[Breakfast with Frost]], in the summer of 2005, BBC One simulcast '''News 24 Sunday''', a weekly Sunday morning interview show presented by [[Peter Sissons]]. This ended when the replacement to Breakfast with Frost, [[Sunday AM]] presented by [[Andrew Marr]] began. Examples of News 24 network broadcasts include the [[September 11th attacks]], [[Operation Red Dawn|the capture of Saddam Hussein]] and [[7 July 2005 London bombings|the London bombings of July 7th, 2005]]. In September [[1999]] the [[European Commission]] ruled against a complaint by [[Sky News]] which argued that the publicly funded News 24 was unfair and illegal under [[European Union|EU]] law. The EC ruled that the licence fee should be considered state aid but that such aid was justified due to the public service remit of the BBC and that it did not exceed actual costs. The BBC's 2004 [http://www.bbc.co.uk/annualreport/ annual report] claims that News 24 outperformed Sky News in both weekly and monthly reach in multichannel homes for the January 2004 period, and for the first time in two years moved ahead of Sky News in being perceived as the channel best for news. News 24 broadcasts from the News Centre in [[BBC Television Centre]], West [[London]]. == Presentation == [[Image:BBC News 24 evolution.JPG|550px|centre|]] The initial format of the channel was criticised as being less authoritative than other [[BBC News]] output, this being blamed on the radical colour and design of the set and the shirtsleeved male presenters. As a result the channel was relaunched on [[October 25]], [[1999]] with a new set, music and titles which were based on the recently relaunched network news. This similarity was intended to increase the credibility of the channel and aid cross channel promotion. In December 2002 the Lambert Report, an independent review commissioned by the government, criticised the BBC Governors for failing to ensure that News 24 had a distinct identity from the commercial rolling-news services provided by the [[ITV News Channel]] and [[Sky News]]. As a result the [[Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport|Culture Secretary]] [[Tessa Jowell]] announced new conditions on the &quot;approvals&quot; under which the BBC operates News 24. [[Image:BBCnews24breakingnews.jpg|thumb|right|An example of the new breaking news graphic]] In December 2003, the channel was relaunched, with cosmetic changes to the look and feel of the channel being the main obvious change. A new set was launched, replacing the beige and red design introduced in 1999. New graphics were also introduced, which are more attention grabbing, the channel signature theme tune was refreshed and a new 'live-rendered' title sequence designed. In addition, criticism was made that &quot;no one notices breaking news&quot; on the channel, so together with the new attention seeking graphics, a breaking news &quot;sting&quot; was developed, which is designed to grab people's attention whenever breaking news is flashed upon the screen. The relaunch also takes into account the criticisms in the Lambert Report, introducing more analysis and features into the schedules of the channel which makes it more distinctive from its commercial rivals. Following the relaunch of news bulletins on '''BBC One''', the graphics were altered slightly, with the globe changed to red from orange for land and black for sea and the 24 in white. The red ribbons were also changed to a slightly darker shade. ===Countdown=== Since the October 1999 relaunch an important element of News 24 presentation has been the countdown to the top of every hour. The countdown is to show viewers the pace of the channel. The full version was 90 seconds, though approximately 30 seconds were normally shown. The original countdown featured ivory numbers and globe against a deep red background, reflecting the wider rebranding of the channel. The music was composed by [[David Lowe]], responsible for the network news music. In [[January 2003]] this countdown was revised to show life around the UK; [[stockbroker]]s, [[playground]]s, [[commuting | commuters]], [[hospital]]s and [[school]] lessons were all shown. With the December 2003 relaunch of the channel the music of the countdown was adapted for the first time and the footage was revised to include markets, fairgrounds and the newsroom and news centre at [[Television Centre]]. On [[March 28]], [[2005]] the countdown was radically altered. The full version is 60 seconds long, but they still normally show about 30 seconds on air. The music was again revised but the biggest change came in the footage used &amp;mdash; it now reflects the methods and nature of news
he Gamma World book was released! In September [[2002]], a version of Gamma World called [[Omega World]] written by [[Jonathan Tweet]] as a [[d20 mini-game]] was published in the pages of [[Dungeon magazine]] issue 94 and [[Polyhedron magazine]] issue 153, it is by some adherents one of the better incarnations of the genre. In late [[2003]] [[Sword &amp; Sorcery]] (a [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]] label) released a new edition of Gamma World. This edition uses the [[d20 System]] abstracted from the Third Edition of Dungeons and Dragons, and requires books either from that line or the related [[d20 Modern]] line to be used. Its backward compatibility with earlier editions varies, with first (being a close relative of the earliest ''D&amp;D'') and fourth (being a relative of second-edition D&amp;D and a source of inspiration for third-edition) editions being the easiest to translate material between. ==Books== The current sixth edition Gamma World line consists of six books, and no more books are scheduled to be produced: *''[[Gamma World Player's Handbook]]'' *''[[Gamma World Game Master's Guide]]'' *''[[Gamma World Mutants and Machines]]'' *''[[Gamma World Beyond the Horizon]]'' *''[[Gamma World Cryptic Alliances and Unknown Enemies]]'' *''[[Gamma World Out of the Vaults]]'' ==See also== *[[Traveller (role-playing game)|Traveller]] ==External links== *[http://www.white-wolf.com/gammaworld/ White Wolf's &quot;New&quot; Official Gamma World Site] *[http://www.pamedia.com/rpgames/ An excellent index of other Post Apocalyptic Role Playing Games] [[Category:Post-apocalyptic fiction]] [[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]] [[Category:TSR]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grimoire</title> <id>12284</id> <revision> <id>41938692</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:32:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.229.153.60</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|medieval books of magic|the operating system term|Source Mage GNU/Linux}} [[Image:Talis02.png|frame|This design for an [[amulet]] comes from the ''Black Pullet'' grimoire. Embroider it upon [[black]] [[satin]], and say &quot;Nades, Suradis, Maniner&quot;, and a [[djinn]] is supposed to appear; tell the djinn &quot;Sader, Prostas, Solaster&quot;, and the djinn will bring you your true love. Say &quot;Mammes, Laher&quot; when you tire of her.]] A '''grimoire''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[gr&amp;#618;&amp;#712;mw&amp;#593;r]}}) is a book of [[magic (paranormal)|magick]]al knowledge written between the late-[[Middle Ages|medieval]] period and the [[18th century]]. Such books contain [[astrology|astrological]] correspondences, lists of [[angel]]s and [[demon]]s, directions on casting charms and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s, on mixing medicines, summoning unearthly entities, and making [[talisman]]s. The word ''grimoire'' is from the [[Old French language|Old French]] ''gramaire'', and is from the same root as the word ''[[grammar]]''. This is partly because, in the mid-late Middle Ages, [[Latin]] &quot;grammars&quot; (books on Latin [[syntax]] and [[diction]]) were foundational to school and university education, as controlled by the [[Roman Catholicism|Church]] &amp;mdash; while to the illiterate majority, non-ecclesiastical books were suspect as magick. But &quot;grammar&quot; also denoted, to literate and illiterate alike, a book of basic instruction. Notable historical grimoires include: *[[The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage|The ''Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage'']] *''Liber Juratis'', or, [[The Sworn Book of Honorius|the ''Sworn Book of Honorius'']] *[[The Black Pullet|The ''Black Pullet'']] *[[The Greater Key of Solomon|The ''Greater Key of Solomon'']] *The ''Lemegeton'', or, [[the Lesser Key of Solomon|the ''Lesser Key of Solomon'']] *''Le Grand Grimoire'', ''[[The Grand Grimoire]]'' In the late [[19th century]], several of these texts (including the Abra-Melin text and the Keys of Solomon) were reclaimed by pseudo-[[Masonic]] magical organizations such as the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]]. [[Aleister Crowley]], a prime mover of both groups, then served as a vector for a number of modern movements, including [[Wicca]], [[Satanism]], and [[Chaos Magic]]. A [[cottage industry]] has existed since the 19th century in selling false or carelessly-translated grimoires (many original texts are in French or Latin, and are quite rare), although faithful editions are available for most of the above titles. A modern grimoire is the ''[[Necronomicon]]'', named after a fictional book of magic in the stories of author [[H.P. Lovecraft]], and inspired by [[Sumerian mythology]] and the ''[[Ars Goetia]]'', a section in the ''Lesser Key of Solomon'' which concerns the summoning of demons. The [[Voynich manuscript]] may also be a grimoire, although its text has never been deciphered, and it may be a centuries-old hoax. ==In Fiction== The term commonly serves as an alternative name for a [[spell book]] or tome of magickal knowledge, particularly in [[fantasy fiction]]. ==External links== *[http://www.tridentbooks.us/ Trident Books: Grimoire Publishers] *[http://kheph777.tripod.com/indexsecrets.html Secrets of the Magickal Grimoires] *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/grim/ A collection of grimoires] *[http://www.hermetics.org/ebooks.html Grimoires Ebooks] *[http://sacred-magick.com/pdf/Grimoires.html The Grimoires Collection from Sacred-Magick.Com | The Esoteric Library] * [http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry for Magical Thinking] * [http://www.ecauldron.com/spells/index.php The Cauldron's Grimoire] Online Collection of Spells * [http://spells.hastaelmasalla.net spells.hastaelmasalla.net] , a Neopagan white magic grimoire * [http://www.thelemapedia.org Thelemapedia] The Encyclopedia of Thelema &amp; Magick * [http://athenaeum.asiya.org/ Magickal Athenaeum] The largest collection of magickal PDF books on the internet, free. [[Category:Magic]] [[Category:Books by type]] [[Category:Grimoires|*]] [[cs:Grimoár]] [[de:Grimoire]] [[es:Grimorio]] [[ja:グリモワール]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grand Guignol</title> <id>12285</id> <revision> <id>40363895</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the Paris theatre}} The '''Grand Guignol''' (''Grahn Geen-YOL'') was a theatre (''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol'') in the [[Pigalle]] area of [[Paris]] (at 20 ''bis, rue'' Chaptal), which, from its opening in 1897 to its closing in 1962, specialized in the most naturalistic grisly horror shows. The theater owed its name to Grand-Guignol, a traditional [[Lyon, France|Lyon]] puppet character, joining political commentary with the style of [[Punch and Judy]]. ''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol'' was small and intimate, seating no more than 300 people. This intimacy added an extra piquancy to the goings-on on stage, because the theatre's stock-in-trade was special effects made from the by-products of the butcher's shop. The gouged-out eye trick was a perennial favourite. The principal playwright of the Grand Guignol was [[André de Lorde]] who wrote at least one hundred plays for the venue between the years [[1901]] and [[1926]]. His plays focused on the horrific potential of household objects, the suffering of innocents, infanticide, insanity, and vengeance. The plays were typically short, and several were staged in the course of the evening. Occasional sex farces were thrown into the play-lists, partly for their own sake, and partly to keep the audience guessing whether these, too, would turn out to have gory climaxes. Original plays were also written by Pierre Bauche and Maurice Level. Grand Guignol flourished briefly in London in the early 1920s under the direction of [[Jose Levy]]. The Grand Guignol theatre closed its doors in [[1962]], unable to compete with motion pictures. The Grand Guignol theatre was recreated as [[Théâtre des Vampires]] (on a sound stage) in [[1994]] for the film of [[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]''. A typical modern production of this genre can be found in [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s &quot;[[Sweeney Todd]]: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street,&quot; which originally appeared in [[1979]] starring [[Angela Lansbury]] and [[Len Cariou]]. In [[2005]], a revival production of this gruesome story about a barber who gives extra clean shaves was staged on Broadway with [[Patti Lupone]] and Michael Cereveris. ==External links== *[http://www.grandguignol.com Grand Guignol] [[de:Grand-Guignol]] [[fr:Grand Guignol]] [[Category:Theatres in France]] [[Category:Horror]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Great Plague of London</title> <id>12286</id> <revision> <id>42109682</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Plague''' (AD [[1665]]-[[1666]]) was a massive outbreak of [[disease]] in [[England]] that killed 75,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of [[London]]'s population. The disease is generally believed to have been [[bubonic plague]], an infection by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'', transmitted via a rat [[vector (biology)|vector]]. Other symptom patterns of the bubonic plague, such as [[septicemic plague]] and [[pneumonic plague]] were also present. The 1665-66 epidemic was on a far smaller scale than the earlier &quot;[[Black Death]]&quot;, a virulent outbreak of
Hunky Dory]]'' or ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'', with the exception of ''[[Rebel Rebel]]'' and ''[[When I Live My Dream]]''. David Bowie commented on Jorge's performances, &quot;Had Seu Jorge not recorded my songs acoustically in Portuguese I would never have heard this new level of beauty which he has imbued them with&quot; (see [[http://www.forbes.com/feeds/prnewswire/2005/11/14/prnewswire200511141546PR_NEWS_B_WES_LA_LAM135.html]]). Despite hopes for a comeback, in 2005, David Bowie announced that he had made no plans for any performances during the year. However, after a relatively quiet year, Bowie recorded the vocals for the song &quot;(She Can) Do That&quot;, co-written by [[Brian Transeau|BT]], for the movie ''[[Stealth (movie)|Stealth]]'' (2005). Rumours flew about the possibility of a new album, but no announcements were made. However, David Bowie finally returned to the stage on [[September 9]], for a performance alongside [[The Arcade Fire]] for the nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, his first gig since the heart attack. Bowie has shown interest in the Montreal band since he was seen at one of their shows in New York City nearly a year earlier. Bowie had requested the band to perform at the show, and together they performed the Arcade Fire's song &quot;Wake Up&quot; from their album [[Funeral (album)|Funeral]]. He joined them again on [[15 September]], singing '''Queen Bitch''' and '''Wake Up''' from Central Park's Summerstage as part of the CMJ Music Marathon. David Bowie made occasional apppearances, as in his commercial with [[Snoop Dogg]] for [[XM Satellite Radio]]. In 2005 Bowie appeared on Danish alt-rockers [[Kashmir (band)|Kashmir's]] 2005 release, No Balance Palace, which furthermore was produced by Tony Visconti. The album also featured a spoken word performance by [[Lou Reed]], making it the second project involving both Bowie and Reed in two years, since Reed's [[The Raven (album)| The Raven]], which was released in 2003. Today, Bowie lives in [[New York City]] with his second wife, the [[Somalia|Somali]]-born [[model (person)|model]] [[Iman Abdulmajid|Iman]], and their daughter, Alexandria Zahra Jones (known as Lexi). He also has a stepdaughter by Iman's first marriage. ==Discography== This is a discography of David Bowie's studio albums. See [[David Bowie discography]] for details about other albums. # ''[[David Bowie (album)|David Bowie]]'' (1967) # ''[[Space Oddity (album)|Space Oddity]]'' (1969, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #17, US #16) # ''[[The Man Who Sold the World]]'' (1970, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #26) # ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971, US #93, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #3) # ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'' (1972, UK #5, US #75) # ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'' (1973, UK #1, US #17) # ''[[Pin Ups]]'' (1973, UK #1, US #23) # ''[[Diamond Dogs]]'' (1974, UK #1, US #5) # ''[[Young Americans (album)|Young Americans]]'' (1975, UK #1, US #9) # ''[[Station to Station]]'' (1976, UK #5, US #3) # ''[[Low (album)|Low]]'' (1977, UK #2, US #11) # ''[[&quot;Heroes&quot;]]'' (1977, UK #3, US #35) # ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'' (1979, UK #4, US #20) # ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' (1980, UK #1 US #12) # ''[[Let's Dance]]'' (1983, UK #1, US #1) # ''[[Tonight (album)|Tonight]]'' (1984, UK #1, US #11) # ''[[Never Let Me Down]]'' (1987, UK #6, US #34) # ''[[Black Tie White Noise]]'' (1993, UK #1, US #39) # ''[[The Buddha of Suburbia (soundtrack)|The Buddha of Suburbia]]'' (1993, UK #87) # ''[[1.OUTSIDE]]'' (1995, UK #8, US #21) # ''[[Earthling (album)|Earthling]]'' (1997, UK #6, US #39) # ''[[Hours (Bowie album)|'hours...']]'' (1999, UK #5, US #47) # ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]'' (2002, UK #5, US #14) # ''[[Reality (album)|Reality]]'' (2003, UK #3, US #29) ==Bowie the actor== Bowie's first film major role in ''[[The Man Who Fell to Earth]]'' earned acclaim, as did his performance on stage as ''[[Joseph Merrick|The Elephant Man]]''. He had appeared in a few late '60's avant garde films, mostly as an extra. Since then his acting career has been sporadic. [[Nagisa Oshima]]'s film ''[[Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence]]'', based loosely on [[Laurens van der Post]]'s novel ''[[The Seed and the Sower]]'', was released in 1983. Bowie played Maj. Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a [[Japan]]ese [[internment camp]]; another famous musician, [[Ryuichi Sakamoto]], played the camp commandant. Bowie has a small part as a hit-man in 1985 film ''[[Into the Night]]''. Bowie also played a sympathetic [[Pontius Pilate]] in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]''. '''Mr. Lawrence''' impressed some critics but his next project, the rock musical ''[[Absolute Beginners (movie)|Absolute Beginners]]'' (1986), was both a critical and box office disappointment. The same year he appeared in the [[Jim Henson]] movie ''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]'', playing Jareth, the king of the [[goblin]]s. Along with numerous appearances as himself, Bowie also appeared in ''[[The Hunger]]'', a revisionist [[vampire]] movie with [[Catherine Deneuve]] and [[Susan Sarandon]]; ''[[Basquiat]]'', a [[biopic]] of the artist [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]], in which Bowie played [[Andy Warhol]] to great acclaim; and as mysterious [[FBI]] agent Phillip Jeffries in ''[[Fire Walk With Me|Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''. He also made a [[cameo role|cameo]] appearance as himself in the 2001 comedy ''[[Zoolander]]''. Bowie appears in the 2002 List of ''[[100 Great Britons]]'' (sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public), alongside such other greats as [[Winston Churchill]] and [[John Lennon]]. Bowie has been cast in director [[Christopher Nolan]]'s project, [[The Prestige]]. Bowie will portray [[Nikola Tesla]] alongside ''[[Batman Begins]]'' star: [[Christian Bale]] and ''[[X-Men 3]]'' star [[Hugh Jackman]]. It is rumoured that Bowie may be cast as [[The Joker (comics)|The Joker]] in [[Christopher Nolan]]'s 2008 [[sequel]] to 2005's ''[[Batman Begins]]''. See [[David Bowie filmography]] for a complete guide to his film appearances. ==See also== *[[Bowie Bonds]] *[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart. *[[List of number-one hits (United States)]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]] *[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]] *[[100 Greatest Britons]] *[[Low Symphony]] and [[Heroes Symphony]] ==External links== *[http://www.davidbowie.com/ BowieNet] is the official David Bowie website which provides inside information and ISP service to subscribers and is updated by David's diligent lackey, Total Blam-blam. *[http://www.bowiewonderworld.com/ Bowie Wonderworld Fansite] is a news site with a decent database of lyrics and pictures as well as sound bites and articles. *[http://www.denis.co.uk/ Denis O'Regan] Official photographer: Serious Moonlight, Glass Spider, Sound &amp; Vision tours, and author of Serious Moonlight book *[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=David+Bowie&amp;pos=2 the SoundtrackINFO project] details David Bowie songs appearing in movies and on soundtrack albums. *[http://www.teenagewildlife.com/ Teenage Wildlife] is a sparingly updated David Bowie news site with many lyrics as well as the currently active [[Teenage wildlife forum]]. *[http://www.algonet.se/~bassman/ Bassman's David Bowie Page] includes a detailed official and unofficial discography, chart history and article archive. *[http://5years.com/ The Ziggy Stardust Companion] is a detailed guide to David Bowie's work on the Ziggy Stardust album and the related tour. *[http://www.manofmusic.com/ Manofmusic] is a French David Bowie site including a detailed encyclopedia of his life and work. *[http://www.bowiedownunder.com/ Bowie Downunder] presents David Bowie news, detailed tour history and an email group for Australia and New Zealand fans. * {{imdb name|name=David Bowie|id=0000309}} provides information on David Bowie and all films he has been involved in production of. *[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp08176&amp;rNo=0&amp;role=art David Bowie's portrait ]by [[Stephen Finer]] in the National Portrait Gallery *[http://www.cyberlink.ch/~koenig/bowie.htm Bowie and the Occult: The Laughing Gnostic] is an in-depth review of odd and mystic symbolism in David Bowie music. *[http://www.littleoogie.com/ Little Oogie's David Bowie Site] is a large David Bowie site with a large database of pictures and tour setlists. *[http://members.ol.com.au/rgriffin/GoldenYears/index.html Bowie Golden Years] provides a very detailed timeline of David Bowie's activities from 1974 to 1980. *[http://www.velvetgoldmine.it Velvet Goldmine] the Italian David Bowie fanclub. * [http://www.booksmusicfilmstv.com/BowieLinks.htm David Bowie's Early Years - A Potted History] * [http://www.illustrated-db-discography.nl Illustrated db Discography] The complete David Bowie discography. * [http://www.davidbowiecollection.trienkokrohne.nl/ My Almost complete David Bowie Collection] Still more added stuff [[Category:1947 births|Bowie, David]] [[Category:English male singers|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Living people|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Music from London|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Blue eyed soul|Bowie, David]] [[Category:English actors|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners|Bowie, David]] [[Category:David Bowie|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Twin Peaks actors|Bowie, David]] [[Category:People who worked with David Lynch|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Film actors|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Rock musicians|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Bisexual musicians|Bowie, David]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Bowie, David]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[da:David Bowie]] [[de:David Bowie]] [[es:David Bowie]] [[fr:David Bowie]] [[hr:David Bowie]] [[it:David Bowie]] [[he:דייוויד בואי]] [[hu:David Bowie]] [[nl:David
s a catalyst. They bear much of the basic features provided by [[cell membrane|cell membranes]]. Proteinoid-based protocells enclosing RNA molecules could (but not necessarily should) have been the first cellular life forms on Earth. Another theory holds that the turbulent shores of the ancient coastal waters may have served as a mammoth laboratory, aiding in the countless experiments necessary to bring about the first cell. Waves breaking on the shore create a delicate foam composed of bubbles. Winds sweeping across the ocean have a tendency to drive things to shore, much like driftwood collecting on the beach. It is possible that organic molecules were concentrated on the shorelines in much the same way. Shallow coastal waters also tend to be warmer, further concentrating the molecules through [[evaporation]]. While bubbles comprised of mostly water tend to burst quickly, oily bubbles happen to be much more stable, lending more time to the particular bubble to perform these crucial experiments. The [[Phospholipid]] is a good example of a common oily compound prevalent in the prebiotic seas. Phospholipids can be constructed in ones mind as a [[hydrophilic]] head on one end, and a [[hydrophobic]] tail on the other. Phospholipids also possess an important characteristic, that is being able to link together to form a [[Lipid bilayer|bilayer]] membrane. A lipid monolayer bubble can only contain oil, and is therefore not conducive to harbouring water-soluble organic molecules. On the other hand, a lipid bilayer bubble [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Phospholipids.html] can contain water, and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane. If a protein came along that increased the integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage, and was placed at the top of the [[natural selection]] waiting list. Primitive reproduction can be envisioned when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the surrounding medium. Once enough of the 'right stuff' was released into the medium, the development of the first [[prokaryotes]], [[eukaryotes]], and multi-celluar organisms could be achieved. This theory is expanded upon in the book, ''&quot;The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism&quot;'' by [[Joseph Panno]] Ph.D. ===Origin of eukaryotic cells=== The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a [[symbiosis|symbiotic community]] of prokaryotic cells. It is almost certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the [[mitochondria]] and the [[chloroplasts]] are what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[cyanobacteria]], respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral [[archaea|archaean]] prokaryote cell &amp;ndash; a theory termed the [[endosymbiotic theory]]. There is still considerable debate on if organelles like the [[hydrogenosome]] predated the origin of [[mitochondria]], or viceversa : see the [[hydrogen hypothesis]] for the origin of eukaryotic cells. ==History == *1632-1723: [[Antony van Leeuwenhoek]] teaches himself to grind [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], builds a [[microscope]] and draws [[protozoa]], such as ''[[Vorticella]]'' from rain water, and [[bacterium|bacteria]] from his own mouth. *1665 : [[Robert Hooke]] discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early microscope.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular [..] these pores, or cells, [..] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this. . .&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; – Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork. [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html Robert Hooke]&lt;/ref&gt; *1839 : [[Theodor Schwann]] and [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden]] elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, thus founding the '''Cell Theory'''. *The belief that life forms are able to occur spontaneously (''[[Abiogenesis|generatio spontanea]]'') is contradicted by [[Louis Pasteur]] (1822-1895) (although [[Francesco Redi]] had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion). *[[Rudolph Virchow]] states that cells always emerge from [[cell division]]s (''omnis cellula ex cellula''). *1931: [[Ernst Ruska]] builds first [[transmission electron microscope]] (TEM) at the [[University of Berlin]]. By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously-unresolvable organelles. *1953: [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] made their first announcement on the double-[[helix]] structure for DNA on February 28. *1981: [[Lynn Margulis]] published ''Symbiosis in Cell Evolution'' detailing the [[endosymbiotic theory]]. ==See also== *[[Cariology]] is the study of the [[cell nucleus]]. *[[Cytotoxicity]] *[[Plant cell]] *[[Cell type]]s *[[Syncytium]] *[[Cell culture]] *[[Stem cell]] *[[Plasmolysis]] *[[Cytorrhysis]] *[[A549 cell]] ==External links== {{commons|Cell (biology)}} {{wikibookspar||Cell Biology}} *[http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/cells.htm Teaching about the Life and Health of Cells.] *[http://www.biopic.co.uk/cellcity/cell.htm The cell like a city]. *[http://www.cellsalive.com/ Cells Alive!] *[http://www.jcb.org/ Journal of Cell Biology] *[http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell A simplified version of this article] *[http://members.optusnet.com.au/exponentialist/Cells.htm A comparison of the generational and exponential growth of cell populations] ===Online textbooks=== *''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+373693%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=mboc4 Molecular Biology of the Cell]'' fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. *''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+mcb%5Bbook%5D+AND+105032%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=mcb.chapter.145 Molecular Cell Biology]'' fourth edition, edited by Harvey Lodish (2000) published by W. H. Freeman and Company. *''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+cooper%5Bbook%5D+AND+165077%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=cooper.chapter.89 The Cell - A Molecular Approach]'' second edition, by Geoffrey M. Cooper (2000) published by Sinauer Associates. ==References== &lt;references /&gt; * {{NCBI-scienceprimer}} [[Category:Cell biology]] [[Category:Biology]] {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|mk}} [[ar:خلية]] [[bg:Клетка]] [[ca:Cèl·lula]] [[cs:Buňka]] [[cy:Cell]] [[da:Celle (biologi)]] [[de:Zelle (Biologie)]] [[et:Rakk]] [[el:Κύτταρο]] [[es:Célula]] [[eo:Biologia ĉelo]] [[fa:یاخته]] [[fr:Cellule (biologie)]] [[ko:세포]] [[hr:Stanica]] [[io:Celulo]] [[id:Sel (Biologi)]] [[is:Fruma]] [[it:Cellula]] [[he:תא]] [[ku:Şane]] [[la:Cellula]] [[lt:Ląstelė]] [[hu:Sejt]] [[mk:Клетка]] [[ms:Sel]] [[nl:Cel (biologie)]] [[ja:細胞]] [[no:Celle]] [[nn:Celle]] [[pl:Komórka organizmów żywych]] [[pt:Célula]] [[ru:Клетка]] [[simple:Cell]] [[sk:Bunka (biológia)]] [[sl:Celica]] [[sr:Ћелија (биологија)]] [[su:Sél (biologi)]] [[fi:Solu]] [[sv:Cell]] [[ta:கலம்]] [[th:เซลล์ (ชีววิทยา)]] [[vi:Tế bào]] [[tr:Hücre]] [[uk:Клітина (біологія)]] [[ur:خلیہ]] [[zh:细胞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)</title> <id>4231</id> <revision> <id>41493722</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:11:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Staecker</username> <id>211117</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Canonical issues */ rm redundancy redundancy</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Buffy The Vampire Slayer | image = Buffy The Vampire Slayer Movie.jpg | writer = [[Joss Whedon]] | starring = [[Kristy Swanson]],&lt;br&gt;[[Donald Sutherland]],&lt;br&gt;[[Paul Reubens]],&lt;br&gt;with [[Rutger Hauer]],&lt;br&gt;and [[Luke Perry]] | director = [[Fran Rubel Kuzui ]] | producer = [[Kaz Kuzui]],&lt;br&gt;[[Howard Rosenman]] | distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] | released = [[July 31]], [[1992]]|w runtime = 86 min.| language = English | budget = $20,000,000 | music = [[Carter Burwell]]| awards = | imdb_id = 0103893 | }} '''''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''''' is a [[1992]] [[comedy film]] about a &quot;[[Valley Girl]]&quot; [[cheerleading|cheerleader]] who discovers she is The Slayer -- a young woman born with special strength and skill and a destiny to fight [[vampire]]s. It stars [[Kristy Swanson]], [[Donald Sutherland]], [[Rutger Hauer]], [[Luke Perry]] and [[Randall Batinkoff]], and was written by [[Joss Whedon]] and directed by [[Fran Rubel Kuzui]]. It also features [[Paul Reubens]] in a departure from his better known role as [[Pee-Wee Herman]] as well as a young [[Hillary Swank]]. The film also led to a darker and much more popular [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer|TV series]] of the same name, starring [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]], also created, and sometimes written and directed by Whedon. Whedon went on to state that the TV series was a much closer rendering of his vision than the movie, which was compromised by commercial concerns. ==Trivia == *Characters in the movie include [[Merrick (Buffyverse character)|Merrick]] and [[Pike (Buffyverse character)|Pike]] * [[Ben Affleck]] has a role as an [[extra (drama)|extra]]. * [[Ricki Lake]] has a role as Charlotte the waitress. * [[Seth Green]] appeared as a vampire victim in a deleted scene which nonetheless featured on the original video cover; he would have been the only actor from the movie to appear in the TV series. *The film
="preserve">&lt;!--Note to editors: This article has a long and intense history of terminology debates. Please review the talk page before making changes to lines to see if there is a previous established consensus or compromise. Thank you.--&gt; An '''abortion''' is the termination of a [[pregnancy]] associated with the death of an [[embryo]] or a [[fetus]]. This can occur spontaneously, in the form of a [[miscarriage]], or be intentionally induced through chemical, surgical, or other means. Generally, abortions are performed by [[gynaecology|gynaecologists]] or [[obstetrics|obstetricians]]. All [[Pregnancy (mammals)|mammalian pregnancies]] can be aborted; however, this article focuses exclusively on the abortion of [[human]] pregnancy. There have been various methods of inducing an abortion [[History of abortion|throughout the centuries]]. In the [[20th century]], the [[ethics]] and [[morality]] of abortion became the subject of intense [[political]] [[debate]] in many areas of the world. ==Definitions== [[Pregnancy]] is defined by the [[medicine|medical community]] as beginning at the [[implantation]] of the [[embryo]]. Others differ, however, placing this initiation at [[fertilisation|conception]]. The following medical terms are used to define an abortion: * ''Spontaneous abortion ([[miscarriage]])'': An abortion due to accidental trauma or [[natural causes]]. *''Induced abortion'': An abortion deliberately caused. Induced abortions are further subcategorized into therapeutic abortions and elective abortions: **''Therapeutic abortion'' *** To save the life of the pregnant woman. *** To preserve the woman's physical or mental health. *** To terminate a pregnancy that would result in the birth of a child with defects which would be [[fatal|incompatible with life]] or associated with significant [[morbidity]]. *** To [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of [[fetus]]es in a [[multiple birth|multiple pregnancy]] to lessen health risks involved. **''Elective abortion'': An abortion performed for any other reason. Methods of birth control that prevent implantation, such as [[emergency contraception]], are not considered to be abortion; however, emergency contraception is generally considered equivalent to abortion by those who reject the medical definition of pregnancy. A pregnancy that ends earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation, and where an [[infant]] is born and survives, is termed a [[premature birth]]. A pregnancy that ends with an infant dead upon birth at any gestational stage, due to causes including spontaneous abortion or complications during delivery, is termed a [[stillbirth]]. In common parlance, the term &quot;abortion&quot; is synonymous with induced abortion of a human fetus. ==Incidence== The incidence of and reasons for induced abortion vary in regions in which abortion is generally permitted. It has been estimated that the total number of induced abortions performed globally is approximately 46 million per year. 26 million of these are said to occur in [[abortion law|places in which abortion is legal]]; the other 20 million happen where it is illegal. Some countries, such as [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], experience a low rate of induced abortion, while others like [[Russia]] and [[Vietnam]] have a comparatively high rate. {{ref|incidence2}} A 1998 study aggregated data from studies in 27 countries on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies. It concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were the desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of [[employment|work]] or [[education]], issues of financial or relationship stability, and perceived immaturity. {{ref|incidence3}} In [[Finland]] and the [[United States]], concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given, whereas in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], and [[Kenya]] such a concern was found to be more prevalent. A 2004 study in which [[United States|American]] women at [[abortion clinic|clinic]]s answered a [[questionnaire]] yielded similar results. {{ref|incidence4}} Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures, such as [[eugenics]], the stigmatization of [[disabled]] persons, preference for children of a specific [[sex]], disapproval of [[single parent|single motherhood]], insufficient economic support for [[family|families]], lack of access to or rejection of [[birth control|contraceptive]] methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as [[China]]'s [[one-child policy]]). A combination of these factors can sometimes result in forced abortion, [[forced sterilization]], [[infanticide]], [[child abandonment]], or [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide]] — which is illegal in most countries, but difficult to stop. In many areas, especially in [[developing country|developing nations]] or where abortion is illegal, women sometimes resort to &quot;[[back-alley abortion|back-alley]]&quot; or [[self-induced abortion|self-induced]] procedures. The [[World Health Organization]] suggests that there are 19 million terminations annually which fit its criteria for an [[Abortion#Unsafe abortion|unsafe abortion]]. {{ref|unsafe1}} See [[Abortion#Social issues|social issues]] for more information on these subjects. ==Forms of abortion== ===Spontaneous abortion=== {{main|Miscarriage}} &lt;!--improve me!--&gt; Spontaneous abortions, generally referred to as miscarriages, occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes. A miscarriage is spontaneous loss of the embryo or fetus before the 20th week of development. Spontaneous abortions after the 20th week are generally considered to be preterm deliveries. Most miscarriages occur very early in a pregnancy. Approximately 10-50% of pregnancies end in miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. {{ref|miscarriage1}} The risk for spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a history of more than three previous (known) spontaneous abortions, those who have had a previous induced abortion, those with systemic diseases, and in women over age 35. Other causes can be infection (of either the woman or the fetus), immune responses, or serious systemic diseases of the woman. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[trauma]]; intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered an induced abortion. Some governments have laws increasing the criminal liability of a person who causes a miscarriage during an [[assault]] or other violent [[crime]]. ===Induced abortion=== A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in a number of ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the [[gestational age]] of the [[fetus]], in addition to the legality, regional availability, and/or doctor-patient preference for specific procedures. ====Surgical abortion==== [[Image:PBAsigning_wide.jpg|thumb|240px|right|U.S. President George W. Bush signs the ''Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003'']] In the first fifteen weeks, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or vacuum abortion is the most common method. ''[[Manual vacuum aspiration]]'', or MVA abortion, consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] by suction using a manual [[syringe]], while the ''[[Electric vacuum aspiration]]'' or EVA abortion method uses an electric [[pump]]. These techniques are equivalent, differing only in the mechanism use to apply suction. From the fifteenth week up until around the twenty-sixth week, a surgical [[dilation and evacuation]] (D &amp;amp; E) is used. D &amp;amp; E consists of opening the [[cervix]] of the [[uterus]] and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. ''[[Dilation and curettage]]'' (D &amp;amp; C) is a standard gynaecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. ''[[Curettage]]'' refers to the cleaning of the walls of the [[uterus]] with a [[curette]]. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends this sort of procedure, also called Sharp Curettage, only when MVA is unavailable. {{ref|surgicalabortion1}} Sharp curettage only accounted for 2.4% of abortion procedures in the US in [[2002]]. {{ref|surgicalabortion2}} The term &quot;D and C&quot; can more generally be used to refer to the first trimester abortion procedure, irrespective of the method used to perform the procedure. Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the third [[trimester]]. Premature delivery can be induced with [[prostaglandin]]; this can be coupled with injecting the [[amniotic sac|amniotic fluid]] with caustic solutions containing [[saline (medicine)|saline]] or [[urea]]. Very late abortions can be brought about by [[intact dilation and extraction]] (intact D &amp;amp; X), which requires the surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation, and is sometimes termed &quot;[[partial-birth abortion]].&quot; A [[hysterotomy abortion]], similar to a [[caesarian section]] but resulting in a terminated fetus, can also be used at late stages of pregnancy. It can be performed vaginally, with an incision just above the [[cervix]], in the late mid-trimester. ====Chemical abortion==== [[Image:Mifepristone.gif|thumb|right|170px|The molecular structure of the abortifacient drug Mifepristone.]] {{main|Chemical abortion}} Effective in the first trimester of pregnancy, chemical (also referred to as a medical abortion), or non-surgical abortions comprise 10% of all abortions in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. The process begins with the administration of either [[methotrexate]] or [[mifepristone]], followed by [[misoprostol]]. When appropriately used, 98% of women undergoing medical termination of pregnancy will experience completed abortion without surgical intervention. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] currently approves the use of m
a [[Roman numeral]] indicating its order of perihelion passage in that year, so that Comet Bennett 1969i became [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1970 II]] (it was the second comet to pass perihelion in 1970) {{hnote|Arnett (2000)}}. Increasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure awkward, and in 1994 the [[International Astronomical Union]] approved a new naming system. Comets are now designated by the year of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery and a number indicating the order of discovery (a system similar to that already used for [[asteroid]]s), so that the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006 D4. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated, D/ indicating a comet which has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object that was mistakenly identified as a comet, but is actually a [[minor planet]]. After their second observed perihelion passage, periodic comets are also assigned a number indicating the order of their discovery.{{hnote|CSBN (1994)}} So Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic designation [[1P/1682 Q1]]. [[Comet Hale-Bopp]]'s designation is C/1995 O1. ==History of comet study== ===Early observations and thought=== Historically, comets were thought to be unlucky, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants. Some authorities interpret references to &quot;falling stars&quot; in [[Gilgamesh]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and the Book of [[Enoch]] as references to comets, or possibly [[bolide]]s. In the first book of his ''[[Meteorology]]'', [[Aristotle]] propounded the view of comets that would hold sway in Western thought for nearly two thousand years. He rejected the ideas of several earlier philosophers that comets were [[planet]]s, or at least a phenomenon related to the planets, on the grounds that while the planets confined their motion to the circle of the [[Zodiac]], comets could appear in any part of the sky. {{hnote|Aristotle, l. 1. c. 6.}} Instead, he described comets as a phenomenon of the upper [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], where hot, dry exhalations gathered and occasionally burst into flame. Aristotle held this mechanism responsible for not only comets, but also [[meteor]]s, the [[aurora borealis]], and even the [[Milky Way]].{{hnote|Aristotle, l. 1. c. 7.}} A few later classical philosophers did dispute this view of comets. [[Seneca the Younger]], in his ''[[Natural Questions]]'', observed that comets moved regularly through the sky and were undisturbed by the [[wind]], behavior more typical of celestial than atmospheric phenomena. While he conceded that the other planets do not appear outside the Zodiac, he saw no reason that a planet-like object could not move through any part of the sky, humanity's knowledge of celestial things being very limited.{{hnote|Sagan, pp. 23–24}} However, the Aristotelean viewpoint proved more influential, and it was not until the 16th century that it was demonstrated that comets must exist outside the earth's atmosphere. In 1577, a bright comet was visible for several months. The [[Denmark|Danish]] astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] used measurements of the comet's position taken by himself and other, geographically separated observers to determine that the comet had no measureable [[parallax]]. Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant from the earth than the moon.{{hnote|ESO, Part I}} ===Orbital studies=== [[Image:Newton_Comet1680.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The orbit of the comet of 1680, fit to a [[parabola]], as shown in [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''.]] Although comets had now been demonstrated to be in the heavens, the question of how they moved through the heavens would be debated for most of the next century. Even after [[Johannes Kepler]] had determined in 1609 that the planets moved about the sun in [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, he was reluctant to believe that the [[Kepler's laws|laws that governed the motions of the planets]] should also influence the motion of other bodies—he believed that comets travel among the planets along straight lines. [[Galileo Galilei]], although a staunch [[Copernicus|Copernicanist]], rejected Tycho's parallax measurements and held to the Aristotelean notion of comets moving on straight lines through the upper atmosphere.{{hnote|Prasar, Part II}} The first suggestion that Kepler's laws of planetary motion should also apply to the comets was made by [[William Lower]] in 1610.{{hnote|ESO, Part I}} In the following decades, other astronomers, including [[Pierre Petit]], [[Giovanni Borelli]], [[Adrien Auzout]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Johann Baptist Cysat]], and [[Jean-Dominique Cassini]], all argued for comets curving about the sun on elliptical or parabolic paths, while others, such as [[Christian Huygens]] and [[Johannes Hevelius]], supported comets' linear motion.{{hnote|Prasar, Part II}} The matter was resolved by the [[C/1680 V1|bright comet]] that was discovered by [[Gottfried Kirch]] on [[November 14]], [[1680]]. Astronomers throughout Europe tracked its position for several months. In 1681, the [[Saxony|Saxon]] pastor [[Georg Samuel Doerfel]] set forth his proofs that comets are heavenly bodies moving in [[parabola]]s of which the sun is the focus. Then [[Isaac Newton]], in his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of his [[inverse square law]] of [[gravity|universal gravitation]] must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the [[conic section]]s, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.{{hnote|Newton, Lib. 3, Prop. 41.}} In 1705, [[Edmond Halley]] applied Newton's method to twenty-four cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar [[orbital element]]s, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758-9. {{hnote|Halley (1705)}} (Earlier, Robert Hooke had identified the comet of 1664 with that of 1618, {{hnote|Pepys, 1 March 1664/5}} while Jean-Dominique Cassini had suspected the identity of the comets of 1577, 1665, and 1680. {{hnote|Sagan, pp. 42–43}} Both were incorrect.) Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three [[France|French]] mathematicians: [[Alexis Clairaut]], [[Joseph Lalande]], and [[Nicole-Reine Lepaute]], who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. {{hnote|Sagan, p. 83}} When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as [[Comet Halley]] or Halley's Comet (its official designation is '''1P/Halley'''). Its next appearance is due in 2061. Among the comets with short enough periods to have been observed several times in the historical record, Comet Halley is unique in consistently being bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Since the confirmation of Comet Halley's periodicity, many other periodic comets have been discovered through the [[telescope]]. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit was [[Comet Encke]] (official designation '''2P/Encke'''). Over the period 1819-1821 the [[Germany|German]] mathematician and physicist [[Johann Franz Encke]] computed orbits for a series of cometary apparitions observed in 1786, 1795, 1805, and 1818, concluded they were same comet, and successfully predicted its return in 1822.{{hnote|Kronk, '2P/Encke'}} By 1900, seventeen comets had been observed at more than one perihelion passage and recognized as periodic comets. As of November 2005, 173 comets have achieved this distinction, though several have since been destroyed or lost. In [[ephemerides]], comets are often denoted by the symbol {{unicode|☄}}. ===Studies of physical characteristics=== :''Hast thou ne'er seen the Comet's flaming flight?'' [[image:Cometorbit.png|thumb|300px|Comets have highly [[elliptical orbits]]. Note the two distinct tails.]][[Isaac Newton]] described comets as compact, solid, fixed, and durable bodies: in other words, a kind of planet, which move in very oblique orbits, every way, with the greatest freedom, persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets; and their tail as a very thin, slender vapour, emitted by the head, or [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]] of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun. Comets also seemed to Newton absolutely requisite for the conservation of the water and moisture of the planets; from their condensed vapours and exhalations all that moisture which is spent on vegetations and putrefactions, and turned into dry earth, might be resupplied and recruited; for all vegetables were thought to increase wholly from fluids, and turn by putrefaction into earth. Hence the quantity of dry earth must continually increase, and the moisture of the globe decrease, and at last be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual supply. Newton suspected that the spirit which makes the finest, subtilest, and best part of our air, and which is absolutely requisite for the life and being of all things, came principally from the comets. Another use which he conjectured comets might be designed to serve, is that of recruiting the sun with fresh fuel, and repairing the consumption of his light by the streams continually sent forth in every direction f
]s. A(Face house) is built in one or more [[facess; though its most common use is a [[fort]] or [[playhouse]] for [[child]]ren, this design is sometimes used as a house for [[adult]]s. == Inside the house == [[Image:HouseFlrPlan.JPG|left|Typical [[United States|U.S.]] house [[floor plan]].]] Houses consist of many specific designated [[room]]s. Basic design consists of a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if indoor facilities are available) a washing/lavatory area. Often, in traditional agrarian societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock share part of the house with human beings. In the West, where plumbing is common and the standard of living fairly high, each house will at least contain a [[bedroom]], [[bathroom]], [[kitchen]] or kitchen area, and a [[living room]]. These rooms should be designed to meet the needs of the people who live in the house. This designing is known as [[interior design]] and it is a popular subject in universities. [[Feng shui]], originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and microclimates, has recently been expanded to include designing house interiors with the intention of giving harmonious effects to the people living inside the house. &lt;br&gt; ==Shelters== Forms of '''shelter''' simpler than a house include [[dugout (shelter)|dugout]]s, ''[[yaodong]]s'', [[tent]]s (see also [[camp]]), [[camper]]s, [[hut (dwelling)|hut]]s, [[roof]]s without [[wall]]s, or a structure with roof and partial walls, such as often at a [[bus stop]] (see picture there), and a [[gazebo]]. ==Construction== Popular modern house construction techniques include [[light-frame construction]] in areas with access to supplies of wood, and [[adobe]] or sometimes [[rammed-earth construction]] in arid regions with scarce wood resources. In some areas [[brick]] is used almost exclusively. Increasingly popular alternative construction methods include insulated concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing and heavy-gauge steel framing. Some home designers have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use computers and [[finite element analysis]] to design kitted and pre-cut steel framed homes with known resistance to high wind loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and may accelerate the construction process. They are more consistently used than are the lesser used approaches described below. Lesser used construction methods which have recently gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Examples of these are [[Cannabrick construction]], [[cordwood construction]], [[straw bale construction]], and [[geodesic dome|geodesic domes]]. These methods are not widely used and frequently are adopted by homeowners who may be actively involved in the construction process. ==Animal houses== Humans often build houses for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include '''[[bird house]]s''' and '''[[dog house]]s''', while domiciles for agricultural animals are more often called [[Barn (building)|barn]]s. However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bird houses, bat houses, nesting sites for wild ducks, and more. ==Usage in language== As a verb, to ''house'' (pronounced &quot;haʊz&quot;) is to provide a routine locale for an object, a person or an organization. Historic or artistic artifacts, for example, are said to be housed in museums. A business may be housed in a storefront, or a family may be housed in an apartment or a house. A collection of domiciles, either for persons, for organizations, for animals or for objects, is often called ''housing''. An individual person or a single object might also find housing in an appropriate [[domicile]]. In English the word &quot;house&quot; on its own usually refers to a dwelling for one family, or for more than one family living together, sharing the house. In other languages the translation for &quot;house&quot; often covers other types of building such as tower blocks or commercial property: in German, for example, a &quot;Haus&quot; can also refer to a hotel or a block of flats. In English, the word &quot;house&quot; can be used in combination with other words to describe buildings other than residential dwellings, such as an [[opera house]], a &quot;monkey house&quot; (a building for several cages) in a zoo, etc. A &quot;madhouse&quot; is a disparaging term for a [[mental hospital]] or [[insane asylum]] (also see [[House (disambiguation)]] for more.) The [[White House]] also has only a secondary use as a dwelling. &quot;House&quot; and &quot;home&quot; are not synonymous. &quot;Home&quot; has a more [[Wiktionary:abstract|abstract]] and [[Wiktionary:poetic|poetic]] meaning. == Heraldry == The house is an exceedingly rare charge in [[heraldry]]. == See also == {| width=100% | valign=top width=50% | ===Articles=== * [[Building material]] * [[Domotics]] and [[home automation]] * [[Earth-sheltered home]] * [[Housing estate]] * [[Affordable housing]] * [[Housing in Japan]] * [[Housewarming party]] * [[Hurricane proof house]] * [[Modular home]] * [[Lustron]] * [[Lodging]] * [[Mobile home]] * [[Prefabrication]] * [[Mobile home|Trailer]] | valign=top width=50% | ===Lists=== * [[List of house types]] * [[List of house styles]] * [[List of types of lodging]] * [[List of real estate topics]] * [[List of famous American Houses]] |} ==External links== *[http://y2u.co.uk/&amp;002_Images/Downland_Museum%2001.htm Photos of rare houses at Singleton Wealdland and Downland Museum, Nr Chichester] *[http://muebles.vagos.es Home furniture] *[http://uk.geocities.com/db142002 The house occupies a fundamental part of the human psyche. Man unique among the animal kingdom has always lived inside, early man we understand living in such shelters as caves. We have come to know the world we live in as &quot;outside&quot;. But a pirate radio situation of many years in Ireland played around with these fundamentals.] &lt;!-- Other languages --&gt; &lt;!-- Categories --&gt; &lt;!-- [[Image:Blue house.jpg|left|framed|House painted [[blue]]]] --&gt; [[Category:Houses]] [[Category:Building engineering]] [[Category:Structural system]] [[bn:&amp;#2456;&amp;#2480;]] [[cy:Tŷ]] [[da:Hus]] [[de:Haus]] [[eo:Domo]] [[es:Casa]] [[fr:Maison]] [[he:&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]] [[nah:Txantli]] [[id:Rumah]] [[it:Casa]] [[ja:&amp;#23478;&amp;#23627;]] [[nl:Woning]] [[pl:Dom]] [[pt:Casa]] [[ru:Жилище]] [[simple:House]] [[su:Imah]] [[sv:Hus]] [[fi:Talo]] [[tl:Tahanan]] [[to:Fale]] [[vi:Nhà]] [[zh:&amp;#25151;&amp;#23627;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HOWTOs</title> <id>13591</id> <revision> <id>15911188</id> <timestamp>2003-07-12T02:25:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oliver Pereira</username> <id>5333</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>How-tos</title> <id>13592</id> <revision> <id>15911189</id> <timestamp>2003-07-12T02:24:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oliver Pereira</username> <id>5333</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Java applet</title> <id>13593</id> <revision> <id>42030539</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:06:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stephen B Streater</username> <id>922221</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Compatibility issues */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}} A '''Java applet''' is an [[applet]] written in the [[Java programming language]]. Java applets can run in a [[web browser]] using a [[Java virtual machine]] (JVM), or in [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[AppletViewer]], a stand alone tool to test applets. Java applets were introduced by Sun in [[1995]]. Applets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by [[HTML]]. They are executed in a ''[[sandbox (security)|sandbox]]'' by most web browsers, preventing them from accessing local data. The code of the applet is downloaded from a [[web server]] and the browser either embeds the applet into a web page or opens a new window showing the applet's [[user interface]]. The applet can be displayed on the web page by making use of the deprecated &lt;code&gt;APPLET&lt;/code&gt; [[HTML element]] [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/objects.html#edef-APPLET], or the recommended &lt;code&gt;OBJECT&lt;/code&gt; element [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/objects.html#edef-OBJECT]. This specifies the applet's source and the applet's location statistics. The applet's location cannot be controlled by [[Cascading Style Sheets]]. Since Java's [[bytecode]] is [[platform independent]], Java applets can be executed by browsers for many platforms, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Unix]], [[Mac OS]] and [[Linux]]. A [[Java Servlet]] is sometimes informally compared to be &quot;like&quot; a server-side applet, but it is different in its language, functions, and in each of the characteristics described here about applets. == Technical information == A Java applet extends the class {{Javadoc:SE|package=java.applet|java/applet|Applet}}, or in the case of a [[Swing (Java)|Swing]] applet, {{Javadoc:SE|package=javax.swing|javax/swing|JApplet}}. The class must override methods from the applet class to set up a user inte
[Edward I of England|Edward I]] (1272-1307) was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his Government, and summoned the first officially sanctioned [[Parliaments of England]] (such as his [[Model Parliament]]). He conquered [[Wales]], and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of [[Scotland]], though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign, and was ultimately abandoned after the next King, [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], suffered a massive defeat at [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]]. [[The Black Death]], an epidemic of [[bubonic plague]] that spread over the whole of [[Europe]], arrived in England in [[1349]] and killed perhaps up to a third of the population. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the [[Wales|Welsh]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Cornwall|Cornish]], [[Scottish people|Scots]] and the [[France|French]], with the principal notable battles being the [[Battle of Crecy|Battle of Crécy]] and the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, [[Owen Glendower]], in [[1412]] by Prince Henry (later to become [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule. [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] gave land to powerful noble families, including many people with Royal blood in their veins. Because land was equivalent to power in these days, this meant that these powerful men could now try to make good their claim to the Crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in [[1399]] by [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] sowed the seeds for what was to come. In the reign of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], which began in [[1422]], things came to a head because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability. Unable to control the feuding nobles, he allowed outright civil war to break out. The conflicts are known as the [[Wars of the Roses]] and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown. [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] went a little way to restoring this power but the spadework was generally done by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]. ===See also=== *[[English historians in the Middle Ages]] Important English historians and historical works from the Middle Ages. *[[List of English chronicles]] *[[Bayeux Tapestry|The Bayeux Tapestry]] commemorating the battle of 1066. ==Tudor England== : ''Main article: [[Early Modern Britain]]'' The Wars of the Roses culminated in the eventual victory of the relatively unknown Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in [[1485]], where the Yorkist [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was ultimately assured. Whilst in retrospect it is easy for us to date the end of the Wars of the Roses to the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]], Henry VII could afford no such complacency. Before the end of his reign, two pretenders would try to wrest the throne from him, aided by remnants of the Yorkist faction at home and abroad. The first, [[Lambert Simnel]], was defeated at the [[Battle of Stoke]] (the last time an English King fought someone claiming the Crown) and the second, [[Perkin Warbeck]], was hanged in [[1499]] after plaguing the King for a decade. In [[1497]], [[Michael An Gof]] led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the [[River Ravensbourne]] at [[Battle of Deptford Bridge, 1497|Deptford Bridge]], An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes. On [[June 17]], [[1497]] they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to. But, like [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in the future, here was a King with no wish to go &quot;on his travels&quot; again. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife [[Elizabeth of York]] died in [[1503]]. King [[Henry_VIII_of_England|Henry VIII]] split with the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] over a question of his divorce from [[Catherine of Aragon]]. Though his religious position was not at all [[Protestant]], the resultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's [[chancellor]], Sir [[Thomas More]]. There followed a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to the [[English Reformation]], the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church. The [[Dissolution of the English Monasteries|Dissolution of the Monasteries]] had the effect of giving many of the lower classes (the [[gentry]]) a vested interest in the Reformation continuing, for to halt it would be to revive [[Monasticism]] and restore lands which were gifted to them during the Dissolution. Henry VIII had three children, all of whom would wear the Crown. The first to reign was [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI of England]]. Although he showed piety and intelligence, he was only a boy of ten when he took the throne in [[1547]]. His uncle, [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained [[letters patent]] giving him much of the power of a monarch in March of that year. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in [[1549]] when many counties of the realm were up in protest. [[Kett's Rebellion]] in Kent and the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by [[John Dudley, Earl of Warwick | John Dudley]], who is known as [[Lord President Northumberland]]. Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. When Edward VI lay dying of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1553]], Northumberland made plans to place [[Lady Jane Grey]] on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His putsch failed and [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary, a devout Catholic who had been influenced greatly by the Catholic King of [[Spain]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Charles I of Spain|Charles V]], tried to reimpose Catholicism on the realm. This led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in [[John Foxe]]'s [[Book of Martyrs]]. She was highly unpopular among her people, and the Spanish party of her husband, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] caused much resentment around Court. Mary lost [[Calais]], the last English possession on the Continent, and became increasingly more unpopular (except among Catholics) as her reign wore on. She successfully repelled a rebellion by [[Sir Thomas Wyatt]]. The reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of the latter in [[1558]]. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]], which created the [[Church of England]] in much the same form we see it today. Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the [[Puritan|Puritans]] (radical Protestants) and &quot;die-hard&quot; Catholics. She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed. The [[slave trade]] that established Britain as a major economic power can be attributed to Elizabeth, who granted [[John Hawkins]] the permission to commence trading in 1562. The number of Africans transported to England was so great due to the slave trade that by 1596 Elizabeth complained that &quot;several blackamoores have lately been brought into this realm of which kind of people there are already too much here&quot;. She tried unsuccessfully to expel them via a Proclamation in 1601. Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from the [[Revolt of the Northern Earls]] in [[1569]], she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government. One of the most famous events in English martial history occurred in [[1588]] when the [[Spanish Armada]] was repelled by [[Sir Francis Drake]], but the war that followed was very costly for England and only ended after Elizabeth's death. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under [[Thomas Cromwell]] in the reign of Henry VIII, that is in expanding the role of the government and in effecting common law and administration throughout the realm of England. In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the [[English Civil War]]. These were questions of the relative power of Monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a &quot;[[Tudor Revolution]]&quot; in government and it is certain that the [[Parliament of England]] became a lot more important during his Chancellorship. Other historians say the &quot;Tudor Revolution&quot; really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign when the work was all consolidated. Although the [[Privy Council of England|Privy Council]], which was the mainstay of Tudor government, decline
sponsible to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF). As well as ground troops, approximately 80 [[Leopard MBT|Leopard tanks]] and artillery, it also operates helicopters: [[UH-60 Black Hawk|Blackhawk]], [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]], and has taken delivery of the first of 22 [[Eurocopter Tiger]] Armed Reconnaissance Helicopters (with the last of the [[UH-1 Iroquois]] serving with distinction in [[Aceh]] for humanitarian relief after [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] before removal from service.) Recently plans have been announced to procure 59 [[M1 Abrams|M1A2 tanks]] and 7 M88 Hercules II armoured recovery vehicles. Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, but only in [[World War II]] did Australian territory come under direct attack. The history of the Australian Army can be divided into two periods: *1901-47, when limits were set on the size of the '''regular army''', the vast majority of peacetime soldiers were in the '''reserve army''' units of the [[Australian Citizens Military Force]] (also known as the CMF or Militia), and [[Australian Imperial Force]]s were formed to serve overseas, and *post-1947, when a standing peacetime [[infantry]] force was formed and the CMF (known as the Army Reserve after 1980) began to decline in importance. The army has been involved in many peacekeeping operations, usually under the auspices of the [[United Nations]]. The biggest one began in 1999 in [[East Timor]]. Other notable operations include peacekeeping on [[Bougainville]] and in the [[Solomon Islands]], which are ongoing as of May 2004. Humanitarian relief after [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] in [[Aceh]] Province, [[Indonesia]], [http://www.defence.gov.au/optsunamiassist/default.htm Operation Sumatra Assist], ended on [[24 March]] [[2005]]. ==The Army Today== {{further|[[Modern Equipment and Uniform of the Australian Army]]}} ===Organisation=== The Australian Army is currently organised around two Division headquarters. The Deployable Joint Force Headquarters/1st Division has responsibility for the majority of the regular army, while 2nd Division is the main home defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. The regular army is organised around the six battalion [[Royal Australian Regiment]] - three of these are standard light infantry, with two of the others roled as paratroops and mechanised infantry. The final battalion is a specialised commando unit class as special forces. The [[Royal Australian Armoured Corps]] has three regular regiments, one of main battle tanks and two light cavalry (formation reconnaissance). These forces, together with the associated combat support (artillery, engineers, signals) and combat service support (logistics, maintainence etc) are based around two deployable brigades, [[Australian 1st Brigade|1 Brigade]], which is primarily a heavy mechanised formation, and [[Australian 3rd Brigade|3 Brigade]], which is a light, air deployable formation. [[Australian 7th Brigade|7 Brigade]] is an integrated Regular/Reserve formation that would primarily be used in conjunction with DJHQ were it ever to be deployed overseas. ===Statistics=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Australian Army statistics |- | Personnel (Regular Army) | 25,200 |- | Personnel ([[Australian Army Reserve|Army Reserve]]) | 17,200 |- | [[Tank classification#Late twentieth century: the main battle tank|Main Battle Tank]]s | 71 [[Leopard tank|Leopard 1]] |- | [[Infantry fighting vehicle]]s | 113 [[ASLAV]] (+144 being delivered) |- | [[Armoured Personnel Carrier]]s | 700 [[M113]] (350 being upgraded to M113AS3/4 standard, balance to be mothballed) |- | [[Infantry Mobility Vehicle]]s | 299 [[Bushmaster IMV]] (being delivered) |- | [[Land Rover]]s | |- | [[Artillery]] | 376 |- | [[Aircraft]] | 132 |} ===Current deployments=== The Australian Army currently has significant forces deployed on two major operations: *'''Operation Catalyst''' - Australia's commitment to the Coalition forces in [[Iraq]]. The army's contribution includes: **[[Al Muthanna Task Group]]; this is a [[battlegroup (army)|battlegroup]] consisting of a headquarters, infantry company, armoured squadron and training team, with a total of 450 personnel. This has two tasks: ***Provide a secure environment for the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group (JIRSG) ***Assist in the training of local Iraqi Army units so that they are able to take over the internal and external defence of their country **Australian Army Training Team; this encompasses 55 personnel providing logistic training to the [[new Iraqi Army]]. **Embassy security detatchment; this provides security protection and escort for staff at the Australian Embassy in [[Baghdad]], and consists of 100 personnel. *'''[[Operation Slipper]]''' - Australia's commitment to the [[War on Terror]]. The army contribution is primarily concentrated in [[Afghanistan]] and consists of a '''Special Operations Task Group''' of personnel from the [[Special Air Service Regiment]], [[4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment]] and [[Incident Response Regiment]]. *In addition to these, small numbers of personnel are deployed on various operations around the world, including [[Timor-Leste]], the [[Solomon Islands]], and on peacekeeping duties with the [[Multinational Force and Observers]] and the [[United Nations]]. ===&quot;Hardened and Networked Army&quot;=== On [[15 December]] [[2005]], the then Australian Minister for Defence, [[Robert Hill (Australian politician)|The Hon. Senator Robert Hill]] announced that the Australian Army would be restructured and redeveloped in the biggest ADF shake up in over 50 years. The policy of creating a 'Hardened and Networked' Army will see a major reorganisation of both the regular Army and Army Reserve. The overriding rationale for this is to bring about &quot;A reduction in singular capabilities that can not be rotated, hence an 'Army of twos'&quot;{{fn|1}}. This will involve the army being organised so that it can deploy a number of [[battlegroup (army)|battlegroups]], consisting of infantry, armour, artillery etc in the correct proportions relavent to each type of mission. For this, nine separate army units are being structured to act as battlegroup headquarters: *[[1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|1st]], [[2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|2nd]], and [[6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|6th]] Bn, [[Royal Australian Regiment]] are standard light infantry battalions, with [[5th/7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|5/7 Bn]] as a mechanized battalion. The [[3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|3rd Bn]] is classed as a light infantry unit in the parachute role, though it is scheduled to convert to a mechanized battalion by 2011. *[[1st Armoured Regiment]] *[[2nd Cavalry Regiment]] *[[2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment|2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment (Queensland Mounted Infantry)]] *[[Australian 1st Aviation Regiment|1st Aviation Regiment]] The 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment will be relocated from Sydney to Adelaide, converting from its current parachute role into a mechanised unit. This new 'battle group' will take on a similar role to 5/7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment which is the major mechanised battalion. By the end of this process in approximately 2015, [[Australian 1st Brigade|1 Brigade]] will be the army's major mechanised formation. The armoured units of the Army Reserve in 2nd Division will be restructured, with four becoming pure light cavalry and the fifth being utilised in the armoured lift role. {{fnb|1}}[http://www.defence.gov.au/army/hna/default2.htm Hardened and Networked Army] ==Rank and Insigina of the Australian Army== The Ranks of the Australian Army are based on the ranks of the [[British Army]], and carry mostly the same actual insignia. Other than the shoulder title &quot;Australia&quot;, the [[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]] ranks are exactly identical. The [[Non-Commissioned Officer]] insignia are the same up until [[Warrant Officer]] ranks, where they are stylised for Australia. ==Historical units and related topics== *[[Australian Citizens Military Force|Citizens Military Force/Militia/Army Reserve]] (1901&amp;ndash; ) *[[Australian commandos]], 1941- *[[Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force]] (1914) * [[Australian Imperial Force]]s ** [[First Australian Imperial Force]] (1914&amp;ndash;19) *** [[Australian 1st Division (World War I)|Australian 1st Division]] *** [[Australian 2nd Division (World War I)|Australian 2nd Division]] *** [[Australian 3rd Division (World War I)|Australian 3rd Division]] *** [[Australian 4th Division (World War I)|Australian 4th Division]] *** [[Australian 5th Division (World War I)|Australian 5th Division]] ** [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] (1939&amp;ndash;46) *** [[Australian 6th Division]] *** [[Australian 7th Division]] *** [[Australian 8th Division]] *** [[Australian 9th Division]] *** [[Australian 10th Division]] *** [[Australian 1st Armoured Division]] *[[Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles|New Guinea Volunteer Rifles/Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles]] (1939-73) *[[Royal Pacific Islands Regiment|Pacific Islands Regiment]] (1944-1975) *[[Australian Army Training Team Vietnam]] (1962-1972) ==Conflicts Involving the Australian Army == * [[South African War]] (Second Boer War) * [[World War I]] ** [[Military history of Australia during World War I]] ** [[First Australian Imperial Force]] ** [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] * [[World War II]] ** [[Second Australian Imperial Force|2nd AIF]] ** [[Australian Citizens Military Force|CMF]] ** [[Pacific War]] (1942&amp;ndash;45) * [[Malayan Emergency]] * [[Korean war]] * [[Indonesian Confrontation]] * [[Vietnam war]] ** [[Battle of Long Tan]] * [[Gulf War]] * [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] * [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] ==Articles on Conscription and National Service== * [[Conscription]] * [[Conscription in Australia]] * [[Cons
t>/* Shoguns */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Japan}} [[Image:akihito.jpg|thumb|150px|left|His Majesty Emperor Akihito of Japan]] The '''Emperor''' (天皇 ''tennō'', literally &quot;heavenly sovereign&quot;) is a constitutionally-recognized symbol of the [[Japan]]ese nation and the unity of its people. He is the head of the [[Imperial Household of Japan|Japanese Imperial Family]], the [[imperial family]] of Japan. Under Japan's present constitution, the emperor is a ceremonial figurehead in a [[constitutional monarchy]] (see [[Politics of Japan]]). Until the mid-twentieth century, the role of the emperor of Japan has alternated between that of a supreme-rank [[cleric]] with largely symbolic powers and that of an actual imperial ruler. An underlying [[imperial cult]] ([[Arahitogami]]) regards the emperor as being descended from gods. With some exceptions, Japanese monarchs have not been military commanders, contrary to the role of Western [[Emperor#Roman Emperors|monarch]]. Generally, before the [[Meiji Restoration]], emperors merely legitimized those in actual power. The current emperor is [[Akihito|Emperor Akihito]], referred to in Japan as &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot; (Tennō Heika, 天皇陛下), as calling him by his personal name is considered disrespectful. He has been on the [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] since his father [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] died in 1989. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called ''[[Kokyo|Kōkyo]]'' (皇居), and located on the former site of [[Edo Castle]] in the heart of [[Tokyo]]. Earlier emperors resided in [[Kyoto]] for nearly eleven centuries. Certain dates and details may be in dispute among Japanese [[historian]]s. Many emperors cited in the formal [[list of Emperors of Japan]] died at a very young age and can hardly be said to have &quot;ruled&quot; in any serious sense of the word. Others were overshadowed by their predecessors, who had ostensibly retired to a [[monastery]] but continued to exert influence in a process called &quot;[[cloistered rule]].&quot; Cloistered emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning emperor from time to time; a notable example is the [[Hogen Rebellion|Hogen Rebellion]] of 1156, in which former [[Emperor Sutoku]] attempted to seize power from the then current [[Emperor Go-Shirakawa]]. Other instances, such as [[Emperor Go-Toba]]'s 1221 rebellion against the [[Kamakura shogunate]] and the 1336 [[Kemmu Restoration]] under [[Emperor Go-Daigo]], show the power struggle between the Imperial House and the military governments of Japan. [[Image:Japanemperorbirthday.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A flag-waving crowd greet Emperor Akihito at the Imperial Palace on his birthday. Photo taken on Dec. 23, 2004.]] == History == [[Image:Japaneseroyalfamily2.jpg|thumb|300px|Emperor Akihito and his family. From front left to right: [[His/Her Imperial Highness|HIH]] [[Masako, Crown Princess of Japan|Crown Princess Masako]], HIH [[Crown Prince]] [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]] (''Hiro-no-miya''), [[Aiko, Princess Toshi|Princess Aiko]] (title: ''Toshi-no-miya''), HIM [[Akihito|The Emperor]], HIH [[Kako Akishino, Princess of Japan|Princess Kako]], HM [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Empress Michiko]] back left to right: HIH [[Mako Akishino, Princess of Japan|Princess Mako]], HIH [[Fumihito, Prince Akishino|Prince Akishino]] (''Akishino-no-miya''), HIH [[Kiko, Princess Akishino|Princess Kiko]] (Princess Akishino)]] Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor of Japan has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. The earliest emperors recorded in [[Kojiki]] and [[Nihonshoki]], such as [[Emperor Jimmu]], are considered today to have no historical credibility. Historians think the first emperor who existed historically was [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]], but the time of his reign is uncertain. These two books state that the imperial house maintained a continuous lineage, though today some historians believe that many ancient emperors who were claimed to be descendants of Emperor Ōjin had no actual genealogical tie to their predecessor. ===Shoguns=== From the 1100s to 1868, the real power was in the hands of the [[Shogun|shogun]]s, who were in theory always given their authority through the emperor. When [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers first contacted Japan (see ''[[Nanban]] period''), they likened the relationship between emperor and shogun to that of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Pope]] (godly, but with little political power) and king (earthly, but with a relatively large amount of political power) though this in itself can be considered inaccurate as, like the Emperor, Catholic Popes have wielded varying degrees of power throughout their history. The title &quot;Emperor of Japan&quot; is in some sense an expedient Western construct of a hereditary officer who has historically had a deeply ingrained position in Japanese society, without any necessary role in government. Japanese administrations have usually had to accept the emperor as a necessary inconvenience - as the Italian government had to live with the pope residing within the borders of Italy. The Japanese people conventionally regard such a figurehead as a monarch, in the same sense that the [[caliph]], the [[pope]] and the [[stadtholder]] of the [[Dutch Republic]] were once regarded as monarchs. In most (if not all) periods, that monarch has had at least some official role in the government of Japan - or perhaps we should say that governments have utilized the influence of the emperor to their own advantage. Up to recent centuries, Japan's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern-day territory. The name Nippon came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government really only began to appear shortly before and during the time of [[Prince Shotoku]]. The emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divinity rather than the head of an actual governing administration. In Japan it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power, as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the emperor's position. Parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the emperor as have various shoguns, regents, warlords, guardians, etc. It is perhaps technically a distortion to use the English word &quot;emperor&quot; to translate the word &quot;tennō&quot;. In Europe, people holding similar offices have retained the titles used in their own native language, which is perhaps more accurate than trying to translate such a unique office into a preexisting English term. Historically the titles of tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs. The position of emperor is a territory-independent phenomenon - the emperor is the emperor, even if he has followers only in one province (as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts). ===Meiji restoration=== By the constitution of 1889, the emperor of Japan transferred a large part of his former powers as absolute monarch to the representatives of the [[nation|people]], but remained head of the [[empire]]. Though inspired by the constitutions of Europe, the new [[Meiji Constitution]] was not as democratic as some had initially hoped. The emperor was given broad and vague &quot;reserve powers&quot; which in turn were exploited by the [[Prime minister|prime minister]] and various cliques around the emperor. By the 1930s the Japanese cabinet was largely composed of pseudo-[[fascist]] military leaders who used the emperor and his supposed divinity as an ultra-nationalistic rallying point for expansion of the empire. When World War II erupted, the emperor was the symbol soldiers were indoctrinated to fight and die for. The emperor himself was hidden from sight, however, and his actual role during this period is disputed. It is commonly believed he was largely sidelined by the military. Controversy still remains as to the role [[Hirohito]] played in commanding Japanese forces during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Pacific War]]. ===Post World War II=== [[image:macarthur hirohito.jpg|thumb|250px|General MacArthur and Hirohito]] After Japan's surrender to [[Allies|allied forces]] ending [[World War II|WWII]], 'emperor' became a ceremonial title only, with Japan's real political power residing in its legislative body. [[United States|US]] General [[Douglas MacArthur]] insisted that Hirohito remain emperor to keep him as a symbol of continuity and cohesion within Japanese society. Despite [[Harry Truman|Truman]]'s desire to have Hirohito tried for [[war crimes]], Truman consented to MacArthur's views, and Hirohito kept his status, though he was forced to disavow previous claims of being an [[arahitogami]] or living god. Only Hirohito personally renounced his divine status; other members of the imperial family did not. Since the war, the emperor has become a strictly ceremonial figure within Japanese society. Though he presides over certain government events, he is now simply a [[figurehead]] who is explicitly banned from participating in politics in any way. ==Current role == The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 [[Constitution of Japan]]. Article 1 defines the emperor as the symbol of state and the unity of the people, Article 3 requires the approval of the cabinet for all acts of the emperor in matters of state, Article 4 specifically states that the emperor shall not have powers related to government, Article 6 gives the emperor the power to appoint the prime minister and the chief judge of the supreme court, each as designated by the Diet and cabinet, respectively, and Article 7 gives the emperor power to perform various ministerial functions typical of a head of state, subject to the adv
[[et:Eksotermiline reaktsioon]] [[fr:Réaction exothermique]] [[he:תגובה אקסותרמית]] [[hu:Exoterm reakció]] [[mk:Егзотермна реакција]] [[nl:Exotherme reactie]] [[nn:Eksoterm reaksjon]] [[sk:Exotermická reakcia]] [[fi:Eksoterminen reaktio]] [[sv:Exoterm]] [[zh:放热反应]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>East India Company</title> <id>10203</id> <revision> <id>40018879</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:11:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stephen Turner</username> <id>132007</id> </contributor> <comment>Remove links within dab page per [[WP:DAB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''East India Company''' was the name of several historical European companies chartered with the monopoly of trading with Asia for their respective countries. * The [[British East India Company]], founded in 1600 * The [[Danish East India Company]], founded in 1616 * The [[Dutch East India Company]], founded in 1602 * The [[French East India Company]], founded in 1664 * The [[Swedish East India Company]], founded in 1731 {{disambig}} [[de:Ostindien-Kompanie]] [[ko:동인도 회사]] [[it:Compagnia delle Indie]] [[ja:東インド会社]] [[no:Det Ostindiske kompani]] [[pl:Kompania Wschodnioindyjska]] [[ru:Ост-Индская компания]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elihu Yale</title> <id>10204</id> <revision> <id>37206646</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T12:37:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uucp</username> <id>139248</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Death and legacy */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Elihu_Yale.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Elihu Yale''']] '''Elihu Yale''', ([[April 5]], [[1649]] &amp;ndash; [[July 8]], [[1721]]), was the first benefactor of [[Yale University]]. His ancestry can be traced to a family of North [[Wales]], and the name Yale is the [[English language|English]] spelling of the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] place name, Iâl. He was a prominent governor of [[Madras]], in [[British East India]], amassed a fortune in his lifetime, and he was generous with the proceeds. == Life == Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to David Yale (1613-1690) and Ursula Knight (1624-1698). His grandmother, Ann Lloyd (1591-1659), was also the wife of the [[Theophilus Eaton|Governor Theophilus Eaton]] (1590-1657) of [[New Haven Colony]] by a second marriage after her first husband, Thomas Yale (1590-1619), suddenly died at [[Chester]]. Yale moved to [[England]] with his family when he was four, and never returned to North America. For 20 years, Yale was part of the [[British East India Company]], and he became the second governor of a settlement at [[Madras]] (present-day city of [[Chennai]]) in [[1687]], after [[Streynsham Master]]. He was suspended from the post, however, in [[1692]] after arguments with his council and his superiors. In [[1718]], [[Cotton Mather]] contacted Yale and asked for his help. Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded as the Collegiate School of Connecticut in [[1701]], and it needed money for a new building in [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]]. Yale sent Mather a carton of goods that the school subsequently sold, earning them 560 [[pounds sterling]], which was a substantial sum in the early [[1700s]]. In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution became [[Yale University|Yale College]]. == Death and legacy == Yale died on [[July 8]], [[1721]] and is buried in the churchyard of [[Wrexham]], [[North Wales]]. His tomb is inscribed with these lines: :&lt;i&gt;Born in America, in Europe bred &lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;In Africa travell'd and in Asia wed&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;Where long he liv'd and thriv'd; In London dead&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all's even&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;And that his soul thro' mercy's gone to Heaven&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;You that survive and read this tale, take care&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;For this most certain exit to prepare&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;Where blest in peace, the actions of the just&lt;/i&gt; :&lt;i&gt;Smell sweet and blossom in silent dust.&lt;/i&gt; Elihu later became the name of a &quot;senior society&quot; founded in [[1903]] at Yale. Alexandra Robbins, in her article for ''Atlantic Monthly'' about [[Skull and Bones]], alleges that the [[gravestone]] of Elihu Yale was stolen years ago from its proper setting in [[Wrexham]], and is displayed in a glass case, in a room with purple walls, which belongs to a building called ''the Tomb'' of the [[Skull and Bones]] at [[Yale University]]. In 1999, ''American Heritage'' magazine rated Elihu Yale the &quot;most overrated philanthropist&quot; in American history, arguing that the college that would later bear his name (Yale University) was successful largely because of the generosity of a man named [[Jeremiah Dummer]], but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name &quot;Dummer College&quot;. == Other references to the name == '''Elihu Yale''' is also the name of the Atlanta Police Chief in [[Tom Wolfe]]'s novel ''[[A Man in Full]]''. In the novel Elihu Yale is understood to be a black man, a fact that could possibly be interpreted as more of Tom Wolfe's commentary on class division in the United States. Wolfe himself earned a PhD. in American Studies from Yale. [[Yale College Wrexham|Yale College]], [[Wrexham]], a college in [[Wales]], is also named for Yale. [[Category:1649 births|Yale, Elihu]] [[Category:1721 deaths|Yale, Elihu]] [[Category:Yale University|Yale, Elihu]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Yale, Elihu]] [[de:Elihu Yale]] [[pl:Elihu Yale]] [[uk:Єль Еліу]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Émile Baudot</title> <id>10207</id> <revision> <id>18071088</id> <timestamp>2005-07-03T14:48:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ype</username> <id>311873</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot''', ([[September 11]] [[1845]] &amp;ndash; [[March 28]] [[1903]]), [[France|French]] [[telegraphy|telegraph]] [[engineering|engineer]] and inventor of the [[Baudot code]], was one of the pioneers of [[telecommunication]]s. The term &quot;[[baud]]&quot; (a measure of symbols transmitted per second) is named after Emile Baudot. In 1949, the French Post Office issued a series of stamps with his portrait. By mistake, the year of his birth was given as 1848, not the correct 1845. The stamps were subsequently re-issued with the correct year. ==External links== * [http://www.itu.ch/aboutitu/HistoricalFigures.html ITU historical figures listing] * [http://www.enteract.com/~enf/baudot/necrologie.html Obituary of Baudot] {{France-bio-stub}} [[Category:1845 births|Baudot, Émile]] [[Category:1903 deaths|Baudot, Émile]] [[Category:Telecommunications history|Baudot, Émile]] [[de:Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot]] [[fr:Émile Baudot]] [[nl:Émile Baudot]] [[ru:Бодо, Жан Морис Эмиль]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edward A. Murphy, Jr.</title> <id>10209</id> <revision> <id>35715228</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:00:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Plutor</username> <id>55842</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect to [[Major Edward A. Murphy, Jr.]] instead</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Major Edward A. Murphy, Jr.]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emotion theory</title> <id>10210</id> <revision> <id>15908038</id> <timestamp>2004-10-13T12:53:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Johnkarp</username> <id>99812</id> </contributor> <comment>move info to emotion, redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emotion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economic security</title> <id>10211</id> <revision> <id>31322125</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T13:10:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.18.49.15</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economic security''' can be thought of as: * probable continued [[solvency]] * predictability of the future [[cash flow]] of a [[person]] or other [[economic entity]]. * [[employment security]] It is widely believed that there is a &quot;[[tradeoff]]&quot; between economic security and [[economic opportunity]]. {{econ-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Evers, Charles</title> <id>10212</id> <revision> <id>15908040</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Evers]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution</title> <id>10213</id> <revision> <id>42037621</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.168.72.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}} '''Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution''', or '''EDGE''', is a digital [[mobile phone]] technology which acts as a [[bolt-on enhancement]] to [[2G]] and [[2.5G]] ''General Packet Radio Service'' ([[GPRS]]) networks. This technology works in [[TDMA]] and [[GSM]] networks. EDGE (also known as EGPRS) is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrades. EDGE provides Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), which can be used for any [[packet switching|packet switched]] applications such as an [[Internet]] connection. High-speed data applications such as video services and other multimedia benefit from EGPR
ki|bourbakist]] mathematician, [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899-1983), uncle of the world famous mathematician [[Benoit Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism cybernetics into his scientific theory. Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems such as a regulated steam engine and human institutions in his best-selling ''The Human Use of Human Beings : Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin, 1950). ==Scope== In scholarly terms, cybernetics is the study of systems and control in an abstracted sense &amp;mdash; that is, it is not grounded in any one empirical field. The emphasis is on the functional relations that hold between the different parts of a system, rather than the parts themselves. These relations include the transfer of [[information]], and circular relations ([[feedback]]) that result in emergent phenomena such as [[self-organization]], and, (expressed as a term coined much later by [[Humberto Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela]] and [[Ricardo Uribe]]), [[autopoiesis]]. The main innovation of cybernetics was the creation of a scientific discipline focused on goals: an understanding of goal-directedness or [[purpose]], resulting from a [[negative feedback]] loop which minimizes the deviation between the perceived situation and the desired situation (goal). As mechanistic as that sounds, cybernetics has the scope and rigor to encompass the human social interactions of agreement and collaboration that, after all, require goals and feedback to attain. Cybernetics is somewhat erroneously associated in many people's minds with [[robotics]], due to uses such as [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[Sirius Cybernetics Corporation]]'' and the concept of a ''[[cyborg]]'', a term first popularized by Clynes and Kline in 1960. Additional confusion arose when terms such as 'cyberspace', 'cybercrime', and many others arose. Ampère's earlier use of the term echoes in the development of [[second-order cybernetics]], which includes observers as part of whatever system is being studied. A primary force behind second-order-cybernetics was [[Heinz von Foerster]], an Austrian trained in physics and magic, who was appointed by Warren McCulloch as the editor of the [[Macy Meetings]], a series of meetings held between 1946 and 1955, involving [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[F.S.C. Northrop]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Claude Shannon]], [[Conrad Lorenz]], [[Warren McCulloch]], [[Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]], and [[Norbert Wiener]]. (Wiener is usually considered the “father of cybernetics” because of his authorship of the book ''Cybernetics'', published in 1948, but this is an oversimplification that Wiener would be the first to point out.) These meetings were originally called “Circular Causal and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems”. From this original title, as well as the breadth of fields represented by the attendees, the scope and depth of second-order cybernetics is dramatically apparent. ==Major fields== * '''General cybernetics (K1 and K2)''' ** [[connectionism]] ** [[decision theory]] ** [[game theory]] ** [[information theory]] ** [[semiotics]] ** [[synergetics]] ** [[systems theory]] * '''Applied cybernetics (K3)''' ** [[Anthropocybernetics]] *** [[Microanthropocybernetics]] ([[Psychocybernetics]]) *** [[Macroanthropocybernetics]] ([[Soziocybernetics]]) ** [[Biomedical cybernetics]] *** [[Biological cybernetics]] *** [[Medical cybernetics]] ** [[Engineering cybernetics]] ** [[Managerial cybernetics]] * '''[[Second-order_cybernetics|Second-order cybernetics]]''' ==See also== *[[Artificial intelligence]] *[[Artificial life]] *[[Systems biology]] *[[Automation]] *[[Brain implant]] *[[Complex system|Complex systems]] *[[Machine augmented intelligence]] *[[Project Cybersyn]] - a Chilean attempt to implement a planned economy using the principles of cybernetics. ==References== * Norbert Wiener, ''Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine'', (Hermann Editions in Paris; Cambridge: MIT Press,Wiley &amp; Sons in NY 1948), * Ashby, W. R. (1956) ''Introduction to Cybernetics''. Methuen, London. (electronically republished at [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf]). * Heylighen F. &amp; Joslyn C. (2001): &quot;[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/Cybernetics-EPST.pdf Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics]&quot;, in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science &amp; Technology (3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170. * Pangaro, Paul (1990): &quot;Cybernetics—A Definition&quot;, available at [http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.html] * von Foerster, Heinz (1995): Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics, available at [http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/text/foerster.html] * Manfred E. Clynes, and Nathan S. Kline, (1960) &quot;Cyborgs and Space&quot;, ''Astronautics'', September, pp. 26-27 and 74-75; reprinted in Gray, Mentor, and Figueroa-Sarriera, eds., ''The Cyborg Handbook'', New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 29-34. * Heims, Steve J.: John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, 3. Aufl., Cambridge 1980. * Heims, Steve J.: Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953, Cambridge/London 1993. * Ilgauds, Hans Joachim: Norbert Wiener, Leipzig 1980. * Masani, P. Rustom: Norbert Wiener 1894-1964, Basel 1990. * Bluma, Lars: Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Münster 2005. * B.C.Patten and E.P.Odum (1981) 'The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems', ''The American Naturalist'', Vol. 118. pp. 886-895. ==External links== {{wiktionary}} * [http://www.rmcybernetics.com Cybernetics projects, Physics, and High Voltage] * [http://egodeath.com Ego Death and Self-Control Cybernetics] * [http://histm2.free.fr/H.Couffign.htm Louis Couffignal's photos &amp; documents] * [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/indexASC.html Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/slide/s1.html Glossary Slideshow (136 slides)] * [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/DEFAULT.html ''Principia Cybernetica Web''] * [http://www.systems-thinking.de Mindmap-based-page by Ragnar Heil] * [http://www.cybsoc.org The Cybernetics Society] * [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/ American Society for Cybernetics] *[http://www.iberobotics.com/ Iberobotics - Portal de Robótica en Castellano] * [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/nathalie.diaz/html/Approche%20syst.htm The Systemic Approach : an introduction] * [http://www.infoamerica.org/documentos_word/shannon-wiener.htm Cybernetics and Information Theory in the United States, France and the Soviet Union] * [http://www.medical-cybernetics.de Medizinische Kybernetik | Medical Cybernetics] * [http://open-site.org/Science/Mathematics/Applied/Cybernetics/ Cybernetics category in the Open Encyclopedia Project] * [http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/papers/systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective.pdf Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective (pdf document)] : ([http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/ more related pdf documents]) * [http://earthops.net/klaatu/delgado.html Dr Jose Delgado / Brain implants] * [http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html Basics of Cybernetics] * [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/foundations/definitions.htm Several definitions of cybernetics] {{Cybernetics}} * [http://dsoul.blogharbor.com/blog/Systems/Cybernetics Cybernetics Portal] * [http://www.squidoo.com/Cybernetics Cybernetics Lens] [[Category:Cybernetics|*]] [[Category:Systems theory]] [[Category:Control theory]] [[Category:Norbert Wiener]] [[af:Kubernetika]] [[ar:السيبرنيتيك]] [[bg:Кибернетика]] [[da:Kybernetik]] [[de:Kybernetik]] [[et:Küberneetika]] [[es:Cibernética]] [[eo:Cibernetiko]] [[fr:Cybernétique]] [[it:Cibernetica]] [[lt:Kibernetika]] [[nl:Cybernetica]] [[ja:サイバネティックス]] [[pl:Cybernetyka]] [[pt:Cibernética]] [[ro:Cibernetică]] [[ru:Кибернетика]] [[fi:Kybernetiikka]] [[sv:Cybernetik]] [[tr:Sibernetik]] [[uk:Кібернетика]] [[zh:控制论]] more INFO http://people.howstuffworks.com/robot1.htm</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chalcogen</title> <id>5905</id> <revision> <id>41587898</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:12:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NongBot</username> <id>817745</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ko</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot; ! [[Periodic table group|Group]] ! 16 |- ! [[Periodic table period|Period]] |- ! [[Period 2 element|2]] | {{element cell| 8|Oxygen|O| |Gas|Nonmetals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 3 element|3]] | {{element cell|16|Sulfur|S| |Solid|Nonmetals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 4 element|4]] | {{element cell|34|Selenium|Se| |Solid|Nonmetals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 5 element|5]] | {{element cell|52|Tellurium|Te| |Solid|Metalloids|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 6 element|6]] | {{element cell|84|Polonium|Po| |Solid|Metalloids|Natural radio}} |- ! [[Period 7 element|7]] | {{element cell|116|Ununhexium|Uuh| |Solid|Poor metals|Synthetic}} |} The '''chalcogens''' (with the &quot;ch&quot; pronounced with a hard &quot;c&quot; as in &quot;[[chemistry]]&quot;) are the name for the [[periodic table group]] 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA) in the [[periodic table]]. It is sometimes known as the '''oxygen family'''. It consists of the [[chemical element|elements]] [[oxygen]] ('''O'''), [[sulfur]] ('''S'''), [[selenium]] ('''Se'''), [[tellurium]] ('''Te'''), the radioactive [[polonium]] ('''Po'''), and the synthetic [[ununhexium]] ('''Uuh'''). The compounds of the heavier
''alphorn''', a [[wind instrument]], consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped [[mouthpiece]], used by mountain dwellers in Switzerland and elsewhere. The alphorn is carved from solid softwood, generally spruce but sometimes pine. In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn, but modern makers piece the wood together at the base. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete. The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube. [[Image:Swiss playing an alphorn.jpg|thumb|A Swiss playing alphorn near a mountain lake]] The well-known Ranz des Vaches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn from French Switzerland. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at cheese making time. [[Gioacchino Rossini|Rossini]] introduced the melody into his opera ''William Tell.'' [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] was clear that the inspiration for the great melody that opens the last movement of his First Symphony (played in the orchestra by the [[horn (instrument)|horn]]) was an alphorn melody he heard in the Rigi area of Switzerland. The Swiss alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. [[Michael Praetorius]] mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzerni trummet in ''Syntagma Musicum'' (Wittenberg, 1615-1619). This is the horn featured in [[Ricola]] [[cough medicine|cough drop]] commercials. ==References== *{{1911}} ==Music for Alphorn== Among music composed for the alphorn: *'' Sinfonia Pastorella for Alphorn and String Orchestra'' by [[Leopold Mozart]] *''Concerto for alphorn and orchestra'' by Jean Daetwyler *''Concertino rustico'' by Ference Farkas == External links == * [http://www.jacaranda.de Jacaranda Ensemble] * [http://www.SwissAlphorn.com Swiss Alphorn Players, in German] * [http://www.alphorn.ca Rocky Mountain Alphorns, in English] [[Category:Wind instruments proper]] [[de:Alphorn]] [[fr:Cor des Alpes]] [[he:קרן האלפים]] [[nl:Alpenhoorn]] [[sv:Alphorn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alpaca</title> <id>1375</id> <revision> <id>41999917</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:25:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zafiroblue05</username> <id>284148</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History of the Scientific Name */ caps</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a breed of domesticated ungulates}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Alpaca | status = {{StatusDomesticated}} | image = Alpaca2.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Artiodactyla]] | familia = [[Camelidae]] | genus = ''[[Vicugna (genus)|Vicugna]]'' | species = '''''V. pacos''''' | binomial = ''Vicugna pacos'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]) }} The '''Alpaca''' (Vicugna pacos) is one of two domesticated breeds of South American [[camel]]-like [[ungulate|ungulates]], derived from the wild [[guanaco]]. It resembles a sheep in appearance, but is larger in size, and has a long erect neck with a handsome head. Alpacas are kept in large flocks that graze on the level heights of the [[Andes]] of southern [[Peru]], northern [[Bolivia]], and northern [[Chile]] at an altitude of between 3500 and 5000 meters above sea-level, throughout the year. They are not used as beasts of burden like [[llama|llamas]], but are valued only for their [[fiber]], of which Indian blankets and ponchos are made. The alpaca comes in 22 natural colours. In stature, the alpaca is considerably inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of spitting. In the textile industry, &quot;alpaca&quot; is a name given to two distinct things. It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca. It is, however, more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from alpaca fiber but now frequently made from a similar type of fiber, such as [[mohair]], [[Icelandic (sheep)|Icelandic sheep]] wool, or even some high-quality English wool. In trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohairs and lustres. However, as far as the general purchaser is concerned, little or no distinction is made. ===Background=== Alpacas have been domesticated for thousands of years, and originate from Peru, Chile and Bolivia. There are no wild alpacas; it is believed that they are descended from the [[vicuna]], which is also native to South America. They are closely related to llamas, which are descended from the guanaco. These four species of animals are collectively called camelids. Of the four, the alpaca and the vicuña are the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca because of the quality and quantity of its wool, and the vicuña because of the softness, fineness and quality of its coat. Alpacas and llamas can (and do) successfully cross breed, the resulting offspring are called huarizo. There are two types of alpaca – huacaya (with crimpy sheep-like “wool”) and suri (with silky dreadlocks). Suris are much rarer than huacaya, estimated to make up between 6 and 10% of the alpaca population. The suri is probably rarer because it is less hardy in the harsh South American mountain climates, as the style of its fleece offers less insulation against the cold (the suri fleece parts along the spine, exposing the animal to the cold unlike the huacaya fleece which provides excellent cover over the backbone). Alpaca fleece is a luxurious fibre, similar to sheep’s wool in some respects, although it is lighter in weight, silkier to the touch, warmer and not as prickly. A big trade of alpace fleece exists in the countries where alpacas live, from very simple and not so expensive garments made by the aboriginal communities, to sophisticated products industrially made, that can have significantly high prices. White is the predominant colour of alpacas, both suri and huacaya. This is because selective breeding has favoured white – bulk white fleece is easier to market and can be dyed any colour. However, alpacas come in 22 natural colours, from a true blue black through browns and fawns to white, and there are silver greys and rose greys as well. Traditionally, alpaca meat has been eaten fresh, fried or in stews, by Andean inhabitants. There is a resurgent interest in alpaca meat in countries like Peru, where it is relatively easy to find it at upscale restaurants. ===Behaviour=== Alpacas are social herd animals and should always be kept with others of their kind. They are gentle and elegant, inquisitive and observant. As they are a prey animal, rather than a predator, they are cautious and will understandably be nervous if they feel threatened. They like their own space and don’t appreciate another alpaca (or human) getting too close, especially from behind. They will warn the intruder away by threatening to spit, or by spitting, or by kicking. Some alpacas kick, some don’t – but yes, they all spit. Spitting is reserved for other alpacas, not for humans, but sometimes the human can get in the line of fire, or the alpaca aims badly and misses the intended target. The spit is not pleasant: it is the contents of the stomach – green (regurgitated grass) – and smells foul. Alpacas don’t like their heads being touched. Once they know their owners, and feel confident around them, they will probably allow their backs and necks to be touched, but they won’t appreciate being grabbed, especially by boisterous children. If an owner need to catch an alpaca, the neck offers a good handle – and holding the neck firmly between the arms is the best way to restrain the animal. To help alpacas control their internal parasites they have a communal dung pile, which they do not graze. Generally, males have much tidier dung piles than females who tend to stand in a line and all go at once! Sheep baa, cows moo and alpacas hum. Different animals have different voices, but basically it is a &quot;mmm&quot; sound. However, they make other sounds as well as humming. When danger is present they sound the alarm call, a high pitched shriek, for instance. Some breeds are known to make a sound similar to a &quot;Wark&quot; noise when excited, and they stand proud with their tails sticking out and their ears in a very alert position. Strange dogs – and even cats – can trigger this reaction. (They recognise domestic cats for what they are – a relation of the puma, a natural predator of the alpaca in South America.) When males fight they also scream, a warbling bird-like cry, presumably intended to terrify the other combatant. Fighting is to determine dominance, and therefore the right to mate the females in the herd, and it is triggered by testosterone. This is why males are often kept in separate paddocks – when two dominant males get together war breaks out! A male in the act of mating, or hoping for a chance to mate, will “orgle.” This orgling will help to put the female in the mood, and it is believed that it also helps her to ovulate after the act of mating – very necessary for a pregnancy to take place! Pregnancies last eleven and a half months and the young are called crias. Soon after the cria is born the female will be ready to mate again, babies are therefore an annual event. A female is usually ready to mate for the first time at a year of age, but a male can often not work until he is two or even three years old. Alpacas generally live for more than 20 ye
stitute, thereby turning the defense contractor into a tax-exempt charity. The deal was the topic of a protracted legal battle between Hughes and the [[Internal Revenue Service]] which Hughes ultimately won. After his death in 1976, many thought that the balance of Hughes' estate would go to the institute, although it ultimately was divided among his cousins and other heirs, given the lack of a will to the contrary. It is America's second largest private foundation and the largest devoted to [[biology|biological]] and [[medicine|medical]] research with a 2004 [[Financial endowment|endowment]] of $12.4 billion. On [[January 12]], [[1957]], Hughes married [[actress]] [[Jean Peters]]; they divorced in 1971. Shortly before the [[US presidential election, 1960|1960 Presidential election]], [[Richard Nixon]] was harmed by revelations of a $205,000 loan from Hughes to Nixon's brother that was never repaid. &lt;!-- fix passive voice --&gt; [[Hughes Space and Communications]] was founded in 1961. In the same year, TWA's management sued its chairman Hughes because of differences in running the company; he was forced to sell his stock in TWA in 1966 for more than $500 million. During the [[1970s]], Hughes went back into the airline business, buying airline [[Air West]] and renaming it [[Hughes Airwest]]. ==Glomar Explorer== In 1972, Hughes was approached by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to help secretly recover a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[submarine]] which had sunk near [[Hawaii]] four years before. He agreed. Thus the [[Hughes Glomar Explorer|''Glomar Explorer'']], a special-purpose salvage vessel, was born. Hughes' involvement provided the CIA with a plausible cover story, having to do with civilian marine research at extreme depths, and the mining of undersea [[manganese nodule]]s. In the summer of 1974 ''Glomar Explorer'' attempted to raise the Soviet vessel. But during the recovery a mechanical failure in the ship's grapple caused half of the submarine to break off and fall to the ocean floor. This section is believed to have held many of the most sought after items, including its code book and nuclear missiles. Two nuclear-tipped torpedoes and some cryptographic machines were recovered, along with the bodies of six Soviet [[submariner]]s who were subsequently given formal burial at sea in a filmed ceremony. The operation, known as [[Project Jennifer]], became public in February 1975 because burglars had obtained secret documents from Hughes' headquarters in June 1974. ==Recluse== By the late 1950s, if not earlier, Hughes developed debilitating symptoms of [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD). Once one of the most visible men in America, he ultimately vanished from public view altogether, although the tabloids continued to follow rumors regarding his behavior and whereabouts. He was reported at different times to be terminally ill, mentally unstable, or possibly dead. Hughes had displayed symptoms consistent with OCD his entire life: In the 1930s, close friends reported he was obsessed with the size of [[pea]]s&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; one of his favorite foods&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; and used a special fork to sort them by size before he ate. While producing ''The Outlaw'', Hughes became absorbed by a minor flaw in one of [[Jane Russell]]'s blouses, claiming that the fabric bunched up along a seam and gave the appearance of two [[nipple]]s on each of Russell's breasts. He was reportedly so concerned by the matter as to write a detailed memorandum to the film crew on how to fix the problem. Hughes eventually became a complete recluse, locking himself away in darkened rooms in a drug-induced daze. Though he always kept a [[barber]] on call, Hughes only had his hair cut and nails trimmed about once a year. Several doctors were kept in the house on a substantial salary, though Hughes rarely saw them and usually refused to follow their advice. Toward the end of his life, his inner circle was largely composed of [[Mormon]]s because he considered them trustworthy&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; even though he was not a member of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]].[http://www.paulrich.net/papers/mormon2.html] Hughes by this time had become severely addicted to [[codeine]], [[diazepam|valium]], and a number of other painkillers and was becoming increasingly frail. Many biographies and fictionalized works have reported that he stored his [[urine]] in jars and wore [[Kleenex]] boxes as shoes, although it has been reported that he only did the latter once, as &quot;protection&quot; when a [[toilet]] flooded. He insisted on using paper towels to pick up objects, so that he could insulate himself from germs. Hughes had contracted [[syphilis]] as a young man, and much of the strange behavior at the end of his life&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; his well-documented aversion to handshaking, for example&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; has been attributed by modern biographers to the tertiary stage of that disease. The condition first manifested itself in the form of tiny blisters that erupted on his hands. After receiving medical treatment for his symptoms, Hughes was warned by his doctor not to shake hands for some time, and he avoided doing so for the rest of his life. His syphilis was also indirectly responsible for a bizarre episode in which Hughes burned all his clothes. (In the film ''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004), this incident is depicted as his response to his breakup with Katharine Hepburn. In reality, it was an overreaction by Hughes to the syphilis diagnosis; fearful of the germs which might be lingering on his clothing, he torched his entire wardrobe as well as every piece of linen in his house.) ==Later years== [[Image:Time-magazine-cover-1976-howard-hughes.jpg|thumb|Hughes' eccentricities have fascinated the public for years. ''Time'', 1976]] The elderly Howard Hughes moved with his entourage from hotel to hotel and from [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] before deciding to move to [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] and become a casino baron. Less than a month after his November 27 1966 arrival, Hughes had made a public offer to buy the [[Desert Inn]] where the whole eighth floor had become the nerve center of his empire and the ninth floor penthouse had become Hughes's personal residence. Between 1966 and 1968, he also purchased several other hotels/casinos ([[Castaways]], [[New Frontier Hotel and Casino|New Frontier]], [[The Landmark Hotel and Casino]], [[Sands Hotel|Sands]] and [[Silver Slipper]]) from the [[Mafia]], transactions which ultimately ended mob control of the city's hotels and casinos. Hughes wanted to change the image of Las Vegas from its mobsters in gaudy silk suits and thousand-dollar-a-night callgirls to a more glamourous image. As Hughes wrote in a memo to an aide: &quot;I like to think of Las Vegas in terms of a well-dressed man in a dinner jacket and a beautifully jeweled and furred female getting out of an expensive car&quot;. A chronic [[insomnia|insomniac]], Hughes bought several local [[television stations]] (including [[KLAS-TV]]) so that there would always be something for him to watch in the early hours of the morning. Hughes' considerable business holdings were overseen by a small panel unofficially dubbed &quot;The [[Mormon]] Mafia&quot; on account of the many [[Latter-day Saints]] on the committee. In addition to supervising day-to-day business operations and Hughes' health, they also went to great pains to satisfy Hughes' every bizarre whim. Hughes once took a liking to [[Baskin-Robbins|Baskin Robbins]]' [[banana]]-nut [[ice cream]], and his aides sought to secure a bulk shipment for him only to discover that Baskin-Robbins had discontinued the flavor. They put in a request for 350 [[gallon]]s, the smallest amount the company could provide for a special order, and had it shipped from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to Las Vegas. A few days after the order arrived, Hughes announced he had grown tired of banana-nut and only wanted vanilla ice cream, with the consequence that the Desert Inn ended up distributing free banana-nut ice cream to casino customers for a year before the 350 gallons were gone. Having bought up many of Las Vegas's major businesses, Hughes wielded enormous political and economic power in Nevada and was often able to influence the outcome of elections and ballot votes. He even once ordered his aides to offer $1 million each to presidents [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[Richard Nixon]] if they would shut down the open-air [[nuclear weapon]]s testing program in Nevada (Hughes was afraid of the risk posed by the residual [[Ionizing radiation|nuclear radiation]]). His aides never offered the bribes, reporting to Hughes that Johnson had declined the offer, and that they had been unable to contact Nixon. As his health deteriorated due to untreated OCD and abuse of prescription drugs, Hughes moved around to [[Bahamas|the Bahamas]], [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]], [[London]], and several other locations, always taking up residence in the top floor penthouse of his hotel. On the pretext of possible assassination attempts and intrusive press photographers, his aides insisted on having the windows blacked out. Many of the hotels in which he stayed were forced to undergo major renovations to repair the damage Hughes had caused to the premises. In 1971, he divorced [[Jean Peters]]; they had been living apart for several years. Peters, who initiated the divorce proceedings requested a lifetime [[alimony]] payment of $70,000 a year, adjusted for inflation, and waived all claims to Hughes' estate. The surprised Hughes offered her a settlement of over a million dollars, but she declined it, and Hughes then surprised his aides by not insisting upon a [[gag order|confidentiality agreement]] from Peters as a condition of the divorce; aides reported that Peters was one of the few people Hughes never spoke ill of. Peters refused to
miting toxic mold | journal=Western Farm Press | issue=October 10 | volume= | pages= | year=2004}} [[Category:Crops]] [[Category:Genetically modified organisms]] [[de:Transgener Mais]] [[fr:Maïs Bt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of the Somme (disambiguation)</title> <id>4515</id> <revision> <id>39468782</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T09:09:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ironfrost</username> <id>714496</id> </contributor> <comment>fixed vandalism by 82.32.37.45</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">There were a number of '''Battles of the Somme''' during [[World War I]]: *[[Battle of the Somme (1916)]] ([[1 July]]&amp;ndash;[[18 November]], [[1916]]) - major Anglo-French offensive of 1916. *[[First Battle of the Somme (1918)]] ([[21 March]]&amp;ndash;[[5 April]], [[1918]]) - British name for the German [[Operation Michael|Operation ''Michael'']] offensive. *[[Second Battle of the Somme (1918)]] ([[21 August]]&amp;ndash;[[3 September]], [[1918]]) - second phase of the British offensive in [[Picardy]] during the [[Hundred Days (1918)|Hundred Days]]. See also ''[[The Battle of the Somme (film)|The Battle of the Somme]]'', a [[documentary film]] shot during the [[1916]] battle. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Body substance isolation</title> <id>4516</id> <revision> <id>36457987</id> <timestamp>2006-01-24T04:13:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uthbrian</username> <id>562409</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>add cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Body substance isolation''' is a practice of isolating all body substances ([[blood]], [[urine]], [[feces]], [[tears]], etc.) of individuals undergoing [[medical treatment]], particularly emergency medical treatment of those who might be infected with illnessess such as [[HIV]], or [[hepatitis]] so as to reduce as much as possible the chances of transmitting these illnesses. BSI is similar in nature to [[universal precautions]], but goes further in isolating substances not currently known to carry HIV. {{med-stub}} [[Category:Medical hygiene]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boudica</title> <id>4517</id> <revision> <id>41650305</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:19:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>205.188.116.9</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Films and television */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:boudiccastatue.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of Boudica near Westminster Pier]]'''Boudica''' (also written '''Boudicca''', '''Boadicea''', '''Buduica''', '''Bonduca''') (d. [[60]]/[[61]]) was a [[Queen regnant|queen]] of the [[Brythonic]] [[Celt|Celtic]] [[Iceni]] people of Norfolk in Eastern [[Roman Britain|Britain]] who led a major uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the [[Roman Empire]]. Upon the death of her husband the Icenian king [[Prasutagus]] (''circa'' 60), the Romans annexed his kingdom and brutally humiliated Boudica and her daughters, spurring her leadership of the revolt. In [[60]] or [[61]], while governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]] was leading a campaign against the [[druids]] on the island of [[Anglesey]] in north [[Wales]], the Iceni and their neighbours, the [[Trinovantes]], rebelled, and lead by Boudica, destroyed the former Trinovantian capital and Roman ''[[colonia]]'' of Camulodunum ([[Colchester]]), and routed the Roman [[Legio IX Hispana|Legio IX ''Hispana'']] under [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]]. Boudica's army then burned to the ground the twenty-year-old settlement of [[Londinium]] ([[London]]) and destroyed [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]), killing an estimated 70,000-80,000 people. [[Roman emperor]] [[Nero]] briefly considered withdrawing Roman forces from the island, but ultimately Boudica was defeated at the [[Battle of Watling Street]] by the heavily outnumbered forces of Roman provincial governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]]. The chronicles of these events, as recorded by the historians [[Tacitus]]{{ref|Tacitus}} and [[Dio Cassius]]{{ref|Dio}}, were rediscovered during the [[Renaissance]] and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the [[Victorian era]], when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was portrayed as her &quot;namesake&quot;. Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. ==Background== ===Boudica or Boadicea?=== Until relatively recently Boudica was better known as Boadicea, a name which probably derives from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the [[Middle Ages]]. Her name takes many forms in various manuscripts, but was almost certainly originally Boudicca or Boudica, derived from the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word ''*bouda'', victory (cf. [[Irish language|Irish]] ''bua'', 'Buaidheach'', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''buddug''). The name is attested in inscriptions as &quot;Boudica&quot; in [[Lusitania]], &quot;Boudiga&quot; in [[Bordeaux]] and &quot;Bodicca&quot; in Britain.{{ref|Bodicca}} Based on later development of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson]] concludes that the correct spelling of the name is ''Boudica'', pronounced 'Bow-DEE-cah' (first syllable as in bow-and-arrow, ''i'' and ''a'' both long), although it is mispronounced by many as [b&amp;#363;-d&amp;#301;k'&amp;#601;].{{ref|Jackson}} ===Prasutagus' inheritance=== [[Image:EnglandNorfolk.png|thumb|right|150px|Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni.]]Boudica's husband, [[Prasutagus]], was king of the [[Iceni]], who inhabited roughly what is now [[Norfolk]]. The Iceni were not at this stage part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following [[Claudius]]'s [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest]] of [[43]]. They were jealous of their independence, and had revolted in [[47]] when the then-[[Roman governors of Britain|governor]], [[Publius Ostorius Scapula]], threatened to disarm them.{{ref|disarm}} It is possible that Prasutagus was installed as a pro-Roman ruler following the suppression of this uprising. He lived a long life of conspicuous wealth, and, hoping to preserve his line, made the [[Roman emperor]] co-heir to his kingdom along with his two daughters. It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will: the provinces of [[Bithynia]]{{ref|Bithynia}} and [[Galatia]]{{ref|Galatia}}, for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. [[Roman law]] also allowed [[inheritance]] only through the male line. So when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. Lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to [[Tacitus]], Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Dio Cassius says that Roman financiers, including [[Seneca the Younger]], chose this point to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the [[procurator]], [[Catus Decianus]], for criticism for his &quot;avarice&quot;. Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt. ==Boudica's uprising== In [[60]] or [[61]], while the current governor, [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]], was leading a campaign against the [[druids]] on the island of [[Anglesey]] in north [[Wales]], the Iceni rebelled, along with their neighbours the Trinovantes, under Boudica's leadership. [[Image:claud_1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A statue of Emperor Claudius]]Their first target was Camulodunum ([[Colchester]]), the former Trinovantian capital and now a Roman ''[[colonia]]''. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals, and a temple to the former emperor [[Claudius]] had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The city was poorly defended and the rebels destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. The future governor [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]], then commanding the [[Legio IX Hispana|Legio IX ''Hispana'']], attempted to relieve the city, but his forces were routed. When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along [[Watling Street]] through hostile territory to [[Londinium]] ([[London]]). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of [[43]], but had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably Roman officials. The procurator, Catus Decianus, likely had his office there. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petilius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius ([[archaeology]] shows a thick layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before [[60]]{{ref|arch}}). [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]) was next to be destroyed. In the three cities destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. ===Romans rally=== {{see also|Battle of Watling Street}} Suetonius regrouped with the [[Legio XIV Gemina|XIV ''Gemina'']], some ''vexillationes'' (detachments) of the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX ''Valeria Victrix'']], and any available auxiliaries. The [[prefect]] of [[Legio II Augusta|Legio II ''Augusta'']], [[Poenius Postumus]], ignored the call, but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men. He took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] somewhere along [[Watling Street]], in a [[defile]] wit
s well known, metals heated begin to glow red, and [[fire]] is reddish. But the redness of these heat sources comes from precisely the fact that red is the ''coolest'' of the visible colors: the first color emitted as heat increases. A proof of this is that while incandescent bulbs glow a reddish to yellowish color throughout their lifetimes; when one blows out, the flash of light is noticebly bluish! The filament is hotter when it burns out (as evidenced by the scorch mark often left on the glass)! &quot;Color temperature&quot; is sometimes used loosely to mean &quot;white balance&quot; or &quot;[[white point]]&quot;. Notice that color temperature has only one [[degrees of freedom|degree of freedom]], whereas white balance has two (R-Y and B-Y). In [[photography]], an alternative numerical measure used is the [[mired]]. Color temperatures and mireds are convertible to each other via a simple formula (see the [[mired]] page for details of the computations, and the reasons for the use of the alternative unit). == Color temperature applications == === Film photography === Film sometimes exaggerates the color of the light. An object that appears to the naked eye to be under white light may turn out looking very blue or orange in a photograph. The [[color balance]] may need to be corrected while shooting to achieve a neutral color print. Film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and [[tungsten film]]), and used properly, will create a neutral color print. Matching the [[color sensitivity]] of the film to the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color. If tungsten film is used while photographing indoors with [[incandescent]] lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the [[tungsten]] [incandescent] bulbs will appear as white (5500k) in the photograph. [[Filters]] on a camera lens, or [[color gel]]s over the light source(s) may also be used to correct color balance. When shooting with a bluish light (high temperature) source such as an overcast day, in the shade, in window light or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a yellowish-orange filter will correct this. For shooting with daylight film under warmer (low temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candle light or tungsten lighting, a bluish (e.g. #80A) filter may be used. Fluorescent light varies in color and may be harder to correct for. Because it is often greenish, a reddish filter might correct it, though this could take some trial and error. If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, gels (placed over each light source) in conjuction with daylight film is the best way to balance the color. === Desktop publishing === In the desktop publishing industry, it is important to know your monitor’s color temperature. Color matching software, such as [[ColorSync]] will measure your monitor's color temperature and then adjust your monitor’s settings accordingly. This enables on-screen color to more closely match printed color. Common monitor color temperatures are as follows: 5000K (D50), 5500K (D55), 6500K (D65), 7500K (D75) and 9300K. Designations such as D50 are used to classify color temperatures of light tables and viewing booths. When viewing a color slide at a light table, it is important that the light be balanced properly so the colors are not shifted towards the red or blue. General computer-users should set their PC monitor color-temperature to &quot;sRGB&quot; or &quot;6500K&quot;, as this is what digital cameras, web graphics, and DVDs etc are normally designed for. Indeed the sRGB standard stipulates (among other things) a 6500K display whitepoint. === TV, video, and digital still cameras === The [[NTSC]] and [[PAL]] TV norms call for a compliant TV screen to display an electrically &quot;black-and-white&quot; signal (minimal color saturation) at a color temperature of 6500K. On many actual sets however, especially older and/or cheaper ones, there is a very noticeable deviation from this requirement of the standard. Most video and digital still cameras can adjust for color temperature by zooming into a white object and setting the white balance (telling the camera &quot;this object is white&quot;); the camera then shows true white as white and adjusts all the other colors accordingly. White-balancing is necessary especially indoors under fluorescent lighting and when moving the camera from one lighting situation to another. The setting called &quot;Auto white balance&quot; is not recommended for optimum quality video or stills. === Artistic application via control of color temperature === [[image:Example_different_color_temp.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The house above appears a light cream during the midday, but seems a bluish white here in the dim light before full sunrise. Note the different color temperature of the sunrise in the background.]] Experimentation with color temperature is obvious in many [[Stanley Kubrick]] films; for instance in ''[[Eyes Wide Shut]]'' the light coming in from a window was almost always conspicuously blue, whereas the light from lamps on end tables was fairly orange. Indoor lights typically give off a yellow hue; fluorescent and natural lighting tends to be more blue. Video [[camera operator]]s can also white-balance objects which aren't white, downplaying the color of the object used for white-balancing. For instance, they can bring more warmth into a picture by white-balancing off something light blue, such as faded blue denim; in this way white-balancing can serve in place of a filter or lighting gel when those aren't available. [[Cinematographer]]s do not &quot;white balance&quot; in the same way as video camera operators: they can use techniques such as filters, choice of film stock, [[pre-flashing]], and after shooting, [[color grading]] (both by exposure at the labs, and also digitally, where [[digital film]] processes are used). Cinematographers also work closely with set designers and lighting crews to achieve their desired effects. == Correlated color temperature == [[image:PlanckianLocus.png|right|thumb|300px|CIE (1931) xy chromaticity diagram including the Planckian locus, with temperatures indicated. Wavelengths of monochromatic light are shown in blue. The lines crossing the Planckian locus are lines of constant correlated color temperature.]] The Kelvin system for lamp description works well for an incandescent light bulb. Since these lamps are very nearly black body radiators, their chromaticity coordinates land directly on the [[Planckian locus]] in the [[CIE_1931_color_space|CIExy color space]]. [[Fluorescent lamp|Fluorescent]] lighting is not incandescent and presents a new challenge. Fluorescent lamps are made using myriad combinations of [[phosphor]]s and gases. The illumination that they produce is almost never described by a point in color space which lies on the Planckian locus. The question then becomes how to describe the quality of light from a fluorescent lamp. The method used is called the &quot;correlated color temperature&quot;, which a method for assigning a color temperature to a color near, but not on, the Planckian locus. The above plot shows lines crossing the Planckian locus for which the correlated color temperature is the same. Nevertheless, the colors are not the same, and the method gives only an approximate specification of a particular color. Due to this shortcoming, the rated CCT of any fluorescent tube does not completely specify its color. To be more precise: A number of color spaces have been developed in which the difference between two colors may be estimated by the distance between them on a chromaticity diagram. These include the 1960 CIELuv (which is now outdated) and the 1976 CIELu'v' and CIELab spaces. On a chromaticity diagram for which distances specify color distances, the best estimate of the color temperature of any point will be the color temperature of the point on the Planckian locus closest to that point. Although it is outdated, the CIE specifies distances in the 1960 CIELuv chromaticity space to define correlated color temperature. Photographers often use color temperature meters. Color temperature meters by design read only two regions along the visible spectrum (red &amp; blue) or some expensive ones read three regions (Red, Green &amp; Blue). They are almost useless under fluorescent light. There are general guidelines and some specific filters recommended to obtain optimum quality under such frustrating circumstances. == Color rendering index == ''Main article: [[Color rendering index]]'' The [[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]] developed a newer model for describing and rating light sources, called the color rendering index, which is a mathematical formula describing how well a light source's illumination of eight sample patches compares to the illumination provided by a reference source. The index provides a number up to 100 for ideal light. == Spectral power distribution plot == The [[spectral power distribution]]s provided by many manufacturers may have been produced using 10 [[nanometre]] increments or more on their [[spectroradiometer]]. The result is what would seem to be a smoother (fuller spectrum) power distribution than the lamp actually has. 2nm increments are mandatory for taking measurements of fluorescent lights. Here is an example of just how different an incandescent lamp's SPD graphs compared to a fluorescent lamp: [[Image:SPD.png|center|]] == Recommendations for those without the expensive equipment == Only those with expensive [[spectrophotometer]]s and [[spectroradiometer]]s can obtain accurate data. Those without these tools should take the time to review the lamp's specifications, and if they seem good, then the eyes are one's best tool. New mathematical indices are being proposed which look hopeful. There are at least 3 new ways to categorize lamps more accurately. They are not in use as of yet, but
ddle Ages]], when [[heresy|heretical]] movements were sometimes slandered by rumours that their members practiced anal sex among themselves. At that time the mainstream [[Christianity|Christian]] [[clergy]] was not celibate, but the highest orders of some heretical sects were, leading to rumours that their celibacy was a sign of their attraction to members of the same sex. The term ''buggery'' originated in [[medieval]] [[Europe]] as an insult used to describe the rumoured same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from the ''Buggre'' sect. This sect originated in medieval [[Bulgaria]], where its followers were called ''[[bogomil]]s'', but when they spread out of the country they were called ''buggres'' (from the ethnonym ''Bulgars''). Some medieval European woodcuts portray persons [[kiss]]ing the anus of a goat-like figure representing the Christian [[Devil]]. As recently as 2003, several jurisdictions in the [[United States]] had laws making anal sex and other forms of [[sodomy]] a crime. Many of these statutes purported to prohibit anal sex by same-sex partners. In 2003, [[John Geddes Lawrence|John Lawrence]] and Tyron Garner brought a landmark suit that challenged as unconstitutional [[Texas]]'s anti-sodomy law before the [[United States Supreme Court]]. Lawrence and Garner had previously been apprehended in Lawrence's home in the act of anal sex, after a neighbour had made a false noise complaint to the local police. The Supreme Court struck down the Texas law by a 6&amp;ndash;3 vote. Five of the justices joined the deciding opinion, which overturned the Court's previous ruling on sodomy in ''[[Bowers v. Hardwick]]''. The Court reached the conclusion that the [[Due Process Clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] prohibited the state from regulating private behaviours between adults without furthering a legitimate state interest. The governmental interest behind the law, moral objection to homosexuality, was held to not be a legitimate interest. (See ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''.) Although it is also practiced by [[heterosexual]]s and [[bisexuality|bisexuals]], anal sex is often associated with [[homosexuality|homosexual]] men. However, like persons of other [[sexual orientation]]s, some [[gay]] and [[bisexuality|bi]] men enjoy sexual activities of this kind while others do not. The [[vagina]] normally produces its own [[lubrication]] during sex; the [[rectum]] does not, so a store-bought [[personal lubricant]] is recommended by most [[sexologist]]s for an enjoyable anal sex experience. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] and the [[World Health Organization]], unprotected anal sex carries more risk of [[sexually transmitted infection|STI]] transmission than [[vaginal sex|vaginal]] or [[oral sex|oral]] sex. To reduce the risk of transmitting STIs such as [[HIV]], people are recommended to use a latex [[condom]] for all sexual contact which could result in transfer of [[body fluid|bodily fluids]], including anal sex. ==Anal sex among heterosexuals== [[Edward O. Laumann]]'s ''The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States'' found that about 20% of heterosexuals have engaged in anal sex, and sex researcher [[Alfred Kinsey]] found that number to be closer to 40%. More recently, a researcher from the [[University of British Columbia]] (quoted in the [[May 5]] [[2005]] issue of ''[[The Georgia Straight]]'') puts the number of heterosexuals who regularly practice anal sex at between 30% and 50%. In several cultures (such as the [[Mediterranean]] area, [[Middle East]] and [[Latin America]]) female receptive anal intercourse in a heterosexual context is widely accepted, especially as there is less risk of unwanted [[human pregnancy|pregnancy]] via unprotected anal than unprotected vaginal intercourse. Anal sex is sometimes seen as preserving female [[virginity]] (or at least preserving an intact [[hymen]] until [[marriage]]) {{fact}}. One appeal of heterosexual anal sex may be the fact that the anus is generally tighter than the vagina. Some consider penetrating the tighter orifice to be a more pleasurable experience. In certain contexts male-male anal intercourse among males who otherwise identify as heterosexual is seen as a temporary behaviour to which they resort when confined in single-sex environments, such as [[prison sexuality|prisons]] or soldiers separated from partners. (See: ''[[Situational sexual behavior]]'' and ''[[Prison sex]]'') Some men have sex with men without categorising themselves as homosexual or bisexual. These [[men who have sex with men]] (MSM) may still identify as heterosexual while engaging in same sex activity from time to time. (See [[Down-low]].) ==Anal sex among gay/bisexual men== In modern times in Western cultures, anal sex is popularly associated with gay men, and studies (Lauman, for example) claim that about 80% of gay men in the United States have engaged in anal sex. Not all gay/[[bisexuality|bi]] men, however, regularly engage in anal sex or find it pleasurable. It may be that some gay/bi men try anal sex once, or a few times, and then rarely, if ever, engage in the practice again. Others may never try it at all. Some may reserve it only for committed relationships. Since data on gay (or bi) sexual behavior tends to arouse such controversy, it is difficult to make solid claims in this area. While some gay/bi male couples comprise an &quot;active&quot; partner and a &quot;receptive&quot; partner (a [[top (sex)|top]] and a [[bottom (sex)|bottom]]) this is not true of all gay/bi couples who practice anal sex: many gay/bi men who have anal sex both &quot;top&quot; and &quot;bottom&quot; at different times, also known as &quot;versatile&quot; or &quot;switch.&quot; Several [[gay slang]] terms are generally reserved for anal sex between two males, such as &quot;[[barebacking]]&quot; which refers to unprotected anal intercourse, ie. intercourse without the use of a condom. == Cultural issues == [[Image:Suzuki Harunobu Shunga.jpg|thumb|[[Suzuki Harunobu]], ''Shunga''.]] Historically, several cultures, such as [[homosexuality in Japan|medieval Japan]] and others are known to have been normative practitioners of male-male anal intercourse, often in the context of a mentor-student relationship between an adolescent male and an adult man (see [[pederasty]]). Some claim that the males who participated in such relationships cannot properly be called [[homosexuality|homosexual]], arguing that in classical cultures such distinctions did not exist, and participation in these male-male relationships did not preclude sex with women. The practice is thought to have been so common in [[Ancient Greece]] that the term &quot;Greek love&quot; was used to refer to the practice, and in modern times, &quot;Greek&quot; is sometimes used as [[slang]] for anal sex. The view that homosexual anal sex was a commonly accepted practice in Ancient Greece is widely disputed. Some literature has argued that the important social transgression was lowering oneself socially, that is, a high status person was not supposed to be penetrated by a lower status person, and thus passive anal intercourse by men was frowned upon in Ancient Greece and considered a serious moral transgression. Certainly, male passive anal intercourse was (officially) frowned-upon in Rome. Others have argued that in Greece, rather than anal sex, male-male couples actually engaged in non-penetrative [[interfemoral intercourse]]. However, this view has been disputed. The historian K.J. Dover discusses these matters thoroughly in his classic work [[Greek Homosexuality]]. It has been argued that the alleged ancient aversion to male passive anal intercourse has fueled the long-standing moral disapproval of homosexuality. In several cultures, notably Japan, records (including detailed [[woodblock prints]]) leave no question that male-male couples did engage in penetrative anal intercourse. The 19th century anthropologist [[Richard Francis Burton]] has theorized that there is a geographical [[Sotadic zone]] wherein male/male penetrative intercourse is particularly prevalent and accepted; moreover he was one of the first writers to advance the premise that such an orientation is biologically determined {{ref|burton1885}}. In many cultures, even those where female receptive anal intercourse is considered normative, male receptive anal intercourse, even in a heterosexual context, is seen as taboo, or as less common. In some cultures anal sex is so commonly linked with homosexuality that any male who engages in receptive anal intercourse is considered homosexual, even if he is penetrated by a female partner with a [[strap-on dildo]] ([[pegging (sexual practice)|pegging]]) or with her hand, fingers or [[Fisting|fist]]. In some cultures, only males who are penetrated by other males are considered homosexual, while males who penetrate other males are not. Some women, both lesbians and heterosexual women, practice anal sex as the &quot;active&quot; partner, using fingers or sex toys to penetrate their partners. == Health issues == Unprotected sex, including anal sex, is an effective means of transmitting [[Sexually-transmitted infection|sexually transmitted diseases]] (STDs). According to health-care professionals, [[condom]]s should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. In principle, anal sex with anyone known to have a sexually transmissible disease, and indeed with anyone whose disease status has not been determined, should be avoided. HIV testing, however, can be unreliable; it is possible for someone who is tested to receive a &quot;false negative&quot;. This advice applies to all sexual activity that effectively transmits STDs. Anal penetration carries some risks which [[vaginal intercourse]], [[oral sex]], and &quot;[[outercourse]]&quot; do not. These are mostly
''open content''== Free content licenses generally differ from [[open content]] licenses in that they require a &quot;source&quot; copy of the content to be provided. For example, a free content publisher should make the source document (e.g. [[InDesign]] or [[word-processor]] file) available along with a [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], which in this case would be considered the &quot;object&quot; copy of the creative work. Some free content licenses have stronger requirements. For example, the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] not only requires that a &quot;source&quot; copy of the content is provided, but that the source copy should be in a &quot;transparent&quot; format, in other words, in an open format whose specification is freely available to everybody. ==Free-content licenses== Free-content licenses may be ''[[copyleft]]''&amp;mdash;in which case modifications of the work must themselves be distributed only under the terms of the original free license&amp;mdash;or else they are non-copyleft, which means that the licensed work may be modified and then distributed under a different license, even one that is less free. Most free-content licenses contain provisions specifying that derivative works must attribute or give credit to the authors of the original, a requirement which promotes intellectual honesty and discourages [[plagiarism]] without imposing so great a burden as to weaken the claim of such licenses to being truly free. The [[Design Science License]] (DSL), and [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL) are copyleft licenses for free content. The [[FreeBSD Documentation License]] is an example of a non-copyleft license. The [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) can also be used as a free content license. Other examples of free content licenses are some of those published by [[Creative Commons]] when commercial use and derivative works are not restricted, although they do not require a &quot;source&quot; copy of the license be provided. Note that not all Creative Commons licenses are ''free content'' as defined here. The [[Libre Society]] project also has some open content licenses and a critique of the creative commons philosophy. The [http://iang.info/en/ IANG] license, doesn't comply with the definition of free content given here since it put many restrictions on the way you can redistribute the product. ==See also== * [[Free encyclopedia]] * [[Freedom]] * [[Free software]] * [[Freedom of information]] * [[Commons]] * [[Open content]] * [[Public domain]] * ''[[Free Culture]]'' * [[Open publishing]] * [[Free Software Foundation]] * [[GNU]] * [[GPL]] * [[LGPL]] * [[Open Source Initiative]] * [[Free software licenses]] [[Category:Copyright licenses]] [[Category:Digital art]] [[Category:Free content licenses|*]] [[Category:Open source licenses]] [[bg:Свободно съдържание]] [[de:Freie Inhalte]] [[es:Contenido libre]] [[fa:محتویات آزاد]] [[fr:Contenu libre]] [[he:תוכן חופשי]] [[hu:Szabad licenc]] [[is:Frjálst efni]] [[it:Contenuto libero]] [[ja:フリーコンテント]] [[ko:자유 문서]] [[nl:Vrije inhoud]] [[pt:Free content]] [[ru:Википедия:Свободное содержание]] [[zh:自由內容]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Flag</title> <id>11424</id> <revision> <id>42143218</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:39:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Big Adamsky</username> <id>468840</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Tricolore flagpole.mirrored.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[tricolour]] [[flag of France]]]] A '''flag''' is a piece of coloured [[cloth]] flown from a pole or mast, usually for purposes of signalling or identification. Flags were initially created for signalling, such as [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]], and for the identification of those who displayed them, and are still used for that purpose today. Flags are also used in messaging or [[advertising]], or for decorative purposes, though at this less formal end the distinction between a flag and a simple cloth banner is blurred. Generally, a piece of cloth is a flag if it is flown like a flag, with one side attached, though many flags are recognisable if displayed in other forms. The study of flags is known as [[vexillology]], from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''vexillum'' meaning flag or [[banner]]. ==History== Although flag-like symbols have been used by ancient cultures for thousands of years, the origin of flags in the modern sense is a matter of dispute. Some believe flags originated in [[China]], others hold that the [[Roman Empire]]'s ''vexillum'' was the first true flag. Originally, the standards of the [[Roman legion]]s were not flags, but symbols like the [[eagle]] of [[Caesar]]'s [[Xth legion]]; this eagle would be placed on a staff for the standard-bearer to hold up during battle. But a military unit from [[Scythia]] had for a standard a [[dragon]] with a flexible tail which would move in the [[wind]]; the legions copied this; eventually all the legions had flexible standards — our modern-day flag. During the [[Middle Ages]], flags were used mainly during battles to identify individual leaders: in [[Europe]] the [[knight]]s, in [[Japan]] the [[samurai]], and in [[China]] the [[general]]s under the imperial army. From the time of [[Christopher Columbus]] onwards, it has been customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to carry flags designating their nationality; these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and [[maritime flags]] of today. Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; ''see [[International maritime signal flags]]''. Beginning in the [[17th century]], European knights were replaced by centralized [[Army|armies]], and flags became the means to identify not just nationalities but also individual military units. Flags became much more elaborate, and were seen as objects to be captured or defended. Eventually these flags posed too much danger to those carrying them, and by [[World War I]] these were withdrawn from the battlefields, and have since been used only at ceremonial occasions. == National flags == {{main|National flag}} One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a [[nation]] or [[country]]. Some [[national flag]]s have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include: * The [[flag of Scotland]], called the ''[[Saltire]]'' or ''[[St Andrew's Cross]]'', dates to the [[9th century]], and is the oldest [[nation]]al flag still in use. Notable flags which share the [[saltire]] design include the [[flag of Jamaica]], the [[Confederate Naval Jack]], the [[naval ensign]] and [[naval jack]] of [[Russia]] and the flag for the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Provinces of Canada|Province]] of [[Nova Scotia]]. It also forms a key part in the design of the [[Union Flag]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. * The [[flag of Denmark|flag]] of [[Denmark]] is the oldest [[state]] flag still in use. This flag, called the [[Dannebrog]], inspired the [[Nordic Cross Flag|cross design]] of other [[Nordic countries]]. ''Examples'': the [[Flag of the Faroe Islands|Faroe Islands]], [[Flag of Finland|Finland]], [[Flag of Iceland|Iceland]], [[Flag of Norway|Norway]], [[Flag of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Åland]]. * The [[flag of Switzerland|flag]] of [[Switzerland]], with its colours reversed, gave rise to the emblem of the [[International Red Cross]], which under [[international law]] is a safe conduct in war zones. * The [[Flag of the United Kingdom|Union Flag]] of the [[United Kingdom]], more commonly (and correctly, when used by [[warship]]s at sea) called the [[Union Jack]]. British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history. ''Examples'': [[Flag of Australia|Australia]], [[Flag of Fiji|Fiji]], [[Flag of New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Flag of Tuvalu|Tuvalu]], and also the Canadian provinces of [[Flag of Manitoba|Manitoba]] and [[Flag of Ontario|Ontario]], and the American state of [[Flag of Hawaii|Hawaii]]; ''see [[List of British flags]] and [[:Category:Ensign images]]''. * The [[Flag of the Netherlands|Tricolor]] of [[The Netherlands]] is the oldest [[tricolor]], first appearing in [[1572]] as the Prince's Flag in [[orange]]–[[white]]–[[blue]]. Soon the more famous [[red]]–white–blue began appearing — it is however unknown why, though many stories are known. After [[1630]] the red–white–blue was the most commonly seen flag. The Dutch Tricolor has inspired many flags but most notably those of [[Russia]] and [[France]], which spread the tricolor concept even further, as can be seen below. The Flag of [[the Netherlands]] is also the only flag in the world that is adapted for some uses, when the occasion has a connection to the royal house of the Netherlands an orange ribbon is added. * The [[Tricolore|national flag]] of [[France]], also called the [[Tricolore]], which inspired other nations to adopt differenced [[tricolour]]s in sympathy with the revolutionary spirit with which the flag was designed in 1794. ''Examples'' among many: [[Flag of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Flag of Italy|Italy]], [[Flag of Romania|Romania]], [[Flag of Mexico|Mexico]]. * The [[flag of the United States|flag]] of the [[United States]], also nicknamed ''The Stars and Stripes'' or ''Old Glory''. In the same way that nations looked to France for inspiration, many countries were also inspired by the [[American Revolution]], which they felt was symbolized in this flag. ''Examples'': [[Flag of Cuba|Cuba]], [[Flag of Chile|Chile]], [[Flag of Liberia|Liberia]], [[Flag of Malaysia|Malaysia]] The flag of Malaysia is also referred to as [[Jalur Gemilang]] or ''Glorious Stripes''. * The [[Flag of Russia|flag]] of [[Russia]],
70 Boston Tea Party concerts. Contains the 2 variations cited above.) ===The Transitional Years (1970-74)=== * ''[[Kiln House]]'' (Reprise, 1970) * ''[[Future Games]]'' (Reprise, 1971) * ''[[Bare Trees]]'' (Reprise, 1972) * ''[[Penguin (album)|Penguin]]'' (Reprise, 1973) * ''[[Mystery To Me]]'' (Reprise, 1973) * ''[[Heroes Are Hard to Find]]'' (Reprise, 1974) ====Additional Compilations/Outtakes Collections==== * ''Madison Blues '' [Kiln House/Christine Perfect Band outtakes box set] (Shakedown Records, 2003) ===The &quot;Superstar&quot; years (1975-on)=== * ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)|Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Reprise, 1975) * ''[[Rumours]]'' (Warner, 1977) * ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]'' (Warner, 1979) * ''[[Mirage (album)|Mirage]]'' (Warner, 1982) * ''[[Tango in the Night]]'' (Warner, 1987) * ''[[Behind the Mask (album)|Behind the Mask]]'' (Warner, 1990) * ''[[Time (Fleetwood Mac album)|Time]]'' (Warner, 1995) * ''[[Say You Will]]'' (Warner, 2003) ==== Compilations ==== * ''[[Greatest Hits (Fleetwood Mac album)|Greatest Hits]]'' (Warner, 1988) * ''[[25 Years - The Chain (album)|25 Years - The Chain [Box set]]]'' (Warner, 1992) * ''[[The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Warner, 2002) ==== Live Albums ==== * ''[[Live (Fleetwood Mac)|Live]]'' (Warner, 1980) * ''[[The Dance (album)|The Dance]]'' (Reprise, 1998) * ''[[Live In Boston (2004)|Live In Boston]]'' (Warner, 2004) (From the [[Say You Will]] tour) ==Singles== '''Peter Green Era''' * &quot;I Believe My Time Ain't Long&quot;/&quot;Rambing Pony&quot; (Nov 1967, Blue Horizon) * &quot;Black Magic Woman&quot; [#37 UK] /&quot;Long Grey Mare&quot; (June 1968, Epic) * &quot;Need Your Love So Bad&quot; [#31 UK] &quot;Stop Messin' Round&quot; (UK, Blue Horizon) /&quot;No Place To Go&quot; (US, Epic) * &quot;Albatross [instrumental]&quot; [#1 UK - 2 weeks]/&quot;Jigsaw Puzzle Blues [instrumental]&quot; (Jan 1969, Epic) * &quot;Man Of The World&quot; (1969) [#2 UK] /&quot;Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonight&quot; (B-side as &quot;Earl Vince and the Valiants&quot;) (April 1969, Immediate) * &quot;Rattlesnake Shake&quot;/&quot;Coming Your Way&quot; (September 1969, Reprise) * &quot;Oh Well pts 1 &amp; 2&quot; [#55 US, #2 UK] (November 1969, Reprise) * &quot;[[The Green Manalishi]]&quot; [#10 UK] /&quot;World In Harmony [instrumental]&quot; (June 1970, Reprise) '''Transitional Era''' * &quot;Jewel Eyed Judy&quot;(written for good friend [[Judy_Wong_(promoter)|Judy Wong]])/&quot;Station Man&quot; * &quot;Dragonfly&quot;/&quot;The Purple Dancer&quot; * &quot;Sands Of Time&quot;/&quot;Lay It All Down&quot; * &quot;Sentimental Lady&quot;/&quot;Sunny Side Of Heaven [instrumental]&quot; * &quot;Did You Ever Love Me&quot;/&quot;The Derelict&quot; * &quot;Spare Me A Little Of Your Love&quot;/&quot;Sunny Side Of Heaven [instrumental]&quot; * &quot;Remember Me&quot;/&quot;Dissatisfied&quot; * &quot;Did You Ever Love Me&quot;/&quot;Revelation&quot; * &quot;For Your Love&quot;/&quot;Hypnotized&quot; * &quot;Heroes Are Hard To Find&quot;/&quot;Born Enchanter&quot; '''With Christine McVie/Lindsey Buckingham/Stevie Nicks''' * &quot;Over My Head&quot; (1976) #20 US * &quot;Rhiannon&quot; (1976) #11 US, #46 UK * &quot;Say You Love Me&quot; (1976) #11 US, #40 UK * &quot;Go Your Own Way&quot; (1977) #10 US, #38 UK * &quot;Dreams&quot; (1977) #1 US - 1 week, #24 UK * &quot;Don't Stop&quot; (1977) #3 US, #32 UK * &quot;You Make Loving Fun&quot; (1977) #9 US, #45 UK * &quot;Tusk&quot; (1979) #8 US, #6 UK * &quot;Sara&quot; (1979) #7 US, #37 UK * &quot;Think About Me&quot; (1980) #20 US * &quot;Sisters Of The Moon&quot; (1980) #86 US * &quot;Fireflies&quot; (1981) #60 US * &quot;Hold Me&quot; (1982) #4 US * &quot;Gypsy&quot; (1982) #12 US, #46 UK * &quot;Love In Store&quot; (1982) #22 US * &quot;Oh Diane&quot; (1982) #9 UK * &quot;Big Love&quot; (1987) #5 US, #9 UK * &quot;Seven Wonders&quot; (1987) #19 US, #56 UK * &quot;Little Lies&quot; (1987) #4 US, #5 UK * &quot;Everywhere&quot; (1988) #14 US, #4 UK * &quot;Family Man&quot; (1988) #90 US, #54 UK * &quot;Isn't It Midnight&quot; (1988) #60 UK * &quot;As Long As You Follow&quot; (1988) #43 US, #66 UK * &quot;Save Me&quot; (1990) #33 US, #53 UK * &quot;In The Back Of My Mind&quot; (1990) #58 UK * &quot;Silver Springs&quot; (1997) #41 US * &quot;Landslide&quot; (1998) #51 US * &quot;Peacekeeper&quot; (2003) #80 US ==Trivia== When the single &quot;Peacekeeper&quot; was released, the album version lyric &quot;Take no prisoners, only kill&quot; was replaced for radio with &quot;Take no prisoners, break their will&quot;. ==See also== *[[Best selling music artists]] == External links == * [http://www.fleetwoodmac.com/ Official website of Fleetwood Mac] * [http://fleetwoodmac.org Unofficial Fleetwood Mac Fan Site] * [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:38q8g4jttvoz AMG Entry on Fleetwood Mac] * [http://musicmoz.org/Bands_and_Artists/F/Fleetwood_Mac/ MusicMoz directory for Fleetwood Mac] * [http://petergreen.oyla.de/ Peter Green-Fanpage Deutschland/Germany] * [http://www.lyricsdir.com/fleetwood-mac-lyrics.html Fleetwood Mac Lyrics] * [http://www.guitartablaturearchive.net/fleetwoodmactabs.html Fleetwood Mac Guitar Tabs] * [http://www.stevienickschain.com Fleetwood Mac FAN CLUB] * [http://www.fleetwoodmac-uk.com Go Your Own Way - The UK's resource for Fleetwood Mac] * [http://www.jeremyspencer.com Jeremy Spencer from Fleetwood Mac - official website] [[Category:Fleetwood Mac|*]] [[Category:Active musical groups]] [[Category:Rock music groups]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees]] [[de:Fleetwood Mac]] [[es:Fleetwood Mac]] [[fr:Fleetwood Mac]] [[it:Fleetwood Mac]] [[ja:フリートウッド・マック]] [[nl:Fleetwood Mac]] [[pl:Fleetwood Mac]] [[pt:Fleetwood Mac]] [[simple:Fleetwood Mac]] [[sv:Fleetwood Mac]] [[tr:Fleetwood Mac]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title> <id>11788</id> <revision> <id>31599150</id> <timestamp>2005-12-16T11:31:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kmorozov</username> <id>238736</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Family and children */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Friedrich, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth''', known as '''Friedrich I''' or '''Friedrich V''' ([[8 May]] [[1460]]-[[4 April]] [[1536]]) was born at [[Ansbach]], the eldest son of the [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] by his second wife Anna, daughter of the [[Frederick II, Elector of Saxony]]. His elder half-brother was the Elector [[Johann Cicero]] of Brandenburg. Friedrich succeeded his father as [[Margrave of Ansbach]] in [[1486]] and his younger brother as [[Margrave of Bayreuth]] in [[1495]]. ==Family and children== On [[14 February]] [[1479]] at [[Frankfurt an der Oder]] he was married to Sofie of Poland ([[6 April]] [[1464]]-[[5 October]] [[1512]]), daughter of King [[Casimir IV of Poland]] by his wife Elisabeth of [[Habsburg]], and sister of King [[Sigismund I of Poland]]. They had seventeen children: # [[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth]] ([[27 September]] [[1481]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[21 September]] [[1527]], [[Ofen an der Ruhr]]). # [[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg &quot;der Fromme&quot;]] ([[4 march]] [[1484]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[27 December]] [[1534]], Ansbach). # [[Albert of Prussia]] ([[17 May]] [[1490]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[20 March]] [[1568]], Castle [[Tappiau]]), Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and then first [[Duke of Prussia]]. # Friedrich ([[13 June]] [[1491]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;ca. [[1497]]). # Johann, Viceroy of [[Valencia]] ([[9 January]] [[1493]], [[Plassenburg]]&amp;ndash;[[5 July]] [[1525]], [[Valencia]]). # Freidrich ([[17 January]] [[1497]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[20 August]] [[1536]], [[Genoa]]), a canon in [[Würzburg]] and [[Salzburg]]. # [[William of Brandenburg|Wilhelm]], ([[30 June]] [[1498]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[4 February]] [[1563]], [[Riga]]), Archbishop of [[Riga]] in 1539-63. # Johann Albrecht ([[20 September]] [[1499]],Ansach&amp;ndash;[[17 May]] [[1550]], [[Halle]]), Archbishop of [[Magdeburg]] in 1545-50. # Friedrich Abrecht, died young. # Gumprecht ([[16 July]] [[1503]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[25 June]] [[1528]], [[Naples]]), a canon in [[Bamberg]]. # Elisabeth, died young. # Margarete ([[10 January]] [[1483]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[10 July]] [[1532]]). # Sofie ([[10 March]] [[1485]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[24 May]] [[1537]], [[Liegnitz]]), married [[14 November]] [[1518]] to Duke [[Friedrich II of Liegnitz]]. # Anna ([[1487]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[7 February]] [[1539]]), married [[1 December]] [[1518]] to Duke [[Wenzel III of Teschen]]. # Barbara, died young. # Elisabeth ([[25 March]] [[1494]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[31 May]] [[1518]], [[Pforzheim]]), married in Pforzheim [[29 September]] [[1510]] to Margrave [[Ernst of Baden-Durlach]]. # Barbara ([[24 September]] [[1495]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[23 September]] [[1552]]), married in [[Plassenburg]] [[26 July]] [[1528]] to Landgrave [[Georg of Leuchtenberg]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | before=[[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg|Albrecht Achilles]] | years=1486&amp;ndash;1541 | after=[[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]]}} {{succession box | title=[[Fürst von Bayreuth]] | before=[[Siegmund, Margrave of Bayreuth|Siegmund]] | years=1495&amp;ndash;1541 | after=[[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth|Kasimir]]}} {{end box}} ==External links== * [http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hohz/hohenz2.html House of Hohenzollern] [[Category:1460 births|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Frederick I, Margrave of]] [[Category:1536 deaths|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Frederick I, Margrave of]] [[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] [[Category:Margraves of Bayreuth]] [[de:Friedrich V. (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>F-Zero: Maximum Velocity</title> <id>11790</id> <revision> <id>41225643</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T
how_iso639.asp?code=afr The Ethnologue: Afrikaans] *[http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/taleninfo/afr_en.php Afrikaans-English-Afrikaans Online Dictionary] * [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Afrikaans-english/ Afrikaans - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition. * [http://www.rsg.co.za/ Radio Sonder Grense] (radio without borders) - Afrikaans radio online. * [http://www.liveaudio.co.za/radiopta/frame.aspx] [Radio Pretoria] - Afrikaans radio online. * [http://www.afrikaans.nu/pag5.htm] Similarty between Afrikaans and various dialects of modern Dutch. * [http://roepstem.tripod.com/engels.html Die Roepstem: &quot;What is Afrikaans?&quot;] Afrikaans &amp; Dutch web-site, with largest Afr.-Du. wordlist. * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/afrikaans.php Afrikaans Sample at Language Museum] * [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/afrikaans.htm List of online Afrikaans-related resources] * [http://www.spel.co.za Afrikaans Spelling Checker for Microsoft Office] * [http://lingucomponent.openoffice.org/spell_dic.html Afrikaans Spelling Checker for OpenOffice.org] and [http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/translate/spell-af-ZA-20040727.xpi?download Mozilla] * [http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/translate/OOo_1.1.3_Win32Intel_install_af.zip?download Afrikaans edition of OpenOffice.org] * [http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox/all.html Afrikaans edition of the Mozilla Firefox web-browser] * [http://translate.org.za/ Project to translate Free and Open Source Software into Afrikaans] * [http://www.puk.ac.za/fakulteite/lettere/skt/afn.html Subject Group Afrikaans and Dutch, School of Languages, North-West University] * [http://www.wspel.co.za/ Free Afrikaans spelling checker for MS-Word available on the Web] {{Languages of South Africa}} [[Category:Afrikaans|*]] [[Category:Languages of South Africa]] [[Category:Low Franconian languages]] [[af:Afrikaans (taal)]] [[bg:Африкаанс]] [[ca:Afrikaans]] [[cs:Afrikánština]] [[da:Afrikaans]] [[de:Afrikaans]] [[et:Afrikaani keel]] [[es:Afrikaans]] [[eo:Afrikansa lingvo]] [[eu:Afrikaans]] [[fr:Afrikaans]] [[fy:Afrikaansk]] [[gd:Afrikaans]] [[gl:Lingua afrikaans]] [[ko:아프리칸스어]] [[id:Bahasa Afrikaans]] [[xh:IsiBhulu]] [[it:Afrikaans]] [[he:אפריקאנס]] [[kw:Afrikaans]] [[lt:Afrikanų kalba]] [[li:Afrikaans]] [[hu:Afrikaans nyelv]] [[ms:Bahasa Afrikaans]] [[nl:Afrikaans]] [[nds:Afrikaans]] [[ja:アフリカーンス語]] [[no:Afrikaans]] [[nn:Afrikaans]] [[pl:Język afrikaans]] [[pt:Africâner]] [[ru:Африкаанс]] [[se:Afrikánsagiella]] [[simple:Afrikaans]] [[sk:Afrikánčina]] [[fi:Afrikaans]] [[sv:Afrikaans]] [[zh:南非語]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aeolus</title> <id>2163</id> <revision> <id>39205790</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:00:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FocalPoint</username> <id>433988</id> </contributor> <comment>Interwiki</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aiolos''' ({{polytonic|&amp;Alpha;&amp;#7988;&amp;omicron;&amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}}), [[Latin]]ized as '''Aeolus''', '''Eolus''', '''Aeolos''', or '''Aiolus''', was the name of three personages in [[Greek Mythology]]. These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here. Briefly, the first Aeolus was a son of [[Hellen]] and founder of the Aeolian race; the second was a son of [[Poseidon]], who led a colony to the Tyrrhenian sea; and the third Aeolus was a son of [[Hippotes]] who is mentioned in the ''[[Odyssey]]'' as Keeper of the [[Anemoi|Winds]] in [[Greek Mythology]]. All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship is often ambiguous. The traditions regarding the second and third Aeolus are especially entangled. ==Aeolus (son of Hellen)== This '''Aeolus''' was son of Hellen and the nymph Orseis, and a brother of [[Dorus]], [[Xuthus]] and [[Amphictyon]]. He is described as the ruler of [[Aeolia]] (later called [[Thessaly]]) and held to be the founder of the [[Aeolic]] branch of the Greek/Hellenic nation. Aeolus married [[Enarete]], daughter of Deimachus (otherwise unknown). Aeolus and Enarete had many children, although the precise number and identities of these children vary from author to author in the ancient sources. Those listed as the sons of Aeolus and Enarate include [[Cretheus]], [[Sisyphus]], [[Deioneus]], [[Salmoneus]], [[Athamas]], [[Perieres]], [[Cercaphas]] and perhaps [[Magnes]] (who is usually regarded as a brother of [[Macedon]]). Another son is named [[Mimas]], who provides a link to the third Aeolus (see below) in a genealogy that seems very contrived. [[Calyce]], [[Peisidice]], [[Perimele]] and [[Alcyone]] were counted among the daughters of Aeolus and Enarate. This [[Aeolus]] also had an illegitimate daughter named [[Arne]], begotten on [[Melanippe]], daughter of the Centaur [[Cheiron]]. This Arne became the mother of the second Aeolus, by the god Poseidon. ==Aeolus (son of Poseidon)== This '''Aeolus''' was a son of Poseidon by Arne, daughter of Aeolus. He had a twin brother named [[Boeotus]]. Arne confessed to her father that she was with child by the god Poseidon; Aeolus, however, did not believe her, and handed her over to a man named [[Metapontus]], King of Icaria. When Boeotus and Aeo­lus were born, they were raised by Meta­pontus; but their stepmother ([[Autolyte]], wife of Metapontus) quarrelled with their mother Arne, prompting Boeotus and Aeolus to kill Autolyte and flee from Icaria. Boeotus (accompanied by Arne) went to southern Thessaly, and founded [[Boeotia]]; but Aeolus went to a group of islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, which received from him the name of the [[Aeolian Islands]]; accord­ing to some accounts this Aeolus founded the town of Lipara. Although his home has been traditionally identified as one of the Aeolian Islands (there is little consensus as to which), near [[Sicily]], an alternative location has been suggested at [[Gramvousa]] off the northwest coast of [[Crete]]. Aeolus had six sons and six daughters, and the family lived happily together - that is until the day Aeolus learned that one of his sons, named [[Macareus]], had committed incest with his sister [[Canace]]. Horrified, Aeolus expelled Macareus (Canace killed herself in shame) and threw the child borne of this incestuous union to the dogs. (Other accounts claim that the child, a daughter named [[Amphissa]]) was rescued and later beloved by [[Apollo]]). ==Aeolus (son of Hippotes)== This '''Aeolus''' is most frequently conflated with Aeolus, the son of Poseidon. It is difficult to delineate this Aeolus from the second Aeolus, as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers. The father of this third Aeolus is given as Mimas, a son of the first Aeolus (son of Hellen). According to some accounts, Mimas married the same Melanippe who was the mother of Arne! This Aeolus lived on the floating island of [[Aeolia]] and was visited by [[Odysseus]] and his crew in the ''Odyssey.'' He gave hospitality for a month and provided for a west wind to carry them home. Unfortunately he also provided a gift of a bag containing each of the four winds, which Odysseus's crew members opened just before their home was reached. They were blown back to [[Aeolia]], where Aeolus refused to provide any further help. (''[[Odyssey]]'' X, 2; [[Virgil]] I, 52). This Aeolus was perceived by later authors (i.e., after Homer) as a god, rather than as a mortal and simple Keeper of the Winds (as in the ''Odyssey''). [[Category:Greek gods]] [[Category:Characters in the Odyssey]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[da:Aiolos]] [[de:Aiolos (Gott)]] [[el:Αίολος]] [[es:Eolo]] [[eo:Eolo]] [[fr:Éole (dieu)]] [[hr:Eol]] [[it:Eolo]] [[he:איאולוס]] [[lt:Eolas]] [[nl:Aeolus (mythologie)]] [[no:Aiolos]] [[pl:Eol]] [[sv:Aiolos]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Autrefois convict</title> <id>2164</id> <revision> <id>41735626</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:58:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acerperi</username> <id>173184</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In the common law legal system, a [[plea]] of '''autrefois convict''' ([[Law French]] for 'previously convicted') is one in which the defendant claims to have been previously convicted for the same offence and that hence they cannot be tried again. A plea of autrefois convict can be combined with a plea of not guilty. This plea is one of the [[peremptory pleas]]. {{law-stub}} [[Category:Pleas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Autrefois acquit</title> <id>2165</id> <revision> <id>41735738</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:59:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acerperi</username> <id>173184</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[common law]] [[legal system]], a plea of '''autrefois acquit''' ([[French language|French]] for 'previously acquitted') means the defendant claims to have been previously acquitted of the same offence, on substantially the same evidence, and that hence he or she cannot be tried again. A plea of ''autrefois acquit'' can be combined with a plea of not guilty. This plea is one of the [[peremptory pleas]]. It is a term of [[Law French]]. Related doctines include res judicata and, in the criminal context, a plea in bar of [[double jeopardy]]. {{law-stub}} [[Category:Pleas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ABC</title> <id>2166</id> <revision> <id>41815556</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:55:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RoyBoy</
9:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AshishG</username> <id>172488</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>NPT link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Anti-war topics}} [[Image:Peace Sign.svg|thumb|left|Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament logo]] In [[British politics]], the '''Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''' has been at the forefront of the [[peace movement]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and claims to be Europe's largest [[single-issue party|single-issue peace campaign]]. As well as campaigning against military actions that may result in the use of [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]], [[chemical weapon|chemical]] or [[biological weapon]]s, they are also in favour of nuclear disarmament by all countries and tighter international regulation through treaties such as the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]]. The most famous and longest-standing annual march is that from [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]] to the [[Atomic Weapons Establishment]] held every Easter weekend, taking the whole four days to complete. ==The First Wave 1958-1962== Prominent founding members of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament included [[Fenner Brockway]], [[Canon John Collins]], [[E. P. Thompson]], [[Michael Foot]], [[Victor Gollancz]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[A.J.P. Taylor]], and [[Dora Russell]]. Its founder organizer was [[Peggy Duff]]. Although many of its members, including religious groups that make up a significant minority of the active membership, are [[pacifism|pacifist]], the organisation itself is not. Its logo, designed in [[1958]] by [[Gerald Holtom]], became widespread outside of Britain during the [[1960s]] as the &quot;[[peace symbol]]&quot;. The peace symbol is based on the international [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] symbols for &quot;N&quot; and &quot;D&quot; (for Nuclear Disarmament) enclosed within a circle. There is a common misconception that [[Bertrand Russell]] designed the logo, stemming from his being president of the organisation at the time. In [[1960]] [[Bertrand Russell]] resigned from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, in order to form a more [[militant]] group called the [[Committee of 100]]. ==The Second Wave (1980-89)== In the early [[1980s]] the organisation underwent a major revival, as tensions between the superpowers rose with the deployment of American [[Pershing II]] [[cruise missile]]s in Western Europe and [[RT-21M Pioner|SS20s]] in the Soviet Bloc countries and the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] government replacing the [[UGM-27 Polaris#British Polaris|Polaris]] armed [[submarine]] fleet with [[Trident missile|Trident]]. During this period CND established a number of 'Specialist Sections' to add to [[Labour CND]] (est. 1979) and [[Christian CND]] (est. 1960), including: [[Trade Union CND]], [[Liberal CND]], [[Green CND]] and [[Ex-Services CND]]. Much of National CND's historical archive is at the Modern Records Centre [[University of Warwick]] and the [[London School of Economics]], although records of local and regional groups are spread throughout the country in public and private collections. ==Current CND== Today, CND has several priority campaigns: *&quot;Scrap [[Trident missile|Trident]]&quot;: Against the UK's [[nuclear weapons]] *&quot;Missile Defence: The New Threat&quot;: Against the US [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] *&quot;No to [[NATO]]&quot; *&quot;Stop the [[Plutonium]] Trade&quot; In an end to its single-issue focus on the nuclear issue, since [[2001]] it has become a focus for organising resistance campaigns to U.S. and British policies on the [[Middle East]]. Opponents of the wars who don't even agree with CND on nuclear weapons can now find themselves directed through it. Along with the [[Stop the War Coalition]] and the [[Muslim Association of Britain]], it organised several [[Protests against the 2003 Iraq war|anti-war marches]] under the main slogan &quot;[[Don't Attack Iraq]],&quot; including those on [[September 28]], [[2002]] and [[February 15]], [[2003]] in [[London]], and also a Vigil for the Victims of the London bombings[http://www.mabonline.info/english/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=424] on [[July 9]], [[2005]] in [[London]]. ==Structures== There exist several branches of CND to cover the British Isles, namely: [[Scottish CND]], [[Irish CND]] and [[CND Cymru]] in addition to 'National CND'. This is in addition to several of the 'Specialist Sections' which have continued in some form to the present including: [[Labour CND]], [[Christian CND]], [[Youth and Student CND]], [[Parliamentary CND]] and [[Ex Services CND]]. Regional groupings also exist covering: Cambridgeshire, Cumbria, East Midlands, Kent, London, Manchester, Merseyside, Mid Somerset, Norwich, South Cheshire and North Staffshire, Southern, South West, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands and Yorkshire. The CND Council is made up of: Chair, Treasurer, 3 Vice-Chairs, 15 Directly Elected Members, 1 Christian CND, 1 Labour CND, 1 Student CND, 3 Youth and Student CND and 27 Members Representing 11 Regional Groups. ==Chairs of CND Since 1958== * [[Canon John Collins]] [[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1964]] * [[Olive Gibbs]] [[1964]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]] * [[Sheila Oakes]] [[1967]]&amp;ndash;[[1968]] * [[Malcolm Caldwell]] [[1968]]&amp;ndash;[[1970]] * [[April Carter]] [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1971]] * [[John Cox (CND Chair)|John Cox]] [[1971]]&amp;ndash;[[1977]] * [[Bruce Kent]] [[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]] * [[Hugh Jenkins]] [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1981]] * [[Joan Ruddock]] [[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]] * [[Paul Johns (CND chair)| Paul Johns]] [[1985]] &amp;ndash; [[1987]] * [[Bruce Kent]] [[1987]] &amp;ndash;[[1990]] * [[Marjorie Thompson]] [[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1993]] * [[Janet Bloomfield]] [[1993]]&amp;ndash;[[1996]] * [[David Knight]] [[1996]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]] * [[Carol Naughton]] [[2001]]&amp;ndash;[[2003]] * [[Kate Hudson (CND chair)|Kate Hudson]] [[2003]]&amp;ndash; ==General Secretaries of CND Since 1958== * [[Peggy Duff]] [[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]] * [[Dick Nettleton]] [[1967]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]] * [[Dan Smith (CND General Secretary)|Dan Smith]] [[1974]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]] * [[Duncan Rees]] [[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]] * [[Bruce Kent]] [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]] * [[Meg Beresford]] [[1985]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]] ==Membership== Taken from '''Social Movements in Britain''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 0415071232 (1997), p.91. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; !'''Year''' !'''Members''' !'''Year''' !'''Members''' |- | [[1970]] | 2120 | [[1986]] | 84000 |- | [[1971]] | 2047 | [[1987]] | 75000 |- | [[1972]] | 2389 | [[1988]] | 72000 |- | [[1973]] | 2367 | [[1989]] | 62000 |- | [[1974]] | 2350 | [[1990]] | 62000 |- | [[1975]] | 2536 | [[1991]] | 60000 |- | [[1976]] | 3220 | [[1992]] | 57000 |- | [[1977]] | 4287 | [[1993]] | 52000 |- | [[1978]] | 3220 | [[1994]] | 47000 |- | [[1979]] | 4287 | [[1995]] | 47700 |- | [[1980]] | 9000 |- | [[1981]] | 20000 |- | [[1982]] | 50000 |- | [[1983]] | 75000 |- | [[1984]] | 100000 |- | [[1985]] | 92000 |- |} ==See also== *[[Anti-war]] *[[Peace movement]] *[[Nuclear disarmament]] *[[Nuclear proliferation]] *[[Independent Nuclear Disarmament Election Committee]] ==Further reading== *'''CND - Now More Than Ever: The Story of a Peace Movement''', ''[[Kate Hudson (CND chair)|Kate Hudson]]'', Vision Paperbacks, ISBN 1904132693 (2005) *''[[Holger Nehring]]'' (2001), 'From Gentleman's Club to Folk Festival: The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in Manchester, 1958-63', '''North West Labout History Journal''', Number 26. pp. 18-28 *'''Social Movements in Britain''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 0415071232 (1997) *'''A commitment to campaign : a sociological study of CND''', ''[[John Mattausch]]'', Manchester University Press, ISBN 0719029082 (1989) *'''The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 070993260X (1988) *'''The CND Story: The first 25 years of CND in the words of the people involved''', ''[[John Minnion (CND)|John Minnion]] and [[Philip Bolsover]] Ed.'', Allison &amp; Busby, ISBN 0850314879 (1983) *'''The Protest Makers: The British Nuclear Disarmament of 1958-1965, Twenty Years On''', ''[[Richard Taylor (CND)|Richard Taylor]] and [[Colin Pritchard]]'', Pergamon Press, ISBN 0080252117 (1980) *'''Left, Left, Left: A personal account of six protest campaigns 1945-65''', ''[[Peggy Duff]]'', Allison and Busby, ISBN 0850310563 (1971) *'''Middle class radicalism : the social bases of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''', ''[[Frank Parkin]]'',(1968) ==External links== *[http://www.cnduk.org Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament home page] *[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18/newsid_2909000/2909881.stm BBC Report of the 1960 Aldermaston March] *[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/22/newsid_2489000/2489209.stm BBC Report of CND Protest in London 22nd October 1983] [[Category:Anti-Iraq War groups]] [[Category:Nuclear weapon organizations]] [[Category:Peace organizations]] [[Category:Political pressure groups of the United Kingdom]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</title> <id>6794</id> <revision> <id>40814695</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:43:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Urhixidur</username> <id>68509</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* A Jupiter-orbiting comet */ Resolving contradiction...</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shoemaker-Levy 9 on 1994-05-17.png|thumb|300px|[[Hubble Space Telescope]] image of Comet Shoemaker-Levy&amp;nbsp;9, taken on [[May 17]], [[1994]].]] :''Shoemaker-Levy redirects here; for other Shoemaker-Levy comets see [[List of periodic comets]] '''Comet Shoemaker-Levy&amp;nbsp;9''' ('''SL9''', [[Astronomical naming conventions#Comets|formally designate
obably through the port's trade with [[Constantinople]] and ports on the [[Black Sea]]. During 1348, the disease traveled eastward to [[Gaza]], and north along the eastern coast to cities in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], including [[Asqalan]], [[Acre]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Sidon]], [[Damascus]], [[Homs]], and [[Aleppo]]. In 1348&amp;ndash;49, the disease reached [[Antioch]]. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor. [[Mecca]] became infected in 1349. The people of Mecca blamed the disease on non-believers entering the city, but it is more likely to have arrived with Muslim pilgrims from surrounding infected areas. During the same year, records show the city of [[Mawsil]] (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of [[Yemen]] from imprisonment in [[Cairo]]. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt. ===Recurrence=== The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries, and although the bubonic plague still exists with isolated cases today, the [[Great Plague of London]] in [[1665]]-[[1666]] is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks. The [[Great Fire of London]] in [[1666]], may have killed off any remaining plague bearing rats and fleas, which led to a decline in the plague. The destruction of rats in the Great Fire may also have contributed to the ascendancy of brown rats in England. According to the bubonic plague theory, one possible explanation for the disappearance of plague from Europe may be that the [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus'') [[infection]] reservoir and its disease vector was subsequently displaced and succeeded by the bigger [[Norway rat|Norwegian, or brown, rat]] (''Rattus norvegicus''), which is not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large rat die-offs (see Appleby and Slack references below). Late outbreaks in central Europe include the [[Italian Plague of 1629-1631]], which is associated with troop movements during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and the [[Great Plague of Vienna]] in 1679, which may have been due to a reintroduction of the plague from eastern trading ports. ==Causes== ===Bubonic plague theory=== [[Image:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths.]] bubonic and septicemic plague are transmitted by direct contact with fleas. The bacteria multiplies inside a flea, blocking its stomach and causing it to become very hungry. The flea then voraciously bites a host and continues to feed because it is unable to satisfy its hunger. During the feeding process, infected blood carrying the plague bacteria flows into the wound. The plague bacteria then has a new host, and the flea eventually dies from starvation. The human pneumonic plague has a different form of transmission. It is transmitted through bacteria in droplets of saliva coughed up by persons with bloodstream infection (sepsis) or pneumonia, which may have started as the bubonic form of disease. The airborne bacteria may be inhaled by a nearby susceptible person, and a new infection starts directly in the lungs or throat of the other, bypassing the bubonic form of disease. ====Signs and symptoms==== The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. Bubonic plague refers to the painful lymph node swellings called buboes. The septicemic plague is called &quot;Blood poisoning&quot;, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that forms a first attack on the lungs. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin and armpits, which ooze pus and blood. Victims underwent damage to the skin and underlying tissue until they were covered in dark blotches. This symptom, called acral necrosis, led to the disease being called the &quot;Black&quot; plague. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land. The [[bubonic plague]] was the most commonly seen form of the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including [[fever]] of 38 to 41 °[[Celsius|C]] (101-105 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]), [[headache]]s, aching joints, [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], and a general feeling of malaise. The [[pneumonic plague]] was the second most commonly seen form of the Black Death, with a mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included slimy [[sputum]] tinted with blood. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague was the most rare of the three forms, with mortality close to 100 percent. Symptoms were high fevers and skin turning deep shades of purple due to DIC ([[Disseminated intravascular coagulation]]). ===Alternative explanations=== An interesting hypothesis about the appearance, spread and especially disappearance of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus'') was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger Norwegian or [[brown rat]] (''Rattus norvegicus''). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology (see Appleby and Slack, secondary references below). The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, [[herd immunity]] in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance. However, recent scientific and historical investigations have led researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of [[Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]]. For example, in 2000, Gunnar Karlsson (''Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society'') pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of [[Iceland]], although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the 19th century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the 14th century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats. In 1984, [[Graham Twigg]] published ''The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal'', where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of ''R. rattus'', ''R. norvegicus'', and the common fleas ''[[X. cheopis]]'' and ''[[P. irritans]]'' with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the ''R. rattus'' is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for ''[[Yersinia pestis|Y. pestis]]'' to have been the causative agent of the beginning of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across all of Europe and England. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a reexamination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary [[anthrax]] caused by ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''. In [[2001]], [[epidemiology|epidemiologists]] [[Susan Scott]] and [[Christopher Duncan]] from [[Liverpool University]] proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an [[Ebola virus|Ebola]]-like [[virus (biology)|virus]], not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary [[vector (biology)|vector]] is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of 30 days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 5 km/day. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon like [[Iceland]]. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with ''Yersinia pestis'' and very rarely for ''Bacillus anthracis''), and some [[gene]]s that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in [[Europe]] than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in ''Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer.'' In a similar vein, historian [[Norman F. Cantor]], in his [[2001]] book ''In the Wake of the Plague'', suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of [[anthrax disease|anthrax]], a cattle [[murrain]]. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or [[pneumonic plague]], the discovery of anthrax spores in a [[plague pit]] in [[Scotland]], and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for pla
company]] by the local importer Numa Peterson. This inspired him to buy a number of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] telephones and analyze the telephone equipment further. (It should be noted that Ericsson had been studying at Siemens during a scholarship trip a few years back.) At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones of his own, much in the image of the Siemens telephones, and the first product was finished in [[1879]]. As the telephone network in [[Stockholm]] was expanding rapidly at the time, the company reformed itself into a telephone manufacturing company. However, when the Bell company bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, they would only allow its own telephones to be used with it. Because of this, Ericsson was mainly selling their equipment to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside and in the other Nordic countries. The high prices of Bell equipment and phone services led [[Henrik Tore Cedergren]] to form an independent telephone company in [[1883]] under the name ''Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag''. As Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson, who supplied the equipment for his new telephone network. In [[1918]] the companies merged into ''Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson''. In [[1884]] a multiple switchboard manual [[telephone exchange]] was more or less copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at [[Western Electric]]. As the device (which held US patent 529421 since [[1879]]) was not patented in Sweden, this was perfectly legal. A single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines. The following year, LM Ericsson and Cedergren traveled the USA, visiting several telephone exchange stations to gather &quot;inspiration&quot;. In 1887, a technician named Anton Avén at Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag had combined the earpiece and the mouthpiece of a (by then) standard telephone into a handset. It was used by operators in the exchanges that needed to have one hand free when talking to their customers. This invention was picked up by LM Ericsson and incorporated into Ericsson products, beginning with a telephone named ''[[Dachshund|The Dachshund]]''. === Share ownership === In [[1925]] Karl Fredric Wincrantz took control of the company by acquiring the majority of the shares in the company. The company was also renamed ''Telefon AB LM Ericsson''. At this time, [[Ivar Kreuger]] started showing interest in the company, being a major owner of Wincrantz holding companies. In [[1928]] Ericsson began its long tradition of &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; shares, where an &quot;A&quot; share comes with 1000 votes against a &quot;B&quot; share, so Wincrantz was actually only controlling a few &quot;A&quot; shares, giving him control of the company whilst not actually controlling a majority of the shares. By issuing a lot of &quot;B&quot; shares, much more money was fed to the company, while maintaining the ''status quo'' of power distribution. In [[1930]] a second issue of &quot;B&quot;-shares took place, resulting in Kreuger taking over the company with a mixture of &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; shares. He bought these shares with money lent from Ericsson, with [[collateral (finance)|security]] given in German state [[bond]]s. He then took a large loan for his own company [[Kreuger &amp; Toll]] from [[ITT]] (administered by [[Sosthenes Behn]]) giving large parts of Ericsson as security. When Behn wanted to cancel this deal in [[1932]], he discovered the fact that there was no money left in the company, just a large claim on the same Kreuger &amp; Toll that he had himself lent money to. Kreuger had effectively bought Ericsson with its own money. After Kreuger's suicide in [[1932]], ITT owned one third of Ericsson, but was forbidden to exercise this ownership because of a paragraph in the articles of association stating that no foreign investor was allowed to control more than 20% of the votes. While Ericsson came close to filing for [[bankruptcy]] in [[1932]], this did not happen. Instead [[Marcus Wallenberg]] (jr) negotiated a deal with several Swedish banks to rebuild Ericsson financially. One of them, [[Stockholms Enskilda Bank]], together with other Swedish investment banks controlled by the [[Wallenberg family]], then gradually increased its possession of Ericsson &quot;A&quot; shares, with ITT still being the single largest owner. In [[1960]] the Wallenberg family finally struck a deal with ITT to buy their shares in Ericsson and the company has since then been controlled by the Wallenberg family, i.e. a part of the &quot;[[Wallenberg sphere]]&quot;. === Purchase of the Marconi brand and assets === In October 2005, Ericsson purchased the bulk of the business of the troubled British telecoms manufacturer [[Marconi Corporation plc|Marconi]], including the Marconi brand name, which dates back to the creation of the original [[Marconi Company]] by the &quot;father of radio&quot; [[Guglielmo Marconi]]. ==Corporate governance== Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Ericsson are: [[Monica Bergström]], [[Peter Bonfield]], [[Anna Guldstrand]], [[Jan Hedlund]], [[Ulf Johansson]], [[Per Lindh]], [[Sverker Martin-Löf]], [[Arne Löfving]], [[Arne Mårtensson]], [[Nancy McKinstry]], [[Torbjörn Nyman]], [[Eckhard Pfeiffer]], [[Carl-Henric Svanberg]], [[Michael Treschow]] and [[Marcus Wallenberg]]. ==Notable products== *[[AXE telephone exchange|AXE]] [[telephone exchange]] *[[MD110 PBX|MD110 IP-PBX -]] [[Enterprise communication equipment]] *[[Ericofon]] handset *[[Mini-Link]] microwave radio == Further reading == * John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (1994) ''A switch in time: AXE &amp;mdash; creating a foundation for the information age''. London: Communications Week International. ISBN 0-9524031-1-0. * John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (1997). ''The ugly duckling''. Stockholm: Ericsson Mobile Communications. ISBN 91-630-5452-3. * John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (2000). ''The Ericsson Chronicle: 125 years in telecommunications''. Stockholm: Informationsförlaget. ISBN 91-7736-464-3. * ''The Mobile Phone Book: The Invention of the Mobile Telephone Industry''. ISBN 09-5240-310-2 ==See also== *[[Investor AB]] *[[Sony Ericsson]], [[List of Sony Ericsson products]] and [[List of Ericsson products]] *[[Ericsson Mobile Platform]] == External links == *[http://www.ericsson.com/ Ericsson] - Official site *[http://www.sonyericsson.com/ Sony Ericsson] - Official site *[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41776.html Yahoo! - Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson Company Profile] [[Category:Electronics companies]] [[Category:Networking companies]] [[Category:Telecommunications equipment vendors]] [[Category:Companies of Sweden]] [[Category:Wallenberg Sphere]] [[Category:1876 establishments]] [[de:Ericsson]] [[es:Ericsson]] [[fr:Ericsson]] [[lt:Ericsson]] [[nl:Ericsson]] [[ja:エリクソン]] [[no:Ericsson]] [[pl:Ericsson]] [[fi:Ericsson]] [[sv:Ericsson]] [[tr:Ericsson]] [[zh:愛立信]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ethology</title> <id>9425</id> <revision> <id>41897163</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:19:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kanzure</username> <id>95883</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */ -&gt; Changed the apparently oudated link to publications to a more appropriate link. There are no listed publications in ethology on the page, however.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethology''' is the scientific study of [[animal]] [[behavior]] considered as a branch of [[zoology]]. A [[scientist]] who practices ethology is called an '''ethologist'''. == Origins of the name == The term &amp;#8220;ethology&amp;#8221; derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] language, as [[ethos]] (''&amp;#942;&amp;#952;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'') is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;[[custom]]&quot;. Other words that derive from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &quot;ethos&quot; are: &quot;ethics&quot; and &quot;ethical.&quot; The term was first popularised in English by the American [[Myrmecologist]] [[William Morton Wheeler]] in [[1902]]. An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his [[1843]] &lt;cite&gt;System of Logic&lt;/cite&gt;. He recommended the development of a new science, &quot;ethology,&quot; whose purpose would be the explanation of individual and national differences in character, on the basis of [[associationism|associationistic]] [[psychology]]. This use of the word was never adopted, however. == Differences and similarities with comparative psychology == Ethology can be contrasted with [[comparative psychology]], which also studies animal behaviour, but construes its study as a branch of [[psychology]]. Thus where comparative psychology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]]. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning, and thus tended to look at behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do lead to different perspectives and sometimes to conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the [[twentieth century]] comparative psychology developed most strongly in [[North America]], while ethology was stronger in [[Europe]], and this led to different emphases as well as somewhat different philosophical underpinnings in the two disciplines. A practical difference is that comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few [[species]], while ethologists were more interested in gaining knowledge of behaviour in
], [[2005]], the Bears introduced an orange alternate home jersey. The orange swaps roles with the navy blue on this alternate jersey, as it becomes the dominant color while the navy complements. ==Stadium== {{details|Soldier Field}} &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Soldierfield.jpg|thumb|right|Soldier Field]] --&gt; [[Image:Pr99-1.jpg|right|thumb|Soldier Field II]] [[Soldier Field]], located on [[Lake Shore Drive]] in [[Chicago Illinois]], is the current home to the Bears. It was closed on Sunday, [[January 20]], [[2002]] a day after the Bears lost in the [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02|playoffs]]. It reopened on [[September 27]], [[2003]] after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium's history). Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as '''Soldier Field II'''. The Bears moved into Soldier Field in 1971 after [[Wrigley Field]] became too small to hold an NFL event. The stadium's playing turf was changed to [[astroturf]] in the early 1980's. But due to player complaints, the turf was replaced by natural grass. In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved. Some people viewed the remodeling as a mistake. They believed that the current structure of the stadium has made the stadium more of an eyesore than landmark. People have dubbed the stadium such names as the &quot;Mistake on the Lake&quot;.{{ref|mistake}} In 2006, since the Bears won the NFC North and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, the team hosted a playoff game on January 15 at Soldier Field against the [[Carolina Panthers]]. This was the first playoff game there since the stadium reopened. '''Some Famous Bears Games at Soldier Field:'''&lt;br&gt; 1984: Against the [[New Orleans Saints]], [[Walter Payton]] breaks [[Jim Brown]]'s All-Time NFL Career Rushing Record.&lt;br&gt; 1986: NFC Championship Game, Bears shut out the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]], 24-0. &lt;br&gt; 1988: NFC Divisional Playoff Game: aka '''[[Fog Bowl (American football)|The Fog Bowl]]'''&lt;br&gt; 2001: Mike Brown's miracle game winning touchdown interception returns two weeks in a row vs. the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Cleveland Browns]]. &lt;br&gt; 2005: Nathan Vasher fields a missed field goal vs. San Francisco and returns it 108 yards for a touchdown, the longest play in NFL history. ==The Bears in popular culture== [[Image:Superbowlshuffle.jpg|right|thumb|The '85 Bears doing the Super Bowl Shuffle]] The 1971 TV-movie ''[[Brian's Song]]'' starred [[Billy Dee Williams]] as [[Gale Sayers]] and [[James Caan]] as [[Brian Piccolo]]. The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian's fatal illness. It became one of the best-loved sports films of all time. A remake of the movie starred [[Sean Maher]] as Piccolo and [[Mekhi Phifer]] as Sayers. In addition to the [[Super Bowl Shuffle]]{{ref|shuffle}} rap song, the Bears' success in the 1980s, especially head coach [[Mike Ditka]], inspired a recurring sketch on the [[United States|American]] [[sketch comedy]] [[Television program|program]] [[Saturday Night Live]] called &quot;[[Bill Swerski's Superfans]].&quot; The sketch featured ''[[Cheers]]'' co-star [[George Wendt]], a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk-show, with co-panelists Karl ([[Robert Smigel]]), Pat ([[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]]) and Todd ([[Chris Farley]]). To hear them tell it, &quot;Da Bears,&quot; Coach Ditka, &quot;Da Bulls&quot; and [[Michael Jordan]] could do no wrong. The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993 and Jordan made his first retirement soon after, but made a brief comeback when Jordan made his first comeback in 1995, with guest-host [[John Goodman]] playing Pat in place of the now-departed Myers, suggesting that the absence of Ditka and Jordan from the Chicago sports scene had led him to overeat and become as overweight as Farley. The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of sausage (usually referred to as &quot;[[Polish sausage]]&quot;), and often featured Farley as Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears (or the Bulls) that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered. This sketch could be viewed differently following Farley's 1997 death from a drug-induced real-life heart attack. Ditka, [[Dick Butkus]], [[Walter Payton]], [[Jim McMahon]], [[William Perry]] and [[Brian Urlacher]] are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials. ==Owners== {{See also|George Halas}} The Bears were founded by A.E. Staley technically speaking, but everyone including NFL record books say that [[George Stanley Halas]], nicknamed '''&quot;Papa Bear&quot;''' and '''&quot;Mr. Everything&quot;''', was the founder and first owner of the Chicago Bears. Halas played and coached for the franchise in the 1920's and was named to several All-Pro teams in the decade. He will be remembered for the infamous signing of [[college]] all-star [[Red Grange]]. In his return in the late 1930s, Halas - with University of Chicago coach Clark Shaughnessy - perfected the T-formation system to create a revolutionary and overwhelming style of play which drove the Bears to an astonishing 73-0 victory over the [[Washington Redskins]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940|1940 NFL Championship Game]], where both starters and regulars dominated. Every other team in the league immediately began trying to imitate the format. The Bears repeated as NFL champions in [[1941 in sports|1941]], and the 1940s would be remembered as the era of the &quot;[[Monsters of the Midway]]&quot;. Halas retired in 1967 and spent the rest of his days as the owner of the Bears. He became the only person to be involved with the NFL in the first 60 years of it existance and when he passed in 1983, Halas left behind a legacy of truly being Mr. Everything with a resume of 63 years as an owner, 40 as a coach, 324 wins, and 8 NFL titles as a coach or owner. He was also apart of the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]'s first induction class in 1963. In his honor, the [[National Football League]] named the [[National Football Conference]] Championship trophy in his honor as the [[NFC Championship|George Halas Memorial Trophy]]. After Halas's death, his daughter Virginia McCaskey took over as the owner of the team, but in sense the team was ran on a daily basis by her son, Michael McCaskey until 1998, when Mrs. McCaskey replaced him with Ted Phillips. Phillips is the current man in charge of the Bears. There have been unconfrimed rurmors that Michael McCaskey, the hier to the ownership of the team, will possible sell the team. As of 2005, the Forbes Magazine has reported that the Chicago Bears franchise is worth $841 million{{ref|value}}. The team also has major sponsership with [[Bank One]], [[Anheuser-Busch]] (nyse: BUD), [[Toyota Motor]] (nyse: TM), [[Boeing]] (nyse: BA), and [[Coca-Cola]] (nyse: KO).{{ref|sponsership}} [[Image:50 tedphillips.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Current Chicago Bears' President and CEO [[Ted Phillips]]]] {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Owner(s) !Year(s) |- |A.E. Staley || 1919-1921 |- |George Halas and Dutch Sternaman || 1921-1932 |- |George Halas || 1932-1983 |- |Virginia McCaskey and Family || 1983-present |- |} ===Club Presidents=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !President(s) !Year(s) |- |George Halas || 1919-1953 |- |George Halas, Jr.|| 1953-1979 |- |Mike McCaskey || 1979-1998 |- |Ted Phillips || 1998-present |- |} ==Team records== {{details|Chicago Bears statistics}} Throughout the club's history{{ref|records}} kicker [[Kevin Butler]] holds the record for scoring the most points in his ten-year Bear career. He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995. He is followed in distant second place by Hall of Famer [[Walter Payton]] with 750 points. Chicago Bears [[Steve McMichael]], (1981-93) holds the record for most consective games played by a Bear with 191. In second place is [[Walter Payton]], who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back, a position known to injury, in a span of 13 seasons only missing one game. [[Mark Bortz]] holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances with 13, and is followed by 8 other players, who have played in 12 playoff games. The 1940 Chicago Bears team hold the record for the biggest defeat in an [[NFL]] game ([[NFL playoffs|playoff]] or regular season) with a 73-0 whipping over the [[Washington Redskins]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940|1940 NFL Championship Game]]. Also Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40, and with the most career wins of 324. Halas's record was a standing NFL record through [[1993 NFL season|1993]]. [[Mike Ditka]] is the closest to Halas with 112 career victories. ==Current roster== {{Chicago Bears roster}} ==Famous players== {{details|List of Chicago Bears players}} Over 1,000 players have played on the Chicago Bears roster from 1920 to 2005. ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== The Bears boast the most enshrined Hall-of-Famers (26){{ref|membership}}in NFL History. The original inductees include [[George Halas]], [[Bronko Nagurski]], and [[Red Grange]] in 1963, while defensive end [[Dan Hampton]] was most recently inducted in 2002. [[Image:Coachmikeditka.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Hall of Famer [[Mike Ditka|&quot;Iron Mike&quot; Ditka]]]] [[Image:Payton_SI_1984_10_15.jpg|thumb|right|[[Walter Payton]]: The Greatest Running Back in Chicago Bears' history.]] {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- |colSpan=3 align=center |'''Chicago Bears Hall of Famers''' |- !No. !Player !Positions |- | 1 ||[[Paddy Driscoll]]|| QB-S-K, Head Coach |- | 3 || [[Bronko Nagurski]]|| RB-OT-LB |- | 5 || [[George McAfee]]|| RB-S |- | 7 || [[George Halas]]|| founder, owner, Head Coach, TE-DE |- | 11 || [[William R. Lyman|Link Lyman]]||
;nbsp;km (2,518 miles)&lt;br /&gt; [[Bhutan]]:&lt;br /&gt;605&amp;nbsp;km (376&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Burma|Burma (Myanmar)]]:&lt;br /&gt;1,463&amp;nbsp;km (909&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[People's Republic of China|China (PRC)]]:&lt;br /&gt;3,380&amp;nbsp;km (2,100&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Nepal]]:&lt;br /&gt;1,690&amp;nbsp;km (1,050&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Pakistan]]:&lt;br /&gt;2,912 km (1,809 miles) | highest point= [[Kanchenjunga]]&lt;br /&gt;8,598&amp;nbsp;m (28,209&amp;nbsp;ft)| lowest point= [[Kuttanad]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;minus;2.2&amp;nbsp;m (&amp;minus;7.2&amp;nbsp;ft)| longest river=[[Ganges River|Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]]&lt;br /&gt;| largest lake=[[Chilka Lake]]&lt;br /&gt;| }} The '''geography of India''' is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from [[snow]]-capped [[mountain range]]s to [[desert]]s, [[plain]]s, hills and [[plateau]]s. Climate ranges from [[equator]]ial in the far south, to [[tundra]] in the [[Himalaya]]n [[altitude]]s. [[India]] comprises most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and has a long [[coast|coastline]] of over 7,000&amp;nbsp;km (4,300&amp;nbsp;miles), most of which lies on a [[peninsula]] that protrudes into the [[Indian Ocean]]. India is bounded in the west by the [[Arabian Sea]] and in the east by the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The fertile [[Indo-Gangetic plain]] occupies most of [[North India|northern]], central and eastern India, while the [[Deccan Plateau]] occupies most of [[South India|southern India]]. To the west of the country is the [[Thar Desert]], which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy [[desert]]. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with [[Pakistan]]; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed [[Kashmir]] territory) is [[K2]], at 8,611&amp;nbsp;m (28,251&amp;nbsp;feet). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is [[Kanchenjunga]], at 8,598&amp;nbsp;m (28,208&amp;nbsp;feet). India is bordered by [[Pakistan]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Myanmar]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Afghanistan]]{{ref|afgh}}. [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]] are [[island nation]]s to the south of India. Politically, India is divided into 28 states, six federally administered [[union territories]] and a [[National Capital Territory of Delhi|national capital territory]]. The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions. ==Location and extent== [[Image:800px-Vivekananda Memorial Kanyakumari.jpg|thumb|240px|Cape Comorin is the southernmost point in mainland India.]] India lies to the north of the equator between 8&amp;nbsp;degree&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;minutes and 37&amp;nbsp;degree&amp;nbsp;6&amp;nbsp;minutes north latitude and 68&amp;nbsp;degrees&amp;nbsp;7&amp;nbsp;minutes and 97&amp;nbsp;degrees&amp;nbsp;25&amp;nbsp;minutes east longitude. It is the [[List of countries by area|seventh-largest country in the world]], with a total land area of 3,287,263&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (1,269,219&amp;nbsp;square miles). India measures 3,214&amp;nbsp;km (1,997&amp;nbsp;miles) from north to south and 2,933&amp;nbsp;km (1,822&amp;nbsp;miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200&amp;nbsp;km (9,445&amp;nbsp;miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5&amp;nbsp;km (4,670.5&amp;nbsp;miles). The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the Bay of Bengal and [[Lakshadweep]] in the Arabian Sea are parts of India. {{inote|Manorama pg 515-|man-515}} India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. [[Kanyakumari]] constitutes the southern tip of the Indian [[peninsula]], which narrows before ending in the [[Indian Ocean]]. {{see also|Extreme points of India}} ==Political geography== {{main|States and territories of India}} India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into [[List of Indian districts|districts]]), six union territories and the [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]]. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government. {{India states}} The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India. ==Geographical regions== India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are #The northern mountains including the [[Himalaya]]s and the northeast mountain ranges. #Indo-Gangetic plains #Thar Desert #Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau #East Coast #West Coast #Bordering seas and islands ===Mountains=== [[Image:Indiahills.png|thumb|240px|Map of the hilly regions in India.]] A great arc of mountains, composed of the [[Himalaya]], [[Hindu Kush]], and [[Patkai]] ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the [[Indian Plate]] with the [[Eurasian Plate]] which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the [[monsoon]]s that drive climate in India. The numerous rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by [[biogeography|biogeographers]] as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the [[temperate]] [[Palearctic]] that covers most of Eurasia, and the [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] [[Indomalaya]] ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent and extend into [[Southeast Asia]] and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have served as barriers to invaders. India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000&amp;nbsp;m (3,300&amp;nbsp;feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are: #[[Aravalli]] #[[Eastern Ghats]] #[[Himalaya]]s #[[Patkai]] #[[Vindhya]]s #[[Sahyadri]] or [[Western Ghats]] #[[Satpura]]s [[Image:Himalayas.jpg|thumb|240px|A composite image of the Himalaya.]] The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500&amp;nbsp;km (1,550&amp;nbsp;miles), covering an area of 500,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (193,000&amp;nbsp;square miles). [[Image:Rathong_from_Zemathang2.jpg|thumb|240px|Himalayan peaks in Sikkim.]] The '''Himalayas''' extend from the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in the east. These states along with [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttaranchal]], and [[Sikkim]] lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000&amp;nbsp;m (23,000&amp;nbsp;feet) and the [[snow line]] ranges between 6,000&amp;nbsp;m (19,600&amp;nbsp;feet) in Sikkim to around 3,000&amp;nbsp;m (9,850&amp;nbsp;feet) in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga, which lies in Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed). Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The '''[[Shiwalik]]''', or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with [[landslide]]s being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's [[hill station]]s are located on this range. The climate varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges. The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the '''[[Patkai]] ''' or the '''Purvanchal'''. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the [[Garo Hills|Garo]]-[[Khasi Hills|Khasi]]-[[Jaintia Hills|Jaintia]], and the [[Lushai hills]]. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of [[Meghalaya]]. The climate ranges from [[temperate]] to [[alpine]] due to altitude. [[Cherrapunji]], which lies on the [[windward]] side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall {{ref|patkai}}. [[Image:Vindhya.jpg|thumb|240px|The Vindhyas in central India.]] The '''[[Vindhya]]''' range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050&amp;nbsp;km (652&amp;nbsp;miles). The average elevation of these hills is 300&amp;nbsp;m (1,000&amp;nbsp;feet). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains. It geographically separates [[North India|northern]] India from [[South India|southern]] India. The western end of the range lies in eastern [[Gujarat]], near its border with the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], and the range runs east and north nearly to the [[Ganges River]] at [[Mirzapur]]. The '''[[Satpura Range]]''' is a range of [[hill]]s in central [[India]]. It begins in eastern [[Gujarat]] near the [[Arabian Sea]] coast, then runs east through [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and ends in the state of [[Chhattisgarh]]. It extends for a distance of 900&amp;nbsp;km with many of its peaks rising above 1000&amp;nbsp;m (3,300&amp;nbsp;feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at [[Ratnapuri]] and the two sides being parallel to the [[Tapti River|Tapti]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]] river. It runs parallel to the [[Vindhya Range]], which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depressio
cycle of oppression. In contrast to most other nations in [[Latin America]], prior to the coup Chile had a long tradition of democratic civilian rule; military intervention in politics had been rare. Some political scientists have ascribed the bloodiness of the coup to the stability of the existing democratic system, which required extreme action to overturn. The situation in Chile came to international attention in September 1976, when [[Orlando Letelier]], a former Chilean [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to the [[United States]] and minister in Allende's cabinet, was killed by a car bomb in [[Washington, D.C.]]. General [[Carlos Prats]], Pinochet's predecessor as army commander, who had resigned rather than support the moves against Allende, had died in similar circumstances in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], two years earlier. ==Chilean foreign relations under Pinochet== The new junta quickly broke off the diplomatic relations with [[Cuba]] that had been established under the Allende government. Having come to power with the self-proclaimed mission of fighting communism, Pinochet found common cause with the military dictatorships of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], and later, [[Argentina]]. The six countries eventually formulated a plan that became known as [[Operation Condor]], in which one country's security forces would target suspected Marxist &quot;subversives,&quot; guerrillas, and their sympathizers in the allied countries. After [[Orlando Letelier]]'s assassination in Washington, D.C. ([[September]] [[1976]]) the [[United States]] started opposing themselves to Condor operations abroad (phase 3), asking for the extradition of [[DINA]] agent [[Michael Townley]]. However, it wasn't until details of the plot leaked out after each of the regimes collapsed and the discovery of the &quot;[[terror archives]]&quot; in [[Paraguay]] that Condor came to be widely condemned as coordinated [[state terrorism]]. The military governments justified, however, the &quot;[[Dirty War]]&quot; by the imperative of stability during a time when many [[Urban area|urban]] and [[rural]] Marxist guerrillas were actively seeking to violently overthrow each country's respective government. In Argentina, for example, the &quot;[[doctrine of the two demons]]&quot; was created to justify this violent form of [[anti-communism]] that took place in the more general historic frame of the [[Cold War]]. Under Pinochet, Chile was the only country in Latin America not to support Argentina in its war with the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] in 1982, after having almost started a war over a confrontation on some strategic islands. Pinochet's government received tacit approval and material support from the [[United States of America]]. The exact nature and extent of this support is disputed. (''See'' [[Chilean coup of 1973#U.S. role in 1973 coup|U.S. role in 1973 Coup]], [[U.S. intervention in Chile]] and [[Operation Condor]] for more details.) ==End of the Pinochet regime== In May 1983, the opposition and labor movements began to organize demonstrations and strikes against the regime, provoking violent responses from government officials. In 1986, security forces discovered 80 tons of weapons smuggled into the country by the [[Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front]] (FPMR), the armed branch of the outlawed [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]]. The shipment of [[Carrizal Bajo]] included C-4 [[plastic explosive]]s, [[RPG-7]] and [[M72 LAW]] rocket launchers as well as more than three thousand [[M16 (rifle)|M-16]] rifles. The operation was overseen by [[Cuba]]n intelligence, and also involved [[East Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. In September, weapons from the same source were used in an unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempt against Pinochet by the FPMR. Pinochet suffered only minor injuries, but five of his military bodyguards were killed. The beheading of Communists [[José Manuel Parada]], [[Manuel Guerrero]], and [[Santiago Nattino]] by the uniformed police ''(carabineros)'' led to the resignation of junta member General Mendoza on 1985. According to the transitional provisions of the [[Constitution of Chile|1980 Constitution]], approved by 75% of voters in what has been said to be &quot;a highly irregular and undemocratic [[plebiscite]].&quot;{{ref|Hudson}}, a plebiscite was scheduled for [[October 5]], [[1988]], to vote on a new eight-year presidential term for Pinochet. The Constitutional Tribunal ruled that the plebiscite should be carried out as stipulated by the Law of Elections. That included an &quot;Electoral Space&quot; during which all positions, in this case two, ''Sí'' (yes), and ''No'', would have two free slots of equal and uninterrupted TV time, simultaneously broadcast by all TV channels, with no political advertising outside those spots. The allotment was scheduled in two off-prime time slots: one before the afternoon news and the other before the late-night news, from 22:45 to 23:15 each night (the evening news was from 20:30 to 21:30, and prime time from 21:30 to 22:30). The opposition ''No'' campaign, headed by [[Ricardo Lagos]], produced colorful, upbeat programs, telling the Chilean people to vote against the extension of the presidential term. Lagos, in an interview, called on Pinochet to account for all the &quot;disappeared&quot; persons. The ''Sí'' campaign did not argue for the advantages of extension, but was instead negative, claiming that voting &quot;no&quot; was equivalent to voting for a return to the chaos of the UP government. In the plebiscite, 55% of the votes rejected the extension of the presidential term, against 42% for &quot;''Sí''&quot;, and again according to the provisions of the constitution, [[1989 Chilean presidential election|open presidential elections]] were held the next year, at the same time as congressional elections that would have taken place in either case. Pinochet left the presidency on [[March 11]], [[1990]]. Due to the transitional provisions of the constitution, Pinochet remained as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, until March 1998. He was then sworn in as a senator-for-life, a privilege first granted to former presidents with at least six years in office by the [[Constitution of Chile|1980 constitution]]. His senatorship and consequent immunity from prosecution protected him, and legal challenges began only after Pinochet had been arrested in Britain. ==Arrest== [[Image:Pinochet-Thatcher.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pinochet is visited by [[Margaret Thatcher]] during his house arrest in London, in 1998]] While traveling abroad, Pinochet was arrested in October 1998 in [[London]], [[England]], under an international [[arrest warrant]] issued by judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] of [[Spain]], and he was placed under [[house arrest]]: initially in the clinic where he had just undergone back surgery, and later in a luxurious rented house. The charges included 94 counts of [[torture]] of Spanish citizens, and one count of conspiracy to commit torture. The government of Chile opposed his arrest, extradition to Spain, and trial. There was a hard-fought 16-month legal battle in the House of Lords, the highest court of England, Pinochet claimed immunity from prosecution as a former head of state. This was rejected, but the Lords decided that only crimes alleged to have been committed after the incorporation of the [[International Convention against Torture]] into English law in 1988 could be considered. This invalidated most, but not all, of the charges against him; but the outcome was that extradition could proceed. There were then questions about Pinochet's allegedly fragile health. After medical tests, the Home Secretary [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]] ruled, despite the protests of legal and medical experts from several countries, that he should not be extradited, and on [[2 March]] [[2000]], he returned to Chile. ===Significance of the arrest=== Despite his release on grounds of ill-health, the unprecedented detention of Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, a senator and former head of state of Chile, in a foreign country, for crimes against humanity committed in his own country while he was head of state, without a warrant or request for extradition from his own country, marks a watershed in international law, one of the most important events since the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals. Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]]'s case was largely founded on the principle of [[universal jurisdiction]]&amp;mdash;that certain crimes are so egregious that they constitute crimes against humanity and can therefore be prosecuted in any court in the world. The British House of Lords ruled that Pinochet had no right to immunity from prosecution as a former head of state, and could be put on trial. (''See'' [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/universal/2004/0524ripple.htm The Ripple Effect of the Pinochet Case].) ==Prosecution in Chile== On [[August 8]] [[2000]], the [[Supreme court of Chile|Supreme Court of Justice]] voted 14 to 6 to strip Pinochet of his parliamentary immunity, and he was prosecuted. However, the cases were dismissed by the same Court, for medical reasons (vascular [[dementia]]), in July 2002. Shortly after the verdict, Pinochet resigned from the Senate and lived quietly. He rarely made public appearances and was notably absent from the events marking the 30th anniversary of the coup on [[September 11]], [[2003]]. Almost two years after his resignation, on [[May 28]], [[2004]], the Court of Appeals voted 14 to 9 to revoke Pinochet's dementia status and, consequently, his immunity from prosecution. In arguing their case, the prosecution presented a recent television interview Pinochet had made to a [[Miami]]-based television network. The judges found that the interview raised doubts about the mental incapacity of Pinochet. On [[August 26]], [[2004]], in a 9 to 8 vote, the Supreme Court confirmed the decision th
manuscript]] may be an example of this. Renaissance interest in [[Ancient Egypt]], notably the discovery of the ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'' of [[Horapollo]], and first encounters with the [[Chinese script]] directed efforts towards a perfect language of written characters. [[Johannes Trithemius]], in his works ''Steganographia'' and ''Polygraphia'', attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one. In the [[17th century]], interest in [[Magical thinking|magical]] languages was continued by the [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Alchemy|Alchemists]] (like [[John Dee]]). [[Jakob Boehme]] in [[1623]] spoke of a &quot;natural language&quot; (''Natursprache'') of the senses. [[Musical language]]s from the Renaissance were tied up with [[mysticism]], magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the [[language of the birds]]. The [[Solresol language|Solresol]] project of [[1817]] re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context. The 17th century also saw the rise of projects for &quot;philosophical&quot; or &quot;a priori&quot; languages. Pioneered by [[Francis Lodwick]]'s ''A Common Writing'' ([[1647]]) and ''The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing'' ([[1652]]), [[George Dalgarno]] (''Ars signorum'', [[1661]]) and [[John Wilkins]] (''Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language'', [[1668]]) produced systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression. [[Gottfried Leibniz]] with ''lingua generalis'' in [[1678]] pursued a similar end, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing [[binary calculus]]. These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into &quot;characters&quot; or hierarchies, an idea that with the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] would ultimately lead to the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''. Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an ''a priori'' language based on such a classification of concepts. Under the entry ''Charact&amp;egrave;re'', [[D'Alembert]] critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century. From the ''Encyclopédie'', projects for ''a priori'' languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until the early [[20th century]] (e.g. [[Ro]]), but most recent [[engineered language]]s have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. [[Lincos (language)|Lincos]] and [[programming language]]s), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., [[Loglan]] and [[Lojban]]) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., [[Ithkuil]]). Already in the ''Encyclopédie'' attention began to focus on ''a posteriori'' auxiliary languages. [[Joachim Faiguet]] in the article on ''Langue'' already wrote a short proposition of a &quot;laconic&quot; or regularized grammar of [[French (language)|French]]. During the [[19th century]], a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that [[Louis Couturat]] and [[Leopold Leau]] in ''Historire de la langue universelle'' ([[1903]]) could review 38 projects. The first of these that made any international impact was [[Volapük]], proposed in [[1879]] by [[Johann Martin Schleyer]], and within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe. However, this language by its very success lost its unity, and within a few years, fell into obscurity, making way for [[Esperanto]], proposed in [[1887]] by [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]], the most successful IAL to date. [[Loglan]] ([[1955]]) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic return to the aims of the ''a priori'' languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language. Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in [[Gargantua and Pantagruel|Pantagruel]], and in [[Utopia]]n contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects from the [[20th century]]. ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language. [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] was the first to develop a family of related fictional languages and was the first academic to publicly discuss artistic languages, admitting to ''[[A Secret Vice]]'' of his in [[1930]] at an Esperanto congress. ([[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Newspeak]]'' should be considered a parody of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.) By the turn of the [[21st century]], it had become common for science-fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, and constructed languages are a regular part of movies of the genre, including ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' and ''[[Atlantis: The Lost Empire]]''. == See also == * [[List of constructed languages]] * [[Universal language]] * Language construction ** [[CONLANG]], [[conlanger]] ** [[List of language regulators|Language regulator]] ** [[Language Construction Kit]] ** [[Language game (linguistics)]] ** [[Artificial script]] * Language modelling and translation ** [[Language translation]] ** [[Knowledge representation]] ** [[Translation relay]] ** [[Universal grammar]] ** [[Metalanguage]] * Prescriptive grammar ** [[Language planning]] ** [[Linguistic protectionism]] ** [[List of language regulators]] ** [[Spelling reform]] ** [[Pāṇini]] ** [[Duden]], [[German spelling reform of 1996]] * Spontaneous emergence of grammar ** [[Glottogony]] ** [[Pidgin]] ** [[Poto and Cabengo]] ** [[June and Jennifer Gibbons]] * Mystical languages ** [[Glossolalia]] ** [[Language of the birds]] == References == * [[Alan Libert]], ''A Priori Artificial Languages''. [[Lincom Europa]], Munich, [[2000]]. ISBN 3-89586-667-9 * [[Umberto Eco]], ''The search for the perfect language'', [[1993]]. == External links == {{Wikibooks|Conlang}} === Scholarship === * [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:C4Pf-lezOvAJ:journal.media-culture.org.au/0003/languages.php+site:journal.media-culture.org.au+constructed+language&amp;hl=en Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet] by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000). &lt;!-- used Google cache because can't access the original article. Should try again later. --&gt; *[http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/outpost.htm Language Arts Outpost] preserves several articles from the paper zine ''Journal of Planned Languages'' *[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/index.html The Language Lab], Rick Harrison's site, also reprints several such articles on specific languages === Real life classes on conlangs === *[http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs_decal Spring 2005 and Spring 2006 UC Berkeley Conlangs DE-Cal] (and its recorded videos, on [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=conlangs archive.org] and [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=conlangs video.google.com]) *[http://www.uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html List of Esperanto university classes worldwide (in Esperanto)] ===Communities=== * [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html The CONLANG Mailing List] * [http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs LiveJournal Conlangs community] * [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/index.php Zompist Bulletin Board] - a highly active online forum devoted to conlangs (and conworlds in general) * [http://www.kutjara.com/wiki KutjaraWiki] - a wiki, running on MediaWiki, managed by the denizens of the Zompist BBoard * [http://www.artlangs.com ArtLangs.com :: The ArtLangs Community] - A forum and site on conlanging and conworlding * [http://www.conlanger.com Conlanger.com] - A multilingual forum and link collection for conlanging * [irc://irc.efnet.net/ConLang #ConLang] - The IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet ===How to=== * [http://zompist.com/kit.html The Language Construction Kit] * [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/ng/lng/how/index.html How to Create a Language] by [[Pablo David Flores]], inspired by the Language Construction Kit; covers some overlooked topics ** [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/sp/lng/como/index.html Cómo crear un lenguaje] - [[Spanish language]] version * [http://langmaker.com/ Langmaker: ConLangs and neologisms forum] ===Link collections=== * [http://www.langmaker.com/ Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com] - over 1,000 languages listed, frequently updated &lt;!-- * [http://www.myconlanglinks.tk/ Invaluable Conlang Links] [Broken?] --&gt; * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/9219/conlib.html A Constructed Languages Library] * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/5555/conlang.htm The Conlang Yellow Pages] * [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/ Blueprints For Babel] * [http://minyeva.alkaline.org/links.htm Garrett's Links to Logical Languages] ===Collections of constructed language resource links=== *[http://www.sys.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.html Some Internet resources relating to constructed languages] *[http://www.langmaker.com/db/rsc_a2z_index.htm More Internet resources relating to constructed languages] ===Wikis on or about constructed languages=== * [http://talideon.com/concultures/wiki ConlangWiki] - a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures. * [http://conlang.wikicities.com/ Conlang Wikicity] * [http://ial.wikicities.com/ IAL Wiki] - a wiki for the Auxlang community * [http://wiki.frath.net/ FrathWiki] * [http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki Unilang.org] - a database of language- and linguistic-related information [[Categor
processes named after the Italian scientist [[Luigi Galvani]]. # Originally, galvanization was the administration of electric shocks (in the 19th century also termed ''Faradism'', after [[Michael Faraday]]). It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in severed [[frog]]s' legs, by his accidental generation of [[electricity]]. This [[archaic]] sense is the origin of the meaning of ''galvanized'' when meaning 'stirred to sudden action'. Its claims to health benefits have largely been disproven, except for some limited uses in [[psychiatry]]. ''See also: [[Galvanism]], [[Violet wand]]'' # Later the word was used for processes of [[electrodeposition]]. This remains a useful and broadly applied technology, but the term &quot;galvanization&quot; has largely come to be associated with [[zinc]] coatings, to the exclusion of other metals. # In current use, it typically means [[hot-dip galvanizing]], a chemical process that is used to coat [[steel]] or [[iron]] with zinc. This is done to reduce [[corrosion]] (specifically rusting) of the [[iron|ferrous]] item; while it is accomplished by non-electrochemical means, it serves an electrochemial purpose. ''The remainder of the article is about zinc anti-corrosion coatings.'' Zinc coatings prevent oxidation of the protected metal by forming a barrier, and by acting as a [[sacrificial anode]] if this barrier is damaged. [[Zinc oxide]] is a fine white dust that (in contrast to iron oxide) does not cause a breakdown of the [[substrate]]'s surface integrity as it is formed. Indeed the zinc oxide, if undisturbed, can act as a barrier to further [[oxidation]], in a way similar to the [[passivation|protection]] afforded to [[aluminium]] and [[stainless steel|stainless steels]] by their oxide layers. Hot dip galvanizing deposits a thick, robust layer that may be more than is necessary for the protection of the underlying metal in some applications. This is the case in [[automobile]] bodies, where additional rust proofing paint will be applied. Here, a thinner form of galvanizing is applied by [[electroplating]], called &quot;electro-galvanization&quot;. However, the protection this process provides is insufficient for products that that will be constantly exposed to corrosive materials such as salt water. Nevertheless, most nails made today are electro-galvanized. Galvanic protection (also known as [[Sacrificial anode|sacrificial-anode]] or [[cathodic protection]]) can be achieved by connecting zinc both electronically (often by direct bonding to the protected metal) and ionically (by submerging both into the same body of elecrolyte, such as a drop of rain). In such a configuration the zinc is absorbed into the [[electrolyte]] in preference to the metal that it protects, and maintains that metal's structure by inducing an electric current. In the usual example, ingots of zinc are used to protect a boat's hull and propellers, with the ocean as the common electrolyte. As noted previously, both mechanisms are often at work in practical applications. For example, the traditional measure of a coating's effectiveness is resistance to a [[salt spray]]. Thin coatings cannot remain intact indefinitely when subject to surface abrasion, and the galvanic protection offered by zinc can be sharply contrasted to more noble metals. As an example, a scratched or incomplete coating of [[chromium]] actually exacerbates corrosion of the underlying steel, since it is less electrochemically active than the substrate. [[Image:Galvanized surface.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Galvanized surface with visible spangle]] The size of [[crystallite]]s in galvanized coatings is an aesthetic feature, known as '''spangle'''. By varying the number of particles added for heterogeneous [[nucleation]] and the rate of cooling in a hot-dip process, the spangle can be adjusted from an apparently uniform surface (crystallites too small to see with the naked eye) to grains several centimeters wide. Visible crystallites are rare in other engineering materials. == See also == * [[Hot-dip galvanizing]] {{Commons|Category:Galvanization}} [[Category:Chemical processes]] [[Category:Corrosion prevention]] [[Category:Metal plating]] [[ca:Galvanització]] [[de:Galvanisierung]] [[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]] [[nl:Verzinken]] [[pl:Galwanizacja]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ethic of reciprocity</title> <id>12859</id> <revision> <id>42082464</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:31:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.7.163.40</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Other external links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''The ethic of reciprocity''' is a general moral principle found in virtually all [[religions]] and [[culture]], often as a fundamental rule, a fact which suggests that it may be related to innate aspects of human nature (see [[altruism]]). In most formulations it takes a passive form, as expressed by the Jewish sage [[Hillel the Elder|Hillel]]: &quot;What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man.&quot; In Western culture, however, the most famous formulation is active, as expressed by [[Jesus]] in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] -- &quot;Do unto others as you would have others do unto you&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew]] 7:12 of the Christian [[Bible]]). This traditional guiding rule was so highly valued that it has for centuries been known in English as the &quot;'''''Golden Rule'''''&quot;. == Principle == The ethic of reciprocity, or ''Golden Rule'' of ethics can be best understood in term of what it is not. Firstly, the ethic of reciprocity should not be confused with [[tit for tat]], [[revenge]], [[an eye for an eye]], [[retributive justice]] or the [[lex talionis|law of retaliation]]. A key element of the ethic of reciprocity is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people, not just members of his or her [[in-group]], with consideration. Secondly, the ethics of reciprocity should not be confused with another major ethical principle, often known as [[Wiccan Rede]], [[harm principle]], or [[Non-aggression principle|liberty principle]] (non-aggression principle) which is an ethical prohibition against aggression. This rule is also an ethical rule of &quot;licence&quot; or &quot;[[right]]&quot;, that is people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. This rule does not compel one to help the other in need. On the other hand, &quot;the golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as ''they'' want to be done by.&quot; [[Karl Popper]] (''The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2) Lastly, the ethic of reciprocity or Golden Rule of ethics, should not be confused with a &quot;rule&quot; in the semantic or logical sense. A logical loophole in the positive form of Golden &quot;rule&quot; is that it would require a [[Sadism and masochism|masochist]] to harm others, even without their consent, if that is what the masochist would wish for themselves. This loophole can be addressed by invoking a supplementary rule, which is sometimes called the [[silver rule]]. This states &quot;treat others in the way that they wish to be treated&quot;. However, the silver rule may create another logical loophole. In a situation where an individual's background or belief may offend the sentiment of the majority (such as homosexuality or blasphemy), the silver rule may imply ethical majoritarianism if the Golden rule is enforced as if it were a law. An absurd example may be Adolf Hitler's reference to [[Otto Weininger]], which was something in the effect of &quot;There was only one decent Jew, and he killed himself.&quot; Weininger was a Christian convert with Jewish background who was well known for his view about supposed superiority of Christianity and Christian character over Judaism and Jewishness. Under ethic of reciprocity, a person of atheist persuation may have a (legal) right to insult religion under the right of freedom of expression but, as a personal choice, may refrain to do so in public out of respect to the sensitivity of the other. Conversely, a person of religious persuation may refrain from taking action against such public display out of respect to the sensitivity of other about the right of freedom of speech. Conversely, the lack of mutual respect might mean that each side might deliberately violate the golden rule as a provocation (to assert one's right) or as a intimidation (to prevent other from making offence). It is clear that most religious understandings of the principle imply its use as a virtue toward greater [[love]] and mutual respect for one's neighbour rather than as a [[deontological]] or [[consequentialist]] rule. Most of us know that different people have different faith or ideological belief, different preferences concerning sex or other matters, and may belong to different cultural heritage. Therefore, the golden rule depends on everyone's ability to understand and give respect to such difference. [[George Bernard Shaw]] once said that &quot;The golden rule is that there are no golden rules&quot;. This understanding is crucial because it shows how to apply the golden rule. In 1963, [[John F. Kennedy]] ordered [[Alabama]] [[United States National Guard|National Guardsmen]] to help admit two clearly qualified &quot;[[Negro]]&quot; students to the [[University of Alabama]]. In his speech that evening JFK appealed to every American to &quot;stop and examine his conscience about this and other related incidents&quot; throughout America.&quot; If an American, because his skin is dark, cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public, if he cannot send his children to the best public school available, if he cannot vote for the public [[official]]s who will represent him, .... then who among us would be content to have the color of his skin changed and stand in his place?&quot; .... &quot;Th
(COMM/DLX) and operations and control (O&amp;C)subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intelligence, communications and maintenance functions. == Role == In support of air-to-ground operations, the E-8C can provide real time information needed to increase ground [[situation awareness]] with intelligence support, attack support and targeting operations including attack aviation, naval surface fire, field artillery and friendly maneuver forces. It also provides information for air and land commanders to gain and maintain control of the battle-space and execute against enemy forces. As a battle management and command and control asset, the E-8C can support the full spectrum of roles and missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war. However, as capable as the E-8's systems are, the information returned has very little detail. While it can pick up moving vehicles on the complete other side of the battlefield, it can give very little information about the vehicles. Approximate number of vehicles, location, speed, direction of travel, and the time that the target was detected is about all that can be detected. Identifying who the target is, what equipment they have, whether it is friendly, hostile, or bystanders, is not possible with this system. That is one of the reasons why it is a joint system, so that other sensors from the other services may reference each other to positively verify JSTARS reports. In the Army, JSTARS is analyzed in the [[Common Ground Station]] (CGS) and disseminated from there. == History == Joint STARS evolved from [[United States Army|US Army]] and [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] programs to develop, detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of troops. In 1982, the programs were merged and the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] became the lead agent. The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the [[Tacit Blue]] experimental aircraft. The prime contract was awarded to [[Northrop Grumman]] (formerly Grumman Aerospace Corporation) in September 1985 for two E-8C development systems. These aircraft deployed in 1991 to participate in [[Operation Desert Storm]], even though they were still in development. The joint program accurately tracked mobile [[Iraq]]i forces, including tanks and [[Scud]] missiles. Crews flew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties accumulating more than 500 combat hours and a 100 % mission effectiveness rate. Joint STARS developmental aircraft were also called to support the [[NATO]] peacekeeping mission, Operation [[Joint Endeavor]], in December 1995. While flying in friendly air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Treaty agreements. Crews flew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hours with a 98 % mission effectiveness rate. The [[93d Air Control Wing]], which activated [[January 29]], [[1996]], accepted its first aircraft, [[June 11]], [[1996]], and deployed in support of Operation [[Joint Endeavor]] in October. The designated 93d Air Expeditionary Group (Provisional) monitored treaty compliance while [[NATO]] rotated troops through [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]. The first production E-8C and a pre-production E-8C flew 36 operational sorties and more than 470 flight hours with a 100 % effectiveness rate. The wing declared initial operational capability [[December 18]], [[1997]] after receiving the second production aircraft. Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 flight hours and a 94.5 % mission-effectiveness rate in support of the U.S. lead [[Kosovo War]]. On [[October 1]], [[2002]], the 93d Air Control Wing (ACW) was &quot;blended&quot; with the [[116th Bomb Wing]] (BW) in a ceremony at [[Robins AFB]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The 116 BW was an [[Air National Guard]] (ANG) wing equipped with the [[B-1B]] Lancer bomber at [[Robins AFB]]. As a result of a USAF reorganization of the [[B-1B]] force, all B-1Bs were assigned to active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission. Extensive efforts by the [[Governor]] and congressional delegation of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] led to the resulting &quot;blending&quot;, with the newly created wing designated as the [[116th Air Control Wing]] (ACW). The 93 ACW was deactivated the same day. The 116 ACW constituted the first fully blended wing of active duty and [[Air National Guard]] airmen. The wing's first and current Commander is [[Brigadier General]] Tom Lynn, while the Deputy Commander is an active duty airman. The next Wing Commander is planned to be an active duty airman with an ANG Deputy. The 116 ACW has been heavily involved in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] ([[Afghanistan]]) and Operation Iraqi Freedom, earning high marks for operational effectiveness and recently completing 10,000 combat hours. The wing took delivery of the 17th and final E-8C on [[March 23]], [[2005]]. The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the [[North Korea]]n winter exercise cycle and for the [[United Nations]] enforcing resolutions on Iraq. The twelveth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] [[November 5]], [[2001]]. The [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] were impressed by the performance of the Joint STARS system in the Gulf War and subsequent joint operations and commenced studies to procure a similar system. The [[Raytheon Corporation]] was awarded the contract to provide a system comprising the ASARS-2 radar on the [[Bombardier Global Express]] jet. The ASARS-2 is an upgraded version of the [[Lockheed U-2]]'s radar. The system, known as the [[Raytheon Sentinel|'''A'''irborne '''ST'''and '''O'''ff '''R'''adar]] (ASTOR) will enter service in 2005. The E-8 is slated to be replaced (along with the [[EC-135]] and the [[E-3 Sentry]]) by the [[E-10_MC2A|E-10A Multisensor Command and Control Aircraft (MC2A)]], based upon the Boeing 767-400ER airframe and equipped with the '''M'''ulti-'''P'''latform '''R'''adar '''T'''echnology '''I'''nsertion '''P'''rogram ('''MP-RTIP''') 2-D AESA radar. Northrop Grumman is teamed with Boeing and Raytheon to produce a testbed version of the E-10A. == General characteristics == * Primary function: Airborne battle management * Primary contractor: [[Northrop Grumman Corporation]] * Power plant: Four [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33|Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33-102C]] * Thrust: 19,200 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (85 kN) each engine * Length: 152 ft 11 in (46.6 m) * Height: 42 ft 6 in (13 m) * Wingspan: 145 ft 9 in (44.4 m) * Speed: optimum orbit speed 390 to 510 knots (722 to 945 km/h), (Mach 0.52 - 0.65) * Ceiling: 42,000 ft (12,802 m) * Maximum takeoff weight: 336,000 lb (152,409 kg) * Range: 9 hours (unrefueled) * Unit cost: approximately US$270 million * Crew: flight crew of four plus 15 Air Force and three Army specialists (crew size varies according to mission) * Date deployed: 1996 * Inventory: active force, 17 ; ANG, 0; Reserve, 0 ==Proposed engine upgrades== The USAF has identified re-engining of the E-8C as an &quot;unfunded priority.&quot; Newer but still used engines would reportedly result in lower maintenance costs, reduced fuel usage, and better performance for the aircraft. ==See also== *[[Airborne Warning and Control System]] (AWACS) *[[ASTOR]] ([[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Ground surveillance radar aircraft) == External links == For more information about JSTARS, please visit *[http://www.boeing.com/ids/flash.html Boeing Integrated Defence Systems] *[http://www.es.northropgrumman.com/es/pages/isr/isr_overview.html Northrop Grumman ISR overview] *[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=100 USAF Fact Sheet] *[http://www.army.mil/ US Army] *[http://www.janes.com/aerospace/military/news/jdw/jdw060123_1_n.shtml Airborne surveillance emerges as key in fight against IEDs] Article from www.janes.com ==Related content== '''Related development:''' '''Comparable aircraft:''' '''Designation sequence:''' [[Windecker E-5|E-5]] - [[E-6 Mercury]] - [[Boeing E-7|E-7]] - '''E-8 Joint STARS''' - [[E-9]] - [[E-10 MC2A]] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both; font-size:72%&quot;; align=&quot;center&quot;; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot; | ||bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot;| '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous '' |- |bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | || ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | [[E-3 Sentry]] ||''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[E-4B]] || bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C]] [[EC-130E|EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]]|| [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gul
easures proved to be successful and nowadays smog or ''nefos'' in Greek is less of an issue for Athens, even when temperatures soar above 40 C. As far as the situation with the traffic congestion is concerned, the latter has been considerably improved, even though it is not resolved as yet. Part of this improvement is attributed both to the transformation of the once highly problematic Kiffissos Avenue into a modern, 8 lane urban motorway that stretches for more than 11 km along the ancient [[Kifissos]] River, linking many of Athens' western suburbs, from [[Peristeri]] to the port of [[Piraeus]] and to the construction of the [[Attiki Odos]] motorway. Nevertheless Athens is still not a driver-friendly city. Today Athens is a vibrant metropolis with improved infrastructure, world-class ancient monuments and museums, a legendary nightlife and increasing number of shopping malls. Athens sprawls across the central plain of [[Attica]], which is bound by Mount [[Aegaleo]] in the west, Mount [[Parnitha]] in the north, Mount [[Penteli]] in the northeast, Mount [[Hymettus]] in the east, and the [[Saronic Gulf]] in the southwest. Athens has expanded to cover the entire plain making it difficult to significantly grow further in size in the future due to the forementioned existing natural boundaries. The geomorphology of the city frequently causes the so called [[temperature inversion]] phenomenon that was partly responsible for the air pollution problems Athens faced in the recent past. ([[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] has similar geomorphology and similar problems). The ancient site of the city is centered on the rocky hill of the [[Acropolis]]. In ancient times the port of [[Piraeus]] (modern name Pireas) was a separate city, but it has now been absorbed into greater Athens. The centre of the city is [[Syntagma Square]] (Constitution Square), site of the former Royal Palace, now the [[Hellenic Parliament|Greek Parliament]] and other 19th century public buildings. This is essentially the core of the city, the place where most of the famous ancient monuments are located, all within a radius of 2 km. [[Image:Panorama_of_Athens.jpg|thumbnail|320px|Panorama of Athens, showing the [[Acropolis]] and other ancient sites.]] Athens was the host of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]]. Athens was also the host of the [[1896 Summer Olympics]] and of the [[1906 Summer Olympics|1906 Intercalated Games]]. ==Tourist attractions== Athens has been a popular [[tourist destination]] even since antiquity. Visitors from all over the globe have always been eager to visit its famous ancient monuments. Over the past decade, the infrastructure and social amenities of Athens have been radically improved as a result of the city's successful bid to stage the [[2004]] [[Olympic Games]]. The Greek state, aided by the [[European Union|E.U.]], has poured money into infrastructure projects such as the new, state of the art [[Eleftherios Venizelos Airport|&quot;Eleftherios Venizelos&quot; International Airport]], the massive expansion of the [[Athens Metro|Metro]] system, and the new [[Attiki Odos]] ring-road. As a result, the numbers of international visitors are only expected to rise even further in the coming years. Currently, Athens is the 6th most visited capital in Europe. Athens is home to a vast number of 5 and 4 star hotels, some of which were refurbished ahead of the 2004 Olympics. Entire parts of the downtown area have also been redeveloped under a masterplan called &quot;Unification of Archaeological Sites of Athens&quot; [http://www.astynet.gr/index.asp]. In one of the most important projects of the scheme, the famous Dionysiou Aeropagitou street has been pedestrianized thus forming a fascinating scenic route. The route starts from the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus]] at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the [[Acropolis]] near [[Plaka]] and finishes just outside the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in [[Theseum]]. This remarkable route provides the visitors breathtaking views of the [[Parthenon]] and the [[ancient Agora of Athens|Agora]] (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the bustle and hustle of the city centre. Near Syntagma Square (described above) stands the highly impressive [[Kallimarmaro]] Stadium, the place where the first modern [[1896 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] took place in [[1896]]. It is a replica of the ancient Athens Stadium. It holds a special interest, not only for romantic reasons but also because it is the only major stadium (60,000 spectators) made entirely of white marble from [[Penteli]], the same as the one used for the construction of the Parthenon. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Kallimarmaron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Kallimarmaro Stadium of Athens]] --&gt; The city's classic museums like the National Archaeological [[Museum]] at Patission Street (which holds the world's greatest collection of [[Greek art]]), the Benaki Museum in Piraeus Street (including its new Islamic Art branch) [http://www.benaki.gr], the Byzantine Museum, or the Museum of Cycladic Art in the Kolonaki district (strongly recommended for its collection of elegant white metamodern figures, more than 3,000 years old) [http://www.cycladic-m.gr], were all renovated ahead of the 2004 Olympics. A new Acropolis Museum is being built [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/215/21502/e21509c.html] in the central Makriyanni district according to a design by acclaimed Swiss-french architect [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Not to be missed is also the very impressive Athens [[Planetarium]] [http://www.eugenfound.edu.gr], considered to be among the world's best. The old campus of the [[University of Athens]], located in the middle section of Panepistimiou Avenue, is one of the finest buildings in the city. This combined with the adjacent National Library and the Athens Academy form the imposing &quot;Athens Trilogy&quot;, built in the mid-19th century. However, most of the university's functions have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of [[Zografou|Zográfou]]. The second most significant academic institution of the city is the [[National Technical University of Athens|Athens Polytechnic School]] (''Ethniko Metsovio Politechnio''), located in Patission Street. More than 20 students were killed inside the School in [[November 17]],[[1973]] during the [[Athens Polytechnic Uprising]] against the military junta that ruled the nation from [[April 21]], [[1967]] untill [[July 23]], [[1974]]. '''Entertainment''' and '''night life''': Athens is full of possibilities, catering for most tastes and cultures. To begin with, it has a large number of multiplex, but especially unique, open air garden cinemas; it enjoys more theatres than any other European city (including ancient marble ones that are home to the Athens Festival [http://www.hellenicfestival.gr/site/index_en.htm] from May to October) and many music venues including a state of the art [[music]] hall known as the &quot;Megaron Moussikis&quot; [http://www.megaron.gr] that attracts world-famous artists all year round. The Athens coastline, extending from the major commercial port of [[Piraeus]] to the southernmost suburb of Vouliagmeni for more than 25 km, is also connected to the city centre with a (very slow) tram and it boasts a series of high class restaurants, cafes, exciting music venues and sports facilities. In addition, Athens is packed with trendy and fashionable bars and nightclubs that are literally crowded by the city's youth on a daily basis. Especially during the summer, the southern elegant suburbs of [[Glyfada]], [[Voula]] and [[Vouliagmeni]] become home to countless such places, situated all along Poseidonos and Alkyonidon Avenues. Turning now to the city centre, the Psiri neighborhood - aka Athens' 'meat packing district'- has acquired many new mainstream bars, thus becoming a hotspot for many glitratti. It also features a number of live music restaurants called &quot;rebetadika&quot;, after [[rebetiko]], a unique kind of music that blossomed in [[Syros]] and Athens from the 1920's till the 1960's. [[Rebetiko]] is admired by many, therefore virtually every night rebetadika get crammed by people of all ages that will sing, dance and drink wine until the dawn. [[Plaka]] remains the traditional top tourist destination, with many [[taverna]]s featuring 'traditional' music, but the food, though very good, is often more expensive compared to other parts of the city. Plaka, lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its numerous neoclassic buildings, making it one of the most scenic districts in central Athens. Monastiraki, on the other hand, is famous for its string of small tourist shops as well as its crowded flea market and the tavernas that specialize in [[souvlaki]]. Another district notably famous for its student-crammed, stylish cafes is [[Theseum]], lying just west of [[Monastiraki]]. Theseum, or Thission is home to the remarkable ancient [[Temple of Hephaestus]], standing on top of a small hill. The Gazi area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory in downtown Athens, that has been converted into the ''Technopolis'' (Athens's new cultural multiplex) for all the family and has a number of expensive small clubs, bars and restaurants as well as Athens' nascent gay ;village'. The chic [[Kolonaki]] area, near Syntagma Square, is full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day and bars and restaurants by night. Ermou Street, an approximately 1 km pedestrian road connecting [[Syntagma Square]] to [[Monastiraki]], has traditionally been considered a consumer paradise for both the Athenians and foreign tourists. Full of fashion shops and shopping centers featuring most international brands, it has become one of the most expensive roads in [[Europe]]. Huge malls such as the &quot;Attica&quot; mall in Panepistimiou Avenue and &quot;The Mall Athens&quo
0]], verifed 2005-12-31 * {{note|ash}} [http://www.ash.org.uk/html/advspo/html/adfaq.html ''Frequently asked Questions: Tobacco Advertising''], ''&quot;persuades non-smokers (especially the young) to start smoking&quot;'' from [[Action on Smoking and Health|ASH]], * {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=The Ready Meal | editor=Kate Barker | pages=265 | publisher=Penguin | id=ISBN 0-141-01566-7 }} ==Bibliography== *Wernick, Andrew (1991) &quot;Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture &amp; Society S.)&quot;, London: Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0803983905 *Graydon, Shari (2003) &quot;Made You Look - How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know&quot;, Toronto: Annick Press, ISBN 1-55037-814-7 *Leon, Jose Luis (1996) &quot;Los efectos de la publicidad&quot;. Barcelona: Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1266-7 *Leon, Jose Luis (2001) &quot;Mitoanálisis de la publicidad&quot;. Barcelona. Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1285-3 ==External links== {{commons|Advertising}} *[http://advertising.utexas.edu/world/ University of Texas at Austin's Advertising related online directory] *[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/Ads/amadv.html American Advertising: A Brief History], George Mason University history essay *[http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/18/norris.html Advertising history according to the textbooks] ===Awareness=== *[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/consumer.htm Educating the Consumer about Advertising: Some Issues] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/advertising.htm Advertising in the Schools] ===Critical views=== *[http://www.adbusters.org/ AdBusters], anti-consumerism magazine *[http://www.arachnoid.com/lutusp/consumerangst.html Consumer Angst] a critical essay about certain advertisements &lt;div align=center&gt; {| border=6 cellpadding=5 |- | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of marketing topics|List of Marketing Topics]]&lt;/small&gt; | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of management topics|List of Management Topics]]&lt;/small&gt; |- | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of economics topics|List of Economics Topics]]&lt;/small&gt; | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of accounting topics|List of Accounting Topics]]&lt;/small&gt; |- | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of finance topics|List of Finance Topics]]&lt;/small&gt; | valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of advertising slogans|List of Advertising Slogans]]&lt;/small&gt; |}&lt;/div&gt; [[Category:Advertising| ]] [[Category:Graphic design]] [[Category:Marketing]] [[Category:Promotion and marketing communications]] [[cs:Reklama]] [[da:Reklame]] [[de:Werbung]] [[el:Διαφήμιση]] [[eo:Reklamo]] [[es:Publicidad]] [[fi:Mainonta]] [[fr:Publicité]] [[he:פרסום]] [[id:Iklan]] [[ja:広告]] [[lt:Reklama]] [[lv:Reklāma]] [[nl:Reclame]] [[no:Reklame]] [[pl:Reklama]] [[pt:Publicidade]] [[ro:Publicitate]] [[simple:Advertising]] [[sl:Oglaševanje]] [[sv:Reklam]] [[zh:廣告]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AI-complete</title> <id>2862</id> <revision> <id>42106791</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''AI-complete''' is, by analogy to [[NP-complete]]ness in complexity theory, a term first coined by Fanya S. Montalvo to indicate that the difficulty of a computational problem is equivalent to solving the central [[Artificial Intelligence]] problem, in other words, making computers as intelligent as people. Note that unlike NP-completeness, this term is typically used informally. To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it won't be solved by a simple algorithm, such as those used in [[ELIZA]]. Such problems are hypothesised to include: *[[Computer vision]] *[[Natural language understanding]] *Passing the [[Turing Test]] These problems are easy for humans to do (in fact, some are described directly in terms of imitating humans), and all, at their core, are about representing complex relationships between a large number of human concepts. Some systems can solve very simple restricted versions of these problems, but none can solve them in their full generality. ==References== *Robert Engels &amp; Bernt Bremdal '''Information Extraction: State-of-the-Art Report''' [[July 28]] [[2000]]. *Mallery, J.C.M. '''Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers''' The 1988 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, St. Louis, Missouri. [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] [[fr:IA-complet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Telephone and Telegraph Company</title> <id>2863</id> <revision> <id>15901246</id> <timestamp>2002-07-23T14:12:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Aldie</username> <id>901</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix AT&amp;T link, wasn't getting through to main article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AT&amp;T]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archaeoastronomy</title> <id>2864</id> <revision> <id>41654208</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:50:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.97.192.83</ip> </contributor> <comment>Tidying link to Alexander Thom</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Archaeoastronomy''' (also spelled '''Archeoastronomy''') is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilizing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Archaeoastronomy examines archaeological sites for evidence of astronomy in remote cultures, and anthropological and ethnohistorical evidence for evidence of astronomical practices in living cultures. The study of the astronomies of living traditional cultures is sometimes called Ethnoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy also focuses on modern astronomy, employing historical records of early astronomical observations to study past astronomical events, and employing astronomical data to clarify the historical record. In the study of solar, lunar, and stellar alignments of monuments, numerous claims have been made that the [[Megalith|megalithic monuments]], such as [[Nabta Playa]], [[Stonehenge]] and [[New Grange]], represent &quot;ancient observatories,&quot; but the extent and nature of their use in that regard needs careful definition. Certainly, they are aligned with particular significance to the solstitial points. The early development of this aspect of archaeoastronomy was influenced by [[Alexander Thom|Alexander Thom's]] studies of megalithic monuments of Britain, published in ''[[Megalithic sites in Britain]]'' (Oxford, 1967). Thom employed detailed surveys and statistical methods to investigate the calendric and astronomical functions of numerous Neolithic monuments. He claimed that these monuments incorporate alignments to points on the horizon where the sun and moon rise and set at seasonal extremes like midsummer, midwinter and the equinoxes. In addition to his work on Neolithic astronomy, he also proposed the [[megalithic yard]] as a standardized unit of measure. Although his work greatly influenced the development of archaeoastronomy, many of his conclusions (especially those implying highly precise observations) have been widely questioned. Anthropological and ethnohistorical methods have been used to study astronomies in a wide range of cultures. Typical studies have examined the astronomical and calendric practices of the [[Hopi]] and [[Zuni]] of the Southwestern United States; the astronomy and cosmology of the Andean villagers of Misminay; the calendrical and divinatory practices of modern [[Maya]] priests, and the ambiguous [[lunar calendar]] of the [[Mursi]] of southwestern Ethiopia. Archaeoastronomy has also considered the extensive records of ancient China for references to &quot;guest stars&quot;. &quot;Guest stars,&quot; or star-like objects which appeared in the [[night sky]], were of great interest to the observers of ancient China and were often dutifully recorded. These events have been associated with many transitory phenomena, such as [[comet]]s and, particularly, [[supernova|supernovae]]. Besides the insights such records provide into the significance of celestial phenomena in ancient cultures, they have also been found useful by modern astronomers. == Some Old World sites where archaeoastronomy is being explored == * [[Arkaim]] * [[Ballochroy]] * [[Carnac]], the ''Grand Menhir Brisé'' * [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramids of Egypt]] * [[Kintraw]] * [[Minard, Brainport Bay]], raising methodological issues * [[Newgrange]] * [[Nabta Playa]] * [[Sarmizegetusa Regia, Romania]] * [[Stonehenge]] and other structures apparently aligned to astronomical bodies and/or events == Some New World sites where archaeoastronomy is being explored == * [[Cahokia]], City of the Sun. * [[Chaco Canyon]], cardinal orientatons, meridian alignment, inter-pueblo alignments * [[Chichen Itza]], the caracol * [[Monte Alban]], zenith tube * [[Teotihuacan]], the pecked-cross circles as survey-markers * [[Uxmal]], Venus alignment of the &quot;Governor's Palace&quot; * [[Xochicalco]], zenith tube == Some artifacts that throw light on archaeoastronomy == * [[Ancient calendar]]s based on [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations * [[Antikythera mechanism]] * [[Nebra skydisk]] == References == * Clive Ruggles, ''Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland'' * ''Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture'' [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/jarch.html] == External links == *[http://www.solsticeproject.org/ The Solstice Project] * [http://www.jqjacobs.net/mesoamerica/meso_astro.html Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy], a Review of Contemporary Understandings of Prehispan
reme sports|*]] [[Category:1990s fads]] [[ca:Esports de risc]] [[de:Extremsport]] [[es:Deporte extremo]] [[fa:ورزش‌های مخاطره‌آمیز]] [[he:ספורט אתגרי]] [[ja:エクストリームスポーツ]] [[pl:Sporty ekstremalne]] [[sl:Ekstremni šport]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eadgyth</title> <id>9935</id> <revision> <id>32028778</id> <timestamp>2005-12-19T23:38:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ZwoBot</username> <id>332929</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ædgyth''' or '''Edith of England''' ([[910]] - [[January 26|26 January]] [[946]]) was the daughter of [[Edward the Elder]], King of [[England]] and Ælfflæd. Edith's grandfather was [[Alfred the Great]], King of the [[West Saxons]] (or King of Wessex). King [[Athelstan of England]] sent two of his sisters to Germany, instructing [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]] to choose whichever one pleased him best. Otto chose Edith and married her in [[929]]. The remaining sister Algiva or Adiva was married to a &quot;king near the Jupiter mountains&quot; (the [[Alps]]). The precise identity of this sister is debated. She may have been [[Eadgifu of England]] who married King [[Charles III of France]], or another sister otherwise unknown to history. Like her brother, Athelstan, Edith was devoted to the cult of [[Saint Oswald]], and was instumental in introducing this cult into Germany after her marriage to the emperor. Edith and Otto's children were: # Liutgarde, married [[Conrad the Red]] # [[Liudolf, Duke of Swabia]] ([[930]]-[[September 6]], [[957]]) Her tomb is located at the [[Cathedral of Magdeburg]]. ==Sources== *Freytag von Loringhoven, Baron. [[Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten]], 1965. *Klaniczay, Gábor. ''Holy Rulers and Blessed Princesses'', 2002. [[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]] [[de:Edgitha]] [[fi:Editha]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Kingdom of Essex</title> <id>9937</id> <revision> <id>30901912</id> <timestamp>2005-12-11T05:47:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Simetrical</username> <id>158371</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Roman]] to [[ancient Rome]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Kingdom of the East Seaxe''' (one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon [[Heptarchy]]) was founded around [[500]] AD and covered the territory currently occupied by the counties of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Middlesex]]. The kingdom was bounded to the north by the [[River Stour]] and [[Kingdom of East Anglia]], to the south by the [[River Thames]] and [[Kent]], to the east lay the [[North Sea]] and to the west [[Mercia]]. The earliest record of the kingdom dates to [[Bede]]'s History Eccl., which noted the arrival of Bishop (later Saint) [[Mellitus]] in London in [[604]]. The territory included the remains of two provincial [[ancient Rome|Roman]] capitals [[Colchester]] and [[London]]. For a brief period in the [[8th century]] the kingdom also encompassed the Kentish Kingdom to the South, but by the mid 8th century much of the kingdom, including London, had fallen to [[Mercia]]. After the defeat of the Mercian king [[Beornwulf]] around [[825]] AD, the kingdom became a possession of the [[West Saxon kingdom|Wessex]] king [[Ecgbert]]. In [[870]] the territory was ceded by Wessex, under the [[Treaty of Wedmore]], to the [[Danelaw]] kingdom of [[East Anglia]]. The modern [[England|English]] [[county]] of Essex maintains the historic northern and the southern borders, but only covers the territory east of the [[River Lee]]. The dates, names and achievements, like those of most early rulers in the [[Heptarchy]], remain conjectural. The dynasty claimed descent from the god [[Seaxneat]], rather than the god [[Woden]] (from whom the other [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribes claimed descent). The list of kings may omit whole generations. This was a time when spellings varied widely, even within a document. A number of variations of the details below exist. Amongst these are the preference between þ and ð (hard and soft &quot;th&quot;). The character '7' was used as the ampersand '&amp;' in contemporary Anglo-Saxon writings. The era pre-dates the emergence of forms of writing accepted today, notably [[minuscule]], and the letters 'W' and 'U'. Where W was followed by U this was generally rendered as 'VV' (which was also used for 'W' alone). === List of Kings of the East Saxons (Essex) === {| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; !width=&quot;15%&quot;|Reign !width=&quot;20%&quot;|Incumbent !width=&quot;30%&quot;| !width=&quot;20%&quot;|Notes |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[527]] to [[587]] |'''[[Aescwine of Essex|Aescwine]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''ÆSCVVINE CENFVSING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''ÆSCVVINE REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[587]] to ''ante'' [[604]] |'''[[Sledda of Essex|Sledda]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SLEDDA ÆSCVVINING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SLEDDA REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''ante'' [[604]] to [[616]]/[[617|7]] |'''[[Saebert of Essex|Saebert]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SÆBRYHT SLEDDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆBRYHT REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[616]]/[[617|7]] to [[617]] |'''[[Sexred of Essex|Sexred]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SEXRED SÆBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SEXRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint king with [[Saeward of Essex|Saeward]]; killed in battle against the [[West Saxons]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[616]]/[[617|7]] to [[617]] |'''[[Saeward of Essex|Saeward]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SÆVVARD SÆBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆVVARD REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint king with [[Sexred of Essex|Sexred]]; killed in battle against the [[West Saxons]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[617]] to ''ante c.''[[653]] |'''[[Sigeberht I of Essex|Sigeberht I the Little]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT PARVVS REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[653]] to [[664]] |'''[[Sigeberht II of Essex|Sigeberht II the Good]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SANCTVS REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Saint Sigeberht; Saint Sebbi (Feast Day [[29 August]]) |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[660]] to [[664]] |'''[[Swithelm of Essex|Swithelm]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SVVIÞELM''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVIÞELM REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[664]] to [[683]] |'''[[Sighere of Essex|Sighere]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SIGHERE SIGEBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGHERE REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with [[Sebbi of Essex|Sebbi]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[664]] to ''c.''[[694]] |'''[[Sebbi of Essex|Sebbi]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SEBBI''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SEBBI REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with [[Sighere of Essex|Sighere]]; abdicated in favour of his son [[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[694]] to ''c.''[[709]] |'''[[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEHEARD SEBBING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEHEARD REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with his son [[Swaefred of Essex|Swaefred]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[695]] to ''ante c.''[[709]] |'''[[Swaefred of Essex|Swaefred]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Swaebheard) |&lt;small&gt;'''SVVÆFRED SIGEHEARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVÆFRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with his father [[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[709]] |'''[[Offa of Essex|Offa]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''OFFA SIGEHERING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''OFFA REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Abdicated |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[709]] to [[746]] |'''[[Saelred of Essex|Saelred]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Swebert) |&lt;small&gt;'''SÆLRED SIGEBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆLRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Probably joint-king with [[Swaefbert of Essex|Swaefbert]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[715]] to [[738]] |'''[[Swaefbert of Essex|Swaefbert]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SVVÆFBRYHT''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVÆFBRYHT REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Probably joint-king with [[Saelred of Essex|Saelred]] |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[746]] to [[758]] |'''[[Swithred of Essex|Svvithred]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SVVIÞRED SIGEMVNDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVIÞRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM | |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[758]] to [[798]] |'''[[Sigeric of Essex|Sigeric]]''' |&lt;small&gt;'''SIGERIC''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGERIC REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM |&lt;small&gt;Abdicated |- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot; |&lt;small&gt;[[798]] to [[812]] |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Sig
ugh in the east. In Normandy the British Second Army faced the most open terrain in the east, but also the bulk of the German armour, including most of the [[Waffen SS]] Panzer divisions that were present on the Western Front. The US First Army, in the west, faced the very difficult [[bocage]] terrain, but less high-quality German opponents. As a result, it actually took until mid-August to capture Caen. This provoked criticism both from his American counterparts and from some senior British officers, especially the Deputy [[SHAEF]] Commander, [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Tedder]], an [[Air Marshal]]. When the original plan failed, Montgomery and his subordinates improvised a number of operations including [[Villers-Bocage]], [[Operation Epsom]], [[Operation Charnwood]], [[Operation Goodwood]], and [[Operation Cobra]], which eventually suceeded in a breakout. ===Advance to the Rhine=== The preponderance of American troops in the European theatre made it a political impossibility for the Ground Forces Commander to be British. Eisenhower himself took over Ground Forces Command while continuing as Supreme Commander, with Montgomery reverting to command of 21st Army Group, consisting mainly of British and Canadian units. Montgomery bitterly resented this change, even though it had been agreed before the D-Day invasion. [[Winston Churchill]] had Montgomery promoted to [[Field Marshal]] by way of compensation. Montgomery's tempestuous personality and tactlessness throughout the war nearly led to fissures in the Allied high command. Montgomery was able to persuade Eisenhower to adopt his strategy of a single thrust to the [[Ruhr area|Ruhr]], which manifested itself in [[Operation Market Garden]]. Operation Market Garden led to the defeat of the [[British 1st Airborne Division|1st Airborne Division]] outside [[Arnhem]]. When first shown the plans the British Lieutenant General [[Frederick Browning]] is alleged to have said, &quot;I think we might be going [[A Bridge Too Far|a bridge too far]].&quot; but there is no evidence for this. However, Montgomery insisted that all his battles ran according to his plans despite evidence to the contrary, even claiming that [[Operation_Market_Garden#Legacy|Arnhem]] had been a 90% success. A further criticism is that the opportunity to destroy the German 15th Army as it retreated across the [[Scheldt]] was missed. As a result, 80,000 troops crossed in good order and prevented the use of [[Antwerp]] until the [[Canadian 1st Army]] had completed several long and costly [[Battle of the Scheldt|clearance operations]]. On the [[4 May|4th May]] [[1945]] on [[Lüneburg|Lüneburg Heath]] Montgomery accepted the surrender of German forces in northern Germany, Denmark, and The Netherlands. ==Character and controversy== Montgomery was a complex man. On the one hand though far from flawless he was a great and successful general through hard work, a refusal to conform to dead tradition, and an open, clear and sensitive mind. He was a humane man and was capable of inspiring great loyalty among his staff and his troops. These men defended him with great passion even after the war, as the British historian [[Richard Holmes (military historian)|Richard Holmes]] discovered when he was critical of Montgomery. Much of his sometimes-criticised caution sprung from his regard for human life and a desire not to throw the lives of his troops away in the manner of the generals of the [[World War I|First World War]]. Montgomery thought that one of the most important roles for a military commander was to motivate his men to fight, that military command is `a great human problem'. On the other hand, he was personally a difficult man. Montgomery did not get on with his contemporaries and mostly associated with junior officers. He was insensitive, conceited, and boastful. He was not an easy man to know socially and not loyal to the staff officers serving immediately under him. It can be argued that his failures happened when he allowed his desire for personal glory to taint his planning, causing him to abandon his usual caution. Often it was Montgomery's statements about battles, as much as his actual conduct of it, that have formed the basis of the controversy. In his career, Montgomery's orders to his subordinates were clear and complete, yet with his superiors his communications could be opaque and incomplete. So, in Normandy he gave the impression to Eisenhower and others that he was attempting a breakout, while playing down this possibility in his actual orders to his subordinates. For example, shortly before [[Operation Goodwood]], he removed Falaise as an objective, but did not forward these new orders to [[SHAEF]]. He later claimed that his goal all along had been to pin down the bulk of the German armour around Caen, allowing U.S. forces (also under his command) to conduct the breakout. The practical result though was that the Allies under Montgomery's command inflicted a decisive defeat on the Germans, essentially destroying the German Army in Normandy, taking Paris, encircling large numbers of Germans in the [[Falaise Gap]], and setting the stage for a rapid advance to the German border. His relations with some of the American generals (especially [[George S. Patton|Patton]] and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]]) degenerated to mutual loathing. This caused a crisis immediately after the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. On [[January 7|7th January]], [[1945]] Montgomery held a press conference in which he downplayed the role of the American generals, especially Patton, in the Allied victory at the [[Battle of the Bulge]], in which he had under his command General [[Courtney Hodges]]' 1st Army, temporarily detached from the US 12th Army Group. This caused some degree of controversy, and resentment from Americans who felt that Montgomery held back his forces too long, and did not recognize that the bulk of the fighting was done by the American forces. A slanted version broadcast by German radio added to the insult. An alternative view is that Eisenhower recognised the organisational wisdom of Montgomery being responsible for the northern flank of the German incursion. Following Bradley's failure to adequately guard against the German attack, he (Bradley) objected vehemently to American troops being transferred to the command of a British general, and had to be bluntly over-ruled by Eisenhower (&quot;Well, Brad, those are my orders&quot;). The relevant ''US History'' notes: &quot;''Eisenhower and Smith (Eisenhower's Chief of Staff) were acutely aware of the smouldering animosity towards the British in general and Montgomery in particular which existed in the Headquarters of the 12th Army Group and 3rd Army, not to mention the chronic anti-British sentiments which might be anticipated from some circles in Washington.''&quot; The criticisms of Montgomery were made with this background of personal animosity. Monty supported his American formations; the Army commanders Hodges and Simpson were glad for this. The battlefront was reorganised, reinforced and supplied. The three generals then waited for the Germans to exhaust themselves. This waiting for the right moment did not appeal to Bradley or Hodges, however.In the meantime, [[George S. Patton|Patton]], who believed that the more the Germans advanced, the more they would eventually lose, prepared for an immediate counter-attack. Monty then further angered his American colleagues and superior. In a memo to Eisenhower, he proposed that he should again be made Commander Ground Forces and implicitly criticised recent conduct of the war. At a time when American confidence had been shaken and nerves were raw, this was unwise. Eisenhower, encouraged by Tedder, was on the point of dismissing Montgomery, when [[Beddell Smith]] and Monty's own Chief of Staff, Major-General [[Freddie de Guingand]] pointed that this would be both politically unwise and difficult to justify. De Guingand was able to convince Monty of the impact of his words (of which he was apparently unaware) and Monty wrote an apology to Eisenhower. The moment passed. It was in this climate of opinion that Monty held his press conference. His comments, as reported, gave further great offence, as mentioned above. Eisenhower commented in his memoirs: &quot;''I doubt if Montgomery ever came to realise how resentful some American commanders were. They believed he had belittled them - and they were not slow to voice reciprocal scorn and contempt''&quot;. For the record, Monty's press conference statements included the following eulogy on the American soldier: :&quot;''I first saw him in battle in Sicily and I formed a very high opinion of him. I saw him again in Italy. He is a very brave fighting man, steady under fire and with that tenacity in battle which marks the first-class fighting soldier. I have a great affection and admiration for the American soldier. I salute the brave fighting men of America. I never want to fight alongside better soldiers. I have tried to feel that I am almost an American soldier myself so that I might take no unsuitable action or offend them in any way ... Runstedt was really beaten by the good fighting qualities of the American soldier and by the team work of the Allies.''&quot; On Eisenhower, he said: :&quot;''The captain of our team is Eisenhower. I am absolutely devoted to Ike; we are the greatest of friends. It grieves me when I see uncomplimentary articles about him in the British press; he bears a great burden, he needs our fullest support, he has the right to expect it and it is up to all of us to see that he gets it.''&quot;. Montgomery subsequently recognised his error and later wrote: &quot;''I think now that I should never have held that press conference. So great were the feelings against me on the part of the American generals that whatever I said was bound to be wrong. I should therefore have said nothing.''&quot; Montgomery's
d divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping the great Persian general [[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]] neutral by convincing him that Chosroes had grown jealous of him and ordered his execution. At the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]] in 627, the Roman forces (without the Khazars who left Heraclius) defeated the Persians under Rhazates. In 629 he allied with the Ethiopians and began to re-win provinces he had lost to [[Persia]]. The Ethiopians put tremendous military pressure on the Persians whos armies were no match for the fast moving Ethiopians, who were more than happy to crush Persia for an earlier invasion of the arabian peninsula that was Ethiopian controlled. When Chosroes still refused to make peace, Heraclius continued his campaign; as he approached the Persian capital of [[Ctesiphon]], the Persian aristocracy deposed Chosroes. His successor made peace with Heraclius by restoring all the empire's former territories. The Persian [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] dynasty never recovered from this war; it took years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and soon the Arabs overwhelmed the sinking state. Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of &quot;King of Kings&quot;, dropping the traditional Roman imperial title of &quot;Augustus&quot;. Later on, he styled himself as ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|Basileus]]'', the Greek word for &quot;King&quot;, and that title was used by the eastern Roman emperors for the next 800 years. Heraclius also discontinued the use of [[Latin]] as the empire's official language, replacing it with [[Greek language|Greek]]. Although the empire called itself Roman throughout the rest of its history, it was in reality a Hellenic empire from Heraclius onward. In [[630]], he reached the height of his power when he marched barefoot as a pious christian pilgrim carrying the true cross, triumphantly into [[Jerusalem]] and restored it, the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. ==The war against the Arabs== Unfortunately for Heraclius' war-weary empire, and unknown to him at the time, [[Muhammad]] had only recently succeeded in unifying all the nomadic tribes of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. The Arabs, who had been too divided in the past to pose a military threat, now comprised one of the most powerful states in the region, and were animated by their new conversion to Muhammad's religion of [[Islam]]. Heraclius fell ill soon after his triumph over the Persians and never took the field again. When the Arab Muslims invaded Syria and Palestine in [[634]], he was unable to oppose them personally, and his generals failed him. The [[Battle of Yarmuk]] in [[636]] resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Roman army and within three years, Syria and Palestine were lost again. By the time of Heraclius' death, most of Egypt had fallen as well. ==Legacy== Although his defeat of the Persians produced no lasting benefit to the empire, Heraclius still ranks among the greatest of the Byzantine emperors. His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in the disastrous reign of Phocas, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed imperial army halted the Muslims in [[Asia Minor]] and held on to [[Carthage]] for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt. The recovery of the eastern areas of the Byzantine Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering around the understanding of the true nature of Christ. Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were [[Monophysite]]s who rejected the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called [[Monothelitism]]; however, this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'etre and was eventually abandoned. Heraclius and Fabia-Eudocia had two children: * Epiphania-Eudocia, Augusta * [[Constantine III (emperor)|Heraclius Constantine]], Emperor [[641]] With his second wife Martina, the Emperor had at least ten children, though the names and order of these children are questions for debate: * Fabius, had a paralysed neck * Theodosius, was a deaf-mute, married Nike, daughter of Persian general [[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]] * Constantine * Heraclius II ([[Heracleonas]]), Emperor [[638]] - [[641]] * David (Tiberius), proclaimed Caesar in [[638]] * Martinus or Marinus * Augustina, Augusta * Anastasia and/or Martina, Augusta * Febronia Of these at least two were handicapped, which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage. He also had at least one illegitimate son, Atalarichus, who was mutiliated and exiled to Prinkipo in [[637]] for his involvment in the plot against Heraclius. During the last years of Heraclius' life, it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina who was trying to position her son Heracleonas in line for the throne. When Heraclius died, in his will he left the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heracleonas to rule jointly with Martina as Empress and mother of both. ==Note== *{{note|Simocatta}} [[Theophylactus Simocatta]], 109-110 ==See also== *[[Non-Muslims Interactants with Muslims During Muhammad's Era]] ==External links== {{Commons|Heraclius}} *[http://www.roman-emperors.org/heraclis.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis: an online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors] {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Phocas]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Constantine III (emperor)|Constantine III]] and [[Heracleonas]]}} [[Category:575 births]] [[Category:641 deaths]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:Heraclian Dynasty]] [[ar:هرقل]] [[cs:Herakleios]] [[de:Herakleios]] [[el:Ηράκλειος]] [[es:Heraclio]] [[fr:Héraclius]] [[hr:Heraklije]] [[it:Eraclio I di Bisanzio]] [[hu:Hérakleiosz]] [[ja:ヘラクレイオス]] [[pl:Herakliusz (cesarz bizantyjski)]] [[pt:Heráclio]] [[fi:Herakleios]] [[sv:Herakleios]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry the Fowler</title> <id>13957</id> <revision> <id>40283517</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T14:26:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bambergknight.jpg|framed|Heinrich I depicted as 'The Bamberg Knight']] '''Henry I, the Fowler''' ([[German_language|German]]: '''Heinrich der Finkler''' or '''Heinrich der Vogler''') ([[876]] - [[July 2]], [[936]]), was [[Duke of Saxony]] from [[912]] and king of the [[Germany|Germans]] from [[919]] until his death in [[936]]. First of the [[Ottonian Dynasty]] of German kings and emperors, he is generally considered to be the founder and first king of the medieval German Empire, known until then as the [[East Franconian Kingdom]]. An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet &quot;the Fowler&quot; because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king. Henry was the son of [[Otto the Illustrious]], duke of Saxony, and his wife Hedwiga, a great-great-granddaughter of [[Charlemagne]], and a daughter of [[Carloman of Bavaria]]. In [[906]] he married Hatheburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin, but divorced her in [[909]] after she had given birth to his son Thankmar. Later that year he married [[Matilda of Ringelheim]], daughter of Dietrich, count in western Saxony (Westfalia). Matilda bore him three sons and two daughters and founded many religious institutions, including the abbey of [[Quedlinburg]] where Henry is buried, and was later [[canonization|canonized]]. Henry became duke of Saxony upon his father's death in [[912]] and, an able ruler, continued to strengthen Saxony, frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South, the dukes of [[Franconia]]. In [[918]] king [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]] of the East-Franconian Empire, and duke of Franconia, died and recommended Henry as his successor as king, despite the fact that they had been at odds with each other from [[912]] to [[915]] over the title to lands in [[Thuringia]]. Conrad's choice was conveyed by duke [[Eberhard III]] of Franconia, Conrad's brother and heir, to the assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles at the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] of [[Fritzlar]] in [[919]], which duly elected Henry to be king. Henry refused to be anointed by a high church official, the only king of his time not to undergo that rite – allegedly because he did not wish to be king by the church's but by the people's acclaim. Duke [[Burkhard]] I of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but duke [[Arnulf]] of Bavaria did not submit until Henry invaded Bavaria in [[921]] and Arnulf swore fealty to him. Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of tribal duchies rather than a feudal kingdom and himself as ''primus inter pares''. Rather than seeking to administer the empire through counts, as Charlemagne had done and his successors had attempted, Henry allowed the dukes of Franconia, Swabia and Bavaria to maintain complete internal control of their holdings. In [[925]], he defeated [[Giselbert]], duke of [[Lotharingia]] ([[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]]), and brought that realm, which had been lost in [[910]], back into the German kingdom as the fifth tribal duchy (the others being Saxony, Franconia, [[Swabia]], and [[Bavaria]]), but allowing Giselbert to remain in power and marrying his daughter [[Gerberga]] to his new vassal in [[928]]. Henry was a very able military leader. Germany had been repeatedly raided by the [[Magyar people|Magyars]] (Hungarians), and in [[924]] Henry paid them a tribute to secure a ten-year truce so that he could fortify towns and train
f Creation]] by [[K. Eric Drexler]] in 1986 aroused a great deal of interest in the idea that [[nanotechnology]] would be able to repair freezing damage. [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] and the American Cryonics Society shifted emphasis from whole body to &quot;neuropreservation&quot; (&quot;neuro&quot;, head-only [[cryopreservation]]), on the assumption that the rest of the body could be regrown, perhaps by [[cloning]] of the person's [[DNA]] or reconstructed with nanotechnology. The main goal now seems to be to preserve the information contained in the structure of the brain, on which memory and personal identity depends. Available scientific and medical evidence suggests that the mechanical structure of the brain is wholly responsible for personal identity and memories (for instance, spinal cord injury victims, organ transplant patients, and amputees appear to retain their personal identity and memories). Damage caused by [[freezing]] and fracturing is thought to be potentially repairable in the future, using [[nanotechnology]], which will enable the manipulation of matter at the [[molecular]] level. To critics, this appears a kind of futuristic [[deus ex machina]], but while the engineering details remain speculative, the rapidity of scientific advances over the past century, and more recently in the field of nanotechnology itself, suggest to some that there may be no insurmountable problems. And the cryopreserved patient can wait a long time. With the advent of vitrification, the importance of nanotechnology to the cryonics movement may begin to decrease. Some critics, and even some cryonicists, question this emphasis on the [[brain]], arguing that during neuropreservation some information about the body's [[phenotype]] will be lost and the new body may feel &quot;unwanted,&quot; and that in case of brain damage the body may serve as a crude backup, helping restore indirectly some of the memories.{{ref|Note2}} The argument is also made that the body is personal [[Souvenir|memorabilia]] of life-history, much like diaries and photo albums. Partly for this reason (as well as for better public relations), the [[Cryonics Institute]] preserves only whole bodies. Some proponents of neuropreservation agree with these concerns, but still feel that lower costs and better brain preservation justify preserving only the brain. About three-quarters of the patients stored at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] are &quot;neuros&quot;. ==Philosophy and Ethics== Cryonics is based on a view of dying as a process that can be stopped in the minutes, and perhaps hours, following [[clinical death]]. If [[death]] is not an event that happens suddenly when the heart stops, this raises philosophical questions about what exactly death is. In 2005 an [http://ccforum.com/inpress/cc3894/abstract ethics debate] in the medical journal, Critical Care, noted “…few if any patients pronounced dead by today’s physicians are in fact truly dead by any scientifically rigorous criteria.” Cryonics proponent [[Thomas Donaldson]] [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/ProspectsOfACureForDeath.html has argued] that “death” based on [[cardiac arrest]] or resuscitation failure is a purely social construction used to justify terminating care of dying patients. In this view, legal death and its aftermath are a form of [[euthanasia]]. Philosopher [[Max More]] suggested [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/TerminusOfTheSelf.html a distinction] between death associated with circumstances and intention versus death that is absolutely irreversible. Absolutely irreversible death has also been called [[information theoretical death | information-theoretic death]]. Bioethicist [[James Hughes]] has [http://www.jetpress.org/volume6/death.htm written] that increasing rights will accrue to cryonics patients as prospects for revival become clearer, noting that recovery of legally dead persons has precedent in the discovery of missing persons. [[Ethical]] and [[theological]] opinions of cryonics tend to pivot on the issue of whether cryonics is regarded as [[interment]] or [[medicine]]. If cryonics is interment, then [[religious]] beliefs about death and [[afterlife]] come into consideration. Resuscitation is generally deemed impossible because the [[soul]] is gone, and only [[God]] can [[resurrection | resurrect]] the dead. Expensive interment is seen as a waste of resources. If cryonics is regarded as medicine, with legal death as a mere enabling mechanism, then cryonics is a long-term [[coma]] with uncertain prognosis. It is continuing to care for sick people when others have given up, and a legitimate use of resources to sustain human life. Cryonics advocates complain that theological dismissal of cryonics because it is interment is a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/hesdeadjim.htm circular argument] because calling cryonics interment presumes that cryonics cannot work. They believe future technical advances will validate their view that cryonics patients are recoverable, and therefore never really dead. [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] has published a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/christianityandcryonics.html vigorous Christian defense of cryonics], including excerpts of a sermon by [[Lutheran]] Reverend Kay Glaesner. Noted [[Christian]] apologist [[John Warwick Montgomery]] has [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/cryonicsandorthodoxy.html defended cryonics]. In 1969, a [[Roman Catholic]] priest [[consecrated]] the cryonics capsule of Ann DeBlasio, one of the first cryonics patients. In 2002, a [[Muslim]] cleric indicated in a media interview that cryonics would be compatible with [[Islam]] if it were medicine. ==History== [[Benjamin Franklin]] suggested in a famous 1773 letter [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html] that it might be possible to preserve human life in a suspended state for centuries. However the modern era of cryonics began in 1962 when Michigan college physics professor [[Robert Ettinger]] proposed in a privately published book, “The Prospect of Immortality”[http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html], that freezing people may be a way to reach future medical technology. Even though freezing a person is apparently fatal, Ettinger argued that what appears to be fatal today may be reversible in the future. He applied the same argument to the process of dying itself, saying that the early stages of [[clinical death]] may be reversible in the future. Combining these two ideas, he suggested that freezing recently deceased people may be a way to save lives. Slightly before [[Robert Ettinger | Ettinger’s]] book was complete, [http://www.cryonet.org/cgi-bin/dsp.cgi?msg=23124 Evan Cooper] (writing as Nathan Duhring) privately published a book called “Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now” that independently suggested the same idea. Cooper founded the Life Extension Society in 1965 to promote freezing people. [[Robert Ettinger | Ettinger]] came to be credited as the originator of cryonics, perhaps because his book was republished by Doubleday in 1964 on recommendation of [[Isaac Asimov]] and [[Fred Pohl]], and received more publicity. Ettinger also stayed with the movement longer. Nevertheless, cryonics historian R. Michael Perry has written “Evan Cooper deserves the principal credit for forming an organized cryonics movement.”[http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics9208.txt] The actual word “cryonics” was invented by Karl Werner in 1965 in conjunction with the founding of the Cryonics Society of New York (CSNY) by [[Curtis Henderson]] and [[Saul Kent]] that same year. This was followed by the founding of the Cryonics Society of Michigan (CSM) and Cryonics Society of California (CSC) in 1966, and Bay Area Cryonics Society (BACS) in 1969 (renamed the [[American Cryonics Society]], or ACS, in 1985). CSM eventually became the Immortalist Society, a non-profit affiliate of the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), a cryonics service organization founded by [[Robert Ettinger]] in 1976, now the second-largest cryonics organization. Although there was at least one earlier aborted case, it is generally accepted that the first person frozen with intent of future resuscitation was [[Dr. James Bedford]], a 73-year-old psychology professor frozen under crude conditions by CSC on [[January 12]], [[1967]]. The case made the cover of a limited print run of [[Life Magazine]] before the presses were stopped to report the death of three astronauts in the [[Apollo 1]] fire instead. Cryonics suffered a major setback [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/suspensionfailures.html] in 1979 when it was discovered that nine bodies stored by CSC in a cemetery in Chatsworth, California, thawed due to depletion of funds. Some of the bodies had apparently thawed years earlier without notification. The head of CSC was sued, and negative publicity slowed cryonics growth for years afterward. Of seventeen documented cryonics cases between 1967 and 1973, only James Bedford remains [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] today. Strict financial controls and requirements adopted in response to the Chatsworth scandal have resulted in the successful maintenance of almost all cryonics cases since that era. The largest cryonics organization today was established by [[Fred and Linda Chamberlain]] in 1972 as the Alcor Society for Solid State Hypothermia (ALCOR). In 1977 the name was changed to the [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]]. In 1982, the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies (IABS) founded by [[Mike Darwin]] and Steve Bridge in Indiana merged with Alcor. By combining [[Mike Darwin | Darwin’s]] technical and communications skills with those of medical scientist [[Jerry Leaf]], this merger is generally regarded as a key event that allowed Alcor to attract a critical mass of knowledgeable people, eventually moving Alcor to a leading position in the field. During the 1980s Darwin worked with [[UCLA]] cardiothora
ates, sterilizations capped off in the 1960s, though the eugenics movement had largely lost most popular and political support by the end of the 1930s. === Modern eugenics and genetic engineering === Beginning in the [[1980]]s the history and concept of eugenics were widely discussed as knowledge about [[genetics]] advanced significantly. Endeavors such as the [[Human Genome Project]] made the effective modification of the human species seem possible again (as did Darwin's initial theory of evolution in the 1860s, along with the rediscovery of [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]] in the early 20th century). The difference at the beginning of the 21st century was the guarded attitude towards eugenics, which had become a watchword to be feared rather than embraced. Only a few scientific researchers (such as the controversial psychologist [[Richard Lynn]]) have openly called for eugenic policies using modern technology but they represent a minority opinion in current scientific and cultural circles. One attempted implementation of a form of eugenics was a &quot;genius sperm bank&quot; (1980-1999) created by [[Robert Klark Graham]], from which nearly 230 children were conceived (the best known donor was [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[William Shockley]]). In the USA and Europe though, these attempts have frequently been criticized as in the same spirit of classist and racist forms of eugenics of the 1930s. Results, in any case, have been spotty at best. Some conservative commentators have also proposed eugenics-like programs. [[Thomas Sowell]] advocated differential birth rates in his book ''Ethnic America'': &lt;Blockquote&gt;The internal distribution of children among blacks has made the upward movement of the race as a whole more difficult. The general tendency of poor people to have more children than middle-class people has been accentuated among American Negroes. Better educated and higher income blacks have even fewer children than their white counterparts, while low-income blacks have even more children than equally low income whites. Much of the struggle that has brought some blacks up from poverty has had to be repeated in successive generations because successful blacks did not have enough children to reproduce themselves. (Sowell, 1981, p. 213)&lt;/Blockquote&gt; Because of its association with compulsory sterilization and the racial ideals of the Nazi Party, the word ''eugenics'' is rarely used by the advocates of such programs. Only a few governments in the world had anything resembling eugenic programs today. In [[1994]] [[China]] passed the &quot;Maternal and Infant Health Care Law&quot; which included mandatory pre-marital screenings for &quot;genetic diseases of a serious nature&quot; and &quot;relevant mental disease.&quot; Those who were diagnosed with such diseases were required either to not marry, agree to &quot;long term contraceptive measures&quot; or to submit to sterilization. This law was repealed in 2004. A similar screening policy (including pre-natal screening and [[abortion]]) intended to reduce the incidence of [[thalassemia]] exists on both sides of the island of [[Cyprus]]. Since the program's implementation in the [[1970s]], it has reduced the ratio of children born with the hereditary blood disease from 1 out of every 158 births to almost zero. [[Dor Yeshorim]], a program which seeks to reduce the incidence of [[Tay-Sachs disease]] among certain [[Orthodox Judaism|Jewish communities]], is another screening program which has drawn comparisons with eugenics. In [[Israel]], at the expense of the state, the general public is advised to carry out genetic tests to diagnose the disease before the birth of a baby. If an unborn baby is diagnosed with Tay-Sachs the pregnancy is usually terminated. The ultra-Orthodox association [[Dor Yeshorim]] tests young couples to check whether they are genetically &quot;suitable.&quot; If both the young man and young woman are Tay-Sachs carriers, the match is determined to be unsuitable and the couple is expected to split up. In modern bioethics literature, the history of eugenics presents many moral and ethical questions. Commentators have suggested the new &quot;eugenics&quot; will come from reproductive technologies that will allow parents to create so-called &quot;[[designer baby|designer babies]]&quot; (what the biologist [[Lee M. Silver]] prominently called &quot;[[reprogenetics]]&quot;). It has been argued that this &quot;non-coercive&quot; form of biological &quot;improvement&quot; will be predominantly motivated by individual competitiveness and the desire to create &quot;the best opportunities&quot; for children, rather than an urge to improve the species as a whole, which characterized the early twentieth century forms of eugenics. Because of this non-coercive nature, lack of involvement by the state and a difference in goals, some commentators have questioned whether such activities are eugenics or something else all together. Some disability activists argue that, although their impairments may cause them pain or discomfort, what really disables them as members of society is a socio-cultural system that does not recognise their right to genuinely equal treatment. They express skepticism that any form of eugenics could be to the benefit of the disabled considering their treatment by historical eugenic campaigns. [[James D. Watson]], the first director of the [[Human Genome Project]], initiated the [[Ethical, Legal and Social Implications Program]] (ELSI) which has funded a number of studies into the implications of human genetic engineering (along with a prominent website on the history of eugenics), because: &lt;Blockquote&gt;In putting ethics so soon into the genome agenda, I was responding to my own personal fear that all too soon critics of the Genome Project would point out that I was a representative of the [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]] that once housed the controversial [[Eugenics Record Office]]. My not forming a genome ethics program quickly might be falsely used as evidence that I was a closet eugenicist, having as my real long-term purpose the unambiguous identification of genes that lead to social and occupational stratification as well as genes justifying racial discrimination. (Watson 2000, p.202)&lt;/Blockquote&gt; Distinguished geneticists including Nobel Prize winners [[John Sulston]] (''&quot;I don't think one ought to bring a clearly disabled child into the world&quot;'') [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1337781,00.html] and Watson (''&quot;Once you have a way in which you can improve our children, no one can stop it.&quot;'')[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-2-593687,00.html] support [[genetic screening]]. Which ideas should be described as &quot;eugenic&quot; are still controversial in both public and scholarly spheres. Some observers such as [[Philip Kitcher]] have described the use of genetic screening by parents as making possible a form of &quot;voluntary&quot; eugenics (see Kitcher's book, ''[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/geneticsandsociety/hg16f009.html The Lives to Come]''). Some modern [[subculture]]s advocate different forms of eugenics assisted by [[human cloning]] and [[human genetic engineering]], sometimes even as part of a new [[Cult (religion)|cult]] (see [[Raëlism]], [[Cosmotheism]], [[Transtopianism]] or [http://www.prometheism.net/ Prometheism]). These groups also talk of &quot;conscious evolution&quot;, &quot;neo-eugenics&quot; or &quot;genetic freedom&quot;. Behavioral traits often identified as potential targets for modification through [[human genetic engineering]] include intelligence, depression, schizophrenia, alcoholism, sexual behavior (and orientation) and criminality. Most recently in the [[United Kingdom]] a court case, the ''Crown v. James Edward Whittaker-Williams'', arguably set a precedent of banning sexual contact between people with learning disabilities. The accused, a man suffering learning disabilities was jailed for kissing and hugging a woman with learning disabilities. This was done under the 2003 Sexual Offences Act which redefines kissing and cuddling as sexual and states that those with learning difficulties are unable to give consent regardless of whether or not the act involved coercion. Opponents of the act have attacked it as bringing in eugenics through the backdoor under the guise of a requirement of &quot;consent&quot;. ==Criticism== {{ActiveDiscuss}} ===Diseases vs. traits=== While the science of [[genetics]] has increasingly provided means by which certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and understood, given the complexity of human genetics and culture, there is at this point no agreed objective means of determining which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable. Would eugenic manipulations that reduce the propensity for risk-taking and violence, for example, in a population lead to their extinction? On the other hand, there is universal agreement that many [[Genetic disorder|genetic diseases]], such as Tay Sachs, [[spina bifida]], [[Down syndrome]], [[Rh disease]], etc. are quite harmful to the affected individuals and their families and therefore to the societies to which they belong. Eugenic measures against many of the latter diseases are already being undertaken in societies around the world, while measures against traits that affect more subtle, poorly understood traits, such as risk-taking, are relegated to the realm of speculation and science fiction. The effects of diseases are essentially wholly negative, and societies everywhere seek to reduce their impact by various means, some of which are eugenic in all but name. The other traits that are discussed have positive as well as negative effects, and are not generally targeted at present anywhere. ===Slippery slope=== A commonly advanced criticism of eugenics is that, evidenced by its history, it inevitably leads to measu
inal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]:A [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], although not until recently necessarily a bishop (e.g., Jesuit theologian [[Henri de Lubac]]), is usually a [[primate (religion)|primate]], [[patriarch]] or [[titular bishop]] within the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Their primary duty is to elect the pope. ;[[Major archbishop]]:Major archbishops are the heads of some of the Eastern Rite churches in the Roman Catholic Church. Their authority within their ''sui juris'' church is equal to that of a patriarch, but they receive fewer ceremonial honors. ;[[Catholicos]]:Catholicoi are the heads of some of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches, roughly similar to a Catholic major archbishop. ;[[Patriarch]]:[[Patriarch]]s are the heads of certain ancient autocephalous or ''sui juris'' churches. Some of these churches call their leaders ''Catholicos''; the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Egypt, is called ''Pope''. While most patriarchs in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] have jurisdiction, all [[Latin Rite]] patriarchs, except for the [[Pope]], are honorary. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:PatriarchZakka5.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] [[Patriarch of Antioch]]]] --&gt;Bishops in all of these communions are [[Holy Orders|ordained]] by other bishops. Depending on the church, there need to be two or three bishops for validity or legality. Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods in different churches as to the actual ''choosing'' of a candidate for ordination as bishop. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] today, the [[Congregation for Bishops]] oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the [[Pope]]. Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of more or less formalized laity and/or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops. ''More information on this topic is needed.'' Only a bishop can ordain a bishop, [[priest]], or [[deacon]]. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the [[Eastern Rite]] liturgical tradition, a priest may celebrate the [[Divine Liturgy]] only with the blessing of a bishop. An [[antimension]] signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose [[omophorion]] the priest at a local parish is serving. The [[Pope|Pope of Rome]], in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], is the Patriarch of the [[Latin Catholic Church]]. Each bishop within the Latin Catholic Church is only answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances. In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion, the [[cathedral]] of a diocese will have a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop. This is the bishop's ''[[cathedra]]'', which is often called the bishop's [[throne]]. In some other Christian denominations, other churches besides the cathedral will maintain a chair for the use of a Bishop when he visits their parish. Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox Christian bishops claim to be part of a continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles, the '''[[apostolic succession]].''' Since [[Pope Leo XIII]] issued the bull [[Apostolicae Curae]] in [[1896]], the Roman Catholic Church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid because of that church's changes in the ordination rites. The Roman Catholic Church does recognize as valid (though illegal) ordinations done by breakaway Roman Catholic bishops, and groups descended from them, so long as the people receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements; this gives rise to the phenomenon of ''[[episcopi vagantes]]''. Roman Catholics also recognize the validity of ordinations of bishops, priests, and deacons in the Orthodox churches. Some [[province (Anglican)|provinces]] of the Anglican Communion have begun [[ordination of women|ordaining women]] as bishops in recent decades. The first was [[Barbara Clementine Harris]], who was ordained to the epsicopate in [[1989]]. ==Bishops in other churches== Some other churches, such as [[Lutheran church|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (&quot;LDS Church&quot;; see also [[Mormon]]), also have bishops, but their roles differ significantly from the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican ones. ===Evangelical Lutheran Church in America=== In the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States, and based largely on the [[Nordic]] Lutheran state churches (similar to that of the [[Church of England]], bishops are elected by synod councils, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of 6 years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's &quot;constitution&quot; (which usually mirrors that of the national ELCA constitution). Currently, they are responsible for, since going into ecumenical communion with the [[Episcopal Church in the United States]], with the ordaining of all pastors, consecrating all diaconal ministers, giving approvals to &quot;roster&quot; all current pastors (pastors are called by local congregations, like that of the Episcopal Church), and upholding the teachings of Luther, the ELCA and synod constitutions. The Presiding Bishop of the ELCA, the national bishop, is elected for a single 6-year term, and handles all episcopal consecrations, as well as presiding at the General Assembly, which is held every 2 years. A similar structure exists with the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada]] (ELCC), except that its bishops cover entire provinces (ELCA synods are usually metropolitan in structure). ===United Methodist Bishops=== [[Image:Tbickerton.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Thomas Bickerton]], United Methodist Bishop for Western Pennsylvania]] In the [[United Methodist Church]], bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected for life from among the clergy by vote of the delegates in regional (called Jurisdictional) conferences and, among their duties, are responsible for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The Juridictional Conferences, meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference. United Methodist bishops may be male or female. [[John Wesley]] made [[Thomas Coke (methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[Francis Asbury]] superintendents for the [[United States|United States of America]] in [[1784]], where Methodism first became a separate [[religious denomination|denomination]] apart from the [[Church of England]]. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. He did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the people. Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, [[Richard Whatcoat]], [[Philip William Otterbein]], [[Martin Boehm]], [[Jacob Albright]], [[John Seybert]], [[Matthew Simpson]], [[John Stamm]], [[Marjorie Matthews]], [[Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda]], [[William Willimon]], and [[Thomas Bickerton]]. Methodists in [[Great Britain]] acquired their own bishops early in the [[nineteenth century]], after the Methodist movement in Britain formally parted company with the Church of England. The position no longer exists, however, in British Methodism. ===Christian Methodist Episcopal Church=== &lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:GILMORE.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Marshall Gilmore]], Senior Bishop of The Christian Methodist Episcopal Church]]--&gt; In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by &quot;delegate&quot; votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then he/she must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four year terms. CME Church bishops may be male or female. === The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints === In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the [[Bishop (Mormonism)|Bishop]] is the leader of a local congregation, called a [[Ward (Mormonism)|ward]]. As such, it is his duty to preside at [[sacrament meeting|sacrament meetings]], assign local leaders, and participate in one-on-one interviews with his ward members for things such as [[temple (Mormonism)|temple recommends]] and [[confession]]. Bishop is an office of the [[priesthood (Mormonism)|Aaronic Priesthood]]; in addition to his ward responsibilities, it is a bishop's duty to preside over the priest's [[quorum (Mormonism)|quorum]]. Responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, he collects [[tithing]] and [[fast offering|fast offerings]] and distributes financial assistance where needed. A bishop is chosen from members of the local congregation by the [[stake (Mormonism)|stake presidency]]. After being called, he chooses his two counselors, and the three men together form a bishopric. Like almost all positions in the Church, bishops are not paid or reimbursed financially for their services and therefore have normal full-time jobs to provide for their families. A ward typically releases its bishop and calls a new one every five years or so; after being released, a bishop is usually still referred to by the title &quot;Bishop&quot; by th
nd [[Bill Terry]], from 1967 to 1976. During this time, 8 players were elected whose Hall of Fame credentials were (at best) tenuous, but who had played with Frisch or Terry with the [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] or [[St Louis Cardinals]]. The revamped Veterans Committee has held two elections to date&amp;mdash;in 2003 for both players and non-players, and 2005 for players only. No individual was elected either time; some observers are already starting to doubt whether the new Veterans Committee will ever elect a player, or whether the Committee members &amp;ndash; most of whom are Hall members &amp;ndash; are reluctant to elect new candidates, in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection [http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/news;_ylc=X3oDMTBpNWZic251BF9TAzI1NjY0ODI1BHNlYwN0aA--?slug=ap-halloffame&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns]. A further controversy erupted in 1982, when it emerged that some historic items bequeathed to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market. It subsequently transpired that these had been lent to the [[Baseball Commissioner]]'s Office, from where they had been taken and sold to offset personal financial problems by [[Joe Reichler]], an assistant to Commissioner [[Bowie Kuhn]], possibly without verifying their ownership. Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner's Office made reparations, but damage had been done to the Hall of Fame's reputation. An ongoing controversy facing the Hall of Fame is that of the status of [[Shoeless Joe Jackson|Joe Jackson]] and [[Pete Rose]]. Jackson and Rose were both banned from baseball for life for actions related to gambling on their own teams - Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to lose the [[1919 World Series]] on purpose, and Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for [[Major League Baseball|MLB]]'s promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the [[Cincinnati Reds]] when he was their manager in the 1980s. (Baseball's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse lockerroom, mandates permanent banishment from the sport for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player or manager is directly involved.) While Jackson and Rose had outstanding playing careers that would usually merit Hall of Fame induction, the Hall of Fame disallows election of anyone on the permanent suspension list. (Many others have been permanently suspended, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose. A select few, such as [[Hal Chase]] and [[Eddie Cicotte]], would be reasonable candidates had they not been barred.) Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether these two should be exonerated, remain banned, or (in the case of Rose, who is still living) be inducted with the caveat that he cannot reenter the game in any other way. A less minor controversy among rabid seamheads is that of the &quot;other&quot; honorees on Hall of Fame Weekend: the winners of the Frick and Spink awards and their status in the Hall of Fame. Some consider them winners of an award sponsored by the Hall of Fame, while others think they can be called Hall of Fame members (even though they do not have a plaque in the gallery.) The Hall has also recently changed its stance regarding &quot;team membership.&quot; Although all the teams a player played for are included in the text of the plaque, they are pictured wearing a cap of one team. Before free agency, this was not controversial, since many players played their entire career with one team. As free agents began to be inducted, it was the player's choice as to which cap they wanted to wear. However, in light of rumors that teams were offering number retirement, money or organizational jobs in exchange for the cap designation ([[Dave Winfield]] was widely rumored to have cut such a deal in 2001 with the [[San Diego Padres]]), the Hall decided that, though the decision-making process would be a mutual responsibility, they would have the final say in such matters. [[Gary Carter]] was the first to test this policy. He won his only championship with the [[New York Mets]], and wanted to be inducted &quot;as a Met&quot; (in quotes because this expression only denotes cap choice; the Hall of Fame does not officially induct players as a member of one team or another). The Hall of Fame felt he should have been inducted as a member of the [[Montreal Expos]], and that was the cap on his plaque. [[Wade Boggs]] was in a similar situation; he won his only championship as a member of the 1996 [[New York Yankees]], but posted his best career numbers in twice as much time while wearing the [[Boston Red Sox]] uniform, despite having acrimonious feelings towards Sox management. He went in wearing the &quot;B&quot; on his cap. [[Catfish Hunter]], though harboring no ill will towards either of his employers, the [[Oakland Athletics]] and [[New York Yankees]], could not decide which cap he preferred: he had nearly identical statistics and postseason success on both teams. He instead went in wearing a cap without a logo. ==External link== *[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/ Baseball Hall of Fame official website] {{Baseball Hall of Fame}} [[Category:Baseball]] [[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|*]] [[Category:Sports Halls of Fame]] [[da:Baseball Hall of Fame]] [[de:Baseball Hall of Fame]] [[ja:野球殿堂]] [[simple:Baseball Hall of Fame]] [[zh:棒球名人堂]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BPP</title> <id>4079</id> <revision> <id>41810887</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:23:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Keenan Pepper</username> <id>124371</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>style=&quot;float: right&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the complexity class. For the [[Black_nationalism|Black nationalist]] organization, see [[Black Panther Party]].'' In [[complexity theory in computation | complexity theory]], '''BPP''' is the class of [[decision problem|decision problems]] solvable by a [[probabilistic Turing machine]] in [[polynomial time]], with an error [[probability]] of at most 1/3 for all instances. The abbreviation '''BPP''' refers to '''B'''ounded-error, '''P'''robabilistic, '''P'''olynomial time. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right&quot; !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|BPP algorithm (1 run) |- | |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Answer produced |- | Correct&lt;br&gt;answer | YES | NO |- | YES | &amp;ge;2/3 | &amp;le;1/3 |- | NO | &amp;le;1/3 | &amp;ge;2/3 |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|BPP algorithm (''n'' runs) |- | |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Answer produced |- | Correct&lt;br&gt;answer | YES | NO |- | YES | &gt; 1-''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt; | &lt; ''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt; |- | NO | &lt; ''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt; | &gt; 1-''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt; |} If a problem is in '''BPP''', then there is an algorithm for it that is allowed to flip coins and make random decisions. It is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/3 of giving the wrong answer. That is true, whether the answer is YES or NO. The choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. It can be any [[mathematical constant|constant]] between 0 and 1/2 (exclusive) and the set '''BPP''' will be unchanged; however, this constant must be independent of the input. The idea is that there is a probability of error, but if the algorithm is run many times, the chance that the majority of the runs are wrong [[exponential decay|drops off exponentially]] as a consequence of the [[Chernoff bound]] [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~kabanets/cmpt710/lec16.pdf]. This makes it possible to create a highly accurate algorithm by merely running the algorithm several times and taking a &quot;majority vote&quot; of the answers. '''BPP''' is one of the largest ''practical'' classes of problems, meaning most problems of interest in BPP have efficient [[probabilistic algorithm]]s that can be run quickly on real modern machines, by the method described above. For this reason it is of great practical interest which problems and classes of problems are inside '''BPP'''. == Relationship to other complexity classes == It is known that '''BPP''' is closed under complement; that is, '''BPP'''='''Co-BPP'''. It is an open question whether '''BPP''' is a [[subset]] of '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]'''. It is also an open question whether '''NP''' is a subset of '''BPP'''; if it is, then '''NP'''='''RP''' and '''[[PH (complexity)|PH]]''' &lt;math&gt;\subseteq&lt;/math&gt; '''BPP'''([http://weblog.fortnow.com/2005/12/pulling-out-quantumness.html]) (many consider this unlikely, since it would imply practical solutions for a range of difficult [[NP-complete]] problems). It is known that '''[[RP (complexity)|RP]]''' is a subset of '''BPP''', and '''BPP''' is a subset of '''[[PP (complexity)|PP]]'''. It is not known whether those two are strict subsets. '''BPP''' is contained in '''[[PH (complexity)|PH]]'''. The existence of certain strong [[pseudorandom number generators]] is [[conjecture]]d by most experts of the field. This conjecture implies that randomness does not give additional computational power to polynomial time computation, that is, '''P'''='''RP'''='''BPP'''. Note that ordinary generators are not sufficient to show this result; any probabilistic algorithm implemented using a typical random number generator with a fixed seed will always produce incorrect results on certain inputs (though these inputs might be rare). We also have '''P''' = '''BPP''' if '''[[EXPTIME]]''' collapses to '''[[MA (complexity)|MA]]''' ([[#Babai_et_al|Babai et al.]]), if the exponential-time hierarchy collapses to '''E''' = DTIME(2&lt;sup&gt;O(n)&lt;/sup&gt;) ([[#Babai_et_al|Babai et al.]]), or if '''E''' has exponential [[circuit complexity]] ([[#Imp
d that base is already occupied by another runner, the latter has to leave the base. This way one to four players of the offensive team can be on the infield: the batter, and three runners on each base. Consequently a home run hit can count up to four runs (see [[grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]]). A runner legally touching a base is &quot;safe&quot;—he may not be put out. Runners may attempt to advance from base to base at any time (except when time is called by the umpire), but must advance on any fair ball that touches the ground if he is forced to by a later runner claiming that base. When a ball is hit in the air, a ''fly ball'', and caught by the defending team, runners must return and touch the base they occupied at the [[time of pitch|time of the pitch]]—called ''[[tag up|tagging up]]''—after the ball is caught. Once they do this, they may attempt to advance at their own risk. [[Image:Baseball_pick-off_attempt.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Pick-off attempt on runner (in red) at first base]] Baserunners may attempt to advance, or [[stolen base|steal a base]], while the pitcher is throwing a pitch. The pitcher, in lieu of delivering the pitch, may try to prevent this by throwing the ball to one of the infielders in order to tag the runner; if successful, it is called a ''pick-off''. If the runner attempts to steal the next base but is tagged out before reaching it safely, he is ''caught stealing''. An illegal attempt by the pitcher to throw a runner out, among other pitching violations, is called a [[balk]], allowing the runners to advance one base without risk of being put out. ====Batting and base running strategy==== The goal of each batter is to become a base runner himself (usually by a safe hit or a [[base on balls]]), or to help move other base runners along. Batters attempt to &quot;read&quot; pitchers through pre-game preparation by studying the tendencies of pitchers and by talking to other batters that previously faced the pitcher. While batting, batters attempt to &quot;read&quot; pitches by looking for clues that the pitcher or catcher reveal. These clues (also referred to as &quot;tipping pitches&quot;) include movements of the pitchers arms, shoulders, body, etc, and an attempt to &quot;read&quot; the spin of a ball early in the pitch to anticipate its trajectory. Batters also remain keenly aware of the count during their at bat. When the count is in the batter's favor (like 2-0), the batter is more likely to take a risky swing, but when the count is in the pitcher's favor (like 0-2), the batter will take a more conservative swing. In general, base running is a tactical part of the game requiring good judgment by runners (and their coaches) to assess the risk in attempting to advance. During [[tag out|tag]] plays, a good [[slide (baseball)|slide]] can affect the outcome of the play. Managers will often simultaneously send a runner and require the batter to swing (a ''hit-and-run play'') in an attempt to advance runners. During the course of play many offensive and defensive players run close to each other, and during [[tag out|tag]] plays, the defensive player must touch the offensive player. Although baseball is considered a [[non-contact]] sport; a runner may be allowed to make potentially dangerous contact with a fielder as part of an attempt to reach a base, unless that fielder is fielding a batted ball. (Noted exceptions to the dangerous contact rule are found throughout amateur competitions, including youth leagues, high school, and college baseball.) A good slide is often more advantageous than such contact, and &quot;malicious&quot; contact by runners is typically prohibited as offensive [[interference (baseball)|interference]]. The most common occurrence of contact of this nature is at home plate between the runner and the catcher, as the catcher is well padded and locked into position on or near the plate, and the runner will often try to knock the ball out of the catchers hand. Since the catcher is seen (symbolically and literally) as the last line of defense, it seems natural that the more physical play happens here. ===Innings and determining a winner=== An ''[[innings#Baseball|inning]]'' consists of each team having one turn in the field and one turn to hit, with the visiting team batting before the home team. A standard game lasts nine innings, although some leagues (such as high school baseball) use seven-inning games. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. If the home team is ahead after eight-and-a-half innings have been played, it is declared the winner, and the last half-inning is not played. If the home team is trailing or tied in the last inning and they score to take the lead, the game ends as soon as the winning run touches home plate; however, if the last batter hits a home run to win the game, he and any runners on base are all permitted to score. If both teams have scored the same number of runs at the end of a regular-length game, a [[tie (draw)|tie]] is avoided by the addition of [[extra innings]]. As many innings as necessary are played until one team has the lead at the end of an inning. Thus, the home team always has a chance to respond if the visiting team scores in the top half of the inning; this gives the home team a small tactical advantage. In theory, a baseball game could go on forever; in practice, however, they eventually end. In addition to that rule, a game might theoretically end if both the home and away team were to run out of players to substitute (See Substitutions). In [[Major League Baseball]] the longest game played was a 26-inning affair between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]] and [[Boston Braves]] on [[May 1]], [[1920]]. The game ended in a 1-1 tie called on account of darkness. In [[Major League Baseball]], games end with tie scores only because conditions have made it impossible to continue play. A tie game does not count as an official game in the standings unless it is finished later or replayed; however, individual player statistics from tie games are counted. Inclement weather may also shorten games, but at least five innings must be played for the game to be considered official; four-and-a-half innings are enough if the home team is ahead. Previously, [[curfew]]s and the absence of adequate lighting caused more ties and shortened games. Also, with more modern playing surfaces better able to handle light rains, the process for calling or shortening a game due to weather has changed; it is more common than in the past to delay a game as much as 2 hours before a cancellation; also, a delay usually does not occur anymore until the rain is moderate-heavy and/or there is standing water on some part of the playing field. In [[Japanese baseball]], if the score remains tied after nine innings, up to three extra innings may be played before the game is called a tie. Some youth or amateur leagues will end a game early if one team is ahead by ten or more runs, a practice known as the &quot;mercy rule&quot; or &quot;[[slaughter rule]]&quot;. Rarely, a game can also be won or lost by [[forfeit (baseball)|forfeit]]. There is a short break between each half-inning during which the new defensive team takes the field and the pitcher warms up. Traditionally, the break between the top half and the bottom half of the seventh inning is known as the [[seventh-inning stretch]]. During the &quot;stretch,&quot; fans often sing the chorus of &quot;[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]],&quot; although since [[September 11, 2001]], &quot;God Bless America&quot; has become common. ===Substitutions=== Each team is allowed to substitute for any player at any time the ball is dead. A batter who replaces another batter is referred to as a ''[[pinch hitter (baseball)|pinch hitter]]''; similarly, a ''[[pinch runner (baseball)|pinch runner]]'' may be used as a replacement for a baserunner. Any replacement is a permanent substitution; the replaced player may not return to the game. It is common for a pitcher to pitch for several innings and then be removed in favor of a [[relief pitcher]]. Because pitching is a specialized skill, most pitchers are relatively poor hitters; it is common to substitute for a pitcher when he is due to bat. This pinch hitter is typically then replaced by a relief pitcher when the team returns to the field on defense, but more complicated substitutions are possible, most notably the ''[[double switch]]''. Many [[amateur]] leagues allow a starting player who was removed to return to the game in the same position in the batting order under a re-entry rule. Youth leagues often allow free and open substitution to encourage player participation. Most leagues, notably [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[American League]], allow a ''[[designated hitter]]'', a player whose sole purpose is to hit when it would normally be the pitcher's turn. This is not considered a substitution but rather a position, albeit a purely offensive one. A designated hitter does not play in the field on defense and may remain in the game regardless of changes in pitchers. ===Rosters=== {{main|Major League Baseball transactions}} During the course of a game, each baseball team has players that are an active part of the game, called &quot;in the game,&quot; and players that are not, called &quot;on the bench.&quot; The players on the bench are needed in case of injuries and to make strategic pitching, fielding, and batting substitutions. To keep the game fair, each team is limited to a fixed number of players. That number is dictated by the rules of the game. In the major leagues, a team may have a maximum of 25 men on a roster from Opening Day until August 31. After that, teams may call up additional personnel, up to a maximum of 40 players on the active roster. ==Other personnel== Each team is run by a ''[[manager (baseball)|manager]]'', whose primary responsibility during the game is to assign players to fielding p
ess of [[colonization]]. Related processes on an individual level include [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and [[transculturation]]. ==Cultural studies== [[Cultural studies]] developed in the late 20th century, in part through the re-introduction of [[Marxist]] thought into [[sociology]], and in part through the [[articulation (sociology)|articulation]] of [[sociology]] and other academic disciplines such as [[literary criticism]]. This movement aimed to focus on the analysis of subcultures in [[capitalist]] societies. Following the non-anthropological tradition, [[cultural studies]] generally focus on the study of consumption goods (such as [[fashion]], [[art]], and [[literature]]). Because the 18th- and 19th-century distinction between &quot;high&quot; and &quot;low&quot; culture seems inappropriate to apply to the mass-produced and mass-marketed consumption goods which cultural studies analyses, these scholars refer instead to &quot;popular culture&quot;. Today, some [[anthropology|anthropologists]] have joined the project of cultural studies. Most, however, reject the identification of culture with consumption goods. Furthermore, many now reject the notion of culture as bounded, and consequently reject the notion of [[subculture]]. Instead, they see culture as a complex web of shifting patterns that link people in different locales and that link social formations of different scales. According to this view, any group can construct its own [[cultural identity]]. ==Sample list of cultures== ===Cultures of contemporary countries and regions=== ''Main article: [[List of national culture articles]].'' &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt; *[[Culture of Anga|Anga]] *[[Culture of Albania|Albania]] *[[Culture of Angola|Angola]] *[[Culture of Australia|Australia]] *[[Culture of Belgium|Belgium]] *[[Culture of Bhutan|Bhutan]] *[[Culture of Brazil|Brazil]] *[[Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] *[[Culture of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] *[[Culture of Canada|Canada]] **[[Culture of Quebec|Quebec]] **[[Political culture of Canada]] *[[Culture of Catalonia|Catalonia]] *[[Culture of Chile|Chile]] *[[Culture of China|China]] **[[Culture of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] *[[Culture of Denmark|Denmark]] *[[Culture of Egypt|Egypt]] *[[Culture of Finland|Finland]] &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt; *[[Culture of France|France]] *[[Culture of Georgia|Georgia]] *[[Culture of Gibraltar|Gibraltar]] *[[Culture of Greece|Greece]] *[[Culture of Hungary|Hungary]] *[[Culture of India|India]] *[[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesia]] *[[Culture of Iran|Iran]] *[[Culture of Ireland|Ireland]] *[[Culture of Israel|Israel]] *[[Culture of Italy|Italy]] *[[Culture of Japan|Japan]] *[[Culture of Jersey|Jersey]] *[[Culture of Korea|Korea]] **[[Contemporary culture of North Korea|North Korea]] **[[Contemporary culture of South Korea|South Korea]] *[[Culture of Kuwait|Kuwait]] *[[Culture of Lithuania|Lithuania]] *[[Macedonian Culture (Slavic)|Macedonia]] *[[Culture of Mexico|Mexico]] &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt; *[[Culture of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] *[[Culture of New Zealand|New Zealand]] **[[Māori culture]] *[[Culture of Occitania | Occitania]] *[[Culture of Pakistan | Pakistan]] *[[Culture of Peru|Peru]] *[[Culture of Portugal|Portugal]] *[[Culture of Russia|Russia]] *[[Culture of South Africa|South Africa]] *[[Culture of Serbia|Serbia]] *[[Culture of Spain|Spain]] *[[Culture of Sweden|Sweden]] *[[Culture of Switzerland|Switzerland]] *[[Culture of Turkey|Turkey]] *[[Culture of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] **[[Culture of England|England]] **[[Culture of Northern Ireland| Northern Ireland]] **[[Culture of Scotland|Scotland]] **[[Culture of Wales|Wales]] *[[Culture of the United States|United States]] &lt;/div&gt; &lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt; === Contemporary local cultures === *[[Culture of New York City]] *[[Culture of Stockholm]] *[[Culture of Sydney]] === Other contemporary cultures === *[[Autistic culture]] *[[Cassette culture]]&lt;!--does this really belong here?--&gt; &lt;!--I'm ambivalent. --&gt; *[[Deaf culture]] *[[Drug culture]] *[[Esperanto culture]] *[[Hacker culture]] *[[Queer culture]] *[[Underground culture]] *[[Working class culture|Working-class culture]] *[[Youth culture]] === Historic cultures === *[[Assyro-Babylonian culture]] *[[Clovis culture]] &amp;mdash; pre-historic in [[North America]] and [[Central America]] from about 13,500 years ago *[[Indus Valley Culture]] **[[Cemetery H culture]] *[[La Tene culture]] &amp;mdash; from the [[Iron Age]] in parts of Europe *[[Natufian culture]] &amp;mdash; in the [[Mediterranean]] more than 10,000 years ago *[[Paideia]] &amp;mdash; Classical Greek culture *[[Romanitas]] &amp;mdash; Roman Imperial culture *[[Weimar culture]] ==References== * Arnold, Matthew, ''Culture and Anarchy'', 1882. Macmillan and Co., New York. Online at [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html]. * Bourdieu, Pierre. ''Outline of a Theory of Practice.'' 1977. * Cohen, Anthony P. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.'' Routledge: New York, 1995 (1985). * Geertz, Clifford. (1973). ''The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays''. New York. ISBN 0465097197. * Hoult, Thomas Ford, ed. (1969). ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology''. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams &amp; Co. * Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). ''The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets''. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 0-03-080361-6. Keiser's quotation from Geertz (p. viii) is cited from Geertz, C., 1957, &quot;Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example,&quot; ''American Anthropologist'', Vol. 59, No. 1. p. 33-34. * Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions''. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759. * [http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm Cultural Anthropology Tutorials], Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California, United States, as of December 12, 2004. * UNESCO, &quot;[http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity]&quot;, issued on [[International Mother Language Day]], [[February 21]], 2002. ==See also== &lt;!-- We might want to include some info from some of these in the main body. --&gt; {{portal}} {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionary}} {{wikinewspar|Culture and entertainment}} {{commonscat}} *[[Acculturation]] *[[Cross-cultural communication]] *[[Cultural bias]] - [[cultural diversity]] - [[cultural evolution]] - [[cultural imperialism]] *[[Culture theory]] - [[Culture war]] - [[Culture jamming]] &lt;!--does this really belong here? - YES! --&gt; *[[Dominator culture]] *[[European Capital of Culture]] &amp;mdash; city chosen by the [[European Union]] for a year at a time to showcase its cultural life *[[Generation Y Culture]] *[[Kulturkampf]] &amp;mdash; a specific cultural fight in 1870s Germany *[[Organizational culture]] *[[Culture and Society]] - a literary study of the idea in Britain *[[World Values Survey]] *[[Free Culture Movement]] ==External links== *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-72 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] &quot;Cultural Development&quot; in Antiquity *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-73 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] &quot;Culture&quot; and &quot;Civilization&quot; in Modern Times * [http://samvak.tripod.com/class.html Classificatory system for cultures and civilizations], by Dr. Sam Vaknin *[http://www.latinoarts.org/ Association of Hispanic Arts (AHA)] [[Category:Culture| ]] [[Category:History of ideas]] [[Category:Top 10| Culture]] [[an:Cultura]] [[ar:ثقافة]] [[ast:Cultura]] [[be:Культура]] [[bn:সংস্কৃতি]] [[ca:Cultura]] [[cs:Kultura]] [[da:Kultur]] [[de:Kultur]] [[el:Πολιτισμός (αρχαιολογία)]] [[eo:Kulturo]] [[es:Cultura]] [[eu:Kultura]] [[fi:Kulttuuri]] [[fr:Culture]] [[fy:Kultuer]] [[he:תרבות]] [[hr:Kultura]] [[hu:Kultúra]] [[ia:Cultura]] [[io:Kulturo]] [[it:Cultura]] [[ja:文化]] [[ko:문화]] [[ku:Çand]] [[lad:Kultura]] [[lt:Kultūra]] [[mo:Културэ]] [[nah:Cultura]] [[nds:Kultur]] [[ng:Hastangi]] [[nl:Cultuur]] [[nn:Kultur]] [[no:Kultur]] [[pl:Kultura]] [[pt:Cultura]] [[ro:Cultură]] [[ru:Культура]] [[simple:Culture]] [[sl:Kultura]] [[sr:Култура]] [[sv:Kultur]] [[tl:Kultura]] [[tt:Mädäniät]] [[uk:Культура]] [[vi:Văn hóa]] [[zh:文化]] [[zh-min-nan:Bûn-hoà]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corona Borealis</title> <id>6420</id> <revision> <id>41411091</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:35:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tom harrison</username> <id>42168</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.201.244.197|68.201.244.197]] ([[User talk:68.201.244.197|talk]]) to last version by GrinBot</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation| name = Corona borealis | abbreviation = CrB | genitive = Coronae Borealis | symbology = The Northern Crown | RA = 16 | dec= +30 | areatotal = 179 | arearank = 73rd | numberstars = 1 | starname = ([[Alpha Coronae Borealis|&amp;alpha; CrB]]) (Alphecca or Gemma) | starmagnitude = 2.2 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]] *[[Boötes]] *[[Serpens|Serpens Caput]] | latmax = 90 | latmin = 50 | month = July | notes=}} '''Corona Borealis''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[north]]ern [[crown]]'') is a small northern [[constellation]] whose main [[star|stars]] form a semicircular arc. It is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]], who referred to the constellation as Corona. The ''Borealis''
o overcome the limitations of [[Routing Information Protocol|RIP]] (maximum hop count, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, load, delay, mtu, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255. Its successor is [[EIGRP]], that adds [[Diffusing Update Algorithm]] (DUAL) ideas to the basic distance-vector mechanism of IGRP. [[Category:Network protocols]] [[Category:Routing protocols]] [[de:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]] [[fr:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]] [[it:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]] [[he:IGRP]] [[pl:IGRP]] [[pt:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]] [[sv:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IRS (disambiguation)</title> <id>14845</id> <revision> <id>28470071</id> <timestamp>2005-11-16T03:24:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brim</username> <id>102642</id> </contributor> <comment>Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''IRS''' is an abbreviaton for: * [[U.S. Internal Revenue Service]] * [[Independent rear suspension]], used in automobiles. * [[I.R.S. Records]] * [[Mike Rotundo|Irwin R. Schyster]], professional wrestler * [[Interest rate swap]] * [[Indian Remote Sensing satellite]] * Inertial Reference System; see [[Inertial guidance system]] * [[Indian Revenue Service]] * [[International Register of Shipping]] * [[Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group]], about the [[cancer]], [[rhabdomyosarcoma]] {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I.R.S.</title> <id>14846</id> <revision> <id>31052927</id> <timestamp>2005-12-12T14:55:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;U.S. Internal Revenue Service&quot; +&quot;Internal Revenue Service&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internal Revenue Service]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Indo-European languages</title> <id>14848</id> <restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions> <revision> <id>41884746</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:11:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Aleksei</username> <id>538842</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}} {{Indo-European}} The '''Indo-European languages''' are a [[language family|family]] of several hundred [[language]]s and dialects (443 according to the [[SIL International|SIL]] estimate), including most of the major languages of [[Europe]], as well as many in West, Central and [[Southern Asia]]. Contemporary languages in this family include [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (each with more than [[1 E8|100 million]] native speakers), as well as numerous smaller national or minority languages. Indo-European is the largest family of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately 3 billion native speakers; the second largest family of tongues is [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]. There are other, controversial supergroupings. ==Classification== {{Infobox Language family |name=Indo-European |altname=Indo-Germanic (obsolete) |region=Before the 15th century, [[Europe]], and [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southwest Asia]]; today worldwide. |familycolor=Indo-European |family=One of the world's major [[language family|language families]]; although links with other families have been proposed, none of these has received mainstream acceptance. |child1=[[Albanian language|Albanian]] |child2=[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] |child3=[[Armenian language|Armenian]] |child4=[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] |child5=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]] |child6=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] |child7=[[Greek language|Greek]] |child8=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] |child9=[[Italic languages|Italic]] (including [[Romance languages|Romance]]) |child10=[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]] |map=[[Image:IE_countries.png|center|thumb|280px|Red: countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages&lt;br /&gt;Orange: countries with an IE minority language with official status]] }} The various subgroups of the [[Indo-European]] family include (in historical order of their first attestation): * [[Anatolian languages]] &amp;mdash; earliest attested branch, from the [[18th century BC]]; extinct, most notable was the language of the [[Hittites]]. * [[Indo-Iranian languages]], descending from a common ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] **[[Indo-Aryan languages]], including [[Sanskrit]], attested from the [[2nd millennium BC]] **[[Iranian languages]], attested from roughly [[1000 BC]], including [[Avestan]] , [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] **[[Dardic languages]] **[[Nuristani languages]] * [[Greek language]] &amp;mdash; fragmentary records in [[Mycenaean]] from the [[14th century BC]]; [[Homer]] dates to the [[8th century BC]]. See [[Proto-Greek language]], [[History of the Greek language]]. * [[Italic languages]] &amp;mdash; including [[Latin]] and its descendants, the [[Romance languages]], attested from the [[1st millennium BC]]. * [[Celtic languages]] &amp;mdash; [[Gaulish]] inscriptions date as early as the [[6th century BC]]; [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] texts from the [[6th century AD]], see [[Proto-Celtic language]]. * [[Germanic languages]] (including [[Old English language|English]]) &amp;mdash; earliest testimonies in [[runic]] inscriptions from around the [[2nd century]], earliest coherent texts in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[4th century]], see [[Proto-Germanic language]]. * [[Armenian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[5th century]]. * [[Tocharian languages]] &amp;mdash; extinct tongues of the [[Tocharians]], extant in two dialects, attested from roughly the [[6th century]]. * [[Balto-Slavic languages]], believed by many Indo-Europeanists to derive from a common proto-language later than Proto-Indo-European, while others are skeptical and think that Baltic and Slavic are no more closely related than any other two branches of Indo-European. ** [[Slavic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[9th century]], earliest texts in [[Old Church Slavonic]]. ** [[Baltic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[14th century]], and, for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]. * [[Albanian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[15th century]] (1462); relations with Illyrian, Dacian, or Thracian proposed. In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, there are several extinct languages, about which very little is known: * [[Illyrian languages]] &amp;mdash; possibly related to Messapian or Venetic; relation to Albanian also proposed. * [[Venetic language]] &amp;mdash; close to Italic. * [[Liburnian language]] &amp;mdash; apparently grouped with Venetic. * [[Messapian language]] &amp;mdash; not conclusively deciphered. * [[Phrygian language]] &amp;mdash; language of ancient [[Phrygia]], possibly close to Greek, Thracian, or Armenian. *[[Paionian language]] &amp;mdash; extinct language once spoken north of Macedon. * [[Thracian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Dacian. * [[Dacian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Thracian and Albanian. * [[Ancient Macedonian language]] &amp;mdash; probably related to Greek, others propose relation to Illyrian, Thracian or Phrygian. * [[Ligurian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly not Indo-European; possibly close to or part of Celtic There were no doubt other Indo-European languages which are now lost without a trace. The fragmentary [[Raetian language]] cannot be classified with any certainty. Further subfamilies have been suggested, among them [[Italo-Celtic]] and [[Graeco-Aryan]]. Neither of these is widely accepted. [[Indo-Hittite]] refers to the hypothesis that there is a significant separation between Anatolian and all the remaining groups. ===Satem and Centum languages=== [[Image:Centum Satem map.png|thumb|260px|Diachronic map showing the Centum (blue) and Satem (red) areals. The supposed area of origin of Satemization is shown in darker red ([[Sintashta-Petrovka|Sintashta]]/[[Abashevo culture|Abashevo]]/[[Srubna culture|Srubna]] cultures).]] The Indo-European sub-branches are often classified in a [[Satem]] and a [[Centum]] group. This is based on the varying treatments of the three original [[velar]] rows. Satem languages lost the distinction between labiovelar and pure velar sounds, and at the same time [[sibilant|assibilated]] the palatal velars. The centum languages, on the other hand, lost the distinction between palatal velars and pure velars. Thus, geographically, the &quot;eastern&quot; languages are Satem (Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic, but not including Tocharian and Anatolian), and the &quot;western&quot; languages are Centum (Germanic, Italic, Celtic). The [[Centum-Satem isogloss|Satem-Centum isogloss]] runs right between the Greek (Centum) and Armenian (Satem) languages (thought to be related by a number of scholars), with Greek exhibiting some marginal Satem features. Some scholars think that there may be some languages that classify neither as Satem nor as Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, and possibly Albanian). It should be noted that the grouping does not imply a claim of [[mon
served despite their occasional moral ambiguity. The writings of [[Herodotus]] and [[Plutarch]] were considered acceptable for teaching history. === Modern reforms === Education reforms in modern times arose first against neo-classical education, known in America as &quot;humanistic&quot; education, which resembled in many respects [[classical education]]. Motives for parting with classical methods were diverse, and included economic factors, differences in the aims of education—normalizing immigrants and the poor as opposed to training the upper and middle classes, and differences in educational philosophy. === Reforms of classical education === Western [[classical education]] as taught from the 8th to the 19th century has weaknesses that inspired reformers. Classical education is most concerned with answering the &quot;who, what, when, where&quot; and &quot;how&quot; questions that concern a majority of students. Unless carefully taught, group instruction naturally neglects the theoretical &quot;why&quot; and &quot;which&quot; questions that strongly concern a minority of students. Young children with short attention spans often enjoy repetition, but only if the subject is changed every few minutes. Skilled, compassionate primary classical teachers (always a rare breed, now nearly nonexistent) have always changed subjects continually and rapidly. Unskilled, or unkind classical teachers have drilled the joy of learning right out of young heads. () Some people can regurgitate words and yet never understand what they mean in the real world. This was terribly common among classically educated scholars. Classical education in this period also deprecated local languages and cultures in favor of ancient languages (greek and Latin) and their cultures. This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities. Classical education can also be expensive, difficult and boring. Reforms have taken several tracks. # Reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly-educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor. The usual method is to teach people how to learn, and make a living and then provide libraries. # Develop the same results as a classical education with less effort, by concentrating on neglected &quot;why&quot; and &quot;which&quot; questions, which theoretically can compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles. # Bring educational topics into a concrete focus. In these reforms, book-learning is de-emphasized in favor of real-world experience. A rather insulting sub-text of many such reformers is to imply that average persons cannot profit from theory or information irrelevant to their every-day tasks. # Maintain a group's cultural and national identity. == Educational economies in the 1800s == Prior to the advent of government-funded public schools, the primary mode of education for those of the lower classes was the charity school, pioneered during the [[1800s]] by [[Protestant]] organizations and adapted for use by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and governmental bodies. Because these schools operated on very small budgets and attempted to serve as many needy children as possible, economic factors were prominent in their design. The basic program was to develop &quot;grammar&quot; schools. These taught only grammar and [[bookkeeping]]. This program permits people to start businesses to make money, and gives them the skills to continue their education inexpensively from books. &quot;Grammar&quot; was the first third of the then-prevalent system of [[Classical education]]. The ultimate development of the grammar school was by [[Joseph Lancaster]], who started as an impoverished [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] in early 19th century [[London]]. Lancaster used slightly more-advanced students to teach less-advanced students, achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 2, while educating more than a thousand students per adult. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called [http://www.constitution.org/lanc/improv-1803.htm Improvements in Education] that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world. Discipline and labour in a Lancaster school were provided by an economic system. Scrip, a form of money meaningless outside the school, was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition. Every job of the school was bid-for by students in scrip. The highest bid won. The jobs permitted students to collect scrip from other students for services rendered. However, ''any'' student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes. Besides tutoring, students could use script to buy food, school supplies, books, and childish luxuries in a school store. The adult supervisors were paid from the bids on jobs. With fully-developed internal economies, Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. The students were very clever at reducing their costs, and once invented, improvements were widely adopted in a school. For example, Lancaster students, motivated to save scrip, ultimately rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library, and read them in groups around music stands to reduce textbook costs. Exchanges of tutoring, and using receipts from &quot;down tutoring&quot; to pay for &quot;up tutoring&quot; were commonplace. Established educational elites found Lancaster schools so threatening that most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly-paid education explicitly to keep public education in &quot;responsible&quot; hands. These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education and were not accountable to established authorities. Lancaster's supporters responded that any schoolchild could avoid cheats, given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the educations, and thus deserved no say in their composition. Lancaster, though motivated by charity, claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the poorest street-children. Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life. == Progressive reforms in Europe and America == The term ''progressive'' in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number of kinds of [[educational progressivism]], most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period between the late 19th and the middle of the 20th centuries. === Child-study === [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] has been called the father of the child-study movement. It has been said that Rousseau &quot;discovered&quot; the child (as an object of study). Rousseau's principle work on education is ''[[Emile: Or, On Education]]'', in which he lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education to adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in [[Plato's Republic]] and also of the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it; he held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the child and its curiosity, teaching it by confronting it with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning it by experience rather than teaching it intellectually. His ideas were rarely implemented directly, but were influential on later thinkers, particularly [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]], the inventor of the [[kindergarten]]. === Transcendentalist education === [[H. D. Thoreau]]'s &quot;[[Walden]]&quot; and reform essays in the mid-19th century were influential also (see the anthology &quot;Uncommon Learning: Henry David Thoreau on Education,&quot; Boston, 1999). For a look at [[transcendentalist]] life, read [[Louisa May Alcott]]'s &quot;Little Women.&quot; Her father, [[A. Bronson Alcott]], a close friend of Thoreau's, pioneered progressive education for young people as early as the 1830s. The transcendental education movement failed, because only the most gifted students ever equaled the skills of their classically-educated teachers. These students would, of course, succeed in any educational regime. Accounts seem to indicate that the students were happy, but often pursued [[classical education]] later in life. === National identity === Education is often seen in Europe as an important system to maintain national, cultural and linguistic unity. [[Prussia]] instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, &quot;Hochdeutsch.&quot; One significant reform was [[kindergarten]], whose purpose was to have the children spend time in supervised activities in the national language, when the children were young enough that they could easily learn new language skills. Since most modern schools copy the [[Prussia]]n models, children start school at an age when their language skills remain plastic, and they find it easy to learn the national language. This was an intentional design on the part of the Prussians. In the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a [[native speaker]]. In other countries, such as the [[Soviet union]], [[France]], [[Spain]], and [[Germany]] this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores
] [[csb:Gromicznik]] [[kw:Mys Whevrer]] [[ku:Reşemî]] [[la:Februarius]] [[lv:Februāris]] [[lt:Vasaris]] [[lb:Februar]] [[li:Fibberwarie]] [[hu:Február]] [[mi:Hui-tanguru]] [[mr:फेब्रुवारी]] [[ms:Februari]] [[nap:Frevaro]] [[nl:Februari]] [[ja:2月]] [[no:Februar]] [[nn:Februar]] [[oc:Febrièr]] [[pl:Luty]] [[pt:Fevereiro]] [[ro:Februarie]] [[ru:Февраль]] [[se:Guovvamánnu]] [[sc:Frearzu]] [[sco:Februar]] [[sq:Shkurti]] [[scn:Frivaru]] [[simple:February]] [[sk:Február]] [[sl:Februar]] [[sr:Фебруар]] [[su:Pébruari]] [[fi:Helmikuu]] [[sv:Februari]] [[tl:Pebrero]] [[ta:பிப்ரவரி]] [[tt:Febräl]] [[th:กุมภาพันธ์]] [[vi:Tháng hai]] [[tpi:Februeri]] [[tr:Şubat]] [[uk:Лютий]] [[ur:فروری]] [[vo:Febul]] [[wa:Fevrî]] [[war:Pebrero]] [[zh:2月]] [[pam:Pebreru]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 1</title> <id>10846</id> <revision> <id>42090263</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shsilver</username> <id>637</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Births */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=1}} |} [[February 1]] is the 32nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 333 days remaining, (334 in [[leap year]]s). ==Events== *[[1411]] - [[Peace of Toruń 1411]] signed in [[Toruń]], [[Poland]] *[[1662]] - The [[China|Chinese]] general [[Koxinga]] seizes the island of [[Taiwan]] after a nine-month siege. *[[1713]] - The ''[[Kalabalik]]'' or ''Tumult in [[Tighina|Bendery]]'' results from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[sultan]]'s order that his unwelcome guest, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]], be seized. *[[1788]] - [[Isaac Briggs]] and [[William Longstreet]] patent the [[steamboat]]. *[[1790]] - In [[New York City]] the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] convenes for the first time. *[[1793]] - [[France]] declares war on the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Netherlands]]. *[[1796]] - The capital of [[Upper Canada]] is moved from [[Niagara, Ontario|Newark]] to [[Toronto, Ontario|York]]. *[[1814]] - [[Mayon Volcano]], in the [[Philippines]], erupts, killing around 1,200 people; most devastating eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]. *[[1856]] - [[Auburn University]] is chartered as the [[East Alabama Male College]]. *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Texas]] secedes from the [[United States]]. *[[1862]] - [[Julia Ward Howe]]'s &quot;[[Battle Hymn of the Republic]]&quot; is published for the first time in the ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]''. *[[1880]] - The first edition of theatrical [[newspaper]] ''[[The Stage]]'' is published. *[[1884]] - Edition one of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is published. *[[1893]] - [[Thomas A. Edison]] finishes construction of the first [[film|motion picture]] studio, the [[Edison's Black Maria|Black Maria]] ([[West Orange, New Jersey]]). *[[1896]] - The opera ''[[La bohème]]'' premieres ([[Turin]]). *[[1908]] - King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] and his son, [[Prince]] [[Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza|Luis Filipe]] are killed in [[Terreiro do Paco]], [[Lisbon]]. *[[1913]] - [[New York City]]'s [[Grand Central Terminal]] opens as the world's largest [[train station]]. *[[1918]] - [[Russia]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. *[[1920]] - The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] begin operations. *[[1924]] - [[United Kingdom]] recognizes [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. *[[1929]] - Frenchman [[Charles Rigoulet]] is the first [[weightlifting|weightlifter]] to lift over 400 pounds (181 kg) in the &quot;clean and jerk&quot; method. *[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Vidkun Quisling]] is appointed [[List of Prime Ministers of Norway|Premier of Norway]] by the [[Nazi]] occupiers. *[[1946]] - [[Trygve Lie]] of [[Norway]] is picked to be the first [[United Nations Secretary General]]. *[[1958]] - Merger of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] to form the [[United Arab Republic]], which lasted until [[1961]]. *[[1960]] - Four black students stage a [[sit-in]] at a lunch counter in [[Greensboro, North Carolina]]. *[[1965]] - [[Churchill River (Atlantic)|Churchill River]], [[Newfoundland]] - Hamilton River in Labrador renamed Churchill River in honour of [[Winston Churchill]]. *[[1968]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Viet Cong]] officer [[Nguyen Van Lem]] is executed by [[Nguyen Ngoc Loan]] a [[South Vietnam]]ese [[National Police Chief]]. The execution was videotaped and photographed by [[Eddie Adams]] and helped sway public opinion [[anti-war|against the war]]. *1968- Official [[unification]] of the three former military services of [[Canada]], the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], the [[Canadian Army]] and the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] became the united [[Canadian Armed Forces]]. *1968- Merger of the historic [[New York Central Railroad]] and [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] to form ill-fated [[Penn Central Transportation]]. *[[1974]] - In [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]], a fire in a 25-story office building kills 189 and injures 293. *1974 - [[Kuala Lumpur]] declared a [[Federal Territory]]. *[[1978]] - Director [[Roman Polanski]] skips [[bail]] and flees to [[France]] after pleading guilty to charges of engaging in sex with a 13-year-old girl. *[[1979]] - Convicted bank robber [[Patty Hearst]] is released from prison after her sentence was commuted by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Jimmy Carter]]. *1979 - [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] is welcomed back into [[Tehran]], [[Iran]] after nearly 15 years of exile. *[[1981]] - [[Trevor Chappell]] bowls his infamous [[Underarm bowling|&quot;Underarm Ball&quot;]] to [[Brian McKechnie (cricketer)|Brian McKechnie]] to prevent [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] scoring a 6, and tying the [[ODI]], on the last ball of the third match in the final of the [[Benson &amp; Hedges]] [[World Series Cup]]. It directly led to the banning of underarm bowling by the [[International Cricket Council]] as not within the spirit of the game. *[[1982]] - [[Senegal]] and [[The Gambia|Gambia]] form a loose confederation known as [[Senegambia]]. *[[1989]] - The [[Western Australia|Western Australian]] towns of Kalgoorlie and Boulder amalgamate to form the [[Kalgoorlie, Western Australia|City of Kalgoorlie-Boulder]]. *[[1992]] - The [[Chief Judicial Magistrate]] of [[Bhopal]] court declares [[Warren Anderson]], ex-[[CEO]] of [[Union Carbide]], a fugitive under [[India]]n law for failing to appear in the [[Bhopal Disaster]] case. *[[1994]] - In [[Portland, Oregon]] [[Tonya Harding]]'s ex-husband [[Jeff Gillooly]] pleads guilty for his role in attacking figure skater [[Nancy Kerrigan]]. *[[1995]] - [[Manic Street Preachers]] lyricist [[Richey James Edwards]] goes missing from the [[Embassy Hotel]] in [[London, UK]]. *[[1996]] - [[Communications Decency Act]] is passed by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]. *[[1999]] - [[North Dakota Public Radio]] is launched. *[[2003]] - [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|disintegrates]] over [[Texas]] upon reentry killing all seven [[astronaut]]s onboard. *[[2004]] - At least 244 people trampled to death in a stampede at the [[Hajj]] [[pilgrimage]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. *2004 - [[Janet Jackson]] exposes her [[breast]] on [[United States|American]] [[television]] during the half-time show of the [[Super Bowl]]. *[[2005]] - [[Nepal]] King [[Gyanendra]] excercised [[Coup d'état]] to capture the democracy becoming [[Chairman]] of the [[Councils of ministers]]. ==Births== *[[1261]] - [[Walter de Stapledon]], English bishop (d. [[1326]]) *[[1462]] - [[Johannes Trithemius]], German cryptographer (d. [[1516]]) *[[1552]] - [[Edward Coke]], English colonial entrepreneur and jurist (d. [[1634]]) *[[1635]] - [[Marquard Gude]], German archaeologist (d. [[1689]]) *[[1690]] - [[Francesco Maria Veracini]], Italian composer (d. [[1768]]) *[[1761]] - [[Christian Hendrik Persoon]], South African mycologist (d. [[1836]]) *[[1844]] - [[G. Stanley Hall]], American psychologist (d. [[1844]]) *[[1859]] - [[Victor Herbert]], Irish composer (d. [[1924]]) *[[1874]] - [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]], Austrian writer (d. [[1929]]) *[[1882]] - [[Louis Stephen St. Laurent]], twelfth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1973]]) *[[1884]] - [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], Russian writer (d. [[1937]]) *[[1887]] - [[Charles Nordhoff]], English-born author (d. [[1947]]) *[[1894]] - [[John Ford (film director)|John Ford]], American director and producer (d. [[1973]]) *1894 - [[James P. Johnson]], American pianist and composer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1901]] - [[Clark Gable]], American actor (d. [[1960]]) *[[1902]] - [[Langston Hughes]] American writer (d. [[1967]]) *[[1904]] - [[S. J. Perelman]], American humorist and author (d. [[1979]]) *[[1905]] - [[Emilio G. Segrè]], Italian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]]) *[[1906]] - [[Hildegarde]], American actress and singer (d. [[2005]]) *[[1907]] - [[Guenter Eich|Günter Eich]], German lyricist (d. [[1972]]) *[[1908]] - [[George Pál]], Hungarian-born director and producer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1909]] - [[George Beverly Shea]], Canadian singer *[[1915]] - [[Stanley Matthews|Sir Stanley Matthews]], English football player (d. [[2000]]) *[[1918]] - Dame [[Muriel Spark]], Scottish author *[[1922]] - [[Renata Tebaldi]], Italian soprano (d. [[2004]]) *[[1931]] - [[Boris Yeltsin]], [[President of Russia]] *[[1936]] - [[Azie Taylor Morton]], U.S. Treasurer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1937]] - [[Don Everly]], American musician ([[Everly Brothers]]) *1937 - [[Garrett Morris]], American comedian *[[1938]] - [[Sherman Hemsley]], American comedian and actor *[[1940]] - [[Bibi Besch]], Austrian-American actress (d. [[1996]]) *[[1941]] - [[Karl Dall]], [[Germany|German]] [[television]] [[moderator]]. *[[1942]] - [[Terry Jones]], Welsh actor and writer *[[1947]] - [[Jessica Savitch]], American journalist (d. [[1983]]) *[[1948]] - [[Rick James]], American musician and composer (d. [[2004]]) *1948 - [[Elisabeth Sladen]], British actress *[[19
|Z80]]-like processor to provide support for legacy GB software; however, both processors cannot be active at the same time. ===Display=== The 2.9&quot; [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] is capable of a maximum of 240×160 [[pixel]]s in 15-[[bit]] color (32,768 [[color]]s). This display includes more pixels than Game Boy's 160×144; when playing legacy games, the user can press the &quot;L&quot; or &quot;R&quot; button to switch the display between 160×144 with a black border and [[scaling (geometry)|scaling]] to 240×144 pixels. Early games had very dark color [[Palette (computing)|palette]]s because the display in the development kits was much brighter than the one in the production units; the production display has a gamma value of 4. Newer titles use [[gamma correction]] in their palettes. If the color LCD has a fault, it is that the Game Boy Advance is lit by ambient light. Users quickly learned to tilt the device to take advantage of window or overhead illumination. An aftermarket internal lighting kit known as the [[Afterburner (modification kit)|Afterburner]] was briefly popular before the introduction of the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and influenced the development of the new model. ===Graphics=== The GBA has hardware support for simple [[2D computer graphics|2D]] operations using graphical elements called [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s. It can scale, rotate, [[sum-blend]], and [[Alpha channel|alpha-blend]] sprites against a background (with one alpha value for the whole screen, not the alpha-blending of image edges seen in the [[PNG]] format), and it can change the scaling and rotation of sprites and the background on each scanline to give a pseudo-[[3D computer graphics|3D]] effect. The GBA's picture generator has six display modes (three tiled and three bitmap) and 96&amp;nbsp;KiB of dedicated [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. In tiled display modes, the system can manage four pixel-to-pixel layers, two pixel-to-pixel layers and one affine layer, or two affine layers, and it uses 64&amp;nbsp;KiB of RAM for tile and map data and 32&amp;nbsp;KiB for sprite cel data. In bitmap modes, it can display one large 16-bit bitmap, two 8-bit [[bitmap]]s (with page flipping), or one small 16-bit bitmap (with page flipping), and it uses 80&amp;nbsp;KiB of RAM for bitmap data and 16&amp;nbsp;KiB for sprite cel data. In all modes, it can show up to 128 sprites (individually controllable small moving objects) of 8×8 up to 64×64 pixels in either [[4-bit]] or [[8-bit]] indexed color. Each sprite can be drawn using either direct pixel mapping or affine mapping; it's possible to fit more direct sprites on a scanline. Later games pushed the GBA to its limits with simple 3D graphics. These games include [[Wolfenstein 3D]], [[Duke Nukem Advance]], and [[Doom]] and [[Doom II|Doom 2]]. Utilizing 2D sprites for objects and 3D graphics for architecture, these games usually achieve a passable framerate, although sometimes in large environments or with many objects onscreen the framerate will drop to a very noticeable level. Some feel that such 3D games are a logical and welcome step for the GBA, while others feel that they are overly ambitious and beyond the capabilities of the system. With the release of the DS, future 3D games for the GBA will most likely be limited. ===Media=== The interface from the GBA unit to the [[read-only memory|ROM]] cartridge includes only a 24-bit address bus multiplexed with a 16-bit [[computer bus|data bus]]. (Mattel's [[Intellivision]] console had previously used a multiplexed bus.) This setup limits the directly addressable memory to 16 binary megawords (that is, 256 binary [[mebibit]]s or 32 binary [[mebibyte]]s), but bankswitching hardware on the cartridge can extend this by controlling the ROM's upper address lines from software, effectively switching other parts of the ROM into the GBA's address space. Still, [[as of 2005]], no published GBA titles have even executed such bankswitching hardware because 32&amp;nbsp;[mebibyte|MiB]] of ROM is still too expensive for the price point at which most GBA games are sold. (It would possibly have to retail for $39.99 to $49.99) By early 2002, hardware became readily available for moving user code onto the GBA. For example, in December 2001, a [[flash memory]] cartridge and its writing hardware was selling for less than [[United States dollar|$]]200 [[United States|U.S.]], along with a $50 device to emulate the netbooting master. By April 2003, the prices had come down to under $100 for the flash cartridge and writer and $30 for the boot cable. Because of the drop in prices for programming equipment, a [[Homebrew (video games)|homebrew]] software development community has sprung up. Nintendo, however, has a history of viewing such devices as nothing more than piracy tools, since they can be used to copy cartridges containing copyrighted software. In February 2002, Nintendo began sending threatening letters to some United States resellers of such devices. Previous lawsuits had banned the importation of similar devices for the 8-bit Game Boy. ===Connectivity=== [[Image:GBA 4PConnection.jpg|300px|thumb|right|4-Player connection with 2 GBAs, 1 GBA SP, and 1 GameCube with a Game Boy Player attached]] The GBA also has a [[serial port]] for connecting to other GBA units in a setup similar to a [[token ring|token ring]] network over a bus physical topology. A GBA can also receive up to 256&amp;nbsp;KiB of [[bootstrap]] code through the port, even when no cartridge is present (sometimes known as ''multiboot'' or ''[[GBA Network Boot|netboot]]''). This is used for multiplayer GBA connections, where multiple GBAs can play with only one cartridge; one GBA with a cartridge sends boot code to the other cartridge-less GBAs. The serial port can (with a suitable cable) also connect to a standard [[RS-232]] serial port for debugging purposes and (hypothetically) [[Internet]] play, although a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] stack has yet to be implemented in a GBA game. The release of the [[Nintendo DS]] in 2004 made this further unlikely, given the built-in Wi-Fi of that system's release. To link GBA games, a GBA link cable is required. To link regular GB or GB Color games, the older GB link cable is required, even if two GBAs are being used. Nintendo also introduced connectivity between the Game Boy Advance to the [[GameCube]] console through the [[Nintendo GameCube-Game Boy Advance cable|GameCube-Game Boy Advance cable]]. This function could unlock data, act as a second screen, among other things. It did not catch on very well and not too many games added such connectivity. The [[Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter]] was released on [[September 7]], [[2004]] in the United States. It allows GBAs to be linked without cords, and with more than four players at a time. It came bundled with ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]]''. However, a game has to be designed with the wireless adapter in mind, and there are only [http://www.nintendo.com/gamelist?start=1&amp;amp;oord=asc&amp;amp;osort=title&amp;amp;sort=&amp;amp;cmd=&amp;amp;toggle=true&amp;amp;query=&amp;amp;tf=&amp;amp;cf=&amp;amp;sf=&amp;amp;ef=&amp;rf=&amp;amp;pf=&amp;amp;af=New%21+Game+Boy+Advance+Wireless+Adapter&amp;amp;vf=&amp;nf= a few such games]. The [[Game Boy micro]] featured another port design; in order to make the system so small, the link port was shrunken. Nintendo has released a GBM-GBM and a GBM-GBA adapter to restore full multiplayer compatibility. It is currently only sold on Nintendo.com. Wireless Adapter compatibility was also broken as well, and Nintendo has not yet announced any kind of replacement for wireless Micro play. ==Models== ===Game Boy Advance (original model)=== The Game Boy Advance sold at a base price of $100 [[United States dollar|USD]] when it was released in [[North America]]. Prior to the release of the Game Boy Advance SP, the GBA was the fastest-selling game console in history. Despite its success, many criticized the original Game Boy Advance for still not adopting a lighted screen, which Nintendo would rectify with later models. [[As of 2005]], the original (non-lighted) model GBA has been discontinued. ===Game Boy Advance SP=== [[Image:93 phull.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy Advance SP]] {{main|Game Boy Advance SP}} In early 2003, Nintendo upgraded the Game Boy Advance giving it an internal front-light that can be turned on or off, a rechargeable [[lithium ion battery]], as well as a folding case approximately half the size of the GBA. It was designed to address some common complaints with the original GBA. Around the same time as the release of the [[Game Boy micro]], Nintendo released a new backlit version of the SP. The switch that controls the light now toggles between &quot;normal&quot; (which itself is already brighter than a [[Nintendo DS]]'s screen), and &quot;bright,&quot; an intense brightness level similar to LCD television sets. It cannot be turned off while the system is on. It also features an improved battery life. ===Game Boy micro=== [[Image:GameBoyMicro.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy micro]] {{main|Game Boy micro}} In September 2005, Nintendo released a second redesign of the Game Boy Advance. This model again goes back to the Game Boy Advance horizontal orientation and is much smaller and sleeker. The Game Boy micro also offers the user to switch between several colored faceplates to allow customization, a feature which Nintendo advertised heavily around the micro's launch. Unlike the previous models it does not support Game Boy or Game Boy Color titles. ==Accessories== Nintendo has released many add-ons for the Game Boy Advance (GBA). These include: '''[[Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter|Wireless Adapter]]''' - Released in [[2004]], this adapter hooks up to the back of the Game Boy Advance. It replaces link cables and allows many people to link up to each other. It markets for $20 and came included with [[Pokémon FireR
ers] *[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0300.pdf Unicode chart including IPA diacritics] ---- *[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode] *[http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/ipachart.html Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols:] Tables of symbol names and HTML codes at [[Pennsylvania State University|PennState]]. ===Personal extensions of the IPA=== * [http://venus.unive.it/canipa/ ''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;can&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;IPA''] : Luciano Canepari's system (500 base symbols) ==References== * Albright, Robert W. (1958). ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development''. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953). * Ball, Martin J.; Esling, John H.; &amp; Dickson, B. Craig. (1995). The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet'', ''25'' (2), 71-80. *Canepari, Luciano. (2005a). &quot;A Handbook of Phonetics: ‹Natural› Phonetics.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 518. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-8958-480-3] (hb). *Canepari, Luciano. (2005b) &quot;A Handbook of Pronunciation: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 436. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-89586-481-1] (hb). * Duckworth, M.; Allen, G.; Hardcastle, W.; &amp; Ball, M. J. (1990). Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech. ''Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics'', ''4'', 273-280. * Ellis, Alexander J. (1869-1889). ''On early English pronunciation'' (Parts 1 &amp; 5). London: Philological Society by Asher &amp; Co.; London: Trübner &amp; Co. * Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of ''Phonetic symbol guide'' by G. K. Pullum &amp; W. Ladusaw]. ''Language'', ''64'' (1), 143-144. * Hultzen, Lee S. (1958). [Review of ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its backgrounds and development'' by R. W. Albright]. ''Language'', ''34'' (3), 438-442. * International Phonetic Association. (1949). ''The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages''. London: University College, Department of Phonetics. * International Phonetic Association. (1989). Report on the 1989 Kiel convention. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''19'' (2), 67-80. * International Phonetic Association. (1999). ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb). * Jespersen, Otto. (1889). ''The articulations of speech sounds represented by means of analphabetic symbols''. Marburg: Elwert. * Jones, Daniel. (1989). ''English pronouncing dictionary'' (14 ed.). London: Dent. * Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 alphabet: An episode of phonotypy. In R. E. Asher &amp; E. J. A. Henderson (Eds.), ''Towards a history of phonetics''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. * Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher &amp; J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'' (Vol. 6, pp. 3040-3051). Oxford: Pergamon. * Ladefoged, Peter. (1990). The revised International Phonetic Alphabet. ''Language'', ''66'' (3), 550-552. * Ladefoged, Peter; &amp; Halle, Morris. (1988). Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet. ''Language'', ''64'' (3), 577-582. * MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels &amp; W. Bright (Ed.), ''The world's writing systems'' (pp. 821-846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0. * Passy, Paul. (1888). Our revised alphabet. ''The Phonetic Teacher'', 57-60. * Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). ''Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. * [[Geoffrey Pullum|Pullum, Geoffrey K.]]; &amp; Laduslaw, William A. (1986). ''Phonetic symbol guide''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2. * Sweet, Henry. (1880-1881). Sound notation. ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', 177-235. * Sweet, Henry. (1971). ''The indispensable foundation: A selection from the writings of Henry Sweet''. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and language learning 28. London: Oxford University Press. * Wells, John C. (1987). Computer-coded phonetic transcription. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''17'', 94-114. &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate metadata&quot; style=&quot;font-size:smaller; background-color:#f3f9ff; padding:0 1em; border:1px solid #aaa;&quot;&gt; ==Technical note== Most IPA symbols are not included in [[Times New Roman]], the default font for Latin scripts in [[Internet Explorer]] for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in Internet Explorer for Windows, you must set your browser font to a typeface that includes the IPA extensions, such as [[Lucida Sans Unicode]], which comes with [[Windows XP]]; [[Gentium]], [[Charis (SIL)]], and [[Doulos (SIL)]], which are freely available (see links above); or [[Arial Unicode MS]], which comes with [[Microsoft Office]]. Alternatively, the style sheet could try using unicode-range specifications to note the gaps where Times does not have glyphs for IPA, Hawaiian [[Okina|‘okina]] (glottal stop), etc. and thus hopefully force the browser to check further down the list of fonts. On this page, we have forced the browser to use such a font, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other [[:category:pages containing IPA|pages containing IPA]]. This also applies to other pages using [[meta:Help:Special characters|special symbols]]. Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as &quot;蚟&quot; in articles. Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with [[Mozilla Firefox]], [[Konqueror]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] and most other recent browsers. [[Category:Pages with special characters| ]] &lt;/div&gt; [[Category:Unicode]] [[Category:Phonetic alphabets]] {{Link FA|ro}} [[als:IPA]] [[ar:ألفبائية صوتية دولية]] [[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Im-phiau]] [[ca:Alfabet fonètic internacional]] [[cs:Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda]] [[da:Internationalt fonetisk alfabet]] [[de:Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet]] [[et:IPA]] [[es:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional]] [[eo:Internacia Fonetika Alfabeto]] [[fr:Alphabet phonétique international]] [[gl:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional]] [[ko:국제 음성 기호]] [[is:Alþjóðlega hljóðstafrófið]] [[it:Alfabeto fonetico internazionale]] [[he:אלפבית פונטי בינלאומי]] [[hu:IPA]] [[nl:Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet]] [[ja:国際音声記号]] [[no:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet]] [[nn:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet]] [[pl:Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny]] [[pt:Alfabeto fonético internacional]] [[ro:Alfabetul Fonetic Internaţional]] [[ru:Международный фонетический алфавит]] [[fi:Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto]] [[sv:Internationella fonetiska alfabetet]] [[tt:Xalıqara Yañğırış Älifbası]] [[th:สัทอักษรสากล]] [[tr:IPA]] [[uk:Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт]] [[wa:Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå]] [[zh:國際音標]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inspector Morse</title> <id>14762</id> <revision> <id>41361576</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:26:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tonywalton</username> <id>352017</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Television series */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Detective Chief Inspector '''Endeavour Morse''' is a [[fictional character]], who features in a series of thirteen [[detective novel]]s by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]] [[Colin Dexter]], though he is better known for the [[Television|TV]] series produced by Central Independent Television from 1987–2000. Morse is a senior [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] (Criminal Investigation Department) officer with the [[Thames Valley Police]] in [[Oxford]], England. {{spoiler}} ==Novels== It is primarily the personality of the main character that makes the Inspector Morse novels so successful. With his beautiful [[Jaguar_Mark_2|vintage Mark 2 Jaguar]] car (originally a [[Lancia]]), thirst for [[beer]], intellectual snobbery, and penchant for [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], he is a likeable person despite his sullen temperament. He also dislikes spelling errors and grammatical mistakes. This is demonstrated by the fact that in every personal or private document written to him, he manages to point out at least one spelling mistake. Dexter is a fan of [[cryptic crossword]]s, and Inspector Morse is named after champion solver Sir [[Jeremy Morse]]. In every novel the surname of the killer is taken from those of winners of the weekly [[Azed]] solving competition that appears in ''[[The Observer]]''. Indeed, Dexter now writes a weekly &quot;how to solve cryptic crosswords&quot; column in the Observer's sister paper [[The Guardian]]. Morse's first name was kept a secret until the end of ''Death is Now My Neighbour'' (traditionally Morse claimed that he should be called 'Morse' or jokingly that his first name was 'Inspector'). The origin of his name is the vessel [[HM Bark Endeavour]], as Morse's father was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] (Quakers have a tradition of &quot;virtue names&quot;) and a fan of [[James Cook|Captain James
aran binomial]] [[fi:Binomijakauma]] [[sv:Binomialfördelning]] [[zh:二項分佈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BSD license</title> <id>3877</id> <revision> <id>41344635</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:06:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TJFrazier</username> <id>702033</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* BSD-style licenses */ typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''BSD license''' is an acronym for the [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] [[license]] agreement, and is one of the most widely used [[free software licenses|licenses for]] [[free software]] (a [[Open_source_vs._free_software|subset]] of [[open source software]]). Many software programs are released under this license including [[BSD|BSD software]] (largely, a version of [[Unix|UNIX]]) for which the license was named. The owner of the original BSD distribution was the &quot;[[Regents of the University of California]]&quot;. This is because BSD originally came from the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. The official BSD license has been revised since its inception, and has inspired numerous variants used by others to license their software programs (see &quot;BSD-style licenses&quot; section below). This license has few restrictions on it compared to other licenses such as the [[GNU General Public License]] or even the default restrictions provided by [[copyright]], putting it relatively closer to the [[public domain]]. (Indeed, the BSD License has been referred to as ''copycenter'', for comparison to both standard copyright and the GPL's [[copyleft]]: &quot;Take it down to the copy center and make as many copies as you want.[http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/copycenter.html]&quot;) == Terms of the BSD license == The text of the license is considered to be in the [[public domain]] and thus may be modified without restriction. To suit the needs of a particular individual or organization, one should switch out the terms 'Regents of the University of California', 'University of California, Berkeley', and 'Regents' with their own name. * Copyright (c) 1998, Regents of the University of California * All rights reserved. * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * * * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the * documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * * Neither the name of the University of California, Berkeley nor the * names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products * derived from this software without specific prior written permission. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY * EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED * WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE * DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY * DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES * (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; * LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND * ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS * SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. === Compatibility with proprietary software licenses === The BSD License allows proprietary commercial use, and for the software released under the license to be incorporated into proprietary commercial products. Works based on the material may even be released under a proprietary license. Some notable examples of this are the use of BSD networking code in [[Microsoft]] products, and the use of numerous [[FreeBSD]] components in [[Mac OS X]]. It is possible for something to be distributed with the BSD License and some other license to apply as well. This was in fact the case with very early versions of [[BSD Unix]] itself, which included proprietary material from [[AT&amp;T]]. === Compatibility with other free software licenses === As originally written, the BSD license contained terms that made it incompatible [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/license-list.html#OriginalBSD] with the [[GNU General Public License]] (see the &quot;advertising clause&quot; section below). As these are among the most commonly-used licensing agreements for free and open source software, it was a serious problem for software authors to be unable to mix GPL and BSD components in their own projects. As of a revision to the BSD license in 1999, the controversial clause was removed. Since then, authors of free and open source software have been free to incorporate BSD-licensed software with GPL-licensed works. == The UC Berkeley advertising clause == As originally distributed, the BSD license had an extra clause, requiring authors of all works deriving from a BSD-licensed work to include an acknowledgment of the original source. This is numbered as clause 3 in the original licence text: * Copyright (c) 1982, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1993 * The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. * * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions * are met: * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the * documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software * must display the following acknowledgement: * This product includes software developed by the University of * California, Berkeley and its contributors. * 4. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors * may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software * without specific prior written permission. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS &lt;nowiki&gt;``AS IS''&lt;/nowiki&gt; AND * ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE * ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE * FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL * DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS * OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT * LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY * OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF * SUCH DAMAGE. The [[GNU]] project referred to it as the &quot;obnoxious BSD advertising clause&quot;. There were two main problems from the GNU project's perspective. First, people who made changes to the source code tended to want to have their names added to the acknowledgement. This is problematic since with large numbers of people working on a single project (or for many separate projects in a software distribution), the advertising clause quickly created large and unwieldy acknowledgements. Second, a large legal problem was the advertising clause was incompatible with the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] (which does not allow the addition of restrictions beyond those it already imposes) thus forcing a segregation of GNU and BSD software. The GNU project went so far as to suggest people not use the phrase &quot;BSD-style&quot; licensing when they wanted to refer to an example of a non-copyleft license, in order to prevent inadvertent usage of the original BSD license. This '4-clause' advertising version was removed from the official BSD license text on [[July 22]], [[1999]] by [[William Hoskins]], the director of the office of technology licensing for Berkeley, in response to a request from [[Richard Stallman]]. The document enacting that revocation is available at &lt;br&gt; [ftp://ftp.cs.berkeley.edu/pub/4bsd/README.Impt.License.Change ftp://ftp.cs.berkeley.edu/pub/4bsd/README.Impt.License.Change]. &lt;br&gt; The original license is now sometimes called &quot;BSD-old&quot; or &quot;4-clause BSD&quot;, while the current revision of the BSD license is sometimes referred to by the by names including &quot;BSD-new&quot;, &quot;revised BSD&quot;, or &quot;3-clause BSD&quot;. ==BSD-style licenses== Several free or open source licenses that derive from or are similar to the BSD license are widely used: * [[NetBSD]] still uses a [http://www.netbsd.org/Goals/redistribution.html#default 4-clause license] equivalent to the original BSD license. * A 2-clause BSD-like license also exists which deletes the third clause, prohibiting use of the [[copyright]] holder's name for endorsement purposes. Removal of that clause makes the license functionally equivalent to the [[MIT License]]. This is the only BSD-style license [http://developer.kde.org/policies/licensepolicy.html permitted] for certain libraries included in [[KDE]]. * [[FreeBSD]] also uses a [http://www.freebsd.org/copyright/freebsd-license.html 2-clause license] with an additional statement at the end that the views of contributors are not the official views of the FreeBSD Project. * [[OpenBSD]] uses a [http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/cv
abilized incredibly from the situation the country was in during the 1970's (see [[History of Cambodia]]). ==Other Facts== '''Legal system:''' primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years '''International organization participation:''' ACCT, [[Asian Development Bank|AsDB]], ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), [[International Monetary Fund]], Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, [[World Bank|WB]], WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], WToO, WTrO (applicant) ==See also== * [[List of political parties in Cambodia]] * [[Cambodia]] ==Resources== * [http://www.constitution.org/cons/cambodia.htm Constitution of Cambodia] * [http://www.electionworld.org/cambodia.htm Elections in Cambodia] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cb.html#Govt Cambodia at the CIA World Factbook] ==External links== ===Royalty=== *[http://www.norodomsihamoni.net King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihamoni] Official Website of King Norodom Sihamoni *[http://www.norodomsihanouk.info King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk] Official Website of former King Norodom Sihanouk ===Official=== *[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/home.frame.html Cambodia.gov.kh] Official Royal Government of Cambodia Website (English Version) ([http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql2/egov/khmer/home.view.html Cambodia.gov.kh Khmer Version]) *[http://www.cdc-crdb.gov.kh CDC] Council for the Development of Cambodia *[http://www.ccc.gov.kh/ Conseil Constitutionnel du Cambodge] Constitution council of Cambodia *[http://www.maff.gov.kh/ Department of Fisheries] *[http://www.foodsecurity.gov.kh/ Food Security and Nutrition Information System Cambodia] *[http://www.moc.gov.kh/ Ministry of Commerce] *[http://www.moi-coci.gov.kh/culture/ Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts] *[http://www.mef.gov.kh/ Ministry of Economy and Finance] *[http://www.moeys.gov.kh Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport] *[http://www.camnet.com.kh/moe Ministry of Environment] *[http://www.mptc.gov.kh/ Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications] *[http://www.mpwt.gov.kh/ Ministry of Public Works and Transport] *[http://www.mot.gov.kh Ministry of Tourism] *[http://www.nida.gov.kh/ NiDA] National Information Communications Technology Development Authority *[http://www.nis.gov.kh/ NIS] National Institute of Statistics of Cambodia *[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/home.view.html Cambodia e-Gov Homepage] {{CIAfb}} {{ASEAN}} [[Category:Politics of Cambodia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Cambodia</title> <id>5432</id> <revision> <id>25287493</id> <timestamp>2005-10-11T16:53:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CalJW</username> <id>233571</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to top of own category</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''[[Economics|Economy]] - overview:''' In spite of recent progress, the [[Cambodia]]n economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of [[war]] and internal strife. [[Per capita income]], although rapidly increasing, is low compared with most neighbouring countries. The main domestic activity on which most rural households depend is [[agriculture]] and its related sub-sectors. [[Manufacturing]] output is varied but is not very extensive and is mostly conducted on a small-scale and informal basis. The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering-related services. During [[1995]], the government implemented firm stabilization policies under difficult circumstances. Overall, macroeconomic performance was good. Growth in 1995 was estimated at 7% because of improved agricultural production ([[rice]] in particular). Strong growth in [[construction]] and services continued. Inflation dropped from 26% in 1994 to only 6% in 1995. Imports increased as a result of the availability of external financing. Exports also increased, due to an increase in log exports. With regard to the budget, both the current and overall deficits were lower than originally targeted. After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in [[1997]]-[[1998|98]] due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and [[tourism]] fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in [[1999]], the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the [[poverty]]-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic [[infrastructure]]. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace. Cambodia's emerging [[democracy]] has received strong international support. Under the mandate carried out by the [[United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia]] (UNTAC), $1.72 [[billion]] (1.72 G$) was spent in an effort to bring basic security, stability and democratic rule to the country. Regarding economic assistance, official donors had pledged $880 million at the [[Ministerial Conference on the Rehabilitation of Cambodia]] (MCRRC) in [[Tokyo]] in June 1992, to which pledges of $119 million were added in September 1993 at the meeting of the [[International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia]] (ICORC) in [[Paris]], and $643 million at the March 1994 ICORC meeting in Tokyo. To date, therefore, the total amount pledged for Cambodia's rehabilitation is approximately 1.6 G$. '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - 8.2 G$ (1999 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 4% (1999 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' &lt;br&gt;''agriculture:'' 43% &lt;br&gt;''industry:'' 20% &lt;br&gt;''services:'' 37% (1998 est.) '''Population below poverty line:''' 36% (1997 est.) '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:'' NA% &lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:'' NA% '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 4.5% (1999 est.) '''Labour force:''' 6 million (1998 est.) '''Labour force - by occupation:''' agriculture 80% (1999 est.) '''Unemployment rate:''' 2.8% (1999 est.) '''Budget:''' &lt;br&gt;''revenues:'' 327 M$ &lt;br&gt;''expenditures:'' 393 M$, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) '''Industries:''' garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles '''Industrial production growth rate:''' NA% '''Electricity - production:''' 210 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - production by source:''' &lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:'' 59.52% &lt;br&gt;''hydro:'' 40.48% &lt;br&gt;''nuclear:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 0% (1998) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 195 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Agriculture - products:''' rice, rubber, corn, vegetables '''Exports:''' 821 M$ (f.o.b., 1999 est.) '''Exports - commodities:''' timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish '''Exports - partners:''' US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US '''Imports:''' 1.2 G$ (f.o.b., 1999 est.) '''Imports - commodities:''' cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles '''Imports - partners:''' Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand '''Debt - external:''' 829 M$ (1999 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' 470 M$ pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors '''Currency:''' 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen '''Exchange rates:''' new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995) '''Fiscal year:''' calendar year ==See also== * [[Economy of Asia]] * [[List of Cambodian companies]] {{WTO}} [[Category:Economy of Cambodia| ]] [[Category:WTO members|Cambodia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Cambodia</title> <id>5433</id> <revision> <id>38371704</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T22:21:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">This is an article about '''communications in [[Cambodia]]'''. [[As of 1987]]?, the Cambodian state controls [[print media|printed]] and [[electronic media|electronic]] communications [[media]] and regulates their content. The most authoritative print medium in [[1987]] was the ruling [[KPRP]]'s biweekly journal, ''Pracheachon'' (The People), which was inaugurated in October [[1985]] to express the party's stand on domestic and international affairs. Almost as important, however, was the weekly of the [[KUFNCD]], ''Kampuchea''. The principal publication of the armed forces was the weekly ''Kangtoap Padevoat'' (''Revolutionary Army''). As of late 1987, Cambodia still had no daily newspaper. [[Radio]] and [[television]] were under the direction of the Kampuchean Radio and Television Commission, created in [[1983]]. In [[1986]] there were about 200,000 radio receivers in the country. The [[Voice of the Kampuchean People]] (VOKP) radio pr
attle — carried fasces in procession. Roman historians recalled that twelve lictors had ceremoniously accompanied the [[Etruria|Etruscan]] kings of Rome in the distant past, and sought to account for the number and to provide etymologies for the name ''lictor''. The symbolism of the fasces at one level suggested strength through unity. The rods symbolized the state's power to punish delinquents. The axe represented the ultimate power of high justice to execute ([[decapitate]]), and has a long history in the eastern Mediterranean: see [[labrys]], the [[Anatolia]]n and [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] double-headed axe. Traditionally, fasces carried within the ''[[Pomerium]]'' - the limits of the sacred inner City of Rome - had their axe blades removed. This signified that under normal political circumstances, the ''[[imperium]]''-bearing magistrates did not have the judicial power of life and death. That power rested, within the city, with the people through the assemblies. [[Lictor]]s attending to dictators, however, kept the axe blades even inside the ''Pomerium'' — a sign that a dictator had the ultimate power in his own hands. But in [[48 BC]], guards holding bladed fasces guided [[Publius Servilius Isauricus|Isauricus]] to the tribunal of [[Marcus Caelius Rufus|Marcus Caelius]], and Isauricus used one to destroy Caelius's magisterial chair (''[[sedia curulis]]''). ==Various modern authorities== [[Image:Kanton St.Gallen.png|thumb|right|The flag of the Swiss [[canton of St. Gallen]] has displayed the fasces since [[1803]]]] The following cases all involve the adoption of the fasces as a symbol or icon; no actual physical re-introduction as a (highly symbolic) implement. * [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] the [[French Revolution]]; this emblem remains on the front cover of French [[passport]]s and [[French coat of arms]] * The Spanish paramilitary police [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]] * In the [[1920s]], Italian Fascism, eager to portray itself as a revival of the glorious Roman imperial past, adopted the fasces for its symbol, as an emblem of the increased strength of the individual ''fascis'' when bound into the entire bundle * Used as part of the [[Knights of Columbus]] emblem (designed in 1883) * At the [[Lincoln Memorial]], Lincoln's seat of state bears the fasces on the fronts of its arms. * The fasces appears on the [[Seal of Colorado|state seal of Colorado]], USA, beneath the [[All-seeing eye]] and above the mountains and mines. * Two fasces appear on either side of the [[flag of the United States]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]], representing the power of the [[lower house]] and the [[United States of America|country]]. * A frieze on the facade of the [[Supreme Court of the United States#Quarters|Supreme Court building]] depicts the figure of a Roman [[Centurion]] holding a fasces, to represent &quot;order.&quot; [http://www.supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html] Further, the official seal of the Senate has as one component a pair of crossed fasces. * The reverse of the United States [[Dime (U.S. coin)#&quot;Mercury&quot; dimes (1916-1945)|&quot;Mercury&quot; dime]] (minted from 1916 to 1945) bears the design of a [[:Image:Fasces.jpeg|fasces]] and an olive branch. * On the seal of the [[New York City]] borough of [[Brooklyn]], a figure carries a fasces; the seal appears on the borough flag. * Both the [[Norway|Norwegian]] and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] police use double fasces in their logos. ==See also== [[Image:fasces.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Dime (U.S. coin)#&quot;Mercury&quot; dimes (1916-1945)|US mercury dime]] reverse.]] * [[fascio]] (usage [[1890]]s to [[World War I]]) * [[ferula#artefact|ferula]] * [[Labrys]] * [[staff of office]] * [[fascine]] * [[francisca]] ==External links== *[http://home.uchicago.edu/~janie/fasces.htm A definition] *[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/fasces.html Fasces on flags] *[http://www.legionxxiv.org/fasces%20page/ The fasces as Ancient Roman icon] [[Category:Ancient Rome]] [[Category:Symbols]] [[de:Rutenbündel mit Beil]] [[it:Fascio littorio]] [[nl:Fasces]] [[es:Fasces]] [[pl:Fasces]] [[ru:&amp;#1060;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1080;]] [[sv:Fasces]] [[zh:&amp;#27861;&amp;#35199;&amp;#26031;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fifteen puzzle</title> <id>11756</id> <revision> <id>15909480</id> <timestamp>2004-01-16T00:37:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Anome</username> <id>76</id> </contributor> <comment>rediurecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[n-puzzle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fast combat support ship</title> <id>11757</id> <revision> <id>35327767</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T23:26:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hurricane111</username> <id>99272</id> </contributor> <comment>add external links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:USNS Arctic T-AOE-8 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The fast combat support ship USNS ''Arctic'' (T-AOE-8) conducting a replenishment at sea.]] The '''fast combat support ship (AOE)''' is the [[United States Navy]]'s largest combat logistics ship, designed as oiler, ammunition and supply ship. The AOE has the speed and armament to keep up with the carrier battle groups. It rapidly replenishes Navy task forces and can carry more than 177,000 barrels of oil (28,000 m&amp;sup3;), 2,150 tons of ammunition, 500 tons of dry stores and 250 tons of refrigerated stores. It receives petroleum products, ammunition and stores from shuttle ships and redistributes these items simultaneously to carrier battle group ships. This reduces the vulnerability of serviced ships by reducing alongside time. Congress appropriated the funds for the lead ship of the AOE 6 (''Supply'' class) in [[1987]]. === General characteristics, ''Supply'' class === *Builders: [[National Steel and Shipbuilding]] Company, [[San Diego, California]]. *Power Plant: four [[General Electric LM2500]] [[gas turbine]]s; two shafts; 105,000 hp (78 MW) *Length: 754 ft (229.9 m) *Beam: 107 ft (32.6 m) *Displacement: 48,800 tons full load *Speed: 25 knots (46 km/h) *Aircraft: Three [[CH-46 Sea Knight|CH-46E Sea Knight]] helicopters *Ships: **[[USNS Supply (T-AOE-6)|USS ''Supply'' (AOE-6)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]] **[[USNS Rainier (T-AOE-7)|USS ''Rainier'' (AOE-7)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]] **[[USNS Arctic (T-AOE-8)|USS ''Arctic'' (AOE-8)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]] **[[USNS Bridge (T-AOE-10)|USS ''Bridge'' (AOE-10)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]] *Crew: 40 officers, 627 enlisted *Armament: [[NATO]] [[AIM-7 Sparrow|Sea Sparrow]] missiles, two Phalanx close-in weapons systems, two 25mm machine guns *Date Deployed: [[February 26]], [[1994]] &amp;mdash; USS ''Supply'' (AOE 6) === General characteristics, ''Sacramento'' Class === *Builders: **AOE 1, 3, 4, [[Puget Sound Naval Shipyard]] **AOE 2, [[New York Shipbuilding Corporation]] *Unit Cost: $458-568 million *Power Plant: Four boilers, geared turbines, two shafts, 100,000 shaft horsepower (75 MW) *Length: 793 ft (237.9 m) *Beam: 107 ft (32.1 m) *Displacement: 53,000 tons full load *Speed: 26 knots (48 km/h) *Aircraft: Two [[CH-46 Sea Knight|CH-46E Sea Knight]] helicopters *Ships: **[[USS Sacramento (AOE-1)|USS ''Sacramento'' (AOE-1)]], [[Bremerton, Washington]] **[[USS Camden (AOE-2)|USS ''Camden'' (AOE-2)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]] **[[USS Seattle (AOE-3)|USS ''Seattle'' (AOE-3)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]] **[[USS Detroit (AOE-4)|USS ''Detroit'' (AOE-4)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]] *Crew: 24 officers, 576 enlisted *Armament: [[NATO]] [[AIM-7 Sparrow|Sea Sparrow]] missiles, two Phalanx close-in weapons systems. *Date Deployed: [[March 14]], [[1964]] &amp;mdash; USS ''Sacramento'' (AOE 1) ==External links== *[http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/aoe6/ Naval Technology] *[http://www.msc.navy.mil/factsheet/t-aoe.asp US Navy Military Sealift Command] [[Category:Ship types]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FASA</title> <id>11758</id> <revision> <id>39546692</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T05:18:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.4.250.145</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the role-playing game company. See also the [[Federated Ambulatory Surgery Association]], a trade group representing the [[ambulatory surgery]] industry.'' '''FASA Corporation''' was a American publisher of [[role-playing game]]s, [[wargame]]s and [[boardgame]]s from [[1981]] till [[2001]]. Originally the name FASA was an acronym for &quot;[[Freedonia]]n Aeronautics and Space Administration&quot;, a joking allusion to the [[Marx Brothers]] film [[Duck Soup]], though in later years the letters of the name did not actually stand for anything. FASA first appeared as a [[Traveller (rpg)|Traveller]] licensee, producing supplements for that [[GDW]] [[role-playing game]], especially the work of the [[Keith Brothers]]. The company went on to establish itself as major gaming company with the publication of the first licensed [[Star Trek]] [[Role-playing game|RPG]], then several successful original games. Noteworthy lines included [[Battletech]] and [[Shadowrun]]. Their Star Trek role-playing supplements and tactical ship game enjoyed popularity outside the gaming hobby as, at the time, offical descriptions of the Star Trek universe were not common, and the gaming supplements offered details the fans craved. The wildly successful [[Battletech]] line led to a series of [[video games]], some of the first [[virtual reality]] gaming suites and a Saturday-morning animated [[TV]] show. Games published by FASA included: *[[Star Trek RPG (FASA)|Star T
Motion]]''. |- |[[Galileo Galilei]] |Was the first to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky. Condemned to house arrest for his discoveries by [[Inquisition|Inquisitional]] edict, which was lifted 359 years later by [[Pope John Paul II]]. |- |[[Isaac Newton]] |Published ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' ([[1687]]), containing the &quot;[[Newton's laws of motion]]&quot;, which are fundamental to mechanical physics, and which explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Predicted the orbits of the [[Planet|planets]]. |- |[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] |Extensive work on the internal mechanisms of stars, particularly known for determining the effect of [[special relativity]] on stars, including being the first to calculate the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], which he did, without a calculator, on a boat journey. |- |[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] |Catalogued [[Cepheid variable]] stars in the [[Magellanic Clouds]], in [[1912]] discovered the relationship between luminosty and periodicity in Cepheids -- leading to [[Ejnar Hertzsprung|Hertzprung]]'s later work. |- |[[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] |determined the distance to several [[Cepheid variable|Cepheids]], when Cepheids were detected in other [[galaxy|galaxies]] such as the [[Andromeda galaxy]], the distance to those galaxies could then be determined. |- |[[Edwin Hubble]] |Discovered the expansion of the universe. ([[Hubble's Law]]) [[Hubble Space Telescope|The Hubble Orbiting Space Telescope]] was named in his honor. |} == See also == * [[Amateur astronomy]] * [[List of astronomers]] ---- There is also a well-known painting by [[Johannes Vermeer]] titled ''The Astronomer'', which is often linked to Vermeer's ''The [[Geographer]]''. These paintings are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific inquiry in [[Europe]] at the time of their painting, [[1668]]-[[1669|69]]. ---- [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[als:Astronom]] [[bg:Астроном]] [[da:Astronom]] [[de:Astronom]] [[eo:Astronomo]] [[ko:천문학자]] [[it:Astronomo]] [[hu:Csillagász]] [[nl:Astronoom]] [[ja:天文学者]] [[no:Astronom]] [[nn:Astronom]] [[pl:Astronom]] [[simple:Astronomer]] [[sk:Astronóm]] [[sl:Astronom]] [[fi:Tähtitieteilijä]] [[th:นักดาราศาสตร์]] [[zh:天文学家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ameboid stage</title> <id>583</id> <revision> <id>15899114</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amoeboid</title> <id>584</id> <revision> <id>40444702</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:26:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BinaryTed</username> <id>709141</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 36472982 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chaos diffluens.jpg|thumb|Amoeba (''Chaos diffluens'')]] [[Image:live_Ammonia_tepida.jpg|thumb|Foraminiferan (''Ammonia tepida'')]] [[Image:Actinophrys sol.jpg|thumb|Heliozoan (''Actinophrys sol'')]] '''Amoeboids''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that move or feed by means of temporary projections, called [[pseudopod]]s (false feet). They have appeared in a number of different groups. Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance our [[white blood cell]]s, which consume pathogens. Many [[protist]]s exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle. The most famous such organism is ''[[Amoeba|Amoeba proteus]]''; the name amoebae is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general. Amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods. Those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of [[microtubule]]s are called actinopods, and forms where they are not are called rhizopods, further divided into lobse, filose, and reticulose amoebae. There is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the [[xenophyophore]]s, that do not fall into any of these categories. * Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm. Most, including ''Amoeba'' itself, move by the body mass flowing into an anterior pseudopod. The vast majority form a monophyletic group called the [[Amoebozoa]], which also includes most [[slime mould]]s. A second group, the [[Percolozoa]], includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and [[flagellate]] forms. * Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the [[Cercozoa]] together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae comprise two other groups, the [[vampyrellid]]s and [[nucleariid]]s. The latter appear to be close relatives of [[animal]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]. * Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the [[Foraminifera]], a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the [[gymnophryid]]s, and their relationships are not certain. * Actinopods are divided into the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]]. The radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons, including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant. The heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey, and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements. Both groups appear to be [[polyphyletic]]. Traditionally the amoeboid protozoa are grouped together as the Sarcodina, variously ranked from class to phylum, with each of the above categories as a formal subtaxon. However, since they are all based on form rather than phylogeny, newer systems generally separate some out or abandon them entirely. Most amoeboids are now included in two major supergroups - the [[Amoebozoa]], including most lobose amoebae and slime moulds, and the [[Rhizaria]], including the Cercozoa, Foraminifera, radiolarian classes and certain heliozoa. However, amoeboids have appeared separately in many other groups, including various different lines of algae not listed above. == External links == * [http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm The Amoebae] website brings together information from published sources. * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Amoebas are more than just blobs] * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html sun animacules and amoebas] [[Category:Protista]][[Category:Cell biology]][[Category:Amoeboids|*]][[Category:Motile cells]] [[es:rizópodo]] [[fr:Actinopoda]] [[pl:Ameby]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ASCII</title> <id>586</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41964454</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:42:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TigerShark</username> <id>161478</id> </contributor> <comment>rv to Johnteslade</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} {{otheruses}} [[Image:ascii_full.png|frame|There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.]] '''ASCII''' ('''''A'''merican '''S'''tandard '''C'''ode for '''I'''nformation '''I'''nterchange''), generally [[IPA for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&amp;#712;æski]}}, is a [[character encoding]] based on the [[English alphabet]]. ASCII codes represent [[character (computing)|text]] in [[computer]]s, [[telecommunications|communications]] equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings have a historical basis in ASCII. ASCII was first published as a standard in 1967 and was last updated in 1986. It currently defines codes for 33 non-printing, mostly obsolete [[control character]]s that affect how text is processed, plus the following 95 printable characters (starting with the space character): &lt;pre&gt; !&quot;#$%&amp;'()*+,-./0123456789:;&lt;=&gt;? @ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_ `abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ &lt;/pre&gt; Asteroid [[3568 ASCII]] is named after the character encoding. ==Overview== Like other character representation computer [[code]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/[[glyph]]s of a written language, thus allowing [[digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding&lt;ref&gt;International Organization for Standardization ([[December 1]], [[1975]]). &quot;[http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]&quot;. ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;nbsp;— or a compatible extension (see below)&amp;nbsp;— is used on nearly all common computers, especially [[personal computer]]s and [[workstation]]s. The preferred [[MIME]] name for this encoding is &quot;US-ASCII&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ([[January 28]], [[2005]]). &quot;[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]&quot;. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt; ASCII is, strictly, a seven-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) t
that factions within Warner Brothers wanted to recast established Babylon 5 roles with younger and more well-known actors, causing a major controversy among fans of Babylon 5. Straczynski has acknowledged the subject and has stated that the negotiations were problematic, but has said that he is unable to directly comment on the issue. According to statements and clues made by Straczynski in a convention appearance in New Jersey, and statements on a Usenet newsgroup, it is known that the planned storyline connected to that of the short-lived Crusade television series. In this movie the technology of the ancient Shadow race is being unleashed on the galaxy by an unknown force. [[EarthForce]] intelligence officer Diane Baker, whose brother was recently killed in a mysterious explosion, intends to find out who is behind the conspiracy. Joining her is Galen, a [[technomage]] who has been charged with keeping the technology out of the hands of those who would abuse it. ==Novels, novelizations, short stories, and comic books== Unique to the ''Babylon 5'' universe among virtually all other shared media universes is the sanctioned canonicity of many of its offshoot novels and comic book stories; nearly all of the B5 novels and novelizations to date having been based on outlines written directly by J. Michael Straczynski. The later Del Rey books are considered to be more [[canon (fiction)|canonical]] than some of the earlier Dell ones, although -- per Straczynski's own remarks -- canonical elements exist in every single book published to date; Straczynski's deeper involvement in the novel-publishing program from 1996 onward having ensured a greater level of canonicity within such works. Additionally, the creator himself penned a number of short stories expanding on several key story-points from the television series, along with a number of other established authors, with all such tales considered as &quot;real&quot; as the TV show itself. The comic books published by DC are also fully endorsed, with JMS again either having directly written or contributed to all of the issues in one form or another. Straczynski himself is presently (as of early 2006) hard at work finishing up the manuscript for a 100-page ''Babylon 5'' graphic novel, to be published during the late period of the year by [[Wildstorm Productions]]. At the moment, the premise, characters, and plotline are still unknown. [[Mongoose Publishing]], the publisher of recent Babylon 5 role-playing game (RPG) material, has announced that it will be releasing a line of Babylon 5 novels and graphic novels beginning in late 2005. More information is available at [http://www.mongoosepublishing.com their website]. ===Novels=== ''The seventh and ninth Dell novels are considered fully canonical by J. Michael Straczynski, with canon elements interspersed throughout the other books.'' # ''[[Babylon 5: Voices]]'' by [[John Vornholt]] (1995, ISBN 0440220572) # ''[[Babylon 5: Accusations]]'' by [[Lois Tilton]] (1995, ISBN 0440220580) # ''[[Babylon 5: Blood Oath]]'' by [[John Vornholt]] (1995, ISBN 0440220599) # ''[[Babylon 5: Clark's Law]]'' by [[Jim Mortimore]] (1996, ISBN 044022229X) # ''[[Babylon 5: The Touch of Your Shadow, the Whisper of Your Name]]'' by [[Neal Barrett Jr.]] (1996, ISBN 0440222303) # ''[[Babylon 5: Betrayals]]'' by [[S.M. Stirling]] (1996, ISBN 0440222346) # ''[[Babylon 5: The Shadow Within]]'' by [[Jeanne Cavelos]] (1997, ISBN 0440223482; 2002 edition: ISBN 0345452186) # ''[[Babylon 5: Personal Agendas]]'' by [[Al Sarrantonio]] (1997, ISBN 0440223512) # ''[[Babylon 5: To Dream in the City of Sorrows]]'' by [[Kathryn M. Drennan]] (1997, ISBN 0440223547; 2003 edition: ISBN 0345452194) ====The Psi Corps Trilogy==== ''All are considered canon: written by [[J. Gregory Keyes]].'' # ''[[Babylon 5: Dark Genesis - The Birth of the Psi Corps]]'' (1998, ISBN 0345427157) # ''[[Babylon 5: Deadly Relations - Bester Ascendant]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427165) # ''[[Babylon 5: Final Reckoning - The Fate of Bester]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427173) ====The Centauri Trilogy==== ''All are considered canon: written by [[Peter David]].'' # ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - The Long Night of Centauri Prime]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427181) # ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - Armies of Light and Dark]]'' (2000, ISBN 034542719X) # ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - Out of the Darkness]]'' (2000, ISBN 0345427203) ====The Technomage Trilogy==== ''All are considered canon: written by [[Jeanne Cavelos]].'' # ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Casting Shadows]]'' (2001, ISBN 0345427211) # ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Summoning Light]]'' (2001, ISBN 034542722X) # ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Invoking Darkness]]'' (2001, ISBN 0345438337) ===Novelizations=== ''All are considered canon: written by various authors.'' * ''[[Babylon 5: In the Beginning]],'' by [[Peter David]] (1998, ISBN 0345424522) * ''[[Babylon 5: Thirdspace]],'' by [[Peter David]] (1998, ISBN 0345424549) * ''[[Babylon 5: A Call to Arms]],'' by [[Robert Sheckley]] (1999, ISBN 0345431553) ===Short Stories=== ''All are considered canon: written by various authors.'' * [[&quot;The Shadow of His Thoughts&quot;|&quot;The Shadow of His Thoughts,&quot;]] by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] (Summer 1999, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'') * [[&quot;Genius Loci&quot;|&quot;Genius Loci,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (Winter 2000, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'') * [[&quot;Space, Time, and the Incurable Romantic&quot;|&quot;Space, Time, and the Incurable Romantic,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (Summer 2000, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'') * [[&quot;Hidden Agendas&quot;|&quot;Hidden Agendas,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (May 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'') * [[&quot;True Seeker&quot;|&quot;True Seeker,&quot;]] by Fiona Avery (July 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'') *[[&quot;The Nautilus Coil&quot;|&quot;The Nautilus Coil,&quot;]] by J. Gregory Keyes (August 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'') ===Comic Books=== ''All are considered canon: written by various authors.'' ====Monthly DC Comics Series (1994-95)==== # [[&quot;In Darkness Find Me&quot;|&quot;In Darkness Find Me,&quot;]] written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] (December 1994, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Treason&quot;|&quot;Treason,&quot;]] written by [[Mark Moretti]], story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (January 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;In Harm's Way&quot;|&quot;In Harm's Way,&quot;]] written by Mark Moretti, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (February 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;The Price of Peace&quot;|&quot;The Price of Peace,&quot;]] story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (March 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;With Friends Like These...&quot;|&quot;With Friends Like These...&quot;]], written by [[Timothy DeHaas]], story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (June 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Against the Odds&quot;|&quot;Against the Odds,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (July 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Survival the Hard Way&quot;|&quot;Survival the Hard Way,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (August 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Silent Enemies&quot;|&quot;Silent Enemies,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (September 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Duet for Human and Narn in C Sharp&quot;|&quot;Duet for Human and Narn in C Sharp,&quot;]] written by [[David Gerrold]] (October 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;Coda for Human and Narn in B Flat&quot;|&quot;Coda for Human and Narn in B Flat,&quot;]] written by David Gerrold (November 1995, DC Comics) # [[&quot;The Psi Corps and You!&quot;|&quot;The Psi Corps and ''You''!&quot;]], written by Timothy DeHaas (December 1995, DC Comics) ====''Babylon 5: In Valen's Name''==== # [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 1&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 1,&quot;]] written by J. Michael Straczynski (February 1998, DC Comics) # [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 2&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 2,&quot;]] written by Peter David, story by J. Michael Straczynski (March 1998, DC Comics) # [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 3&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 3,&quot;]] written by Peter David, story by J. Michael Straczynski (April 1998, DC Comics) ====Untitled ''Babylon 5'' Graphic Novel ([[Wildstorm Productions]])==== ''Fully canonical, written by J. Michael Straczynski.'' * To be published sometime in late 2006 or early 2007. == DVDs == The ''Babylon 5'' series has been released in [[DVD]] form. Included are all episodes, selected director and [[audio commentary (DVD)|cast commentary]], previews of episodes, and a multimedia database of ''Babylon 5'' related information. As of 2005, all five seasons of the original series, as well as the six movies and the spinoff series ''Crusade'', are available individually for purchase, although not in all regions. ''The Legend of the Rangers'' is currently unavailable in the United States, but is scheduled to be released as a standalone disc on March 14, 2006. There is also a box set available in the UK called ''Babylon 5 : The Complete Universe'', which, as one would expect, contains every ''Babylon 5'' series and movie and the spinoff series ''Crusade''. === Mastering problems === The transfer of ''Babylon 5'' to DVD created significant problems with regard to [[Special effect|special-effects]]/[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] footage. Several factors complicated the process. * Although originally broadcast in the standard television [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of [[Aspect ratio (image)|4:3]], all live-action footage was filmed on [[Super 35 mm film]] (with a ratio of [[Aspect ratio (image)|1.65:1]]). The idea was that, once [[widescreen]] televisions (with an aspect ratio of [[Aspect ratio (image)|16:9]] or [[Aspect ratio (image)|1.78:1]]) became more popular, the episodes could be easily converted into a widescreen
425|Cessna 425 Conquest I]] *[[Cessna 441|Cessna 441 Conquest II]] *[[Cessna 500 Citation I]] *[[Cessna 501 Citation I]] *[[Cessna 510]] Citation Mustang *[[Cessna 525 Citation Jet, CJ1]] *[[Cessna 525A CJ2]] *[[Cessna 525B CJ3]] *[[Cessna 550 Citation II]] *[[Cessna 551 Citation II]] *[[Cessna S550 Citation SII]] *[[Cessna 560 Citation V, Citation Ultra, Citation Encore]] *[[Cessna 560XL Citation Excel]] *[[Cessna 650 Citation III, Citation VI, Citation VII]] *[[Cessna 680 Citation Sovereign]] *[[Cessna 750 Citation X]] *[[Cessna T-37]] ==External links== * [http://www.cessna.com/ Official website] * [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/propellor_aircraft/cessna/ Aircraft-Info.net - Cessna] * {{cite web | title = Patents owned by Cessna Aircraft Company | work = US Patent &amp; Trademark Office | url = http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&amp;r=0&amp;p=1&amp;f=S&amp;l=50&amp;Query=an%2F%22Cessna+Aircraft+Company%22&amp;d=ptxt | accessdate = December 5 | accessyear = 2005 }} {{airlistbox}} [[Category:United States aircraft manufacturers]] [[cs:Cessna]] [[de:Cessna]] [[es:Cessna]] [[fr:Cessna]] [[ja:セスナ]] [[nl:Cessna]] [[no:Cessna Aircraft Company]] [[pt:Cessna Aircraft Company]] [[simple:Cessna]] [[sv:Cessna Aircraft Company]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czesław Miłosz</title> <id>6542</id> <revision> <id>41550427</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:26:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Limonzka08</username> <id>1003292</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CzeslawMilosz.jpg|thumb|Czesław Miłosz in September 1999]] '''Czesław Miłosz''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Milosz.ogg|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;'ʧεsȗav 'miȗɔʃ&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]; [[June 30]], [[1911]] &amp;ndash; [[August 14]], [[2004]]) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[poet]] and [[essayist]]. Czesław Miłosz won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1980]], when he lived in [[California]]. He spent the last days of his life in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]. He was born in [[Šeteniai]], [[Lithuania]] and always underlined his connection to [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Miłosz studied [[law]] at the [[University in Vilnius]]. His childhood was spent partly in [[Russia]] around the time of [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Revolution]]. In [[1944]] he refused to take part in the [[Warsaw Uprising]]. A [[diplomat]] for the [[Communist state|communist]] [[People's Republic of Poland]], he broke with the government in [[1951]] and sought [[refugee|political asylum]] in [[France]]. In [[1953]] he received the [[Prix Littéraire Européen]], a European literature prize. In 1960, he came to the United States, but it wasn't until 1970 that he became a naturalized citizen. In [[1961]] he became a [[Professor]] of [[Slavic languages|Slavic Languages]] and Literatures at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. He retired in [[1978]] but continued to teach there. When the Iron Curtain fell he was able to return to Poland. Czeslaw Milosz graduated from Harvard University in 1989. In addition to his poetry, his book ''[[The Captive Mind]]'' is considered one of the finest studies of the condition of the intellectual under repressive regimes. In this book, he observed that the intellectuals who became dissidents were not necessarily the ones with the strongest minds, but those with the weakest stomachs. The mind can rationalize anything, he said, but the stomach can only take so much. He also said that as a poet he avoided touching his nation's wounds for fearing of making them holy. He also founded a school of Polish Poetry. Czesław Miłosz is honored at [[Israel]]'s [[Yad Vashem]] memorial to the [[Holocaust]] as one of the &quot;[[Righteous Among The Nations]].&quot; His poems were put on the monuments of fallen shipyard workers in [[Gdańsk]]. Many of his books and poems have been translated into English by his friend and Berkeley colleague [[Robert Hass]]. Miłosz died in 2004 at his home in Kraków at age 93. His first wife, Janina, died in [[1986]]. His second wife, Carol, a U.S.-born historian, died in [[2002]]. [[Image:Herb Lubicz.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Lubicz Coat of Arms]] ==Works== * ''Kompozycja'' ([[1930]]) * ''Podróż'' ([[1930]]) * ''Poemat o czasie zastygłym'' ([[1933]]) * ''Trzy zimy'' / ''Three Winters'' ([[1936]]) * ''Obrachunki'' * ''Wiersze'' / ''Verses'' ([[1940]]) * ''Pieśń niepodległa'' ([[1942]]) * ''Ocalenie'' / ''Rescue'' ([[1945]]) * ''Traktat moralny'' / ''A Moral Treatise'' ([[1947]]) * ''Zniewolony umysł'' / ''The Captive Mind'' ([[1953]]) * ''Zdobycie władzy'' / ''The Seizure of Power'' ([[1953]]) * ''Światło dzienne'' / ''The Light of Day'' ([[1953]]) * ''Dolina Issy'' / ''The Issa Valley'' ([[1955]]) * ''Traktat poetycki'' / ''A Poetical Treatise'' ([[1957]]) * ''Rodzinna Europa'' / ''Native Realm'' ([[1958]]) * ''Kontynenty'' ([[1958]]) * ''Człowiek wśród skorpionów'' ([[1961]]) * ''Król Popiel i inne wiersze'' / ''King Popiel and Other Poems'' ([[1961]]) * ''Gucio zaczarowany'' / ''Gucio Enchanted'' ([[1965]]) * ''Widzenia nad Zatoką San Francisco'' / ''A View of San Francisco Bay'' ([[1969]]) * ''Miasto bez imienia'' / ''City Without a Name'' ([[1969]]) * ''The History of Polish Literature'' ([[1969]]) * ''Prywatne obowiązki'' / ''Private Obligations'' ([[1972]]) * ''Gdzie słońce wschodzi i kiedy zapada'' / ''Where the Sun Rises and Where It Sets'' ([[1974]]) * ''Ziemia Ulro'' / ''The Land of Ulro'' ([[1977]]) * ''Ogród nauk'' / ''The Garden of Science'' ([[1979]]) * ''Hymn o perle'' / ''The Poem of the Pearl'' ([[1982]]) * ''The Witness of Poetry'' ([[1983]]) * ''Nieobjęta ziemio'' / ''The Unencompassed Earth'' ([[1984]]) * ''Kroniki'' / ''Chronicles'' ([[1987]]) * ''Dalsze okolice'' / ''Farther Surroundings'' ([[1991]]) * ''Zaczynając od moich ulic'' / ''Starting from My Streets'' ([[1985]]) * ''Metafizyczna pauza'' / ''The Metaphysical Pause'' ([[1989]]) * ''Poszukiwanie ojczyzny'' ([[1991]]) * ''Rok myśliwego'' ([[1991]]) * ''Na brzegu rzeki'' / ''Facing the River'' ([[1994]]) * ''Szukanie ojczyzny'' / ''In Search of a Homeland'' ([[1992]]) * ''Legendy nowoczesności'' / ''Modern Legends'' ([[1996]]) * ''Życie na wyspach'' / ''Life on Islands'' ([[1997]]) * ''Piesek przydrożny'' / ''Roadside Dog'' ([[1997]]) * ''Abecadlo Miłosza'' / ''Milosz's Alphabet'' ([[1997]]) * ''Inne Abecadło'' / ''A Further Alphabet'' ([[1998]]) * ''Wyprawa w dwudziestolecie'' / ''An Excursion through the Twenties and Thirties'' ([[1999]]) * ''To'' / ''It'' ([[2000]]) * ''Orfeusz i Eurydyka'' ([[2003]]) * ''O podróżach w czasie'' / ''On Time Travel'' ([[2004]]) ==Books on or relating to== * ''Striving Towards Being: The Letters of Thomas Merton and Czesław Miłosz'', edited by [[Robert Faggen]] (Farrar Straus &amp; Giroux, [[1996]]) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.milosz.pl/ Milosz.pl] &amp;mdash; official website of Czesław Miłosz (Polish) *[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/15/obituaries/15milosz.html?ex=1093233600&amp;en=f0273926b47a1810&amp;ei=5006&amp;partner=ALTAVISTA1 Czesław Miłosz, Poet and Nobelist Who Wrote of Modern Cruelties, Dies at 93] (''New York Times'') *[http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/08/14/milosv040814 Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz dies] (CBC News) *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/3564812.stm Nobel laureate poet Miłosz dies] (BBC News) *[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3104407 Czesław Miłosz Obituary] (The Economist) *[http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/15_milosz.shtml Nobel poet Czesław Miłosz of Poland and Berkeley, one of the icons of the Solidarity movement, dies] (UC Berkeley Press Release) *[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Authors/M/Milosz,_Czeslaw/ Czesław Miłosz] *[http://www.ukprofind.com/milosz2/ Biography of Czesław Miłosz] *[http://ibiblio.org/ipa/milosz/ Miłosz reading his poems in English and in Polish] [http://ibiblio.org/ipa/ at the Internet Poetry Archive] [http://ibiblio.org on ibiblio.org] *[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/miloszlp.ram Miłosz reading his poems in English at UC Berkeley, February 3, 2000] (online audio file) *[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/audiofiles.html#milosz Miłosz reading his poems in English at UC Berkeley, April 4, 1983 (with Robert Hass and Robert Pinksy] (online audio file) *Information relating to Miłosz as the winner of the [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1980/index.html 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature] (official site) [[Category:1911 births|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:2004 deaths|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Polish diplomats|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Righteous Among the Nations|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Polish writers|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Polish political writers|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[Category:Polish poets|Miłosz, Czesław]] [[zh-min-nan:Czesław Miłosz]] [[da:Czesław Miłosz]] [[de:Czesław Miłosz]] [[es:Czesław Miłosz]] [[fr:Czesław Miłosz]] [[ga:Czesław Miłosz]] [[he:צ'סלב מילוש]] [[id:Czesław Miłosz]] [[it:Czeslaw Milosz]] [[lv:Česlavs Milošs]] [[lt:Česlovas Milošas]] [[nl:Czesław Miłosz]] [[no:Czesław Miłosz]] [[pl:Czesław Miłosz]] [[pt:Czesław Miłosz]] [[ru:Милош, Чеслав]] [[fi:Czesław Miłosz]] [[sv:Czesław Miłosz]] [[zh:切斯瓦夫·米沃什]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carnivore</title> <id>6543</id> <revision> <id>42005420</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:16:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Banana04131</username> <id>379197</id> </contributor> <comment>characteristics and formatting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Lion snarling.jpg|thu
^{(i-2)x}}{2(3-4i+k^2)}\left((i-2)\sin(kx)-k\cos(kx)\right)&lt;/math&gt; |} And so :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;y_p\,&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;=\frac{i}{2(3+4i+k^2)}\left((2+i)\sin(kx)+k\cos(kx)\right) +\frac{i}{2(3-4i+k^2)}\left((i-2)\sin(kx)-k\cos(kx)\right)&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=\frac{(5-k^2)\sin(kx)+4k\cos(kx)}{(3+k^2)^2+16}&lt;/math&gt; |} (Notice that ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''u''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; had factors that canceled ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; that is typical.) For interest's sake, this ODE has a physical interpretation as a driven damped [[harmonic oscillator]]; ''y&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' represents the steady state, and &lt;math&gt;c_1y_1+c_2y_2&lt;/math&gt; is the transient. ===Linear ODEs with variable coefficient=== ====Method of undetermined coefficients==== {{main|Method of undetermined coefficients}} The method of undetermined coefficients (MoUC), is useful in finding solution for &lt;math&gt;y_p &lt;/math&gt;. Given the ODE &lt;math&gt;P(D)y = f(x)&lt;/math&gt;, find another [[differential operator]] &lt;math&gt;A(D)&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;A(D)f(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. This operator is called the '''annihilator''', and thus the method of undetermined coefficients is also known as the '''annihilator method'''. Applying &lt;math&gt;A(D)&lt;/math&gt; to both sides of the ODE gives an homogeneous ODE &lt;math&gt;\big(A(D)P(D)\big)y = 0&lt;/math&gt; for which we find a solution basis &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,\ldots,y_n\}&lt;/math&gt; as before. Then the original nonhomogeneous ODE is used to construct a system of equations restricting the coefficients of the linear combinations to satisfy the ODE. Undetermined coefficients is not as general as variation of parameters in the sense that an annihilator does not always exist. '''Example''': Given &lt;math&gt;y''-4y'+5y=\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;P(D)=D^2-4D+5&lt;/math&gt;. The simplest annihilator of &lt;math&gt;\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;A(D)=D^2+k^2&lt;/math&gt;. The zeros of &lt;math&gt;A(z)P(z)&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;\{2+i,2-i,ik,-ik\}&lt;/math&gt;, so the solution basis of &lt;math&gt;A(D)P(D)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,y_2,y_3,y_4\}=\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x},e^{ikx},e^{-ikx}\}&lt;/math&gt;. Setting &lt;math&gt;y=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+c_3y_3+c_4y_4&lt;/math&gt; we find :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;=P(D)y&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=P(D)(c_1y_1+c_2y+c_3y_3+c_4y_4)&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=c_1P(D)y_1+c_2P(D)y_2+c_3P(D)y_3+c_4P(D)y_4&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=0+0+c_3(-k^2-4ik+5)y_3+c_4(-k^2+4ik+5)y_4&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=c_3(-k^2-4ik+5)(\cos(kx)+i\sin(kx)) +c_4(-k^2+4ik+5)(\cos(kx)-i\sin(kx))&lt;/math&gt; |} giving the system :&lt;math&gt;i=(k^2+4ik-5)c_3+(-k^2+4ik+5)c_4&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;0=(k^2+4ik-5)c_3+(k^2-4ik-5)c_4&lt;/math&gt; which has solutions :&lt;math&gt;c_3=\frac i{2(k^2+4ik-5)}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;c_4=\frac i{2(-k^2+4ik+5)}&lt;/math&gt; giving the solution set :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;y\,&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+\frac i{2(k^2+4ik-5)}y_3+\frac i{2(-k^2+4ik+5)}y_4&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+\frac{4k\cos(kx)-(k^2-5)\sin(kx)} {(k^2+4ik-5)(k^2-4ik-5)}&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2 +\frac{4k\cos(kx)+(5-k^2)\sin(kx)}{k^4+6k^2+25}&lt;/math&gt; |} ====Method of variation of parameters==== :{{main|Method of variation of parameters}}. As explained above, the general solution to a non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; can be expressed as the sum of the general solution &lt;math&gt;y_h(x)&lt;/math&gt; to the corresponding homogenous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and any one solution &lt;math&gt;y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Like the method of undetermined coefficients, described above, the method of variation of parameters is a method for finding one solution to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;, having already found the general solution to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Unlike the method of undetermined coefficients, which fails except with certain specific forms of ''g''(''x''), the method of variation of parameters will always work; however, it is significantly more difficult to use. For a second-order equation, the method of variation of parameters makes use of the following fact: ===== Fact ===== Let ''p''(''x''), ''q''(''x''), and ''g''(''x'') be functions, and let &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; be solutions to the homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Further, let ''u''(''x'') and ''v''(''x'') be functions such that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'', and define &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt; is a solution to the non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. ===== Proof ===== &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; {| |- |&lt;math&gt;y_p'(x) &lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;= u'(x) y_1(x) + u(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) + v(x) y_2'(x)&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;= 0 + u(x) y_1'(x) + v(x) y_2'(x)&lt;/math&gt; |} {| |- |&lt;math&gt;y_p''(x) &lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;= u'(x) y_1'(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) + v(x) y_2''(x) &lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;= g(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v(x) y_2''(x)&lt;/math&gt; |} &lt;math&gt;y_p''(x) + p(x) y'_p(x) + q(x) y_p(x) = g(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v(x) y_2''(x) + p(x) u(x) y_1'(x) + p(x) v(x) y_2'(x) + q(x) u(x) y_1(x) + q(x) v(x) y_2(x) &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt; = g(x) + u(x) (y_1''(x) + p(x) y_1'(x) + q(x) y_1(x)) + v(x) (y_2''(x) + p(x) y_2'(x) + q(x) y_2(x)) = g(x) + 0 + 0 = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; ===== Usage ===== To solve the second-order, non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; using the method of variation of parameters, use the following steps: #Find the general solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Specifically, find two linearly independent solutions &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;. #Since &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; are linearly independent solutions, their [[Wronskian]] &lt;math&gt;y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; is nonzero, so we can compute &lt;math&gt;-(g(x) y_2(x))/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;({g(x) y_1(x)})/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt;. If the former is equal to ''u''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x'') and the latter to ''v''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), then ''u'' and ''v'' satisfy the two constraints given above: that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. We can tell this after multiplying by the denominator and comparing coefficients. #Integrate &lt;math&gt;-(g(x) y_2(x))/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;({g(x) y_1(x)})/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; to obtain ''u''(''x'') and ''v''(''x''), respectively. (Note that we only need one choice of ''u'' and ''v'', so there is no need for constants of integration.) #Compute &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;. The function &lt;math&gt;y_p&lt;/math&gt; is one solution of &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. #The general solution is &lt;math&gt;c_1 y_1(x) + c_2 y_2(x) + y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt; are arbitrary constants. ===== Higher-order equations ===== The method of variation of parameters can also be used with higher-order equations. For example, if &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;y_3(x)&lt;/math&gt; are linearly independent solutions to &lt;math&gt;y'''(x) + p(x) y''(x) + q(x) y'(x) + r(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, then there exist functions ''u''(''x''), ''v''(''x''), and ''w''(''x'') such that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) + w'(x) y_3(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) + w'(x) y_3'(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1''(x) + v'(x) y_2''(x) + w'(x) y_3''(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Having found such functions (by solving algebraically for ''u''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), ''v''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), and ''w''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), then integrating each), we have &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x) + w(x) y_3(x)&lt;/math&gt;, one solution to the equation &lt;math&gt;y'''(x) + p(x) y''(x) + q(x) y'(x) + r(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. ===== Example ===== Solve the previous example, &lt;math&gt;y'' + y = \sec x&lt;/math&gt; Recall &lt;math&gt;\sec x = \frac{1}{{\cos x}} = f&lt;/math&gt;. From technique learned from 3.1, LHS has root of &lt;math&gt;r = \pm i&lt;/math&gt; that yield &lt;math&gt;y_c = C_1 \cos x + C_2 \sin x&lt;/math&gt;, (so &lt;math&gt;y_1 = \cos x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_2 = \sin x&lt;/math&gt; ) and its derivatives :&lt;math&gt;\left\{ {\begin{matrix} {\dot u = \frac{{ - y_2 f}}{W} = \frac{{ - \sin x}}{{\cos x}} = \tan x} \\ {\dot v = \frac{{y_1 f}}{W} = \frac{{\cos x}}{{\cos x}} = 1} \\ \end{matrix}} \right.&lt;/math&gt; where the Wronskian :&lt;math&gt;W\left( {y_1,y_2 :x} \right) = \left| {\begin{matrix} {\cos x} &amp; {\sin x} \\ { - \sin x} &amp; {\cos x} \\ \end{matrix}} \right| = 1&l
nophile== Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellect to take a close interest in [[China|Chinese]] civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other work by, European Christian missionaries posted in China. He concluded that Europeans could learn much from the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] ethical tradition. He mulled over the possibility that the [[Chinese character]]s were an unwitting form of his [[Characteristica universalis | universal characteristic]]. He noted with fascination how the [[I Ching]] hexagrams correspond to the [[binary numbers]] from 0 to 111111, and mistakenly concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired. On Leibniz, the I Ching, and binary numbers, see Aiton (1985: 245-48). Leibniz's writings on Chinese civilization are collected and translated in Cook and Rosemont (1994), and discussed in Perkins (2004). ==Universal genius== The following episode from the life of Leibniz illustrates the breadth of his genius, and the difficulties awaiting those who try to come to terms with it. While making his grand tour of European [[archive]]s to research the Brunswick family history he never completed, Leibniz stopped in [[Vienna]], May 1688 – February 1689, where he did much [[law|legal]] and [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] work for the Brunswicks. He visited [[mine]]s, talked with mine [[engineering|engineers]], and tried to negotiate export contracts for [[lead]] from the ducal mines in the [[Harz mountains]]. His proposal that the streets of Wien be lit with lamps burning [[rapeseed oil]] was implemented. During a formal audience with the [[Hapsburg|Austrian Emperor]] and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a [[Concordat]] between the [[Habsburg]]s and the [[Holy See|Vatican]], and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund. He wrote and published an important paper on [[mechanics]]. Leibniz also wrote a short paper, first published by [[Louis Couturat]] in 1903, later translated as LL 267 and WF 30, summarizing his views on [[metaphysics]]. The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing [http://www.leibniz-edition.de critical edition] finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 1677-90. Couturat's reading of this paper was the launching point for much 20th century thinking about Leibniz, especially among [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosophers]]. But after a meticulous study of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688 -- a study the 1999 additions to the critical edition made possible -- Mercer (2001) begged to differ with Couturat's reading; the jury is still out. Concerning Leibniz's humor and imagination, see W IV.6, LL § 40, and a curious passage titled &quot;Leibniz's Philosophical Dream,&quot; first published by Bodemann in 1895 and translated on p. 253 of Morris, Mary, ed. and trans., 1934. ''Philosophical Writings''. Dent &amp; Sons Ltd. ==Works== AG = Ariew &amp; Garber (1989). LL = Loemker (1969). W = Wiener (1951). Woolhouse and Francks (1998) = WF. The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is [http://www.leibniz-edition.de ''Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe''.] Selected works; major ones in bold. The year shown is usually the year in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication. * 1666. ''De Arte Combinatoria'' (On the Art of Combination). Partially translated in LL §1 and Parkinson (1966). * 1671. ''Hypothesis Physica Nova'' (New Physical Hypothesis). LL §8.I (part) * 1684. ''Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis'' (New Method for maximums and minimums). Translation in Struik, D. J., 1969. ''A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800''. Harvard Uni. Press: 271-81. * 1686. '''[[Discourse on Metaphysics (book)|Discours de métaphysique]]'''. Martin and Brown (1988). [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/leibdm.pdf Jonathan Bennett's translation.] AG 35, LL §35, W III.3, WF 1. * 1705. ''Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire'' (Explanation of Binary Arithmetic). Gerhardt, ''Mathematical Writings'' VII.223. * 1710. '''Théodicée'''. Farrer, A.M., and Huggard, E.M., trans., 1985 (1952). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17147 ''Theodicy''.] Open Court. W III.11 (part). * 1714. '''Monadologie'''. [[Nicholas Rescher]], trans., 1991. ''The Monadology: An Edition for Students''. Uni. of Pittsburg Press. [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/leibmon.pdf Jonathan Bennett's translation.] [http://www.rbjones.com/rbjpub/philos/classics/leibniz/monad.htm Latta's translation.] AG 213, LL §67, W III.13, WF 19. * 1765. '''[[Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain]]'''. Completed 1704. Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996. ''New Essays on Human Understanding''. Cambridge Uni. Press. W III.6 (part). [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Jonathan Bennett's translation.] Collections of shorter works in translation: * Ariew, R., and Garber, D., 1989. ''Leibniz: Philosophical Essays''. Hackett. * Bennett, Jonathan. [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Various texts.] * Cook, Daniel, and Rosemont, Henry Jr., 1994. ''Leibniz: Writings on China''. Open Court. * Dascal, Marcelo, 1987. ''Leibniz: Language, Signs and Thought''. John Benjamins. * Loemker, Leroy E., 1969 (1956). ''Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters''. Reidel. * Martin, R.N.D., and Brown, Stuart, 1988. ''Discourse on Metaphysics and Related Writings''. St. Martin's Press. * Parkinson, G.H.R., 1966. ''Leibniz: Logical Papers.'' Oxford Uni. Press. * ------, and Morris, Mary, 1973. '''Leibniz: Philosophical Writings''. London: J M Dent &amp; Sons. * Riley, Patrick, 1988 (1972). ''Leibniz: Political Writings''. Cambridge Uni. Press. * Rutherford, Donald. [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/translat.htm Various texts.] * Strickland, Lloyd, 2006. ''Shorter Leibniz Texts''. Continuum Books. [http://www.leibniz-translations.com/ Online.] * Wiener, Philip, 1951. ''Leibniz: Selections''. Scribner. Regrettably out of print and lacks index. * Woolhouse, R.S., and Francks, R., 1998. ''Leibniz: Philosophical Texts''. Oxford Uni. Press. Donald Rutherford's [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/edition.htm online bibliography.] ==Secondary literature== Introductory: *Jolley, Nicholas, 2005. ''Leibniz''. Routledge. *MacDonald Ross, George, 1984. ''[http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm Leibniz]''. Oxford Uni. Press. *[[W. W. Rouse Ball]], 1908. [http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Leibniz/RouseBall/RB_Leibnitz.html ''A Short Account of the History of Mathematics''], 4th ed. (see [[Talk:Gottfried_Leibniz|Discussion]]) Intermediate: *Aiton, Eric J., 1985. ''Leibniz: A Biography''. Hilger (UK). *Hall, A. R., 1980. ''Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *Hostler, J., 1975. ''Leibniz's Moral Philosophy''. UK: Duckworth. *Jolley, Nicholas, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *LeClerc, Ivor, ed., 1973. ''The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World''. Vanderbilt Uni. Press. *Loemker, Leroy, 1969a, &quot;Introduction&quot; to his ''Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters''. Reidel: 1-62. *[[Arthur O. Lovejoy]], 1957 (1936). &quot;Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza&quot; in his ''The Great Chain of Being''. Harvard Uni. Press: 144-82. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books. *MacDonald Ross, George, 1999, &quot;Leibniz and Sophie-Charlotte&quot; in Herz, S., Vogtherr, C.M., Windt, F., eds., ''Sophie Charlotte und ihr Schloß''. München: Prestel: 95–105. [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/homepage/sophiec.html English translation.] *Perkins, Franklin, 2004. ''Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *Riley, Patrick, 1996. ''Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise''. Harvard Uni. Press. Advanced *Adams, Robert M., 1994. ''Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist''. Oxford Uni. Press. *[[Louis Couturat]], 1901. ''La Logique de Leibniz''. Paris: Felix Alcan. [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/intro.htm Donald Rutherford's English translation in progress.] *Ishiguro, Hide, 1990 (1972). ''Leibniz's Philosophy of Logic and Language''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *Lenzen, Wolfgang, 2004. [http://www.philosophie.uni-osnabrueck.de/Woods.htm &quot;Leibniz's Logic,&quot;] in Gabbay, D., and Woods, J., eds., ''Handbook of the History of Logic, Vol. 3''. North Holland: 1-84. *Mates, Benson, 1986. ''The Philosophy of Leibniz : Metaphysics and Language''. Oxford Uni. Press. *Mercer, Christia, 2001. ''Leibniz's metaphysics : Its Origins and Development''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *Rutherford, Donald, 1998. ''Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *Wilson, Catherine, 1989. ''Leibniz's Metaphysics''. Princeton Uni. Press. *Woolhouse, R. S., ed., 1993. ''G. W. Leibniz: Critical Assessments'', 4 vols. Routledge. A remarkable and regrettably expensive one-stop collection of many valuable articles. [http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ Online bibliography,] by Gregory Brown. ==Other works cited== *[[Martin Davis]], 2000. ''The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to [[Turing]]''. W W Norton. *Du Bois-Reymond, Paul, 18nn, &quot;Leibnizian Thoughts in Modern Science,&quot; ???.&lt;!--details, please--&gt; *[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 1997. ''The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences''. W W Norton. *Hirano, Hideaki, 1997, &quot;Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law.&quot; Unpublished. *[[Benoit Mandelbrot]], 1977. ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. Freeman. *[[Simon Conway Morris]], 2003. ''Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe''. Cambridge Uni. Press. *W
ence). They are sometimes perturbed from their distant orbits by gravitational interactions, falling into extremely elliptical orbits that can bring them very close to the [[Sun]]. One theory says that as a comet approaches the [[inner solar system]], [[solar radiation]] causes part of its outer layers, composed of ice and other materials, to melt and evaporate, but this has not been proven. The streams of [[Cosmic dust|dust]] and gas this releases form a very large, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the ''[[coma (cometary)|coma]]'', and the force exerted on the [[coma (cometary)|coma]] by the Sun's [[radiation pressure]] and [[solar wind]] cause an enormous ''tail'' to form, which points away from the sun. The dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, each pointed in slightly different directions. The tail made of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always pointing directly away from the Sun, as this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than dust is, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. While the solid body of comets (called the ''[[Comet nucleus|nucleus]]'') is generally less than 50km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and the ion tails have been observed to extend over 150 million km (1 [[Astronomical unit]]) or more. Both [[coma (cometary)|coma]] and tail are illuminated by the Sun, and may become visible from the [[Earth]] when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly and the gases glowing due to [[ion|ionization]]. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a [[telescope]], but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appear out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that their appearance have been noticed by humans for millennia. One very famous old recording of a comet is the appearance of Halley's Comet on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which records the [[Norman conquest]] of [[England]] in 1066.{{hnote|Reading Museum, scene 1}} Surprisingly, cometary nuclei are among the [[black]]est objects known to exist in the solar system. The [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] probe found that [[Comet Halley]]'s nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the light that falls on it, and [[Deep Space 1]] discovered that [[Comet Borrelly]]'s surface reflects only 2.4% to 3% of the light that falls on it; by comparison, [[asphalt]] reflects 7% of the light that falls on it. It is thought that complex [[organic compound]]s are the dark surface material. Solar heating drives off volatile compounds leaving behind heavy long-chain organics that tend to be very dark, like [[tar]] or crude [[Petroleum|oil]]. The very darkness of cometary surfaces allows them to absorb the heat necessary to drive their outgassing. In 1996, comets were found to emit [[X-rays]] [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html]. These X-rays surprised researchers, because their emission by comets had not previously been predicted. The X-rays are thought to be generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged [[ions]] fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules. In these collisions, the ions will capture one or more electrons leading to emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons [http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits]. ==Orbital characteristics== [[Image:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391.jpg|thumb|376px|right|Orbits of [[Comet Kohoutek]] and [[Earth]], illustrating the high [[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the orbit and more rapid motion when closer to the [[Sun]].]] [[Image:Comets by aphelion.png|thumb|200px|right|Histogram of the aphelia of the 2005 comets, showing the giant planet comet families. The abscissa is the natural logarithm of the aphelion expressed in AUs.]] Comets are classified according to their orbital periods. ''Short period comets'' have orbits of less than 200 years, while ''Long period comets'' have longer orbits but remain gravitationally bound to the Sun. ''Single-apparition comets'' have [[parabolic]] or [[hyperbolic]] orbits which will cause them to permanently exit the solar system after one pass by the Sun. Modern observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic orbits, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of kilometres per second). If such objects entered the solar system, they would have positive total energies, and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic orbits. A rough calculation shows that there might be 4 hyperbolic comets per century, within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude [http://www.astro.lsa.umich.edu/users/cowley/lecture34/ †]. On the other extreme, the short period [[Comet Encke]] has an orbit which never places it farther from the Sun than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the [[Kuiper belt]], whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the [[Oort cloud]]. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain why comets get perturbed into highly elliptical orbits, including close approaches to other [[star]]s as the Sun follows its orbit through the [[Milky Way]] [[Galaxy]]; the Sun's hypothetical companion star [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]; or an unknown [[Planet X]]. Because of their low masses, and their elliptical orbits which frequently take them close to the giant planets, cometary orbits are often perturbed. Short period comets display a strong tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a [[giant planet]]'s orbital radius, with the Jupiter family of comets being the largest, as the [[histogram]] shows. It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, in addition to being the swiftest of the giant planets. Also because of gravitational interactions, a number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost, since their orbits were never known well enough to know where to look for their future appearances. However, occasionally a &quot;new&quot; comet will be discovered and upon calculation of its orbit it turns out to be an old &quot;lost&quot; comet. An example is Comet [[11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR]], which was discovered in 1869 but became unobservable after 1908 due to perturbations by Jupiter, and was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by [[LINEAR]] in 2001.{{hnote|Kronk, '11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR'}} ==Comet nomenclature== The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the year in which they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the &quot;[[C/1680 V1|Great Comet of 1680]]&quot; (Kirch's Comet), the &quot;[[C/1882 R1|Great September Comet of 1882]],&quot; and the &quot;[[Great Daylight Comet of 1910|Daylight Comet of 1910]]&quot; (&quot;Great January Comet of 1910&quot;). After [[Edmund Halley]] demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759, that comet became known as [[Comet Halley]]. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, [[Comet Encke]] {{hnote|Kronk, '2P/Encke'}} and [[Comet Biela]] {{hnote|Kronk, '3D/Biela'}}, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred by the year of their apparition. In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet is named after up to three independent discoverers. In recent years, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large teams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument. For example, [[C/1983 H1|Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock]] was discovered independently by the [[IRAS]] satellite and amateur astronomers [[Genichi Araki]] and [[George Alcock]]. In the past, when multiple comets were discovered by the same individual, group of individuals, or team, the comets' names were distinguished by adding a numeral to the discoverers' names; thus Comets [[P/1990 V1|Shoemaker-Levy 1]]–[[D/1993 F2|9]]. Today, the large numbers of comets discovered by some instruments (in August 2005, [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] discovered its 1000th comet{{hnote|SOHO (2005)}}) has rendered this system impractical, and no attempt is made to ensure that each comet has a unique name. Instead, the comets' systematic designations are used to avoid confusion. Until 1994, comets were first given a [[provisional designation]] consisting of the year of their discovery followed by a lowercase letter indicating its order of discovery in that year (for example, [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1969i]] was the 9th comet discovered in 1969). Once the comet had been observed through perihelion and its orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation of the year of its [[perihelion]], followed by
ever, Sybil soon realises that the hotel is no longer structurally sound. :Featuring [[David Kelly (actor)|David Kelly]] as O'Reilly and [[Michael Cronin]] as Murphy. :Sign reads: FAW&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;TY TOWER ; ''' &quot;The Wedding Party&quot; ''' :Wherever he turns, Basil sees guests fraternising in what he considers an immoral way. But he is the one who ends up with his trousers down in public. :Featuring [[Trevor Adams]] as Alan. :Sign reads: FAW TY TO∑ER ; ''' &quot;The Hotel Inspectors&quot; ''' :When Basil hears of hotel inspectors anonymously roaming Torquay, he realises with horror that the man he has been monstering could easily be one of them. :Featuring [[Bernard Cribbins]] and [[James Cossins]] as men who turn out not to be [[hotel inspector]]s. :Sign reads: FAW TY TO ER ; ''' &quot;[[Gourmet Night]]&quot; ''' :Basil is thrilled when local [[VIP]]s accept an invitation to a gourmet evening (&quot;no riff-raff&quot;). Basil then proceeds to embarrass himself and annoy the guests by addressing the short Mrs. Hall as &quot;Mrs. Small&quot; and fainting when introducing the Colonel, who has an unfortunate twitch, to a Lionel Twitchen. :Featuring [[André Maranne]] as Andre, [[Allan Cuthbertson]] as Colonel Hall and [[Ann Way]] as Mrs. Hall. Meanwhile his new chef gets drunk and can't cook, forcing Basil to order a duck from a local restaurant. On the way to collect it, his car breaks down, and when he finally reaches the hotel, finds he has accidentally collected a trifle instead. :Sign reads: WA RTY TOWELS ; ''' &quot;[[The Germans]]&quot; ''' :A fire drill leaves Basil concussed in hospital, but somehow he still manages to nip back to the hotel in time to treat his German visitors to some of his unique welcoming methods. :Featuring [[Brenda Cowling]] as Sister. :This is the only episode in the entire series that did not feature the hotel as the backdrop for the titles: footage of the [[Northwick Park Hospital]] in [[Middlesex]] was used instead. Thus, the sign is not shown. All six episodes were directed by [[John Howard Davies]]. [[Andrew Sachs]], playing Manuel, twice suffered serious injury during the making of this series. Firstly John Cleese mistakenly picked up a real metal pan, rather than a fake rubber one, to knock him unconscious in 'The Wedding Party'. Secondly, when his clothes were treated in order to make them give off smoke after he had been let out of the burning kitchen in 'The Germans', the corrosive chemicals used went through them and gave him severe burns. ===Second series=== The second series was transmitted three and a half years later, with the first episode being broadcast on [[February 19]], [[1979]]. The episodes of the second series were: ; ''' &quot;Communication Problems&quot; ''' :The arrival of the &quot;guest from hell&quot; &amp;mdash; Mrs. Richards, a deaf and hot-tempered widow &amp;mdash; interferes with Basil's attempts to prevent the money he won on a racehorse from being discovered by Sybil, who disapproves of gambling. :Featuring [[Joan Sanderson]] as Mrs Richards. :Sign reads: FAW&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;TY TOWER ; ''' &quot;The Psychiatrist&quot; ''' :A psychiatrist and his wife &amp;mdash; also a doctor &amp;mdash; come to the hotel for a weekend break, and cannot help but notice the eccentricities of their host, who is perturbed when he discovers their professions. :Featuring [[Elspet Gray]] as Mrs Abbott and [[Luan Peters]] as Raylene Miles. :Sign reads: WATERY FOWLS ; ''' &quot;Waldorf Salad&quot; ''' :Basil is not altogether keen on an American guest who demands a higher class of service &amp;mdash; and food &amp;mdash; than Fawlty Towers is accustomed to providing. :Featuring [[Bruce Boa]] as Mr Hamilton. :Sign reads: FLAY OTTERS ; ''' &quot;The Kipper and the Corpse&quot; ''' :A guest dies of natural causes in bed, another faints at the sight of the body, and Basil frantically tries to hide the out-of-date breakfast kipper which he is convinced was responsible &amp;mdash; besides attempting to move the corpse downstairs unseen. :Featuring [[Geoffrey Palmer (actor)|Geoffrey Palmer]] as Dr Price. :Sign reads: FATTY OWLS ; ''' &quot;The Anniversary&quot; ''' :Basil organises some friends for a surprise wedding anniversary party, but Sybil assumes he has forgotten their anniversary and storms off, leaving her husband and Polly, in disguise, desperately telling the others she is 'ill'... :Featuring [[Ken Campbell (actor)|Ken Campbell]] as Reg and [[Una Stubbs]] as Alice. :Sign reads: FLOWERY TWATS ; ''' &quot;Basil the Rat&quot; ''' :The local health inspector issues a long list of hygienic aberrations which the staff immediately sort out. Sadly, they had not reckoned with Manuel's pet &amp;mdash; a 'Siberian hamster' &amp;mdash; escaping on the same day. :Featuring [[John Quarmby]] as the [[Health Inspector]]. :Sign reads: FARTY TOWELS All six episodes were directed by [[Bob Spiers]]. Production of the last two episodes was disrupted by a [[strike action|strike]] of BBC technical staff, which resulted in the recasting of the actor who had originally been cast as Reg in 'The Anniversary', and delayed the episode's transmission date by one week. The episode 'Basil the Rat' was also delayed, and was not screened until the end of a repeat showing six months later, due to the tape going missing. ''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]'' was originally scheduled to debut after an episode of ''Fawlty Towers'' and Cleese was to have introduced ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'' in a sketch referring to the technicians' strike, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no show ready that week, so a &quot;tatty revue&quot; would be broadcast instead. However, the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]] intervened, and ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'' was pulled as being too political. Later that year, Cleese's sketch was broadcast, when by a stroke of luck the final episode of ''Fawlty Towers'' went out before the first series of ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'', though the original significance of the sketch was lost. Note: When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as 'USA' for 'Waldorf Salad', 'Death' for 'The Kipper and the Corpse' and 'Rats' for 'Basil the Rat' which had been printed in some program guides. There have been persistent rumours about a &quot;lost&quot; 13th episode, &quot;The Robbers,&quot; which involved a blackout at the hotel [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072500/trivia]. {{endspoiler}} ==Influence from Fawlty Towers== *[[Arthur Mathews]] and [[Graham Linehan]] have cited ''Fawlty Towers'' as a major influence on their sitcom ''[[Father Ted]]''. *There also was a German sitcom series based on ''Fawlty Towers''. *A few hotels and guesthouses have called themselves &quot;Fawlty Towers&quot;, including: **A youth hostel in [[Darwin, Australia|Darwin]] visited in an episode of the travel documentary ''[[Full Circle with Michael Palin]]''. **A hotel in [[Sidmouth]] which was painted like a [[Union Flag]] **A hotel in the popular tourist town of [[Yangshuo]] in southern China **A youth hostel in [[Fingal, Tasmania]], now a campus of [[Scotch Oakburn College]] **A hotel in [[Cocoa Beach, Florida]] located a block from the beach, which displays [[British]] flags and a large sign displaying a picture of the hotel from the show. The [[typeface]] used on this sign is nearly identical to the one used in the opening title of the show. *In [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]], you will find a private youth hostel named [http://www.backpack.co.nz/foley.html &quot;Foley Towers&quot;]. *In [[Newquay]], [[Cornwall]], there is a bed and breakfast establishment called &quot;Salty Towers&quot;. *There are many Indian restaurants throughout the [[United Kingdom]] called [[Balti (food) | Balti]] Towers. Three [[List of British TV shows remade for the American market|remakes]] of ''Fawlty Towers'' have been produced for the American market. The first, ''[[Chateau Snavely]]'', was produced by [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced. The second, also by ABC, was ''[[Amanda's]]'', notable for switching the genders of Basil and Sybil. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/f/fawltytowers_7772600.shtml]. A third remake called ''[[Payne (TV series)|Payne]]'' was also produced, but was cancelled shortly after. ==Awards== Three [[BAFTA]]s were awarded to people for their involvement with the series. Each of the two series were awarded the BAFTA in the category for &quot;Best Situation Comedy&quot;, the first won by John Howard Davies in in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980. John Cleese won the BAFTA for &quot;Best Light Entertainment Performance&quot; in 1976. ==Trivia== * Gilly Flower (Ms Tibbs) is still alive today. * Fawlty Towers finished second to [[Frasier]] in [[The Ultimate Sitcom]] poll of comedy writers in January 2006. * Cleese and Booth were married at the time of the first series (1975). By the second series (1979), Cleese and Booth had divorced after ten years of marriage (1968&amp;ndash;78). * Basil and Sybil's wedding anniversary is on [[17 April]]. ==References== * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/f/fawltytowers_7772600.shtml BBC Guide to Comedy] * {{imdb title|id=0072500|title=Fawlty Towers}} * [http://www.phill.co.uk/comedy/fawlty/ TV Comedy Database] * [http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/05/11/nfawlt11.xml The Daily Telegraph - 'Certainly Donald was a disciplinarian and he couldn't stand fools'] * ''Fawlty Towers: A Worshippers Companion'', Leo Publishing, ISBN 9197366188 ==External links== {{wi
oach to haiku was carried on in Japan by his most prominent students, Hekigotō and Kyoshi. Hekigotō was the more radical of the two, while Kyoshi ([[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1959]]) wrote more conservative verse sometimes recalling the older ''hokku''. ==Haiku in the West== Although there were attempts outside Japan to imitate the old hokku in the early [[1900s]], there was little genuine understanding of its principles. Early Western scholars such as [[Basil Hall Chamberlain]] ([[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]]) and [[William George Aston]] were mostly dismissive of hokku's poetic value. The first advocate of English-language hokku was the Japanese poet [[Yone Noguchi]]. In &quot;A Proposal to American Poets,&quot; published in the ''Reader'' magazine in February 1904, Noguchi gave a brief outline of the hokku and some of his own English efforts, ending with the exhortation, &quot;Pray, you try Japanese Hokku, my American poets!&quot; In France, hokku was introduced by [[Paul-Louis_Couchoud]] around 1906. Hokku subsequently had a considerable influence on [[Imagist]]s in the 1910s, but there was as yet little understanding of the form and its history. ===Henderson and Blyth=== The first English book devoted to haiku was ''The Bamboo Broom'' ([[1934]]), by [[Harold Gould Henderson]] ([[1889]]&amp;ndash;[[1974]]), which later came as a revised volume, ''An Introduction to Haiku'' ([[1958]]). Despite its importance, his work did not make an impact approaching that of his contemporary and acquaintance [[R. H. Blyth|Blyth]], probably because Henderson translated every hokku and haiku into a [[rhyme]]d [[stanza]] (like a ballad stanza without its first line), whereas the Japanese originals never used rhyme. It was thus not until [[1949]], with the publication of the first volume of ''Haiku'', the four-volume work by [[R. H. Blyth]], that the verse form was quite properly introduced to the [[Western world]]. [[Reginald Horace Blyth]] ([[1898]]&amp;ndash;[[1964]]) was an [[Englishman]] and teacher of English who took up residence first in Japanese-occupied [[Korea]], then in Japan. He produced a series of works on [[Zen]], on hokku and haiku, and on other forms of [[Japanese literature|Japanese]] and Asian literature. Those most relevant here are his ''Zen in English Literature and Oriental Classics'' (Hokuseido, [[1942]]); his four-volume ''Haiku'' series (Hokuseido, [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1952]]; deals mostly with hokku, though including Shiki); and his two-volume ''History of Haiku'' (Hokuseido, [[1964]]). Today he is best known as the major interpreter of hokku and haiku to [[Western civilization|the West]]. Present-day attitudes to Blyth's work vary. Writers of hokku and conservative haiku tend to respect him highly; writers of more experimental haiku often deprecate what they view as his conservatism and his strong emphasis on Zen and [[spirituality]]. Though Blyth did not foresee the appearance of original haiku in languages other than Japanese when he first began writing on the topic, and though he founded no school of verse, his works stimulated the writing of haiku in English. At the end of the second volume of his ''History of Haiku'' ([[1964]]), Blyth remarked that &amp;quot;The latest development in the history of haiku is one which nobody foresaw,--the writing of haiku outside Japan, not in the Japanese language.&amp;quot; He followed that comment with several original verses in English by the [[United States|American]] [[James W. Hackett]], with whom Blyth corresponded. ===The budding of American haiku=== Precisely who qualifies as the first American haiku poet depends on one's definition of haiku. Individualistic &quot;haiku-like&quot; verses by the innovative Buddhist poet and artist [[Paul Reps]] (1895-1990) appeared in print as early as 1939 (''More Power to You - Poems Everyone Can Make'', Preview Publications, Montrose CA.). Other [[Westerner]]s inspired by Blyth's translations attempted original haiku in English, though again generally failing to understand the principles behind the verse form, which in Blyth is predominantly the more challenging hokku rather than the later and more free-form haiku. The resulting verses, including those of the [[Beat poetry|Beat]] period, were often little more than the brevity of the haiku form combined with current ideas of poetic content, or uninformed attempts at &amp;quot;Zen&amp;quot; poetry. Nonetheless these experimental verses expanded the popularity of haiku in English, which while never making much of an impact on the literary world, has nonetheless proved very popular as a system of introducing students to poetry in [[elementary school]]s and as a [[hobby]] for numerous [[amateur]] writers who continue the innovation and experimentation that is the legacy of Shiki's reforms. Today haiku is written in many languages, but the number of writers is still concentrated primarily in Japan and secondarily in English-speaking countries. ==Contemporary English-language haiku== While traditional hokku focused on [[nature]] and the place of [[human]]s in nature, modern haiku poets often consider any subject matter suitable, whether related to nature, an [[Urbanization|urban]] setting, or even a [[Technology|technological]] context. While old hokku avoided some topics such as [[Romantic love|romance]], [[sex]], and overt [[violence]], contemporary haiku often deals specifically with such themes. Traditional hokku required a long period of learning and maturing, but contemporary haiku is often regarded as an &quot;instant&quot; form of brief verse that can be written by anyone from schoolchildren to [[professional]]s. Though conservative writers of modern haiku stay faithful to the standards of old hokku, many present-day writers have dropped such standards, emphasizing personal freedom and pursuing ongoing exploration in both form and subject matter. In addition to the spread of haiku, the late 20th century also witnessed the surprising revival in English of the old hokku tradition, providing a continuation in spirit of pre-Shiki verse through adaptation to the English language and a wider geographic context. Due to the various views and practices today, it is impossible to single out any current style or format or subject matter as definitive &quot;haiku.&quot; The term has broadened greatly in modern usage to cover nearly any short verse. Nonetheless, some of the more common practices in English are: * Use of three lines written in 5-7-5 syllables; * Use of three (or fewer) lines of no more than 17 syllables in total; * Use of [[metrical feet]] rather than syllables. A haiku then becomes three lines of 2, 3, and 2 metrical feet, with a pause after the second or fifth; * Use of the &quot;one deep breath&quot; rule: the reader should be able to read the haiku aloud without taking a second breath. ==Internet and television== Both haiku and hokku writers and verses are now found online. A search will lead to many forums where both new and experienced poets learn, share, discuss, and freely criticize. In early [[1998]], ''[http://www.salon.com/ Salon]'' magazine published the [http://www.salon.com/21st/chal/1998/02/10chal2.html results of a haiku contest] on the topic of [[computer]] error messages. The winning verse ([[senryu]] to be precise), written by David Dixon, was: :Three things are certain: :Death, taxes, and lost data. :Guess which has occurred. There are online computerized systems for generating random haiku-like verse; there are &quot;Spamku,&quot; (verses devoted to the processed, canned meat) as well as many other clever variations on the brevity of the haiku form. Witty haiku, often satirizing the form itself, have appeared in popular TV programs such as ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'' and ''[[South Park]]''. In [[1995]], the [[scifaiku]] (science fiction haiku) form was invented by Tom Brinck. ==Famous writers== ===Pre-Shiki period (hokku)=== *[[Matsuo Basho]] ([[1644]]&amp;ndash;[[1694]]) *[[Onitsura]] ([[1661]]&amp;ndash;[[1738]]) *[[Yosa Buson]] ([[1716]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]]) *[[Kobayashi Issa]] ([[1763]]&amp;ndash;[[1827]]) ===Shiki and later (haiku)=== *[[Masaoka Shiki]] ([[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]]) *[[Kawahigashi Hekigotō]] ([[1873]]&amp;ndash;[[1937]]) *[[Takahama Kyoshi]] ([[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1959]]) *[[Taneda Santoka]] ([[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]]) *[[Iida Dakotsu]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1962]]) *[[Nakamura Kusatao]] ([[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]]) ===Non-Japanese=== Although none of the following poets except Hackett is known primarily for haiku, all have some haiku in print. Richard Wright, known for his novel &quot;''Native Son''&quot;, wrote some 4000 haiku in the last eighteen months of his life. Although few were published during his lifetime, in [[1998]] ''HAIKU: This Other World'' was published with the 817 haiku that he preferred. Amiri Baraka recently authored a collection of what he calls &quot;low coup,&quot; his own variant of the haiku form. *[[James W. Hackett]] *[[Jorge Luis Borges]] *[[Cid Corman]] *[[Allen Ginsberg]] *[[Dag Hammarskjöld]] *[[Jack Kerouac]] *[[Octavio Paz]] *[[José Juan Tablada]] *[[Kenneth Rexroth]] *[[Gary Snyder]] *[[Amiri Baraka]] *[[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]] *[http://home.earthlink.net/~tclausen/ Tom Clausen] ==External links== ===Hokku=== *[http://hokku0.tripod.com/ Hokku] *[http://hokku.blogdrive.com/ Hokku essays and information] ===Haiku=== *[http://www.ahapoetry.com/haiku.htm &quot;Aha! poetry&quot;]: Website with essays on and examples of haiku and related forms *[http://www.ahapoetry.com/wildonji.htm Stalking the Wild Onji: The Search for Current Linguistic Terms Used in Japanese Poetry Circles by Richard Gilbert, PH.D] *[http://www.hsa-haiku.org/ Haiku Society of America] *[http://www.brooksbookshaiku.com Brooks Books, a contemporary haiku publisher.] *[http://www.millikin.edu/haiku Millikin University Haiku, a web site of undergraduate research on c
=[[Manx language|Manx]] }} The '''Goidelic languages''' (also sometimes called the '''Gaelic languages''' or collectively '''Gaelic''') are one of two major divisions of modern-day [[Insular Celtic languages]] (the other being the [[Brythonic languages]]). There are three attested Goidelic languages: '''[[Irish language|Irish]]''' (''Gaeilge''), '''[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]''' (''Gàidhlig''), and '''[[Manx language|Manx]]''' (''Gaelg''). [[Shelta language|Shelta]] is sometimes mistakenly thought to be a Goidelic language when it is, in fact, a ''[[Cant (language)|cant]]'' based on Irish and [[English language|English]], with a primarily English-based syntax. The Goidelic branch is also known as '''Q-Celtic''', because [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' was originally retained in this branch (later losing its [[labialization]] and becoming plain [k]), as opposed to [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]], where *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' became [p]. This sound change is found in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] as well, so Brythonic and Gaulish are sometimes collectively known as &quot;P-Celtic&quot;. (In [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' is also retained, so the term &quot;Q-Celtic&quot; could be applied to it as well, although Celtiberian is not a Goidelic language.) {| cellspacing=&quot;8px&quot; | '''Proto-Celtic''' | bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Gaulish''' | bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Welsh''' | bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Breton''' | bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Irish''' | bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Scottish Gaelic''' | bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Manx''' | '''English gloss''' |- | ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;ennos'' | ''pennos'' | ''penn'' | ''penn'' | ''ceann'' | ''ceann'' | ''kione'' | &quot;head&quot; |- | ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;etwar-'' | ''petuarios'' | ''pedwar'' | ''pevar'' | ''ceathair'' | ''ceithir'' | ''kiare'' | &quot;four&quot; |- | ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;enk&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;e'' | ''pinpetos'' | ''pump'' | ''pemp'' | ''cúig'' | ''còig'' | ''queig'' | &quot;five&quot; |- | ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;eis'' | &amp;nbsp; | ''pwy'' | ''piv'' | ''cé (older cia)'' | ''cò/cia'' | ''quoi'' | &quot;who&quot; |} ==Nomenclature== Although Irish and Manx are often referred to as Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic — and it is correct to describe them as Goidelic or Gaelic languages — this is unnecessary because the words Irish and Manx only ever refer to these languages whereas [[Scots language|Scots]] by itself refers to a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]]. The word Gaelic by itself is somewhat ambiguous, but most often refers to Scottish Gaelic and it is the word that Scottish Gaelic speakers themselves use when speaking English. Furthermore, due to the peculiar politics of language and national identity, some Irish speakers are offended by the use of the word ''Gaelic'' by itself to refer to Irish. For knowledgable Irish people, Gaelic is specifically Northern Irish Gaelic - and this is the origin of the English word Gaelic. Similarly, some Scottish Gaelic speakers also find offensive the use of the obsolete word '''Erse''' (i.e. &quot;Irish&quot;) to refer to their language. This term was used in [[Scotland]] since at least the late [[15th century]] to refer to Gaelic, which had previously been called ''Scottis''. The modern form of the latter term, ''Scots'', is now used to refer to the [[Anglic languages|Anglic language]] [[Scots language|Scots]]. The names used in languages themselves (''Gaeilge'' in Irish, ''Gaelg'' in Manx, and ''Gàidhlig'' in Scottish Gaelic) are derived from Old Irish ''Goideleg'', which in itself is from the originally more-or-less derogative term ''Goidel'' meaning &quot;pirate, raider&quot; in [[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]. The Goidels called themselves various names according to their tribal/clan affiliations, but the most general seems to have been the name rendered in [[Latin]] as ''Scoti''. This word may be related to the Modern Irish word ''scoth'' meaning &quot;best, 'the pick of the bunch'&quot;. ==Classification== The family tree of the Goidelic languages is as follows: *Goidelic **[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]], ancestral to: **[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]], ancestral to: **[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]], ancestral to: ***[[Irish language|Irish]] ***[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ***[[Galwegian Gaelic]] ***[[Manx language|Manx]] ==History and range== Goidelic languages were once restricted to [[Ireland]], but sometime between the [[3rd century]] and the [[6th century]] a group of the Irish Celts known to the Romans as ''Scoti'' began migrating from Ireland to what is now [[History of Scotland|Scotland]] and eventually assimilated the [[Picts]] (a group of peoples who may have originally spoken a [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic language]]) who lived there. Manx, the former common language of the [[Isle of Man]], is closely akin to the Gaelic spoken in north east Ireland and the now extinct Gaelic of [[Galloway]] (in southwest Scotland), with heavy influence from Old Norse because of the [[Viking]] invasions. [[Shelta]], a [[cant (language)|cant]] spoken by the [[Irish Traveller]]s, is considered its own language even though it is based largely on Irish. Goidelic languages may once have been common on the Atlantic coast of Europe and there is evidence that they were spoken in the region of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] in modern [[Spain]] and Portugal, around Marseille, at the head waters of the Seine, in the Celtic heartlands of Switzerland, Austria and so on, and in [[Galatia]]. The Goidelic languages had their own unique script, known as [[ogham]], in use from at least the 5th century until the 15th, especially for carving on wood or stone. The oldest written Goidelic language is [[Primitive Irish]], which is attested in [[Ogham]] inscriptions up to about the [[4th century]] AD. [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] is found in the margins of [[Latin]] religious [[manuscript]]s from the [[6th century]] to the [[10th century]]. [[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]], the ancestor of the modern Goidelic languages, is the name for the language as used from the 10th to the [[16th century]]. A form of Middle Irish was used as a literary language in Ireland and Scotland until the [[17th century]], and often in both countries well into the [[18th century]]; the [[Ethnologue]] gives the name &quot;Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic&quot; to this purely written language. Often called Classical Irish, the modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic written forms [of which there are at least four] are merely modernisations (in general in parallel, sometimes in different directions) of the 'classical' language. As long as this written language was the norm, Ireland was always considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati. ==Irish== {{main|Irish language}} Irish is one of Ireland's two official languages (along with [[English language|English]]) and is still fairly widely spoken in the south, west and north west of Ireland. The legally defined Irish-speaking areas are called the [[Gaeltacht]]. At present, Irish is primarily spoken in Counties [[County Cork|Cork]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]], [[County Mayo|Mayo]], [[County Galway|Galway]], [[County Kerry|Kerry]] and, to a lesser extent, in [[County Waterford|Waterford]] and [[Meath]]. [[Irish language|Irish]] is also spoken by a few people in [[Northern Ireland]] and has been accorded some legal status there under the [[1998]] [[Belfast Agreement]]. Approximately 260,000 people in the Republic of Ireland can speak the Irish language fluently, while close to 80,000 (mainly in the [[Gaeltacht]]) speak Irish as a first, day to day language. Over a million citizens of the Republic of Ireland have some understanding in Irish (ranging from minimum to almost fluent). Before the Irish [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|potato famine]] of the 1840s, the language was spoken by the vast majority of the population, but the famine and emigration led to a decline which has only begun to reverse very recently. The census figures do not take into account those Irish who have emigrated, and it has been estimated (rightly or wrongly) that there are more native speakers of Irish in Great Britain, the US, Australia and other parts of the world than there are people in Ireland itself. The Irish language has been officially recognised as a working language by the [[European Union]]. Ireland's national language is the 21st to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language. ==Scottish Gaelic== {{main|Scottish Gaelic language}} Some people in the north and west of Scotland and the [[Hebrides]] still speak Scottish Gaelic, but because of its minimal official recognition and because of large-scale emigration from those parts of Scotland, the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 1,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in [[Nova Scotia]] and 60,000 in [[Scotland]]. Its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the everyday language of most of the rest of the Highlands until little more than a century ago. [[Galloway]] had also been a Goidelic-speaking region, but the [[Galwegian language]] has been extinct there for approximately three centuries. It is believed to have been home to dialects that were transitional between Scottish Gaelic and the two other Goidelic languages. Most other areas of the [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]] also spoke forms of Gaelic, the only exceptions being the area which lies on the south-eastern part of the modern border with [[England]] - the area called [[Lothian]] in the [[Middle Ages]] - and the far north-east (parts of [[Caithness]]), [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. The very word ''Scotland'' in fact takes its name from the Latin word for a Gael, ''Scot
ber of shorter works by [[Terry Pratchett]] set on [[Discworld (world)|the Discworld]]. Since the first novel, ''[[The Colour of Magic]]'' ([[1983 in literature|1983]]), the series has gone from strength to strength, spawning related works including music inspired by the series, as well as cartoon and theatre adaptations. Newly released Discworld books regularly top ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' bestsellers list, with Pratchett being the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s best selling author in the [[1990s]], mainly on the strength of the Discworld (he has since been overtaken by [[Harry Potter]] author [[J.K. Rowling]], but still holds the record for the most [[shoplifting|shoplifted]] books). Discworld novels have also won awards such as the [[Prometheus Award]] and the [[Carnegie Medal]]. In the [[BBC]]'s [[Big Read]], four Discworld books were in the top 100, and a total of fourteen in the top 200. ==Published work== ===The novels=== Terry Pratchett first explores the idea of a disc-shaped world in the novel ''[[Strata (novel)|Strata]]'', however this flat world is a projected version of the Eurasian hemisphere of Earth, not the fantasy realm of the true discworld series. The world has been chronicled through at least 35 novels and several short stories so far. The novels up to and including'' [[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]'' (and almost all [[Terry Pratchett|Pratchett]] books to date) had cover art done by [[Josh Kirby]] (who died in [[October]] [[2001]]), but only in the original British editions. The American editions, published by HarperCollins, do not feature Kirby's cover art. Recent British editions of Pratchett's older novels no longer feature Kirby's art. Since the death of Kirby, the covers have been designed by artist [[Paul Kidby]]. Almost all of the Discworld novels are notable for having no chapter divisions. Instead, most of the time there are different storylines interwoven with one another. ''[[Going Postal]]'' did entirely the opposite, even going so far as to include a prologue and epilogue along with brief teasers of what was to come in each chapter. The first Discworld novel, ''[[The Colour of Magic]]'', was divided into &quot;books&quot;, as was ''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]''. Many novels share the same lead characters and show their development over time. Some of the main characters of one book may also make a [[cameo appearance]] in another book where they are not the primary focus; for example, [[Samuel Vimes]] appears briefly in ''Going Postal''. The novels can be grouped into several story arcs, with characters or themes in common: * The [[Rincewind]] stories - These stories centre on a &quot;wizzard&quot; (the label on his hat) of sorts called [[Rincewind]]. The &quot;of sorts&quot; is because Rincewind is a complete failure at magic, but through a series of events is recognised as a wizard (for want of any other suitable term). The other wizards at the [[Unseen University]] are sometimes seen in these stories. * The [[Witches (Discworld)|Witches]] stories - These stories centre on the witches of [[Lancre]], particularly [[Granny Weatherwax]], [[Nanny Ogg]], [[Magrat Garlick]], and later [[Agnes Nitt]]. * The Death stories - These stories centre on [[Death (Discworld)|Death]] in his usual personification as a skeleton in black robes with a scythe. Death's companions are his granddaughter [[Susan Sto Helit|Susan]], his butler [[Albert (Discworld)|Albert]] and the [[Minor Discworld characters#Death of Rats|Death of Rats]], the rat equivalent of the human Death. In later novels Susan takes centre stage, although Death is still a key player. Death appears in all but one novel in the series, ''[[The Wee Free Men]]''. * The [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|City Watch]] stories - These stories centre on Ankh-Morpork's equivalent of a police force, the City Watch. [[Samuel Vimes]] leads the city watch, and among his officers are [[Carrot Ironfoundersson]], [[Angua]], [[Sergeant Colon|Fred Colon]], [[Detritus (Discworld)|Detritus]] and [[Nobby Nobbs|&quot;Nobby&quot; Nobbs]]. * The [[Witches (Discworld)#Tiffany Aching|Tiffany Aching]] stories - These stories centre on the character of Tiffany Aching, a young girl who has the unusual allies of the [[Nac Mac Feegle]]. The stories are primarily written as children's books. They also tie in to the Witches stories, especially ''[[A_Hat_Full_of_Sky|A Hat Full of Sky]]''. * The Miscellaneous stories - where none of the above five applies, or the main characters from them only appear briefly, or at least not as the main characters of the story in question. The best examples of these are possibly ''[[Small Gods]]'' and ''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]''. This distinction is by no means clear-cut. Many stories (such as ''The Truth'' and ''Thief of Time'') nominally stand alone but nonetheless tie in heavily with main storylines. A number of characters, such as the Unseen University staff, the Monks of History, or the Elves, appear prominently in many different storylines without having titles of their own. As it is, many of these 'stand alone' stories deal with the development of the city of Ankh-Morpork into a technologically advanced [[metropolis]]. For example, ''The Truth'' catalougues the rise of a [[newspaper]] service for the city, and ''Going Postal'' similarly deals with the development of a post service and the rise of the Discworld's [[telecommunications]] system called 'the clacks'. The Discworld novels are as follows: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; !Name !Group !ISBN !Notes !Motifs |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[The Colour of Magic]]'' |Rincewind |Paperback: ISBN 0552124753 |First published [[1983]]. Came 93rd in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Fantasy]] [[cliché]]s; [[Role-playing game|Role-playing games]]; [[tourism]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[The Light Fantastic]]'' |Rincewind |Paperback: ISBN 0552128481 |First published [[1986]]. |Fantasy clichés; [[tourism]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Equal Rites]]'' |The Witches |Paperback: ISBN 0552131059 |First published [[1987]]. |Fantasy clichés, [[Feminism|Gender equality]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Mort]]'' |Death |Paperback: ISBN 0552131067 |First published [[1987]]. Came 65th in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Death]] and its [[Death (Discworld)|personification]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Sourcery]]'' |Rincewind |Paperback: ISBN 0552131075 |First published [[1988]]. |Fantasy Stories, [[Apocalypse]], ''[[Kubla Khan]]'' |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Wyrd Sisters]]'' |The Witches |Paperback: ISBN 0552134600 |First published [[1988]]. Came 135th in the [[Big Read]]. |[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], especially [[Macbeth]] and [[Hamlet]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]'' |Miscellaneous |Paperback: ISBN 0552134619 |First published [[1989]]. |School stories, [[Egyptian mythology]], [[Quantum physics]], [[Greek philosophy]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Guards! Guards!]]'' |The&amp;nbsp;City&amp;nbsp;Watch |Paperback: ISBN 0552134627 |First published [[1989]]. Came 69th in the [[Big Read]]. |Cop novels (with some hints of ''[[film noir]]''), [[show dog]] (dragon) breeding and dragons in general, fantasy stories, [[fraternal organisation]]s, [[monarchists]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Eric (Discworld)|&lt;strike&gt;Faust&lt;/strike&gt; Eric]]'' |Rincewind |Paperback: ISBN 0575600012 |First published [[1990]]. Originally published as a 'Discworld story': larger format and fully illustrated by [[Josh Kirby]]; more recently reissued as a normal paperback with no illustrations. |[[Faust]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'', [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Moving Pictures (novel)|Moving Pictures]]'' |Miscellaneous, The Wizards |Paperback: ISBN 0552134635 |First published [[1990]]. |[[Hollywood]], the [[Cthulhu Mythos]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Reaper Man]]'' |Death, The Wizards |Paperback: ISBN 0552134643 |First published [[1991]]. Came 126th in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Alien invasion]] [[science fiction|SF]], &quot;[[Man with No Name]]&quot; [[Western fiction|Westerns]], [[Modernization]], [[Shopping mall]]s, [[Civil rights|Minority rights movements]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Witches Abroad]]'' |The Witches |Paperback: ISBN 0552134651 |First published [[1991]]. Came 197th in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Fairy tale]]s, [[Voodoo]], and [[tourism]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Small Gods]]'' |Miscellaneous, the History Monks |Paperback: ISBN 0552138908 |First published [[1992]]. Came 102nd in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Religion]] (especially [[Christianity]] and [[Spanish Inquisition|the Spanish Inquisition]], with major thematic references to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]), [[Philosophy]] (especially [[Ancient Greek]]) |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Lords and Ladies (novel)|Lords and Ladies]]'' |The Witches, The Wizards |Paperback: ISBN 0552138916 |First published [[1992]]. |[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] especially [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]], [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s, [[Fairy]] lore |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Men at Arms]]'' |The City Watch |Paperback: ISBN 0552140287 |First published [[1993]]. Came 148th in the [[Big Read]]. |Cop novels, [[gun control]], racial prejudice, Tolkien-type 'kings in hiding' |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Soul Music]]'' |Death, The Wizards |Paperback: ISBN 0552140295 |First published [[1994]]. Came 151st in the [[Big Read]]. |[[Rock music]], and related mythologising (A running joke, &quot;He looks elvish&quot;, refers to the myth that Elvis is not dead). Also scenes taken from [[The Blues Brothers]] film (eg: &quot;We're on a mission from Glod&quot;) |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Interesting Times]]'' |Rincewind, The Silver Horde |Paperback: ISBN 0552142352 |First published [[1994]]. |[[Imperial China]], [[Communism]] |- align=&quot;left&quot; |''[[Maskerade]]'' |The Wi
Islands]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Palau]] and [[Panama]] (has own [[Panamanian balboa|Balboa]] currency) ** [[Zimbabwe dollar]] - [[Zimbabwe]] *[[Vietnamese dong|Dong]] - [[Vietnam]] *[[Armenian dram|Dram]] - [[Armenia]] * [[Cape Verdean escudo|Escudo]] - [[Cape Verde]] *[[Euro]] - [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] ** Countries that have made legal agreements with the EU to use the euro: [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], [[Vatican City]] ** Territories that unilaterally use the euro: [[Andorra]], [[Montenegro]], [[Kosovo]] ** Currencies pegged to the euro: [[Cape Verdean escudo]], [[CFA franc]], [[CFP franc]], [[Comorian franc]], [[Bulgarian lev]], [[Estonian kroon]], [[Lithuanian litas]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]] ===F-M=== *[[Aruban florin|Florin]] - [[Aruba]] *[[Hungarian forint|Forint]] - [[Hungary]] *[[Franc]] ** [[Burundian franc]] - [[Burundi]] ** [[CFA franc]] - [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Togo]] ** [[CFP franc]] - [[New Caledonia]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]] ** [[Comorian franc]] - [[Comoros]] ** [[Congolese franc]] - [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (replaced in [[1967]], re-established in [[1998]]) ** [[Djiboutian franc]] - [[Djibouti]] ** [[Guinean franc]] - [[Guinea]] (replaced in [[1971]], re-established in [[1985]]) ** [[Malagasy franc]] - [[Madagascar]] (replaced by [[Ariary]] in 2004) ** [[Rwandan franc]] - [[Rwanda]] ** [[Swiss franc]] - [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]]. *[[Haitian gourde|Gourde]] - [[Haiti]] *[[Paraguayan guaraní|Guaraní]] - [[Paraguay]] *[[Netherlands Antillean gulden|Gulden]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]] *[[Ukrainian hryvnia|Hryvnia]] - [[Ukraine]] *[[Papua New Guinea kina|Kina]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] *[[Lao kip|Kip]] - [[Laos]] *[[Koruna]] ** [[Czech koruna]] - [[Czech Republic]] ** [[Slovak koruna]] - [[Slovakia]] *[[Estonian kroon|Kroon]] - [[Estonia]] *[[Króna]] ** [[Faroese króna]] - [[Faroe Islands]] (not an independent currency, equivalent to [[Danish krone]]) ** [[Icelandic króna]] - [[Iceland]] *[[Swedish krona|Krona]] - [[Sweden]] *[[Krone]] ** [[Danish krone]] - [[Denmark]], [[Greenland]] ** [[Norwegian krone]] - [[Norway]] *[[Croatian kuna|Kuna]] - [[Croatia]] *[[Kwacha]] ** [[Malawian kwacha]] - [[Malawi]] ** [[Zambian kwacha]] - [[Zambia]] *[[Angolan kwanza|Kwanza]] - [[Angola]] *[[Myanmar kyat|Kyat]] - [[Myanmar]] *[[Latvian lat|Lat]] - [[Latvia]] *[[Georgian lari|Lari]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] *[[Albanian lek|Lek]] - [[Albania]] *[[Honduran lempira|Lempira]] - [[Honduras]] *[[Sierra Leonean leone|Leone]] - [[Sierra Leone]] *Leu ** [[Moldovan leu]] - [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]] ** [[Romanian leu]] - [[Romania]] *[[Bulgarian lev|Lev]] - [[Bulgaria]] *[[Swazi lilangeni|Lilangeni]] - [[Swaziland]] *[[Lira]] ** [[Maltese lira]] - [[Malta]] ** [[Turkish new lira]] - [[Turkey]] *[[Lithuanian litas|Litas]] - [[Lithuania]] *[[Lebanese livre|Livre]] - [[Lebanon]] *[[Lesotho loti|Loti]] - [[Lesotho]] *[[Manat]] ** [[Azeri manat]] - [[Azerbaijan]] ** [[Turkmenistani manat]] - [[Turkmenistan]] *[[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|Mark, convertible]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] *[[Mozambican metical|Metical]] - [[Mozambique]] ===N-R=== *[[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] - [[Eritrea]] *[[Nigerian naira|Naira]] - [[Nigeria]] *[[Bhutanese ngultrum|Ngultrum]] - [[Bhutan]] *[[Mauritanian ouguiya|Ouguiya]] - [[Mauritania]] *[[Tongan pa'anga|Pa'anga]] - [[Tonga]] *[[Macanese pataca|Pataca]] - [[Macau]] *[[Peso]] ** [[Argentine peso]] - [[Argentina]] ** [[Chilean peso]] - [[Chile]] ** [[Colombian peso]] - [[Colombia]] ** [[Cuban peso]], [[Cuban convertible peso]] - [[Cuba]] ** [[Dominican peso]] - [[Dominican Republic]] ** [[Mexican peso]] - [[Mexico]] ** [[Philippine peso]] - [[Philippines]] ** [[Uruguayan peso]] - [[Uruguay]] *[[Pound (currency)|Pound]] ** [[British pound|British pound (sterling)]] - [[United Kingdom]] ** [[Cyprus pound]] - [[Cyprus]] ** [[Egyptian pound]] - [[Egypt]] ** [[Falkland pound]] - [[Falkland Islands]] ** [[Gibraltar pound]] - [[Gibraltar]] ** [[Guernsey pound]] - [[Guernsey]] ** [[Isle of Man pound]] - [[Isle of Man]] ** [[Jersey pound]] - [[Jersey]] ** [[Saint Helenian pound]] - [[Saint Helena]] ** [[Sudanese pound|(New) Sudanese pound]] - [[Southern Sudan]] ** [[Syrian pound]] - [[Syria]] *[[Botswana pula|Pula]] - [[Botswana]] *[[Guatemalan quetzal|Quetzal]] - [[Guatemala]] *[[South African rand|Rand]] - [[South Africa]] *[[Brazilian real|Real]] - [[Brazil]] *[[Renminbi]] - [[People's Republic of China]] *[[Rial]] ** [[Iranian rial]] - [[Iran]] ** [[Omani rial]] - [[Oman]] ** [[Yemeni rial]] - [[Yemen]] *[[Cambodian riel|Riel]] - [[Cambodia]] *[[Malaysian ringgit|Ringgit]] - [[Malaysia]] *[[Riyal]] ** [[Qatari riyal]] - [[Qatar]] ** [[Saudi riyal]] - [[Saudi Arabia]] *[[Ruble]] ** [[Belarusian ruble]] - [[Belarus]] ** [[Russian ruble]] - [[Russia]] ** [[Transnistrian ruble]] - [[Transnistria]] (non-recognized currency) *[[Maldivian rufiyah|Rufiyah]] - [[Maldives]] *[[Rupee]] ** [[Indian rupee]] - [[India]] ** [[Mauritian rupee]] - [[Mauritius]] ** [[Nepalese rupee]] - [[Nepal]] ** [[Pakistani rupee]] - [[Pakistan]] ** [[Seychelles rupee]] - [[Seychelles]] ** [[Sri Lankan rupee]] - [[Sri Lanka]] *[[Indonesian rupiah|Rupiah]] - [[Indonesia]] ===S-Z=== *[[Israeli new sheqel|Sheqel]] - [[Israel]], [[Gaza Strip]], [[West Bank]] *[[Shilling]] ** [[Kenyan shilling]] - [[Kenya]] ** [[Somali shilling]] - [[Somalia]] ** [[Tanzanian shilling]] - [[Tanzania]] ** [[Ugandan shilling]] - [[Uganda]] *[[Peruvian sol|Sol]] - [[Peru]] *[[Som]] ** [[Kyrgyzstani som]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]] ** [[Uzbekistani som]] - [[Uzbekistan]] *[[Tajikistani somoni|Somoni]] - [[Tajikistan]] *[[Bangladeshi taka|Taka]] - [[Bangladesh]] *[[Samoan tala|Tala]] - [[Samoa]] *[[Kazakhstani tenge|Tenge]] - [[Kazakhstan]] *[[Slovenian tolar|Tolar]] - [[Slovenia]] *[[Mongolian tugrug|Tugrug]] - [[Mongolia]] *[[Vanuatu vatu|Vatu]] - [[Vanuatu]] *[[Won]] ** [[North Korean won]] - [[North Korea]] ** [[South Korean won]] - [[South Korea]] *[[Japanese yen|Yen]] - [[Japan]] *Yuan **[[Chinese renminbi yuan]] - [[People's Republic of China]] **[[New Taiwan dollar|Taiwanese yuan (New Taiwan dollar)]] - [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) *[[Polish złoty|Złoty]] - [[Poland]] ==Historical currencies== See also [[List of historical currencies]]. ===Ancient Greece=== *[[Drachma]] ===Ancient Rome=== *[[Antoninianus]] *[[As (coin)|As]] *[[Denarius]] *[[Dupondius]] *[[Sestertius]] ===Ancient Persia=== *[[Achaemenid currency]] ===Africa=== *[[Gold Coast ackey|Ackey]] - [[Gold Coast]] *[[Algerian budju|Budju]] - [[Algeria]] *[[Angolan angolar|Angolar]] - [[Angola]] *[[Axum coinage|Axum denarius]] - [[Axum]] *Dollar **[[Mauritian dollar]] - [[Mauritius]] **[[Rhodesian dollar]] - [[Rhodesia]] **[[Sierra Leone dollar]] - [[Sierra Leone]] *[[Escudo]] **[[Angolan escudo]] - [[Angola]] **[[Mozambican escudo]] - [[Mozambique]] **[[Portuguese Guinea escudo]] - [[Guinea Bissau]] **[[São Tomé and Príncipe escudo]] - [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] *[[Equatorial Guinean ekwele|Ekwele]] (Ekuele) - [[Equatorial Guinea]] *[[East African florin|Florin]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]] *[[Franc]] **[[Katangan franc]] - [[Katanga]] **[[Moroccan franc]] - [[Morocco]] **[[Malagasy franc]] - [[Madagascar]] **[[Malian franc]] - [[Mali]] **[[Tunisian franc]] - [[Tunisia]] *Lira **[[Italian East African lira]] - [[Italian East Africa]] **[[Italian Somaliland lira]] - [[Italian Somaliland]] *[[German South West African mark|Mark]] - [[German South West Africa]] *[[Equatorial Guinean peseta|Peseta]] - [[Equatorial Guinea]] *[[Guinea Bissau peso|Peso]] - [[Guinea Bissau]] *[[Pound (currency)|Pound]] **[[Biafran pound]] - [[Biafra]] **[[Gambian pound]] - [[Gambia]] **[[Ghanaian pound]] - [[Ghana]] **[[Libyan pound]] - [[Libya]] **[[Malawian pound]] - [[Malawi|Malaŵi]] **[[Nigerian pound]] - [[Nigeria]] **[[Rhodesian pound]] - [[Rhodesia]] **[[Rhodesia and Nyasaland pound]] - [[Rhodesia]] and [[Nyasaland]] **[[South African pound]] - [[South Africa]] **[[Southern Rhodesian pound]] - [[Southern Rhodesia]] **[[Sudanese pound]] - [[Sudan]] **[[West African pound]] - [[Cameroon]], [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Sierra Leone]] **[[Zambian pound]] - [[Zambia]] *Real **[[Angolan real]] - [[Angola]] **[[Cape Verde real]] - [[Cape Verde]] **[[Mozambican real]] - [[Mozambique]] **[[Portuguese Guinea real]] - [[Guinea Bissau]] **[[São Tomé and Príncipe real]] - [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] *Rial **[[Moroccan rial|Rial]] - [[Morocco]] **[[Tunisian rial]] - [[Tunisia]] *Rupee **[[East African rupee]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]] **[[German East African rupie]] - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]] and [[Tanzania]] **[[Zanzibari rupee]] - [[Zanzibar]] *[[East African shilling|Shilling]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]] *[[Italian Somaliland somalo|Somalo]] - [[Italian Somaliland]] *[[Guinean syli|Syli]] - [[Guinea]] *[[Eritrean tallero|Tallero]] - [[Eritrea]] *[[Zairean zaire|Zaïre]] - [[Zaïre]] ===America=== *[[Argentine austral|Austral]] - [[Argentina]] *[[El Salvadoran colón|Colón]] - [[El Salvador]] *[[Continental Currency]] - [[Colonial America]] *[[Brazilian cruzado|Cruzado]] - [[Brazil]] *[[Brazilian cruzeiro|Cruzeiro]] - [[Brazil]] *[[Brazilian cruzeiro real|Cruzeiro Real]] - [[Brazil]] *[[Danish West Indies daler|Daler]] - [[Danish West Indies]] *Dollar **[[Puerto Rican dollar]] - [[Puerto Rico]] **[[Hawaiian dollar]] - [[Hawaii]] **[[Newfoundland dollar]] - [[Newfoundland]] *[[Chilean escudo|Escudo]] - [[Chile]] *[[British Guiana guilder|Guilder]] - [[British Guiana]] *[[Suriname gulden|Gulden]] - [[
is often used for treating bipolar depression, particularly where other drugs have failed and the patient's disorder has a strong depressive component. New clinical trials are finding that certain new-generation antipsychotics such as [[olanzapine]] and [[quetiapine]] show some beneficial effect in treating bipolar depression. Lithium also has a mild antidepressant effect. Because there is a danger of antidepressant medications such as SSRIs switching bipolar patients into mania, these medications are used with caution, nearly always with a mood stabilizer.[http://www.mcmanweb.com/treating_bipolar_depression.htm]. ==Research findings== ===Heritability=== Bipolar disorder appears to run in families. The rate of suicide is higher in people who have bipolar disorder than in the general population. In fact, people with bipolar disorder are about twice as likely to commit suicide as those suffering from major depression (12% to 6%). More than two-thirds of people with bipolar disorder have at least one close relative with the disorder or with unipolar major depression, indicating that the disease has a genetic component. Studies seeking to identify the genetic basis of bipolar disorder indicate that susceptibility stems from multiple genes. Scientists are continuing their search for these genes using advanced genetic analytic methods and large samples of families affected by the illness. The researchers are hopeful that identification of susceptibility genes for bipolar disorder, and the brain proteins they code for, will make it possible to develop better treatments and preventive interventions targeted at the underlying illness process. ===Recent genetic research=== Bipolar disorder is considered to be a result of complex interactions between genes and environment. The monozygotic concordance rate for the disorder is 70%. This means that if a person has the disorder, an identical twin has a 70% likelihood of having the disorder as well. Dizygotic twins have a 23% concordance rate. In 2003, a group of American and Canadian researchers published a paper that used [[gene linkage]] techniques to identify a mutation in the [[GRK3]] gene as a possible cause of up to 10% of cases of bipolar disorder. This gene is associated with a kinase enzyme called [[G protein receptor kinase 3]], which appears to be involved in [[dopamine]] metabolism, and may provide a possible target for new drugs for bipolar disorder.{{ref|Barr_2003}} ===Medical imaging=== Researchers are using advanced brain imaging techniques to examine brain function and structure in people with bipolar disorder, particularly using the [[functional MRI]] and [[positron emission topography]]. An important area of neuroimaging research focuses on identifying and characterizing networks of interconnected nerve cells in the brain, interactions among which form the basis for normal and abnormal behaviors. Researchers hypothesize that abnormalities in the structure and/or function of certain brain circuits could underlie bipolar and other mood disorders and studies have found anatomical differences in areas such as the [[subgenual prefrontal cortex]][http://www.neurotransmitter.net/bipolarpfc.html] and [[hippocampus]]. Better understanding of the neural circuits involved in regulating mood states, and genetic factors such as the [[FAT-0 chromosome]] linked to bipolar disorder[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8572&amp;feedId=online-news_rss20], may influence the development of new and better treatments and may ultimately aid in early diagnosis and even a cure. ===Personality types=== An evolving literature exists concerning the nature of personality and temperament in bipolar disorder patients, compared to major depressive disorder (unipolar) patients and non-sufferers. Such differences may be diagnostically relevant. Using [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|MBTI]] continuum scores, bipolar patients were significantly more extroverted, intuitive and perceiving, and less introverted, sensing, and judging than were unipolar patients. This suggests that there might be a correlation between the [[Jungian psychology|Jungian]] extraverted intuiting process and bipolar disorder. ==Research into new treatments== In late 2003, researchers at McLean Hospital found tentative evidence of improvements in mood during EP-MRSI imaging, and attempts are being made to develop this into a form which can be evaluated as a possible treatment. NIMH has initiated a large-scale study at twenty sites across the U.S. to determine the most effective treatment strategies for people with bipolar disorder. This study, the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder (STEP-BD), will follow patients and document their treatment outcome for 5 to 8 years. For more information, visit the Clinical Trials page of the NIMH Web site. [[Transcranial magnetic stimulation]] is another fairly new technique being studied. Pharmaceutical research is extensive and ongoing, as seen at [http://clinicaltrials.gov clinicaltrials.gov]. [[Gene therapy]] and [[nanotechnology]] are two more areas of future development. ==Bipolar disorder and creativity== [[Image:VanGogh-starry night.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Starry Night]]'' painted by [[Vincent van Gogh]] in [[1889]] in the hospital for mentally disturbed people in St. Rémy de Provence. Van Gogh is considered to have been affected by bipolar disorder and this painting has high contrasts analagous to extreme bipolar highs and lows, and captures the vibrancy associated with mania.]] Many artists, musicians, and writers have experienced its mood swings, and some credit the condition with their creativity. However, this disease ruins many lives, and it is associated with a greatly increased risk of [[suicide]]. Psychiatrist [[Kay Redfield Jamison|Kay Jamison]], who herself has bipolar disorder and is considered a leading expert on the disease, has written several books that explore this idea, including &quot;[[Touched with Fire]]&quot;. Research indicates that while mania may contribute to creativity (see Andreasen, 1988), [[hypomanic]] phases, such as those experienced in [[Bipolar II]] and [[cyclothymia]], actually contribute more (see Richards, 1988). This is perhaps due to the distress and impairment associated with full-blown mania, which may be preceded by symptoms of hypomania (i.e. increased energy, confidence, activity) but soon spirals into a state much too debilitating to allow much creative endeavor. Many famous people are believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder, based on evidence in their own writings and contemporaneous accounts by those who knew them. Bipolar disorder is found in disproportionate numbers in people with creative talent such as artists, musicians, authors, poets, and scientists {{citeneeded}}, and it has been speculated that the mechanisms which cause the disorder may be related to those responsible for creativity in these persons. Many of the historical creative talents commonly cited as bipolar were &quot;diagnosed&quot; retrospectively after their deaths and thus the diagnoses are unverifiable; however, in cases diagnosed in recent decades there does seem to be at least some correlation between bipolar disorder and creativity. The possible explanation for this is that hypomanic phases of the illness allow for heightened concentration on activities and the manic phases allow for around-the-clock work with minimal need for sleep. Another theory is that the rapid thinking associated with mania generates a higher volume of ideas, and as well associations drawn between a wide range of seemingly unrelated information. The increased energy also allows for greater volume of production. See [[list of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]]. ==Sources== * Material from public domain text copied from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/manic.cfm which states: &quot;All material in this fact sheet is in the public domain and may be copied or reproduced without permission from the Institute. Citation of the source is appreciated.&quot; * [http://bipolar.about.com/cs/neurontin/a/neurontin_suit.htm 1], [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/neurontin.htm 2], [http://www.legalnewswatch.com/Neurontin_report.html 3] and [http://www.antidepressantsfacts.com/2003-07-11-Warner-Lambert-whistleblower.htm 4] Links and references showing that gabapentin (Neurontin) is an inappropriate and ineffective medication for bipolar disorder. * [http://www.psychlaws.org/BriefingPapers/BP6.pdf Suicide rate of persons with bipolar disorder][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12063145&amp;dopt=Abstract] ==References== &lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3. 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes. NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list. --&gt; #{{Note|quote}} National Institute of Mental Health [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/manic.cfm NIMH information] #{{Note|prevalence}} Goodwin &amp; Jamison, p. 163 #{{Note|bipolar2women}} Goodwin &amp; Jamison, p. 166 #{{Note|DSM-IV-TR}}Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2000. #{{Note|Prevalence Rates}} [http://www.wpic.pitt.edu/STANLEY/3rdbipconf/Sessions/sess2main.htm Prevalence Rates] #{{Note|Gender Differences}}Bal
gative aspects of reality. [[Image:MetallicaKill'EmAll.jpg|right|thumb|Metallica's debut album ''Kill 'em All'']]Heavy metal themes are typically more grave than the generally airy pop from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, focusing on war, nuclear annihilation, environmental issues, political and religious propaganda. [[Black Sabbath]]'s &quot;War Pigs&quot;, [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s &quot;Killer of Giants&quot; and [[Metallica]]'s &quot;...And Justice for All&quot; are examples of serious contributions to the discussion of the state of affairs. The commentary on reality sometimes tends to become over-simplified because the fantastic poetic vocabulary of heavy metal deals primarily with very clear dichotomies of light and dark, hope and despair, good and evil, which do not make much room for complex shades of grey. Some might differentiate by observing that pure heavy metal does not generally sing about love, while many hair metal songs are focused on love. In some respects, one might argue that the hair metal scene of the 1980s was the logical endpoint of the glitter or glam rock movement of the 1970s; the visual similarities between the two, with the make-up and fanciful costumes, makes the argument more compelling. Glitter rock, however, was lyrically focused on sexual ambiguity, free expression and individuality, while hair metal was unambiguously macho and heterosexual, with little room for diversity of political or social opinions. Ultimately, &quot;pure&quot; heavy metal would position itself at the periphery of pop culture, never quite at centre, and metal denizens contend that the move towards the centre was a commercialism that compromised both the artistic integrity of the form and the opportunity for messages to be taken seriously. ===Classical influence=== [[Image:OzzyOsbourneBlizzardofOzz.jpg|left|thumb|Ozzy Osbourne - The Blizzard of Ozz]]The appropriation of classical music by heavy metal typically includes the influence of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and [[Paganini]] rather than [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] or [[Franz Liszt]]. Though [[Deep_Purple|Deep Purple]]/[[Rainbow_%28band%29|Rainbow]] guitarist [[Ritchie_Blackmore|Ritchie Blackmore]] had been experimenting with musical figurations borrowed from classical music since the early 1970s, [[Edward_Van_Halen|Edward Van Halen's]] solo cadenza &quot;Eruption&quot; (released on [[Van_Halen|Van Halen's]] first album in 1978) marks an important moment in the development of virtuosity in metal. Following Van Halen, the &quot;classical&quot; influence in metal guitar during the 1980s actually looked to the early eigtheenth century for its model of speed and technique. Indeed, the late [[Baroque_music|Baroque era]] of western art music was also frequently interpreted through a [[Gothic_novel|gothic]] lens. For example, &quot;Mr. Crowley,&quot; (1981) by [[Ozzy_Osbourne|Ozzy Osbourne]] and guitarist [[Randy_Rhoads|Randy Rhoads]], uses both a [[pipe organ]] and [[Baroque]]-inspired guitar solos to create a particular mood for Osbourne's lyrics on the legendary occultist [[Aleister Crowley]]. Like many other metal guitarists in the 1980s, Rhoads quite earnestly took up the &quot;learned&quot; study of [[musical theory]] and helped to solidify the minor industry of guitar pedagogy magazines (such as ''Guitar for the Practicing Musician'') that grew up during the decade. In most instances, however, metal musicians who borrowed the technique and rhetoric of art music were not attempting to ''be'' classical musicians. (An exception can arguably be found in [[Yngwie Malmsteen]], though many argue that his music relies more on virtuosity and the use of ''classical-sounding'' elements such as the harmonic minor scale to appear classical without actually ''being'' classical). [[Image:Iron_Maiden_Powerslave.jpg|right|thumb|Iron Maiden - Powerslave]] The [[Encarta]] encyclopedia claims that &quot;when a text was associated with the music, Bach could write musical equivalents of verbal ideas&quot;. [[Progressive rock]] bands such as [[Emerson, Lake, and Palmer]] and [[Yes]] had already explored this relationship before heavy metal evolved. As heavy metal uses apocalyptic themes and images of power and darkness, the ability to translate verbal ideas into musical ideas that successfully convey the ideas of the words is critical to heavy metal authenticity and credibility. An excellent example of this is the theme album ''[[Powerslave (album)|Powerslave]]'', by Iron Maiden. The cover is of a dramatic Egyptian pyramid scene, and many of the songs on the album have subject matter that requires a sound suggestive of life and death, including a song entitled &quot;[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]&quot;, based on the poem by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]. However, the 1977 [[Rush (band)|Rush]] album [[A Farewell to Kings]] features the twelve-minute &quot;Xanadu,&quot; also inspired by Coleridge and predating the [[Iron Maiden]] composition by several years. Bassist [[Steve Harris (musician)|Steve Harris]] has also cited progressive rock bands such as [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and [[Yes]] as influences on his own considerable talents. ==History== ===The term &quot;heavy metal&quot;=== [[Image:LedZeppelinLedZeppelinalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb|Cover from ''[[Led Zeppelin (album)|Led Zeppelin]]''. The album greatly influenced many heavy metal musicians]] The origin of the term ''heavy metal'' in relation to a form of music is uncertain. The term had been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy and is listed as such in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''. An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by counter-culture writer [[William S. Burroughs]]. In his [[1962]] novel ''The Soft Machine'', he introduces the character &quot;Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid&quot;. His next novel in [[1964]] ''Nova Express'', develops this theme further, ''heavy metal'' being a metaphor for addictive drugs. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms - Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes - And the Insect People of Minraud with metal music&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; :[[William Burroughs|Burroughs, William S]], (1964). ''Nova Express''. New York: Grove Press. p. 112 Given the publication dates of these works it is unlikely that Burroughs had any intent to relate the term to rock music; however Burroughs' writing may have influenced later usage of the term. The first use of the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; in a song lyric is the words &quot;heavy metal thunder&quot; in the [[1968 ]][[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]] song &quot;Born to be Wild&quot; (Walser 1993, p. 8): &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I like smoke and lightning&lt;br&gt; Heavy metal thunder&lt;br&gt; Racin' with the wind&lt;br&gt; And the feelin' that I'm under&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; The word &quot;heavy&quot; (meaning serious or profound) had entered [[beatnik]]/[[counterculture]] [[slang]] some time earlier, and references to &quot;heavy music&quot;&amp;mdash;typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare&amp;mdash;were already common; indeed, [[Iron Butterfly]] first started playing [[Los Angeles]] in 1967, their name explained on an album cover, &quot;Iron- symbolic of something heavy as in sound, Butterfly- light, appealing and versatile...an object that can be used freely in the imagination&quot; Iron Butterfly's 1968 debut album was entitled ''[[Heavy]]''. The fact that [[Led Zeppelin]] (whose moniker came partly in reference to [[Keith Moon]]'s jest that they would &quot;go down like a lead balloon&quot;) incorporated a heavy metal into its name may have sealed the usage of the term. In the late 1960s, [[Birmingham, England]] was still a centre of industry and (given the many rock bands that evolved in and around the city, such as [[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Move]], and [[Black Sabbath]]) some people suggest that the term Heavy Metal may have some relation to such activity. Biographies of The Move have claimed that the sound came from their 'heavy' guitar riffs that were popular amongst the 'metal midlands'. [[Sandy Pearlman]], original producer, manager and songwriter for [[Blue &amp;Ouml;yster Cult]], claims to have been the first person to apply the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; to rock music in [[1970]]. A widespread but disputed hypothesis about the origin of the genre was brought forth by &quot;Chas&quot; Chandler, who was a manager of the Jimi Hendrix Experience in 1969, in an interview on the PBS TV programme &quot;Rock and Roll&quot; in 1995. He states that &quot;...it [heavy metal] was a term originated in a New York Times article reviewing a Jimi Hendrix performance&quot;, and claims the author described the Jimi Hendrix Experience &quot;...like listening to heavy metal falling from the sky&quot;. The precise source of this claim, however, has not been found and its accuracy is disputed. The first well-documented usage of the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; referring to a style of music, appears to be the May [[1971]] issue of '''[[Creem]]''', in a review of Sir Lord Baltimore's ''Kingdom Come''. In this review we are told that &quot;Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book&quot;. '''Creem''' critics David Marsh and [[Lester Bangs]] would subsequently use the term frequently in their writings, often in negative connotations in regards to bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. Regardless of its origin, ''heavy metal'' may have been used as a jibe initially but was quickly adopted by its adherents. Other, already-established bands, such as [[Deep Purple]], who had origins in pop or [[progressive rock]], immediately took on the heavy metal mantle, adding distortion and additional amplification in a more aggressive approach. ===Origins (1960s and early 1970s)=== [[United States|American]] [[blues music]] was
nglish language]]s. Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba branch of the Church Missionary Society and [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[United States|American]], missionaries have met with some success in their proselytizing work. In their schools about [[2000]] children are educated. The completion in [[1899]] of a railway from Lagos helped not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the influence of the British. Abeokuta (a word meaning ''under the rocks,''), dating from [[1825]], owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the slavehunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the village populations scattered over the open country to take refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy. Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many distinct groups, each preserving the traditional customs, religious rites and even the very names of their original villages. Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground successfully against the powerful armies often sent against the place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the people of Ibadan from the north-east. The district of Egba, of which Abeokuta is the capital, has an estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000. It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the [[Southern Nigeria]] protectorate. It contains luxuriant forests of palmtrees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people. Cotton is indigenous and is grown for export. The Egbas are enthusiastic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of cultivation. They are very tenacious of their independence, but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British protectorate, which, while putting a stop to inter-Yoruba warfare and slave-raiding, and exercising control over the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal autonomy. The administration is in the hands of a council of chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, judicial functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief ---chosen from among the members of the two recognized reigning families--is called the Alake, a word meaning ''Lord of Ake,'' Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta, after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The Alake exercises little authority apart from his council, the form of government being largely democratic. Revenue is chiefly derived from tolls or import duties. A visit of the Alake to [[England]] in [[1904]] evoked considerable public interest. The chief was a man of great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an ardent agriculturist. ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abeokuta}} [http://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-601.0.html Olumo Rock in Abeokuta] Pictures and discussion. [[Category:Cities in Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigerian state capitals]] [[da:Abeokuta]] [[de:Abeokuta]] [[gl:Abeokuta]] [[it:Abeokuta]] [[pl:Abeokuta]] [[pt:Abeokuta]] [[sv:Abeokuta]] [[yo:Abeokuta]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)</title> <id>2699</id> <revision> <id>30636619</id> <timestamp>2005-12-08T21:38:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sloman</username> <id>505832</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{UK constituency infobox alt| | Name = Aberavon | Map = [[Image:AberavonParliamentaryConstituency.png|180px|]] | Type = County | Entity = Wales | DivisionType = [[Preserved counties of Wales|Preserved county]] | Division = [[West Glamorgan]] | Year = [[1918]] | MP = [[Hywel Francis]] | Party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] | EP = Wales }} '''Aberavon''' (''Aberafan'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]) is a [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituency]] of the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of commons]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. It elects one [[Member of Parliament|Member of Parliament (MP)]] by the [[first past the post]] system of election. == Boundaries == The constituency is in [[south Wales]], situated on the right bank of the [[River Afan]], near its mouth in [[Swansea]] Bay. The original village of Aberavon or Aberafan is now a district of [[Port Talbot]] (so named to reflect the involvement of wealthy local landowner and MP [[Christopher Rice Mansel Talbot]] in improving Aberavon's harbour). The valley of the Afan as from about [[1840]] a place of much metallurgical activity, resulting in tinplate and engineering works (now mostly closed down). The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted from Afan), which also gave its name to a mediæval lordship. On the Norman conquest of [[Glamorgan]], Caradoc, the eldest son of the defeated prince, [[Iestyn ab Gwrgant]], continued to hold this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river built a castle whose foundations now lie underneath the streets around St Mary's church. His descendants (who from the 13th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene) established, under line protection of the castle, a chartered town, which in [[1372]] received a further charter from Edward Le Despenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange of lands. In modern times these charters were not acted upon, the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in [[1861]] it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act. From [[1832]] it belonged to the Swansea parliamentary district of boroughs, uniting with [[Kenfig]], [[Loughor]], [[Neath]] and Swansea to return one member; later it acquired its own MP, the most famous to hold the constituency having been [[Ramsay MacDonald]]. Aberavon village hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1932]] and [[1966]]. == Member of Parliament == * [[1918]] &amp;ndash; [[1922]]: John Edwards * [[1922]] &amp;ndash; [[1929]]: [[Ramsay Macdonald]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] * [[1929]] &amp;ndash; [[1959]]: [[William George Cove]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] * [[1959]] &amp;ndash; [[2001]]: [[John Morris]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] * [[2001]] &amp;ndash; ''present'': [[Hywel Francis]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] == Election results == {{Template:Election box begin | |title=[[United Kingdom general election, 2005|General Election 2005]]: Aberavon }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Labour Party (UK) |candidate = [[Hywel Francis]] |votes = 18,077 |percentage = 60.0 |change = -3.1 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Liberal Democrats (UK) |candidate = Claire Waller |votes = 4,140 |percentage = 13.8 |change = +4.0 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Plaid Cymru |candidate = Philip Evans |votes = 3,545 |percentage = 11.8 |change = +2.1 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Conservative Party (UK) |candidate = Annunziata Rees-Mogg |votes = 3,064 |percentage = 10.2 |change = +2.6 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Veritas (political party) |candidate = Jim Wright |votes = 768 |percentage = 2.6 |change = +2.6 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Green Party of England and Wales |candidate = Miranda La Vey |votes = 510 |percentage = 1.7 |change = +1.7 }} {{Template:Election box majority| |votes = 13,937 |percentage = 46.3 |change = -7.1 }} {{Template:Election box turnout| |votes = 30,104 |percentage = 58.9 |change = -1.9 }} {{Template:Election box hold with party link| |winner = Labour Party (UK) |swing = -3.6 }} {{Template:Election box end}} {{Template:Election box begin | title=[[UK general election, 2001|General Election 2001]]: Aberavon}} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Labour Party (UK) |candidate = [[Hywel Francis]] |votes = 19,063 |percentage = 63.1 |change = -8.2 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Plaid Cymru |candidate = Lisa Turnbull |votes = 2,955 |percentage = 9.8 |change = +4.0 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Liberal Democrats (UK) |candidate = [[Chris Davies]] |votes = 2,933 |percentage = 9.7 |change = -1.6 }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Conservative Party (UK) |candidate = Ali Miraj |votes = 2,296 |percentage = 7.6 |change = -0.3 }} {{Template:Election box candidate| |party = Independent |candidate = Andrew Tutton |votes = 1,960 |percentage = 6.5 |change = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election box candidate| |party = Millennium Bean |candidate = Captain Beany |votes = 727 |percentage = 2.4 |change = +1.4 }} {{Template:Election box candidate| |party = [[Welsh Socialist Alliance]] |candidate = Martin Chapman |votes = 256 |percentage = 0.8 |change = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election box majority| |votes = 16,108 |percentage = 53.3 |change = }} {{Template:Election box turnout| |votes = 30,190 |percentage = 61.0 |change = -10.9 }} {{Template:Election box hold with party link| |winner = Labour Party (UK) }} {{Template:Election box end}} {{Template:Election box begin | title=[[UK general election, 1997|General Election 1997]]: Aberavon}} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Labour Party (UK) |candidate = [[John Morris]] |votes = 25,650 |percentage = 71.3 |change = }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Liberal Democrats (UK) |candidate = Ronald McConville |votes = 4,079 |percentage
du]],The Times of India ===Other elements of Culture=== [[Bapu (artist)|Bapu]]'s paintings, [[Nanduri Subbarao]]'s ''Yenki Paatalu'' (Songs on/by a washerwoman called Yenki), mischievous Budugu (a character by [[Mullapudi]]), [[Annamacharya|Annamayya]]'s songs, [[Aavakaaya]] (a variant of mango pickle in which the kernel of mango is retained), [[Gongura]] (a [[chutney]] from Roselle plant), ''Atla taddi'' (a seasonal festival predominantly for teenage girls), banks of river [[Godavari]], ''Dudu basavanna'' (The ceremonial ox decorated for door-to-door exhibition during the harvest festival [[Sankranti]]) have long defined Telugu culture. ==Festivals== * ''[[Sankranthi]]'' in January. * ''[[Ugadi]]'' or the Telugu New Year in March/April. * ''[[Ganesh Chaturdhi|Vinayaka Chavithi]]'' in August. * ''[[Vijayadasami|Dasara]]'' in October. * ''[[Diwali|Deepavali]]'' in November. * ''[[Bonalu]]'' in [[Sravanam]]. ==Food== The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh is reputedly the spiciest of all Indian cuisine. Foods include both the original spicy Andhra cooking and [[Muslim]]-influenced Hyderabadi cuisine. [[Pickle|Pickles]] and [[chutney|chutneys]] are particularly popular in Andhra Pradesh and many varieties of pickles and chutneys are unique to the state. Chutneys are made from practically every vegetable including tomatoes, brinjals and an aromatic green called '[[Gongura]]'. A mango pickle, 'Aavakaya', is probably the best known of the Andhra pickles. Rice is the staple diet and is used in a wide variety of ways. Typically, rice is either boiled and eaten with curry, or made into a batter for use in a [[crepe]]-like dish called [[dosa|dosas]], or rice cakes called [[idli|idlis]]. Meat, vegetables and greens are prepared with different masalas into a variety of strongly flavoured dishes. Hyderabadi cuisine is influenced by the Muslim population, which arrived in Andhra centuries ago. Much of the cuisine revolves around meat. It is rich and aromatic, with a liberal use of exotic spices and ghee, not to speak of nuts and dry fruits. Lamb, chicken and fish are the most widely used meats in the non-vegetarian dishes. The [[biryani|biryanis]] are perhaps the most distinctive and popular of Hyderabadi dishes. ==Tourism== [[Image:tirumala.jpg|thumbnail|right|220px|The temple town [[Tirumala]] lit during the night]] Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centers. [[Tirupati]], the abode of [[Lord Venkateswara]], has the richest and most visited Hindu temple in India. [[Srisailam]], the abode of ''Sri Mallikarjuna'', is one of the twelve ''[[Jyothirlingam|Jyothirlingams]]'' in India and Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha. [[Puttaparthi]] hosts the ashram of popular guru Sri [[Sathya Sai Baba]]. The Ramappa temple at Warangal is famous for some fine temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centers at [[Amaravati]], Bhattiprolu, Nagarjuna Konda, and Phanigiri. The one-million-year old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, [[Godavari]] racing through a narrow gorge at ''Papi Kondalu'', waterfalls and rich bio-diversity at Talakona, the beaches of Vizag are some of the natural attractions of the state. [[Charminar]], [[Golconda]] Fort, Chandragiri Fort, and Falaknuma Palace are some of the monuments in the state. ==Famous personalities from Andhra Pradesh== See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Telugu_People List of Telugu People] ==External links== *[http://maps-india.com/andhrapradesh/index.html Andhra Pradesh Tourist Map] * [http://www.aponline.gov.in/apportal/index.asp Andhra Pradesh government] Official Portal * [http://www.apassemblylive.com/index.asp Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly] Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Live *[http://www.telugutanam.com/italianofeast Telugu - Italian of the East] * [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/andhrapr/index.html Andhra Pradesh Portal on The Indian Analyst] Detailed information, index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources {{Andhra Pradesh}} {{States and territories of India}} [[Category:Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh]] [[Category:States and territories of India]] [[de:Andhra Pradesh]] [[et:Andhra Pradesh]] [[es:Andhra Pradesh]] [[eo:Andra-Pradeŝo]] [[fr:Andhra Pradesh]] [[gl:Andhra Pradesh]] [[gu:આંધ્ર પ્રદેશ]] [[hi:आंध्र प्रदेश]] [[id:Andhra Pradesh]] [[ja:アーンドラ・プラデーシュ州]] [[kn:ಆ೦ಧ್ರ ಪ್ರದೇಶ]] [[ka:ანდჰრა-პრადეში]] [[mr:आंध्र प्रदेश]] [[nl:Andhra Pradesh]] [[no:Andhra Pradesh]] [[pt:Andhra Pradesh]] [[ru:Андхра-Прадеш]] [[simple:Andhra Pradesh]] [[fi:Andhra Pradesh]] [[sv:Andhra Pradesh]] [[ta:ஆந்திரப் பிரதேசம்]] [[te:ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్]] [[uk:Андгра Прадеш]] [[zh:安得拉邦]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Asymmetrical relationship</title> <id>2379</id> <revision> <id>15900798</id> <timestamp>2005-04-03T05:20:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username> <id>153314</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Binary relation]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Binary relation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Accelerated Graphics Port</title> <id>2380</id> <revision> <id>42017651</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:21:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Imroy</username> <id>80754</id> </contributor> <comment>/* AGP vs PCI */ remove nonsense about the hard drive, and &quot;tricking&quot; the CPU.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGP_slot.jpg|right|thumb|400px|AGP slot (maroon), although the color is usually brown.]] The '''Accelerated Graphics Port''' (also called '''Advanced Graphics Port''') is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a [[graphics card]] to a [[computer]]'s [[motherboard]], primarily to assist in the acceleration of [[3D computer graphics]]. AGP is a type of [[computer bus]]. Some [[motherboard]]s have been built with multiple independent AGP slots. AGP is slowly being phased out in favour of [[PCI Express]]. ==Versions of AGP== [[As of 2004]], newer versions of AGP increase the transfer rate from two to eight times. Available versions include: *'''AGP 1x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 [[Megahertz|MHz]] resulting in a maximum data rate of 266 [[megabyte]]s per second (MB/s), doubled from the 133 MB/s transfer rate of [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus 33 MHz / 32-bit; 3.3 V signaling. *'''AGP 2x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz [[double pumped]] to an effective 133 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 533 MB/s; signaling voltages the same as AGP 1x; *'''AGP 4x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz quad pumped to an effective 266 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 1066 MB/s (1 GB/s); 1.5 V signaling; *'''AGP 8x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz, strobing eight times per clock, delivering an effective 533 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 2133 MB/s (2 GB/s); 0.8 V signaling. In addition, '''AGP Pro''' cards of various types exist. They require more power and are often longer than standard AGP cards (though they only connect to one AGP slot). These cards are usually used to accelerate the professional [[computer-aided design]] applications employed in the fields of architecture, machining, engineering, and similar fields. There are two versions of the AGP physical interface, for 3.3 V and 1.5 V cards respectively. The 1.5 V version has a key further away from the external connector, while the 3.3 V version is the opposite. *'''64 bit AGP''', using a [[64 bit]] channel. Used in high end professional graphic cards. *'''AGP Express'''. This is not a true AGP interface, but rather a way to allow an AGP card to be connected over the [[PCI bus]]. It is a technology found on [[Elitegroup Computer Systems|ECS]] motherboards, and is used as a selling point for AGP card owners who want a new motherboard but do not want to be forced to buy a [[PCI Express]] graphics card as well (most new motherboards do not provide AGP slots, only PCI Express slots). An &quot;AGP Express&quot; slot is basically two PCI slots wired together in the AGP form factor. While it offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, its disadvantages include [http://www.ecs.com.tw/ECSWeb/Support/agp.aspx incomplete support] (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance (the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP bus). *'''AGI'''. The [[ASRock]] Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for those of Asrock's motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP-support. However, it's not fully compatible and several videocard chipsets are known to not be supported. The performace and the quality of that interface is somehow questionable. ==Compatibility== AGP cards are [[Backward compatibility|backwards]] and [[Forward compatibility|forwards compatible]] within limits. 1.5 V cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though &quot;Universal&quot; slots exist which accept either type of card. AGP Pro cards (rarely used) will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot. It should be noted that there are some proprietary exceptions to this rule. For example, [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Power Macintosh]] computers with the [[Apple Display Connector]] have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Additionally, moving cards between computers of various [[CPU design|architectures]] may not work due to [[firmware]] issues. ==AGP vs PCI== As computers became increasingly graphically-oriented, the graphics card became far more important than other PCI devices, and, thus, the AGP slot was developed. AGP slots are superior to PCI for graph
e without higher education, and for twelve months for those with higher education. ===Bermuda=== [[Bermuda]], although a dependant territory of the [[United Kingdom]], still maintains conscription for its local force. Males between the age of eighteen and thirty two are drawn by lottery to serve in [[The Bermuda Regiment]] for a period of thirty eight months. The commitment is only on a part time basis, however. Anyone who objects to this has the right to have their case heard by an exemption tribunal. ===Brazil=== Males in [[Brazil]] are required to serve 12 months of military service upon their 18th birthday. Most often, the service is performed in military bases as close as possible to the person's home. The government does not require those planning to attend college or holding a permanent job to serve. There are also several other exceptions, including health reasons, for which one may not have to serve. ===Bulgaria=== [[Bulgaria]] has mandatory military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty seven years of age. Currently (2004) the duration of the service depends on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor degree or higher the service is six months, and for citizens with no higher education it is nine months. During the last ten years the duration of service has rapidly dropped (from two years in [[1994]]) and as Bulgaria adopts a professional army mandatory service is expected to be replaced with voluntary service. ===Chile=== [[Chile]] has mandatory military service for all citizens between eighteen and forty five. The duration of service is twelve months for the army and twenty four months for Navy and Air Force. ===China (PRC)=== Theoretically the [[People's Republic of China]] has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go into the army for two months and learn to use firearms. In practice, military service with the PLA is voluntary; all 18-year-old males have to register themselves with the government authorities, in a way similar to the [[Selective Service System]] of the United States. The main exception to this system applies to potential university students, who are required to undergo military training before their courses commence. An exception is also made for [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], whose residents are exempted from conscription as they are effectively barred from any military service. ===Croatia=== [[Croatia]]n law prescribes military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty seven years old. The duration of the normal military service is six months ([[as of 2004]]), while conscientious objectors can apply for civil service which lasts for eight months. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn twenty eight years of age. Over the last decade or so, the duration of military service has been halved and civil service was introduced together with the streamlining of the professional army. Should this trend continue, the mandatory service may eventually be completely replaced with voluntary service. ===Cyprus=== [[Cyprus]] has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of eighteen and fifty. Military service lasts for twenty five months. After that, ex-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do thirty three months unarmed service in the army or thirty eight months community work. See official pages by the [http://www.army.gov.cy/index.php?id=76 Greek Cypriot National Guard]. In North Cyprus there is compulsory military service for Turkish Cypriots. The [[Annan Plan for Cyprus]] that was rejected in the [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|2004 reunification referendum]] mandated the demilitarisation of the island and the disbanding of both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot forces. ===Denmark=== As described in the [http://www.folketinget.dk/pdf/constitution.pdf Constitution of Denmark], § eighty one, [[Denmark]] has mandatory service for all able men. Normal service is four months, and is normally served by men in the age of eighteen to twenty seven. Some special services will take longer. Danish men will typically receive a letter around the time of their 18th birthday, asking when their current education (if any) ends, and some time later, depending on when, they will receive a notice on when to attend to the draft office to be tested physically and psychologically. However some may be deemed unfit for service and not be required to show up. Even if a person is deemed fit, or partially fit for service, he may avoid having to serve if he draws a high enough number randomly. Persons who are deemed partly fit for service will however be placed lower than those who are deemed fit for service, and therefore have a very low chance of being drafted. Men deemed fit can be called upon for service until their 50th birthday in case of national crisis, regardless of whether normal conscription has been served. This right is very rarely exercised by Danish authorities. [[Conscientious objector]]s can choose to instead serve six months in a non-military position, for example in [[Redningsberedskabet]] (dealing with non-military disasters like fires, flood, pollution, etc.) or foreign aid work in a third world country. [http://danmark.dk/portal/page?_pageid=34,328944&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL]. ===Egypt=== [[Egypt]] has a mandatory military service program for males between the ages of eighteen and thirty. Females of comparable age serve in a civilian program. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn twenty eight years of age. By the age of thirty a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males with no brothers, or those supporting parents are exempted from the service. Males serve for a period ranging from fourteen months to forty eight months depending on their education; high school dropouts serve for forty eight months during which they finish their high-school education. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education, and college graduates with special skills are still conscripted yet at a different rank and with a different pay scale with the option of remaining with the service as a career. Some Egyptians evade conscription and travel overseas until they reach the age of thirty, at which point they are tried, pay a $580 fine (as of 2004), and are dishonorably relieved of their obligation to serve in the army. Such an offense, legally considered an offense of &quot;bad moral character&quot;, prevents the &quot;unpatriotic&quot; citizen from ever holding public office. &lt;!-- maybe unpatriotic is a poor choice of words but this is how they describe it --&gt; ===Eritrea=== [[Eritrea]] has a mandatory military service program for both men and women aged eighteen through forty. The term of service is eighteen months. There is no alternate service. The Eritrean government is well-known for hunting down and torturing suspected draft evaders. Draft evaders often flee the country to nearby countries. ===Finland=== As of 2004, [[Finland]] has mandatory military service for men of at least six months (180 days), depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers or NCOs serve for twelve months (362 days), specialist troops serve for nine (270 days) or twelve months, and other rank and file serve for six months. Unarmed service is also possible, and lasts eleven months (330 days). Since [[1995]], women have been given the option of voluntary military service. During the first fifty six days, women have an option to quit the service without having to provide a reason. After serving for fifty six days, they fall under the same obligation to serve as men. [[Non-military service]] of thirteen months (395 days) is available for men whose conscience prevents them from serving in the military. Men who refuse to serve at all are sent to prison for 6.5 months (197 days) or half the time of their remaining non-military service at time of refusal. In theory, male citizens from the demilitarized [[Åland]] region have to serve in [[customs office]]s or [[lighthouse]]s, but since this service has not been arranged, they are always exempted. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]' service is postponed every two years until they, at the age of twenty eight, are exempted. Military service has been mandatory for men throughout the history of independent Finland since [[1917]]. Soldiers and civil servicemen receive a daily salary of 3.60 [[Euro|€]] (days 1-180), 5.75 € (days 181-270) and 8.25 € (onward from day 271). After the training part of the service is done, the soldier enters the reserve. The reservists can be called to mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serves forty days maximum, specialists seventy five days and officers one hundred days. For this, a salary of about fifty euro per day is paid. The service is mandatory; it is not possible to refuse an order to attend the refresher exercise. The length of non-military service has been criticized as being punitive by [[Amnesty International]] because it is over twice as long as the most common alternative, six-month military service. Several motions to shorten it have been made in the [[Finnish Parliament]] but none have passed. ===Germany=== :''Main article at [[Conscription in Germany]]'' [[Germany]] has mandatory military service of nine months for men. Women may volunteer and are allowed to perform - almost - the same jobs as men. A conscientious objector may petition for permission to do civilian alternative service, &quot;civil-service&quot; (''Zivildienst'') instead for nine months, which is usually accepted. A third option is to become a foreign development aide (''Entwicklungshelfer'') for at least eighteen months. Ov
t; X2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant, out-dated.&lt;br&gt; [[Abstract syntax notation one|X.208]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Basic encoding rules|X.209]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[X.21]]&lt;br&gt; [[Transport layer|X.214]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt; [[Session layer|X.215]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt; [[Presentation layer|X.216]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt; X.217&lt;br&gt; X.219&lt;br&gt; X.224&lt;br&gt; X.225&lt;br&gt; X.226&lt;br&gt; X.227&lt;br&gt; X.229&lt;br&gt; [[X.25]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; X.28&lt;br&gt; X.29&lt;br&gt; X.3&lt;br&gt; [[X3J16]]&lt;br&gt; X3T10&lt;br&gt; [[X.400]]&lt;br&gt; X.409&lt;br&gt; [[X.500]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Abstract syntax notation one|X.680]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; X.75&lt;br&gt; [[X86|x86]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; x86 processor socket '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt; XA&lt;br&gt; Xaw&lt;br&gt; [[XBase|Xbase]]&lt;br&gt; xbeeb&lt;br&gt; [[XBM|xbm]]&lt;br&gt; XC&lt;br&gt; X client&lt;br&gt; X Consortium&lt;br&gt; Xcoral&lt;br&gt; xdbx&lt;br&gt; X-Designer&lt;br&gt; X.desktop&lt;br&gt; XDL&lt;br&gt; XDR&lt;br&gt; XDS 940&lt;br&gt; [[Digital Subscriber Line|xDSL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[XEmacs|Xemacs]]&lt;br&gt; [[Xenix|XENIX]]&lt;br&gt; [[Xeon]]&lt;br&gt; [[Xerox|XEROX Corporation]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Xerox Data Systems Model 940&lt;br&gt; [[Xerox network services|XEROX Network Services]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Xerox PARC|XEROX PARC]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; XFree86 Project, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; Xfun&lt;br&gt; [[XGA]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[XGA|XGA-2]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[XHTML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Xi&lt;br&gt; XIE&lt;br&gt; [[Xilinx|Xilinx, Inc.]]&lt;br&gt; Xilinx Netlist Format&lt;br&gt; X Image Extension&lt;br&gt; [[Xlib]]&lt;br&gt; [[XLISP|xlisp]]&lt;br&gt; xls&lt;br&gt; [[XML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; XMM&lt;br&gt; [[XMODEM]]&lt;br&gt; [[XMODEM|XMODEM-1K]]&lt;br&gt; xmosaic&lt;br&gt; XMS&lt;br&gt; XNF&lt;br&gt; xnf2ver&lt;br&gt; XNS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Transmit flow control|XOFF]]&lt;br&gt; [[Transmit flow control|XON]]&lt;br&gt; [[Transmit flow control|XON/XOFF]]&lt;br&gt; [[X/Open|Xopen]]&lt;br&gt; [[X/Open|X/Open]]&lt;br&gt; X/open Portability Guide&lt;br&gt; X/Open System Interface&lt;br&gt; [[Exclusive disjunction|xor]]&lt;br&gt; XPC&lt;br&gt; XperCASE&lt;br&gt; XPG&lt;br&gt; XPG3&lt;br&gt; [[XPL]]&lt;br&gt; xpm&lt;br&gt; XPOP&lt;br&gt; X protocol&lt;br&gt; xref&lt;br&gt; XRemote&lt;br&gt; XRN&lt;br&gt; XSB&lt;br&gt; XScheme&lt;br&gt; x-scm&lt;br&gt; [[X Window System|X server]]&lt;br&gt; XSI&lt;br&gt; [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; XT&lt;br&gt; Xt&lt;br&gt; XT bus architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Xterm|xterm]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; X terminal&lt;br&gt; XTI&lt;br&gt; XTP&lt;br&gt; XTRAN&lt;br&gt; XUI&lt;br&gt; Xv++&lt;br&gt; XVGA &lt;br&gt; [[XView]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; XVT&lt;br&gt; [[X Window System|X-Windows]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; [[X Window System]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; XWIP&lt;br&gt; [[Xxgdb|xxgdb]]&lt;br&gt; XXX&lt;br&gt; Xy-pic&lt;br&gt; [[Colossal Cave Adventure|xyzzy]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Y&lt;br&gt; [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; YA-&lt;br&gt; Yaa&lt;br&gt; YABA&lt;br&gt; [[Yacc|yacc]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; YADE&lt;br&gt; YAFIYGI&lt;br&gt; [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Haskell programming language|Yale Haskell]]&lt;br&gt; Yamaha&lt;br&gt; yank&lt;br&gt; YAPS&lt;br&gt; YASOS&lt;br&gt; YAUN&lt;br&gt; Yay&lt;br&gt; ye&lt;br&gt; [[Year 2000 problem|Year 2000]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; Yellow&lt;br&gt; Yellow Book&lt;br&gt; [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book CD-ROM]]&lt;br&gt; [[Jargon File|Yellow Book, Jargon]]&lt;br&gt; [[Cocoa (API)|Yellow Box]]&lt;br&gt; [[Yellow Pages (computing)|Yellow Pages]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; yellow wire&lt;br&gt; Yerk&lt;br&gt; [[Yet Another]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Yacc|Yet Another Compiler Compiler]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Yet Another Yacc&lt;br&gt; YGMTPO&lt;br&gt; YLISP&lt;br&gt; [[Your mileage may vary|YMMV]]&lt;br&gt; [[YMODEM]]&lt;br&gt; [[YMODEM|YMODEM-G]]&lt;br&gt; [[Yocto|yocto-]]&lt;br&gt; [[Yotta|yotta-]]&lt;br&gt; [[Yottabyte|yottabyte]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; You are not expected to understand this&lt;br&gt; You know you've been hacking too long when... '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; Yourdon&lt;br&gt; Yourdon/Constantine&lt;br&gt; Yourdon/Demarco&lt;br&gt; Yourdon, Inc.&lt;br&gt; Yourdon methodology&lt;br&gt; [[Your mileage may vary]]&lt;br&gt; Yow!&lt;br&gt; yoyo mode&lt;br&gt; YP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[YSM (ICQ)|YSM]]&lt;br&gt; yt&lt;br&gt; YTalk&lt;br&gt; yu '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Yu-Shiang Whole Fish '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; Z&lt;br&gt; Z++&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z180|Z180]]&lt;br&gt; [[Z3]]&lt;br&gt; [[Z39.50]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z8|Z8]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z8000|Z8000]]&lt;br&gt; za&lt;br&gt; ZAP&lt;br&gt; zap&lt;br&gt; ZAPP&lt;br&gt; [[Z-buffering|Z-buffer]]&lt;br&gt; ZEBRA&lt;br&gt; Zed&lt;br&gt; Zen&lt;br&gt; zen&lt;br&gt; ZENO&lt;br&gt; [[Zepto|zepto]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo Fränkel set theory]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo set theory]]&lt;br&gt; ZERO&lt;br&gt; zero&lt;br&gt; Zero and Add Packed&lt;br&gt; zero assignment&lt;br&gt; zero-content&lt;br&gt; [[ZIF|Zero Insertion Force]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zeroth|zeroth]]&lt;br&gt; ZEST&lt;br&gt; [[ZetaLisp]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zetta|zetta-]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zettabyte|zettabyte]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Zeus&lt;br&gt; [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|ZFC]]&lt;br&gt; ZF expression&lt;br&gt; [[ZIF]]&lt;br&gt; zigamorph&lt;br&gt; [[ZIL]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z280]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z8]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z8000]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z80000]]&lt;br&gt; [[Zilog Z80|Zilog Z80A]]&lt;br&gt; zip&lt;br&gt; Zipcode&lt;br&gt; [[Zip drive|Zip Drive]]&lt;br&gt; [[ZIP (file format)|zip file]]&lt;br&gt; zipperhead&lt;br&gt; zm&lt;br&gt; [[ZMODEM]]&lt;br&gt; ZOG&lt;br&gt; ZOLA Technologies&lt;br&gt; zombie '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; [[Zombie process|zombie process]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; zone&lt;br&gt; Zoo&lt;br&gt; zoo&lt;br&gt; zoom&lt;br&gt; Zoomer&lt;br&gt; ZOPL&lt;br&gt; zorch&lt;br&gt; [[Zork]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Zorkmid|zorkmid]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; zr&lt;br&gt; [[Z shell|zsh]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; [[Z shell]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; ZUG&lt;br&gt; [[Coordinated Universal Time|Zulu time]]&lt;br&gt; ZUSE&lt;br&gt; Zuse&lt;br&gt; [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse, Konrad]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; zw&lt;br&gt; [[Sinclair ZX80|ZX80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[Sinclair ZX81|ZX81]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; zxnrbl&lt;br&gt; [[ZX Spectrum]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Zynet Ltd. '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; [[ZyXEL]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; :''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/R - S</title> <id>11336</id> <revision> <id>39205959</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:03:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>58.68.81.5</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- '''R - S''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]] R2000 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; R2RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; R3.99RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; R3RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; R4RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rabbit job '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; RACE '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt; race condition '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RACF '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RAD '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; Raddle '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Radio Frequency Interference '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; radiosity '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RADIUS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; radix '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAID '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAIL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rainbow series '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; rain dance '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAISE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RAL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RAM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Rambus DRAM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Rambus, Inc. '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAMDAC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAM disk '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAM drive '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAMIS II '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RAMTRON '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; random '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; random-access memory '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; randomness '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; random numbers '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; random testing '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; range '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt; Rapid Application Development '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; RapidCAD '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Rapidly Extensible Language, English&lt;br&gt; rapid prototyping&lt;br&gt; Rapidwrite '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt; RAPT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RARE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rare mode '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RARP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RAS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RASP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; raster '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; raster blaster '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; raster burn '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; raster font '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; rastergram '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; raster graphics '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; raster subsystem '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantia
in the sanctuary of Lady [[Hera]] herself in Argos. Putting Argos to sleep, Hermes used a spell to permanently close all of Argus's eyes. Argus's eyes were then put on the peacock. == Appellations == * ''Argeiphontes'', Argus-slayer * ''Psychopompos'', conveyor of souls * ''Enodios'', on the road * ''Eriounios'', luck bringer * ''Dolios'', the schemer * ''Diaktoros'' or ''Angelos'', the messenger * ''Epimelius'', keeper of flocks * ''Polygius'' * ''Charidotes'', giver of charm * ''Criophorus'', ram-bearer * ''Enagonios'', of the (Olympic) games * ''Cyllenius'', born on [[Mount Cyllene]] * ''Acacesius'', of [[Acacus]] == Herm&amp;#275;s' offspring == === [[Abderus]] === [[Abderus]] was a son of Hermes who was devoured by the [[Mares of Diomedes]]. He had gone to the Mares with his friend, [[Heracles]]. === [[Autolycus]] === [[Autolycus]], the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and grandfather of [[Odysseus]]. === [[Hermaphroditus]] === [[Hermaphroditus]] was the third son of Herm&amp;#275;s, with [[Aphrodite]]. He was changed into a [[hermaphrodite]] by the gods, responding to the pleas of [[Salmacis]], whose love Hermaphroditus spurned. === [[Priapus]] === In Priapus, Hermes' phallic origins survived. == Other stories == === [[Herse]]/[[Aglaulus]]/[[Pandrosus]] === When Hermés loved [[Herse]], a jealous [[Aglaulus]] stood between them and refused to move. Hermés changed her to stone. [[Cephalus]] was the son of Hermes and [[Herse]]. Hermés also had a son, [[Ceryx]], with Herse's other sister, [[Pandrosus]]. With [[Aglaulus]], Hermés was the father of [[Eumolpus]]. === [[Argus]]/[[Io (mythology)|Io]] === [[Zeus]] loved the [[Argos|Argive]] princess [[Io (mythology)|Io]] and changed her into a cow to protect her from Hera. Hera suspected his deception and asked for the cow as a present. Zeus was unable to refuse and she placed the watchman [[Argus]] to guard the cow. Hermés, at the request of Zeus, lulled Argus to sleep and rescued Io but Hera sent a [[wiktionary:gadfly|gadfly]] to sting her as she wandered the earth in cow form. Zeus eventually changed her back to human form, and she became&amp;mdash;through [[Epaphus]], her son with Zeus&amp;mdash;the ancestress of [[Heracles]]. === Other roles === Hermés saved [[Odysseus]] from both [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] and [[Circe]], by convincing the first to let Odysseus go and then protecting him from the latter by bestowing upon him an herb that would protect him from Circe's spell. In addition, Hermés brought [[Eurydice]] back to Hades after [[Orpheus]] looked back towards his wife for a second time. He also changed the [[Minyades]] into bats. He taught the [[Thriae]] the arts of fortune-telling and divination. Hermes aided [[Perseus|Persus]] in killing the gorgon [[Medusa]] by giving him [[Zeus]]' [[sickle]] and winged boots. He gave him Hades' helmet of invisbility that he borrowed, and told him to use it so that her immortal sisters cannot see him when he gets away. [[Athena]] helped him as well by lending him her polished shield. King [[Atreus]] of [[Mycenae]] retook the throne from his brother, [[Thyestes]] using advice he received from the wise trickster Hermes. Thyestes agreed to give the kingdom back when the sun moved backwards in the sky, a feat that [[Zeus]] accomplished. Atreus retook the throne and banished Thyestes. Consorts/Children # [[Aphrodite]] ## [[Eunomia]] ## [[Hermaphroditus]] ## [[Peitho]] ## [[Rhodos]] ## [[Tyche]] # [[Aglaulus]] ## [[Eumolpus]] # [[Herse]] ## [[Cephalus]] # [[Pandrosus]] ## [[Ceryx]] # [[Dryope]] ## [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] # Unknown mother ## [[Abderus]] ## [[Aethalides]] ## [[Echion (Argonaut)|Echion]] ## [[Myrtilus]] # Unknown [[Sicily|Sicilian]] [[nymph]] ## [[Daphnis]] # [[Persephone]] #[[Krokus]] ==&quot;Hermes&quot; in Islamic tradition== Antoine Faivre, in ''The Eternal Hermes'' has pointed out that Hermes has a place in the [[Islam|Islamic]] tradition, though his name does not appear in the [[Qur'an]]. [[Hagiographer]]s and chroniclers of the first centuries of the Islamic [[Hijra (Islam)|Hegira]] quickly identified Hermes with [[Idris (prophet)|Idris]], the ''nabi'' of [[Sura|surahs]] 19.57; 21.85, whom the [[Arabs]] also identify with [[Enoch]] (cf. Genesis 5.18-24). Indris/Hermes is called &quot;Thrice Wise,&quot;( [[Hermes Trismegistus]]) because he was threefold: the first of the name, comparable to [[Thoth]], was a &quot;civilizing hero,&quot; an initiator into the mysteries of the divine science and wisdom that animate the world; he carved the principles of this sacred science in [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphs]]. The second Hermes, in [[Babylon]], was the initiator of [[Pythagoras]]. The third Hermes was the first teacher of [[Alchemy]]. &quot;A faceless prophet,&quot; writes the Islamicist Piere Lory &quot;Hermes possesses no concrete or salient characteristics, differing in this regard from most of the major figures of the Bible and the Quran.&quot; '' (Faivre 1995 pp.19-20) ==External links== *[http://www.theoi.com/Cult/HermesCult.html Cult of Hermes] *[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html Gods found in Mycenaean Greece]: a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' second edition(Cambridge 1973) ==References== *[[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion,'' *Antoine Faivre, 1995.''The Eternal Hermes : From Greek God to Alchemical Magus'' translated by Josceleyn Godwin (Phanes) ISBN 0-933999-52-6. *Lewis Hyde, Trickster Makes This World: Mischief, Myth, and Art (1998) {{commons|Hermes (mythology)}} [[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:Commerce gods]][[Category:Trickster gods]] [[bg:Хермес]] [[ca:Hermes]] [[da:Hermes]] [[de:Hermes (Mythologie)]] [[et:Hermes]] [[el:Ερμής (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Hermes]] [[eo:Hermeso]] [[fr:Hermès]] [[ko:헤르메스]] [[it:Ermes]] [[he:הרמס]] [[hu:Hermész]] [[nl:Hermes (mythologie)]] [[ja:ヘルメス]] [[no:Hermes]] [[pl:Hermes]] [[pt:Hermes]] [[ru:Гермес]] [[sr:Хермес]] [[sv:Hermes]] [[tr:Hermes]] [[uk:Гермес]] [[zh:赫尔墨斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hepatoscopy</title> <id>14411</id> <revision> <id>22069198</id> <timestamp>2005-08-29T02:13:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GeeJo</username> <id>296804</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hepatoscopy''' is a form of [[divination]] using the internal organs of sacrificed animals, specifically the [[liver]]. It is unrelated to [[endoscopy]] of this organ. The [[Babylonians]] were famous for hepatoscopy. The liver was considered the source of the blood and hence the base of life itself, from this belief the [[Mesopotamia]]ns deemed the liver of special sheep the means to discover the will of the gods. The priest, called a ''bara,'' was specially trained to interpret the 'signs' of the liver. The liver was divided into sections with each section representing a particular deity. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] were also well known for the practice of divining by the entrails of [[sheep]]; see ''[[haruspex]]''. {{occult-stub}} [[Category:Roman mythology]] [[Category:Divination]] [[Category:Etruscans]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hedge fund</title> <id>14412</id> <revision> <id>42140314</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Christofurio</username> <id>49935</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Strategies */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term &quot;'''hedge fund'''&quot; dates back to the first such fund founded by [[Alfred Winslow Jones]] in [[1949]]. Jones' innovation was to [[Short selling|sell short]] some [[stock]]s while buying others, thus some of the [[market risk]] was [[hedging | hedged]]. While most of today's [[hedge (finance)|hedge]] funds still trade stocks both long and short, many do not trade stocks at all and the term ''hedge fund'' has come to mean a relatively unregulated investment fund, often a [[partnership]] rather than a [[corporation]] in form, and characterized by unconventional strategies (i.e., strategies other than investing long only in [[bonds]], [[equities]] or [[money market]]s). For U.S.-based managers and investors, hedge funds are simply structured as limited partnerships. The hedge fund manager is the general partner and the investors are the limited partners. The funds are pooled together in the partnership and the general partner (hedge fund manager) makes all the investment decisions based on the strategy the hedge fund manager has outlined in their offering documents. In return for managing these funds, the hedge fund manager will receive a management fee and an incentive fee. Research shows that incentive fees correlate to higher returns in mutual funds [http://ideas.repec.org/a/bla/jfinan/v58y2003i2p779-804.html (Elton, Gruber, and Blake, 2003)], perhaps suggesting the attractiveness of hedge funds, where incentive fees can be much higher and restrictions on trading are less. The fee structures of these limited partnerships (U.S. based hedge funds) vary but typically the management fee ranges from 1-2% of the [[asset]]s under management and an additional fee called an &quot;incentive fee&quot; will be charged on the profits of the fund at a specified date. The incentive fee is usually 20% of the profits of the fund and can include &quot;hurdles&quot; or other items. [[Offshore investment|Offshore]] hedge funds are usually domiciled in a [[tax haven]] and are designed for U.S.-based hedge fund managers to manage the assets of foreign investors and [[Tax exemption|tax exempt]] U.S. investors. In this structure, the manager will receive a management and incentive fee and will also be invested in the fund as an investment manager. The typical hedge fund asset management firm includes both the domestic U.S. hedge fund and the offshore hedge fund. This allows he
omics|1989]] series) #3, 28&amp;ndash;29, 67&amp;ndash;68, 103 *''What If...'' ([[2006 in comics|2006]] #1), &quot;What if Captain America had lived in the American Civil War?&quot; *''Adventures of Captain America - Sentinel of Liberty'' ([[1991 in comics|1991]] series) #1&amp;ndash;4 (October [[1991 in comics|1991]]&amp;ndash;January [[1992 in comics|1992]]) *''Captain America: The Medusa Effect'' (March [[1994 in comics|1994]]) *''Captain America: Drug War'' (April 1994) *''Captain America'' (1996 series) #1&amp;ndash;13 (November 1996&amp;ndash;November [[1997 in comics|1997]]) *''Captain America'' ([[1998 in comics|1998]] series) #1&amp;ndash;50 (January 1998&amp;ndash;February [[2002 in comics|2002]]) *''Captain America Sentinel of Liberty'' (1998 series) #1&amp;ndash;12 (September 1998&amp;ndash;August [[1999 in comics|1999]]) *''Captain America: Dead Men Running'' (2002 series) #1&amp;ndash;3 (March 2002&amp;ndash;May 2002) *''Captain America'' (2002 series) #1&amp;ndash;32 (June 2002&amp;ndash;October [[2004 in comics|2004]]) *''Truth: Red, White and Black'' by Robert Morales and Kyle Baker ([[2003 in comics|2003]] series) #1&amp;ndash;7 *''Captain America: What Price Glory?'' (2003 series) #1&amp;ndash;4 (May 2003) *''Captain America &amp; The Falcon'' (2004 series) #1&amp;ndash;14 (April 2004&amp;ndash;) *''Captain America'' by Ed Brubaker and Steve Epting (2004 series) #1&amp;ndash;15 (November 2004&amp;ndash;current series) *''Marvel Team-Up'' #6, 10 by Robert Kirkman and Scott Kolins (2005&amp;ndash;current series) *''Marvel Team-Up'' #14 by Robert Kirkman and Cory Walker (2005&amp;ndash;current series) *''New Avengers'' #1&amp;ndash;16 by Brian Michael Bendis and David Finch (2005 series) ==See also== * [[List of actors who have played superheroes]] ==External links== * [http://www.medinnus.com/winghead/index.html Star-Spangled Site] ** Star-Spangled Site's [http://www.medinnus.com/winghead/shield_faq.html Captain America Shield FAQ] * [http://www.marveldatabase.com/wiki/index.php/Captain_America_%28Steve_Rogers%29 Captain America (Steve Rogers)] - A bio at the Marvel Database * [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/c/captainamerica.htm Captain America] - A bio at the Marvel Directory * [http://www.historyguy.com/comicshistory/captain_america.html Comicshistory: Captain America] - A brief bio of the Star-Spangled Avenger * [http://www.Captain-America.us Captain America Fan Site] Movie discussion, wallpaper, news, and comic book covers. [[Category:Avengers members]] [[Category:Defenders members]] [[Category:Fictional Americans]] [[Category:Fictional World War II veterans]] [[Category:Invaders members]] [[Category:Marvel Comics titles]] [[Category:Ultimates members]] [[Category:World War II fictional beings]] [[Category:Fictional supersoldiers]] [[Category:Fictional captains|America]] [[de:Captain America]] [[es:Capitán América]] [[fr:Captain America]] [[gl:Captain America]] [[he:קפטן אמריקה]] [[it:Capitan America]] [[pt:Capitão América]] [[sv:Captain America]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyclops (disambiguation)</title> <id>7730</id> <revision> <id>41296290</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:09:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Raul654</username> <id>21013</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[Cyclops]]''' is a one-eyed monster in Greek mythology. '''Cyclops''' may also mean: * [[Cyclops (comics)]], a comic book superhero in the Marvel Comics universe * [[Cyclops (rock)]], a type of agate found in Mexico * [[Cyclops (play)]], an ancient Greek play by Euripides * [[Cyclops (computer system)]], an automated line-calling system in tennis * [[List of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers monsters#Cyclops|Cyclops]], a fictional monster in the television series ''Mighty Morphin Power Rangers'' * [[USS Cyclops]], the name of two ships in the United States Navy * [[Project Cyclops]], a 1971 NASA proposal for construction of an Earth-based radio telescope array * [[Cyclopia]], a fetal abnormality in which the eyes are partially or completely fused * CP-10-Z ''Cyclops'', a [[BattleMech]] in the science-fiction universe of ''Battletech'' '''Cyclops''' may also be: * A genus of [[water flea]] * A comic poem by ancient Greek poet [[Philoxenus of Cythera]] * A character in the animated television series ''[[Xiaolin Showdown]]'' * A fictional organisation in David Brin's novel ''[[The Postman]]'' * [[Cyclops64]], a supercomputer architecture being developed by IBM. {{disambiguation}} [[ja:サイクロプス]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christian countercult movement</title> <id>7731</id> <revision> <id>39132919</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T22:45:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RJB</username> <id>115226</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Precursors &amp; pioneers */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christian countercult movement''', also known as '''discernment ministries''' is the collective designation for many mostly unrelated [[religious ministry|ministries]] and individual [[Christian]]s who oppose non-mainstream Christian and non-Christian religious groups, which they often call [[cult]]s. Motivation for this movement is usually based in doctrinal and theological reasons, and it often with a [[mission|missionary]] or [[apologetics|apologetic]] purpose. Protagonists often come from an [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] or [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] background, although some are former members of non-mainstream groups. While a considerable proportion of those who identify with the Christian countercult are [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Evangelicals, there are also [[Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Ancient Oriental Orthodox]] groups critical of cults. The Christian countercult movement with its emphases on apologetics and evangelism does not constitute the totality of concerns which many Christians have about cult practices. Some Christians share similar concerns to those of the secular [[anti-cult movement]]. ==History== ===Precursors &amp; pioneers=== Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history. In the Protestant traditions some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups like Swedenborg's teachings, can be traced back to [[John Wesley]], [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)]] and [[Princeton Theological Seminary|Princeton]] theologians like [[Charles Hodge]] and [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield]]. The first known usage of the term &quot;cult&quot; by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in ''Anti-Christian Cults'' by A. H. Barrington, published in [[1898]]. Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were [[Baptist]] pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the [[Brethren]], like William Irvine and Sydney Watson. Watson wrote a series of didactic novels like ''Escaped from the Snare:Christian Science'', ''Bewitched by Spiritualism'', and ''The Gilded Lie'', as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like [[Frank Peretti]]. The early twentieth century apologists generally applied the words &quot;[[heresy]]&quot; and &quot;[[sect]]s&quot; to groups like the [[Christadelphians]], [[Mormon]]s, [[Spiritualism|Spiritualists]], and [[Theosophy]]. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in [[1915]] ''The Fundamentals'', where apologists criticised the teachings of [[Charles Taze Russell]], [[Mary Baker Eddy]] ([[Christian Science]]), the [[Mormons]] and Spiritualists. ===Mid-20th century apologists=== Since at least the [[1940s]], the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of ''cult'' such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the Bible or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are: * ''The Missionary Faces Isms'', by John C. Mattes, pub. [[1937]] (Board of American Missions of the [[United Lutheran Church]]). * ''Heresies Ancient and Modern'', by J.Oswald Sanders, pub.[[1948]] (Marshall Morgan &amp; Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids). * ''Cults and Isms'', by J.Oswald Sanders, pub.1962, 1969, 1980 (Arrowsmith), ISBN 0551004584. * ''The Chaos of Cults'', by J.K.van Baalen, pub. 1938, 1944, 1960, 1962 (Eerdmans) * ''Heresies Exposed'', by W.C.Irvine, pub. 1921, 1975 (Loizeaux Brothers). * ''Confusion of Tongues'', by C.W.Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran &amp; Co). * ''Isms New and Old'', by Julius Bodensieck. * ''Some Latter-Day Religions'', by G.H.Combs. One of the first prominent countercult apologists was [[Jan Karel van Baalen]] ([[1890]]-[[1968]]), an ordained minister in the [[Christian Reformed Church in North America]]. His book, ''The Chaos of Cults'', which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field. ===Walter Martin=== Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was [[Walter Martin]] (1928-89), whose numerous books include the [[1955]] ''The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults'' and the [[1965]] ''The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era'', which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, &quot;The Bible Answer Man&quot;, currently hosted by [[Hank Hanegraaff]]. In his 1955 book, Martin gave the following definition of a cult: :&quot;By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of be
Soane]]. [[Greek Revival]] was added to the design repertory, after about [[1800]]. ''See also'': [[Adam style]], [[Georgian Dublin]]. Georgian architecture is characterised by its sense of proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine for example, the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube. &quot;Regular&quot; was a term of approval, implying symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures, was deeply felt as a flaw. Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Georgian designs usually include one or more of the [[Classical order|orders of architecture]] and other elements derived from ancient Rome or Greece. In the [[American colonies]], the neo-Palladian style is associated with '[[colonial Georgian]]' and the neo-classical styles broadly with '[[Federal style architecture|Federal]]' building styles. Unlike earlier styles, which were disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system, Georgian architecture was also disseminated to builders through the new medium of inexpensive suites of [[engraving]]s. From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every carpenter and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland. After about 1840 Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of [[Revival styles]], including [[Gothic revival]], enlarged the design repertoire. In the United States this style fell out of favour after the revolution, due to its association with the colonial regime, later the [[Colonial Revival]] style would return to these designs. In Canada the [[United Empire Loyalists]] embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in that country for most of the first half of the 19th century. ==See also== *[[Victorian architecture]] [[Category:Georgian architecture| ]] [[Category:Architectural styles]] [[Category:British architecture]] [[Category:House styles]] [[de:Georgianische Architektur]] [[fr:Architecture géorgienne]] [[uk:Георгіанський період]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Porting Vectorsite articles</title> <id>12925</id> <revision> <id>32082432</id> <timestamp>2005-12-20T09:17:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JesseW</username> <id>33352</id> </contributor> <comment>link template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Greg Goebel''' has written a considerable number of articles (of encyclopedic quality) at his website: http://www.vectorsite.net/. He also publishes monthly newsletters on aviation technology and on general science and technology: * [http://www.vectorsite.net/indexf.html Flash] * [http://www.vectorsite.net/indexvc.html Vectors] * [http://www.vectorsite.net/ttcode.html Cryptography] He has graciously put these writings in the [[public domain]], and he was contacted personally to confirm that it would be OK to integrate these into [[Wikipedia]]. If you would like to 'port' an article of his to Wikipedia, you are encouraged to contact him as he might be able to provide updates and/or corrections. This page will be used to track which documents and versions have been imported into Wikipedia. Please put '''{{tl|vectorsite}}''' message into the articles based on Greg's in the '''Reference''' section. == Imports == === Done === * December 20th, 2001: [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] - version 1.1 * January 19th, 2002: [[P-38 Lightning]] - version 1.3 * February 25th, 2002 (or earlier): [[Plastic]] - version 1.0 * April 11th, 2002: [[Fuzzy control system]] - version 1.2 * April 11th, 2002: [[Computer numbering formats]] - seems to be version 1.0.5 * April 12th, 2002: [[SETI]] - version 1.0.2 * April 12th, 2002: [[Aerobot]] - version 1.0 * April 15th, 2002: [[George Westinghouse]] - unknown * April 15th, 2002: [[Hypersonic]] - unknown * April 16th, 2002: [[Age of the Earth]] - unknown * January 21th, 2003: [[Dassault Mirage III]] - version 2.1.0 * March 9th, 2003: [[B-47 Stratojet]] - version 2.0.0 * February 6, 2004: [[Short Sunderland]] * February 8, 2004: [[T-37]] - version 1.0.2 === Initiated === ''Greg Goebel contacted'' :&lt;Put links to Greg's articles you've already laid your hands on. Don't forget your name.&gt; * June 21, 2004: [[SIGSALY]], [[Bazeries cylinder]], photos for [[Enigma machine]] - version 2.2.0 * June 22, 2004: [[M-209]], [[Trench code]] * July 18, 2004: [[Code (cryptography)]] === Planned === &lt;Links to Greg's articles you feel you can handle in near future.&gt; [[Category:Wikipedia how-to|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:Wikipedia sources]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goshen, Indiana</title> <id>12926</id> <revision> <id>30418583</id> <timestamp>2005-12-07T01:36:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Antandrus</username> <id>57658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.74.19.184|129.74.19.184]] ([[User talk:129.74.19.184|talk]]) to last version by Adashiel</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag | official_name = City of Goshen, Indiana | nickname =| image_flag =| image_seal =| image_map = US-IN-Goshen.png | map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] | subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] | subdivision_name = [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart]]| leader_title = [[Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Allan Kauffman]] | area_note =| area_magnitude = 1 E7 | area_total = 34.7 | area_land = 34.2 | area_water = 0.5 | population_as_of = 2000 | population_note =| population_total = 29,383 | population_density = 860.1 | timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] | utc_offset = -5 | timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] | utc_offset_DST = -5 | latitude = 41&amp;deg;34'55&quot; N | longitude = 85&amp;deg;50'12&quot; W | website = www.ci.goshen.in.us | footnotes =| }} '''Goshen, Indiana''' is a town of 29,383 people (As of the [[2000]] census). It is located about 100 miles east of [[Chicago, Illinois]] and 30 miles east of [[South Bend, Indiana]] in north-central [[Indiana]]. It is the [[county seat]] of [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart county]]. The town's preferred nickname is the '''Maple City'''. In [[2005]], the [[Mayor]] is Allan Kauffman. It is primarily known as a center of manufacturing for [[recreational vehicle]]s and accessories. It is also home to [[Goshen College]], a nationally recognized liberal arts college. On [[December 6]], [[2001]], Goshen was in the national news due to a shooting at [[Nu-Wood]]. While initial reports said that 35 people had been shot, the actual facts were that the gunman, Robert Wissman killed one co-worker (plant general manager Greg Oswald), wounded 6 others, and took his own life. == Geography == Goshen is located at 41&amp;deg;34'55&quot; North, 85&amp;deg;50'12&quot; West (41.582066, -85.836686){{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 34.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (13.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 34.2 km&amp;sup2; (13.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.57% water. The city is divided north/south by Lincoln Avenue and east/west by Main Street. There is a distinct economic/social divide between the north and south sides of the city, the north side being regarded as the area north of the [[Norfolk Southern Railway|Norfolk Southern]] railroad tracks. This is in places a disadvantaged area and much of the city's crime occurs here. The growing [[Latino]] population of Goshen has largely settled on the north side. South of Lincoln Avenue is considered the &quot;old money&quot; area of the city and many old houses and brick streets are preserved. == Demographics == As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 29,383 people, 10,675 households, and 7,088 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 860.1/km&amp;sup2; (2,227.7/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 11,264 housing units at an average density of 329.7/km&amp;sup2; (854.0/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 83.15% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.53% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.26% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.10% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 12.00% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.94% from two or more races. 19.33% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. [[Image:Goshen-indiana-downtown.jpg|thumb|left|Goshen's downtown.]] There are 10,675 households out of which 32.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.8% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% are non-families. 27.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.61 and the average family size is 3.14. In the city the population is spread out with 25.9% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $39,383, and the median income for a family is $46,877. Males have a median income of $32,159 versus $23,290 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,899. 9.3% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total populatio
xt xml:space="preserve">'''Heraldry''' is the [[science]] and [[art]] of designing, displaying, describing and recording [[coat of arms|coats-of-arms]] (also referred to as &quot;armorial bearings&quot; or simply as &quot;arms&quot;). Its origins lie in the need to distinguish participants in [[battle]]s or [[jousting|jousts]], whose faces were hidden by steel [[helmet]]s. In the late [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]], heraldry became a highly developed discipline, regulated by professional [[herald]]s. As its use in jousts became obsolete, arms remained popular for visually identifying a person in other ways &amp;mdash; impressed in [[seal (device)|sealing wax]] on official documents, carved on a family tomb, and so forth. Throughout the existence of heraldry, coats of arms have been executed in a wide variety of media, including painted wood, [[embroidery]], [[enamel]], stonework and [[stained glass]]. For this reason, and because its original function was quick recognition in the chaotic conditions of battle, heraldry for the most part distinguishes only six [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]]s (yellow, white, red, blue, black and green; purple is counted in theory but its use in practice is marginal) and makes no fine distinctions in the width or angle of a stripe, the precise size or placement of [[charge (heraldry)|charge]]s on the field, or the number of a lion's claws. Coats of arms and their accessories are described in a concise jargon called '''[[blazon]]''', which ignores details that do not contribute to quick recognition. It is sometimes said that each element of a coat of arms has a conventional meaning, that white stands for honour, blue for loyalty and red for courage, and so on. While the original bearer of a coat may well have had some symbolism in mind, there is no reason to expect consistency from one to the next. In general it is impossible to say what a given coat of arms &quot;means&quot;, unless (as is often the case) it incorporates a pun on the bearer's name. The development of portable [[firearm]]s made [[plate armor]] nearly useless, and heraldry, detached from its original function, gradually became more elaborate at the expense of clarity, both in content (e.g. landscapes representing battle sites became frequent in the 18th century) and in presentation (e.g. [[rococo]] frames overwhelmed the content of the shield). The 20th century's taste for stark iconic emblems made the simple styles of early heraldry fashionable again. The descent of arms was and remains strictly regulated by inheritance; only certain actual descendents of a particular ''armigerous'' (arms-bearing) person are entitled to his arms or a differenced version of them &amp;mdash; hence popular associations of a coat of arms with all bearers of a surname are based on a misconception. Heraldry is mostly a hobby today; but in some countries (e.g. Scotland) it remains regulated by heralds and the assumption of another's arms is illegal. The word &quot;crest&quot; is commonly used to refer to a coat-of-arms. However, in heraldry, a [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] is just one component of a complete '''achievement of arms'''. The [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] sits atop a [[helmet]], which itself sits on the main and most recognizable part of the arms, the shield or [[escutcheon]]. Other elements may include [[supporters]] holding up the shield and a [[motto]] beneath. Crests can in fact be used on their own (this is particularly useful when there is insufficient space to display the entire coat-of-arms); but where the shield alone is used it should never be called a &quot;crest&quot;. ==Shield and lozenge== Traditionally, as women did not go to [[war]], they would not have a shield. Instead, their coats-of-arms would be shown on a [[lozenge]] (a [[rhombus]] standing on one of its acute corners). As women may now serve in the [[armed forces]] in a number of countries, some [[armiger|armigerous]] women prefer to use a shield anyway. A parallel usage for noncombatant [[clergy]]men could be found sometimes on the [[Europe]]an continent, with the occasional placement of arms on a cartouche (an [[oval]]-shaped vehicle for their display). For more detail on the use of the lozenge (subject to certain rules) by women in the British heraldic tradition, see the separate article on the [[Lozenge (heraldry)|lozenge]]. Very rarely and almost invariably in non-European contexts, such as the [[Coat of Arms of Nunavut|arms of Nunavut]], the former Republic of [[Bophuthatswana]] [http://www.ngw.nl/int/zaf/prov/bophutsw.htm] and some Algerian civic heraldry of French colonial origin, specific shapes of shield are specified in the blazon (and the specific type of shield is sometimes followed to the extent, as in [http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/gaucoat.html the arms of Gauteng], that structures in the shield (in that case &quot;shield thongs&quot;) function as charges). In rare instances the shield may be blazoned as being displayed on a ''[[cartouche]]'', the tincture of which is then specified. &lt;center&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;&gt; &lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''The arms of [[Margaret Thatcher|The Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven]] and the late [[Denis Thatcher|Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:ThatcherB&amp;W.jpg|The arms of Lady Thatcher]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:THATCHERBT.jpg|The arms of Sir Denis Thatcher]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;''A lozenge, the traditional shape of a woman's coat of arms''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''A shield, traditionally used only by a man''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ==Tinctures== {| align=right | [[image:tinctures.gif|Table of the tinctures and furs]] |} ''Main article: [[Tincture (heraldry)|Tincture]]'' The first rule of heraldry is the [[rule of tincture]]: metal (bright tinctures) must never be placed upon metal, nor colour (dark tinctures) upon colour, for the sake of contrast; except where this cannot be avoided, as in the case of a [[charge (heraldry)|charge]] overlying a partition of the field. Like any rule, this admits some exceptions, the most famous being the arms chosen by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] when he was made [[kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]], featuring five gold (or yellow) crosses potent on an silver (or white) field &amp;mdash; a design that might have been modelled after the Arab technique of [[Damascus steel]]. The names used in English blazon for the tinctures come mainly from French: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! Tincture ! Heraldic name |- ! colspan=2 | ''Metals'' |- | Gold/Yellow | [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] |- | Silver/White | [[Argent]] |- ! colspan=2 | ''Colours'' |- | Blue | [[Azure]] |- | Red | [[Gules]] |- | Black | [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]] |- | Green | [[Vert]] |- | Purple | [[Purpure]] |} A number of other colours are occasionally found, typically for special purposes. These are discussed in the main article on [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]]s. Besides the solid tinctures, certain patterns called [[fur (heraldry)|furs]] function as tinctures. The two common furs are [[ermine (heraldry)|ermine]] and [[vair]], each of which has several rarer variants. * ''Ermine'' represents the winter coat of the [[stoat]], which is white with a black tail; the heraldic fur is white with a pattern of black spots, representing a number of skins sewn together. * ''Vair'' and ''Potent'' represent a kind of squirrel with a blue-gray back and white belly; sewn together it forms a pattern of alternating blue and white shapes. '''Proper''': [[Charge (heraldry)|Charge]]s such as plants and animals may also be depicted in their natural colours, in which case they are described as ''proper''. Proper charges are much more frequent as crests and supporters than on the shield. ==Divisions of the field== ''Main article: [[Division of the field|Divisions of the field]]'' [[Image:Divisions of the field.png|200px|right|Division of the field]] The [[field (heraldry)|field]] of a [[shield]] in [[heraldry]] can be divided into more than one [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]], as can the various [[charge (heraldry)|charge]]s. Many coats of arms consist simply of a division of the field into two contrasting [[tinctures]], by a single line or several parallel lines, vertical, horizontal or diagonal, or some combination. Since these are considered divisions of a shield the tincture rules can be ignored. A shield divided azure and gules, for instance, would be acceptable. This is especially true of a shield that is tierced. Arms that are tierced fesswise sable, vert and gules are fine because the shield is considered to have been divided into three rather than having a fess on two background colours. The line or lines of partition may be straight, ''wavy'', ''indented'' (zigzag), ''embattled'' (in the form of [[battlements]]), ''engrailed'' or ''invected'' (scalloped), among other shapes. ==Charges== ''Main article: [[Charge (heraldry)|Charge]]'' Any object found in nature or technology may appear as a charge in armory, and probably has at least once &amp;mdash; albeit more or less stylized. Charges can be animals, objects or geometric constructs ([[Ordinary (heraldry)|ordinaries]]). Apart from simple stripes &amp;mdash; some of which probably originated as bands that reinforced the shield and were painted a contrasting color &amp;mdash; the most frequent charges are the [[cross]] (with hundreds of variations) and the [[lion|king of beasts]]. Other common animals are [[fish]], [[martlet]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[griffin]]s, [[boar]]s and [[stag]]s. [[European dragon|Dragons]], [[unicorn]]s and more exotic monsters appear rarely as charges but more often as [[supporter]]s. Possibly the rarest animal in heraldry is the [[iguanodon]] supporter of th
love &lt;BR&gt; Show whether it's strong and true; &lt;BR&gt; And so shall the song continue &lt;BR&gt; From generation to generation &lt;BR&gt; &amp;nbsp; |: Germany, Germany above all, &lt;BR&gt; &amp;nbsp; And in times of misfortune more than ever.:| |} Many other variants and parodies exist. ==Controversy== The song has frequently been criticised because of its generally nationalist theme, and because of the geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza. The main negative associations come from the (mis)-use by the Nazis, about 100 years after it was written. Unlike many other anthems (''e.g.'', ''[[La Marseillaise]]'', ''[[God Save the Queen]]'', ''[[The Star Spangled Banner]]''), it doesn't praise nor even mention war in any way, which could have played a role in Germany's decision to continue using it after [[World War II]]. This stems from the fact that it was originally also thought of as a simple drinking song, which explains the reference to German wine and women in the second stanza. In the light of German military aggression and nationalist furore during [[World War II]], it was easy to infer a sinister intent of a German supremacy on a global level behind the exhortation to &quot;Deutschland über Alles in der Welt&quot; (&quot;Germany above all in the world&quot;), and the words were so exploited in Allied propaganda. The song still rings with menace today in the ears of some. Many would agree that however valid the propagandists' interpretation may have been in regard to the [[Nazis]], it does not reflect Hoffmann's original intentions. He had actually meant that in times of strife, Germany's sake must be put &quot;above all else in the world.&quot; There was no real united Germany at that time, only a large number of scattered German states, and these were the real &quot;world&quot; above which Germany was supposed to be ranked, while no international claims were made. Hoffmann and many Germans longed for them all to finally unite, a wish that only came true (except for Austria) when the German Empire was proclaimed in [[Versailles]] in 1871.[http://www.bundestag.de/blickpunkt/103_Parlament/0502/0502014.html] During the century after the song was written, the concept of [[nationalism]] changed drastically. In the middle of the 19th century, nationalism was a liberal, [[progressivism|progressive]] idea aimed at overcoming [[monarchy]]. By the middle of the 20th century, after two World Wars, nationalism had become, to the opinion of some, a [[conservative]] or even [[fascist]] concept aimed at territorial expansion. == Geography == Besides the degree of nationalism, the geography mentioned in the first stanza is open to major criticism and misuse, even though no-one can blame Hoffmann for making totally unfounded claims to foreign soil. In the early [[1840s]], when the text was written, there was no single German state and it was uncertain if there would ever be. Hoffmann bases his definition of Germany on linguistic criteria: he describes the approximate area where a significant percentage [[German language|German]] speakers lived at the time. 19th century nationalists generally relied on linguistic criteria to determine the borders of the [[nation-state]]s they desired. {|class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; rules=&quot;cols&quot; | Von der [[Maas]] bis an die [[Memel]], &lt;BR&gt; Von der [[Etsch]] bis an den Belt. | From the [[Meuse River|Meuse]] to the [[Neman River|Neman]], &lt;BR&gt; From the [[Adige River|Adige]] to the [[Little Belt|Belt]]. |} *To the North there is not as much difference to later real boundaries, but the Little Belt between [[Jutland]] and [[Funen]] is Danish territory now (see [[First war of Schleswig|first]] and [[second war of Schleswig]]) *In the West he names the Maas, a river that runs also through [[Belgium]] where German is one of three official languages, close to the transition area between German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] dialects *In the East, [[East Prussia]] stretched to the Memel, which represented the easternmost extension of German speakers around [[Königsberg]]. The Neman River is now the border between the [[Russia]]n exclave of [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] and [[Lithuania]] *As Southern border, the Etsch is given, which has its source and longest section in [[South Tyrol]], nowadays an autonomous province of [[Italy]] with a majority of German speakers In the south and in the west, Hoffmann's definition of Germany coincided with the borders of the [[German Confederation]] as it existed then. The southernmost member of the Confederation was [[Austria]]; the westernmost members were [[Luxembourg]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]. However, Hoffmann went beyond the Confederation boundaries in the north and in the east; neither Schleswig nor East Prussia belonged to it at that time yet. ==External links== *[http://www.bundesregierung.de/PureHtml/-,9200.430594/dokument.htm History and development of the Deutschlandlied] - Information by the German federal government (in German) *[http://www.geocities.com/liedderdeutschen/] Page with lots of Mp3 *[http://www.deutschland.de/media/Deutschlandlied.mp3 Mp3 sound file] *[http://www.easybyte.org Easybyte] - free easy piano sheet music for Das Lied der Deutschen *[http://ingeb.org/images/deutschl.GIF Sheet music] [[Category:National anthems|Lied der Deutschen, Das]] [[Category:History of Germany]] [[Category:German cultural icons]] [[ar:نشيد وطني ألماني]] [[ca:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[cs:Německá hymna]] [[da:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[de:Deutschlandlied]] [[et:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[el:Το τραγούδι των Γερμανών]] [[es:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[eo:La kanto de l' germanoj]] [[fr:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[ko:독일의 국가]] [[hr:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[id:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[it:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[he:המנון גרמניה]] [[lt:Vokietijos himnas]] [[lb:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[hu:Német himnusz]] [[ms:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[nl:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[nds:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[ja:ドイツの国歌]] [[no:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[nn:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[pl:Hymn Niemiec]] [[pt:Hino nacional da Alemanha]] [[ro:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[ru:Гимн Германии]] [[simple:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[sk:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[sl:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[sr:Химна Немачке]] [[fi:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[sv:Deutschlandlied]] [[vi:Das Lied der Deutschen]] [[zh:德意志之歌]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 31</title> <id>8204</id> <revision> <id>42094460</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>rv This is the events section, Rick Nelson is already listed under Deaths</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 31]]''' is the 365th day of the year (366th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. It is the final day of the Gregorian year. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== *[[406]] - [[Vandals]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebians]] cross the [[Rhine]], beginning an invasion of [[Gaul|Gallia]]. *[[1600]] - [[British East India Company]] is chartered. *[[1687]] - The first [[Huguenots]] set sail from [[France]] to the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. *[[1695]] - A [[window tax]] is imposed in [[England]], causing many shopkeepers to brick up their windows to avoid the [[tax]]. *[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: British forces repulse an attack by [[Continental Army]] generals [[Richard Montgomery]] and [[Benedict Arnold]] at the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]]. *[[1857]] - Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] chooses [[Ottawa, Ontario]], as the capital of [[Canada]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Abraham Lincoln]] signs an act that admits [[West Virginia]] to the Union (thus dividing Virginia in two). *1862 - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Stones River]] is fought near [[Murfreesboro, Tennessee]]. *[[1879]] - [[Thomas Edison]] demonstrates [[incandescent lighting]] to the public for the first time. *[[1904]] - The first [[New Year's Eve]] celebration is held in [[Times Square]], then known as Longacre Square, in [[New York, New York]]. *[[1909]] - [[Manhattan Bridge]] opens. *[[1916]] - The [[Hampton Terrace Hotel, North Augusta|Hampton Terrace Hotel]] in [[North Augusta, South Carolina]], one of the largest and most luxurious hotels in the [[United States]] at the time, burns to the ground. *[[1929]] - [[Guy Lombardo]] performs ''[[Auld Lang Syne]]'' at the [[Roosevelt Hotel]] in [[New York City]] for the first time. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Hungary]] declares war on [[Germany]]. *[[1946]] - President [[Harry Truman]] officially proclaims the end of hostilities in [[World War II]]. *[[1955]] - [[General Motors]] becomes the first [[U.S.]] corporation to make over [[United States dollars|USD]] $1 billion in a year. *[[1960]] - The [[farthing coin]] ceases to be [[legal tender]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1961]] - The [[Marshall Plan]] expires after distributing more than [[United States dollars|USD]] $12 billion in [[foreign aid]] to rebuild [[Europe]]. *[[1963]] - [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|The Central African Federation]] officially collapses and splits into [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Rhodesia]]. *[[1968]] - [[Marien Ngouabi]] assumed the presidency of the [[Republic of the Congo]]. *[[1972]] - [[Roberto Clemente]] died in a plane crash delivering aid to [[earthquake]] victims in [[Nicaragua]]. *[[1983]] - The [[AT&amp;T]] [[Bell System]] is broken up by the [[United States]] Government. *[[1986]] - A fire at the [[Dupont Plaza Hotel]] in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], kills 97 and injures 140. *[[1988]] - [[Mario Lemieux]] of the [[Pittsburgh Penguins]] becomes the first player in [[National Hockey League]] history to score one goal of each type in a single hockey game: an even-strength goal, a po
] lay in taking the position of the observer into account. This explained why it looks as though the sun revolves around the earth even though in reality the earth revolves around the sun. Taking the observer's position into account prevents the unaware projection of the observer's perception or point of view onto the picture of the universe. Kant saw his own Copernican revolution in philosophy, analogously, as consisting in taking the position of the knower into account and thereby preventing the unaware projection of the knower's way of thinking (&quot;pure reason&quot;) onto the philosophical map of reality. According to Kant, it was philosophers unawarely doing this that had created the illusions of metaphysics that dominated the prior history of philosophy. Kant saw this revolution, in turn, as being part of &quot;Enlightenment&quot; (as conceived of in the [[Age of Enlightenment]]) and the creation of an enlightened citizenry and society freed from dogmatism and irrational authority. Kant's wider influence not only in philosophy but in the humanities and social sciences generally lies in the central concept of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', namely that it is the synthesizing, unifying, ''constitutive'' activity of the subject of knowledge that is at the basis of our having an ordered world of experience and of the objects of knowledge themselves. This idea has spread out through many intellectual disciplines in which it has manifested itself in different forms, for example: :*from [[Marx]]'s notion, in [[social theory]], of the constitutive role of human [[Work|labor]] in the creation of [[history]] and [[society]] :* through [[Freud]]'s notion, in [[psychology]], that the activity of the [[ego]] produces the [[reality principle]] :* through [[Durkheim]]'s notion, in [[sociology]], that society creates [[collective consciousness]] through [[social category|social categories]] :* through [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]]'s notion, in [[linguistics]], of [[transformational grammar]] :* to current notions, in several of the [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]], regarding the &quot;[[social construction of reality]]&quot; ([[Peter_L._Berger|Berger]] &amp; [[Thomas Luckmann|Luckmann]], 1966). In this way Kant's conception of synthesizing, ordering mental activity has become central to modern intellectual culture. ==Tomb== [[Image:Kant's tombstone Kaliningrad.jpeg|right|thumb|150px|The inscription upon Kant's tomb near the [[Kant Russian State University]].]] His [[tomb]] and its [[pillar]]ed enclosure outside the cathedral in Kaliningrad are some of the few artifacts of German times preserved by the [[Soviets]] after they conquered the city in [[1945]]. A replica of a statue of Kant that stood in front of the university was donated by a German entity in 1991 and placed on the original pediment. Near his tomb is the following inscription in [[German language|German]] and [[Russian language|Russian]], taken from the &quot;Conclusion&quot; of his ''Critique of Practical Reason&quot; &lt;blockquote&gt;Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and perseveringly my thinking engages itself with them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.&lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Works and links to texts, in English and German== {{wikisource author}} * ([[1749]]) ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * ([[1755]]) ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven]]'' (''Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie Des Himmels'' [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/kant2g.htm]) * ([[1762]]) ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * ([[1763]]) ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * ([[1763]]) ''[[Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy]]'' (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführnen'') * ([[1764]]) ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * ([[1764]]) ''[[Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality]]'' (the ''Prize Essay'') (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * ([[1770]]) ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'' (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'') * ([[1781]]) First edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm]) * ([[1783]]) ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * ([[1784]]) &quot;[[What Is Enlightenment?|An Answer To The Question: What Is Enlightenment?]]&quot; (''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?'' [http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm]) * ([[1784]]) ''[[Idea For A Universal History With A Cosmopolitan Purpose]]'' (''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht'') * ([[1785]]) ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * ([[1786]]) ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * ([[1787]]) Second edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm]) * ([[1788]]) ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm]) * ([[1790]]) ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'' [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Kritik_der_Urteilskraft]) * ([[1793]]) ''[[Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone]]'' (''Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'') [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm] * ([[1795]]) ''[[Perpetual Peace]]'' [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm] (''Zum ewigen Frieden'' [http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html]) * ([[1797]]) ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Metaphysik der Sitten'') * ([[1798]]) ''[[Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]]'' (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * ([[1798]]) ''[[The Contest of Faculties]]'' [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/] (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm]) * ([[1800]]) ''[[Kant's Logik|Logic]]'' (''Logik'') * ([[1803]]) ''[[On Pedagogy]]'' (''Über Pädagogik'' [http://www1.uni-bremen.de/~kr538/kantpaed.html]) * ([[1804]]) ''[[Opus Postumum]]'' * (More German works at [http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant Wikisource]) * (More German works at [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/kant.htm Project Gutenberg]) * (More English works at [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/kant_immanuel.html The University of Adelaide Library]) ==Quotes== &lt;!--This data was moved from the old Infobox Philosopher template on September 9. Please move this to Wikiquote--&gt; ''Two things fill the mind with ever new, and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect upon them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.''&lt;br&gt;-Epitaph (from [[Critique of Practical Reason]] 5:161) &quot;If we attend to the course of conversation in mixed companies consisting not merely of scholars and subtle reasoners but also of business people or women, we notice that besides storytelling and jesting they have another entertainment, namely, arguing.&quot; ==External links== * [http://ethics.acusd.edu/theories/kant Kant &amp; Ethics] * [http://naks.ucsd.edu/ North American Kant Society (NAKS)] (many helpful links!) * [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/Kant.html Kant on the Web] * [http://comp.uark.edu/~rlee/semiau96/kantlink.html Kant Links] * [http://www.friesian.com/kant.htm Epistemology and Metaphysics] * [http://www.phil.upenn.edu/~cubowman/kant.html Kant and the project of enlightenment] * [http://www.e-text.org/text/ Several Kant's works in clickable pdf] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html#k Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (many entries on Kant)] * {{gutenberg author|id=Kant, |name=Immanuel Kant}} * [http://www.philos.msu.ru/community/staff/vasiliev/Kant_Interview/Kant_Interview.html International Kant Interview - 2004] * [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com Readable versions of Prolegomena and Groundwork for Met.of Morals] ==See also== {{Wikiquotepar|Immanuel Kant}} {{commons|Immanuel Kant}} *[[Kantianism]] *[[Neo-Kantianism]] *[[Liberalism]] *[[Contributions to liberal theory]] *[[Kant Russian State University]] ==References and further reading== Any suggestion of further reading on Kant has to take cognizance of the fact that his work has dominated philosophy like no other figure after him. Nevertheless, several guideposts can be made out. In Germany, the most important contemporary interpreter of Kant and the movement of German Idealism which he began is Dieter Henrich, who has some work available in English. P.F. Strawson's &quot;The Bounds of Sense&quot; (1969) played a significant role in determing the contemporary reception of Kant in England and America. At the same time, many key features of his position have been widely rejected. More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include Henry Allison, Paul Guyer, Robert Pippin, Rudolf Makkreel, and Béatrice Longuenesse. ===General introductions to Kant's thought=== *Broad C. D. ''Kant: An Introduction''. Cambridge Unive
t;k&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; x and from x&lt;sup&gt;n-k&lt;/sup&gt;y&lt;sup&gt;k-1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; y. For example, ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is both ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times ''x'' and ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' times ''y'', thus its coefficient is 3 (the coefficient of ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) + 3 (the coefficient of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''). This is the origin of Pascal's triangle, discussed below. Another perspective is that to form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; from ''n'' factors of (''x''+''y''), we must choose ''y'' from ''k'' of the factors and ''x'' from the rest. To count the possibilities, consider all ''n''! [[permutation]]s of the factors. Represent each permutation as a shuffled list of the numbers from 1 to ''n''. Select an ''x'' from the first ''n''−''k'' factors listed, and a ''y'' from the remaining ''k'' factors; in this way each permutation contributes to the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;. For example, the list &amp;lang;&lt;u&gt;4,1&lt;/u&gt;,&lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;2,3&lt;/u&gt;&amp;rang; selects ''x'' from factors 4 and 1, and selects ''y'' from factors 2 and 3, as one way to form the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. : (&lt;u&gt;''x''&lt;/u&gt; +&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; ''y'')(''x'' +&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;''y''&lt;/u&gt;)(''x'' +&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;''y''&lt;/u&gt;)(&lt;u&gt;''x''&lt;/u&gt; +&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ''y'') But the distinct list &amp;lang;&lt;u&gt;1,4&lt;/u&gt;,&lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;3,2&lt;/u&gt;&amp;rang; makes exactly the same selection; the binomial coefficient formula must remove this redundancy. The ''n''−''k'' factors for ''x'' have (''n''−''k'')! permutations, and the ''k'' factors for ''y'' have ''k''! permutations. Therefore ''n''!/(''n''−''k'')!''k''! is the number of truly distinct ways to form the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;. == Pascal's triangle == [[Pascal's rule]] is the important [[recurrence relation]] :&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n,k) + \mathrm{C}(n,k+1) = C(n+1,k+1), \qquad (3) &lt;/math&gt; which follows directly from the definition. This recurrence relation can be used to prove by [[mathematical induction]] that C(''n'', ''k'') is a natural number for all ''n'' and ''k'', a fact that is not immediately obvious from the definition. It also gives rise to [[Pascal's triangle]]: row 0 1 row 1 1 1 row 2 1 2 1 row 3 1 3 3 1 row 4 1 4 6 4 1 row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1 row 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 row 7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 row 8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 Row number ''n'' contains the numbers C(''n'', ''k'') for ''k'' = 0,...,''n''. It is constructed by starting with ones at the outside and then always adding two adjacent numbers and writing the sum directly underneath. This method allows the quick calculation of binomial coefficients without the need for fractions or multiplications. For instance, by looking at row number 5 of the triangle, one can quickly read off that :(''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = '''1'''''x''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; + '''5''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' + '''10''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + '''10''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + '''5''' ''x'' ''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + '''1'''''y''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;. The differences between elements on other diagonals are the elements in the previous diagonal - consequential to the recurrence relation (3) above. In the 1303 AD treatise ''Precious Mirror of the Four Elements'', [[Zhu Shijie]] mentioned the triangle as an ancient method for solving binomial coefficients indicating that the method was known to Chinese mathematicians five centuries before [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]]. == Combinatorics and statistics == Binomial coefficients are of importance in [[combinatorics]], because they provide ready formulas for certain frequent counting problems: * Every [[set]] with ''n'' elements has &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k)&lt;/math&gt; different subsets having ''k'' elements each (these are called [[combination|''k''-combinations]]). * The number of [[string (computer science)|strings]] of length ''n'' containing ''k'' ones and ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''k'' zeros is &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k).&lt;/math&gt; * There are &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n+1, k)&lt;/math&gt; strings consisting of ''k'' ones and ''n'' zeros such that no two ones are adjacent. * The number of sequences consisting of ''n'' [[natural number]]s whose sum equals ''k'' is &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n+k-1, k)&lt;/math&gt;; this is also the number of ways to choose ''k'' elements from a set of ''n'' if repetitions are allowed. * The [[Catalan number]]s have an easy formula involving binomial coefficients; they can be used to count various structures, such as [[tree (graph theory)|tree]]s and parenthesized expressions. The binomial coefficients also occur in the formula for the [[binomial distribution]] in [[statistics]] and in the formula for a [[Bézier curve]]. == Formulas involving binomial coefficients == One has that :&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n,k)= \mathrm{C}(n, n-k),\qquad\qquad(4)\,&lt;/math&gt; which follows from expansion (2) by using (''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = (''y'' + ''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, and is reflected in the numerical &quot;symmetry&quot; of [[Pascal's triangle]]. Another formula is :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=0}^{n} \mathrm{C}(n,k) = 2^n; \qquad (5) &lt;/math&gt; it is obtained from expansion (2) using ''x'' = ''y'' = 1. This is equivalent to saying that the elements in one row of Pascal's triangle always add up to two raised to an integer power. The formula :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=1}^{n} k \mathrm{C}(n,k) = n 2^{n-1} \qquad (6) &lt;/math&gt; follows from expansion (2), after [[derivative|differentiating]] and substituting ''x'' = ''y'' = 1. [[Vandermonde's identity]] :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j} \mathrm{C}(m,j) \mathrm{C}(n-m,k-j) = \mathrm{C}(n,k) \qquad (7a) &lt;/math&gt; is found by expanding (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n-m''&lt;/sup&gt; = (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with (2). As C(''n'', ''k'') is zero if ''k'' &gt; ''n'', the sum is finite for integer n and m. Equation (7a) generalizes equation (3). It holds for arbitrary, complex-valued &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, the [[Chu-Vandermonde identity]]. A related formula is :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{m} \mathrm{C}(m,j) \mathrm{C}(n-m,k-j) = \mathrm{C}(n+1,k+1). \qquad (7b) &lt;/math&gt; While equation (7a) is true for all values of ''m'', equation (7b) is true for all values of ''j''. From expansion (7a) using ''n''=2''m'', ''k'' = ''n'', and (4), one finds :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j=0}^{m} \mathrm{C}(m,j)^2 = \mathrm{C}(2m,m). \qquad (8)&lt;/math&gt; Denote by ''F''(''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1) the [[Fibonacci number]]s. We obtain a formula about the diagonals of Pascal's triangle :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=0}^{n} \mathrm{C}(n-k,k) = \mathrm{F}(n+1). \qquad (9) &lt;/math&gt; This can be proved by [[mathematical induction|induction]] using (3). Also using (3) and induction, one can show that :&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j=k}^{n} \mathrm{C}(j,k) = \mathrm{C}(n+1,k+1). \qquad (10) &lt;/math&gt; == Divisors of binomial coefficients == The [[prime number|prime]] divisors of C(''n'', ''k'') can be interpreted as follows: if ''p'' is a prime number and ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; is the highest power of ''p'' which divides C(''n'', ''k''), then ''r'' is equal to the number of natural numbers ''j'' such that the [[fractional part]] of ''k''/''p''&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt; is bigger than the fractional part of ''n''/''p''&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;. In particular, C(''n'', ''k'') is always divisible by ''n''/[[greatest common divisor|gcd]](''n'',''k''). A somewhat surprising result by David Singmaster (1974) is that any integer divides almost all binomial coefficients. == Bounds for binomial coefficients == The following bounds for C(''n'', ''k'') hold: * &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k) \le \frac{n^k}{k!} &lt;/math&gt; * &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k) \le \left(\frac{n\cdot e}{k}\right)^k &lt;/math&gt; * &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k) \ge \left(\frac{n}{k}\right)^k&lt;/math&gt; ==Generalization to multinomials== While the binomial coefficients represent the coefficients of (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, the '''multinomial''' coefficients represent the coefficients of :(''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + ... + ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. See [[multinomial theorem]]. The case ''k'' = 2 gives binomial coefficients. == Generalization to real and complex argument == The binomial coefficient &lt;math&gt;{z\choose k}&lt;/math&gt; can be defined for any [[complex number]] ''z'' and any [[natural number]] ''k'' as follows: :&lt;math&gt;{z\choose k} = \prod_{n=1}^{k}{z-k+n\over n}= \frac{z(z-1)(z-2)\cdots (z-k+1)}{k!} \qquad (11) &lt;/math&gt; This generalization is known as the '''generalized binomial coefficient''' and is used in the formulation of the [[binomial theorem]] and satisfies properties (3) and (7). For fixed ''k'', the expression &lt;math&gt;f(z)={z\choose k}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[polynomial]] in ''z'' of degree ''k'' with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients. ''f''(''z'') is the unique polynomial of degree ''k'' satisfying :''f''(0) = ''f''(1) = ... = ''f''(''k'' &amp;minus; 1) = 0 and ''f''(''k'') = 1. A
heological]] decision by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Responding to queries by Venezuelan Catholics, the Church declared the capybara meat to be equivalent to fish meat, and thus allowed its consumption during [[Lent]] [http://www.rebsig.com/capybara/capymeat.html]. The decision may have been taken on the basis of incomplete or inaccurate descriptions of the capybara available to the Church authorities in [[Rome]]; but it was never reversed, and to this day the capybara is the only warm-blooded animal with that status. (This story should be treated with caution, however, since similar claims have been circulated concerning other semi-aquatic mammals, such as [[beaver]]s and [[muskrat]]s[http://www.monroeboatclub.org/amuskratbecomesafish.htm].) {| align=right |[[image:bristol.zoo.capybara.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Capybara, the largest living rodent, in an English zoo]] |- |[[Image:Capybara.01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Capybara]] |- |[[Image:ph-animals-capybara-2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A capybara in the wild in Brazil]] |} ===Capybaras as farm animals=== Recently some farmers have started breeding capybaras for their meat. Capybara farms are more common in Venezuela, where capybara meat is a popular dish; but some are found in other countries, usually catering to specialty restaurants (such as the ''churrascarias'' in Brazil). The animals are prolific and relatively easy to raise. ===Capybaras as pets=== Capybaras are often kept for &quot;decorative&quot; purposes in public parks, farms, and tourist resorts which have access to suitable water bodies. The animals are usually allowed to roam freely; they adapt easily to human presence, and allow themselves to be petted and hand-fed.&lt;!--This paragraph is based on the situation in Brazil, but is presumably valid for most of the animal's range.--&gt; However, in Southeast Brazil (states of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], and [[Minas Gerais]]) this custom has run into trouble recently, after capybaras were found to be a reservoir for [[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]]. The disease can be transmitted to humans by the [[star tick]] (''[[Amblyomma cajennense]]''), a common [[parasite]] of many animals — including capybaras and [[Homo sapiens|humans]]. Responding to pressure from health authorities and public opinion, many public places in those states have eliminated the capybaras they once kept. ==See also== *''[[Neochoerus pinckneyi]]'' - an extinct North American capybara * [[Guinea pig]] * [[Patagonian cavy]] * [[nutria]] * ''[[Phoberomys pattersoni]]'', an even larger extinct rodent. ==External links== * [http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/capybara.shtml Capybara photo and natural history] [[Category:Fauna of Brazil]] [[Category:Fauna of Guyana]] [[Category:Argentine fauna]] [[Category:Hystricognath rodents]] [[Category:Rodents]] [[cs:Kapybara]] [[da:Kapivar]] [[de:Capybara]] [[es:Capibara]] [[eo:Kapibaro]] [[fr:Capybara]] [[id:Kapibara]] [[it:Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris]] [[he:קפיבארה]] [[lt:Kapibariniai]] [[nl:Capibara]] [[ja:カピバラ]] [[pl:Kapibara]] [[pt:Capivara]] [[ru:Капибара]] [[sv:Kapybara]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer animation</title> <id>6777</id> <revision> <id>42150509</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elf</username> <id>40082</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dab bryce</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer animation''' is the art of creating moving images via the use of [[computer]]s. It is a subfield of [[computer graphics]] and [[animation]]. Increasingly it is created by means of [[3D computer graphics]], though [[2D computer graphics]] are still widely used. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, sometimes the target is another [[medium]], such as [[film]]. It is also referred to as CGI ([[Computer generated imagery]]) especially when used in [[movies]]. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer [[computer display|screen]] then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with [[television]] and [[film|motion pictures]]. 3D Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of [[stop motion]] animation; the animated figure is built on the computer monitor and rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the 3D figure are moved by the animator. Finally, the animation is [[render]]ed. ==A simple example== [[image:CompAnimationExample.gif|right|146px|framed|Computer animation example]] The screen is blanked to a background color, such as black. Then a goat is drawn on the right of the screen. Next the screen is blanked, but the goat is drawn slightly to the left of its original position. This process is repeated, each time moving the goat a bit to the left. If this process is repeated fast enough the goat will appear to move smoothly to the left. This basic procedure is used for all moving pictures in films and television. ==Explanation== To trick the [[eye]] and [[brain]] into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object the pictures should be drawn at around 12 [[frame rate|frames per second]] or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 70 frames/s no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and [[brain]] process images. At rates below 12 frames/s most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images which detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames/s in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. Because it produces more realistic imagery computer animation demands higher frame rates to reinforce this realism. The reason no jerkiness is seen at higher speeds is due to &amp;ldquo;[[persistence of vision]].&amp;rdquo; From moment to moment, the eye and brain working together actually store whatever you look at for a fraction of a second, and automatically &quot;smooth out&quot; minor jumps. Movie film seen in a theater runs at 24 frames/s which is sufficient to create this illusion of continuous movement. ==Creating characters and objects on a computer== Computer animation combines [[Vector graphics]] with programmed movement. The starting point is often a [[stick figure]] in which the position of each feature (limb, mouth etc) is defined by an [[Avar (animation variable)|Avars]] (animation variable). The character &quot;Woody&quot; in [[Pixar|Pixar's]] movie [[Toy Story]], for example, uses 700 Avars. Successive sets of Avars control all movement of the character from frame to frame. Once the stick model is moving in the desired way, the avars are incorporated into a full [[Wire frame model]] or a model built of polygons. Finally surfaces are added, requiring a lengthy process of [[Rendering]] to produce the final [[scene]]. There are several ways of generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. [[Motion tracking]] uses lights or markers on a real person acting out the part, tracked by a [[video camera]]. Or the Avars may be set manually using a joystick or other form input control. [[Toy Story]] uses no motion tracking, probably because manual control by a skilled animator can produce effects not easily acted out by a real person. ==Equipment== Computer animation can be created with a computer and animation software. Some examples of animation software are: Amorphium (3D), [[Poser (software)|Poser]] (3D), Ray Dream Studio (3D), [[Bryce (software)|Bryce]], [[Maya (software)|Maya]], [[Blender (software)|Blender]], [[TrueSpace]] (3D), [[3D Studio Max]] (3D) and [[Softimage|SoftImage XSI]] (3D) and Flash (2D). Their price will vary greatly depending on their target market. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs. However the [[render|rendering]] can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer. Because of this, video game animators tend to use low resolution, low polygon count renders, such that the graphics can be rendered in real time on a home computer. Photorealistic animation would be impractical in this context. Professional animators of movies, television, and video sequences on computer games make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take 10s to 100s of years to create on a home computer. Many powerful [[workstation]] computers are used instead. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and thus are a lot more powerful than a home computer, and are specialized for [[render|rendering]]. A large number of workstations (known as a [[render farm]]) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer. The result is a computer animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (this process is not comprised solely of rendering, however). A workstation typically costs $2000 to $16000. [[Pixar]]'s [[Renderman]] is rendering software which is widely used as the movie animation industry standard, in competition with [[Mental Ray]]. It can be bought at the official Pixar website for about $5000 to $8000. It will work on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]] based graphics workstations along with an animation program such as Maya and Softimage XSI. Professionals also use digital [[movie camera|movie cameras]], [[motion capture]] or [[performance capture]], [[bluescreen|bluescreens]], film editing software, [[prop|props]], and other tools for movie animation. ==Technical details== [[Image:Pyramid_of_35_spheres_animation.gif|thumb|160|An example of computer rendered animation]] When an image is rendered to the screen, it is normally rendered
e [[ALOHAnet]] in [[Hawaii]] using [[radio]], the scheme is relatively simple compared to [[Token Ring|token ring]] or master controlled networks. When one computer wants to send some information, it obeys the following [[algorithm]]: # '''Start''' - If the wire is idle, start transmitting, else go to step 4 # '''Transmitting''' - If detecting a collision, continue transmitting until the minimum packet time is reached (to ensure that all other transmitters and receivers detect the collision) then go to step 4. # '''End successful transmission''' - Report success to higher network layers; exit transmit mode. # '''Wire is busy''' - Wait until wire becomes idle # '''Wire just became idle''' - Wait a random time, then go to step 1, unless maximum number of transmission attempts has been exceeded # '''Maximum number of transmission attempt exceeded''' - Report failure to higher network layers; exit transmit mode This works something like a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air). Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current guest to finish. If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time. The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision. [[exponential growth|Exponentially increasing]] back-off times (determined using the [[truncated binary exponential backoff]] algorithm) are used when there is more than one failed attempt to transmit. Ethernet originally used a shared [[coaxial cable]] winding around a building or campus to every attached machine. Computers were connected to an [[Attachment Unit Interface]] (AUI) transceiver, which in turn connected to the cable. While a simple passive wire was highly reliable for small Ethernets, it was not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector could make the whole Ethernet segment unusable. Coax was also prone to very strange failure modes when an electrical discontinuity reflected the signal in such a manner that &lt;strong&gt;some&lt;/strong&gt; nodes would work just fine while others would work slowly due to excessive retries or not at all; these could be &lt;strong&gt;much&lt;/strong&gt; more painful to diagnose than a complete failure of the segment. Debugging such failures often involved several people crawling around wiggling connectors while others watched the displays of computers running ''[[ping]]'' and shouted out reports as performance changed. Since all communications happen on the same wire, any information sent by one computer is received by all, even if that information was intended for just one destination. The network interface card filters out information not addressed to it, interrupting the CPU only when applicable packets are received unless the card is put into &quot;[[promiscuous mode]]&quot;. This &quot;one speaks, all listen&quot; property is a security weakness of shared-medium Ethernet, since a node on an Ethernet network can eavesdrop on all traffic on the wire if it so chooses. Use of a single cable also means that the bandwidth is shared, so that network traffic can slow to a crawl when, for example, the network and nodes restart after a power failure. == Ethernet repeaters and hubs == As Ethernet grew, the [[Ethernet hub]] was developed to make the network more reliable and the cables easier to connect. For signal degradation and timing reasons, Ethernet segments have a restricted size which depends on the medium used. For example, 10BASE5 coax cables have a maximum length of 500 [[metre]]s (1,640 [[feet (unit of length)|feet]]). A greater length can be obtained by using an Ethernet [[repeater]], which takes the signal from one Ethernet cable and repeats it onto another cable. Repeaters can be used to connect up to five Ethernet segments, three of which can have attached devices. This also alleviates the problem of cable breakages: when an Ethernet coax segment breaks, all devices on that segment are unable to communicate; repeaters allowed the other segments to continue working. Like most other high-speed buses, Ethernet segments must be terminated with a [[resistor]] at both ends. For coaxial cable, each end of the cable must have a 50-[[ohm]] resistor and heatsink attached, called a ''terminator'' and affixed to a male N or BNC connector. If this is not done, the result is the same as if there is a break in the cable: the [[alternating current|AC]] signal on the bus will be reflected, rather than dissipated, when it reaches the end. This reflected signal is indistinguishable from a collision, and so no communication can take place. A repeater electrically isolates the segments connected to it, regenerating and retiming the signal. Most repeaters have an &quot;auto-partition&quot; function, which partitions (removes from service) a segment when it has too many collisions or collisions that last too long, so that the other segments are not affected by the broken one. The repeater reconnects the segment when it detects activity without collisions. People recognized the usefulness of cabling in a star topology, and network vendors started creating repeaters having multiple ports. Multi-port repeaters are now known as hubs. Hubs can be connected to other hubs and/or a coax backbone. The first hubs were known as &quot;multiport transceivers&quot; or &quot;fanouts&quot;. The best-known example is DEC's [[DELNI]]. These devices allow multiple hosts with AUI connections to share a single transceiver. They also allow creation of a small standalone Ethernet segment without using a coax cable. Network vendors such as DEC and [[SynOptics]] sold hubs which connected many [[10BASE-2]] thin coaxial segments. [[Image:RG-59.jpg|thumb|left|[[Coaxial cable]] is used to transmit 10BASE-2 Ethernet]] The development of Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP), beginning with [[StarLAN]] and continuing with [[10BASE-T]] eventually made Ethernet over coax obsolete. These variations allowed unshielded twisted-pair [[Category 3 cable|Cat-3]]/[[Category 5 cable|Cat-5]] cable and [[RJ45]] telephone connectors to connect endpoints to hubs, replacing coaxial and [[Attachment Unit Interface|AUI]] cables. Hubs made Ethernet networks more reliable by preventing problems with one cable or device from affecting other devices on the network. Twisted-pair Ethernet resolves the termination problem by making every segment point-to-point, so termination can be built into the hardware rather than requiring a special external resistor. [[Image:10baseT cable.jpeg|right|thumb|125px|A [[Twisted pair]] 10BASE-T Cable is used to transmit 10BASE-T Ethernet]] Despite the physical star topology, hubbed Ethernet networks are half-duplex and still use CSMA/CD, with only minimal cooperation from the hub in dealing with packet collisions. Every packet is sent to every port on the hub, so bandwidth and security problems aren't addressed. The total throughput of the hub is limited to the speed of a single link, either 10 or 100 Mbit/s, minus the overhead for preambles, inter-frame gaps, headers, trailers, and padding. Collisions also reduce the total throughput, especially when the network is heavily loaded. In the worst case when there are lots of hosts with long cables that transmit many short frames, excessive collisions that seriously reduce throughput can happen with loads as low as 50%. A more typical configuration can tolerate higher loads before collisions seriously reduce throughput. == Bridging and Switching == While repeaters could isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forward all traffic to all Ethernet devices. This creates significant limits on how many machines can communicate on an Ethernet network. To alleviate this, bridging was created to communicate at the data link layer while isolating the physical layer. With bridging, only well-formed packets are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated. Bridges learn where devices are, by watching MAC addresses, and do not forward packets across segments when they know the destination address is not located in that direction. Control mechanisms like [[spanning-tree protocol]] enable a collection of bridges to work together in coordination. Early bridges examined each packet one by one, and were significantly slower than hubs (repeaters) at forwarding traffic, especially when handling many ports at the same time. In 1989 the networking company [[Kalpana (company)|Kalpana]] introduced their EtherSwitch, the first Ethernet switch. An Ethernet switch does bridging in hardware, allowing it to forward packets at full wire speed. Most modern Ethernet installations use [[Ethernet switch]]es instead of hubs. Although the wiring is identical to hubbed Ethernet, switched Ethernet has several advantages over shared medium Ethernet including greater bandwidth and better isolation from misbehaving devices. Switched networks typically have a [[star topology]], even though they may still implement a single Ethernet shared medium from the viewpoint of attached machines, if they use the half-duplex option. Full-duplex Ethernet in the [[10BASE-T]] and later standards is not a shared-medium system. Initially, Ethernet switches work like Ethernet hubs, with all traffic being echoed to all ports. However, as the switch &quot;learns&quot; the end-points associated with each port, it ceases to send non-[[broadcasting (networks)|broadcast]] traffic to ports other than the intended destination. In this way, Ethernet switching can allow the full wire speed of Ethernet to be used by any given pair of ports on a single switch. Since packets are typically only delivered to the port they are intended for, traffic on a switched Ethernet is
pedo against threat submarines in any direction at intermediate ranges. VLA missiles were introduced into the fleet in [[1993]] as a baseline weapon for the cruisers and [[destroyer]]s equipped with the [[Aegis combat system]] and as a replacement for the ASROC weapon on [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyers]] when the original ASROC launchers were replaced by the MK 41 VLS. VLA missiles were first introduced with the MK 46 [[torpedo]] as its payload (RUM139A). In [[1996]] an upgrade was implemented to allow the enhanced shallow-water capable MK 46 to be incorporated as the VLA missile payload (RUM139B). VLA missiles are delivered to the fleet as All-Up-Rounds (AURs) which consist of the VLA missile installed inside of a MK15 VLS canister. VLA missiles have two basic fleet configurations, Warshot and Exercise. VLA Warshot missiles contain a MK46 warshot torpedo. VLA Exercise missiles contain an exercise torpedo, and are used for fleet exercise firings. === General Characteristics of the VLA=== *Primary Function: Surface Launched Missile, Anti-Submarine Warfare Weapon. *Contractor: Lockheed Martin, Naval Electronics &amp; Surveillance Systems - [[Akron, Ohio]] (formerly [[Loral Corp.|Loral]] Defense Systems, formerly Goodyear Aerospace). *Unit cost: Approximately $350,000 (less torpedo payload). *Power plant: Solid propellant rocket motor. *Length: ** Warshot: 16 ft 0.6 in (4.892 m) &lt;!--maybe actually 16 ft 0 in--&gt; ** Exercise: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m) *Weight: ** Warshot: 1407 lb (638 kg) ** Exercise: 1377 lb (615 kg) *Diameter: 16.6 in (422 mm) *Wing Span: 26 7/8 in (683 mm) *Range: ASW Intermediate range *Guidance system: Inertial Guidance *Warhead: [[Mark 46 torpedo]], 100 lb (45 kg) of PBXN-103 high explosive *Date Deployed: 1993 (RUM139A); 1996 (RUM139B) ==See also== [[SUBROC]] [[Category:Modern American anti-submarine rockets and missiles]] {{Missile types}} [[de:ASROC]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]] [[pt:ASROC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Actors and Actresses</title> <id>3219</id> <revision> <id>15901580</id> <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:40:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A.I.</title> <id>3220</id> <revision> <id>15901581</id> <timestamp>2005-04-15T11:11:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Asbestos</username> <id>67891</id> </contributor> <comment>Makes more sense for this to redirect to [[Ai]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ai]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahmed al-Nami</title> <id>3221</id> <revision> <id>40781999</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:55:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sango123</username> <id>223113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The Attack */ punctuation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ahmed al-Nami.png|right|framed|This photograph of Ahmed al-Nami was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]] '''Ahmed Abdallah al-Nami ''' (&amp;#1575;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''Alnami''' or '''al-Nawi''') (born December [[1977]]) was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines flight 93]] as part of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. ==History== Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], al-Nami served as a [[muezzin]] at the Seqeley mosque after having reportedly become very religious sometime in early [[1999]]. That autumn he enrolled in the [[King Khaled University]] at [[Abha]] to study [[Sharia]], he left his family home in [[Khamis Mushayt]] in the summer of [[2000]] to complete the [[Hajj]], but never returned - instead travelling to the [[Al Farouk training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]] where he meets and befriends [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], two brothers from Khamis Mushayt, and [[Saeed Alghamdi]]. The four reportedly pledge themselves to [[Jihad]] in the Spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail - who had dubbed himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Mohammad]]'s companions.[http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml] During his time at Al-Farooq, there is a curious mention under [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]]'s details that al-Nami had recently had [[laser eye surgery]], an uncited fact that does not reappear. By October he had taken a prospective hijacker [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]] from [[Afghanistan]] to Saudi Arabia where they both procured B-1/B-2 [[Visa (document)|Visa]]s (tourist/business) on [[October 28]]th - but al-Hamlan then decided not to proceed and is thought to have returned to his family. al-Nami's Visa application has since been reviewed, and while he mentions that Mushabib will be travelling with him, he listed his occupation as ''student'' but failed to provide an address for his school, and listed his intended address in the United States merely as [[Los Angeles]] - in the end he never used this Visa to enter the United States, and 'lost' his current [[passport]] (C115007) which showed evidence of travel to [[Afghanistan]], and procured a new one from [[Jeddah]] (C505363). He used the new passport to acquire a new Visa on [[April 23]]rd, again recopying his answers from previously although crossing out the lines regarding Mushabib and previous attempts to acquire a Visa. He was interviewed by a consular officer about this application, but it was ultimately granted again to him. It has been noted since that the records only highlighted past failures to acquire a Visa, so the officer had no way of realising that al-Nami had successfully received an earlier Visa. In mid-November, 2000, the 9/11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers, Wail al Shehri, Waleed al Shehri, and [[Ahmed al-Nami]], all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to [[Beirut]] and then onward to [[Iran]] where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get &quot;clean&quot; passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence. While in the [[United Arab Emirates]], al-Nami purchased [[Traveler's cheque|traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed Alghamdi]], [[Hamza Alghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Wail Alshehri]]. [[Image:Ahmed-alNami.jpg|thumb|left|140px|al-Nami in Video]]In March of [[2001]], Ahmed al-Nami appeared in an [[Al Qaeda]] farewell video showing 13 of the ''muscle hijackers'', 12 of whom were Saudi, before they left their training centre in [[Kandahar]]; while he does not speak, he is seen studying maps and flight manuals. On [[May 28]], [[2001]], al-Nami arrived in the United States from [[Dubai]] with fellow-hijackers [[Mohand al-Shehri]] and [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]]. By early June, Al-Nami was living in apartment 1504 at the ''Delray Racquet Club condominiums'' with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], another alleged hijacker, in [[Delray Beach, Florida]] - he [[telephone]]d his family in 'Asir shortly after arriving in the country. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June of 2001., and on [[June 29]]th received either a Florida State Identification Card or Drivers License.[http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf] He may have been one of three hijackers that listed the Naval Air Station in [[Pensacola, Florida]] as their permanent address on drivers' licenses, though other sources claim he listed the Delray condominium. ==The Attack== On September 5th, al-Nami and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]] purchase tickets for a [[September 7]]th flight to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]] at the ''Mile High Travel'' on Commercial Boulevard - paying cash for their tickets. [[Ziad Jarrah]] and [[Ahmad al-Haznawi]] also purchase tickets for the same flight though from ''Passage Tours''. On [[September 11]], al-Nawi arrived in Newark to board [[United Airlines Flight 93]] along with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmad al-Haznawi]] and [[Ziad Jarrah]] - some reports suggest al-Haznawi is pulled aside for screening while others claim there is no record of whether any of the four were screened; the lack of [[CCTV]] cameras at the time has compounded the problem. al-Haznawi and one of the other three checked bags, and they boarded the plane between 7:39am and 7:48am - al-Nami seated in First Class 3C, next to al-Ghamdi. Due to the flight's routine delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings and were told to be on the alert, though within two minutes Jarrah had stormed the cockpit leaving the pilots dead or injured. At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas - an oddity in Islam where the colour red is frowned upon for men to wear, but possibly signifying an allegiance to the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]]. The calls also indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside - it is not known which hijacker this was. Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the oth
mb|250px|Iona village viewed from a short distance offshore.]] '''Iona''' is a small island, 1 mile wide (1.6&amp;nbsp;km) and 3.5 miles (5.6&amp;nbsp;km) long, in the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]. Its [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] name is ''I Chaluim Cille'' (Saint [[Columba]]'s Island), or sometimes just ''Ì'' or ''Idhe''. It is approximately one mile (1&amp;nbsp;600 m) from the coast of [[Isle of Mull|Mull]]. It has a resident [[population]] of 175. In [[563]] Saint [[Columba]], exiled from his native [[Ireland]], founded a [[monastery]] here with 12 companions. From here they set about the conversion of [[Paganism|pagan]] Scotland and much of northern [[England]] to [[Christianity]]. Iona's fame as a place of learning and Christian mission spread throughout [[Europe]] and it became a major site of [[pilgrimage]]. Iona became a holy island where several kings of [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Norway]] came to be buried. [[Image:St-martins-cross.jpg|left|frame|Eighth century St Martin's Cross]] Many believe that the [[Book of Kells]] was produced on Iona towards the end of the [[8th century]]. In the year [[806]] the monastery on Iona was targeted by [[Viking]] raiders and its treasures plundered. A [[convent]] for the Order of [[Benedictine]] Nuns was established in [[1203]], with Beathag, daughter of [[Somerled]], as first prioress. The present [[Benedictine]] [[abbey]] was built in the same period. The monastery itself flourished until the [[Reformation]]. Iona became the burial site for the kings of [[Dál Riata]] and their successors, the early [[Scotland/Monarchs|kings of Scotland]]. Notable burials there include: *King [[Donald II of Scotland]] *King [[Malcolm I of Scotland]] *King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] *King [[Macbeth of Scotland]] *King [[Donald III of Scotland]] *[[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] The ancient burial ground, called the Reilig Odhráin, contains the [[12th century]] chapel of St Odhrán (said to be [[Columba]]'s uncle), restored at the same time as the Abbey itself. It contains a number of medieval grave monuments. Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to the cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval informary). The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by [[Historic Scotland]] (entrance charge). In [[1938]] [[George MacLeod]] founded the [[Iona Community]], an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in the Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the [[gospel]] of [[Jesus]] in today's world. This community is a leading force in the present [[Celtic Christianity]] revival. The Iona Community runs 3 residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on [[Mull]]. These are places of welcome and engagement giving a unique opportunity to live together in community with people of every background from all over the world. Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to the concerns of the Iona Community. [[Image:St Mary's Abbey, Iona.jpg|thumb|right|300px|St Mary's Abbey, Iona]] [[Iona Abbey]], now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike. It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the [[Western Isles]] of [[Scotland]]. In front of the Abbey stands the [[9th century]] [[St Martin's Cross]], one of the best-preserved Celtic crosses in the [[British Isles]], and a replica of the [[8th century]] [[St John's Cross]] (original fragments in the Abbey museum). [[Image:TyIonaNunnery20030825r19f31.jpg|thumb|left|140px|[[Iona Nunnery]], Iona]] Also of note, [[Iona Nunnery]] is a site of beautiful 12th-13th century ruins of the church and cloister, and a colourful and peaceful garden. Iona's is the most complete survival of a medieval nunnery in [[Scotland]]. Iona is popular among visitors for its tranquility and natural beauty. Its geographical features include the [[Bay at the Back of the Ocean]] and the [[Hill with His Back to Ireland]], said to be adjacent to the beach where Saint Columba landed. ==External links== *[http://www.isle-of-iona.com/ Isle of Iona, Scotland] (produced on behalf of the Iona Community Council) *[http://www.iona.org.uk/ The Iona Community] * Computer-generated virtual panorama [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ISL/Iona.gif Summit of Iona] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index] *{{gbmapping|NM2724}} [[Category:Inner Hebrides]] [[Category:Celtic art]] [[Category:National Trust for Scotland properties]] {{commonscat}} {{Hebrides}} [[de:Iona (Schottland)]] [[fr:Iona]] [[nl:Iona (eiland)]] [[nds:Iona]] [[no:Iona]] [[nn:Iona]] [[pl:Iona (wyspa)]] [[sv:Iona]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ido</title> <id>15040</id> <revision> <id>41143123</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T08:38:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.176.42.51</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Vocabulary */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Ido |caption=Seal |image=[[Image:ido.jpg|Ido seal]] |creator=A group of reformist [[Esperanto]] speakers |date=[[1907]] |setting=[[International auxiliary language]] |speakers=est. 1000–2500 (all as a second language; very broad estimate) |agency=[[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido]] |fam2=[[International auxiliary language]] |posteriori=based on [[Esperanto]] |iso1=io|iso2=ido|iso3=ido}} '''Ido''' (pronounced /{{IPA|id&amp;#x254;}}/), a [[constructed language]], was created to become a universal second language for speakers of different linguistic backgrounds, easier to learn than any ethnic language. This intended usage parallels the actual use of [[English language|English]] as a [[lingua franca]]. Unlike English, which is a natural and sometimes irregular language, Ido is specifically designed for [[Grammar|grammatical]], [[Orthography|orthographic]], and [[lexicography|lexicographical]] regularity, and to favour no one who might otherwise be advantaged due to native fluency. In this sense, Ido is classified as an [[auxiliary language|International Auxiliary Language]]. It may be the second most widely used of these after [[Esperanto]], its predecessor. Ido was developed in the early [[1900s]], and retains a small following today, primarily in [[Europe]]. It is largely based on Esperanto, created by [[L. L. Zamenhof|L.&amp;nbsp;L.&amp;nbsp;Zamenhof]]. Ido first appeared in 1907 as a result of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto that its supporters believed to be a hindrance in its propagation as an easy-to-learn second language. Many other reform projects appeared after Ido: examples such as [[Occidental]] and [[Novial]] appeared afterwards but have since faded into obscurity. At present, Ido along with Esperanto and [[Interlingua]] are the only auxiliary languages with a large body of literature and a relatively large speaker base. The name of the language likely traces its origin to the Ido pronunciation of &quot;I.D.&quot; (from &quot;International Delegation&quot;, see below) or the word ''[[esperantido]]'', &quot;descendant (of Esperanto)&quot;. Ido uses the twenty-six Latin letters used in the [[English alphabet]] with no [[diacritics]]. While still being completely morphologically regular, Ido resembles the [[Romance language]]s in appearance and is sometimes mistaken for [[Italian language|Italian]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] at first glance. Ido is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto, though there are certain differences in word formation, grammar and grammatical-function words that make it more than a simple reform project. Ido is a stand-alone language. After its inception, Ido gained support (estimates generally range around 20% {{ref|ido-movado}}) from some in the Esperanto community at the time, but following the sudden death in 1914 of one of its most influential proponents, [[Louis Couturat]], it declined in popularity. There were two reasons for this: first, the emergence of further schisms arising from competing reform projects; and second, a general lack of awareness of Ido as a candidate for an international language. These obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain its former momentum. == History == [[Image:Ido Kongreso en Desau 1922.jpg|thumb|350px|Photograph of the International Ido Congress in [[Dessau]], [[Germany]], in [[1922]].]] The idea of a universal second language is not a new one, and constructed languages are not a recent phenomenon. The first known constructed language was created in the 12th century by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] under the name [[Lingua Ignota]]. It was not until the 19th century, however, that the idea caught on in large numbers with the language [[Volapük]], created in [[1879]] by a [[Germany|German]] Catholic priest named [[Johann Martin Schleyer]]. Volapük, though popular for some time and apparently with users numbering in the thousands, was later eclipsed by the popularity of Esperanto, which arose from Zamenhof's book [[Unua Libro]] in [[1887]]. The simpler grammar of Esperanto appealed to many, and its popularity quickly rose. The world's first [[World Congress of Esperanto|Congress of Esperanto]] was held in [[1905]]. However, some within the Esperanto community itself felt that the language should undergo further reform before being officially selected as a universal second language. It was at this time that Couturat formed the ''[[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]].'' This delegation made a formal request to the [[International Association of Academies]] in [[Vienna]] to select an international language; the request was rejected in May 1907. The Delegation thereupon decided to meet as a Committee in Paris in October [[1907]] to discus
n of employees''' (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done. It includes wages and salaries, as well as employer contributions to [[social security]] and other such programs. *'''Gross operating surplus''' (GOS) is the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses. Often called [[profit]]s, although only a subset of total costs are subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS. *'''Gross mixed income''' (GMI) is the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses. This often includes most small businesses. The sum of '''COE''', '''GOS''' and '''GMI''' is called total factor income, and measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices.The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the Government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP at factor cost to GDP(I). ==Measurement== ===International Standards=== The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book ''[[United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA)|System of National Accounts]]'' (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[European Union]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]], [[United Nations]] and [[World Bank]]. The publication is normally referred to as SNA93, to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68). SNA93 sets out a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions. ===National Measurement=== Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organisations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments). * Australia: [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] (ABS). * Austria: [http://www.statistik-austria.at Statistik Austria]. * Canada: [[Statistics Canada]] (StatCan). * Russia: [http://www.gks.ru/eng/ Federal State Statistics Service] * United States: [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA). GDP can measure spending on all goods and services. GDP can also measure all income earned. ===Interest rates=== Net interest expense is a [[transfer payment]] in all sectors except the financial sector. Net interest expenses in the financial sector is seen as [[production]] and [[value added]] and is added to GDP.. ==Cross-border comparison== [[Image:Gdp nominal and ppp 2004 world map.PNG|thumb|IMF 2004 figures of GDP of nominal compared to PPP]] The level of GDP in different countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to ''either'' *'''current currency exchange rate''': GDP calculated by exchange rates prevailing on international [[currency market]]s *'''purchasing power parity exchange rate''': GDP calculated by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) of each currency relative to a selected standard (usually the [[United States dollar]]). The relative ranking of countries may differ dramatically between the two approaches. *The ''current exchange rate method'' converts the value of goods and services using global currency [[exchange rates]]. This can offer better indications of a country's international purchasing power and relative economic strength. For instance, if 10% of GDP is being spent on buying hi-tech foreign [[arms]], the number of weapons purchased is entirely governed by ''current exchange rates'', since arms are a [[traded product]] bought on the international market (there is no meaningful 'local' price distinct from the international price for high technology goods). *The ''purchasing power parity method'' accounts for the relative effective domestic purchasing power of the average producer or consumer within an economy. This can be a better indicator of the living standards of less-developed countries because it compensates for the weakness of local currencies in world markets. The PPP method of GDP conversion is most relevant to non-traded goods and services. There is a clear pattern of the ''purchasing power parity method'' decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the ''current exchange rate method''. This finding is called the [[Penn effect]]. For more information see [[measures of national income]]. == GDP and standard of living == GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of [[standard of living]] in an [[economic system|economy]]. While this approach has advantages, many criticisms of GDP focus on its use as an indicator of standard of living. The major advantages to using GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living are that it is measured frequently, widely and consistently. Frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis, which allows a user to spot trends more quickly. Widely in that some measure of GDP is available for practically every [[country]] in the [[world]], which allow crude comparisons between the standard of living in different countries. And consistently in that the technical definitions used within GDP are relatively consistent between countries, and so there can be confidence that the same thing is being measured in each country. The major disadvantage of using GDP as an indicator of standard of living is that it is not, strictly speaking, a measure of standard of living. GDP is intended to be a measure of particular types of economic activity within a country. Nothing about the definition of GDP suggests that it is necessarily a measure of standard of living. For instance, in an extreme example, a country which exported 100 per cent of its production would still have a high GDP, but a very poor standard of living. The argument in favour of using GDP is not that it is a good indicator of standard of living, but rather that (all other things being equal) standard of living tends to increase when GDP per capita increases. This makes GDP a [[proxy]] for standard of living, rather than a direct measure of it. There are a number of [[Gross_domestic_product#Controversies|controversies]] about this use of GDP. == Controversies == Although GDP is widely used by economists, its value as an indicator for the [[standard of living]] has also been the subject of controversy (an alternative is the United Nations' [[Human Development Index]]). Criticisms of how the GDP is used include: * GDP doesn't take into account the [[black market]], where the money spent isn't registered, and the non-monetary economy, where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or abnormally low GDP figures. For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are not easily registered. [[Barter]]ing may be more prominent than the use of money, even extending to services (I helped you build your house ten years ago, so now you help me). * Very often different calculations of GDP are confused among each other. For cross-border comparisons one should especially regard whether it is calculated by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) method or current [[exchange rate]] method. * Quality of life is determined by many other things than physical goods (economic or not). * As the single most important figure in statistics it is subject to fraud, such as the usage of hedonic price indexing on official gdp numbers in the US, thereby creating investments out of nothing while statistically dampening inflation. * Crossborder trade within companies distorts the GDP and is done frequently to escape high taxation. Examples include the German Ebay that evades German tax by doing business over Switzerland, and American companies that have founded holdings in Ireland to &quot;buy&quot; their own products for cheap from their continental factories (without shipping) and selling them for profit via Ireland - thereby reducing their taxes and increasing Irish GDP. * In 'poor' countries, it may just be that ''everything'' is cheap, [[Penn effect|except for a few western goods]]. So one may have little money, but if everything is cheap that evens out nicely. Thus, the [[standard of living]] may be quite reasonable, it's just that there are, say, fewer TV-sets, meaning people have to share them. * If many products are of low quality in terms of durability then people will have to (unnecessarily) buy them again and again, thus boosting GDP without increasing their satisfaction. (On the other hand, if products were very durable then that would hamper innovation because people would be less inclined to buy new products, giving producers less of an incentive to develop them.) Similarly, if many products are of low quality in terms of usability and people don't know beforehand which products are the best choice for them, then they will either have to make do with an inferior product or buy again and again until they find something more satisfying. Furthermore, if products have a short lifespan in the market (eg because of fast innovation or fashion) then this process starts all over again when people need a replacement. Note that in a capitalist society these factors working together can easily cause a very high GDP combined with low customer satisfaction. * If a nation doesn't spend but saves and invests overseas, such as Japan, its GDP will be diminished in comparison to one that spends borrowed money, like the US, thus accumulated savings and debt are not taken into account so long as adequate financing continues to happen. * GDP doesn't measure the [[sustainable development|sustainability of growth]]. A country may achieve a temporary high GDP by over-exploiting natural resources or by misallocating investment. For example, the large deposits of [[phosphates]] gave the people of [[Nauru]] one of the
00 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 (plus one cable company) (1997) '''Televisions:''' 4,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 1 (1999) :''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]] [[Category:Communications in the British Virgin Islands|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in the British Virgin Islands</title> <id>3654</id> <revision> <id>36062584</id> <timestamp>2006-01-21T07:05:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vegaswikian</username> <id>214427</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Transportation on the British Virgin Islands]] to [[Transportation in the British Virgin Islands]]: move to match all other articles in transportation cat.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Railways:''' 0 km '''[[Highway]]s:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 113 km (1995 est.) &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' NA km &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' NA km '''[[Harbor]]s:''' [[Road Town]] '''[[Merchant marine]]:''' none (1999 est.) '''[[Airport]]s:''' 3 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 2 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) :''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]] [[Category:British Virgin Islands]] [[Category:Transportation by country|British Virgin Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of the British Virgin Islands</title> <id>3655</id> <revision> <id>19120678</id> <timestamp>2005-07-19T01:41:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joolz</username> <id>123025</id> </contributor> <comment>add {{CIA}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Military - note:''' defense is the responsibility of the UK :''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]] [[Category:British Virgin Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transnational issues of the British Virgin Islands</title> <id>3656</id> <revision> <id>15901972</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:05:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Virgin Islands]] -- the page had no content</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Virgin Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brunei/History</title> <id>3657</id> <revision> <id>15901973</id> <timestamp>2002-03-02T14:28:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Brunei]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Brunei</title> <id>3658</id> <revision> <id>31181736</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T12:12:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ {{Asia in topic|Geography of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right&quot;&gt;[[Image:bx-map.gif]]&lt;/div&gt; [[Brunei]] is in [[Southeastern Asia]], bordering the [[South China Sea]] and [[Malaysia]]. Its geographical coordinates are {{coor dm|4|30|N|114|40|E|}}. Brunei shares a 381 km border with [[Malaysia]] and has a 161 km coastline. The [[climate]] in Brunei is hot, humid and tropical with heavy [[rain]]fall. Most of the country is a flat [[coastal plain]] with [[mountain]]s in the east and hilly lowland in the west. The lowest point is at [[sea level]] and the highest is [[Bukit Pagon]] (1,850 m). Natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]] and [[timber]]. '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 5,770 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 5,270 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 500 km&amp;sup2; '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nm or to median line &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nm '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 1% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 1% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 1% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 85% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 12% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 10 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.) '''Natural hazards:''' typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare '''Environment - current issues:''' seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements '''Geography - note:''' close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia ==See also== *[[Brunei]] {{Asia in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Brunei| ]] [[Category:Geography by country|Brunei]] [[pt:Geografia do Brunei]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Brunei</title> <id>3659</id> <revision> <id>39374192</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.121.2.141</ip> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brunei-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Brunei, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] Like neighboring countries, Brunei is mostly Malay. Many cultural and linguistic differences make [[Brunei]] Malays distinct from the larger Malay populations in nearby [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]], even though they are ethnically related and share the [[Islam|Muslim]] religion. Brunei has a hereditary nobility with the title Pengiran these are, more often than not, related to the Sultan by blood. The Sultan can award to commoners the title [[Pehin]], the equivalent of a [[life peerage]] awarded in the [[United Kingdom]]. The Sultan also can award his subjects the [[Malay titles|Dato]], the equivalent of a [[knighthood]] in the United Kingdom, and Datin, the equivalent of a damehood. Bruneians adhere to the practice of using complete full names with all titles, including the title [[Haji]] (for men) or Hajjah (for women) for those who have made the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Brunei Malay women wear the [[tudong]], a traditional head covering. Men wear the [[songkok]], a traditional Malay cap. Men who have completed the Haj wear a white songkok. The requirements to attain Brunei citizenship include passing tests in Malay culture, customs, and [[Malay language|language]]. Stateless permanent residents of Brunei are given International Certificates of Identity, which allow them to travel overseas. The majority of Brunei's Chinese are permanent residents, and many are stateless. [[Petroleum]] wealth allows the Brunei Government to provide the population with one of [[Asia]]'s finest [[health care]] systems. The [[Brunei Medical and Health Department]] introduced the region's first government &quot;flying doctor service&quot; in early [[1965]]. [[Malaria]] has been eradicated, and [[cholera]] is virtually nonexistent. There are three general hospitals--in Bandar Seri Begawan, Tutong, and Kuala Belait--and there are numerous health clinics throughout the country. [[Education]] starts with [[preschool]], followed by 6 years of [[primary education]] and up to 6 years of [[secondary education]]. Nine years of education are mandatory. Most of Brunei's [[college]] students attend [[university|universities]] and other institutions abroad, but approximately 2,542 study at the [[University of Brunei Darussalam]]. Opened in [[1985]], the university has a faculty of over 300 instructors and is located on a sprawling campus at [[Tungku]], overlooking the [[South China Sea]]. The official language is [[Malay language|Malay]], but [[English language|English]] is widely understood and used in business. Other languages spoken are several [[Chinese language|Chinese]] dialects, [[Iban language|Iban]], and a number of native dialects. [[Islam]] is the official religion, but religious freedom is guaranteed under the constitution. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :372,361 (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 28.6% (male 54,342/female 52,084) :15-64 years: 68.4% (male 134,908/female 119,814) :65 years and over: 3% (male 5,301/female 5,912) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 27.04 years :Male: 27.63 years :Female: 26.4 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :1.9% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :19.01 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :3.42 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :3.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female :Under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female :15-64 years: 1.13 male(s)/female :65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female :Total population: 1.09 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 12.61 deaths/1,000 live births :Male: 15.93 deaths/1,000 live births :Female: 9.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== :Total population: 74.8 years :Male: 72.36 years :Female: 77.36 years (2005 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== :2.3 children born/woman (2005 est.) ===HIV/AIDS=== :Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2003 est.) :People living with HIV/AIDS: less than 200 (2003 est.) :Deaths: less than 200 (2003 est.) ===Nationality=== :Noun: Bruneian(s) :Adjective: Bruneian ===Ethnic groups=== :Malay 67%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 12% ===Religions=== :Muslim (official) 67%,
ssociation. While violent crime dipped for a few months even the best that Maduro could throw at the criminals has not slowed the very high crime rate. During 2004 a number of victims that had been cut up into pieces were left in the parks of [[San Pedro Sula]] with messages from the gangs denouncing Ricardo Maduro, Head of Congress and presidential contender in [[2005]] [[Porfirio &quot;Pepe&quot; Lobo]], and Interior Minister [[Oscar Álvarez]]. Pepe Lobo in particular is feared because of his belief in the [[death penalty]], something Maduro opposes. The massacre in the San Pedro Sula suburb of [[Chamelecón]] left 27 dead and 29 injured. The murderers left behind a message, claiming to come from the Cinchoneros, and railing against Maduro, Lobo, Álvarez and the death penalty. They promised to commit another massacre before the new year. Fortunately one suspected assassin was detained very shortly afterwards in another part of San Pedro Sula, and further arrests have since been made. ===Death Penalty=== The [[death penalty]] was abolished in [[1956]], and the last person was executed in [[1940]], but several candidates for the current presidential [[election]]s are in favour of restoring it. Pepe Lobo has promised that if elected President but unable to get a majority in Congress to pass the death penalty he would hold a [[referendum]] on the subject. ==Executive branch:== {{office-table}} |[[President of Honduras|President]] |[[Ricardo Maduro|Ricardo Rodolfo Maduro Joest]] |[[National Party of Honduras|PNH]] |[[January 27]] [[2002]] |- |President elect |[[Manuel Zelaya]] |[[Liberal Party of Honduras|PLH]] | |} The president is both the chief of state and head of government and is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. ==Legislative branch== The [[National Congress of Honduras]] ''(Congreso Nacional)'' has 128 members ''(diputados),'' elected for four year term by [[proportional representation]]; congressional seats are assigned the parties' candidates on a [[Departments of Honduras|departmental]] basis in proportion to the number of votes each party receives. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Honduras|Elections in Honduras}} On [[February 20]] [[2005]] the PNH and the PLH held their internal party elections to decide who would represent these two parties in the forthcoming presidential elections in [[November]]. [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]] became the PNH candidate. [[Manuel Zelaya]] became the Liberal Party candidate. The next general and presidential elections took place on [[November 27]],[[2005]], with the result expected shortly. As of December 2005, it appears that Zelaya and the opposition Liberals defeated Lobo and the Nationals. {{Honduras presidential elections, 2005}} {{Honduras legislative elections, 2005}} ==Judicial branch== The judiciary includes a [[Supreme Court]] of Justice, courts of appeal, and several courts of original jurisdiction &amp;ndash; such as labor, tax, and criminal courts. The judges of the Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia, are elected for four-year terms by the National Congress. ==Administrative divisions== For administrative purposes, Honduras is divided into [[Departments of Honduras|18 departments]], with departmental and municipal officials selected for two-year terms. ==Political pressure groups== Some of the main political pressure groups are the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras or CODEH; Confederation of Honduran Workers or CTH; Coordinating Committee of Popular Organizations or CCOP; General Workers Confederation or CGT; Honduran Council of Private Enterprise or COHEP; National Association of Honduran Campesinos or ANACH; National Union of Campesinos or UNC; United Federation of Honduran Workers or FUTH. ==Guerrilla groups== The [[Revolutionary Popular Forces Lorenzo Zelaya]] is in resistance to the government. ==International organization participation== BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, [[United Nations]], UNCTAD, [[UNESCO]], UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO [[Category:Lists of political parties|Honduras]] [[Category:Politics of Honduras| ]] [[fr:Politique du Honduras]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Honduras</title> <id>13399</id> <revision> <id>42093030</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:59:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]] [[Honduras]] is one of the poorest countries in [[Latin America]]. In the 1960s it was the poorest nation of the region, but after the [[earthquake]] in 1972 that devestated [[Managua]], and the two wars that followed ( the first being the one in between the ''[[ Sandinistas ]]'' and ''[[ Anastasio Somoza Debayle]]'' and the second being in between the ''[[ Sandinistas]]'' and the ''[[Contras ]]''; Nicaragua became the poorest of Central America's modern nations. The economy is based mostly on [[agriculture]], which accounted for 22% of its [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in [[1999]]. Leading export [[coffee]] ($340 million) accounted for 22% of total Honduran export revenues. [[Banana]]s, formerly the country's second-largest export until being virtually wiped out by [[1998]]'s Hurricane Mitch, recovered in [[2000]] to 57% of pre-Mitch levels. Cultivated [[shrimp]] are another important export sector. Honduras has extensive [[forest]], [[marine biology|marine]], and [[mineral]] [[resource]]s, although widespread [[slash and burn]] agricultural methods continue to destroy Honduran forests. [[Unemployment]] is estimated at around 4.0%, though [[underemployment]] is much higher. The Honduran economy grew 4.8% in 2000, recovering from the Mitch-induced recession (-1.9%) of 1999. The economy is expected to grow 4-5% in 2001, led by continuation of foreign-funded reconstruction projects. The Honduran [[maquiladora]] sector, the second-largest in the world, continued its strong performance in 2000, providing employment to over 120,000 and generating more than $528 million in foreign exchange for the country. [[Inflation]], as measured by the consumer price index, was 10.1% in 2000, down slightly from the 10.9% recorded in 1999. The country's international reserve position continued to be strong in 2000, at slightly over $1 [[billion]]. Remittances from Hondurans living abroad (mostly in the [[United States|U.S.]]) rose 28% to $410 million in 2000. The lempira (currency) has only moderately [[devaluation|devalued]]. The country signed an [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) -- later converted to a [[Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility]] (PRGF) with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in March 1999. While Honduras continues to maintain stable macroeconomic policies, it has lagged in implementing structural reforms, such as privatization of the publicly-owned telephone and energy distribution companies. Honduras received significant debt relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, including the suspension bilateral debt service payments and bilateral debt reduction by the Paris Club -- including the U.S. -- worth over $400 million. In July 2000, Honduras reached its decision point under the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative]] (HIPC), qualifying the country for interim multilateral debt relief. *GDP purchasing power parity - $14.1 billion (1999 est.) *GDP - real growth rate 4% (2004) *GDP - per capita purchasing power parity - $2,050 (1999 est.) *GDP - composition by sector **agriculture 20% **industry 25% **services 55% (1998 est.) *Population below poverty line 50% (1992 est.) *Household income or consumption by percentage share **lowest 10% consume 1.2% **highest 10% consume 42.1% (1996) *Inflation rate (consumer prices) 14% (1999 est.) *Labor force 2.3 million (1997 est.) *Labor force - by occupation agriculture 29%, industry 21%, services 60% (1998 est.) *Unemployment rate 12% (1999); underemployed 30% (1997 est.) *Budget **revenue $980 million *expenditures $1.15 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) *Industries bananas, sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products *Industrial production growth rate 9% (1992 est.) *Electricity - production 2,904 GWh (1998) *Electricity - production by source **fossil fuel 34.44% **hydro 65.56% **nuclear 0% *Electricity - consumption 2,742 GWh (1998) *Electricity - exports 16 GWh (1998) *Electricity - imports 57 GWh (1998) *Agriculture - products bananas, coffee, citrus; beef; timber; shrimp *Exports $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) *Exports - commodities coffee, bananas, shrimp, lobster, meat; zinc, lumber *Exports - partners US 73%, Japan 4%, Germany 4%, Belgium, Spain (1998) *Imports $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) *Imports - commodities machinery and transport equipment, industrial raw materials, chemical products, fuels, foodstuffs *Imports - partners US 60%, Guatemala 5%, Netherlands Antilles, Japan, Germany, Mexico, El Salvador (1998) *Debt - external $4.4 billion (1999) *Economic aid - recipient $557.8 million (1999) *Currency 1 [[lempira]] (L) = 100 centavos *Exchange rates lempiras (L) per US$1 - 19.00 (October 2005), 14.5744 (January 2000), 14.5039 (1999), 13.8076 (1998), 13.0942 (1997), 12.8694 (1996), 10.3432 (1995) .... 1.00 (1980) ==See also== * [[Honduras]] {{WTO}} [[Category:WTO members|Honduras]] [[Category:Economy of Honduras| ]] [[fr:Économie du Honduras]] [[pt:Economia das Honduras]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Honduras</t
tion plays into the stereotype of the Dodo being a simpleton animal. *[[Dave Matthews]]' [[2003]] album &lt;i&gt;[[Some Devil]]&lt;/i&gt; begins with a track called &quot;Dodo,&quot; a soft, harmonic song with lyrics that muse on the possible feelings of the last dodo alive on earth. The song's reflective tone gives no indication of any &quot;dodo stereotypes,&quot; but it does open the album quite nicely. *In &quot;Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find them&quot;, a book pretended to be a school book of [[Harry Potter]], the dodo is featured under the name &quot;Diricawl&quot;. It is described as having the ability to disappear and reappear elsewhere. According to this book, [[Muggles]] (non-magical people) wrongfully assume that diricawls/dodos are extinct, and wizards keep their continued existence a secret because their supposed extinction taught Muggles to be more careful about slaying animals. *In the episode of ''[[Superman: The Animated Series]]'' entitled &quot;The Main Man,&quot; a villain named &quot;the Preserver&quot; has a living dodo bird in a simulated Earth environment. At the end of the episode, Superman takes the dodo back to his [[Fortress of Solitude]]. *[[DC Comics]] published a comic series from the 1940s through the 1960s entitled ''[[The Dodo and the Frog]]'', featuring the characters Dunbar Dodo and Fennimore Frog. Dunbar was portrayed as something of a simpleton, and often fell for the schemes of Fennimore. The two made a later appearance in the 1980s comic series ''[[Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew]]''. * The underground humor magazine at the [[United States Air Force Academy]] is called &quot;''The Dodo''&quot;, a play on the Academy's official mascot, the Falcon. Over the years, ''The Dodo'' has been censored and occasionally banned outright by the Academy leadership since the magazine's establishment in 1957. Its most active incarnation is currently the on-line version, the [http://www.edodo.org the eDoDo], which is maintained by Academy graduates and whose bulletin boards are frequented by graduates and cadets. The eDoDo also maintains a [http://www.edodo.org/archive/ partial archive of the paper version of ''The Dodo''.] *There was also a [[Pokémon]] named after the Dodo bird. == See also == * [[extinct birds]] == References == *Errol Fuller (2003): ''Dodo: A Brief History'' - Universe. ISBN 0789308401 *Beth Shapiro et al (2002): ''Flight of the Dodo'' Science 295: 1683. *Errol Fuller (2002): ''Dodo : from extinction to icon'' *Georg Menting und Gerhard Hard (2001): ''Vom Dodo lernen - Öko-Mythen um einen Symbolvogel des Naturschutzes'' - In: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung H. 1, ISSN 09406808 *Vincent Ziswiler (1996): ''Der Dodo - Fantasien und Fakten zu einem verschwundenen Vogel'', Zoologisches Museum der Unviversität Zürich, Ausstellungskatalog, ISBN 3952104310 *David Quammen (1996): ''The Song of the Dodo'' - New York *Clara Pinto Correia (2003): ''Return of the Crazy Bird : the sad, strange tale of the dodo'' - Copernicus Books. ISBN 0387988769 == External links == *[http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/dodo.htm Dodos at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History] *http://www.kritische-naturgeschichte.de/Seiten/beitraege.html (Vom Dodo lernen - Öko-Mythen um einen Symbolvogel des Naturschutzes) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4556928.stm Scientists find 'mass dodo grave'] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=187135 Dodo DNA/Protein sequence at the NCBI] [[Category:Extinct flightless birds]] [[category:Raphidae]] [[Category:Recent extinctions]] [[cs:Dronte mauricijský]] [[da:Dronte]] [[de:Dodo]] [[es:Dodo]] [[fr:Dodo]] [[io:Dronto]] [[is:Dúdúfugl]] [[he:דודו]] [[nl:Dodo]] [[ja:ドードー]] [[no:Dodo]] [[nn:Dronte]] [[pl:Drontowate]] [[pt:Dodó]] [[sv:Dront]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Tambalacoque</title> <id>8421</id> <revision> <id>41791391</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:56:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Tambalacoque | status = {{StatusCritical}} | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Ericales]] | familia = [[Sapotaceae]] | genus = ''[[Sideroxylon]]'' | species = '''''S. grandiflorum''''' | binomial = ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' | binomial_authority = [[Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de Candolle|A.DC.]] }} '''Tambalacoque''' (also called the '''dodo tree''') ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' formerly ''Calvaria major'', is a long-lived tree in the family [[Sapotaceae]], [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to [[Mauritius]]. In [[1973]], it was thought that this species was dying out, there were only 13 specimens left, which all were about 300 years old. [[Stanley Temple]] put forward the theory that the [[dodo]], which became extinct in the 17th century, ate the seeds of the tree, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the dodo did the seeds become active and start to grow. After a while, it was discovered the same effect could be accomplished by getting [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s to eat the seeds. Turkeys showed no interest in whole tambalacoque fruit, but were willing to swallow the seeds, which sprouted after passing through turkey gizzards. New seedlings have germinated, and the species appears to have been saved, though the seedlings have not yet produced seeds of their own. The dodo tree is valued on Mauritius for its timber; the foresters now abrade the seeds by hand in order to get them to sprout, rather than feeding them to turkeys. However, this theory that the tree required the dodo has been contested; others have suggested the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or that other extinct animals may also have been distributing the seeds, such as [[tortoise]]s, [[fruit bat]]s or the [[Broad-billed Parrot]]. [[Wendy Strahm]] and [[Anthony Cheke]], two experts in Mascarene [[ecology]], claim that while a rare tree, it has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers a few hundreds, not 13, the difference in numbers being due to the fact that young trees are not distinctly-looking and usually confused with similar species. The decline of the tree is possibly because of [[introduced species|introduced]] [[pig]]s and [[monkey]]s and competition with introduced plants. Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979), and Witmer (1991). Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis. ==References== * Temple, S.A., [[1977]]. Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. ''Science'' 187: 885-886 * Carla Helfferich, [[1990]]. [http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF11/1110.html The Turkey and the Tambalacoque Tree] * Paul M. Catling, [[2001]]. Extinction and the importance of history and dependence in conservation. ''Biodiversity'' 2(3) [http://www.tc-biodiversity.org/sample-extinction.pdf pdf] * Owadally, A. W. and Temple, S. A., [[1979]]. The dodo and the tambalacoque tree. ''Science'' 1363-1364 * Witmer, M. C. and Cheke, A. S., [[1991]]. The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered. ''Oikos'' 61: 133-137 * David Quammen, [[1996]]. ''The Song of the Dodo''. * Hershey, D.R., [[2004]]. [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-2004-50-4.php#Dodo The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate.] ''Plant Science Bulletin'' 50: 105-108. ==External links== *[http://home.conceptsfa.nl/~pmaas/rea/dodobird.htm ''Raphus cucullatus'' and ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' (picture)] [[Category:Ericales]] [[Category:Mauritius]] [[fr:Tambalacoque]] [[he:עץ הדודו]] [[pt:Árvore dodô]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DragonMagazine</title> <id>8423</id> <revision> <id>15906424</id> <timestamp>2004-10-30T22:18:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lowellian</username> <id>29210</id> </contributor> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dragon (magazine)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DungeonMagazine</title> <id>8424</id> <revision> <id>15906425</id> <timestamp>2004-10-30T22:14:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lowellian</username> <id>29210</id> </contributor> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dungeon (magazine)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dwight Schultz</title> <id>8425</id> <revision> <id>41809027</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:10:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ben King</username> <id>389535</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Reginaldbarclay001.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Dwight Schultz &lt;br/&gt; as [[Reginald Barclay]]]] '''William Dwight Schultz''' (born [[November 24]], [[1947]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]) is an [[United States|American]] stage, television and film [[actor]]. He first made his name on TV as &quot;H.M. &quot;Howlin' Mad&quot; Murdock&quot; on the [[1980s]] action show ''[[The A-Team]]''. Schultz has appeared in [[film]]s including ''The Fan'' ([[1981]]), as [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Actor|actress]] [[Lauren Bacall]]'s director, and ''Fat Man Little Boy'' ([[1989]]), as [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]. In the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] he had a recurring role as Lieutenant [[Reginald Barclay]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' and then ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' (as well as the film ''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]''). Schultz is also known for his voice talent. His voice credits include numerous video games and cartoons. Dwight Schu
o have Chrysostom deposed in [[404]], but she died later that year. Arcadius was dominated for the rest of his rule by [[Anthemius (Byzantine Prefect)|Anthemius]], the [[Praetorian prefect|Praetorian Prefect]], who made peace with Stilicho in the West. Arcadius himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious [[Christianity|Christian]] than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his empire, in 408. See also: [[Byzantine Empire]]. ==External links== [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Arcadius_Laws.html Laws of Arcadius], extracted from Justinian's ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' {{Commons|Arcadius}} {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Theodosius I]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Theodosius II]]}} [[Category:370s births]] [[Category:408 deaths]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:House of Theodosius]] [[ar:آركاديوس]] [[bg:Аркадий (Византийска империя)]] [[cs:Arcadius]] [[de:Arcadius]] [[et:Arcadius]] [[es:Arcadio]] [[fr:Arcadius]] [[it:Arcadio di Bisanzio]] [[la:Arcadius]] [[hu:Arcadius]] [[nl:Arcadius van Byzantium]] [[ja:アルカディウス]] [[no:Arcadius]] [[pl:Arkadiusz (cesarz bizantyjski)]] [[pt:Arcádio]] [[ro:Arcadius]] [[fi:Arcadius]] [[sv:Arcadius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arab</title> <id>2185</id> <revision> <id>42158697</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:13:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guanaco</username> <id>47960</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Arabian ethnicity}} {{Ethnic group| image= |group=Arabs |poptime=''c. '' 200-300 million |popplace=[[Arab world]] |langs=[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |rels=[[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[Druze]], [[Judaism]], none or others |related=[[Sephardic Jews]]/ &quot;Oriental&quot; Jews, [[Assyrians]], [[Maltese]], other [[Semitic]] groups; possibly [[Berbers]]. }} The '''Arabs''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عرب ʻarab) are a large and [[heterogeneous]] [[ethnic group]] found throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]], originating in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] of [[southwest Asia]]. ==Who is an Arab?== The definition of who an Arab is has several aspects: * [[Identity (social science)|Ethnic identity]]: someone who considers himself to be an Arab (regardless of [[racial]] or [[ethnic origin]]) and is recognized as such by others. * [[Language|Linguistic]]: someone whose [[first language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (including any of its [[Varieties of Arabic|varieties]]); this definition covers more than 700 million people. Arabic belongs to the [[Semitic]] family of languages. * [[Genealogy|Genealogical]]: someone who can trace his or her ancestry back to the original inhabitants of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. * [[Political geography|Political]]: someone who is a resident or [[citizen]] of a country where Arabic is an [[official language|official]] or [[national language]], or is a member of the [[Arab League]] or is part of the wider [[Arab world]]; this definition would cover more than 300 million people, but it is rather simplistic and rigid in that it excludes the entire [[Diaspora]] but includes [[indigenous]] or [[migrant]] [[ethnic minority|minorities]] The relative importance of these factors is estimated differently by different groups. Most people who consider themselves Arabs do so on the basis of the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions. However, some members of groups which fulfill both criteria reject the identity on the basis of the genealogical definition; [[Lebanese]] [[Maronites]], for example, may reject the Arab label in favor of a narrower [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]]-Lebanese national identity, as do many Coptic and Muslim Egyptians who embrace the continuation of their ancient heritage. Groups using a non-Arabic liturgical language - such as [[Copts]] in [[Egypt]] - are especially likely to consider themselves non-Arab, even though they are not ethnically distinct from their Muslim compatriots. Not many people consider themselves Arab on the basis of the political definition without the linguistic one&amp;mdash;thus, [[Kurd]]s or [[Berber]]s do not usually identify themselves as Arab&amp;mdash;but some do (for instance, some Berbers do consider themselves Arabs, and Kurds were in some historical circumstances seen as Arabs or Turks or Persians). In addition, a majority of the population of [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] is made up of non-citizen non-Arab [[immigrant]]s and so the political definition does not apply there either. A ''[[hadith]]'' of questionable authenticity[http://www.islamtoday.com/show_detail_section.cfm?q_id=266&amp;main_cat_id=11], related by [[Ibn Asakir]] in ''Târîkh Dimashq'' and attributed by its narrator Salmân b. `Abd Allah to Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]], expresses a common sentiment in declaring that: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Being an Arab is not because of your father or mother, but being an Arab is on account of your tongue. Whoever speaks Arabic is an Arab.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; According to Habib Hassan Touma (1996, p.xviii), &quot;An 'Arab', in the modern sense of the word, is one who is a national of an Arab state, has command of the Arabic language, and possesses a fundamental knowledge of Arabian tradition, that is, of the manners, customs, and political and social systems of the culture.&quot; On its formation in 1946, the [[Arab League]] defined an &quot;Arab&quot; as follows: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;An Arab is a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arabic speaking country, who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arabic speaking peoples.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; The genealogical definition was widely used in [[medieval]] times ([[Ibn Khaldun]], for instance, does not use the word ''Arab'' to refer to &quot;Arabized&quot; peoples, but only to those of originally Arabian descent), but is usually no longer considered to be particularly significant. ==Religions== Before the coming of [[Islam]], most Arabs followed a religion featuring the worship of a number of deities, including [[Hubal]], [[Wadd]], [[Al-Lat]], [[Manat]], and [[Uzza]], while some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the ''[[hanif]]s'', had apparently rejected [[polytheism]] in favor of a vague [[monotheism]]. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the [[Ghassanid]] and [[Lakhmid]] kingdoms. With the expansion of Islam, the majority of Arabs were rapidly conquered and became Muslims, and the pre-Islamic polytheistic traditions disappeared. At present, most Arabs are [[Muslim]]s. [[Sunni Islam]] dominates in most areas, overwhelmingly so in North Africa; [[Shia Islam]] is prevalent in [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], southern [[Iraq]] and adjacent parts of [[Saudi Arabia]], southern [[Lebanon]], parts of [[Syria]], and northern [[Yemen]]. The tiny [[Druze]] community, belonging to a secretive offshoot of Islam, is usually considered Arab, but sometimes considered an ethnicity in its own right. Reliable estimates of the number of Arab [[Christian]]s, which in any case depends on the definition of &quot;Arab&quot; used, vary. According to [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=6&amp;reading_id=63&amp;sequence=4 Fargues 1998], &quot;Today Christians only make up 9.2 % of the population of the Near East&quot;. In Lebanon they now number only about 40 % of the population, in Syria they make up about 10 to 15 %, in the Palestinian territories the figure is 3.8 %, and in Israel Arab Christians constitute 2.1 %. In Egypt, they constitute 5.9 % of the population, and in Iraq they presumably comprise 2.9 % of the populace. Most [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]n Arabs (about two-thirds) are [[Arab Christians]], particularly from [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Lebanon]]. [[Jew]]s from Arab countries - mainly [[Mizrahi Jews]] and [[Yemenite Jews]] - are today usually not categorised as Arab. Sociologist Philip Mendes asserts that before the anti-Jewish actions of the 1930s and 1940s, overall [[Iraqi Jews]] &quot;viewed themselves as Arabs of the Jewish faith, rather than as a separate race or nationality&quot;. [http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~ajds/mendes_refugees.htm] Prior to the emergence of the term ''Mizrahi'', the term &quot;Arab Jews&quot; (''Yehudim ‘Áravim'', &amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;) was used to describe Jews of the [[Arab world]]. The term is rarely used today. The few remaining Jews in the Arab countries reside mostly in Morocco and Tunisia. Between the late 1940s and early 1960s, following the creation of the state of [[Israel]], most of these Jews left their countries of birth and are now mostly concentrated in Israel, but many also live in [[France]], and however more Jews reside within the [[United States]]. (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]). ==History== The first written attestation of the ethnonym &quot;Arab&quot; occurs in an [[Assyria]]n inscription of [[853 BC]], where [[Shalmaneser III]] lists a King [[Gindibu]] of ''mâtu arbâi'' (Arab land) as among the people he defeated at the [[Battle of Karkar]]. Some of the names given in these texts are Aramaic, while others are the first attestations of Proto-Arabic dialects. The [[Hebrew Bible]] likewise refers occasionally to peoples called ''`Arvi'' (or variants thereof), translated as &quot;Arab&quot; or &quot;Arabian&quot;. The scope of the Hebrew term at this early stage is unclear, but it seems to have referred to various desert-dwelling [[Semitic]] tribes in the [[Syrian Desert]] and [[Arabia]]. Its earliest attested use referring to the southern &quot;[[Qahtanite]]&quot; Arabs is much later. Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North
[[Uqba ibn Nafi]] and [[Abu Muhajir al Dinar]] did much to promote Islam and in the following centuries most of the indigenous peoples converted. However, the social character of Libya remained overwhelmingly Amazigh. In 750 the [[Abbasid dynasty]] overthrew the [[Ummayad]] caliph and shifted the capital to [[Baghdad]], with emirs retaining nominal control over the Libyan coast on behalf of the far-distant caliph. In 800 Caliph [[Harun ar-Rashid]] appointed [[Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab]] as his governor. The [[Aghlabids]] dynasty effectively became independent of the Baghdad caliphs, who continued to retain spiritual authority. The Aghlabid emirs took their custodianship of Libya seriously, repairing Roman [[irrigation]] systems, restoring order and bringing a measure of prosperity to the region. In the last decade of the [[9th century]], the Ismailis launched an assault on the [[Sunni]] Aghlabids. The [[Ismaili]] spiritual leader, Grandmaster Ubaidalla Said of [[Syria]], was installed as the imam of much of the Meghreb, including Tripolitania. The Amazigh of Libya eventually came to accept the imam as the [[Mahdi]] (Promised One). The [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid dynasty]] conquered [[Misr]] (Egypt) in [[972]] and set up their caliphate in [[Cairo]]. The difficulty of maintaining control of Libya plagued the Fatimids, as it had almost every other authority preceeding them. At the beginning of the [[11th century]], [[Bulukkin ibn Ziri]] was installed as the Fatimid governor but he quickly returned Libya to orthodox Sunni Islam and swore allegiance to the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. The Fatimid anger at what they considered a gross betrayal profoundly altereed the fabric and makeup of Libyan society. Two tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, the Bani Hilal and the Bani Salim (or Bani Sulaim), were co-opted into migrating to the Meghreb. The Bani Salim settled in Libya, particularly in Cyrenaica, while the Bani Hilal spread across North Africa. The Amazigh tribespeople were displaced from their traditional lands, their farmland concerted to pasture and the new settlers cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region. Tripoli was pillaged in [[1146]] by the [[Normans]] of Sicily. In [[1158]], the supporters of the [[Almohad]] dynasty arrived in Tripoli from [[Morocco]] and established their authority. An Almohad emir, Muhammad bin Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from [[1207]] to [[1221]] and established the [[Hafsid dynasty]], which outlived the Almohads. The Hafsids ruled Tripoli for nearly 300 years. There was significant trade with the city-states of Europe and Hafsid rulers encouraged art, literature and architecture, and gave scholarship priority. In 1321 the [[Beni Ammar]] established an independent dynasty there, which lasted (with an interval, 1354-1369, during which two sovereigns of the [[Beni Mekki]] reigned) until 1401, when Tripoli was reconquered by Tunis. Meanwhile, in the Fezzan in the 13th century, King Danama of Kanem (near Lake Chad) annexed territories as far north as the Al-Jufra oases. His Toubou viceroy founded the autonomous Bani Nasr dynasty, which ruled the Fezzan until the 14th century. They were followed by the theocratic kingdoms of Kharijite sectarians, including the Bani Khattab in the Fezzan. In the early 16th century, the Libyan Sahara fell under the control of Muhammad al-Fazi from Morocco who, early in the 16th century, founded the Awlad Suleiman dynasty in Murzuq. ===Ottoman Rule=== By the beginning of the 15th century, the Libyan coast had minimal central authority and its harbours were havens for unchecked bands of pirates. Hapsburg Spain occupied Tripoli in 1510, but the Spaniards were more concerned with controlling the port that with the inconveniences of administering a colony. [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain]] took Tripoli and in 1528 gave it to the [[Knights of St John]] of Malta. In 1538 Tripoli was reconquered by a pirate king called Khair ad-Din (known more evocatively as [[Barbarossa]], or Red Beard). It was the that coast became renowned as the [[Barbary Coast]]. When the Ottomans arrived to occupy Tripoli in 1551, they saw little reason to reign in the pirates, preferring instead to profit from the booty. The Europeans were expelled in 1553 by Turkish corsairs [[Dragut]] and Sinaii, acting under loose control from Ottoman Constantinople. Dragut, who afterwards fell in the battle at Malta, lies buried in Tripoli in a much venerated tomb. After Dragut's death, the connection between Tripoli and Constantinople seems to have been considerably weakened. Under the Ottomans. the Meghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis. After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed by the sultan in Constantinople. The sultan provided the pasha with a corps of [[janissaries]], which was in turn divided into a number of companies under the command of a junior officer or [[bey]]. The janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a divan (a council of senior officers who advised the pasha), the janissaries soon reduced the pasha to a largely ceremonial role. In 1711, [[Ahmed Karamanli]], an Ottoman cavalry officer and son of a Turkish officer and Libyan woman, seized power and founded the [[Karamanli]] dynasty, which would last 124 years. In May 1801 Pasha [[Yusuf Karamanli]] demanded from the United States an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which that government had paid since 1796 for the protection of their commerce from piracy. The demand was refused, an American naval force blockaded Tripoli, and a [[First Barbary War|desultory war]] dragged on until [[3 June]] [[1805]]. In 1835, the government of [[Mahmud II|Sultan Mahmud II]] took advantage of local disturbances to reassert their direct authority and held it until the final collapse of the Ottoman Empire. As decentralized Ottoman power had resulted in the virtual independence of Egypt as well as Tripoli, the coast and desert lying between them relapsed to anarchy, even after direct Ottoman control was resumed in Tripoli. The indigenous [[Senussi]] Movement, led by Islamic cleric Sayyid Mohammed Ali as-Senussi, called on the countryside to resist Ottoman rule. The Grand Senussi established his headquarters in the oasis town of [[Al-Jaghbub]] while his ''ikhwan'' (brothers) set up ''zawiyas'' (religious colleges or monasteries) across North Africa and brought some stability to regions not known for their submission to central authority. In line with the expressed instruction of the Grand Sanusi, these gains were made largely without any coercion. The highpoint of the Sanusi influence came in the 1880s under the Grand Senussi's son, [[Mohammed al-Mahdi]], who was a skilled administrator and a charismatic orator. With 146 lodges spanning the entire Sahara, he moved the Senussi capital to [[Kufra]]. Harsh Ottoman rule only fuelled the appeal of the Senussi Movement's call to repel foreign occupation. Remarkably, Mohammed al-Mahdi succeeded where so many had failed before him, securing the enduring loyalty of the Amazigh tribes of Cyrenaica. Over a 75 year period the Ottoman Turks provided 33 governors and Libya remained part of the empire-- although at times virtually autonomous-- until [[Italy]] invaded in [[1911]], as the Ottoman Empire was collapsing. ==Italian Colony, 1911-1951== [[Image:LibiaStamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;New Rome&quot; imagery on a postage stamp]] The attempted Italian colonization of the Ottoman provinces of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]] was never wholly successful. On October 3, [[1911]], the Italians attacked Tripoli, claiming somewhat disingenuously to be liberating Libya from Ottoman rule. Despite a major revolt by the Libyans, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne. Tripoli was largely under Italian control by [[1914]], but both Cyrenaica and the Fezzan were home to rebellions led by the Senussis. Several reorganizations of the colonial authority were made necessary, in the face of the armed Libyan opposition. From 1919 ([[17 May]]) to 1929 ([[24 January]]) the Italian government maintained the two traditional provinces, with separate colonial administrations. A system of controlled local assembies with limited local authority was set up, but it was revoked [[9 March]] [[1927]]. In 1929 Tripoli and Cyrenaica were united as one colonial province, then in 1934, as Italy struggled to retain colonial power, the classical name &quot;Libya&quot; was revived as the official name of the colony, which was split into four provinces, [[Tripoli]], Misurata, [[Bengasi]], and Derna. In 1920 ([[25 October]]) the Italian government recognized [[Idris I of Libya|Sheikh Sidi Idris]] the hereditary head of the nomadic [[Senussi]], with wide authority in Kufra and other oases, as Emir of Cyrenaica, a new title extended by the British at the close of World War I. The emir would eventually become king of the free Libyan state. Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the dictator [[Benito Mussolini]]. Idris fled to Egypt in 1922. From 1922 to 1928, Italian forces under [[Pietro Badoglio|Gen. Badoglio]] waged a punitive pacification campaign. Badoglio's succesor in the field, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush Libyan resistance unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or international law. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression. The Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from Cyrenaica. [[Omar Mukhtar]] (1858 - 1931), a Senussi sheikh, became the leader of the uprising. After a much disputed truce on [[3 January]] [[1928]], the Italian policy in Libya reached new depths of brutality. A bar
lm appearance was ''[[The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu]]'', a [[1980]] [[parody]] starring [[Peter Sellers]] as Fu. ==In other media== * Fu Manchu appeared, but only as &quot;The Doctor,&quot; in [[Alan Moore]]'s [[comic book]] series ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen''. Moore did not have the copyright to use the character by name. * [[DC Comics]] used Fu Manchu during the thirties with different names until they obtained a copyright licence. *[[Marvel Comics]] later used the same technique when they lost the rights to the character after getting them in the 1970s. Fu Manchu appeared as the father of the character [[Shang-Chi]] in the series ''Shang-Chi, Master of Kung Fu.'' In later appearances, Fu Manchu is never named, only referred to as Shang's 'father,' and never shown out of shadow. In a recent Black Panther storyline, he is referred to as &quot;Mr. Han&quot;, apparently a play on the name of the main villain in [[Enter the Dragon]]. * Fu Manchu and his daughter are the inspiration for the character Hark and his daughter Anna Hark in the comic book series [[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]]. == External links == * [http://www.njedge.net/~knapp/FuFrames.htm ''The Page of Fu Manchu''] * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=173 ''The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu''] by Sax Rohmer * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1183 ''The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu''] by Sax Rohmer * [http://community-2.webtv.net/drhermes/DrHermesReviewsII/''Dr Hermes Reviews''] reviews of all the Fu Manchu books as well as those featuring Sax Rohmer's other criminal mastermind, Sumuru [[Category:Chinese American history]] [[Category:Film villains]] [[Category:Literature villains]] [[Category:Wold Newton Family Members|Manchu, Fu]] [[Category:Pulp heroes and villians]] [[Category:Evil geniuses]] [[Category:Fictional Chinese]] [[de:Dr. Fu Manchu]] [[es:Fu Manchú]] [[fr:Fu Manchu]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Friesland</title> <id>11254</id> <revision> <id>42095367</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:17:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Big Adamsky</username> <id>468840</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Friesland province in the Netherlands. For other uses, see [[Friesland (disambiguation)]].'' {{Infobox Dutch Province | ename = Province of Friesland | dname = Provincie Friesland | fname = Provinsje Fryslân | common_name = Friesland | image_flag = Frisian flag.jpeg | image_coat = Frisian coat.gif | location_image = Friesland-Position.png | capital = [[Leeuwarden]] | commissioner = [[drs. E.H.T.M. (Ed) Nijpels]] | religion_year = 1999 | religion = [[Protestant]] 39%&lt;br /&gt;[[Catholic]] 8% | area_land = 3.349 | area_water = 2.392 | area_rank = 3rd | population_year = 2005 | population = 642.998 | population_rank = 8th | density = 192 | density_rank = 11th | anthem = [[De âlde Friezen]] | website = www.fryslan.nl | }} '''Friesland''' is a province in the north of the [[Netherlands]]. Its name in the [[Frisian language]] is ''Fryslân'', which has also been its official name since 1997, and is therefore also used in official [[Dutch language]] publications. Friesland has 643,000 inhabitants (2005) and its [[capital]] is [[Leeuwarden]] (''Ljouwert''), with 91,000 inhabitants, in the centre of the province. ==Distinguishing features== Friesland distinguishes itself from the other eleven Dutch provinces through having its own language, which is also spoken in a minor part of the province of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], to the east. Closely related languages, [[Saterland Frisian language|East Frisian]] (&quot;''Seeltersk''&quot;, which is different from &quot;[[East Frisian Low Saxon|East Frisian (''Ostfriesisch'')]]&quot;, a collection of [[Low German]] dialects of [[East Frisia]]) and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]], are spoken in the [[Saterland]] and in [[North Friesland]] areas in [[Germany]], respectively. The [[English language]] is also closely related to [[Frisian language|Frisian]]. There is a saying about it: &quot;As milk is to cheese, are English and Frise.&quot; [[Image:Holstein_cows_large.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Frisian [[cattle]]]] Friesland is mainly an agricultural province. The famous black and white [[Holstein (cattle)|Friesian]] [[cattle]] and the well known black [[Friesian horse]] originated here. [[Tourism]], mainly on the [[lake]]s in the south west of the province, and on the [[island]]s in the [[Wadden Sea]] in the north, is an important source of income, too. The province is also famous for its [[Speed skating|speed skaters]], and also for the [[Elfstedentocht]] (Eleven cities tour), a 253 [[kilometre]]s [[ice skating]] tour. Another interesting feature are the many [[windmill]]s. There are 195 windmills in the province of Friesland, from a total of about 1200 in the entire country. == Cities == *[[Leeuwarden]] (''Ljouwert'') *[[Sneek]] (''Snits'') *[[IJlst]] (''Drylts'') *[[Sloten]] (''Sleat'') *[[Stavoren]] (''Starum'') *[[Hindeloopen]] (''Hylpen'') *[[Workum]] (''Warkum'') *[[Bolsward]] (''Boalsert'') *[[Harlingen, Netherlands|Harlingen]] (''Harns'') *[[Franekeradeel|Franeker]] (''Frjentsjer'') *[[Dokkum]] (''Dokkum'') == Major towns == *[[Heerenveen]] (''It Hearrenfean'') *[[Drachten]] (mun. [[Smallingerland]]) == Municipalities == *[[Achtkarspelen]] *[[Ameland]] *[[Boarnsterhim]] *[[Bolsward]] *[[Dantumadeel]] *[[Dongeradeel]] *[[Ferwerderadiel]] *[[Franekeradeel]] *[[Gaasterlân-Sleat]] *[[Gorredijk]] *[[Harlingen, Netherlands|Harlingen]] *[[Heerenveen]] *[[Het Bildt]] *[[Kollumerland c.a.]] *[[Leeuwarden]] *[[Leeuwarderadeel]] *[[Lemsterland]] *[[Littenseradiel]] *[[Menaldumadeel]] *[[Nijefurd]] *[[Ooststellingwerf]] *[[Opsterland]] *[[Schiermonnikoog]] *[[Skarsterlân]] *[[Smallingerland]] *[[Sneek]] *[[Terschelling]] *[[Tytsjerksteradiel]] *[[Vlieland]] *[[Weststellingwerf]] *[[Wûnseradiel]] *[[Wymbritseradiel]] ==See also== *[[De âlde Friezen]] (Friesland's anthem) *[[Frisia]] *[[Frisian Islands]] *[[Frisians]] *[[Frisian language]] *[[Frise]] == External links == *[http://www.friesland.nl/ Website of the province] *[http://www.i-friesland.com/history.html Ancient History of Friesland] *[http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gemprovin.htm#F province map showing subdivision in municipalities, link for each municipality to basic data page] *Bus maps: **[http://www.noordned.com/Images/Content/lijnenkaart.gif Friesland] {{Provinces_of_the_Netherlands}} [[Category:Friesland|*]] [[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]] [[af:Friesland]] [[ca:Província de Frísia]] [[da:Frisland]] [[de:Friesland (Provinz)]] [[et:Friisimaa provints]] [[es:Frisia]] [[eo:Frislando]] [[fr:Frise (province)]] [[fy:Fryslân]] [[ko:프리슬란트 주]] [[id:Friesland]] [[it:Frisia]] [[li:Friesland]] [[nl:Friesland]] [[nds:Fryslân]] [[ja:フリースラント州]] [[no:Friesland (Nederland)]] [[pl:Fryzja (prowincja)]] [[pt:Província da Frísia]] [[ro:Frizia]] [[ru:Фрисландия]] [[simple:Friesland]] [[sv:Friesland]] [[tr:Friesland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Freuds</title> <id>11255</id> <revision> <id>15909015</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sigmund Freud]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fulham Football Club/2001 Squad</title> <id>11256</id> <revision> <id>15909016</id> <timestamp>2003-09-03T21:30:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MyRedDice</username> <id>5862</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Fulham F.C.]] (merge)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fulham F.C.]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feminist science fiction</title> <id>11257</id> <revision> <id>15909017</id> <timestamp>2002-10-17T00:14:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.40.235</ip> </contributor> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Women in science fiction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fellatio</title> <id>11258</id> <revision> <id>26935896</id> <timestamp>2005-10-31T02:11:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluefoxicy</username> <id>70169</id> </contributor> <comment>fix to have internal link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Oral sex#Fellatio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fatwa</title> <id>11259</id> <revision> <id>41976863</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:17:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eagleamn</username> <id>128486</id> </contributor> <comment>rv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}} A '''fatwa''' ({{lang-ar|&amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1609;}}) plural '''fat&amp;#257;wa''' (&amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1609;), is a legal pronouncement in [[Islam]], issued by a religious law specialist on a specific issue. Usually a fatwa is issued at the request of an individual or a judge to settle a question where &amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;[[fiqh]],&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217; Islamic [[jurisprudence]], is unclear. A scholar capable of issuing fatwas is known as a [[Mufti]]. The overwhelming majority of fatwas are on mundane matters (for examples see the archives linked below). Several have declared war or pronounced death sentences, most notably the [[Salman_Rushdie#The_Satanic_Verses_controversy|fatwa for the execution of Salman Rushdie]] issued in 1989 by Ayatollah [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], and the [[Osama bin Laden fatwa|1998 Fatwa]] proclaimed by [[Osama bin Laden]
//www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm]. Some of the 19th century individual anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, referred to themselves as socialists [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html], however &quot;the libertarian socialists such as Proudhon were not socialists in the usual sense of today, meaning state socialists, because they did believe in property rights. They were oriented toward cooperative and decentralized forms of ownership -- yet they agreed with other progressive libertarians in advocating genuinely free markets, with an end to land monopoly and other government-created monopolies...&quot; The libertarian socialists were divided into two main categories: &quot;the individualists who remained true to Proudhonian mutualism and the collectivists represented by the anarcho-communists.&quot; {{ref|Gagnon}} == Origins == [[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|[[William Godwin]], a radical [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[utilitarian]]. There is a lack of consensus as to whether he was an individualist, a communist, or neither.]] There is significant variance between the philosophies of different individualist anarchists. Almost all, following Proudhon, support individual ownership of the particular form of private property he referred to as &quot;possession&quot;. Stirner supports private property but rejects the notion of a ''right'' to property. Godwin is an [[altruist]], Stirner an [[egoist]]. Warren espouses natural law as a basis for individual liberty, while Tuckers premises it upon egoism. Tucker opposes intellectual property while Spooner advocates it. However, what these philosophers all have in common is a rejection of both capitalist economics and [[collectivist]] notions of society and a pronounced focus on individuality. William Godwin, of England, wrote essays advocating a society without government that are considered some of the first, if not the first, anarchist treatises. As such, some consider the [[liberalism|liberal]] British writer to be the &quot;father of philosophical anarchism.&quot; There is a lack of consensus as to whether Godwin was an individualist or a communist. He is regarded by some as one of the first individualist anarchists, although his philosophy has some communist-like characteristics. He advocates an extreme form of individualism, proposing that all sorts of cooperation in labor should be eliminated; he says: &quot;everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil.&quot; Godwin's individualism is to such a radical degree that he even opposes individuals performing together in orchestras. The only apparent exception to this opposition to cooperation is the spontaneous association that may arise when a society is threatened by violent force. One reason he opposes cooperation is he believes it to interfere with an individual's ability to be benevolent for the greater good. Godwin opposes the existence of government and expressly opposes democracy, fearing oppression of the individual by the majority (though he believes democracy to be preferable to dictatorship). Godwin supports individual ownership of property, defining it as &quot;the empire to which every man is entitled over the produce of his own industry.&quot; However, he does advocate that individuals give to each other their surplus property on the occasion that others have a need for it, without involving trade (see ''[[gift economy]]''). This was to be based on [[utilitarian]] principles; he says: &quot;Every man has a right to that, the exclusive possession of which being awarded to him, a greater sum of benefit or pleasure will result than could have arisen from its being otherwise appropriated.&quot; However, benevolence was not to be enforced but a matter of free individual &quot;private judgement.&quot; He does not advocate a community of goods or assert collective ownership as is embraced in communism, but his belief that individuals ought to share with those in need was influential on [[anarchist communism]] later. Some consider Godwin both an individualist and a communist rather than a strict individualist for this reason. [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:iCK-K7dEYK4J:www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/overview/shelley.pdf] Some, such as [[Murray Rothbard]], do not regard Godwin as being in the individualist camp at all [http://www.b.150m.com/writers/rothbard/burke.html] (Some restrict &quot;individualist anarchism&quot; to the market anarchists). Others consider him an individualist anarchist without reservation. [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm] Some writers see a conflict between Godwin's advocacy of &quot;private judgement&quot; and utilitarianism, as he says that ethics requires that individuals give their surplus property to each other resulting in an egalitarian society, but, at the same time, he insists that all things be left to individual choice. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/godwin/] [[Communist-anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] says in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica that Godwin &quot;entirely rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his communist views in the second edition of Political Justice.&quot; Godwin's basis in utilitarianism and ethical altruism contrasts with later individualists, such as Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, who ground their philosophy on [[egoism]] or [[self-interest]] (though not all are egoists). Also, Godwin's aversion to cooperation and a market economy is not typical among the individualists. [[Image:Max_stirner.jpg|thumb|right|[[Max Stirner]] was the first of the [[egoism|egoist]] individualist anarchists. Portrait by [[Friedrich Engels]].]] While individualists typically assert property as a right, Germany's [[Max Stirner]] that a &quot;right&quot; to property is an illusion, or &quot;ghost&quot;; property is only a matter of control --it is not based in any moral right but solely in the right of might: &quot;Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property.&quot;. Stirner considers the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint --that rights do not exist in regard to objects at all. He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believes is the only legitimate reason for acting. His embrace of [[egoism]] is in stark contrast to Godwin's [[altruism]]. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a &quot;spook&quot; and that &quot;the individuals are its reality&quot; (''The Ego and Its Own''). Whether individualist anarchism is properly justified by self-interest (egoism) or natural law has been a subject of debate among the individualists. For example, [[Lysander Spooner]] holds that there are natural property rights, but egoists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] agree with Stirner that there are no natural property rights but hold that property can come only about by [[contract]] between individuals. France's [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] was the first philosopher to label himself an &quot;anarchist.&quot; He was particularly influential among the American individualists, mainly by way of Benjamin Tucker who had translated and studied his works. Proudhon opposes government privilege that protects banking and land interests, and any form of coercion that led to the accumulation or acquisition of property, which he believes hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. Proudhon favors a right of individuals to retain the product of their labor as their own property, but believed that any property beyond that which an individual produced and could possess was illegitimate. Thus, he saw private property as both essential to liberty and a road to tyranny, the former when it resulted from labor and the latter when it resulted from extortion (interest, tax, etc). He says: &quot;Where shall we find a power capable of counter-balancing the... State? There is none other than property... The absolute right of the State is in conflict with the absolute right of the property owner. Property is the greatest revolutionary force which exists.&quot; Proudhon maintains that those who labor should retain the entirety of what they produce, and that monopolies on credit and land are the forces that prohibiting such. He advocated an economic system that included private property as possession and exchange market but without profit, which he called [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. It is Proudhon's philosophy that was explicitly amended by [[Joseph Dejacque]] in the inception of [[anarchist-communism]], with the latter asserting directly to Proudhon in a letter that &quot;it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.&quot; Proudhon said that &quot;communism...is the very denial of society in its foundation...&quot; (''Philosophy of Poverty'') and was famous for declaring that &quot;property is theft&quot; in reference to the capitalist practices of his time. After Dejacque and others split from Proudhon due to the latter's support of individual property and an exchange economy, the relationship between the individualists, who continued in relative alignment with the philosophy of Proudhon, and the anarcho-communists was characterised by various degrees of antagonism and harmony. For example, individualists like Tucker on the one hand translating and reprinted the works of collectivists like [[Mikhail Bakunin]], while on the other hand rejecting the economic aspects of collectivism and communism as incompatible with anarchist ideals. While individualist anarchism is often seen as including William Godwin and Max Stirner, it is most often associated with the American tradition, which advocates individual ownership of the produce of labor and a [[market economy]] where this property may be bought and sold.{{fact}} However,
lacial Valley MtHoodWilderness.jpg|thumb|right|240px|A glaciated valley in the [[Mount Hood Wilderness]] showing the characteristic U-shape and flat bottom.]] [[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|right|240px|This image shows the termini of the glaciers in the [[Bhutan]]-[[Himalaya]]. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades.]] Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic &quot;V&quot; shape, produced by downward [[erosion]] by water. However, during glaciation, these valleys widen and deepen, which creates a &quot;U&quot;-shaped [[glacial valley]]. Besides the deepening and widening of the valley, the glacier also smoothes the valley due to erosion. This way, it eliminates the spurs of earth that extend across the valley. Because of this interaction, triangular cliffs called [[truncated spurs]] are formed. Many glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller [[tributary|tributaries]]. Therefore, when the glaciers stop receding, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression, and these are called [[hanging valley]]. In parts of the soil that were affected by abrasion and plucking, the depressions left can be filled by [[paternoster lake]]s, from the [[Latin]] for &quot;Our Father&quot;, referring to a station of the [[rosary]]. At the head of a glacier is the [[corrie]], which has a bowl shape with escarped walls on three sides, but open on the side that descends into the valley. In the corrie, an accumulation of ice is formed. These begin as irregularities on the side of the mountain, which are later augmented in size by the coining of the ice. After the glacier melts, these corries are usually occupied by small mountain lakes called [[tarn (lake)|tarns]]. There may be two glaciers separated by a diving ridge. This, located between the corries, is eroded to create an [[Arete (landform)|arête]]. This structure may result in a [[mountain pass]]. Glaciers are also responsible for the creation of [[fjord]]s (deep coves or inlets) and [[escarpment]]s that are found at high latitudes. With depths that can exceed 1,000 metres caused by the postglacial elevation of [[sea level]] and therefore, as it changed the glaciers changed their level of erosion. [[image:Glacial_landscape_LMB.png|right|frame|Features of a glacial landscape]] === Arêtes and horns === An [[Arete (landform)|arête]] is a narrow crest with a sharp edge. Pointed pyramidal peaks are called [[Glacial horn|horn]]s. Both features may have the same process behind their formation: the enlargement of cirques from glacial plucking and the action of the ice. Horns are formed by cirques that encircle a single mountain. Arêtes emerge in a similar manner; the only difference is that the cirques are not located in a circle, but rather on opposite sides along a divide. Arêtes can also be produced by the collision of two parallel glaciers. In this case, the glacial tongues cut the divides down to size through erosion, and polish the adjacent valleys. ===Sheepback rock=== Some rock formations in the path of a glacier are sculpted into small hills with a shape known as '''roche moutonnée''' or ''sheepback''. An elongated, rounded, asymmetrical, bedrock knob produced can be produced by glacier erosion. It has a gentle slope on its up-glacier side and a steep to vertical face on the down-glacier side. The glacier abrades the smooth slope that it flows along, while rock is torn loose from the downstream side and carried away in ice. Rock on this side is fractured by combinations of forces due to water, ice in rock cracks, and structural stresses. ===Alluvial stratification=== The water that rises from the [[zone of ablation]] moves away from the glacier and carries with it fine eroded sediments. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water then gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an [[alluvial plain]]. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a ''valley train''. [[image: Receding glacier landscape LMB.png|right|frame|Landscape produced by a receding glacier]] Alluvial plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as [[kettle (geology)|kettles]]. Glacial depressions are also produced in till deposits. These depressions are formed when large ice blocks are stuck in the glacial alluvium and after melting, they leave holes in the [[sediment]]. Generally, the diameter of these depressions does not exceed 2 km, except in [[Minnesota]], where some depressions reach up to 50 km in diameter, with depths varying between 10 and 50 meters. ===Deposits in contact with ice=== When a glacier reduces in size to a critical point, its flow stops, and the ice becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater flows over, within, and beneath the ice leave [[stratification|stratified]] alluvial deposits. Because of this, as the ice melts, it leaves stratified deposits in the form of columns, terraces and clusters. These types of deposits are known as ''deposits in contact with ice''. When those deposits take the form of columns of tipped sides or mounds, which are called ''[[kame]]s''. Some ''kames'' form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. In other cases, they are just the result of fans or [[river delta|deltas]] towards the exterior of the ice produced by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley it can form terraces or ''kame'' along the sides of the valley. A third type of deposit formed in contact with the ice is characterized by long, narrow sinuous crests composed fundamentally of [[sand]] and [[gravel]] deposite by streams of meltwater flowing within, beneath or on the glacier ice. After the ice has melted these linear ridges or [[esker]]s remain as landscape features. Some of these crests have heights exceeding 100 meters and their lengths surpass 100 km. ===Loess deposits=== Very fine glacial sediments or [[rock flour]] is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site. These [[eolian]] [[loess]] deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the midwestern United States. ==Isostatic rebound== [[image: Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png|right|frame|Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust]] This rise of a part of the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] is due to an [[isostacy|isostatic adjustment]]. A large mass, such as a glacier, depresses the Earth's crust. After the glacier melts, the crust begins to rise to its original position. This is [[post-glacial rebound]] and is currently occurring in measurable amounts in [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region of the United States. ==Ice ages== :''Main article: [[Ice age]]''. ===Ice age divisions=== A quadruple division of the [[Quaternary]] glacial period has been established for [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. These divisions are based principally on the study of glacial deposits. In North America, each of these four stages was named for the state in which the deposits of these stages were well exposed. In order of appearance, they are the following: ''Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoisan, and Wisconsinan.'' This classification was refined thanks to the detailed study of the sediments of the [[ocean floor]]. Because the sediments of the ocean floor, in contrast to that of the Earth's surface, are less affected by [[stratigraphic]] discontinuities, they are useful to determine the [[climate|climatic]] cycles of the planet. In this matter, geologists have come to identify over twenty divisions, each of them lasting approximately 100,000 years. All these cycles fall within the Quaternary glacial period. During its peak, the ice left its mark over almost 30% of Earth's surface, covering approximately 10 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in North America, 5 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in Europe and 4 million km&amp;sup2; in [[Siberia]]. The glacial ice in the Northern hemisphere was double that found in the Southern hemisphere. This is because southern polar ice cannot advance beyond the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] landmass. It is now believed that the most recent glacial period began between two and three million years ago, in the Pleistocene era. ===Causes of ice ages=== Little is known about the causes of glaciations. Generalized glaciations have been rare in the history of Earth. However, the [[Ice Age]] of the [[Pleistocene]] was not the only glaciative event, since [[tillite]] deposits have been identified. Tillite is a sedimentary rock formed when glacial till is lithified. These deposits found in strata of differing age present similar characteristics as fragments of fluted rock, and some are superposed over bedrock surfaces of channeled and polished rock or associated with [[sandstone]] and [[conglomerate (geology)|conglomerates]] that have features of alluvial plain deposits. Two [[Precambrian]] glacial episodes have been identified, the first approximately 2 billion years ago, and the second ([[Snowball Earth]]) about 600 million years. Also, a well documented record of glaciation exists in rocks of the late [[Paleozoic]] (of 250 million years of age). Although there are several scientific hypotheses about the determining factors of glaciations, the two most important ideas are [[plate tectonics]] and variations in Earth's orbit ([[Milankovitch cycles]]). ===Plate tectonics=== Because glaciers can form only on dry land, [[plate tectonics]] suggest that the evidence of previous glaciations is currently present in tropical [[latitude]]s due to the [[continental drift|drift]] of [[tectonic plates]] from tropical latitudes to circumpolar regions. Evidence of glacial structures in [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[Australia]], and [[India]] support this idea, because it is known that they
[fi:Yhteydetön kieli]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Caffeine</title> <id>6868</id> <revision> <id>42066008</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:01:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Edgar181</username> <id>491706</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42014332 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the chemical substance caffeine}} {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot; ! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | [[Image:Caffeine molecule.png|180px|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Image:Caffeine_Molecule.png|133px|{{PAGENAME}}]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | General |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]] | 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine |- | Other names | trimethylxanthine&lt;br/&gt;theine&lt;br/&gt;mateine&lt;br/&gt;guaranine&lt;br/&gt;methyltheobromine |- | [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]] | [[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;[[nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | O=C1C2=C(N=CN2C)N(C(=O)N1C)C |- | [[Molar mass]] | 194.19 g/mol |- | Appearance | Odorless, white needles or powder |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | [58-08-2] |- ! {{chembox header}} | Properties |- | [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]] | 1.2 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, solid |- | [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]] | Slightly soluble |- &lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt; &lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt; &lt;!-- |- --&gt; | [[Melting point]] | 234 - 236.5 °C |- | [[Boiling point]] | 178 °C (sublimes) |- | [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) | 10.4 |- ! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt; |- | [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]] | [http://www.sciencestuff.com/msds/C1410.html External MSDS] |- | Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s | May be fatal if inhaled, swallowed&lt;br/&gt;or absorbed through the skin. |- | [[NFPA 704]] | {{nfpa|2|1|0}} |- | [[Flash point]] | N/A |- | [[RTECS]] number | EV6475000 |- | {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt; |- |} '''Caffeine''', sometimes called '''theine''' when found in tea, is a [[xanthine]] [[alkaloid]] found in the leaves and beans of the [[coffee]] tree, in [[tea]], [[yerba mate]], [[guarana]] berries, and in small quantities in [[cocoa]], the [[kola nut]] and the [[Yaupon holly]]. In plants, caffeine acts as a natural [[pesticide]] that paralyzes and kills many [[insect]]s feeding upon them. Caffeine is a [[central nervous system]] (CNS) [[stimulant]], having the effect of warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. Caffeine-containing beverages, such as [[coffee]] and [[tea]], enjoy great popularity, making caffeine the world's most popular [[psychoactive]] substance. == Sources of caffeine == [[Image:A small cup of coffee.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world.]] Caffeine is a plant alkaloid, found in numerous plant varieties, the most commonly used of which are [[coffee]], [[tea]], and to some extent [[cocoa]]. Other, less commonly used, sources of caffeine include the plants [[yerba mate]] and [[guaraná]], which are sometimes used in the preparation of teas and, more recently, energy drinks. Two of caffeine's alternative names, ''mateine'' and ''guaranine'', are derived from the names of these plants. The world's primary source of caffeine is the [[coffee bean|bean]] of the [[Coffea|coffee plant]], from which [[coffee]] is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the variety of coffee bean and the method of preparation used, but in general one serving of coffee ranges from about 40 mg for a single [[shot]] of [[espresso]] to about 100 mg for strong drip coffee. Generally, dark roast coffee has less caffeine than lighter roasts since the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean. [[Arabica]] coffee normally contains less caffeine content than the [[Robusta]] variety. [[Tea]] is another common source of caffeine in many cultures. Tea generally contains somewhat less caffeine per serving than coffee, usually about half as much, depending on the strength of the brew, though certain types of tea, such as [[black tea|black]] and [[oolong]], contain somewhat more caffeine than most other teas. Caffeine is also a common ingredient of [[soft drink|soft drinks]] such as [[cola]], originally prepared from [[kola nut]]s. Soft drinks typically contain about 10 mg to 50 mg of caffeine per serving. By contrast, [[energy drink]]s such as [[Red Bull]] contain as much as 80 mg of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks originates either from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of [[decaffeination]] or chemical synthesis. [[Chocolate]] derived from [[cocoa]] is a weak stimulant, mostly due to its content of [[theobromine]] and [[theophylline]], but it also contains a small amount of caffeine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15549276]. However, chocolate contains too little of these compounds for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with [[coffee]]. Finally, caffeine may also be purchased in most areas in the form of a pill that containing from 50 mg to 200 mg. Caffeine pills are regulated differently among various nations. For example, the [[European Union]] requires that a warning be placed on the packaging of any food whose caffeine exceeds 150 mg per litre. In many other countries, however, caffeine is classified as a [[flavouring]] and is unregulated. &lt;!-- This needs to be fleshed out considerably --&gt; ===Caffeine equivalents=== In general, each of the following contains approximately 200 [[mg]] of caffeine: * ''One'' 200 mg caffeine pill (in some countries these are 100 mg, in the UK these are 50 mg) * ''Two'' 1-[[fluid ounce]] shots of [[espresso]] from [[robusta]] beans (2 fluid ounces (0,59 dl) total) * ''Two'' 8-fluid ounce containers of regular [[coffee]] (16 fluid ounces (4.73 dl) total) * ''Five'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[black tea]] (40 fluid ounces (1.18 l) total) * ''Five'' 12-fluid ounce cans of [[soda]] (60 fluid ounces total (1.77 l), although these can vary widely in content) * ''Ten'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[green tea]] (80 fluid ounces (2.36 l) total) * ''One and a half'' [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s (0,68kg total) of [[milk chocolate]] * ''Fifty'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[decaf]]feinated coffee (400 fluid ounces (11.82 l) total) Note: Caffeine content is highly unpredictable in coffee and tea drinks, especially in tea. Preparation has a huge impact on tea, and colour is a very poor judge of caffeine content. Teas like the green Japanese [[Gyokuro]] contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like [[Lapsang Souchong]], which has very little. Even approximate caffeine contents assigned to teas are generally at best a very inaccurate guess. ==History of caffeine use== Although [[tea]] has been consumed in [[China]] for thousands of years, the first documented use of caffeine in a beverage for its [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] effect was in the 15th century by the [[sufism|Sufis]] of [[Yemen]], who used [[coffee]] to stay awake during prayers. In the 16th century there were [[coffee house]]s in [[Istanbul]], [[Cairo]] and [[Mecca]], and in the 17th century coffee houses opened for the first time in Europe. In 1819, relatively pure caffeine was isolated for the first time by the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Friedrich Ferdinand Runge]]. According to the legend, he did this at the instigation of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (Weinberg &amp; Bealer 2001). ==Effects of caffeine== [[Image:Caffeinated spiderwebs.jpg|frame|right|Caffeine has a significant effect on [[spider]]s, which is reflected in their [[spider web|web]] construction.]] Caffeine is a [[central nervous system]] stimulant, and is used both recreationally and medically to restore mental alertness when unusual weakness or drowsiness occurs. It is important to note, however, that caffeine cannot replace sleep, and should be used only occasionally as an alertness aid. Caffeine is sometimes administered in combination with medicines to increase their effectiveness, such as with [[ergotamine]] in the treatment of [[migraine]] and [[cluster headaches]], or with certain pain relievers such as [[aspirin]] or [[acetaminophen]]. Caffeine may also be used to overcome the drowsiness caused by [[antihistamine]]s. Breathing problems ([[apnea]]) in [[premature]] infants are sometimes treated with [[citrate]]d caffeine, which is available only by [[prescription]] in many countries. While relatively safe for humans, caffeine is considerably more toxic to some other animals such as dogs, horses and parrots due to a much poorer ability to metabolize this compound. Caffeine has a much more significant effect on [[spiders]], for example, than most other drugs do. {{fn|(1)}} ===Caffeine metabolism=== Caffeine is completely absorbed by the stomach and small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion. It is widely distributed in total body water and is eliminated by apparent first-order kinetics that can be described by a one-compartment open-model system. Continued consumption of caffeine can lead to [[Drug_tolerance|tolerance]]. Upon withdrawal, the
l&lt;br&gt; Ratatosk '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt; rat belt '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; RatC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; [[rate-monotonic scheduling|Rate monotonic scheduling]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RATFIV '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RATFOR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rational '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; RATional Fortran '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Rationalized C '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rave '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; rave on! '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; raw data '''NO IMPORT' - non-encyclopedic&lt;br&gt; raw mode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; RAWOOP-SNAP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Rayleigh distribution '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; ray tracing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; R:BASE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RBASIC '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt; RBCSP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RBOC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; rc&lt;br&gt; RC4 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RCA 1802&lt;br&gt; RCA 1805&lt;br&gt; RCC&lt;br&gt; rc file&lt;br&gt; RCL&lt;br&gt; rcp&lt;br&gt; RCS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Rdb&lt;br&gt; rdb&lt;br&gt; RDBA&lt;br&gt; RDBMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RDF '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RDI&lt;br&gt; RDL&lt;br&gt; RDOS&lt;br&gt; RDRAM&lt;br&gt; RDS&lt;br&gt; RE&lt;br&gt; re&lt;br&gt; README file&lt;br&gt; Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt; read-only user&lt;br&gt; real&lt;br&gt; RealAudio '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; real estate&lt;br&gt; real hack&lt;br&gt; reality check&lt;br&gt; real mode '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; real number '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; real operating system&lt;br&gt; Real Programmer&lt;br&gt; Real Programmers Don't Use Pascal&lt;br&gt; Real Soon Now&lt;br&gt; real-time '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Realtime Disk Operating System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Real-Time Euclid&lt;br&gt; Real-Time Mentat&lt;br&gt; Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling&lt;br&gt; Real-Time Operating System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Real-Time Pascal&lt;br&gt; Real Time Streaming Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; real-time structured analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; real user '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; Real World '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; reaper '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; reassembly '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; reboot '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; REC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; recipe '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; recipient '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Recital '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; RECOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Recommended Standard '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; record '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; Record Management Services '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Record Separator '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; rectangle slinger '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt; recurse '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; recursion '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; recursion theory '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; recursive '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; recursive acronym '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; recursive definition '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; recursive descent parser '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Recursive Functional Algorithmic Language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Recursive Macro Actuated Generator '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt; recursive type '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Red '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Red Book '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Red Brick Intelligent SQL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Redcode '''NO IMPORT'''- jargon&lt;br&gt; redex '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; Red Hat '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RediLisp '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; redirection '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; redirector '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RedNet Ltd. '''NO IMPORT''' - not noteworthy&lt;br&gt; redocumentation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; REDUCE '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; Reduced Instruction Set Computer '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; reduction '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; reduction strategy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt; redundancy '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt; Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; red wire&lt;br&gt; red zone&lt;br&gt; re-engineering&lt;br&gt; re-entrant&lt;br&gt; refactoring '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; REFAL&lt;br&gt; REF-ARF&lt;br&gt; reference&lt;br&gt; reference counting '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; referential integrity&lt;br&gt; referentially transparent&lt;br&gt; referential transparency '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; referer&lt;br&gt; referrer&lt;br&gt; REFINE&lt;br&gt; Refined C&lt;br&gt; Refined Fortran&lt;br&gt; reflexive&lt;br&gt; reflexive domain&lt;br&gt; Reflexive transitive closure&lt;br&gt; RefLisp&lt;br&gt; refresh&lt;br&gt; refreshable braille display '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; refreshable display&lt;br&gt; refresh rate&lt;br&gt; refutable&lt;br&gt; regex '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; regexp '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Regina&lt;br&gt; regional network&lt;br&gt; register '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; register allocation&lt;br&gt; register assignment&lt;br&gt; register dancing&lt;br&gt; register set&lt;br&gt; register spilling '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Register Transfer Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; regression '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; regression testing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; REG-SYMBOLIC&lt;br&gt; REGTRAL&lt;br&gt; regular expression '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; regular graph '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; rehi&lt;br&gt; Reid, Brian&lt;br&gt; reify&lt;br&gt; reincarnation, cycle of&lt;br&gt; reinvent the wheel&lt;br&gt; relation&lt;br&gt; relational algebra&lt;br&gt; relational calculus&lt;br&gt; relational database '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; relational database management system '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; relational data model&lt;br&gt; relational DBMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; relational language&lt;br&gt; relational model '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RELATIVE&lt;br&gt; relatively prime '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; relative pathname&lt;br&gt; Relative Record Data Set&lt;br&gt; RELCODE&lt;br&gt; release&lt;br&gt; released version&lt;br&gt; REL English&lt;br&gt; relevance&lt;br&gt; reliability&lt;br&gt; Reliability, Availability, Serviceability&lt;br&gt; reliable communication&lt;br&gt; religion of CHI&lt;br&gt; religious issues&lt;br&gt; REM&lt;br&gt; remailer&lt;br&gt; Remote Access Services '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Remote Database Access&lt;br&gt; remote echo&lt;br&gt; Remote Job Entry&lt;br&gt; remote login&lt;br&gt; Remote Method Invocation&lt;br&gt; Remote Operations Service Element&lt;br&gt; Remote Procedure Call&lt;br&gt; Remote Reference Layer&lt;br&gt; Remote Spooling Communication Subsystem&lt;br&gt; Remote Write Protocol&lt;br&gt; removable disk&lt;br&gt; rendering '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; RenderMan Shading Language&lt;br&gt; rendezvous&lt;br&gt; REP&lt;br&gt; repeat&lt;br&gt; repeater '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; repeating group&lt;br&gt; repeat loop&lt;br&gt; repetitive strain disorder&lt;br&gt; repetitive strain injury&lt;br&gt; REPL&lt;br&gt; replacement algorithm&lt;br&gt; Replay&lt;br&gt; replication&lt;br&gt; replicator&lt;br&gt; reply&lt;br&gt; Repondez s'il vous plait&lt;br&gt; Report Program Generator&lt;br&gt; repository&lt;br&gt; Request For Comments&lt;br&gt; request for proposal&lt;br&gt; Request For Technology&lt;br&gt; Required-COBOL&lt;br&gt; requirements&lt;br&gt; Requirements Acquisition and Controlled Evolution&lt;br&gt; requirements analysis&lt;br&gt; Requirements Engineering&lt;br&gt; Research Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt; reserved memory&lt;br&gt; resolution&lt;br&gt; resolver&lt;br&gt; Resource Access Control Facility&lt;br&gt; Resource Description Framework '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; resource fork&lt;br&gt; Resource Reservation Protocol&lt;br&gt; restriction&lt;br&gt; Restructured EXtended eXecutor&lt;br&gt; restructuring&lt;br&gt; retcon&lt;br&gt; RETI&lt;br&gt; Retrieve&lt;br&gt; retrocomputing&lt;br&gt; retronym&lt;br&gt; return from interrupt&lt;br&gt; return from the dead&lt;br&gt; Return To Zero&lt;br&gt; reusability&lt;br&gt; reuse&lt;br&gt; Reverse Address Resolution Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; Reverse ARP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; reverse engineering&lt;br&gt; Reverse Polish Notation&lt;br&gt; Revised ALGOL 60&lt;br&gt; revision&lt;br&gt; Revision Control System&lt;br&gt; Revolutionary Surrealist Vandal Party&lt;br&gt; REX&lt;br&gt; REXX '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; REXXWARE&lt;br&gt; RFC&lt;br&gt; RFC 1014&lt;br&gt; RFC 1034&lt;br&gt; RFC 1035&lt;br&gt; RFC 1058&lt;br&gt; RFC 1081&lt;br&gt; RFC 1094&lt;br&gt; RFC 1112&lt;br&gt; RFC 1119&lt;br&gt; RFC 1123&lt;br&gt; RFC 1156&lt;br&gt; RFC 1157&lt;br&gt; RFC 1171&lt;br&gt; RFC 1208&lt;br&gt; RFC 1213&lt;br&gt; RFC 1267&lt;br&gt; RFC 1268&lt;br&gt; RFC 1304&lt;br&gt; RFC 1321&lt;br&gt; RFC 1334&lt;br&gt; RFC 1341&lt;br&gt; RFC 1347&lt;br&gt; RFC 1350&lt;br&gt; RFC 1388&lt;br&gt; RFC 1436&lt;br&gt; RFC 1441&lt;br&gt; RFC 1442&lt;br&gt; RFC 1443&lt;br&gt; RFC 1444&lt;br&gt; RFC 1445&lt;br&gt; RFC 1446&lt;br&gt; RFC 1447&lt;br&gt; RFC 1448&lt;br&gt; RFC 1449&lt;br&gt; RFC 1450&lt;br&gt; RFC 1451&lt;br&gt; RFC 1452&lt;br&gt; RFC 1475&lt;br&gt; RFC 1508&lt;br&gt; RFC 1509&lt;br&gt; RFC 1520&lt;br&gt; RFC 1521&lt;br&gt; RFC 1526&lt;br&gt; RFC 1531&lt;br&gt; RFC 1550&lt;br&gt; RFC 1561&lt;br&gt; RFC 1568&lt;br&gt; RFC 1591&lt;br&gt; RFC 1630&lt;br&gt; RFC 1661&lt;br&gt; RFC 1700&lt;br&gt; RFC 1701&lt;br&gt; RFC 1702&lt;br&gt; RFC 1707&lt;br&gt; RFC 1730&lt;br&gt; RFC 1756&lt;br&gt; RFC 1760&lt;br&gt; RFC 1777&lt;br&gt; RFC 1778&lt;br&gt; RFC 1823&lt;br&gt; RFC 1825&lt;br&gt; RFC 1861&lt;br&gt; RFC 1938&lt;br&gt; RFC 1951&lt;br&gt; RFC 1959&lt;br&gt; RFC 1960&lt;br&gt; RFC 2045&lt;br&gt; RFC 2046&lt;br&gt; RFC 2047&lt;br&gt; RFC 2048&lt;br&gt; RFC 2049&lt;br&gt; RFC 2060&lt;br&gt; RFC 2061&lt;br&gt; RFC 2068&lt;br&gt; RFC 2093&lt;br&gt; RFC 2131&lt;br&gt; RFC 2234&lt;br&gt; RFC 2236&lt;br&gt; RFC 2279&lt;br&gt; RFC 2298&lt;br&gt; RFC 2326&lt;br&gt; RFC 2408&lt;br&gt; RFC 2543&lt;br&gt; RFC 792&lt;br&gt; RFC
r)]] [[ja:Intel 8088]] [[pl:Intel 8088]] [[fi:Intel 8088]] [[cs:Intel 8088]] [[zh:Intel 8088]] [[ru:Intel 8088]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrical insulation</title> <id>15066</id> <revision> <id>42123092</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:46:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Light current</username> <id>360593</id> </contributor> <comment>split into insulators and insulation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{split}} :''This page refers to electrical insulation. For thermal insulation see [[thermal insulation]], and for sound insulation see [[sound proofing]]. [[Image:Stripped wire.jpg|thumb|Conducting [[copper]] wire insulated by an outer layer of polyethylene]] An '''insulator''' is a material or object that resists the flow of [[electric charge]]. The term ''electrical insulator'' has the same meaning as the term ''[[dielectric]]'', but the two terms are used in different contexts. The opposite of [[nonconductors|electrical insulators]] are [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]s and [[semiconductor]]s, which permit the flow of charge. [[Semiconductors]] are strictly speaking also insulators, since they prevent the flow of electric charge at low temperatures, unless [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] with atoms that release extra charges to carry the current. However, some materials (such as [[silicon dioxide]]) are very nearly perfect electrical insulators, which allows flash memory technology. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber and many plastics, are &quot;good enough&quot; insulators to be used for home and office wiring, being able to act as insulators into the range of hundreds of [[volt]]s) without noticeable loss of safety or efficiency. ==High-voltage insulators== [[image:pylon.detail.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Detail of the [[insulators]] (the vertical string of discs) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England]] High-voltage insulators used for high-voltage [[electric power transmission|power transmission]] are either [[porcelain]] insulators or [[composite material|composite]] insulators. Porcelain insulators are made from [[clay]], [[quartz]] or [[alumina]] and [[feldspar]]. [[Alumina]] insulators are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. In recent times there is a shift towards composite insulators which have a central rod made of [[fibre reinforced plastic]] and outer weathersheds made of [[Silicone|silicone rubber]] or [[EPDM rubber|EPDM]]. Glass insulators were, and in some places are still used to mount electrical power lines. Most insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960's, switching to ceramic materials. Composite insulators are less costly, light weight and have excellent hydrophobic capability and hence can be used in polluted areas. The first glass insulators used en masse had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were positioned on a wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires wrapped around the &quot;threadless insulator&quot; resulted in an unseating of the insulator from its pin; hence a re-seating was required by a designated person. In 1870 a patent was granted for putting threads into insulator pinholes. To this day, pin-type insulators have threaded pinholes. ==Low-voltage insulators== Insulating materials such as [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC (polyvinyl chloride)]] are used to minimise the possibility of a person coming into contact with a 'live' wire. Some appliances such as electric shavers and hair dryers are [[Double insulated|doubly insulated]] to protect the user. They can be recognised because their leads have two pins, or on 3 pin plugs the third ([[Ground (electricity)|earth]]) pin is made of plastic rather than metal. In the [[European Union|EU]], double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of 2 squares, one inside the other. Double insulation requires that cables have [[wiktionary:basic|basic]] and [[supplementary]] insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. Usually, the internal electrical components are totally enclosed in an insulated packaging which prevents any contact with live parts. == Collecting insulators == In the late 1960's and early 1970's insulators were being removed from telephone poles as advances in technology made these pieces of glass obsolete. As linemen were taking down the old lines, they started to notice the multitude of bright colors, company names, variety of shapes, and important historical position held by insulators in the expansion of communication technology. Presently the insulator hobby is made up of thousands of people around the world with the majority of people being in the U.S. and Canada. Many websites exist which hold these items as the primary focus. Ebay even has a separate category for insulators. To this date, collectors have introduced a classification system for the different styles, a price guide (last published in 2003), and a national organization (the [http://www.NIA.org National Insulator Association]). The main magazine in the hobby is a monthly publication, [http://www.crownjewelsofthewire.com Crown Jewels of the Wire], which has been published since 1969. Quite probably, the largest, and most informative private website in the hobby is [http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com]. ==See also== *[[Arcing horns]] *[[Electricity pylon|Pylon]] *[[Electrical substation]] ==External links== *http://teleramics.com/ - Specialising in UK telegraph insulators with a railway bias *http://www.myinsulators.com/downtownseattle/ &amp;mdash; one person's obsession with telephone pole insulators *[http://CPRR.org/Museum/Ephemera/Brooks_Insulator.html Transcontinental Telegraph Insulators, 1867] *[http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com] *[http://www.insulatorscanada.com www.insulatorscanada.com] *http://www.nia.org &amp;mdash; National Insulator Association [[Category:Insulators]] [[cs:Elektrický izolant]] [[da:Isolator]] [[de:Isolator]] [[fa:مقره]] [[fr:Isolant]] [[io:Izolivo]] [[it:Isolante]] [[he:מבודד חשמלי]] [[nl:Isolator]] [[ja:絶縁体]] [[pl:Izolator]] [[pt:Isolante]] [[sl:Električni izolator]] [[fi:Eriste]] [[sv:Isolator]] [[zh:絕緣體]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Internetworking</title> <id>15067</id> <revision> <id>41005194</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:31:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>134.99.138.122</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Internetworking''' involves connecting two or more distinct [[computer network]]s together into an '''internetwork''' (often shortened to '''internet'''), using [[devices]] called [[routers]] to connect them together, to allow traffic to flow back and forth between them. (Routers were originally called [[gateway (telecommunications)|gateways]], but that term was discarded &lt;!-- NB: it was a concious decision to drop it, it didn't &quot;fall[] into disuse&quot; --&gt; in this context, due to confusion with functionally different devices using the same name.) The routers guide traffic on the correct path (among several different ones usually available) across the complete internetwork to their destination. (Some people inaccurately refer to the connecting together of networks with [[Network bridge|bridges]] as internetworking, but the resulting system mimics a single [[subnetwork]], and no internetworking [[Communications protocol|protocol]] (such as [[Internet Protocol|IP]]) is required to traverse it.) Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more [[local area network]]s via some sort of [[wide area network]]. The definition now includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as [[personal area network]]s. The most notable example of internetworking in practice is the [[Internet]], a network of networks running different low-level protocols, unified by an internetworking protocol, the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP). IP only provides an unreliable [[packet]] service across an internet. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize a [[Transport layer]] protocol, such as [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], which provides a [[reliable stream]] (These terms do not mean that IP is actually unreliable but instead that it sends packets without contacting and establishing a connection with the destination router beforehand. The opposite applies for reliable). Since TCP is the most widely used transport protocol, people commonly refer to TCP and IP together, as &quot;[[TCP/IP]]&quot;. Some applications occasionally use a simpler transport protocol (called [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]) for tasks which do not require absolutely reliable delivery of data, such as [[video streaming]]. ==See also== * [[History of the Internet]] ==External links== *[http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/PDFversions/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf E-book] (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'') - Deals with the foundations of major internetworking architectures (chapters 4 to 9). [[de:Internetworking]] [[vi:Liên mạng]] {{uncat}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infantry</title> <id>15068</id> <revision> <id>40932141</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:29:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.130.41.189</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Missions */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Infantry of the [[Royal Irish Rifles]] during the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]] in [[World War I]].]] '''Infantry'
;nbsp;24 + &amp;nbsp;20 + &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;42 + &amp;nbsp;8&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;45 = 145 = 13×11 + 2 So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 0-306-40615-2&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Since 11 is a [[prime number]], this scheme ensures that a single error (in the form of an altered digit or two transposed digits) can always be detected. ==EAN format used in barcodes, and planned upgrade== Currently, the barcodes found on the backs of books (or inside front covers of mass-market paperbacks) are [[EAN-13]]; they may be &quot;Bookland&quot;&amp;mdash;that is, with a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and recommended retail price. There is a detailed description of the EAN13 format [http://www.barcodeisland.com/ean13.phtml here]. &quot;978&quot;, the asset code for books, is prepended to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x, and 3x weighting on alternate digits). Because of a pending shortage in certain ISBN categories, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) started migrating to a thirteen-digit ISBN (sometimes referred to as ISBN-13) in a process that began on [[1 January]] [[2005]] and will finish on [[1 January]] [[2007]]. This move will also bring the ISBN system into line with the [[Universal Product Code|UPC]] barcode system. There is a [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/iso/tc46sc9/isbn.htm FAQ document] about this change. Existing ISBNs will be prefixed with &quot;978&quot; (and the check digit recalculated); as the &quot;978&quot; ISBNs are exhausted, the &quot;979&quot; prefix will be introduced. This is expected to happen more rapidly outside of the US. Note that publisher identification codes are unlikely to be the same in 978 and 979 ISBNs. Since the new 13-digit ISBNs will be identical to the EAN barcoded format of any existing 10-digit ISBNs, this process will not break compatibility with any existing barcodes. This means that moving to an EAN-based system will allow booksellers to use a single numbering system for both book and non-book products without breaking backwards compatibility with existing ISBN-based information, and with only minimal changes to their IT systems. For this reason, many [[bookstore|booksellers]], including [[Barnes &amp; Noble]], have already opted to start the process of phasing out usage of ISBNs in favour of using EAN codes as of March 2005. == ISBNs and book censorship in the People's Republic of China == ISBNs are used as a means of book censorship in the [[People's Republic of China]]. For a printer to legally print a run of books, they must have an ISBN, which are assigned in blocks to state owned publishing houses. However, since the 1990s, this means of censorship has become much less effective as state publishing houses, which have been weaned from government subsidy like all [[state owned enterprises]], will now sell ISBNs to the highest bidder without regard to the content. == See also == * [[Amazon Standard Identification Number|ASIN]] (Amazon Standard Identification Number) * [[ESBN]] (Electronic Standard Book Number, see http://esbn.org ) * [[ISMN]] (International Standard Music Number) * [[ISAN]] (International Standard Audiovisual Number) * [[ISSN]] (International Standard Serial Number) * [[ISWC]] (International Standard Work Code, see http://iswc.org ) * [[Library of Congress Control Number]] * [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36563&amp;ICS1=1&amp;ICS2=140&amp;ICS3=20 ISO 2108:2005] at [http://www.iso.org www.iso.org] * [http://www.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/isbn.html Brief Summary of ISBN] * [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_find_a_book How to find a book] from Wikibooks * [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/transition.asp ISBN to EAN transition at isbn.org] * [http://www.bookweb.org/education/6865.html Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process] at bookweb.org * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:ISBN Wikipedia:ISBN], use of ISBN on [[Wikipedia]] ;National and international agencies * [http://www.isbn-international.org International &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN Agency&lt;/nowiki&gt;] - coordinates and supervises the world-wide use of the ISBN system. * [http://www.thorpe.com.au/isbn/ &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN Agency&lt;/nowiki&gt; Australia] - Thorpe-Bowker, a division of R R Bowker LLC * [http://www.nbdrs.com/isbn_agency.htm ISBN agency for UK and Republic of Ireland] - Nielsen BookData * [http://www.isbn.org/ ISBN agency for US and Puerto Rico] - R.R. Bowker LLC * [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html Numerical List of Group Identifiers] List of language/region prefixes ;Online tools * [http://www.bowkerlink.com/ Publisher access system] for Books In print and Global Books In Print database products * [http://www.kimbakano.com Kimba Kano] - Internet Explorer and Firefox add-on adding built in ISBN &amp; ASIN searching. * [http://www.isbn-check.com ISBN check form] checks checksum; outputs list of possible correct ISBN when the input is incorrect. * [http://isbndb.com/ ISBNdb.com] - find books by ISBN, author, title, subject, etc; auto-corrects ISBN checksums if needed. * [http://ISBN.nu/ ISBN.nu] - offers free searching of a titles database. * [http://www.toothycat.net/cgi/book.pl Yet another ISBN lookup tool] that searches a number of database and bookseller sites. * RFC 3187 &lt;!-- should be automatically linked by Wikipedia --&gt; Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform resource names ([[URN]]) * [http://www.cgpp.com/bookland/isbn.html Online tool] to produce barcodes from ISBNs. * [http://www.bisg.org/isbn-13/for.dummies.html ISBN-13 For Dummies] * [http://isbn-international.org/en/download/implementation-guidelines-04.pdf Implementation guidelines] (pdf document) for the 13 digit ISBN code. * [http://isbntools.com/ The ISBN tools website] has open-source java classes to implement 10 and 13-digit ISBNs. ==Footnotes== {{note|1}} Occasionally publishers will use an ISBN in error for more than one title (for example, the first edition of &quot;The Ultimate Alphabet&quot; and &quot;The Ultimate Alphabet Answerbook&quot; have the same ISBN). Conversely, at least one book has been published with four ISBN numbers printed inside, depending on the binding and which of the two joint publishers were deemed applicable to a particular copy. [[Category:ISO standards]] [[Category:Universal_Identifiers]] [[Category:Checksum algorithms]] [[Category:Identifiers]] [[Category:Library and information science]] [[Category:books]] [[br:ISBN]] [[cs:ISBN]] [[cy:Rhif Llyfr Safonol Rhyngwladol]] [[da:Internationalt Standard Bognummer]] [[de:Internationale Standardbuchnummer]] [[et:ISBN]] [[es:ISBN]] [[eo:ISBN]] [[fr:ISBN]] [[it:Codice ISBN]] [[ku:ISBN]] [[hu:ISBN]] [[nl:Internationaal Standaard Boeknummer]] [[ja:ISBN]] [[no:ISBN]] [[pl:ISBN]] [[pt:ISBN]] [[ru:ISBN]] [[fi:ISBN]] [[sv:ISBN]] [[th:เลขมาตรฐานสากลประจำหนังสือ]] [[vi:ISBN]] [[tr:ISBN]] [[zh:国际标准书号]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International System of Units</title> <id>14920</id> <revision> <id>15912445</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tarquin</username> <id>83</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to &quot;SI&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[SI]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IP address</title> <id>14921</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42119515</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:17:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jaxl</username> <id>309415</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.63.23.64|24.63.23.64]] ([[User talk:24.63.23.64|talk]]) to last version by Cburnett</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''IP address''' ('''I'''nternet '''P'''rotocol address) is a unique number that devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a [[computer network|network]] utilizing the [[Internet Protocol]] standard. Any participating device &amp;mdash; including [[routers]], [[computers]], time-servers, printers, internet FAX machines, and some telephones &amp;mdash; must have its own unique address. This allows information passed onwards on behalf of the sender to indicate where to send it next, and for the receiver of the information to know that it is the intended destination. The numbers currently used in IP addresses range from ''1.0.0.0'' to ''255.255.255.255'', though some of these values are reserved for specific purposes. This does not provide enough possibilities for every internet device to have its own permanent number. [[Subnet]] routing, [[Network Address Translation]] and the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP) server all allow local networks to use the same IP addresses as other networks elsewhere though both are connected to the Internet. Devices such as network [[printer|printers]], [[web server]]s and [[mail server]]s are often allocated static IP addresses so they can always be found. IP addresses are conceptually similar to phone numbers, except they are used in [[Local area network|LAN]]s (Local Area Network), [[WAN]]s (Wide Area Network), or the [[Internet]]. Because the numbers are not easy for humans to remember, the [[Domain Name System]] provides a service analogous to an address book lookup called &quot;domain name resolution&quot; or &quot;name resolution&quot;. Special [[DNS server]]s on the internet are dedicated to performing the translation from a [[domain name]] to an IP address and vice versa. == More details == The [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) knows each logical host interface by a number, the IP address. On any given network, this number must be unique among all the host interfaces that com
, Harlem Renaissance writer * [[Patricia Highsmith]] 1940, writer * [[Helen M. Ranney]] 1941, first woman to lead a university department of medicine in the United States, to be president of the Association of American Physicians, or to serve as a Distinguished Physician of the Veterans Administration * [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] 1948, first woman to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations * [[Peggy McCay]] 1951, actress * [[Miriam Goldman Cedarbaum]] 1952, Manhattan U.S. District Court Judge presiding over Martha Stewart's trial * [[Francine du Plessix Gray]] 1952, writer * [[Joan Rivers]] 1954 * [[Judith Kaye]] 1958, first woman chief judge of the State of New York * [[Martha Stewart]] 1963, home and living media empress * [[Twyla Tharp]] 1963, choreographer, dancer * [[Erica Jong]] 1963, writer * [[Laurie Anderson]] 1969, musician, NASA's first artist-in-residence * [[Sarah Charlesworth]] 1969, photographer and conceptual artist * [[Judith Miller (journalist)]] 1969, writer, Pulitzer winner * [[Ntozake Shange]] 1970, writer * [[Anna Quindlen]] 1974, author and columnist for Newsweek, who won the Pulitzer Prize for commentary in 1992 * [[Jacqueline Barton]] 1974, CalTech chemist and MacArthur Grant winner * [[Suzanne Bilello]] 1977, author who with Rose Marie Arce 1986 was a member of a Newsday team in 1992 that shared the Pulitzer for spot news reporting. * [[Natalie Angier]] 1978, author and science writer for The New York Times, who won the Pulitzer prize for beat reporting in 1991 * [[Robin Wagner]] 1980, figure-skating coach * [[Suzanne Vega]] 1981, singer, songwriter * [[Jeanine Tesori]] 1983, Broadway composer * [[Maria Hinojosa]] 1984, CNN Correspondent and host of NPR's Latino USA. * [[Lauren Graham]] 1988, actress, plays Lorelai Gilmore on the TV show ''[[Gilmore Girls]]'' * [[Cynthia Nixon]] 1988, actor * [[Janna Levin]] 1988, cosmologist * [[Jhumpa Lahiri]] 1989, writer, Pulitzer winner * [[Ann Brashares]] 1989, writer- The Sistorhood of the Traveling Pants * [[Edwidge Danticat]] 1990, writer * [[Atoosa Rubenstein]] 1993, founder of CosmoGirl! and editor-in-chief of [[Seventeen (magazine)]]. Youngest ever editor of a teen magazine. * [[Sharon Blynn]] 1993, creator of &quot;Bald Is Beautiful&quot; campaign, cancer awareness advocate * [[Stacey Borgman]] 1993, 2004 Olympic crew team * [[Erinn Smart]] 1901, 2004 Olympic fencer * [[Sprague Grayden]] actress, played Judith Montgomery on ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]'' * [[Naomi Foner]] ==See also== * [[List of Columbia University people]] ==References== * [[Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz|Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz]]. '''Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s'''. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition). ==External links== * [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/ Barnard College, Columbia University] * [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/about/facts.html About Barnard] * [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/opir/ Barnard College Fact Book] * Barnard's [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/writers/index.html Books Etc.] * [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/academics/cur.html Graduation Requirements] * [http://cusj.columbia.edu/ Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal (CUSJ)] {{Seven_Sisters}} {{New York City}} [[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City]] [[Category:Columbia University]] [[Category:Women's universities and colleges in the U.S.]] [[Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bronx, New York</title> <id>4238</id> <revision> <id>15902525</id> <timestamp>2004-01-15T05:24:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Bronx ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Order of Saint Benedict</title> <id>4240</id> <revision> <id>40013794</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T14:25:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Atlant</username> <id>124135</id> </contributor> <comment>+missing space</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the Roman Catholic order; see also [[Benedictine Confederation]] and [[Benedictine]].'' [[Image:Benedikt-von-nursia 1-500x600.jpg|thumb|right|St Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), detail from a [[fresco]] by [[Fra Angelico]], [[Saint Mark's Basilica|San Marco]], [[Florence]] (c. [[1400]]-[[1455]]).]] The '''Order of Saint Benedict''' &amp;mdash; full [[Latin]] name: ''Ordo Sancti Benedicti'' , initials: '''OSB''' &amp;mdash; is a [[monastic]] [[order (religious)|order]] within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], sometimes referred to as the '''Benedictine Order''', where the [[Rule of St Benedict]] is observed, supplemented by later constitutions and modern customaries. The monastery at [[Monte Cassino]] in Italy established by Saint [[Benedict of Nursia]] ca 529 was the first of the Benedictine monasteries. The order is fundamentally different from other Western religious orders: there is no legal entity within the Church called the &quot;Order of St Benedict&quot;, run on similar lines with other Roman Catholic religious orders with their [[Generalate]]s and [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus|Superiors General]]. Rather, the various [[autonomous]] Houses (that is, communities) have formed themselves loosely into Congregations (for example, Cassinese, English, Solesmes, Subiaco, Camaldolese, Sylvestrines) that in turn are represented in the [[Benedictine Confederation]]. The Order of Saint Benedict does not include [[Benedictine]]s who are not Roman Catholic. Benedictine monks, nowadays also referred to as brothers (monastic [[men]]) and nuns (monastic [[women]]) profess the three Benedictine Vows of ''Stability'' (to remain in the monastery), of ''Conversion of Manners'', and of ''Obedience'' (to the superior) in accordance with ch. 58.17 of the Rule of [[Saint]] [[Benedict of Nursia]]. Benedictines who are not members of the Consecrated Life (''i.e.'', [[Oblate (religion)|Oblate]]s) nevertheless endeavour to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine Vows in their own life in the world. Within the Order of Saint Benedict, other orders that use the Rule of Saint Benedict and are generally considered to be of the Benedictine tradition are the [[Cistercian]]s, [[Bernardines]], and [[Benedictine Sisters of Grace and Compassion]], although these are not part of the [[Benedictine Confederation]]. The Benedictine motto is: ''pax'' (Latin: &quot;peace&quot;), traditionally also ''ora et labora'' (Latin: &quot;pray and work&quot;). ==See also== *[[Abbey of Cluny]], a reformed abbey strictly adhering to the Rule. *[[Camaldolese]] *[[Sylvestrines]] *[[Cistercian]] *[[Trappists]] *[[Capuchin]] *[[Franciscan]] *[[Autpert Ambrose]] *[[Mont Saint Michel]] ==Further reading== *Dom Columba Marmion OSB, ''Christ the Ideal of the Monk &amp;ndash; Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life'' (Engl. edition London 1926, trsl. from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent). ==Benedictines in popular culture and fiction== * A stage play based on a book by Hugh Whitemore, ''The Best of Friends'', provides a window on the friendships of Dame Laurentia McLachlan, OSB (late Abbess of Stanbrook) with Sir Sydney Cockerell and George Bernard Shaw through adaptations from their letters and writings. * The film &quot;In This House of Brede&quot; (1975, TV), with Dame [[Diana Rigg]] in the lead role, presents a portrayal of the progress of a fictitious postulant. The film was inspired by the 1969 novel of the same name written by Rumer Godden. * Perhaps the most famous Benedictine monk in all fictiondom is [[Brother Cadfael]]. ([[Friar Tuck]] does not qualify for this distinction, as he was a [[Franciscan]].) [[Edith Pargeter]], writing under the pen name Ellis Peters, created the character of Brother Cadfael as the [[detective]] [[hero]] of her series of [[medieval]] [[crime fiction|murder mysteries]] known as ''The Cadfael Chronicles''. * Although the protagonist is a Franciscan, the [[Umberto Eco]] [[novel]] ''[[The Name of the Rose]]'' is set in a fictional Benedictine monastery in [[Italy]]. * Samples of [[Chant|chanting]] Benedictine monks were used in the song ''I'm Dying'' by [[V.A.S.T.]], from their album ''[[Visual Audio Sensory Theater]]''. * Joseph Knecht, the protagonist of [[Hermann Hesse]]'s novel ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'', is sent as an ambassador of sorts to a Benedictine abbey for his first assignment. ==External links== * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02443a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry for ''The Benedictine Order''] * [http://www.osb-international.info/ ''Confoederatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti'', the Benedictine Confederation of congregations] *'''Benedictine Abbeys &amp; Monasteries:''' ** [http://www.sjasc.edu/ Saint Joseph Abbey &amp; Seminary College ''Benedictine Monks In Saint Benedict, Louisiana''] ** [http://www.osb.org/ Official website of St John's Abbey] ** [http://www.the-abbey.org/ Official website of Nakili O Lani Abbey] ** [http://www.glenstal.org/ Official website of Glenstal Abbey, Ireland] ** [http://www.benedictinesisters.org/ Benedictine Sisters] - Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration in Clyde, Missouri, USA ** [http://www.kansasmonks.org/ Kansas Monks] - Official website of St. Benedict's Abbey in Atchison, Kansas, USA ** [http://www.mountosb.org/ Benedictine Sisters of Mount St. Scholastica] - Official website of Mount St. Scholastica in Atchison, Kansas, USA {{Catholic}} &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Benedictine| ]] [[Category:Catholic spirituality]] &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[bg:Бенедиктински орден]] [[da:Benediktinerordenen]] [[de:Benediktiner]] [[eo:Benediktanoj]] [[es:Orden Benedictina]] [[fr:Ordre de saint Benoît]] [[hu:Bencések]] [[nl:Benedictijnen]
<title>Economy of Ethiopia</title> <id>9402</id> <revision> <id>41604730</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:14:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>not a stub</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Ethiopia table}} The '''economy of Ethiopia''' is based on [[agriculture]], which accounts for half of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), 90% of [[export]]s, and 80% of total employment. The major agricultural export crop is [[coffee]], providing 65%-75% of [[Ethiopia]]'s foreign exchange earnings. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy, and Ethiopia earned $267 million in 1999 by exporting 105,000 metric tons. According to current estimates, coffee contributes 10% of Ethiopia's GDP. More than 15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector. Other exports include live animals, hides, [[gold]], [[legume|pulses]], oilseeds, and [[khat]] (or ''qat''), a leafy [[shrub]] which has psychotropic qualities when chewed. Ethiopia's agriculture is plagued by periodic [[drought]], [[soil degradation]] caused by [[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], high population density, and poor infrastructure, making it difficult and expensive to get goods to market. Yet it is the country's most promising resource. A potential exists for self-sufficiency in grains and for export development in livestock, grains, vegetables, and fruits. As many as 4.6 million people need food assistance annually. [[Gold]], [[marble]], [[limestone]], and small amounts of [[tantalum]] are mined in Ethiopia. Other resources with potential for commercial development include large [[potash]] deposits, [[natural gas]], [[iron]] ore, and possibly [[petroleum]] and geothermal energy. Although Ethiopia has good hydroelectric resources, which power most of its manufacturing sector, it is totally dependent on imports for its oil. Prior to the outbreak of the 1998&amp;ndash;2000 Ethiopian&amp;ndash;[[Eritrea]]n [[war]], [[landlocked]] Ethiopia mainly relied on the [[port|seaports]] of [[Assab]] and [[Massawa]] in [[Eritrea]] for international trade. Ethiopia [[As of 2005|currently]] uses the ports of [[Djibouti]], connected to [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia|Addis Ababa]] by rail, and to a lesser extent, [[Port Sudan]] in [[Sudan]]. In May 2005, the Ethiopian government began negotiations to use the port of [[Berbera]] in [[Somaliland]]. Of the 23,812 kilometres of Ethiopia's all-weather roads, 15% are asphalt. Mountainous terrain and the lack of good roads and sufficient vehicles make land transportation difficult. However, the government-owned airline is excellent. [[Ethiopian Airlines]] serves 38 domestic airfields and has 42 international destinations. Dependent on a few vulnerable crops for its foreign exchange earnings and reliant on imported oil, Ethiopia lacks sufficient foreign exchange. The financially conservative government has taken measures to solve this problem, including stringent import controls and sharply reduced subsidies on retail gasoline prices. Nevertheless, the largely subsistence economy is incapable of supporting high military expenditures, drought relief, an ambitious development plan, and indispensable imports such as oil and, therefore, must depend on foreign assistance. In December 1999, Ethiopia signed a $1.4 [[billion]] (1.4 G$) joint venture deal to develop a huge natural gas field in the [[Somali Region]]. The war with [[Eritrea]] has forced the government to spend scarce resources on the military and forced the government to scale back ambitious development plans. Foreign investment has declined significantly. Government taxes imposed in late 1999 to raise money for the war will depress an already weak economy. The war has forced the government to improve roads and other parts of the previously neglected infrastructure, but only certain regions of the nation have benefited. The current government has embarked on a program of economic reform, including privatization of state enterprises and rationalization of government regulation. While the process is still ongoing, the reforms have begun to attract much-needed foreign investment. See also: [[Ethiopian famine]] ===See also=== *[[Ethiopia]] *[[List of Ethiopian companies]] ==External links== *[http://www.eastandard.net/hm_news/news.php?articleid=21395 &quot;Ethiopia in Talks Over Use of Somali Port&quot;] - ''The East African Standard'' ([[Nairobi]]), [[May 27]], [[2005]] *[http://wanniski.com/showarticle.asp?articleid=3028 Ethiopia has a marginal tax rate of 89% on farmers profits] *[http://www.nbe.gov.et/History/history.htm National Bank of Ethiopia: History of banking in Ethiopia] ==References== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/et.html CIA World Factbook] [[Category:Economies by country|Ethiopia]] [[Category:Economy of Ethiopia| ]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Ethiopia]] [[es:Economía de Etiopía]] [[fr:Économie de l'Éthiopie]] [[he:כלכלת אתיופיה]] [[pt:Economia da Etiópia]] [[sl:Gospodarstvo Etiopije]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Ethiopia</title> <id>9403</id> <revision> <id>38838367</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:40:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gyrofrog</username> <id>52387</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.126.94.172|64.126.94.172]] ([[User talk:64.126.94.172|talk]]) to last version by Gimboid13</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} The first [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] line in Ethiopia was constructed in the years [[1897]] - [[1899]] between the cities of [[Harar]] and the capital [[Addis Ababa]]. This was extended in [[1904]] by a line that ran from Addis Ababa through [[Tigray]] into [[Eritrea]] and to [[Massawa]]; and the next year by a line again from Addis Ababa to [[Gore]] in the province of [[Illubabor]] and [[Jimma]] in [[Kaffa]]. The first telephones were brought by [[Ras Makonnen]] from Italy in [[1890]], and connected between the Palace and the Imperial treasury; the sound of disembodied voices frightened the local priests, who thought it was the work of [[demon]]s. The Emperor [[Menelik II]] responded to their protests with disdain, and later used the telephone to give orders to his provincial governors.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] had begun the process of introducing [[radio]] transmitters to the country for civilian and military use in the years before the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Italian invasion]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; '''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 435,000 (2003) '''Telephones - mobile [[cellular phone]]s:''' 97,800 (2003) '''Telephone system:''' open [[wire]] and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay system adequate for government use &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the [[High frequency|HF]], [[Very high frequency|VHF]], and [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] frequencies; two domestic [[satellites]] provide the national trunk service &lt;br&gt;''international:'' open wire to [[Sudan]] and [[Djibouti]]; microwave radio relay to [[Kenya]] and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 3 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Pacific Ocean]]) *The Ethiopian [[Dial Plan|dial plan]] changed on [[September 17]], [[2005]]. City codes (''i.e.'', internal prefixes) changed from two digits to three (or, from outside Ethiopia, one digit to two). Phone numbers changed from six digits to seven. A web-based program which converts old telephone numbers to new numbers is available [http://www.ethioindex.com/convert/ here]. '''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' [[AM radio|AM]] 8, [[FM]] 0, shortwave 1 (2003) '''[[Tuner (radio)|Radios]]:''' 11.75 million (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 plus 24 repeaters (2002) '''Televisions:''' 320,000 (1997) '''[[Internet]] hosts:''' 19 (2003) '''Internet users:''' 75,000 (2003) '''[[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:''' ET == Notes == # Chris Proutky, ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883-1910'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 237ff. # Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia (1800 - 1935)'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968), pp. 341, 606. :{{CIAfb}}&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt; == See also == * [[Ethiopia]] [[Category:Communications by country|Ethiopia]] [[Category:Communications in Ethiopia| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Ethiopia</title> <id>9404</id> <revision> <id>41892364</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:13:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ahoerstemeier</username> <id>7580</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.252.248.235|71.252.248.235]] ([[User talk:71.252.248.235|talk]]) to last version by Warofdreams</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Railway]]s:== ''total:'' * 681 km (Ethiopian segment of the [[Addis Ababa]]-[[Djibouti]] railroad), all 1000mm [[narrow gauge]] * note: railway under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia (2003) === Railway links to adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Djibouti|Djibouti]] - yes - 1000mm * [[Transportation in Somalia|Somalia]] - no * [[Transportation in Kenya|Kenya]] - no * [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no * [[Transportation in Eritrea|Eritrea]] - no [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/950mm == Highways == * ''total:'' 31,571 km * ''paved:'' 3,789 km * ''unpaved:'' 27,782 km (2000) == Ports and harbors == None. Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with [[Eritrea]] using the ports of [[Assab]] and [[Massawa]]; since the border dispute with [[Eritrea]] flared, Ethiopia has used the port of [[Djibouti]] for nearly all of its imports.
Batman Gay? | work= | url=http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/panel/106070953757230.htm | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; whilst [[Devin Grayson]] has commented &quot;it depends who you ask, doesn't it? Since you're asking me, I'll say no, I don't think he is ... I certainly understand the gay readings, though.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;#{{cite web | title=Is Batman Gay? | work= | url=http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/panel/106070953757230.htm | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; While changing morals have made the issue less important today, popular culture and a number of artists continue to play off the homosexual connotation of their relationship, against the wishes of the publisher. One notable example occurred in 2000, when [[DC Comics]] refused to allow permission for the reprinting of four panels (from ''Batman'' issues 79, 92, 105 and 139) to illustrate Christopher York's paper ''All in the family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s''&lt;ref&gt;#{{cite journal | last = Beatty | first = Bart | title=Don't Ask, Don't Tell: How Do You Illustrate an Academic Essay about Batman and Homosexuality? | journal=The Comics Journal | year=2000 | volume= | issue=228 | pages=17–18 | url= }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another happened in the summer of 2005, when painter Mark Chamberlain displayed a number of watercolors depicting both Batman and Robin in suggestive poses. DC threatened both artist and [[Art gallery|gallery]] with legal action if they did not cease selling the works, and also demanded that all remaining art as well as any profits be handed over.&lt;ref&gt;#{{note|BBC_Chamberlain}} {{news reference |firstname= |lastname= |pages= |title=Gallery told to drop 'gay' Batman |date=[[19 August]] [[2005]] |org=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4167032.stm }}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Bibliography== {{main|Batman (bibliography)}} :''See also [[List of Batman comics]].'' The in-continuity Batman of the DC Universe can currently be seen as the primary character in current comic book series such as ''[[Detective Comics]]'', ''[[Batman (comic book)|Batman]]'', ''[[Legends of the Dark Knight]]'', ''[[Superman/Batman]]'' and ''[[Batman: Gotham Knights]]''. Long running former series in which Batman starred included ''[[Batman Family]]'', ''[[The Brave and the Bold]]'' and ''[[World's Finest Comics]]''. He appears regularly in many other DC titles, including ''[[Justice League|JLA]]'', ''[[Robin (comics)|Robin]]'', ''[[Nightwing]]'', ''[[Batgirl]]'', ''[[Birds of Prey]]'', ''[[Gotham Central]]'' and ''[[Catwoman]]''. The series ''[[All Star Batman and Robin|All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder]]'' is not in continuity. Significant developments in the Batman mythos were seen during [[Bill Finger]] and [[Bob Kane]]'s run on the series in the 1930s and 1940s, [[Denny O'Neil]], [[Len Wein]] and [[Neal Adams]]'s work in the 1970s, and later others such as [[Grant Morrison]] and [[Dave McKean]]. In addition to their contributions, notable [[limited series]] which featured Batman include ''[[Batman: Year One]]'' by [[Frank Miller]], ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' by [[Alan Moore]] and [[Brian Bolland]], and ''[[The Dark Knight Returns|Batman: The Dark Knight Returns]]'', again by [[Frank Miller]]. ==In other media== [[Image:Szenenbild 03 518x700.jpg|120px|thumb|[[Christian Bale]] as Bruce Wayne from ''Batman Begins'']] {{main|Batman in other media}} In addition to comic books, Batman has appeared in newspaper syndicated comic strips, books, radio dramas, television and several theatrical feature films, including ''[[Batman Begins]]'', the 2005 smash hit which Ebert and Roeper called &quot;one of the best films of the year.&quot; In addition, there is a musical theatre (''[[Batman: The Musical]]''), set to premiere sometime in 2006/2007. There are several Batman video games, and even the [[Six Flags]] theme parks host Batman shows and rides. Over the last decade, Batman has appeared in starring or supporting roles in the [[Bruce Timm]]-helmed [[DC Animated Universe]], from ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' to ''[[Justice League Unlimited]].'' Given Batman's cultural ubiquity and long-standing iconic status, references to Batman, either as homage, influence, or parody, are common. Other comic companies have often created their own version of the character, such as [[Marvel Comics|Marvel's]] [[Nighthawk (Marvel Comics)|Nighthawk]], and [[Image Comics]]' [[Darkwing]] among others. ==Trivia== * The character was named Bruce Wayne in honor of Robert Bruce, the Scottish Patriot, and &quot;Mad&quot; Anthony Wayne, the American Revolutionary War general. * A personality trait that creator Bob Kane shared with Batman was a certain fondness for keeping late hours. * Official DC statistics state that Batman stands 6'2&quot; and weighs 220 lbs. Coincidentally, [[Adam West]] is also that height, and at the time of ''Batman Begins''' filming [[Christian Bale]] weighed 220 lbs. * In all Spanish language dubs and translations, Bruce Wayne is named '''Bruno Diaz'''. ==References== * [[Les Daniels|Daniels, Les]]. ''DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes''. * [[Gerard Jones|Jones, Gerard]]. ''Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book''. * Beatty, Scott, ''et al.'', ''The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual''. Quirk Books, March 30th, 2005. ISBN 1594740232 *[http://members.surfbest.net/argentium@surfbest.net/batman.htm The Golden Age Batman Chronology] *[http://www.goldenagebatman.com The Golden Age Batman Web Site] *[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100098 St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture] *[http://www.bookrags.com/history/popculture/batman-bbbb-02/ Bookrags] *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,314504,00.html Article in ''The Guardian'' on Batman's 60th anniversary] *[http://darkmark6.tripod.com/batmanind1.html A chronological index and issue summaries of the Silver Age Batman's comics] ==Notes and references== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%&quot;&gt; &lt;references/&gt; &lt;/div&gt; ==See also== ===Additional information=== * [[Supporting characters of Batman]] * [[Enemies of Batman]] * [[Batman in other media]] * [[List of Batman comics]] * [[Comics Code Authority]] * [[Batman Beyond]] ===Related information=== * [[Spring Heeled Jack]] * [[Seduction of the Innocent]] ==External links== *[http://www.dccomics.com/features/batman/index.html DC Comics - Batman] *[http://www.batman.com/ Warner Brothers official Batman site] *[http://www.batman-on-film.com/ Batman-on-Film] *[http://www.rpi.edu/~bulloj/search/BATMAN.html The comics research bibliography: Batman] - an international bibliography of comic books, comic strips, animation, caricature, cartoons, bandes dessinees, and related topics * [http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=batman DMOZ - Open web directory - Listings for Batman] {{featured article}} [[Category:All-Star Squadron members]] [[Category:Batman|*]] [[Category:DC Comics heroes, non-superpowered]] [[Category:DC Comics titles]] [[Category:Fictional businesspeople|Batman]] [[Category:Fictional detectives]] [[Category:Fictional socialites|Wayne, Bruce]] [[Category:Fictional vigilantes]] [[Category:Film noir]] [[Category:Justice League (animated) members]] [[Category:Justice League members]] [[Category:Justice Society members]] [[Category:Outsiders members]] [[Category:Fictional orphans]] [[Category:Fictional martial artists]] [[Category:Fictional millionaires|Wayne, Bruce]] [[Category:Fictional Americans]] {{Link FA|it}} [[bs:Batman]] [[da:Batman]] [[de:Batman]] [[el:Μπάτμαν]] [[eo:Batman]] [[es:Batman]] [[fi:Batman]] [[fr:Batman]] [[gl:Batman]] [[he:באטמן]] [[hr:Batman]] [[hu:Batman]] [[it:Batman]] [[ja:バットマン]] [[lt:Betmenas]] [[nl:Batman (fictief personage)]] [[no:Batman]] [[pl:Batman]] [[pt:Batman]] [[simple:Batman]] [[sq:Batman]] [[sv:Läderlappen (seriefigur)]] [[th:แบทแมน]] [[zh:蝙蝠俠]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bosnia Herzegovina</title> <id>4336</id> <revision> <id>15902611</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bull fighting</title> <id>4337</id> <revision> <id>15902612</id> <timestamp>2003-06-16T02:44:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pizza Puzzle</username> <id>11070</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bullfighting]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brythonic</title> <id>4338</id> <revision> <id>30667470</id> <timestamp>2005-12-09T02:39:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wobble</username> <id>226003</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Brythonic languages]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boston Red Sox</title> <id>4339</id> <revision> <id>42161582</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:44:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.5.49.87</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Red Sox}} The '''Boston Red Sox''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team located in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]]. The team is in the [[American League East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American League]]. Their main [[Yankees-Red Sox rivalry|rival]] is the [[New York Yankees]]. ==Franchise history== ===Early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century=== [[Image:1903_world_series_crowd.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Crowd outside the [[1903 World Series]].]] The Boston Red Sox won the first World Series i
e [[legal]] sector, [[call center|call centres]] and customer service operations, [[finance]] and stock broking, [[catering]], and [[tourism]]. Many US firms (such as [[IBM]] and [[Apple Computer]]) located their European customer service operations in Ireland due to the availability of a young, well educated, English speaking workforce. The Irish tourism industry attracts over five million visitors annually and employees over 100,000. The [[IFSC]] in [[Dublin]] created some 14,000 jobs in the [[1990s]], all in the high-value finance and legal sectors. The hospitality and retail sectors are quite large &amp;mdash; there are hundreds of domestic and foreign retail firms in Ireland (such as [[Next (retailer)|Next]] and [[Argos]]), and many cafe and restaurant firms operate in Ireland (such as [[McDonalds]], [[Burger King]] and [[Subway (sandwich)|Subway]].) ''See also: [[Retail in Ireland]]'' &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; ==State role in the economy== ===State ownership and deregulation=== At present the [[Irish Government]] controls several large and key parts of the economy: *Through [[Córas Iompair Éireann|CIE]] they control most of the [[bus]] and all of the [[railway]] market, a significant amount of the scheduled land transport services are accounted for through CIE companies. *Through the [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]] the government controls much of the electricity generation market, and all of the electricity transmission network. *Through [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTE]] the government control much of the radio and television broadcast sector, although commercial enterprises are gaining market share - the states control is by no means [[propaganda]] but it has a large [[financial]] and [[regulatory]] control of the sector. *Through ownership of [[Aer Lingus]] and various airports, the government operates a large part of the [[aviation]] industry which is often accused as adopting change slowly &amp;mdash; although in recent years [[Ryanair]], [[Aer Arann]] and [[Cityjet]] have brought competition to the market. *Through [[An Post]], the government has a monopoly of the light mail deliver industry and a large portion of the partially deregulated parcel and express deliver market. Although the government owns the incumbents in the electricity, mail, broadcasting, land transport and air transport industries, many are wholly or partially open to competition from the private sector. Traditionally large and key sectors of the economy were dominated by government ownership. Some of these industries are currently being reformed and opened to competition however some of them are regarded as being slow to adopt change and reform to work practice &amp;mdash; work pay and conditions are often much better than that in the private sector with some having overstaffing or underproductivity which is seen as an impediment to reform. The government is currently considering the [[privatisation]] of [[Aer Lingus]] and part of the [[Electricity Supply Board]], but it is somewhat reluctant because of an earlier situation that resulted from the privatisation of [[Eircom]] &amp;mdash; hundreds of thousands of small shareholders lost money, private investors took control and established a virtual monopoly and under-investment led to a slow roll out of [[broadband]] infrastructure. ===Taxation=== ''Main article: [[Taxation in the Republic of Ireland]]'' The present government ([[1997]]&amp;ndash;) has favoured a low taxation policy to encourage [[FDI]] in Ireland. Consequently, the government opposes moves by the [[European Commission]] to restrict [[tax competition]]. (The corporate tax rate is only 12.5%, versus between 20% and 60% in the rest of Europe). The income tax system is designed to [[redistribution|redistribute]] wealth from the richer to the poorer segments of society. There are 2 tax bands, based on income levels. These range from a top rate of 42%, to a bottom rate of 20%. The government receives much of its revenues from taxes on goods &amp;mdash; these include a 21% [[VAT]] rate on most consumer goods, high levels of [[excise duty]] on [[tobacco]], [[petrol]], and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and several smaller taxes on items such as plastic bags, [[cheque]]s, [[automatic teller machine|ATM]] cards, [[credit card]]s and [[debit card]]s. The taxes in the personal financial sector, as well as the [[television licence]], are often seen as [[regressive tax|regressive]]. ===The welfare state=== The Irish government runs a [[Welfare state]] system. The government provides free [[education]] at all levels, and for all Irish or EU citizens. Free healthcare is not universal, being restricted to the unemployed and very low earners at the General practitioner level. However hospital care is free to all, although waiting lists and delays characterise the public health service. People who are unemployed receive [[unemployment benefit]]s and retired people are entitled to a [[pension|state pension]] - both benefits are quite high by international comparisons however recent changes in the cost of living in Ireland have greatly eroded their relative buying power. ====Health care==== ''Main article: [[Health care in the Republic of Ireland]]'' The health care system is poorly operated with many accident and emergency wards overcrowded and understaffed and tends to be seen as a [[patronage]] system rather than patient focused, something often [[colloquial|colloquially]] referred to as &quot;[[The Eleven Kingdoms]]&quot;. People with disabilities are entitled to have carers and their other living expenses paid for by the government, however services can be patchy. Health care in Ireland is comparatively expensive, with an average GP visit being €40 (or more) and dentist's visit €70 (or more). The &quot;medical card&quot;, eligibility for free health care, is only available to the unemployed, extremely low earners or those who can present a medical reason, although over one million are registered on the system - the system is also criticised for being reactionary rather than preventative. Ireland has one of the highest levels of take-up of private [[health insurance]] in the world. This, though expensive, does not result in entirely private healthcare. Those with health insurance are treated privately in public hospitals. The main benefit is avoiding the long waiting lists for major treatment that those without health insurance must endure. Thus Ireland is frequently said to have a &quot;two-tier&quot; health service. The health system, despite having millions spent on it throughout the Celtic Tiger years, has severe problems. An ongoing issue is the &quot;waiting lists&quot;, for those requiring in some cases, serious operations. These are over a year for some procedures. Another problem is accident and emergency (A&amp;E) overcrowding, with patients frequently left on trolleys in corridors for hours. A reorganisation of the health service is planned, but this is also controversial, with several cases of people dying en-route to centralised facilities (the inferior nearby facilities being shut down). ====Education==== ''Main article: [[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]'' The [[Education in the Republic of Ireland|education system]] is generally quite good with standards in [[mathematics]], [[science]] and [[technology]] being among the highest in [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] member nations. The state has a virtual [[monopoly]] in [[higher education]] &amp;mdash; there are few private colleges and these are highly specialised. The primary and secondary school enrolment levels are quite high and at these levels choice is wide. Third level entry is competitive; cost is relatively cheap and courses adjusted to the needs of the economy. Irish adult literacy is 99% &amp;mdash; in line with other OECD countries. The only recognised universities are [[Dublin City University]], [[National University of Ireland]] (with ''constituent universities'' at [[University College Cork - National University of Ireland, Cork|Cork]], [[University College Dublin - National University of Ireland, Dublin|Dublin]], [[National University of Ireland, Galway|Galway]] and [[National University of Ireland, Maynooth|Maynooth]]), [[University of Limerick]] and [[University of Dublin]]. The [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]] system has recently overtaken the universities in terms of first year enrolment numbers and this trend appears to be accelerating. ==Economic ties== ===United States=== [[Image:Pfizer logo.png|thumb|150px|[[Pfizer]] was one of the first foreign multi-nationals to locate in Ireland. It did so in the [[1960s]] and today it still employs several thousand workers in [[County Cork]].]] In [[2003]], [[trade]] between [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and the [[United States]] was worth around $33 billion, a $4 billion increase over [[2002]]. U.S. [[export]]s to Ireland were valued at $7.7 billion, an increase of almost $1 billion over 2002. Irish exports to the U.S. were worth some $25.7 billion &amp;mdash; a 500% increase since [[1997]]. Ireland had a trade surplus of over $15 billion with the U.S. in 2003. [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c4190.html#2004] The range of U.S. products imported to Ireland includes [[electricity|electrical]] components, [[computers]] and [[peripheral]]s, [[pharmacology|drugs and pharmaceuticals]], electrical equipment, and [[livestock]] feed. Exports to the United States include [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]], [[chemicals]] and related products, [[electronics|electronic]] [[data processing]] equipment, electrical [[machinery]], [[textiles]] and [[clothing]], and [[glass]]ware. U.S. [[FDI]] in Ireland has been particularly important to the growth and modernization of Irish industry since [[1980]], providing new [[technology]], export capabilities, and [[employment]] opportunities. The major U.S. investments in Ireland to date
g training]] *[[Boxing weight classes]] *[[International Boxing Organization]] *[[List of male boxers]] *[[List of female boxers]] *[[Reigning boxing champions]] *[[Women's International Boxing Federation]] *[[World Boxing Association]] *[[World Boxing Organization]] ==Resources== *[http://ahfaa.org/1747.htm Godfrey, John &quot;Boxing&quot; from ''Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense'', 1747] *[http://www.geocities.com/cinaet/price.html Price, Edmund ''The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867] ==References== *Patrick Myler (1997). ''[[A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers]]''. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-861-05258-8. # {{note|1stFemaleAmateurDeath}} &quot;Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni&quot; (July/August 2005). ''[[University_of_Illinois#Alumni_Association|Illinois Alumni]],'' '''18'''(1), 47. ==External links== {{commons|Boxing}} {{wiktionarypar|boxing}} * [http://www.canadianboxing.com/abcboxing_us_commissions_contact.htm Asssociation of Boxing Commissions-North America] * [http://www.boxrec.com The Boxing Record Archive] * [http://www.boxingtimes.com The Boxing Times] * [http://www.scottishboxing.co.uk Scottish Amateur And Professional Boxing] * [http://www.jabmax.com JabMax Boxing News] * [http://thering-online.com/ Ring Magazine] * [http://fightnews.com/ Fightnews.com] * [http://andworldboxing.com/ World Boxing Sanctioning Groups] * [http://www.thesweetscience.com/ The Sweet Science] * [http://www.boxingreport.net The Boxing Report] * [http://www.aiba.net The International Amateur Boxing Association] * [http://www.wbaonline.com The World Boxing Association] * [http://www.wbcboxing.com The World Boxing Council] * [http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com The International Boxing Federation] * [http://www.iboboxing.com/ The International Boxing Organization] * [http://www.nabc.net North American Boxing Council] * [http://www.geocities.com/sdimitry/boxing3.html Heavyweight History] * [http://www.boxing-memorabilia.com/forgery.htm Tips On Collecting Boxing Memorabilia] * [http://www.anymartialart.org/09_Martial_Arts_Info/index.php?MArtID=7 AnyMartialArt.org] Boxing overview * [http://www.boxingscoop.com Boxing Scoop] Boxing podcast with interviews and insights into boxing [[Category:Boxing|*]] [[Category:Combat sports]] [[Category:European martial arts]] [[Category:Olympic sports]] [[Category:Individual sports]] [[bg:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1089;]] [[ca:Boxa]] [[da:Boksning]] [[de:Boxen]] [[et:Poks]] [[es:Boxeo]] [[eo:Bokso]] [[fr:Boxe anglaise]] [[gd:Dòrnaireachd]] [[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1507;]] [[hr:Boks]] [[lt:Boksas]] [[nl:Boksen]] [[no:Boksing]] [[ja:&amp;#12508;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]] [[pl:Boks]] [[pt:Boxe]] [[ru:Бокс]] [[fi:Nyrkkeily]] [[sv:Boxning]] [[zh:拳擊]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BackPacking</title> <id>4245</id> <revision> <id>15902531</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Backpacking]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bollywood</title> <id>4246</id> <revision> <id>42158629</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ambuj.saxena</username> <id>887277</id> </contributor> <comment>removing link spam. Please discuss on the talk page before adding again.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Devdas.jpg|thumb|right|Typical Bollywood movie poster&amp;mdash;''[[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]]'' ([[2002]])]] '''Bollywood''' is the informal name given to the popular [[Mumbai]]-based [[Hindi language]] [[film|film industry]] in [[India]]. The name is a conflation of ''Bombay'', the old name of [[Mumbai]], and ''[[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]'', the center of the [[United States]] film industry. Though some purists deplore the name (arguing that it makes the industry look like a poor cousin to Hollywood), it seems likely to persist and now has its own entry in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] - [[Kollywood]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] - [[Tollywood]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] - also called Tollywood, [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]) constitute the broader [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]], whose output is the largest in the world in terms of number of [[film]]s produced and in number of tickets sold. Bollywood is a strong part of popular culture of not only India and the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], but also of the [[Middle East]], parts of [[Africa]], parts of [[Southeast Asia]], and among the [[South Asia]]n [[diaspora]] worldwide. Bollywood is also commonly referred to as &quot;[[Hindi language|Hindi]] cinema&quot;, even though use of poetic [[Urdu language|Urdu]] words is fairly common. ([[Linguist]]s would call both Hindi and Urdu variants of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]. This is a political debate; see the articles on the various languages/dialects.) There has been a growing presence of [[English language|English]] in dialogues and songs as well. It is not uncommon to see movies which feature dialogues with English words and phrases, even whole sentences. A few movies are also made in two or even three languages (either using subtitles, or several soundtracks). ==Genre conventions== Most Bollywood films would be classified as [[Musical film|musical]]s. Few movies are made without at least one song-and-dance number. However, they do not fit easily in the &quot;musical&quot; category as defined by Hollywood movies; they usually contain a great deal more in the way of plot and action than is found in the typical Hollywood musical. Indian audiences expect full value for their money, with a good entertainer generally referred to as ''[[paisa]]'' ''vasool'', (literally, &quot;money's worth&quot;). Songs and dances, love triangles, [[comedy]] and dare-devil thrills&amp;mdash;all are mixed up in a three-hour-long extravaganza with an intermission. Such movies are called ''masala'' movies, after the Hindi word for a spice mixture, ''masala''. Like ''masalas'', these movies are a mixture of many things. Up until recently plots tended to be [[melodramatic]] and Bollywood films were widely regarded as [[camp]] in the Western world. They frequently employed formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, conniving villains, [[tart with a heart|courtesans with hearts of gold]], long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences. Since around early 2005 however, most mainstream Bollywood films have borne more resemblence to contemprary western productions than traditional Indian cinema. The near-total adoption and depiction of western influences in Indian cinema has led to criticism that the films are not representative of true Indian mainstream culture. There have always been Indian films with more &quot;artistic&quot; aims and more sophisticated stories, both inside and outside the Bollywood tradition (see [[Cinema of India#Indian art cinema|Indian art cinema]]). They often lost out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal. However, Bollywood is changing. Current films are increasingly likely either to break the mold or to ironically subvert it. There is now a significant audience of young, educated, urban Indians who want to watch Indian films, but demand a different presentation. It should also be said that a fair number of films with mass-appeal are either estimable simply as well-crafted amusements or even artistic achievements in their own way. Any fan of Bollywood movies will be able to list films that he/she regards as transcending the run-of-the-mill masala movie. ==Bollywood song and dance== [[Image:Mukesh.jpg|thumb|Songs in Bollywood are sung by professional [[Playback singer|playback singers]], rather than actors, who [[lip sync|lip-sync]] the lyrics. Pictured here is [[Mukesh|Mukesh Chand Mathur]] (commonly known as Mukesh), a famed playback singer.]] Bollywood film music is called ''[[filmi]]'' music (from [[Hindi]], meaning &quot;of films&quot;). Songs from Bollywood movies are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the [[actor]]s then [[lip sync|lip synching]] the words to the song on-screen, often while dancing. While most actors, especially today, are excellent dancers, few are also singers. One notable exception was [[Kishore Kumar]], who starred in several major films in the 1950s while also having a stellar career as a playback singer. [[Kundan Lal Saigal|K. L. Saigal]], Suraiyya and [[Noor Jehan]] were also known as both singers and actors. Of late, a few actors have again tried singing for themselves: * [[Amitabh Bachchan]], sang &quot;Mere Angane Mein&quot; in &quot;Lawaaris&quot; in the mid-80's, and has also sung in &quot;Silsila&quot;, &quot;Mahaan&quot; &quot;[[Toofan]]&quot;, ''Baghban'', and ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]]'', as well as doing a duet with Adnan Sami in the song Kabhi Nahin (Never). * [[Aamir Khan]] took a turn singing &quot;Kya Bolti Tu&quot; in ''Ghulam'' but only because &quot;the character had attitude that only Aamir could do justice to&quot;, according to director Vikram Bhatt. These forays, while well-received at the time, have not led to real singing careers for either actor. Playback singers are prominently featured in the opening credits and have their own [[Fan (aficionado)|fans]] who will go to an otherwise lackluster movie just to hear their favourites. One of the most recorded of these playback singers is [[Lata Manges
ters for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], the Museum of Science in Boston, and the Computer Museum in Boston. He is an avid sailor. Dennett is the author of several major books on [[evolution]] and [[consciousness]]. He is a leading proponent of the theory known by some as [[Neural Darwinism]] (see also [[greedy reductionism]]). Dennett is also well known for his argument against [[qualia]], which claims that the concept is so confused that it cannot be put to any use or understood in any non-contradictory way, and therefore does not constitute a valid refutation of [[physicalism]]. This argument was presented most comprehensively in his book ''[[Consciousness Explained]]''. == Philosophical Views == Dennett has remarked in several places (such as &quot;Self-portrait&quot;, in ''Brainchildren'') that his overall philosophical project has remained largely the same since his time at Oxford. He is primarily concerned with providing a philosophy of mind which is grounded in and fruitful to empirical research. In his original dissertation, ''Content and Consciousness'', he broke up the problem of explaining the mind into the need for a theory of content and for a theory of consciousness. His approach to this project has also stayed true to this distinction. Just as ''Content and Consciousness'' has a bipartite structure, he similarly divided ''Brainstorms'' into two sections. He would later collect several essays on content in ''The Intentional Stance'' and synthesize his views on consciousness into a unified theory in ''Consciousness Explained''. These volumes respectively form the most extensive development of his views, and he frequently refers back to them in subsequent writings. While it is abundantly clear that Dennett does not subscribe to a number of categories (such as [[Cartesian materialism]] and [[Dualism]]), it is less clear which ones he fits into. As Dennett discussed: :''&quot;[Others] note that my &quot;avoidance of the standard philosophical terminology for discussing such matters&quot; often creates problems for me; philosophers have a hard time figuring out what I am saying and what I am denying. My refusal to play ball with my colleagues is deliberate, of course, since I view the standard philosophical terminology as worse than useless--a major obstacle to progress since it consists of so many errors&quot;'' (Dennett, 1993) Dennett will self-identify with a few terms. In Consciousness Explained, he admits &quot;I am a sort of '[[Teleofunctionalism|teleofunctionalist]]', of course, perhaps the original teleofunctionalist'&quot;. He goes on to say,&quot;I am ready to come out of the closet as a sort of [[Verificationism|verificationalist]]&quot;. In ''Consciousness Explained'', Dennett's interest in the ability of evolution to explain some of the content-producing features of consciousness is already apparent, and this has since become an integral part of his program. Much of his work in the 1990s has been concerned with fleshing out his previous ideas by addressing the same topics from an evolutionary standpoint, from what distinguishes human minds from animal minds (''Kinds of Minds''), to how free will is compatible with a naturalist view of the world (''Freedom Evolves''). His most recent book is an attempt to subject religious belief to the same treatment, explaining possible evolutionary reasons for the phenomenon of religious groups. == Role in Evolutionary Debate == Dennett's views on evolution are identified as being strongly [[Adaptationism|adaptationist]], in line with the views of zoologist [[Richard Dawkins]]. In ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'', Dennett showed himself even more willing than Dawkins to defend adaptationism in print, devoting an entire chapter to a criticism of the views of paleontologist [[Stephen Jay Gould]]. This has led to some backlash from Gould and his supporters, who allege that Dennett overstated his claims and misrepresented Gould's. {{ref|1997Gould01}} == Selected works == * ''Brainstorms'' : Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (MIT Press [[1981]]) (ISBN 0262540371) * ''[[Elbow Room]]: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting'' (MIT Press [[1984]]) - on [[free will]] and [[determinism]] (ISBN 0262040778) * ''[[The Mind's I]]'' (Bantam, Reissue edition [[1985]], with [[Douglas Hofstadter]]) (ISBN 0553345842) * ''Content and Consciousness'' (Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul Books Ltd; 2nd ed edition January 1986) (ISBN 0710208464) *''The Intentional Stance'' (MIT Press; Reprint edition [[1989]]) (ISBN 0262540533) * ''[[Consciousness Explained]]'' (Back Bay Books [[1992]]) (ISBN 0316180661) * ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea|Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life]]'' (Simon &amp; Schuster; Reprint edition [[1996]]) (ISBN 068482471X) * ''Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness'' (Basic Books 1997) (ISBN 0465073514) * ''Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds (Representation and Mind)'' (MIT Press 1998) (ISBN 0262041669) - A Collection of Essays 1984-1996 * ''[[Freedom Evolves]]'' (Viking Press [[2003]]) (ISBN 0670031860) * ''Sweet Dreams : Philosophical Obstacles to a Science of Consciousness (Jean Nicod Lectures)'' (Bradford Books 2005) (ISBN 0262042258) * ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon'' (Penguin Group 2006) (ISBN: 067003472X) == Texts on Dennett == * ''Daniel Dennett'' edited by Andrew Brook and Don Ross (Cambridge University Press 2000) (ISBN 0521008646) * ''Dennett's Philosophy: A Comprehensive Assessment'' edited by Don Ross, Andrew Brook and David Thompson (MIT Press 2000) (ISBN 0262182009) * Dennett, among others, is discussed in John Brockman's ''[[The Third Culture]]''. * ''On Dennett'' John Symons (Wadsworth Publishing Company 2000) (ISBN 053457632X) * Dennett is mentioned on numerous occasions in David J. Chalmers' ''[[The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory]]'', as Chalmers discusses his theory (ISBN 0195117891). == Select Quote == A quote from Chapter 25 of ''Brainchildren'' that is fundamental to understanding Dennett's work: :&quot;The first stable conclusion I reached &amp;hellip; was that the only thing brains could do was to approximate the responsivity to meanings that we presuppose in our everyday mentalistic discourse. When mechanical push comes to shove, a brain was always going to do what it was caused to do by current, local, mechanical circumstances, whatever it ought to do, whatever a God's-eye view might reveal about the actual meaning of its current states. But over the long haul, brains could be designed - by [[evolutionary]] processes - to do the right thing (from the point of view of meaning) with high reliability. &amp;hellip; [B]rains are [[syntactic]] engines that can mimic the competence of [[semantic]] engines. &amp;hellip; The appreciation of meanings - their discrimination and delectation - is central to our vision of consciousness, but this conviction that I, on the inside, deal directly with meanings turns out to be something rather like a benign &quot;user-illusion&quot;. == See also == * [[Cartesian materialism]] * [[Heterophenomenology]] * [[Multiple drafts theory | Multiple drafts theory of consciousness]] * [[Jean Nicod Prize|List of Jean Nicod Prize laureates]] == External links == {{wikiquote}} *[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/~ddennett.htm Daniel C. Dennett's homepage at Tufts University] *[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/ The Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts University] *[http://www.pbs.org/saf/1103/features/dennett.htm Scientific American Frontiers Profile: Daniel Dennett] *[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,,1193371,00.html 'The Semantic Engineer']- a biographical essay from [[The Guardian]], April 17, 2004 *[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/dennett.html Edge/Third Culture: Daniel C. Dennett] *[http://www.philosophers.co.uk/cafe/phil_apr2003.htm The Philosophers Magazine: Philosopher of the Month, April 2003: Dan Dennett] *[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/pubpage.htm Publication List by Daniel Dennett and other Tufts' Center for Cognitive Studies associates] *[http://sun3.lib.uci.edu/%7Escctr/philosophy/dennett/ Searchable bibliography of Dennett's works] *[http://www.the-brights.net/dennett_nyt.htm Article about Dennett's naturalistic worldview from the New York Times, July 2003] *[http://www.reason.com/0305/fe.rb.pulling.shtml Pulling Our Own Strings]- ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' magazine interviews Dennett *{{Note|1997Gould01}}[http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Debate/Gould.html 'Evolution: The pleasures of Pluralism']- Stephen Jay Gould's review of ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' *[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/books/review/19wieseltier.html The God Genome] - An article by Leon Wieseltier critical of Dennett's beliefs in light of Dennett's latest book ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon''. [[Category:1942 births|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:Living people|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:21st century philosophers|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:American philosophers|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:Analytic philosophers|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:Consciousness studies|Dennett, Daniel]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[af:Daniel Dennett]] [[de:Daniel Dennett]] [[eo:Daniel DENNETT]] [[fi:Daniel Dennett]] [[fr:Daniel Clement Dennett]] [[he:דניאל דנט]] [[ja:ダニエル・デネット]] [[nl:Daniel Dennett]] [[pl:Daniel Dennett]] [[sk:Daniel Dennett]] [[sv:Daniel Dennett]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Darwin's Dangerous Idea</title> <id>8757</id> <revision> <id>39634075</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:52:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DanielCD</username> <id>81016</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Darwin's Dang
door concrete skatepark] ==Other Dundees in the World== *[[Dundee, Michigan| Dundee, Michigan, USA]] *[[Dundee, New York| Dundee, New York, USA]] *[[Dundee, Ohio| Dundee, Ohio, USA]] *[[West Dundee| West Dundee, Illinois, USA]] *[[East Dundee| East Dundee, Illinois, USA]] * Dundee, Nova Scotia, Canada *New Dundee, Ontario, Canada *Dundee Beach, Northern Territory, Australia *and of course...[[Crocodile Dundee| Crocodile Dundee (Australia!)]] {{Scottish Cities}} [[Category:Dundee|*]] [[de:Dundee]] [[fr:Dundee]] [[gd:Dùn Dèagh]] [[nl:Dundee]] [[ja:ダンディー (イギリス)]] [[no:Dundee]] [[nn:Dundee]] [[pl:Dundee]] [[sco:Dundee]] [[simple:Dundee]] [[sv:Dundee]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Do Not Adjust Your Set</title> <id>8829</id> <revision> <id>42079488</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:05:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DoNotAdjustYourSet-dvd.jpg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;Do Not Adjust Your Set&quot; (DVD) &lt;br&gt;From left to right: David Jason, Michael Palin, Eric Idle, Denise Coffey and Terry Jones.]] [[Image:DoNotAdjustYourSetCast.jpg|thumb|right|From left to right: David Jason, Michael Palin, Terry Jones, and Eric Idle.]] [[Image:Denise coffey.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Denise Coffey]] playing the part of Juliet in the programme.]] '''''Do Not Adjust Your Set''''' was a classic children's [[television program|television series]] produced originally by [[Associated-Rediffusion]], then by the fledgling [[Thames Television]] for British commercial television channel [[ITV]] from [[26 December]] [[1967]] to [[14 May]] [[1969]]. The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) which was displayed when there was a problem with transmission. Although originally conceived as a children's programme, it quickly acquired a cult crossover following amongst many adults. Indeed quite a lot of material could be considered adultish. In aiming at a family audience it is similar to [[The Goodies]]. This was an early appearance of many actors and comedians who later became famous, such as [[Denise Coffey]] and [[David Jason]]. [[Michael Palin]], [[Terry Jones]], and [[Eric Idle]] soon found themselves in superstardom after the three became members of the hugely successful [[Monty Python]]. The [[Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]] performed a song in each programme and Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band also appeared. The musicians frequently appeared as extras in sketches. The programme comprised a series of sketches, often bizarre and surreal, frequently satirical with a disjointed style which was to become more famous in the subsequent and more daring [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]] which followed five months later. At least one ''DNAYS'' sketch was re-used in Monty Python. Strange [[animation]]s between sketches were crafted by the then unknown [[Terry Gilliam]] in the final episodes, who also graduated to Python - part of his `Christmas cards' animation reappearing there, in the &quot;Joy to the World&quot; segment. One long running feature of the show was ''[[Captain Fantastic]]'', featuring a parody [[superhero]] (Jason) in improbable, even macabre adventures against [[villain]]ess Mrs. Black (Coffey). The rather eerie foes bear comparison with those in ''[[The Avengers]]''. These segments were shot entirely on film, on location in [[London]]. In [[1968]] it won an international award, the Prix Jeunesse, in Munich. ==Episodes== *Series **Series one: 14 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between [[26 December]] [[1967]] to [[28 March]] [[1968]], Thursdays at 5.25pm. **Series two: 13 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between [[19 February]] [[1969]] to [[14 May]] [[1969]], Wednesdays at 5.20pm. *Specials **Untitled special of 30 minutes broadcast [[29 July]] [[1968]], Monday at 7pm. **''Do Not Adjust Your Stocking'', 50 minutes broadcast [[25 December]] [[1968]], Wednesday 4.10pm. In common with another important Monty Python predecessor, ''[[At Last the 1948 Show]]'', many episodes were [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]] despite their importance to the history of British television comedy, and the surviving episodes are seldom repeated. ==DVD release== Nine of the fourteen episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series (presumably all that survive) were released on DVD in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[United States|USA]] in [[August]] [[2005]]. Both releases use the same [[NTSC]] Region 0 discs made from [[telerecording]]s of the original videotapes. The packaging claims that Gilliam's animations appear in these episodes, but they do not. The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band is seen playing its song &quot;Death Cab for Cutie&quot; in the DVD, Episode 7. The [[indie rock]] band [[Death Cab for Cutie]] took its name from the song. ==External links== *[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/515090/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online] *[http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/tv/kids/donotadjust.htm Do Not Adjust Your Set] - Nostalgia Central *[http://www.popmatters.com/tv/reviews/d/do-not-adjust-your-set.shtml A Review of DNAYS] &lt;!--Need to check the full cast list--&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;center&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; ! &lt;font size=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''Do Not Adjust Your Set'''&lt;/font size&gt; |- | [[Denise Coffey]] -- [[Eric Idle]] --- [[David Jason]] --- [[Terry Jones]] --- [[Michael Palin]] |} &lt;br clear=all&gt; [[Category:ITV television programmes]] [[Category:Monty Python]] [[Category:British television sketch shows]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>West Memphis 3</title> <id>8832</id> <revision> <id>42162054</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:50:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Apeloverage</username> <id>555651</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Investigation */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''West Memphis 3''' are three men tried and convicted for triple [[homicide]] in [[1993]] for the murders of three children in the [[Robin Hood Hills]] in [[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]], [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States]]. [[Damien Echols]], the alleged ringleader, was [[capital punishment|sentenced to death]]; [[Jessie Misskelley]] and [[Jason Baldwin]] were sentenced to life in prison. The case has received considerable attention, and many critics charge that the arrests and convictions were a [[miscarriage of justice]] inspired by a misguided [[moral panic]], and that the defendants were [[wrongful conviction|wrongfully convicted]]. ==Crime== Three eight-year-old boys - Steve Branch, Christopher Byers, and Michael Moore - were reported missing on [[May 5]], [[1993]], by Chistopher Byers' adoptive father, Mark Byers. The next day, their bodies were found in a [[Creek (stream)|creek]] near [[Robin Hood Hills]]. They were naked and had been tied ankle-to-wrist with their own shoelaces. All had been severely beaten and abused, but Byers was most injured, suffering a fractured [[skull]], stab wounds to his groin, being [[castrated]], and having the skin of his [[penis]] removed. [[Autopsy|Autopsies]] were inconclusive as to time of death and that, while Byers died of blood loss, the others drowned. During the trial of Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin, however, the medical examiner stated that the likely time of death was the early morning of the day the bodies were found but that time of death estimates are just that, estimates. It is often alleged that the beginning area police mishandled the crime scene, due to either negligence or ignorance. Such examples of this are police wearing the same shoes and clothes from the crime scene into the Bojangles restaurant bathroom and then Detective Bryn Ridge losing possible blood scrapings taken from the walls and tiles. Human bite marks found on at least one of the victims, according to testimony by experts on forensic odontology and pathology, were also overlooked during the original investigation and never investigated by a board certified medical examiner until four years after the murders. Inspector Gary Gitchell, for example, had more than a decade and a half of experience investigating violent crime. Detective (sgt) Mike Allen had worked in criminal investigations with Crittenden County Sheriff's Department for eight years before he left to join WMPD. Police have been accused of not securing the [[crime scene]], with improperly collecting physical evidence, and with not documenting their duties, but they claim otherwise. For example, once the bodies were discovered, the area was taped off and a list of those who had immediate access to the area the bodies were located was maintained by Detective Diane Hester. An alternate path was made through the woods to avoid the primary routes {{fact}}. Mara Leveritt says that &quot;police records were a mess—to call them disorderly would be putting it mildly. However she viewed only a duplicate of the records made available to the public some ten years after they had been examined by newspaper writers and others {{fact}}. She took exception fo the fact that some of the evidence was stored in grocery sacks, with the names of the grocery stores printed on them, despite the fact that this is a common and recommended practice by crime labs to allow the evidence to dry rather than decay in a sealed container. She also mistakenly presumed that the crime scene video was shot minutes after Mike Allen and Bryn Ridge recovered two of the bodies, when in fact the camera was not available for almost thirty minutes afterwards. The night of the murders, workers in a fast food restaurant behind which is a primary rail line from out of state, reported an [[African-American]] male, &quot;da