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1st Viscount Nelson]] led the [[British]] [[Royal Navy]] to victory over a [[Spanish]] fleet in the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]] near [[Gibraltar]].
* [[1803]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Marshall]] declares that any act of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] which conflicts with the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] is void.
* [[1804]] - [[Karadjordje]] leads the [[First Serbian Uprising]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1831]] - Ras [[Marye of Yejju]] marches into [[Tigray]] and defeats and kills dejjazmatch [[Sabagadis]] in the [[Battle of Debre Abbay]].
* [[1843]]- The event that inspired the song ''[[Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!]]'' is held.
* [[1849]] - In [[New York City]], [[James Knox Polk]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to have his [[photograph]] taken.
*[[1854]] - [[Texas]] is linked by [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] with the rest of the [[United States| United States]], when a connection between [[New Orleans, Louisiana| New Orleans]] and [[Marshall, Texas]] is completed.
* [[1859]] - [[Oregon]] is admitted as the 33rd [[U.S. state]].
* [[1876]] - [[Alexander Graham Bell]] applies for a [[patent]] for the [[telephone]],as does [[Elisha Gray]].
* [[1879]] - The [[War of the Pacific]] breaks out when [[Chile]]an armed forces occupy the [[Bolivia]]n port city of [[Antofagasta]].
*[[1886]] - First trainload of [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s left [[Los Angeles]] via the [[transcontinental railroad#United States| transcontinental railroad]].
* [[1895]] - First performance of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s last play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]'' at the [[St James's Theatre]] in [[London]]).
* [[1899]] - [[Voting machine]]s are approved by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for use in federal [[election]]s.
* [[1900]] - [[Russia]] responds to international pressure to free [[Finland]] by tightening imperial control over the country.
* 1900 - [[Second Boer War]]: In [[South Africa]], 20,000 [[United Kingdom|British]] troops invade the [[Orange Free State]].
* [[1903]] - The [[United States Department of Commerce|United States Department of Commerce and Labor]] is established (later split into Dept. of Commerce and [[United States Department of Labor|Dept. of Labor]]).
* [[1912]] - [[Arizona]] is admitted as the 48th [[U.S. state]].
* 1912 - In [[Groton, Connecticut]], the first [[diesel]]-powered [[submarine]] is commissioned.
* [[1918]] - ''[[Tarzan of the Apes]],'' [[Tarzan#Movies|the first movie]] featuring [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]]' [[Tarzan]] character, is released.
* 1918 - The [[Soviet Union]] adopts the [[Gregorian calendar]] ([[1 February]] according to the [[Julian calendar]]).
* [[1919]] - The [[Polish-Soviet War]] begins.
* [[1920]] - The [[League of Women Voters]] is founded in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* [[1924]] - The [[International Business Machines]] Corporation (IBM) is founded.
* [[1929]] - [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]]: Seven [[gangster]] rivals of [[Al Capone]] are murdered in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* [[1943]] - [[World War II]]:[[Rostov]], [[Russia]] is liberated.
* 1943 - World War II: The [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] - [[Germany|German]] [[General]] [[Erwin Rommel]] and his [[Afrika Korps]] launch an offensive against [[Allied]] defenses in [[Tunisia]].
* [[1944]] - World War II: Anti-[[Japan]]ese revolt on [[Java (island)|Java]].
* [[1945]] - On the second day of the [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II]] the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Force]] begin [[fire-bomb]]ing [[Dresden]], the capital of the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Saxony]].
* 1945 - [[Bombing of Prague]] - probably due to a mistake in the orientation of the pilots bombing Dresden.
* 1945 - [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Peru]] join the [[United Nations]].
* 1945 - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] meets with [[King]] [[Ibn Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] aboard the [[USS Quincy|USS ''Quincy'']], officially starting the [[United States|U.S.]]-[[Saudi]] diplomatic relationship.
* 1945 - Fascism was destroyed in City of Mostar,Bosnia and Herzegovina(then:Yugoslavia) thanks to partisans(Dalmatinaska birgada,Hercegovacka divizija).
* [[1946]] - The [[Bank of England]] is nationalized.
* 1946 - [[ENIAC]] (for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer"), the first general-purpose electronic [[computer]], is unveiled at the [[University of Pennsylvania]].
* [[1949]] - The [[Knesset]] ([[Israel]]i parliament) first convenes.
* 1949 - The [[Asbestos Strike]] begins in [[Canada]]. The strike marks the beginning of the [[Quiet Revolution]] in [[Quebec]].
* [[1952]] - [[1952 Winter Olympic Games | VI Olympic Winter Games ]] open in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]].
* [[1956]] - The [[20th Congress of the CPSU|XX Congress]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] starts in [[Moscow]]. In the last night of the meeting, in a secret session, Premier [[Nikita Khruschev]] condemns [[Josef Stalin]]'s crimes.
* [[1961]] - [[Discovery of the chemical elements]]: [[Element 103]], [[Lawrencium]], is first synthesized at the [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]].
* [[1962]] - [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] takes [[television]] viewers on a tour of the [[White House]].
* [[1966]] - [[Australia|Australian]] currency is [[decimalisation|decimalised]].
* [[1979]] - In [[Kabul]], [[Muslim]] extremists kidnap the [[United States|American]] [[ambassador]] to [[Afghanistan]], [[Adolph Dubs]] who is later killed during a gunfight between his kidnappers and police.
* [[1980]] - [[1980 Winter Olympic Games | XIII Olympic Winter Games]] open in [[Lake Placid, New York]].
* 1980 - [[Walter Cronkite]] announces his retirement from the ''[[CBS Evening News]]''.
* [[1981]] - [[Stardust Disaster]]. A fire in a [[Dublin]] nightclub kills 48 people
* [[1985]] - [[CNN]] reporter [[Jeremy Levin]] is freed from captivity in [[Lebanon]].
* [[1989]] - [[Union Carbide]] agrees to pay $470 million to the [[India]]n government for damages it caused in the [[1984]] [[Bhopal Disaster]].
* 1989 - [[Iran]]ian leader [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] issues a [[fatwa]] encouraging [[Muslim]]s to kill the author of ''[[The Satanic Verses (novel)|The Satanic Verses]]'', [[Salman Rushdie]].
* 1989 - The first of 24 [[satellite]]s of the [[Global Positioning System]] is placed into orbit.
* [[1998]] - Authorities in the [[United States]] announce that [[Eric Robert Rudolph]] is a suspect in an [[Alabama]] [[abortion]] clinic bombing.
* [[2000]] - The spacecraft [[NEAR Shoemaker]] enters orbit around asteroid [[433 Eros]], the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid.
* [[2002]] - ''[[The Tullaghmurray Lass]]'' sinks off the coast of [[Kilkeel]], [[County Down]], [[Northern Ireland]] killing three members of the same family on board.
* [[2004]] - In a suburb of [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], the roof of the [[Transvaal Park|Transvaal water park]] collapses, killing more than 25 people, and wounding more than 100 others.
* [[2005]] - [[Lebanon]]'s former [[Prime Minister]], [[Rafik Hariri]], is assassinated, prompting the [[Cedar Revolution]] ([[Intifada of Independence]]).
* 2005 - Seven people were killed and 151 wounded in a series of bombings by suspected [[Al-Qaeda]]-linked militants that hit the [[Philippines]]' [[Makati]] financial district in [[Metro Manila]], [[Davao City]], and [[General Santos City]].
==Births==
*[[1404]] - [[Leone Battista Alberti]], Italian painter, poet, and philosopher (d. [[1472]])
*[[1483]] - [[Babur|Zahir al-Din Mohammed Babur Shah]], Moghul emperor of India (d. [[1530]])
*[[1602]] - [[Francesco Cavalli]], Italian composer (d. [[1676]])
*[[1680]] - [[John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester]], English privy councillor (d. [[1737]])
*[[1692]] - [[Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée]], French writer (d. [[1754]])
*[[1701]] - [[Enrique Florez]], Spanish historian (d. [[1773]])
*[[1763]] - [[Jean Victor Marie Moreau]], French general (d. [[1813]])
*[[1766]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English economist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alfred Thomas Agate]], American artist (d. [[1846]])
*[[1819]] - [[Joshua A. Norton]], Emperor Norton I of the United States of America and Protector of Mexico (d. [[1880]])
*[[1847]] - [[Anna Howard Shaw]], American women's suffrage leader (d. [[1919]])
*[[1848]] - [[Benjamin Baillaud]], French astronomer (d. [[1934]])
*[[1856]] - [[Frank Harris]], Irish author and editor (d. [[1931]])
*[[1869]] - [[Charles Wilson (physicist)|Charles Wilson]], Scottish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]])
*[[1884]] - [[Hezekiah M. Washburn]], missionary (d. [[1972]])
*[[1890]] - [[Nina Hamnett]], Welsh artist (d. [[1956]])
*[[1894]] - [[Jack Benny]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1974]])
*[[1895]] - [[Max Horkheimer]], German philosopher and sociologist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1898]] - [[Fritz Zwicky]], Swiss-American physicist and astronomer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Stuart Erwin|Stu Erwin]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1905]] - [[Thelma Ritter]], American actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1912]] - [[Tibor Sekelj]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1913]] - [[Mel Allen]], American sports reporter (d. [[1996]])
*1913 - [[Woody Hayes]], American college football coach (d. [[1987]])
*1913 - [[Jimmy Hoffa]], American labor union leader (disappeared [[1975]])
*[[1916]] - [[Masaki Kobayashi]], Japanese director (d. [[1996]])
*1916 - [[Edward Platt]], American actor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1917]] - [[Herbert A. Hauptman]], American mathematician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*[[1921]] - [[Hugh Downs]], American television host
*[[1927]] - [[Lois Maxwell]], Canadian actress
*[[1929]] - [[Vic Morrow]], actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1931]] - [[Brian Kelly]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1932]] - [[Alexander Kluge]], German actor and film director
*[[1933]] - [[Ma |
ions consider women lower than men in many walks of life. These discriminatory themes were also applied against black people in [[USA|America]], or earlier against [[Muslim]]s during the [[crusade]]s, where some human beings were described as having no soul, or going straight to [[Hell]]. It therefore seems that each argument, while based on a sacred ancient text of some sort (the [[Bible]], the [[Qur'an]], etc), are adapted to fit the modern world.{{fact}}
A last logical argument is that if all humans have an afterlife, and go to [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]], then their behavior in those places may be [[determinism|determined]], rather than willfully exerted. People either have free will, or don't. Free will is considered by many to be necessary to have a soul. If they do, then surely there should be evil in Heaven, and good in Hell.
=== Philosophical arguments ===
Some non-believers in an afterlife, influenced by [[positivism (philosophy)]], have argued that claims of an afterlife are [[unverifiable]] and [[unfalsifiable]], and therefore cognitively [[meaningless]]. Some have argued that, on the contrary, particular claims concerning the nature of the afterlife are verifiable and falsifiable: all one has to do to verify/falsify them is die. On the other hand, they argue, the belief in the absence of an afterlife can be attacked as vacuous on the grounds that the statement "I cease to exist" is unverifiable, unfalsifiable, and therefore by the same token cognitively meaningless. In particular, the concept of our own non-existence is inconceivable (what experience corresponds to your own non-existence? none.)
Other philosophical issues about the idea of an afterlife can be expressed in thought experiments. Johnny is shot and ceases existence for five minutes ( allow, for the sake of the thought experiment, regardless of your beliefs, that he does not experience any form of afterlife in this time.) Then, five minutes later Johnny is cloned, an exact replica is made, possessing all of the factual knowledge, beliefs, values, intentional states and emotions etc he had at the time of death. Is this being the same Johnny that was killed? The result of this thought experiment is arguably very important to some religious groups.
Now, imagine that in accordance with the doctrines of some religious groups, that a person X dies and is ressurected after a period of death and essential non-existence (lack of awareness). Is this X the same X that died? The issue at stake is essentially whether identity is continuity over time, or a set of traits, i.e complexes of memory, personality, a soul etc.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Akhirah]]
* [[Animism]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Death]]
* [[Doomsday]]
* [[Electronic voice phenomenon]]
* [[Elysium]]
* [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]]
* [[Eschatology]]
* [[Eternity]]
* [[Ghost]]s
* [[Heaven]]
* [[Hell]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Immortality]]
* [[Jewish eschatology]]
* [[Life]]
* [[Near-death experience]]
* [[Out-of-body experience]]
* [[Pre-Birth communication]]
* [[Reincarnation]]
* [[Salvation]]
* [[Soul]]
* [[Undead]]
* [[Valhalla]]
{{col-end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.victorzammit.com/ A Lawyer Presents the Case for the Afterlife]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-76 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Death and Immortality'']
*[http://www.spiritualtravel.org/OBE/afterdeath.html A Tibetian Buddhist View of the Afterlife]
*[http://www.unexplainedstuff.com/Afterlife-Mysteries/index.html Encyclopedia of Afterlife Theories]
*[http://www.near-death.com/ Near-Death Experiences and the Afterlife]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/michael_martin/heaven.html Common problems with the concept of Heaven]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0465024602/002-4685174-0810466?n=283155 The Problem of the Soul: Two Visions of Mind and How to Reconcile Them (Hardcover)]
*[http://sedna.no.sapo.pt/death_scresearch/index.htm International Scientific Research into 'the Survival after physical death']
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
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[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
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[[fr:Vie éternelle]]
[[la:Vita aeterna]]
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[[simple:Afterlife]]
[[sv:Livet efter detta]]
[[vi:Thế giới sau khi chết]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Admiral Doenitz</title>
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<username>Camembert</username>
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<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Astrometry</title>
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<id>41673112</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:54:46Z</timestamp>
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[[Image:Interferometric astrometry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Illustration of the use of optical wavelength interferometry to determine precise positions of stars. ''Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech''.]]
'''Astrometry''' is a branch of [[astronomy]] that deals with the positions of [[star]]s and other [[celestial body|celestial bodies]], their distances and movements.
It is one of the oldest subfields of the [[science]], the successor to the more qualitative study of [[positional astronomy]]. Astrometry dates back at least to [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], who compiled the first [[Star catalogue|catalogue of stars]] visible to him and in doing so invented the [[Apparent magnitude|brightness scale]] basically still in use today. Modern astrometry was founded by [[Friedrich Bessel]] with his ''Fundamenta astronomiae'', which gave the mean position of 3222 stars observed between 1750 and 1762 by [[James Bradley]].
Apart from the fundamental function of providing [[Astronomer]]s with a [[reference frame]] to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like [[celestial mechanics]], [[stellar dynamics]] and [[galactic astronomy]]. In [[observational astronomy]], astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping [[time]], in that [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is basically the [[International Atomic Time|atomic time]] synchronized to [[Earth]]'s rotation by means of exact observations. Astrometry is also involved in creating the [[cosmic distance ladder]] because it is used to establish [[parallax]] distance estimates for stars in the [[Milky Way]].
== Advances in astrometry ==
* [[Sundial]]s were effective at measuring time.
* [[Astrolabe]]s were invented for measuring celestial angles.
* Astrometric applications led to the development of [[spherical geometry]]
* Careful measurement of [[planetary motion]]s by [[Tycho Brahe]], followed by analysis by [[Johannes Kepler]] proved the [[Copernican principle]], that Earth revolves about the [[Sun]].
* The [[sextant]] dramatically improved measurement of celestial [[angle]]s.
* [[James Bradley]] measured [[aberration of light|stellar aberration]] with a precise transit telescope.
* The development of [[charge coupled device]]s (CCDs), and their adoption by astronomers in the 1980s, improved the precision of professional astrometric work.
* The development of inexpensive CCDs, software, and telescopes allowed for large-scale [[amateur astronomy|amateur astrometric]] observation of [[minor planet]]s.
* From 1989 to 1993, the European Space Agency's [[Hipparcos]] satellite performed astrometric measurements resulting in a catalogue of positions accurate to 20-30 milliarcsec for over a million stars.
Astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of [[near-Earth objects]]. It has been also been used to detect [[extrasolar planets]] by measuring the displacement they cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. NASA's planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ([[SIM PlanetQuest]]) will utilize astrometric techniques to detect [[terrestrial planets]] orbiting 200 or so of the nearest [[solar-type stars]].
Astrometric measurements are used by [[astrophysicist]]s to constrain certain models in [[celestial mechanics]]. By measuring the velocities of [[pulsar]]s, it is possible to put a limit on the [[asymmetry]] of [[supernova]] explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of [[dark matter]] in the galaxy.
== Astrometrics ==
'''Astrometrics''' is the [[science]] of [[star|stellar]] [[measurement]]s and [[motion]]. Astrometrics was used, during the [[1990]]s, to detect [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar]] [[gas giant]]s [[orbit]]ing various [[solar system]]s. This was done by observing the "[[stellar wobble]]" of a star and calculating what kinds of [[gravity|gravitational]] [[force]]s would cause such motion; it was then determined that [[planet]]ary forces must be affecting the stars in question.
== Other references ==
In the [[fiction]]al ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'', the '''Astrometrics''' lab is the [[set (drama)|set]] for various [[scene]]s.
== See also ==
* [[Astrometric binary]]
* [[Ephemeris]]
* [[Gaia probe|Gaia Probe]] (ESA -- Planned for 2009-14)
* [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] (ESA -- 1989-93)
* [[Spherical astronomy]]
{{Astronomy-footer}}
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the ripple effect of Wall Street were the first to be liquidated. As employers closed their companies, the ranks of the unemployed grew, which further complicated the banking situation by reducing income from credit lines, which cascaded into a liquidity crisis leading up to the banking panic of 1933.
Consumers who had taken advantage of ''easy term'' payments offered by retailers found themselves backed against the wall if they were unable to meet those obligations. The repossession of furniture and household goods by creditors – something that had before only happened to a limited number of households - became a commonplace event.
[[Foreclosure]]s on the American home-–-often seen as the safest investment that one could make-–rose throughout the period, and affected people in all income brackets. Prior to the depression, foreclosure and eviction had been a mantle of shame, and closely viewed as caused by personal failure. However as the effects of the Depression dug deeper into the fabric of the nation, average Americans changed their view of foreclosure, making it not a mark of shame, but as a battle of the common man against the banking industry. In the upper Midwest, the posting of foreclosure orders in working-class neighborhoods, and the forced sale of personal property, drew neighbors who attempted to disrupt the proceedings as a form of protest of the action and support of the family under the eviction notice. The angry crowds also had the effect of scaring off potential bidders for auction goods. While this allowed neighbors to pay pennies on the dollar for their neighbors' possessions (which were usually given back to the family following the sale), it also did little to reduce the debt of the family being evicted.
The wealthy, who had significant investments in Wall Street, did experience losses; however those losses depended on how investments were structured. As a result, all but the very well-off curtailed their spending habits. Some of the wealthiest families, like the Kennedys, were virtually unfazed by the Stock Market Crash, and were able to continue living their lives largely as they had before the Depression. Others, like the Hellers, used independent investments to "float" for several years after the Crash, most bottoming out by the mid-1930's. Many wealthy American families found their extensive finances wiped out over night, and went literally "from riches to rags."
For example, high end consumer goods providers, such as the luxury automobile industry, saw their sales number dwindle to levels far below the previous levels of the twenties, resulting in layoffs of salaried and hourly workers. The best example of this collapse was the automobile industry in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], which had the highest concentration of luxury automobile manufacturers outside of Detroit. Between 1929 and 1934, production of [[Peerless]], [[Jordan Motor Car|Jordan]], [[Stearns-Knight]] cars all ceased; [[Peerless]], as a company, did survive, but did so by discontinuing automobile production and regrouping as a brewery.
Purchases of even basic cars, those manufactured by the middle and entry level marques, also slowed. [[General Motors]] attempted to encourage consumers to buy cars by advertising that “the sale of one car keeps an autoworker employed for three months, allowing that worker and his family to buy goods and services with their salary.” However a sizable percentage of Americans couldn't even pay for a tank of gas, let alone a new car and the entire auto industry struggled to maintain sales at a profitable level.
[[Image:Dallas South Dakota 1936.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Buried machinery in barn lot. [[Dallas, South Dakota]], May 1936]]
[[Drought]] first struck the Eastern United States in 1930. By 1931 it began moving westward where the weather pattern stalled over the [[Great Plains]] states. By 1934, the plains had been turned to desert. While weather was the catalyst for the [[Dust Bowl]] (a name coined in 1935), the root cause was poor farming and soil conservation techniques on land that was better suited to growing prairie grasses and native flowers than it was for growing corn. When the thin layer of [[top soil]] turned to a dry powder, and the winds swept through, dust storms resulted producing a filth and grime that was difficult to wash out of fabric and clean out of buildings. Once the top soil was depleted, the under layer of clay that remained proved unsuitable for cash crops, leading to farm failures and mortgage foreclosures.
Those who had lost their homes and livelihoods were lured westward by advertisements for work put out by [[agribusiness]] in western states such as [[California]]. The migrants came to be called [[Okies]], [[Arkies]], and other derogatory names as they flooded the labor supply of the agricultural fields, driving down wages and increasing competition for jobs in areas that couldn't afford it. This story was dramatized in the famous novels ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'' and ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'' by [[John Steinbeck]].
In the South, rural workers and [[share cropper]]s migrated north by train with plans to work in auto plants around [[Detroit]]. In the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes states]], farmers had been experiencing depressed market conditions for their crops and goods since the end of [[World War I]]. Family farms that had been mortgaged during the Twenties to provide money to “get through until better times” risked foreclosure when their owners failed to make payments. Unlike the dustbowl states, the midwest experienced near normal weather conditions in the 1930s, and farmers could make a living if they spent their incomes in a wise and prudent way. Unable to pay wages for hired help, families whose farms were located near railroad tracks often hired men who volunteered to work for food.
However, a large percentage of the American [[middle class]] was able to survive the ordeal. Those in professions where skills and jobs were considered “depression proof” (government positions, teachers in well-funded districts, doctors, lawyers, etc.) continued to work. Daily life was made more secure if these workers had little debt before the stock market crash, had liquid savings and generally lived without overt extravagances. American middle class households managed to get through the economic depression by adapting to conditions, spending wisely and avoiding unnecessary purchases.
One industry that flourished in America during the 1930s was the movie industry ([[Hollywood]]). The emergence of sound films in the late 1920s, combined with the escapism that film provided to a nation down on its luck, made the film industry one of the few that produced profits throughout the 1930s. Films commonly featured rich sets and carefree characters, allowing an increasingly depression-weary nation to leave its cares behind - if only for the duration of a movie. [[Shirley Temple]]'s films were leading attractions, perhaps because her characters' unwavering hopefulness in the face of trying circumstances spoke to American audiences. Conversely, the film version of Steinbeck’s ''Grapes of Wrath'' (see above), now considered by many to be a masterpiece of American cinema, was a commercial disappointment when it debuted--possibly because it reminded too many moviegoers of the harsh realities of their own situations.
Movie genres that thrived during the 1930s were [[screwball comedy| screwball comedies]], lavish [[Musical_film|musicals]] (notably, [[The Wizard of Oz]]), [[Westerns]] and [[gangster movie]]s.
==International effects==
Many nations experienced an economic decline, though the severity and timing differed from country to country. For example, the [[United Kingdom]] hit its trough in the third quarter of 1932, while [[France]] did not reach its low point until April of 1937. [[Charles P. Kindleberger]] has provided the best international account of the Depression so far in his book ''The World in Depression''.
===Asia===
[[Asia]] was also hit by the Great Depression due to its dependence on the export of raw materials with Europe and America, predominantly rubber and tin for the automotive industry. Asian trade fell sharply as Americla and Europe were gripped by the depression. Firms in Asia responded by cutting their workforce and reducing wages.
In [[Japan]], unemployment and poverty rose, disproportionately affecting the lower classes; these hardships were a factor in the rise of [[Japanese nationalism]]. However, compared to some, Japan was not too badly affected.
===Canada===
As America's largest trading partner in the 1930's, [[Canada]] is sometimes considered to be the country hardest hit by the Great Depression. The economy fell further than that of any nation other than the [[United States]], and it took far longer to recover. For example, [[Canada]]'s unemployment rate in 1933-34 reached its acme, when 26% of the population was [[unemployed]]. Western Canada was hit particularly hard during the nadir of the Depression, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. When the Depression ended, three parties were engendered in [[Canada]]: the [[CCF]], [[Social Credit Party of Canada]] and the [[Union Nationale]].
Like the rest of the world, [[Canada]]'s economic resuscitation began only with the [[World War II]].
==End of the Great Depression ==
=== In the United States ===
''For further details, see the main [[New Deal]] article.''
It was not until the United States entered World War II that Roosevelt's ideas for massive public expenditures and [[deficit spending]] appeared to work. Roosevelt's administration, of course, had little choice but to increase expenditures, given the war effort. Many of the New Deal policies seemed to work exactly as predicted, winning over many Republicans, who had been the New Deal's greatest opponents. By the end of World War II, Democrats, Republica |
quiet from the late 1980s. Fatah-RC:s operations in [[Libya]] were finally stopped by local authorities in [[1999]], but by then most of the organization had already left for, or fled to, [[Sudan]] and other Arab countries. The choking of funding from [[Middle East]]ern governments caused the organization to slip away in obscurity. Abu Nidal's failing health also seems to have contributed to this. Abu Nidal lived in [[Baghdad]] from the 1990s. He was found dead in [[2002]] by agents of the [[Iraq]]i regime. According to the Iraqi government he shot himself in the mouth when security services came to arrest him, however, Fatah-RC issued a statement from Beirut, stating their belief that Abu Nidal had been murdered.
Fatah-RC has repeatedly been accused, not least by other Palestinians, of acting as a [[mercenary]] terrorist force rather than as part of a national liberation movement. Many of its attacks are seemingly unrelated to the Palestinian struggle, and international terrorism experts point out that the Fatah-RCC tended to attack Libya's enemies during periods of Libyan support, Iraqi enemies during periods of backing from [[Saddam Hussein]], etc.
==See also==
*[[Abu Nidal]] - long article including information on Fatah RC
==Source==
Much of the information in this article comes form the U.S. State Department report "Patterns of Global Terrorism - 2003" [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2003/31711.htm].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2203099.stm Abu Nidal: Ruthless maverick]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
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[[pl:Organizacja Abu Nidala]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Antibody</title>
<id>2362</id>
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<id>41520605</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:36:00Z</timestamp>
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<ip>198.99.85.66</ip>
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<comment>/* Structure of the antibody */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antibody.png|thumb|180px|Schematic of antibody binding to an [[antigen]]]]
An '''antibody''' is a [[protein]] used by the [[immune system]] to identify and neutralize foreign objects like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[Virus|viruses]]. Each antibody recognizes a specific [[antigen]] unique to its target. Production of antibodies is referred to as the [[humoral immune system]].
==Definition==
Immunoglobulins are [[glycoprotein]]s in the [[immunoglobulin superfamily]] that function as antibodies. The terms ''antibody'' and ''immunoglobulin'' are often used interchangeably. They are found in the [[blood]] and tissue fluids, as well as many [[secretion]]s. In structure, they are [[globulin]]s (in the &gamma;-region of [[protein electrophoresis]]). They are synthesized and secreted by [[plasma cell]]s that are derived from the [[B cells]] of the immune system. B cells are activated upon binding to their specific antigen and differentiate into [[plasma cells]]. In some cases, the interaction of the B cell with a [[T cell|T helper cell]] is also necessary.
==Structure of the antibody==
Immunoglobulins are heavy plasma proteins, often with added sugar chains (see [[glycosylation]]) on N-terminal (all antibodies) and occasionally O-terminal (IgA1 and IgD) amino acid residues.
The basic unit of each antibody is a [[monomer]]. An antibody can be monomeric, dimeric, trimeric, tetrameric, pentameric, etc. The monomer is a "Y"-shape molecule that consists of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by [[disulfide bond]]s.
There are five types of heavy chain: &gamma;, &delta;, &alpha;, &mu; and &epsilon;. They define classes of immunoglobulins. Heavy chains &alpha; and &gamma; have approximately 450 [[amino acids]], while &mu; and &epsilon; have approximately 550 amino acids. Each heavy chain has a constant region, which is the same by all immunoglobulins of the same class, and a variable region, which differs between immunoglobulins of different B cells, but is the same for all immunoglobulins produced by the same [[B cell]]. Heavy chains &gamma;, &alpha; and &delta; have the constant region composed of three [[Structural domain|domains]] but have a hinge region; the constant region of heavy chains &mu; and &epsilon; is composed of four domains. The variable domain of any heavy chain is composed of one domain. These domains are about 110 amino acids long. There are also some amino acids between constant domains.
There are only two types of light chain: &lambda; and &kappa;. In humans, they are similar, but only one type is present in each antibody. Each light chain has two successive domains: one constant and one variable domain. The approximate length of a light chain is from 211 to 217 amino acids.
The monomer is composed of two heavy and two light chains. Together this gives six to eight constant domains and four variable domains. If it is cleaved with enzymes [[papain]] we get two ''Fab'' (''f''ragment ''a''ntigen ''b''inding) fragments and an ''Fc'' (''f''ragment ''c''rystallizable) fragment, whereas pepsin cleaves below hinge region, so a f(ab)2 fragment and a fc fragment is formed.
Each half of the forked end of the "Y"-shape monomer is called the Fab fragment. It is composed of one constant and one variable domain of each the heavy and the light chain, which together shape the antigen binding site at the [[N-terminal end|amino terminal end]] of the monomer. The two variable domains bind the antigens they are specific for and that elicited their production.
The ability to bind a wide variety of foreign antigens arises from events known as somatic recombination. This is when genes are selected (variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) for heavy chains, and only V and J for light chains) to form countless combinations. The main reason that the human immune system is capable of binding so many antigens is the variable region of the heavy chain. To be specific, it is the area where these V, D and J genes are found - otherwise known as the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3).
The Fc fragment is the stem of the "Y" and is composed from two heavy chains that each contribute two to three constant domains (depending on the class of the antibody). It binds to various cell [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s and [[Complement system|complement]] proteins. In this way it mediates different physiological effects of antibodies ([[opsonization]], cell [[lysis]], mast cell, basophil and eosinophil [[degranulation]] and other processes).
The variable regions of the heavy and light chains can be fused together to form a [[single chain variable fragment]] (scFv), which retains the original specificity of the parent immunoglobulin.
A crude estimation of immunoglobulin levels can be made by [[protein electrophoresis]]. Here the plasma proteins are separated into [[albumin]], [[alpha-globulin]]s (1 and 2), [[beta-globulin]]s (1 and 2) and [[Gamma globulin|gamma-globulin]]s according to weight. Immunoglobulins are all in the gamma region. In some disease states ([[myeloma]]) a very high concentration of one particular immunoglobulin will show up as a ''[[monoclonal]]'' band.
==Isotypes==
According to differences in their heavy chain constant domains, immunoglobulins are grouped into five classes or isotypes: ''IgG'', ''IgA'', ''IgM'', ''IgD'', and ''IgE''. (The isotypes are also defined with light chains, but they do not define classes, so they are often neglected.) Other immune cells partner with antibodies to eliminate pathogens depending on which IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE constant binding domain receptors it can express on its surface.
The antibodies that a single B lymphocyte produces can differ in their heavy chain and the B cell often expresses different classes of antibodies at the same time. However, they are identical in their specificity for antigen, conferred by their variable region. To achieve the large number of specificities the body needs to protect itself against many different foreign antigens, it must produce millions of B lymphoyctes. It is important to note that, in order to produce such a diversity of antigen binding sites with a separate [[gene]] for each possible antigen, the immune system would require many more genes than exist in the [[genome]]. Instead, as [[Susumu Tonegawa]] showed in 1976, portions of the genome in B lymphocytes can [[Genetic recombination|recombine]] to form all the variation seen in the antibodies and more. Tonegawa won the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1987]] for his discovery.
===IgG===
[[Image:IgG_molecular_surface.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Molecular surface of an IgG molecule]]
IgG is a monomeric immunoglobulin, built of two heavy chains &gamma; and two light chains. Each molecule has two antigen binding sites. This is the most abundant immunoglobulin and is approximately equally distributed in [[blood]] and in tissue liquids. This is the only isotype that can pass through the [[placenta]], thereby providing protection to the [[fetus]] in its first weeks of life before its own immune system has developed. It can bind to many kinds of pathogens, for example [[virus]]es, [[bacteria]], and [[fungi]], and protects the body against them by complement activation (classic pathway), opsonization for [[phagocytosis]] and [[neutralisation (immunology)|neutralisation]] of their toxins. There are 4 subclasses: IgG1 (66%), IgG2 (23%), IgG3 (7%) and IgG4 (4%).
-IgG1, IgG3 and IgG4 cross the placenta easily.
-IgG3 is the most effective complement activator, followed by IgG1 and then IgG2. IgG4 does not activate complement.
- IgG1 and IgG3 bind with high affinity to Fc receptors on phagocytic cells. IgG4 has intermediate affinity and IgG2 affinity is extremely low.
===IgA===
IgA repr |
al sedative [[neuroactive steroid|neurosteroids]] (like all other GABA<sub>B</sub> agonists e.g. [[Baclofen]]). In animals GHBs sedative effects can be stopped by GABA<sub>B</sub> antagonists (blockers).
The relevance of the GHB receptor in the behavioural effects induced by GHB is more controversial. It seems hard to believe that the GHB receptor is not important when it is densely expressed in many areas of the brain, including the cortex, as well as it being the high affinity site of GHB action. There is limited research into GHB receptor. However, evidence shows that it causes the release of [[glutamate]], which should be stimulatory. It does not seem, however, that the GHB receptor explains either GHB's sedative or rewarding/addictive properties.
One can propose a scheme where high doses of GHB are sedative through its action at the GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor, while a lower dose is somehow stimulatory. This may explain the so-called "rebound" effect, experienced by individuals using GHB as a sleeping agent, where they awake after several hours of GHB-induced sleep. That is to say, that over time, the concentration of GHB in the system decreases (because of metabolism) below a threshold for stimulating GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor function, and simply stimulates the GHB receptor, leading to wakefulness.
== Dangers ==
The dose-response curve is very steep and as GHB often comes as a salt dissolved in water, actual amount of GHB per "capful" can vary, which makes proper dosing difficult. While small doses of GHB are considered to be safe, higher and ultra high doses can cause [[unconsciousness]], [[convulsions]], [[vomiting]], suppression of the [[gag reflex]] and [[breathing]], and [[death]]. These effects vary between persons and are dose dependent. Synergy of its sedative effects are seen when combined with other [[CNS depressants]] such as alcohol, [[benzodiazepine]]s (e.g. [[Valium]]), [[barbiturate]]s, and others. Deaths from GHB alone are either extremely rare or non-existent. Death while using GHB is most likely in combination with alcohol as a result of choking on vomit and asphyxiating. Death might also be possible from respiratory depression as high doses of GHB could eventually inhibit the breathing centers in the brainstem. However, it has been argued that it is extremely difficult to take a lethal dose of GHB, as a user would fall unconscious long before the lethal dose is reached. [[LD50]] of GHB is estimated to be between 1100mg/kg and 2000mg/kg [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ghb/ghb_chemistry.shtml] in rodents, and is almost certainly lower in humans.
There have been no long-term studies into the effect of GHB if taken chronically, and hence whether prolonged use of GHB causes any bodily harm (aside from addiction) remains unanswered.
== Addiction ==
GHB is physically [[addictive]] and may also result in [[psychological addiction]]. Physical dependence develops when GHB is taken on a regular basis (i.e. every 2-4 hours for multiple consecutive days or weeks). [[Withdrawal]] effects may include hallucinations, [[insomnia]], [[anxiety]], [[tremor]]s, sweating, edginess, chest pain and tightness, muscle and bone aches, sensitivity to external stimuli (sound, light, touch), [[dysphoria]], and mental dullness. These side effects will subside after 2 - 21 days depending on usage. Although there have been reported fatalities due to GHB withdrawal, reports are inconclusive and further research is needed. Unlike [[ethanol|alcohol]], it is unknown at this point if chronic use of GHB causes permanent damage to the body. However, clinical tests showed that there was no organ or brain damage in rats that were chronically administrated with GHB [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=07097962-0CEC-4EFA-62E349AF22EB2E9D].
== History ==
GHB was first synthesized in the early [[1960s]] by Dr. [[Henri Laborit]] to use in studying the neurotransmitter [[GABA]]. It quickly found a wide range of uses due to its minimal side effects and controlled action, the only difficulties being the narrow safe dosage range and the dangers presented by its combination with [[alcohol]] and other CNS depressants.
Typically GHB has been synthesized from GBL ([[Gamma-butyrolactone]]) by adding [[sodium hydroxide]] (lye) in ethanol or water. As of late, GBL has become controlled and more circuitous routes have to be taken such as those starting with THF ([[tetrahydrofuran]]).
== External references ==
* [http://www.streetdrugs.org/ghb.htm streetdrugs.com]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ghb/ Erowid GHB Vault] (contains also information about addiction and dangers)
* [http://www.drugabuse.gov/Infofax/RohypnolGHB.html InfoFacts - Rohypnol and GHB] ([[National Institute on Drug Abuse]])
* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/gamma/ Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.ceri.com/ghbalt.htm GHB alternatives]
[[Category:Sedatives]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Giordano Bruno</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:00:59Z</timestamp>
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<comment>expanded and slightly revised introductory paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giordano_Bruno.jpg|thumb|Giordano Bruno]]
'''Giordano Bruno''' ([[1548]]-[[1600]]), was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[astronomer]], and [[occultist]]. Bruno is perhaps best known for his system of mnemonics and as an early proponent of the idea of extrasolar planets and extraterrestrial life. [[burned at the stake|Burned at the stake]] as a [[heresy|heretic]] for his theological ideas, Bruno is seen by some as a [[martyr]] to the cause of [[freedom of thought|free thought]].
==Early life==
Born, Filippo at [[Nola]], in [[Campania]], in the [[Kingdom of Naples]], [[1548]]. He was the son of Giovanni Bruno, a soldier. At the age of eleven he traveled to [[Naples]] to study the [[Trivium]]. At 15, Bruno entered the [[Dominican Order]], taking the name of Giordano. He continued his studies, completing his novitate, and becoming an ordained [[priest]] in [[1572]].
He was interested in [[philosophy]] and was an expert on the art of [[memory]]; he wrote books on [[mnemonic]] technique, which [[Frances Yates]] contends may have been disguised [[Hermes Trismegistus|Hermetic]] tracts. The writings attributed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]] were, in Bruno's time, recently rediscovered and at that time were thought to date uniformly to the earliest days of ancient [[Egypt]]. They are now believed to date mostly from about [[300]] A.D. and to be associated with [[Neoplatonism]]. Bruno embraced a sort of [[pantheism|pantheistic]] [[hylozoism]], rather than orthodox Christian [[Trinity|Trinitarian belief]].
[[Image:GiordanoBrunomnemonic.gif|thumb|left|200px|Woodcut illustration of one of Giordano Bruno's mnemonic devices: in the spandrels are the four [[classical element]]s: earth, air fire, water]]
Bruno was also heavily influenced by the ideas of [[Copernicus]] and by the newly rediscovered ideas of [[Plato]] as well as the [[Hermeticism|teachings]] ascribed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]][http://www.gnosis.org/hermes.htm]. Other influences included [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Averroes]], [[Duns Scotus]], [[Marsilio Ficino]], and [[Nicholas of Cusa]].
In [[1576]] he left Naples to avoid the attention of the [[Inquisition]]. He left [[Rome]] for the same reason and abandoned the Dominican order. He travelled to [[Geneva]] and briefly joined the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], before he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]], ostensibily for his adherence to [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] and left for [[France]].
In [[1579]] he arrived in [[Toulouse]], where he briefly had a teaching position. At this time, he began to gain fame for his prodigious memory. Bruno's feats of memory were apparently based, at least in part, on an elaborate system of mnemonics, but many of his contemporaries found it easier to attribute them to magical powers.
For seven years, he enjoyed the protection of powerful French patrons, including [[Henry III of France|Henry III]]. During this period, he published 20 books, including several on memory training, ''Cena de le Ceneri'' (''The Ash Wednesday Supper'', 1584), and ''De l'Infinito, Universo e Mondi'' (''On the Infinite Universe and Worlds'', 1584). In ''Cena de le Ceneri'' he defended the theories of [[Copernicus]], albeit rather poorly. In ''De l'Infinito, Universo e Mondi'', he argued that the stars we see at night were just like our [[Sun]], that the universe was [[infinity|infinite]], with a "Plurality of Worlds", and that all were inhabited by intelligent beings (see the [[Drake equation]]). These two works are jointly known as his "Italian dialogues." In [[1582]], Bruno penned a play summarizing some of his cosmological positions, titled ''Il Candelaio'' ("The Torchbearer").
== Travel years ==
In [[1583]], he went to [[England]] with letters of recommendation from Henry III. There he sought a teaching position at [[Oxford University|Oxford]], but appears to have given offense and was denied a position there (and elsewhere in England).
In [[1585]] he returned to [[Paris]]. However, his 120 theses against [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] natural science and his pamphlet against the [[Catholic]] mathematician [[Fabrizio Mordente]] soon put him in ill favor. In [[1586]], following a violent quarrel about "a scientific instrument", he left France for [[Germany]].
In Germany he failed to obtain a teaching position at [[Marburg]], but was granted permission to t |
rederick Christian, Elector of Saxony]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick Augustus II of Saxony</title>
<id>11824</id>
<revision>
<id>35894669</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T01:53:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arniep</username>
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<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Augustus II of Saxony''', whose full name was His Majesty '''Friedrich August II Albert Maria Clemens Joseph Vincenz Aloys Nepomuk Johann Baptista Nikolaus Raphael Peter Xaver Franz de Paula Veneantius King of Saxony''', ([[May 18]], [[1797]] - [[August 9]], [[1854]]) became king of [[Saxony]] in 1836. Son of [[Maximilian, Prince of Saxony]] and Princess [[Caroline of Bourbon-Parma]].
On [[September 26]], [[1819]] Frederick Augustus II married Archduchess Caroline of Austria, daughter of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Francis I of Austria]]. Following her death, on [[April 24]], [[1833]] he married Princess Marie Anne Leopoldine of Bavaria.
There were no children of either marriage. He was succeeded by his brother, Johann I.
In 1849 revolutionary disturbances broke out in the Kingdom, forcing Frederick Augustus to flee to [[Festung Königstein|Königstein fortress]]. The [[May Uprising in Dresden|May Uprising]] was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return after only a few days.
{{start box}}
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before= [[Anthony Clement of Saxony|Anthony Clement]] |
title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
years= 1836&ndash;1854 |
after= [[John I of Saxony]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1848 Revolutions people]]
[[Category:1797 births|Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]]
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[[nl:Frederik August II van Saksen]]
[[ru:Фридрих Август II, король саксонский]]
[[sv:Fredrik August II av Sachsen]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Frederick Augustus I King of Saxony</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Free market</title>
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<comment>/* External links */ Removing self promotion.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In theoretical [[economics]], a '''free market''' is an idealised [[economic model]] wherein exchanges are "free" of all [[coercion|coercive]] measures, including such [[government]] interference as [[tariff]]s, [[tax]]ation, and [[regulation]]s, except those which allow for private property ownership in land, natural resources, and the broadcast spectrum, as well as [[intellectual property]], [[corporations]], and other legal fictions. The [[laissez-faire]] economic philosophy in [[politics]] espouses approximating this condition in the real world by eliminating tariffs, minimizing and simplifying taxation, and minimizing or eliminating government regulations and restrictions such as [[labour law]]s ([[minimum wage]] and working conditions, but not laws that restrict worker organization) and both [[Monopoly#Legal monopoly|legal monopoly]] and [[antitrust]] laws. In the confines of [[political economy|political economics]], the "free market" is simply the conceptual [[opposite]] of a [[command economy]], where all goods and services are produced, priced, and distributed under government control.
No national economy in existence fully manifests the ideal of a free market as theorized by economists and [[ethicist]]s. In political discourse, the term "free market economy" usually refers to an economy that ''approximates'' the ideal by virtue of having a government that engages in little or no [[economic interventionism|interventionist]] economic regulation.
In a free market, purchaser satisfaction alone would determine the success or failure of particular [[goods and services]].In very specific contexts, as in the exchange of a particular pair of commodities, the term "a free market" may refer to the particular market as being free of restrictions. In political [[rhetoric]], the "free market" is a term which asserts that market concepts represent an undesirable compromise with the command economy model.
== Mechanics ==
In an absolutely ''free-market economy'', all capital, goods, services, and money flow freely&mdash;transfers are not forcibly restricted or impeded. If a government intervenes in private affairs, it only does so to stop coercion that may take place among market participants.
As this protection must be funded, such a government taxes only to the extent necessary to perform this function. This state of affairs is also known as ''[[laissez-faire]]''.
Trades in a market made with [[Fiat money]] cannot be considered to be [[free]] ones, as long as the widespread acceptance of fiat [[money]] is enhanced by a central authority which mandates or compels the money's acceptance under penalty of law and demands this money in payment of [[tax|taxes]] or [[tribute]].
Whether the marketplace ''should be'' or ''is'' free is also disputed; many assert that government intervention is necessary to remedy [[market failure]] that is held be an inevitable result of absolute adherence to free market principles.
Internationally, free markets are advocated by proponents of [[economic liberalism]]; in Europe this is usually simply called ''liberalism''. In the [[United States]], support for free market economic structures is a key tenet of U.S. [[conservatism]] and [[libertarianism]]. Since the 1970s, promotion of a global free-market economy, [[deregulation]] and [[privatization]], is often described as [[neoliberalism]].
The term ''free market economy'' is sometimes used to describe some economies that exist today (such as [[Hong Kong]]), but pro-market groups would only accept that description if the government practices ''laissez-faire'' policies, rather than state intervention in the economy. An economy that contains significant economic interventionism by government, while still retaining some characteristics found in a free market, is often called a ''[[mixed economy]]''. Since the emergence of a distinct economic system in the [[Soviet Union]], the free market is usually contrasted to a command economy and a [[centrally planned economy]]. However, early proponents of a market economy in [[18th-century]] Europe contrasted it with the [[mediaeval]], [[Early Modern|early-modern]], and [[mercantilist]] economies which preceded it.
For [[social philosophy]], a free market is a system for [[allocation|allocating]] goods within a society: [[supply and demand]] within the market determine who gets what, and what is produced.
A free market does not require the existence of competition, however it does require the competition is not being prevented by coercion. Hence, in the lack of coercive barriers it is generally understood that competition flourishes in a free market environment. It often connotates the presence of the [[profit|profit motive]], although neither a profit motive or profit itself are necessary for a free market. All modern free markets are understood to include [[entrepreneur|entrepreneurs]], both individuals and [[business|businesses]]. Typically, a modern free market economy would include other features, such as a [[stock exchange]] and a [[financial services]] sector, but they do not define it.
==Origins==
Some theories assume that a free market is a natural form of social organization, and that a free market will arise in any society where it is not obstructed. The consensus among [[economic history|economic historians]] is that the free market economy is a specific historic phenomenon, and that it emerged in late mediaeval and early-modern Europe. Some economic historians see elements of the free market in the economic systems of [[Classical Antiquity]], and in some non-western societies.
By the [[19th century]] the market certainly had organized political support, in the form of laissez-faire liberalism. However, it is not clear if the support preceded the emergence of the market, or followed it. Some historians see it as the result of the success of early liberal [[ideology]], combined with the specific interests of the [[entrepreneur]]. In [[Marxism|Marxist]] theory, the ideology simply expresses the underlying long-term transition from [[feudalism]] to [[capitalism]]. Note that the views on this issue - emergence or implementation - do not necessarily correspond to pro-market and anti-market positions. [[Libertarian]]s would dispute that the market was enforced through government policy, since that has a connotation of repression, and Marxists agree with them, for different reasons.
==Theory==
The law of [[supply and demand]] predominates in the idealized free market, influencing prices toward an [[equilibrium]] that balances the demands for the products against the supplies. At these equilibrium prices, the market distributes the products to the purchasers according to each purchaser's use (or utility) for each product and within the relative limits of each buyer's [[purchasing power]]. The necessary components for the functioning of an idealized free market include the complete absence of artificial price pressures from taxes, subsidies, [[tariff]]s, or government regulation |
ion Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]. For the subsequent history of genetics, see ''[[history of genetics]]''.
In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the [[modern synthesis]] of evolution.
[[Lysenkoism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] emphasised incorrectly the [[inheritance of acquired traits]]. The inheritance of acquired traits appealed to the communist leaders, Lysenkoist movement being led by [[Trofim Lysenko]]. This led to food shortages into the [[1960s]] and seriously affected the USSR.
== Sociology ==
The social institution called [[inheritance]]. One's '''bloodline''' is one's familial [[ancestry]]. See also [[meme]].
== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heredity/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Historical drama film</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-08T17:45:14Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''historical drama''' is a [[film genre]] in which stories are based more or less accurately upon historical events and famous persons. See also [[period piece]].
The following are examples of well-known historical dramas, and their subject matter.
*''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' ([[Alexander Nevsky]])
*''[[All the President's Men (film)|All the President's Men]]'' (the [[Watergate]] scandal)
*''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[Anne Boleyn]])
*''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' (the [[Algerian War of Independence]])
*''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]'' (the [[Battleship Potemkin uprising]])
*''[[Beau Brummell (film)|Beau Brummell]]'' ([[Beau Brummell]])
*''[[Braveheart]]'' ([[William Wallace]])
*''[['Breaker' Morant (film)|'Breaker' Morant]]'' ([[Breaker Morant]])
*''[[A Bridge Too Far]]'' ([[Operation Market Garden]])
*''[[The Charge of the Light Brigade (film)|The Charge of the Light Brigade ]]'' (the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]])
*''[[Cromwell (film)|Cromwell]]'' ([[Oliver Cromwell]])
*''[[Elizabeth (movie)|Elizabeth]]'' ([[Elizabeth I of England]])
*''[[Downfall]]'' (the defeat of [[Adolf Hitler]])
*''[[Fire Over England]]'' (the [[Spanish Armada]])
*''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' ([[Mahatma Gandhi]])
*''[[Gladiator (2000 movie)|Gladiator]]'' (the reign of [[Commodus]])
*''[[Glory (film)|Glory]]'' (the [[54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry]])
*''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (the [[American Civil War]])
*''[[Good Night, and Good Luck]]'' ([[Edward R. Murrow]])
*''[[Henry V (1946 movie)|Henry V]]'' ([[Henry V of England]])
*''[[Henry VIII and His Six Wives]]'' ([[Henry VIII of England]])
*''[[Hotel Rwanda]]'' (the [[Rwandan Genocide]])
*''[[Jesus of Nazareth (movie)]]'' ([[Jesus|Jesus Christ]])
*''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' (the [[Nuremberg Trials]])
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' (the [[Battle of Nagashino]])
*''[[The Killing Fields]]'' (the [[Khmer Rouge]])
*''[[Lady Caroline Lamb (film)|Lady Caroline Lamb]]'' ([[Lady Caroline Lamb]])
*''[[Lady Jane]]'' ([[Lady Jane Grey]])
*''[[The Lion in Winter]]'' ([[Henry II of England]])
*''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' ([[D-Day]])
*''[[The Madness of King George]]'' ([[George III of the United Kingdom]])
*''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[Thomas More]])
*''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (movie)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' ([[Mary I of Scots]])
*''[[Michael Collins (movie)|Michael Collins]]'' ([[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]])
*''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and [[John Brown (servant)|John Brown]])
*''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (film)|Mutiny on the Bounty]]'' (the [[mutiny on the Bounty]])
*''[[A Night to Remember]]'' (the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' disaster)
*''[[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]'' ([[Henry VIII of England]])
*''[[Queen Christina]]'' ([[Christina of Sweden]])
*''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' ([[New York City]] in the [[1910s]])
*''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'' (two versions) ([[Richard III of England]])
*''[[The Right Stuff]]'' (the [[Project Mercury]])
*''[[Roots (mini-series)|Roots]]'' (the [[slavery|slave trade]])
*''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[D-Day]] and its aftermath)
*''[[Schindler's List]]'' ([[Oskar Schindler]])
*''[[Sink the Bismarck!]]'' (the [[German battleship Bismarck]])
*''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' ([[Spartacus]])
*''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' (the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' disaster)
*''[[Tora! Tora! Tora! (movie)|Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' (the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]])
*''[[Waterloo (movie)|Waterloo]]'' (the [[Battle of Waterloo]])
*''[[Young Bess]]'' ([[Elizabeth I of England]])
*''[[Young Winston]]'' ([[Winston Churchill]])
*''[[Z (film)|Z]]'' (the assassination of [[Gregoris Lambrakis]])
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[de:Historienfilm]]
[[ru:Исторический фильм]]
[[sv:Historiskt drama]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H. G. Wells</title>
<id>13459</id>
<revision>
<id>42138104</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.181.231.233</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Writer */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:H G Wells - Sandgate - Project Gutenberg eText 13715.png|thumbnail|right|H. G. Wells at the door of his house at Sandgate]]
'''Herbert George Wells''' ([[September 21]], [[1866]] &ndash; [[August 13]], [[1946]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] best known for his [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s such as ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau|The Island of Doctor Moreau]]'' and ''[[The Time Machine]]''. However, he was arguably one of the most prolific writers in the history of literature, and wrote works in nearly every genre, including short stories and nonfiction. He was an outspoken [[socialism|socialist]], and most of his works contain some notable [[politics|political]] or social commentary.
== Biography ==
=== Early life===
Herbert George was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells, a former domestic gardener and at the time shopkeeper and [[cricket]]er, and his wife Sarah Neal, a former domestic servant. He was born at 58 High Street, [[Bromley]], [[Kent]]. The family was of the impoverished lower-middle-class. An inheritance allowed them to purchase a china shop, though they quickly realised it would never be a prosperous concern. The stock was old and worn out, the location poor. They managed to earn a meagre income, but little of it came from the shop. Joseph sold cricket bats and balls and other equipment at the matches he played at, and received an unsteady amount of money from the matches, for in those days there were no professional cricketers, and payment for skilled bowlers and batters came from passing the hat afterwards, or from small honoraria from the clubs where matches were played.
A defining incident of young H. G.'s life is said to be an accident he had in 1874 when he was seven years old. He was dropped on a tent peg at the local sports ground and was left bedridden for a time with a broken leg. To pass the time, he started reading and soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access; they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morley's Commercial Academy, a private school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morley's earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells said later, on producing copper-plate handwriting and doing the sort of sums useful to tradesmen. Wells continued at Morley's Academy until 1880. But in 1877 another accident had affected his life. This time it had happened to his father, leaving Joseph Wells with a fractured thigh. The accident effectively put an end to Joseph's career as a cricketer, and his earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss.
No longer able to support themselves financially, they instead sought to place their boys as apprentices to various professions. At the time it was a usual method for young employees to learn their trade working under a more experienced employer. In time they should be able to practise their trade for themselves. From 1881 to 1883 H. G. had an unhappy apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium. His experiences were later used as inspiration for his novels ''[[The Wheels of Chance]]'' and ''[[Kipps]]'', which describe the life of a draper's apprentice as well as being a critique of the world's distribution of wealth.
Wells's mother and father had never got along with one another particularly well (she was a pious Protestant, he a hen-pecked freethinker), and when she went back to work as a ladies maid (at Uppark, a country house in Sussex) one of the conditions of work was that she would not have space for husband or children; thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and neither ever developed any other liaison. H. G. not only failed at being a draper, he also failed as a chemist's assistant and had bad experiences as a teaching assistant, and each time he would arrive at Uppark – "the bad shilling back again!" as he said – and stay there until a fresh start could be arranged for him. Fortunately for Wells, Uppark had a magnificent library in which he immersed himself.
=== Teacher ===
In 1883 his employer dismissed him, claiming to be dissatisfied with him. The young man was reportedly not displeased with this ending to his apprenticeship. Later that year, he became an assi |
Queensland (b. [[1911]])
*2005 - [[Al Grassby]], Australian immigration minister (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - Sir [[John Mills]], English actor (b. [[1908]])
*2005 - [[Romano Scarpa]], Italian-born comic artist (b. [[1927]])
*2005 - [[Earl Wilson]], baseball player (b. [[1934]])
==Holidays and observances==
*Feast Day of [[Saint George]]:
**[[National Day]] of [[England]]
**Celebrated as ''St. Jordi's Day'' in [[Catalonia]], presents of books and roses. See below.
**[[Jurgi]] festival, in ancient [[Latvia]]
*[[UNESCO]] [[World Book and Copyright Day|International Day of the Book]] in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616.
*[[Catalonia]] - Lover's Day. Men receive a book as a gift from their romantic interest, while women receive roses. The book is in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616.
*[[Turkey]] - National Sovereignty and Children's Day ([[1920]])
*[[Israel]] - [[Yom Ha'atzma'ut]] (Israeli Independence Day) for [[2007]]: (the observed date of this [[national holiday]] is determined by the [[Jewish Calendar]]).
*Independence Day for the [[Conch Republic]]
*National [[Beer]] Day in [[Germany]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 22]] - [[April 24]] - [[March 23]] - [[May 23]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Abril 23]]
[[ilo:Abril 23]]
[[nap:23 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 23]]
[[pam:Abril 23]]
[[af:23 April]]
[[ar:23 أبريل]]
[[an:23 d'abril]]
[[ast:23 d'abril]]
[[bg:23 април]]
[[be:23 красавіка]]
[[bs:23. april]]
[[ca:23 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 23]]
[[co:23 d'aprile]]
[[cs:23. duben]]
[[cy:23 Ebrill]]
[[da:23. april]]
[[de:23. April]]
[[et:23. aprill]]
[[el:23 Απριλίου]]
[[es:23 de abril]]
[[eo:23-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 23]]
[[fo:23. apríl]]
[[fr:23 avril]]
[[fy:23 april]]
[[ga:23 Aibreán]]
[[gl:23 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 23일]]
[[hr:23. travnja]]
[[io:23 di aprilo]]
[[id:23 April]]
[[ia:23 de april]]
[[ie:23 april]]
[[is:23. apríl]]
[[it:23 aprile]]
[[he:23 באפריל]]
[[jv:23 April]]
[[ka:23 აპრილი]]
[[csb:23 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:23'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 23]]
[[lb:23. Abrëll]]
[[li:23 april]]
[[hu:Április 23]]
[[mk:23 април]]
[[ms:23 April]]
[[nl:23 april]]
[[ja:4月23日]]
[[no:23. april]]
[[nn:23. april]]
[[oc:23 d'abril]]
[[pl:23 kwietnia]]
[[pt:23 de Abril]]
[[ro:23 aprilie]]
[[ru:23 апреля]]
[[sco:23 Aprile]]
[[sq:23 Prill]]
[[scn:23 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 23]]
[[sk:23. apríl]]
[[sl:23. april]]
[[sr:23. април]]
[[fi:23. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:23 april]]
[[tl:Abril 23]]
[[tt:23. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 23]]
[[th:23 เมษายน]]
[[vi:23 tháng 4]]
[[tr:23 Nisan]]
[[uk:23 квітня]]
[[ur:23 اپریل]]
[[wa:23 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月23日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amitabh Bachchan</title>
<id>1828</id>
<revision>
<id>41963178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:34:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.62.123.178</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Celebrity
| name = Amitabh Bachchan
| image = AmitabhBhachchan.jpg
| birth_date = [[October 11]], [[1942]]
| birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Actor]]
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
}}
'''Amitabh Bachchan''' (born [[October 11]], [[1942]], in [[Allahabad]], [[India]]) also known as '''Big B''', is an iconic [[India]]n [[actor]] whose [[Bollywood]] career has spanned four decades. He was declared Superstar of the Millennium in 1999 in an international poll hosted by the [[BBC]].
==Biography==
Amitabh was born to Teji and [[Harivansh Rai 'Bachchan']]. Harivansh Rai was a well-known [[Hindi]] poet. Amitabh attended Boys' High School in [[Allahabad]] followed by [[Sherwood College]] in [[Nainital]] and went on to [[Delhi University]] to earn a degree in science.
He gave up his job as a freight broker for the shipping firm Bird and Company in Calcutta to pursue an acting career. He entered FTII Pune (the Film And Television Institute of India at Pune). Jaya Bhaduri (whom he later married), Anil Dhawan (director David Dhawan's brother), Shatrughan Sinha, Romesh Sharma, Danny Denzongpa, and Amitabh were all classmates at FTII Pune.
Bachchan began his acting career in 1969 with ''[[Saat Hindustani]]''. He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973, with the films ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''.
In 1982, Bachchan was injured while filming on the set of ''[[Coolie]]''. People were so concerned about his health that they thronged to temples and prayed for his life and quick recovery. He recovered and resumed making films. Popular interest in his injury had been so high that when ''Coolie'' was released, it featured a freeze-frame and caption, isolating the exact instant during a fight scene when Amitabh was hurt.
While his popularity waned in the [[1990s]], Bachchan made a comeback in the early [[2000s]] by hosting ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to be a Millionaire]]''.
Bachchan married actress [[Jaya Bhaduri]] in 1973. He has co-starred with Jaya in many films: ''[[Zanjeer]]'', ''[[Abhimaan]]'', ''Milli'', ''Chupke Chupke'',''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Silsila]]'' and, ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]]''. They have two children: [[Shweta Bachchan-Nanda]] and [[Abhishek Bachchan]]. Abhishek Bachchan has followed in his father's footsteps, having starred in a number of movies.
==Career==
Bachchan's first film was ''[[Saat Hindustani]]'' (1969). He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973 following the success of ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''.
Amitabh's most loved films and characters date from this period. Fans remember him from box office hits like ''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'', ''[[Trishul]]'', ''[[Don]]'', ''[[Deewar ]]'' and more recently in ''Baghban''. Amitabh often played an angry young man fighting a corrupt establishment -- a theme that had immense appeal in India during that time. The screen-writing duo of [[Salim-Javed]] [http://www.upperstall.com/people/salimjaved.html] have often been credited with creating this persona. In a sense, the relationship was symbiotic. Neither Salim-Javed nor Amitabh have since attained the level of success they achieved with their collaborations.
Amitabh is famous for playing a person who is angry with the whole system, doesn't believe in God and replies back to evils of society, a person who believes in right and does right, a person who doesn't bow before anyone else except his mother. As a result of portraying these kind of images in the films he worked, the people and media call him "an [[Angry young man]]".
In an era where producers looked to cast a handsome full-bodied man as the hero, Amitabh was written off, due to his unconventional looks and tall, lanky frame. His baritone (since regarded as his biggest asset) once failed to get him a job as a [[news presenter]] at [[All India Radio]]. The success of ''Zanjeer'' and ''Sholay'' turned that around. Audiences adored his on-screen presence and a flair for comedy.
Many of his films in the 1970s followed a set formula: a poor childhood, parents murdered or separated after birth, survival through street-smart instincts, entry of a villain (usually a social oppressor or smuggler or his parents' killer or long lost father), some comedy scenes, a drunk scene, songs, dances, an action finale and a dying speech. It can be argued that the Salim-Javed stories written for Amitabh during the 1970s form an informal sequel, with the same character being played out in various settings.
Critics would regard most of these 1970s films as run-of-the-mill ''masala'' movies with creaking plots and sub-par production values. However, Amitabh's persona lifted them to incredible heights of popularity.
He continued making films all through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], but his appeal seemed to have waned. Though a few of his movies were successful (''[[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]]'' and ''[[Mohabbatein]]''), critics said that they succeeded due to Amitabh's co-stars, [[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]] and [[Shahrukh Khan]]. Industry gossip said that Amitabh was finished as an actor.
Then Amitabh proved the critics wrong. First came the fan accolades. In 1999, in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] Online Poll, he was named the Superstar of the Millennium. In [[June]] [[2000]] he became the first living [[Asian]] to have a wax statue erected in his honor at [[Madame Tussaud's]].
In 2000, he was chosen as the host for ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''. The show became an enormous hit. While the show
was on, street traffic dropped dramatically; restaurants and movie theaters complained of diminishing clientèle. Critics were forced to admit that Amitabh could still pull big crowds. The show was aired again as ''Kaun Banega Crorepati 2'', with a prize money double the first version.
The reason for the popularity of Amitabh has probably been the uncanny portrayal of the Indian consciousness in his roles. We can see the development of 70's India to the corporate setup of the present era. In this transformation the identity of "Indian-ness" is not lost.
Since his game show success, he has appeared in several hit movies. He has also appeared in many [[Advertising|ads]] for commercial products and for various [[non-profit organization]]s. He has supported campaigns for eye donations and against [[polio]] and [[AIDS]].
==Public life==
In 1984, Bachchan briefly entered politics in support of long-time family friend [[Rajiv Gandhi]]. He contested Allahabad's parliament seat against H. N. Bahuguna, a well-known politician and won (winning 68.2% of the vote). {{ref|election}} However, his political career was short-lived; he resigned after three years before finishing his term. At the time of his resignation, it was rumored that he might have be |
feet; they do usually&mdash;but not always. During a fall, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute [[equilibrioception|sense of balance]] and flexibility. <ref>{{cite web | title=Falling Cats | url=http://www.verrueckte-experimente.de/leseproben_e.html | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>It always rights itself in the same way, provided it has the time to do so during a fall. Certain breeds that don't have a [[tail (anatomy)|tail]] are a notable exception, since a cat moves its tail and relies on conservation of [[angular momentum]] to set up for landing.
Cats, like dogs, are [[digitigrade]]s: they walk directly on their toes, the [[bone]]s of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. They are capable of walking very precisely, placing each hind paw directly in the print of the corresponding forepaw, minimising noise and visible tracks.
===Senses===
[[Image:Cat_eye.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|A close-up of a cat's eye]]
''Measuring the senses of any animal can be difficult, because there is usually no explicit communication (e.g., reading aloud the letters of a [[Snellen chart]]) between the subject and the tester. ''
While a cat's senses of [[olfaction|smell]] and [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] may not be as keen as, say, those of a mouse, they are superior in many ways to those of humans. These along with the cat's highly advanced [[visual perception|eyesight]], [[taste]], and [[touch]] receptors make the cat extremely sensitive among mammals.
====Sight====
Testing indicates that a cat's vision is superior [[night vision|at night]] in comparison to humans, and inferior in daylight. Cats, like dogs, have a ''[[tapetum lucidum]]'' that reflects extra light to the retina. While this enhances the ability to see in low light, it appears to reduce net [[visual acuity]], thus detracting when light is abundant. In very bright light, the slit-like [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] closes very narrowly over the [[eye]], reducing the amount of light on the sensitive [[retina]], and improving [[depth of field]]. The tapetum and other mechanisms give the cat a minimum light detection threshold up to seven times lower than that of humans. Variation in color of cats' eyes in [[Flash (photography)|flash]] [[photograph]]s is largely due to the interaction of the flash with the [[Tapetum lucidum|tapetum]].
Average cats have a visual [[field of view]] estimated at 200&#176;, versus 180&#176; in humans, with a binocular field (overlap in the images from each eye) narrower than that of humans. As with most predators, their eyes face forward, affording [[depth perception]] at the expense of field of view. Field of view is largely dependent upon the placement of the eyes, but may also be related to the eye's construction. Instead of the [[Optic fovea|fovea]] which gives humans sharp central vision, cats have a central band known as the visual streak. Cats can apparently differentiate among [[color]]s, especially at close range, but without appreciable subtlety.
Cats have a third eyelid, the [[nictitating membrane]], which is a thin cover that closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick; although in a sleepy, content cat this membrane is often visible. If a cat chronically shows the third eyelid, it should be taken to a [[veterinarian]].
====Hearing====
Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing on the low end of the scale, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, even better than dogs. Cats can hear 2 [[octave]]s higher than humans, and one-half octave higher than dogs. When listening for something, a cat's ears will swivel in that direction; a cat's ear flaps ([[pinna]]e) can independently point backwards as well as forwards and sideways to pinpoint the source of the [[sound]]. Cats can judge within three inches (7.5&nbsp;cm) the location of a sound being made one yard (approximately one meter) away.
====Smell====
A domestic cat's sense of smell is about fourteen times stronger than a human's.<!-- I can't find this reference {{ref|littergarden}}--> Cats have twice as many smell-sensitive cells in their noses as people do, which means they can smell things we are not even aware of. Cats also have a scent organ in the roof of their mouths called the [[vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal]], or Jacobson's, organ. When a cat wrinkles its muzzle, lowers its chin, and lets its tongue hang a bit, it is opening the passage to the vomeronasal. This is called ''gaping''. Gaping is the equivalent of the [[Flehmen response]] in other animals, such as [[dog]]s and [[horses]].
[[Image:Kot Leni.jpg|thumb|left|200px| A cat using its senses for exploration]]
====Touch====
Cats generally have about a dozen [[vibrissae|whiskers]] in four rows on each upper lip, a few on each cheek, tufts over the eyes and bristles on the chin. Whiskers may also be found on the cat's "elbows", and there are similar hairs comprising the cat's eyebrows. The Sphynx (a nearly hairless breed) may have full length, short, or no whiskers at all.
Whiskers (technically called [[vibrissae]]) can aid with [[navigation]] and sensation. Whiskers may detect very small shifts in [[wind|air currents]], enabling a cat to know it is near obstructions without actually seeing them. The upper two rows of whiskers can move independently from the lower two rows for even more precise measuring.
It is thought that a cat may choose to rely on the whiskers in dim light where fully dilating the pupils would reduce its ability to focus on close objects. The whiskers also spread out roughly as wide as the cat's body making it able to judge if it can fit through an opening.
Whiskers are also an indication of the cat's attitude. Whiskers point forward when the cat is inquisitive and friendly, and lie flat on the face when the cat is being defensive or aggressive.
====Taste====
According to ''[[National Geographic]]'' ([[December 8]]), cats cannot taste sugary foods due to a faulty [[sweetness|sweet receptor]] [[gene]]. Some scientists believe this is related to the cat's diet being naturally high in protein, though it is unclear whether it is the cause or the result of it.
===Communication===
[[Image:Mougie-1024.JPG|thumb|A cat vocalizing]]
The unique sound a small cat makes is written [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeically]] as "meow" in [[American English]]; "meow" or "miaow" in [[British English]]; "miaou" or "miaw" in [[French language|French]]; "miao" in Mandarin [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and Italian; "miau" in German, Spanish, Finnish, Lithuanian, Polish, Croatian, Romanian and Portuguese; "miau" or "מיאו" in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]; "mjau" or "mæo(u)" in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]; "miyav" in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]; "mjäu" in [[Estonian language|Estonian]]; "mowa'a" in [[Arabic]]; "nyaa" or "nyan" in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; "meong" or "ngeong" in [[Indonesian language|Bahasa Indonesia]]; "ngiau" in [[Malay language|Malay]]; "nyau" in [[Swahili]]; "yaong" or "nyaong" in [[Korean language|Korean]]; and various ways in other [[language]]s.
The sound of an increasingly annoyed cat is transcribed in [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' as "mkgnao", "mrkgnao" and "mrkrgnao" <ref>{{cite web | title=Calypso (Ulysses ch4) | url=http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/calypso.html | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>, and the sound made by Pixel, the title character of [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[The Cat Who Walks Through Walls]]'', was written as "blert", while the sound made by [[Bill the Cat]] in [[Berkeley Breathed]]'s comic strip [[Bloom County]] was generally described as "ack". The cat's pronunciation of this call varies significantly depending on meaning. Usually cats call out to indicate pain, request human attention (to be fed or played with, for example), or as a greeting. Some cats are very vocal, and others rarely call out. Cats are capable of about 100 different vocalisations, compared to about 10 for dogs.
A kitten's call first starts out as a high-pitched squeak-like sound when very young, and then deepens over time. Some cats, however, do not exercise their voices a lot, so their call may remain similar to that of a kitten through adulthood.
Cats can also produce a purring noise that typically indicates that the cat is happy, but also can mean that it feels distress. Cats purr among other cats—for example, when a mother meets her kittens. Until recently, there were many competing theories to explain how cats purr, including vibration of the cat's false vocal chords when inhaling and exhaling, the sound of blood hitting the aorta, vibration of the hyoid apparatus, or resonation directly in the lungs. Currently, though, it is believed that purring is a result of rhythmic impulses to the cat's [[larynx]].
It is possible for a cat to call out and purr simultaneously, although this is typical only in very vocal cats. In addition to purring, happy cats may blink slowly or partially close their eyes to break any possible stares and communicate their ease in the situation. However, purring may also be a way for the cat to calm itself down. For example, cats have been known to purr when hurt.
Most cats growl or hiss when angered or in danger. Some may engage in nipping behavior or batting with their paws, either with claws extended or retracted. With cats who are improperly socialised and do not know their own strength, this can result in inadvertent damage to human skin. Cat scratches can easily become infected, and in extreme cases can result in [[cat scratch fever]].
Cats are also known to |
===
;Online books
:*'''In the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library]'''
:**[http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carroll__Works.pdf The Complete Works] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
:**[http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carroll__Wonderland.pdf ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''] (PDF, coloured edition)
:*'''Freely downloadable e-texts from [[Project Gutenberg]]:'''
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11 ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12 ''Through the Looking-Glass'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13 ''The Hunting of the Snark'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/651 ''Phantasmagoria and Other Poems'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/620 ''Sylvie and Bruno'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4763 ''The game of logic'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11483 ''The Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll''] by Stuart Dodgson Collingwood
:** The complete list of {{gutenberg author| id=Lewis+Carroll | name=Lewis Carroll}}
:*'''Other online texts'''
:**"[http://www.poetry-archive.com/c/the_manlet.html The Manlet]"
:** [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/ttpbooks.html ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground''] the complete manuscript using the British Library's Turning the Pages technology (Shockwave file)
;Audio files
:*Wired for Books: [http://wiredforbooks.org/alice/ A dramatic audio production of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''] ([[RealAudio]])
:*[http://librivox.org/the-hunting-of-the-snark-by-lewis-carroll/ Free audiobook] of ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'' from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
:*[http://librivox.org/alices-adventures-in-wonderland-by-lewis-carroll Free audiobook] of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
[[Category:1832 births|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:1898 deaths|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Alice in Wonderland|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British logicians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English poets|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Natives of Cheshire|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English photographers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British photographers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Victorian era|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Old Rugbeians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Former students of Christ Church, Oxford|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Voting theorists|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[bg:Луис Карол]]
[[bs:Lewis Carroll]]
[[cs:Lewis Carroll]]
[[da:Lewis Carroll]]
[[de:Lewis Carroll]]
[[et:Lewis Carroll]]
[[es:Lewis Carroll]]
[[eo:Lewis CARROLL]]
[[fr:Lewis Carroll]]
[[fy:Lewis Carroll]]
[[gl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[is:Lewis Carroll]]
[[it:Lewis Carroll]]
[[he:לואיס קרול]]
[[nl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ja:ルイス・キャロル]]
[[no:Lewis Carroll]]
[[pl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[pt:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ru:Кэрролл, Льюис]]
[[simple:Lewis Carroll]]
[[sr:Луис Керол]]
[[fi:Lewis Carroll]]
[[sv:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ta:லூயி கரோல்]]
[[zh:路易斯·卡羅]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesX</title>
<id>5341</id>
<revision>
<id>15903554</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commentary</title>
<id>5342</id>
<revision>
<id>29534835</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-28T23:45:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.167.136.204</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>add one, remove one, tweak some wording</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Commentary''' can refer to:
*Informed [[criticism]]
*Topics covered by a [[discussion group]]
*''[[Commentary Magazine|Commentary]]'', an [[United States|American]] [[public affairs]] [[journal]], founded in 1945 and published by the [[American Jewish Committee]]
*[[Voice-over]]s accompanying sporting events, covered for TV or radio: e.g. the [[cricket]] commentary radio programme, ''[[Test Match Special]]''
*the [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary track for DVDs]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canadian Constitution Act</title>
<id>5343</id>
<revision>
<id>26758679</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-29T02:16:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CanadianCaesar</username>
<id>290432</id>
</contributor>
<comment>What a bizarre redirect. The Canada Act 1982 has never been known as the "Constitution Act", to the best of my knowledge</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution of Canada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colloids</title>
<id>5345</id>
<revision>
<id>15903557</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Colloid]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colloid</title>
<id>5346</id>
<revision>
<id>40002161</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:13:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In general, a '''colloid''' or '''colloidal dispersion''' is a one-[[phase (chemistry)|phase]] system of two or more components; a type of [[mixture]] intermediate between ''[[homogeneous]] solution'' and ''[[heterogeneous]] mixtures'' with properties also intermediate between a solution and a mixture. Membranes are typically more restrictive of dispersed colloidial particles than of dissolved ions or molecules; ions or molecules may diffuse through a membrane through which dispersed colloidal particles will not. The dispersed phase particles are largely affected by the [[surface chemistry]] extent in the colloid and are characterized by particle interactions.
Many familiar substances, including [[butter]], milk, cream, aerosols (fog, smog, smoke), [[asphalt]], inks, paints, [[glue]]s and sea foam, are colloids. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by [[Scotland|Scottish]] scientist [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]].
The size of dispersed phase particles in a colloid range from 0.001 to 1 micrometers. Dispersions where the particle size is in this range are referred to as '''colloidal aerosols''', '''colloidal emulsions''', '''colloidal foams''', or '''colloidal suspensions or dispersions'''. Colloids may be colored or translucent because of the [[Tyndall effect]]. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid.
==Classification of colloids==
Colloids can be classified as follows:
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
<th colspan="3">'''Dispersed Medium'''</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center>[[Gas]]</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>[[Liquid]]</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>[[Solid]]</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">'''Continuous Medium'''</th>
<td>[[Gas]]</td>
<td>'''None''' (all gases are soluble)
</td>
<td>'''Liquid [[Particulate|Aerosol]]'''<br />
Examples: [[fog]], [[mist]]
</td>
<td>'''Solid [[Particulate|Aerosol]]'''<br />
Examples: [[Smoke]], [[dust]]
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Liquid]]</td>
<td>'''[[Foam]]''',<br />
Examples: Whipped [[cream (food)|cream]]
</td>
<td>'''[[Emulsion]]'''<br />
Examples: [[Milk]], [[mayonnaise]], hand cream, [[blood]]</td>
<td>'''[[Sol (colloid)|Sol]]'''<br />
Examples: [[Paint]], [[ink|pigmented ink]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Solid]]</td>
<td>'''Solid Foam'''<br />
Examples: [[Aerogel]], [[Styrofoam]], [[Pumice]]</td>
<td>'''[[Gel]]'''<br />
Examples: [[Gelatin]], jelly, cheese, [[Opal]]
</td>
<td>'''Solid Sol'''<br />
Examples: [[Cranberry glass]], Ruby glass</td>
</tr>
</table>
==Interaction between colloid particles==
The following forces play an important role in the interaction of colloid particles:
* Excluded Volume Repulsion: This refers to the impossibility of any overlap between hard particles.
* [[coulomb_force|Electrostatic interaction]]: Colloidal particles often carry an electrical charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the dispersed phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction.
* [[van der Waals force]]s: This interaction is due to induced dipole-dipole interaction. Even if the particles don't have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron gas give rise to a temporary dipole, meaning that van der Waals forces are always present, although possibly at a much lower magnitude than others.
* [[Entropic force]]s: According to the second law of thermodynamics, a system progresses to a state in which entropy is maximized. This can result in effective forces even between hard spheres.
* [[Steric force]]s between polymer-covered surfaces or in solutions containing non-adsorbing polymer can modulate interparticle forces, producing an additional repulsive steric stabilization force or attractive depletion force between them.
==Stabilization of colloid suspensions==
Stabilization serves to prevent colloids from aggregating. [[Steric stabilization]] and electrosta |
ewmarket]] is surrounded on three sides by Cambridgeshire, being connected by a narrow strip of land to the rest of [[Suffolk]].
== Places of interest ==
*[[Abbey]]s: [[Anglesey Abbey]], [[Denny Abbey]], [[Ramsey Abbey]]
*[[Brampton Wood]] [[SSSI]]
*[[Buckden towers]]
*[[Castor Hanglands Nature Reserve]]
*[[Devil's Dyke, Cambridgeshire|Devil's Dyke]] Ancient Monument
*[[Down Field Windmill]], [[Soham]]
*[[Duxford|Duxford Airfield]] and [[Duxford Chapel]]
*[[Elton Hall]]
*[[Fowlmere Nature Reserve]]
*[[Gog Magog Downs]]
*[[Grafham Water Nature Reserve]]
*[[Great Gransden Post Mill]]
*[[Hinchingbrooke House]]
*[[Houghton Mill]]
*[[Kimbolton Castle]]
*[[Lattersey Nature Reserve]]
*[[Lode Watermill]]
*[[Long distance footpath]]s: [[Hereward Way]], [[Icknield Way]], [[Nene Way]], [[Ouse Valley Way]], [[Three Shires Bridleway]]
*[[Nene Valley Railway]], a [[heritage railway]]
*[[Paxton Pits Nature Reserve]]
*[[Peckover House & Garden]], [[Wisbech]]
*[[Prickwillow Drainage Engine Museum]]
*[[River Great Ouse]], [[River Cam]]
*[[RSPB Nene Washes]]
*[[RSPB Ouse Washes]], a reserve of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]]
*The [[Ouse Washes]] consisting of the [[Old Bedford River]] and the [[New Bedford River]] (also known as the [[Hundred Foot Drain]])
*[[Wandlebury Hill|Wandlebury Country Park]] and the [[Gog Magog Downs]]
*[[Wicken Fen]] [[National Nature Reserve]]
*[[Wimpole Hall]]
*[[Wisbech and March Bramleyline]], a [[heritage railway]]
*[[WWT Welney]] - a [[Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust]] [[nature reserve]] on the [[Ouse Washes]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/ Cambridgeshire County Council]
* [http://www.camplus.co.uk/webcam.htm Cambridge Market Place Webcam] - CamPlus Site's Market Place Webcam
{{England ceremonial counties}}
<br />
{{England traditional counties}}
[[Category:Cambridgeshire| ]]
[[ang:Grantabrycgscīr]]
[[cy:Swydd Gaergrawnt]]
[[de:Cambridgeshire]]
[[es:Cambridgeshire]]
[[eo:Cambridgeshire]]
[[fr:Cambridgeshire]]
[[ko:케임브리지셔 주]]
[[no:Cambridgeshire]]
[[sco:Cambridgeshire]]
[[sk:Cambridgeshire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian Goldbach</title>
<id>6290</id>
<revision>
<id>39039433</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:49:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peruvianllama</username>
<id>43680</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ added link to Euler's correspondence with Goldbach</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian Goldbach''' ([[March 18]], [[1690]] - [[November 20]], [[1764]]), was a [[Prussia]]n [[mathematician]], who was born in [[Königsberg|Królewiec]] (Königsberg), in [[Prussia]], as son of a pastor. Goldbach studied law and mathematics. He traveled widely throughout Europe and met with many famous mathematicians, such as [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Leonhard Euler]], and [[Nicholas I Bernoulli]]. Goldbach went to work at the newly opened [[St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]] and became tutor to the later Tsar [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]].
Goldbach did important work in the mathematical field. He is remembered today for [[Goldbach's conjecture]].He also studied and proved some theorems on [[perfect power]]s.
==External links==
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Goldbach}}
* [http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/correspondence/correspondents/Goldbach.html Electronic copies of Euler's correspondence with Goldbach]
{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1690 births|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:1764 deaths|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[de:Christian Goldbach]]
[[es:Christian Goldbach]]
[[fr:Christian Goldbach]]
[[it:Christian Goldbach]]
[[he:כריסטיאן גולדבך]]
[[nl:Christian Goldbach]]
[[pt:Christian Goldbach]]
[[scn:Christian Goldbach]]
[[sv:Christian Goldbach]]
[[tr:Christian Goldbach]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Censor (ancient Rome)</title>
<id>6291</id>
<revision>
<id>41523016</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:53:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JStewart</username>
<id>965725</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40111485 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Censor}}
{{copyedit}}
{{Roman government}}
'''Censor''' was the title of two [[Magistratus|magistrate]]s of high rank in the [[Roman Republic]]. Their office was called ''censura''. From early in the Republic, they were responsible for maintaining the ''[[Roman census|census]]'', which was a register of Roman citizens and of their property, and to supervise public [[morality]] and certain aspects of finance.
==Creation of the rank==
The census was first established by [[Servius Tullius]], the fifth [[king of Rome]]. After the expulsion of the kings and the creation of the Republic, the census was taken by the [[consul]]s until [[443 BC]]. In [[442 BC]], no consuls were elected, but rather [[military tribune]]s with consular power were appointed in their place, as an attempt by the plebeians to attain higher magistracies (since consuls could only be patricians, while some military tribunes were plebeians). To keep the right of census from the hands of [[plebeian]]s, the [[patrician]]s deprived the consuls and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates, called ''censores'' ([[English language|English]] ''censors''), who were to be chosen exclusively from the patricians.
The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till [[351 BC]], when [[Gaius Marcius Rutilus]] was the first plebeian censor ([[Livy]] vii.22). Twelve years afterwards, [[339 BC]], it was provided by one of the [[Publilian laws]] that one of the censors had to be a plebeian (Livy viii.12), but it was not till [[280 BC]] that a plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people ("''[[#Lustrum|lustrum]]''"; Livy [[Periochae]] 13). In [[131 BC]], the two censors were for the first time both plebeians.
There were always two censors, because the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during the time of his office, another had to be chosen to replace him, as in the case of consuls. This, however, happened only once, in [[393 BC]]&mdash;the [[Gaul]]s captured Rome in this ''lustrum'' (five-year period), so the Romans regarded it as "an offense against religion" thereafter (Livy v.31). From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen (Livy vi.27, ix.34, xxiv.43, xxvii.6).
==Election==
The censors were elected in the [[Centuriate Assembly]] held under the presidency of a consul ([[Auli Gellii]] xiii.15; Livy xl.45). [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Barthold Niebuhr]] suggests that they were at first elected by the [[Curiate Assembly]], and that their election was confirmed by the Centuriate; but [[William Smith]] believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niehbur's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held (Livy ix.34).
The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different [[Auspex|auspices]] from those at the election of the consuls and [[praetor]]s, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the ''[[maxima auspicia]]'' (Gellii xiii.15). The assembly was held by the consuls of the year very soon after they had entered upon their office (Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41); and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (''lex centuriata''), were fully installed in their office ([[Cicero]], ''[[de Lege Agraria]]'' ii.11; Livy xl.45).
As a general principle, the only ones eligible to the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but a few exceptions occur. At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second time, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was [[Gaius Marcius Rutilus]] in [[265 BC]]. In that year, he brought forward a law stating that no one could be chosen censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the [[Cognomen|surname]] of ''Censorinus'' ([[Plutarch]], ''[[Life of Coriolanus]]'' 1; [[Valerius Maximus]] iv.1 §3).
==Attributes==
The censorship differs from all other Roman magistracies in the length of time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen for a whole ''lustrum'' (period of five years), but their office was limited to eighteen months as early as ten years after its institution ([[433 BC]]) by a law of the [[Roman dictator|dictator]] [[Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus]] (Livy iv.24, ix.33). The censors also held a unique position with respect to rank and dignity. They had no ''[[imperium]]'', and accordingly no [[lictor]]s (Zonar. vii.19). Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the ''[[curia]]e'', and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors (Cicero, ''de Lege Agraria'' ii.11).
Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a "sacred magistracy" (''sanctus magistratus''), to which the deepest reverence was due (Plutarch ''[[Life of Cato the Elder]]'' 16, ''[[Life of Flaminius]]'' 18, ''[[Life of Camillus]]'' 2, 14, ''[[Life of Aemilius]]'' 38; Cicero ''[[ad Familiares]]'' iii.10). The high rank and dignity which the censorship obta |
opened. Heriot-Watt continues to have a strong reputation in engineering, and is based at [[Riccarton]], outside the city. Napier College was renamed Napier Polytechnic in the 1980s, and gained university status in 1992. [[Napier University]] now has several campuses in the south and west of the city, including the former [[Craiglockhart War Hospital]].
Other colleges offering further education in Edinburgh include [[Edinburgh's Telford College|Telford College]], opened in 1968, and [[Stevenson College Edinburgh|Stevenson College]], opened in 1970. [[Basil Paterson]] offers courses in languages and teaching. The [[Scottish Agricultural College]] also has a campus in south Edinburgh.
===Schools===
Notable schools in Edinburgh include the [[Royal High School]], considered to be the oldest in Scotland, and [[Donaldson's College]], for deaf students. Private schools include [[Edinburgh Academy]], [[Fettes College]] and [[Merchiston Castle School]], the only boys-only school in Scotland.
See the [[List of schools in Edinburgh]] for a complete list.
==See also==
*[[List of Lord Provosts of Edinburgh]]
*[[Areas of Edinburgh]]
*[[Timeline of Edinburgh history]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival]]
**[[Edinburgh Fringe]]
===Art galleries===
*[[National Gallery of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Scottish Academy]]
*[[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]
*[[Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art]]
*[[Dean Gallery]]
*[[Fruitmarket Gallery]]
*[[City Art Centre]]
===Arts Venues===
*[[Royal Lyceum Theatre]]
*[[Traverse Theatre]]
*[[King's Theatre]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival Theatre]]
*[[Edinburgh Playhouse]]
*[[Bedlam Theatre]]
*[[Church Hill Theatre]]
*[[Assembly Rooms (Edinburgh)|Assembly Rooms]]
*[[Edinburgh Filmhouse]]
*[[Queen's Hall Edinburgh|Queen's Hall]]
*[[Usher Hall]]
*[[Theatre Workshop Edinburgh|Theatre Workshop]]
*The Cameo cinema
===Hospitals===
*[[Astley Ainslie Hospital]]
*[[Chalmers Hospital]]
*[[Corstorphine Hospital]]
*[[Eastern General Hospital]]
*[[Edinburgh Dental Institute]]
*[[Liberton Hospital]]
*[[Princess Alexandra Eye Pavillion]]
*[[Royal Edinburgh Hospital]]
*[[Royal Hospital for Sick Children]]
*[[Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh at Little France]] (includes [[Edinburgh University]] Medical School)
*[[Royal Victoria Hospital]]
*[[Western General Hospital]]
===Museums and libraries===
*[[Museum of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Museum]]
*[[National Library of Scotland]]
*[[National War Museum of Scotland]]
*[[Museum of Edinburgh]]
*[[Writers Museum]]
*[[Edinburgh Museum of Childhood]]
===Other features of interest===
*[[Dean Cemetery]]
*[[Edinburgh Airport]]
*[[Edinburgh Tram Network]]
*[[Edinburgh Zoo]]
*[[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]]
*[[Forth Road Bridge]]
*[[McEwan Hall]]
*[[National Archives of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]]
*[[Scottish Parliament Building]]
==Famous residents==
* [[Alexander Graham Bell]], telephone pioneer, was born in Edinburgh.
* [[Tony Blair]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|UK Prime Minister]], was born in the city and attended its exclusive [[Fettes College]] high school
* [[James Boswell]], author, biographer of [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[William Burke and William Hare]], serial killers; sold the bodies of their victims to the medical college for dissection
* [[James Clerk Maxwell]], Scottish physicist
* [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], the creator of ''[[Sherlock Holmes]]'', was born in the city's New Town
* [[Sean Connery|Sir Sean Connery]], actor
* [[Douglas Haig|Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig]] was born in Edinburgh
* [[Martin Bladen Hawke, 7th Baron Hawke|Lord Hawke]], cricketer
* [[Johnny Haynes]], footballer
* [[Doug Henderson]], politician
* [[David Hume]], philosopher and historian
* [[John Knox]], [[Protestant]] Reformer, lived in Edinburgh, and [[John Knox House|John Knox's House]] is preserved in the [[Royal Mile|High Street]]
* [[Alexander McCall Smith]], author of ''[[The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency]]'' series of books and many children's novels
* [[Magnus Magnusson]], television presenter and author
* [[Shirley Manson]], lead singer for the band [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]]
* [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], lived in [[Holyrood Palace]]
* [[John Napier]], mathematician, mainly remembered for the invention of [[logarithms]]
* [[Captain John Porteous|John Porteous]], captain of the city guard, lynched during the [[Porteous Riots]] of [[1736]]
* [[Ian Rankin]], author of the ''[[John Rebus|Inspector Rebus]]'' series of crime thrillers, attended the [[University of Edinburgh]]
* [[Don Revie]], footballer and football manager
* [[David Roberts]], [[19th century]] painter and lithographer
* [[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter]]'' author, wrote her first book in an Edinburgh [[Coffeehouse|coffee-shop]]
* [[Sir Walter Scott]], (1771-1832), novelist, was born in Edinburgh.
* [[Adam Smith]], economist, author of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''
* [[Graeme Souness]], footballer
* [[Muriel Spark]], novelist, author of ''[[The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie]]''
* [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], novelist, wrote fondly of the city before moving to [[Samoa]].
* [[Nigel Tranter]] (1909-2000), historian, writer, lived in Edinburgh.
* [[Irvine Welsh]], novelist, author of e.g. ''[[Trainspotting (novel)|Trainspotting]]'', is from Edinburgh.
* [[John Witherspoon]], only clergyman to sign the American Declaration of Independence, president of Princeton University, educated in Edinburgh
* [[James Young Simpson]], an obstetrician who conducted the first experimental use of [[chloroform]] for anaesthesia
==Foreign consulates==
The following countries have [[Consul (representative)|consular]] offices in Edinburgh:
{{listdev}}
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australian Consulate, Melrose House, 69 George Street
*{{flagicon|Austria}} Austrian Consulate, 9 Howard Place
*{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} Honourary Consulate of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, 312 Lanark Road
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} Brazilian Consulate, 126/10 High Street
*{{flagicon|Canada}} Consulate of Canada, Burness, 50 Lothian Road, Festival Square
*{{flagicon|China}} Chinese Consulate-General, 55 Corstorphine Road
*{{flagicon|Czech Republic}} Honorary Consul General of the Czech Republic, 12a Riselaw Crescent
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} Royal Danish Consulate General, 48 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|France}} French Consulate General, 11 Randolph Crescent
*{{flagicon|Germany}} Consulate General of the Federal Republic of Germany, 16 Eglinton Crescent
*{{flagicon|Greece}} Greek Consulate, 12 Queen's Crescent
*{{flagicon|Iceland}} Icelandic Consulate, 45 Queen Street
*{{flagicon|India}} Consulate General of India, 17 Rutland Square
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} Consulate General of Ireland, 16 Randolph Crescent
*{{flagicon|Italy}} Italian Consulate General, 32 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|Japan}} Consulate General of Japan, 2 Melville Crescent
*{{flagicon|Jordan}} Jordanian Consulate, 45 Queen Street
*{{flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} Kyrgyzstan Consulate, 26 Biggar Road
*{{flagicon|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg Consulate, 76 George Street
*{{flagicon|Malta}} Maltese Consulate, 1 Craiglockhart Crescent
*{{flagicon|Monaco}} Honorary Consul of Monaco, 39 Castle Street
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} Honorary Consulate of the Netherlands, Thistle Court, 1-2 Thistle Street
*{{flagicon|Norway}} The Royal Norwegian Consulate General, 86 George Street
*{{flagicon|Philippines}} Philippines Consulate, 1 Bankhead Medway
*{{flagicon|Poland}} Consulate General of the Republic of Poland, 2 Kinnear Rd
*{{flagicon|Russia}} Russian Consulate General, 58 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|Spain}} Spanish Consulate General, 63 North Castle Street
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} Consulate General of Sweden, 22 Hanover Street
*{{flagicon|Taiwan}} Taipei Representative Office in the U.K (Edinburgh Office), 1 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} Turkish Consulate, 28 Rutland Square
*{{flagicon|Ukraine}} Consulate General of Ukraine, 8 Windsor Street
*{{flagicon|United States}} United States of America Consulate, 3 Regent Terrace
==Twinned cities worldwide==
Edinburgh is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world. These include:
{|
| valign="top" |
* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Munich]], [[Germany]]
* [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px]] [[Florence]], [[Italy]]
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Nice]], [[France]]
* [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|25px]] [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]]
* [[Image:Flag of Ukraine.svg|25px]] [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|25px]] [[Aalborg]], [[Denmark]]
* [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[San Diego]], [[USA]]
* [[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|25px]] [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]]
* [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px]] [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]
|}
==External links==
{{Commons|Edinburgh}}
*[http://www.edinburgh.org/ Edinburgh Tourist Information]
*[http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk City of Edinburgh Council]
*{{wikitravel}}
{{oscoor gbx|NT251735}}
==Other places with the same name==
The name '''Edinburgh''' has also been given to places elsewhere in the world, mainly by Scottish settlers:
*[[Edinburgh, Indiana]], [[United States|USA]]
*[[Edinburg, New York]], USA
*[[Edinburg, Texas]], USA
*[[Edinburg, Virginia]], USA
*[[Edinburgh of the Seven Seas]], the chief settlement of [[Tristan da Cunha]]
*[[Edinburgh, South Australia]], [[Australia]]
The Scots Gaelic name '''Dùn Èideann''' has also been given to other cities, including:
*[[Dunedin|Dunedin, New Zealand]]
*[[Dunedin, Florida]]
{{Scottish Cities}}
[[Category:Edinburgh| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Commonwealth Games]]
[[category:Scottish names]]
[[ast:Edimburgo]]
[[bg:Единбург]]
[[ca:Edimburg]]
[[cy:Caeredin]]
[[da:Edinburgh]]
[[de:Edinburgh]]
[[es:Edimburgo]]
[[eo:Edinburgo]]
[[fa:ادینبورگ]]
[[fr:Édimbourg]]
[[ga:Dún Éideann]]
[[gd:Dùn Èideann]]
[[gl:Edimburgo]]
[[id:Edinburgh]]
[[it:Edimburgo]]
[[he:אדינ |
Usage==
One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.
===Intermediate language===
C is used as an [[intermediate language]] by some high-level languages ([[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], [[Sather]], [[Esterel]]) which do not output [[object file|object]] or [[machine language|machine]] code, but output C source code only, to submit to a C compiler, which then outputs finished object or machine code. This is done to gain portability and [[Optimization (computer science)|optimization]]. C compilers exist for most or all processors and operating systems, and most C compilers output well optimized object or machine code. Thus, any language that outputs C source code suddenly becomes very portable, and able to yield optimized object or machine code. Unfortunately, C is designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, so is not ideal for use as an intermediate language, leading to development of C-based intermediate languages, such as [[C--]]
==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[C syntax]]''
Unlike languages like [[Fortran 77]], C is free-form, allowing programmers to use arbitrary whitespace (rather than rigid lines) in laying out their code. Comments can be included either between the delimiters <code>/*</code> and <code>*/</code>, or (in C99) following <code>//</code> until the end of the line.
Each source file contains declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as <code>struct</code>, <code>union</code>, and <code>enum</code>, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as <code>char</code> and <code>int</code>, as well as the pointer-to symbol <code>*</code>, specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces (<code>{</code> and <code>}</code>) to indicate the extent to which declarations and control structures apply.
As an imperative language, C depends on statements to do most of the work. Most statements are expression statements which simply cause an expression to be evaluated -- and, in the process, cause variables to receive new values or values to be printed. Control-flow statements are also available for conditional or iterative execution, constructed with reserved keywords such as <code>if</code>, <code>else</code>, <code>switch</code>, <code>do</code>, <code>while</code>, and <code>for</code>. Arbitrary jumps are possible with <code>goto</code>. A variety of built-in operators perform primitive arithmetic, logical, comparative, bitwise, and array indexing operations and assignment. Expressions can also call functions, including a large number of standard library functions, for performing many common tasks.
==="hello, world" example===
The following simple application appeared in the first edition of [[The C Programming Language (book)|K&R]], and has become a standard introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of language. The program prints out "[[Hello world program|hello, world]]" to [[standard output]], which is usually a terminal or screen display. However, it might be a file or some other hardware device, including the [[bit bucket]], depending on how standard output is mapped at the time the program is executed.
<br><br>
<pre><nowiki>main()
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}</nowiki></pre>
The above program will compile correctly on most modern compilers that are not in compliance mode. However, it produces several warning messages when compiled with a compiler that conforms to the [[ANSI C]] standard. Additionally, the code will not compile if the compiler strictly conforms to the [[C programming language#C99 2|C99]] standard, as a return value of type <code>int</code> will no longer be assumed if the source code has not specified the return-type. Even if it compiles, the resulting program will return an undefined exit status to the environment. These problems can be eliminated with a few minor modifications to the original program:
<pre><nowiki>#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n");
return 0;
}</nowiki></pre>
What follows is a line-by-line analysis of the above program:
<pre>#include <stdio.h></pre>
This first line of the program is a [[preprocessing|preprocessing directive]], <code>#include</code>. This causes the preprocessor — the first tool to examine source code when it is compiled — to substitute for that line the entire text of the file or other entity to which it refers. In this case, the header <code>stdio.h</code> — which contains the definitions of standard input and output functions — will replace that line. The angle brackets surrounding <code>stdio.h</code> indicate that <code>stdio.h</code> can be found using an implementation-defined search strategy. Double quotes may also be used for headers, thus allowing the implementation to supply (up to) two strategies. Typically, angle brackets are used for headers supplied by the implementation, and double quotes for "in-house" headers.
<pre>int main(void)</pre>
This next line indicates that a function named <code>main</code> is being defined. The <code>[[main function (programming)|main]]</code> function serves a special purpose in C programs. When they are executed, main() is the first function called. The portion of the code that reads <code>int</code> indicates that the ''return value'' — the value to which the <code>main</code> function will evaluate — is an integer. The portion that reads <code>(void)</code> indicates that the <code>main</code> function takes no arguments. See also [[Void return type|void]].
<pre>{</pre>
This opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the <code>main</code> function.
<pre> printf("hello, world\n");</pre>
This line ''calls'' — looks up and then executes the code for — a function named <code>[[printf]]</code>, which was declared in the included header <code>stdio.h</code>. In this call, the <code>printf</code> function is ''passed'' — provided with — a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal <code>"hello, world\n"</code>. The sequence that reads <code>\n</code> is an ''escape sequence'' that is translated to the EOL—or end-of-line—character, which is intended to move the output device's current position indicator to the beginning of the next line. The return value of the <code>printf</code> function is of type <code>int</code>, but no use was made of it so it will be quietly discarded.
<pre> return 0;</pre>
This line terminates the execution of the <code>main</code> function and causes it to return the integral value 0.
<pre>}</pre>
This closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the <code>main</code> function.
If the above code were compiled and executed, it would do the following:
*Print the string "hello, world" onto the standard output device (typically but not always a terminal),
*Move the current position indicator to the beginning of the next line,
*Then return the integer zero to the application's executor.
===Data structures===
C has a [[type system]] similar to that of other [[ALGOL]] descendants such as [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], although different in a number of ways. There are primitive types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, [[floating-point number]]s, characters, and enumerated types (<code>enum</code>). There are also derived types including [[array]]s, [[pointer]]s, [[record (computer science)|records]] (<code>struct</code>), and untagged [[union (computer science)|union]]s (<code>union</code>).
C is often used in low-level systems programming, where "escapes" from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a ''[[Cast (computer science)|typecast]]'' to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a value in some other way. (The use of typecasts obviously sacrifices some of the safety normally provided by the type system.)
====Pointers====
C makes extensive use of pointers, a very simple type of [[reference (computer science)|reference]] that records, in effect, the address or location of an object in memory. Pointers can be ''dereferenced'' to access the data stored at the underlying address. Pointers can be freely manipulated, using normal assignments and also [[pointer arithmetic]]. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address, but at compile time, a pointer variable's type includes the type of the data pointed to, which allows expressions including pointers to be type-checked. Pointers are used for many different purposes in C. [[String (computer science)|Text strings]] are commonly manipulated using pointers into<!-- yes, "into" --> arrays of characters. [[Dynamic memory allocation]], which is described below, is performed using point |
and walk from the stage.
The American composer [[La Monte Young]] took this line of thought to an extreme by suggesting that even [[sound]] itself was not necessary for a piece of music to exist. In ''Composition 1960 #5'', one of a series of similar pieces, he instructed the performer to "Turn a [[butterfly]] (or any number of butterflies) loose in the performance area," the piece being considered complete when the butterflies have flown away. The choice of a butterfly is significant in that it is perceived as a silent animal. During the performance, there will be background noises, just as there are in a performance of ''4' 33"'', but this is not the thrust of the piece. Rather, Young is interested in the theatrical element of music.
Young's point in this instance is that when one goes to a performance of a piece of music, seeing the musicians perform is as much a part of the music as hearing them, so why not remove the hearing element altogether? In this sense, his interest is similar to that of [[Mauricio Kagel]], who carefully notates the theatrical element of performance in his works (although he usually maintains a significant sonic element also).
==Music as a category of perception==
Less commonly held is the cognitive definition of music, which argues that music is not merely the sound, or the perception of sound, but a means by which perception, action and memory are organized. This definition is influential in the [[cognitive science]]s, which search to locate the regions of the [[brain]] responsible for parsing or remembering different aspects of musical experience. This definition would include [[dance]]. The [[Boulanger]]s established a school of thought centered around this concept which included the idea of [[eurhythmics (musical expression)|eurhythmics]], which is gesture guided by music.
==Music as language==
Many definitions of music implicitly hold that music is a communicative activity which conveys to the listener moods, emotions, thoughts, impressions, or philisophical, sexual, or political concepts or positions. "Musical language" may be used to mean style or genre, while music may be treated as language without being called such, as in [[Fred Lerdahl]] or others' analysis of musical [[grammar]]. [[Levi R. Bryant]] defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method such as mathematics (Ashby 2004, p.4).
Because of its ability to communicate, music is sometimes described as the "universal language". Yet the "meaning" of music is obviously culturally mediated. For example, in Western society, minor chords are often perceived as "sad", an understanding other cultures rarely share.
There is significant complexity in the structural elements of music which warrant the perception of music as a language. For example, genres of music can be characterized by the manner in which sound and silence are articulated, organized, and disseminated. The composition of these elements gives rise to a system which is on par with the complexities and subtleties of 'language'.
==Change==
Musical change, stylistically, is thought of both as inevitable and necessary, or at least beneficiary in European influenced classical music and much popular music, while in classical Iranian culture music is thought to be complete, new creations are variations and rearrangements of old ones or parts of. Some classical composers seek to create innovative works in prexisting genres and forms, while other seek to break the mold. Indian classical is thought to change little and valued for that quality, while great changes between different improvised performances are equally valued. In folk, jazz, and some popular music variation and reinterpretation of traditional or received materials is valued, while in some popular music, such as progressive rock, for example, inspired individual or group innovation is sought for. The European classical canon is valued for its unchanging timeless, [[ahistorical]], nature.(Nettl, 1989)
==Tripartite definition==
"Music, often an [[art]]/[[entertainment]], is a [[total social fact]] whose definitions vary according to [[era]] and [[culture]]," according to [[Jean Molino]].<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> It is often contrasted with [[noise (environmental)|noise]]. According to musicologist [[Jean-Jacques Nattiez]]: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined&mdash;which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no ''single'' and ''intercultural'' universal concept defining what music might be."<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
Given the above demonstration that "there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical,"<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup> an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.
Nattiez<sup>[[#Notes|4]]</sup> describes definitions according to a [[tripartite]] semiological scheme similar to the following:
{|
|colspan=3|Poietic Process
|colspan=2|Esthesic Process
|-
|Composer (Producer)
| &rarr;
|Sound (Trace)
| &larr;
|Listener (Receiver)
|}
There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic:
*"<!-- If musical semiology's sole contribution were replacing what everybody calls "composition" and "perception" with barbarou neologisms like 'poietic' and 'esthesic', then semiology would entail risibly small profits. There is, of course, more to it than that. --> By 'poietic' I understand describing the ''link'' among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the ''result'' of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape."
*"By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies." (Nattiez 1990:90)
*The neutral level is that of the physical "trace", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or "social" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).
Table describing types of definitions of music:
{|border=1|
|
| '''poietic level<br/>(choice of the composer)'''
| '''neutral level<br/>(physical definition)'''
| '''esthesic level<br/>(perceptive judgment)'''
|-
| '''music'''
| musical sound
| sound of the<br/>harmonic<br/>spectrum
| agreeable sound
|-
| '''nonmusic'''
| noise<br/>(nonmusical)
| noise<br/>(complex sound)
| disagreeable<br/>noise
|}
:(Nattiez 1990, p.46)
Because of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms. There is the study of sound and [[vibration]] or [[acoustics]], the cognitive study of music, the study of [[music theory]] and performance practice or music theory and [[ethnomusicology]] and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called [[musicology]].
==Notes==
# Molino, 1975: 37
# Nattiez, 1990: p.47-8,55
# Molino, 1987: 42
# derived from Nattiez, 1990: p. 17; see [[sign (semiotics)]]
==Sources==
* [[Jean Molino|Molino, Jean]] (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", ''Musique en Jeu'', no. 17:37-62.
*[[Nettl, Bruno]] (1989). ''[[Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives]]''. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 0873383702
*Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1987). ''Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music'' (''Musicologie générale et sémiologue'', 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0691027145.
**Robertson-De Carbo, C. E. (1976). "''Tayil'' as Category and Communication among the Argentine Mapuche: A Methodological Suggestion", ''1976 Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council'', 8, p.35-42.
**Sakata, Lorraine (1983). ''Music in the Mind, The Concepts of Music and Musicians in Afghanistan''. Kent: Kent State University Press.
*[[R. Murray Schafer]]. "[[Music and the Soundscape]]," included in ''Classic Essays on Twentieth-Century Music'', ISBN 0028645812.
*Ashby, Arved, ed. (2004). "Introduction", ''The Pleasure of Modernist Music''. ISBN 1580461433.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cobussen.com/proefschrift/300_john_cage/310_what_is_music/what_is_music.htm What is Music?] A brief sketch of some definitions found throughout history by Marcel Cobussen
*[http://www.MusicNovatory.com MusicNovatory.com] The Science of Music, a generative music theory
[[Category:Music]]
[[Category:Semantics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dayton, Ohio</title>
<id>8253</id>
<revision>
<id>42135662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:31:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjb</username>
<id>2843</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* FM format */ -dup wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dayton-ohio-skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|Skyline of Dayton from the north, across the Great Miami River.]]
'''Dayton''' is a city in southwestern [[Ohio]], [[United States]] with a population of 166,179 ([[2000]]). It is the county seat and largest city of [[Mont |
dism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', requires taxa to be clades. In other words, cladists argue that the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades. In contrast, other [[evolutionary taxonomy|taxonomists]] insist that groups reflect [[phylogeny|phylogenies]] and often make use of cladistic techniques, but allow both [[monophyletic]] and [[paraphyletic]] groups as [[taxa]].
A ''[[monophyletic]]'' group is a clade, comprising an ancestral form and all of its descendants, and so forming one (and only one) evolutionary group. A ''[[paraphyletic]]'' group is similar, but excludes some of the descendants that have undergone significant changes. For instance, the traditional class Reptilia excludes birds even though they evolved from the ancestral reptile. Similarly, the traditional Invertebrates are paraphyletic because Vertebrates are excluded, although the latter evolved from an Invertebrate.
A group with members from separate evolutionary lines is called ''[[polyphyletic]]''. For instance, the once-recognized Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because elephants and rhinoceroses arose from non-pachyderms separately. Evolutionary taxonomists consider polyphyletic groups to be errors in classification, often occurring because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].
Following Hennig, cladists argue that paraphyly is as harmful as polyphyly. The idea is that monophyletic groups can be defined objectively, in terms of common ancestors or the presence of synapomorphies. In contrast, paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups are both defined based on key characters, and the decision of which characters are of taxonomic import is inherently subjective. Many argue that they lead to "gradistic" thinking, where groups advance from "lowly" grades to "advanced" grades, which can in turn lead to [[teleology]]. Teleology should be avoided as outside the realm of science.
Going further, some cladists argue that ranks for groups above species are too subjective to present any meaningful information, and so argue that they should be abandoned. Thus they have moved away from Linnaean taxonomy towards a simple hierarchy of clades.
Other evolutionary systematists argue that all taxa are inherently subjective, even when they reflect evolutionary relationships, since living things form an essentially continuous tree. Any dividing line is artificial, and creates both a monophyletic section above and a paraphyletic section below. Paraphyletic taxa are necessary for classifying earlier sections of the tree – for instance, the early vertebrates that would someday evolve into the family Hominidae cannot be placed in any other monophyletic family. They also argue that paraphyletic taxa provide information about significant changes in organisms' morphology, ecology, or life history – in short, that both taxa and clades are valuable but distinct notions, with separate purposes. Many use the term ''monophyly'' in its older sense, where it includes paraphyly, and use the alternate term ''holophyly'' to describe clades (''monophyly'' in Hennig's sense).
A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[PhyloCode]], is currently under development for cladistic taxonomy. It is intended for use by both those who would like to abandon Linnaean taxonomy and those who would like to use taxa and clades side by side.
==See also==
*[[Scientific classification]]
*[[Evolutionary tree]]
*[[Phylogenetic tree]]
*[[List_of_publications_in_biology#Phylogenetics|Important publications in cladistics]]
==References==
* Kitching IJ, Forey PL, Humphries CJ and Williams DM (1998) Cladistics, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Patterson C (1982) Morphological characters and homology. In: Joysey KA and Friday AE (eds) Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction. London: Academic Press.
* de Queiroz K and Gauthier JA (1992) Phylogenetic taxonomy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 449–480.
* Swofford DL, Olsen GJ, Waddell PJ and Hillis DM (1996) Phylogenetic inference. In: Hillis DM, Moritz C and Mable BK (eds) Molecular Systematics. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
* Wiley EO (1981) Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics. New York: Wiley Interscience.
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Cladistics.ogg|2005-04-30}}
* [http://www.cladistics.org The Willi Hennig Society]
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html Tree of Life Web Project]
* [http://occamssword.com extensive bibliography] for parsimony in Biology and the Philosophy of Biology
* [http://rjohara.net/darwin/files/bmcr.html Example of cladistics used in textual criticism]
* [http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf The Compleat Cladist (pdf)]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/phylo.html Phylogenetics Primer] from Talk.Origins
{{phylo}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Phylogenetics]]
[[da:Kladistik]]
[[de:Kladistik]]
[[es:Cladismo]]
[[eo:Kladistiko]]
[[fr:Cladistique]]
[[it:Cladistica]]
[[nl:Cladistiek]]
[[pt:Cladística]]
[[sr:Кладистика]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calendar</title>
<id>5377</id>
<revision>
<id>41724454</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:25:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WoodElf</username>
<id>706848</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''calendar''' is a system for naming periods of time, typically [[day]]s. These names are known as [[calendar date]]s. The ''dates'' may be based on the perceived motion of [[astronomical]] objects. A calendar is also a physical device (often paper) that illustrates the system (for example, a ''desktop calendar'') &mdash; this is the most common usage of the word.
As a subset, 'calendar' is also used to denote a list of particular set of planned events (for example, ''court calendar'').
==Calendar systems==
Calendars in use on Earth are '''[[lunar calendar|lunar]]''', '''[[solar calendar|solar]]''', '''[[lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]]''' or '''arbitrary'''.
A ''lunar calendar'' is synchronized to the motion of the Moon ([[moon phase]]s); an example is the [[Islamic calendar]].
A ''solar calendar'' is based on perceived [[seasonal year|seasonal]] changes synchronized to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the [[Persian calendar]].
A ''lunisolar calendar'' is synchronized both to the motion of the Moon and to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the [[Hebrew calendar|Jewish calendar]].
An ''arbitrary calendar'' is not synchronized to either the Moon or the Sun; examples are the [[week]] and the [[Julian day]] used by astronomers.
There are some calendars that appear to be synchronized to the motion of Venus, such as some of the ancient Egyptian calendars; synchronization to Venus appears to occur primarily in civilizations near the Equator.
===Solar calendars===
''Main article: [[Solar calendar]]''
====Days used by solar calendars ====
Solar calendars assign a ''date'' to each [[solar time|solar day]]. A [[day]] may consist of the period between [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]], with a following period of [[night]], or it may be a period between successive events such as two sunsets. The length of the interval between two such successive events may be allowed to vary slightly during the year, or it may be averaged into a [[solar time|mean solar day]]. Other types of calendar may also use a solar day.
====Future reform====
There have been a number of proposals for [[calendar reform|reform of the calendar]], such as the [[World calendar]] and [[International Fixed Calendar]]. The [[United Nations]] considered adopting such a reformed calendar for a while in the 1950s, but these proposals have lost most of their popularity. [[Holocene calendar]] is another one for counting years.
===Lunar calendars===
''Main article: [[Lunar calendar]]''
Not all calendars use the solar year as a unit. A [[lunar calendar]] is one in which days are numbered within each [[moon phase]] cycle. Because the length of the lunar month is not an even fraction of the length of the tropical year, a purely lunar calendar quickly drifts against the seasons. It does, however, stay constant with respect to other phenomena, notably [[tide]]s. A '''[[lunisolar calendar]]''' is a lunar calendar that compensates by adding an extra month as needed to realign the months with the seasons. An example is the [[Jewish]] calendar which uses a 19 year cycle.
Lunar calendars are believed to be the oldest calendars invented by mankind. [[Cro-Magnon]] people are claimed to have invented one around 32,000 BC.
===Fiscal calendars===
''Main article: [[Fiscal calendar]]''
A fiscal calendar (such as a 5/4/4 calendar) fixes each month at a specific number of weeks to facilitate comparisons from month to month and year to year. January always has exactly 5 weeks (Sunday through Saturday), February has 4 weeks, March has 4 weeks, etc. Note that this calendar will normally need to add a 53rd week to every 5th or 6th year, which might be added to December or might not be, depending on how the organization uses those dates. There exists an international standard way to do this (the [[ISO 8601|ISO week]]). The ISO week runs Monday through Sunday and Week 1 is always the week that contains [[January 4]] Gregorian.
==Calendar subdivisions==
Nearly all calendar systems group consecutive days into "[[month]]s" and also into "[[year]]s". In a ''[[solar calendar]]'' a ''[[year]]'' approximates Earth's [[tropical year]] (that is, the time it takes for a complete cycle of [[season]]s), traditionally used to facilitate the planning of [[agriculture|agricultural]] activities. In a ''lunar calendar'', the ''month'' approximates the cycle |
ll Street Journal Online'', June 14, 2004.
==External link==
* [http://www.google.com/corporate/history.html History from the Google website]
[[Category:Large numbers]]
[[bg:Гугол]]
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[[fr:Gogol]]
[[ko:구골]]
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[[he:גוגול]]
[[hu:Googol]]
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[[ja:グーゴル]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Googolhedron</title>
<id>12364</id>
<revision>
<id>15910058</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-11T15:40:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric119</username>
<id>7110</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Googolplex</title>
<id>12365</id>
<revision>
<id>42102716</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Billpg</username>
<id>268454</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ Removed [[Googlit]] (redirects to [[Google]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''googolplex''' is the number <math>10^{(10^{100})}</math> (or <math>{10}^{\rm googol}</math>, or <math>{10}^{\mathrm{10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}}</math>), that is, 1 followed by a [[googol]] (10<sup>100</sup>) [[0 (number)|zeroes]]. The term googol was coined by [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]]. Googolplex was coined by Kasner to define an especially large number by extension from his nephew's idea.
A googol is greater than the number of [[elementary particle]]s in the [[known universe]], which has been variously estimated from 10<sup>72</sup> up to 10<sup>87</sup>. Since this is less than the number of zeroes in a googolplex, it would not be possible to write down or store a googolplex in [[decimal notation]], even if all the matter in the known universe were converted into paper and ink or disk drives.
Thinking of this another way, consider printing the digits of a googolplex in unreadable, 1-point font. [[Tex|TeX]] 1pt font is .3514598mm per digit, which means it would take about <math>3.5*10^{96} </math> meters to write in one point font. The known [[universe]] is estimated at <math> 7.4*10^{26} </math> meters in [[diameter]], which means the distance to write the digits would be about <math>4.7*10^{69} </math> times the diameter of the known universe. The time it would take to write such a number also renders the task implausible: if a person can write two digits per second, it would take around <math>1.1*10^{82}</math> times the [[age of the universe]] to write down a googolplex.
Even then, the magnitude of the googolplex is not as large as some of the specially defined extraordinarily [[large number]]s, such as those using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]] or [[Steinhaus-Moser notation]]. Even more simply, one can name numbers larger than a googolplex with fewer symbols, for example,
:<math>9^{9^{9^{9^{9^9}}}}
</math>,
is much larger. [[Graham's number]], larger still, is perhaps the largest [[natural number]] mathematicians actually have a use for.
'''Googolplex''' is a '''[[Cardinal_number#Motivation|finite cardinal number]]'''.
== In popular culture ==
*Googolplex is the name of a [[movie theatre|multiplex cinema]] in the fictional town of [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield]] in the television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''.
*[[Google]] refers to their headquarters as the "[[Googleplex]]".
*In ''[[Back to the Future Part III]]'', googolplex was used by [[Dr. Emmett Brown]] to describe his girlfriend, Clara Clayton:
*:''Clara was one in a million. One in a billion. One in a googolplex!''
==See also==
*[[Googol]]
*[[Large_numbers#Standardized_system_of_writing_very_large_numbers|Standardized system of writing very large numbers]]
*[[Names of large numbers]]
== External links ==
* Known [[prime factor]]s of googolplex + n (0 &lt;= n &lt;= 999): http://www.alpertron.com.ar/GOOGOL.HTM
* Another Googolplex page: http://www.procrastinators.org/googolplex.html
* Includes [[C_programming_language|C code]] to count to Googolplex: http://www.fpx.de/fp/Fun/Googolplex/
* Comparisons to other large numbers: http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/numbers-15.html
* Googolplex &#8776; the number of [[State_function|states]] in a [[black hole]] with a mass roughly equivalent to the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]: http://www.fpx.de/fp/Fun/Googolplex/GetAGoogol.html
* Googolplex is "inconceivable" but still "describable": http://jimvb.home.mindspring.com/hamlet.htm
[[Category:Integers]]
[[Category:Large numbers]]
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[[ru:&#1043;&#1091;&#1075;&#1086;&#1083;&#1087;&#1083;&#1077;&#1082;&#1089;]]
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[[de:Googolplex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graphite</title>
<id>12366</id>
<revision>
<id>42040415</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:23:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.192.152.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Spelling mistake */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style="margin-left:1em"
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2 align=center|Graphite
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Image:GraphiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|center]]
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category|| Native [[mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| [[Carbon]], C
|----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Color || Steel black, to gray.
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Tabular, six-sided [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] masses, granular to compacted masses.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|Hexagonal]] (6/m 2/m 2/m)
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| Perfect in one direction.
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| Flaky, otherwise rough when not on clevage
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 1 - 2
|-----
| [[Lustre]]|| Dull metallic, earthy
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| Opaque
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|-----
| [[Streak]]|| Black
|-----
| [[Density]]|| 2.09&ndash;2.23 g/cm&sup3;
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| Molten Ni
|----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF"
|-----
|}
'''Graphite''' (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in [[1789]], from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;: "to draw/write", for its use in [[pencils]]) is one of the [[allotropes of carbon]]. Unlike [[diamond]], graphite is a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]], and can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical [[arc lamp]]. Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered.
== Occurrence ==
Associated minerals include: [[quartz]], [[calcite]], [[mica]]s, [[iron]] [[meteorite]]s, and [[tourmaline]]s. Notable occurrences include [[New York]] and [[Texas]] in the USA, [[Russia]], [[Mexico]], [[Greenland]], and [[India]].
Other characteristics: thin flakes are flexible but inelastic, mineral can leave black marks on hands and paper, conducts electricity, and displays [[superlubricity]]. Best field indicators are softness, luster, density and streak.
[[Image:GraphiteOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Graphite ore]]
== Structure ==
Each [[carbon]] [[atom]] is [[covalent|covalently]] [[Chemical bond|bonded]] to three other surrounding carbon atoms. The flat sheets of carbon atoms are bonded into [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal structures]]. These exist in layers, which are not covalently connected to the surrounding layers.
The [[unit cell]] dimensions are ''a'' = ''b'' = 245.6 [[picometre]]s, ''c'' = 669.4 pm. The carbon-carbon [[bond length]] in the bulk form is 141.8 pm, and the interlayer spacing is ''c''/2 = 334.7 pm.
Each carbon atom possesses an sp<sup>2</sup> [[orbital hybridisation]]. The [[electron configuration|pi orbital electrons]] delocalized across the hexagonal atomic sheets of carbon contribute the graphite's [[conductivity]]. In an oriented piece of graphite, conductivity parallel to these sheets is greater than that perpendicular to these sheets.
The bond between the atoms within a layer is strong but the force between two layers of graphite is weak. Therefore, layers of it can slip over each other making it soft.
==Detailed properties and uses==
The [[Acoustics|acoustic]] and [[thermal]] properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since [[phonons]] propagate very quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another.
Graphite is able to [[conduct]] [[electricity]] due to the unpaired fourth [[electron]] in each carbon atom. This unpaired 4th electron forms [[delocalised]] planes above and below the planes of the carbon atoms. These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers.
Graphite powder is used as a dry [[lubricant]], although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the [[cleavage (crystal)|loose interlamellar coupling]] between sheets in the structure, in fact in a [[vacuum]] environment (such as in technologies for use in [[Outer space|space]]), graphite was found to be a ver |
im as a heretic.
== Second and third centuries ==
In the second century, conventionally educated converts began to produce two kinds of writings that help us understand the developing shapes of Christianity - works aimed at a broad audience of educated non-Christians, and works aimed at those who considered themselves inside the Church. The writing for non-Christians is usually called ''apologetic'' in the same sense that the speech given by [[Socrates]] in his defense before the Athenian assembly is called his ''Apology'' - the word in [[Greek language|Greek]] meant "speech for the defense" rather than the modern more limited denotation of "statement expressing regret". The Apologists, as these authors are sometimes known, made a presentation for the educated classes of the beliefs of Christians, often coupled with an attack on the beliefs and practices of the pagans. Other writings had the purpose of instructing and admonishing fellow Christians. Many writings of this period, however, succumbed to destruction from the Early Catholic Church as heretical, or in disagreement with their message. Thus, today we are surprised by such findings as the [[Gospel of Thomas]] in 1945.
*[[Polycarp]] (bishop of [[Smyrna]] and saint)
*[[Melito of Sardis]] a bishop who held several views that differ from the Church of Rome, even though it considers him to be a saint
*[[Irenaeus of Lyons|Irenaeus]] (bishop of [[Lyons]] and saint)
*[[Tertullian]] (became a schismatic in about 207 and became a [[Montanism|Montanist]])
*[[Marcion]] (considered by the Roman Catholic church to have been the most dangerous enemy they have ever had)
*[[Clement of Alexandria]] (bishop of Alexandria and saint)
*[[Origen]] (catechist and scholar, but some of his teachings were condemned in 588)
*The pagan revival of the third century
**[[Decius]]
**[[Cyprian]]
Many of the early writings are translated into English in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] collection. A particularly useful text found in the collection, the [[Apostolic Constitutions]], documents much of early Christian thought. During this period church government began to take on a hierarchical form that matched the Roman government.
== Fourth century ==
Many of the writings from this period are translated into English in the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]] books.
Development of the canon of scripture
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
===Christianity legalized===
====Constantine I of the Roman Empire====
The Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] was, like emperors before him, high priest of the Mithraic religion. However, he was also interested in creating unity for the sake of ease of governance, and to this end he involved himself in a dispute between Christian groups over [[Arianism]], summoning the [[First Council of Nicaea]]; this [[ecumenical council|Council]] produced the [[Nicene Creed]].
Constantine mitigated some differences between orthodox Christianity and its main competitor, the official religion of ''Sol Invictus''. For example, he moved the date of celebration of Jesus' birth to December 25th (since this was the celebration date for the birth of Mithras and [[Bacchus]], and also the date of other winter solstice festivals such as [[Saturnalia]]). In addition, Constantine instituted use of the [[labarum|Chi-Rho symbol]], representative of Christianity, also alleged by some scholars to have had use as an [[obelism|obeloi]] for "auspicious" thus serving both Christian and non-Christian purpose simultaneously.
Critics of the merger of church and state point to this [[constantinian shift|shift]] of the beginning of the era of Constantinianism when Christianity and the will of God gradually came to be identified with the will of the ruling elite; and in some cases was little more than a religious justification for the exercise of power.
Popular legend holds that Constantine I was Christian; however, he never publicly recanted his position as high priest of Mithras Sol Invictus, and the only alleged occurrence of Constantine I converting was on his deathbed (as reported by later Church Fathers), which is impossible to verify. However, it was not that unusual for people in the fourth century to avoid fully converting to Christianity until quite late in life, because of the strong warnings against continuing in sin after having converted and the spiritual consequences thereof.
Shocked by these developments, the emperor [[Julian the Apostate]] (denoted "the [[Apostate]]" because of his rejection of Christianity and conversion to [[Mithraism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]) attempted to restore the former status among religions by eliminating the privileges (exemption from the heavy burden of taxation and tax collection duties for [[Christian]] clergy for example) given by former Roman Emperors like [[Constantine I]], forbidding one sect of Christians from persecuting another [[Christian]] sect and recalling bishops who had been banned for [[Arianism]], while encouraging both Judaism (including a failed attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem) and a sort of [[neo-paganism]].
Julian's opposition was short lived, as emperors such as [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]] repealed Julian's actions and encouraged the growth of Christianity. This state of affairs was finally enforced by a series of decrees by the Nicene Christian emperor [[Theodosius I]], beginning in February of 381, and continuing throughout his reign.
==== Opposed by Byzantine emperors ====
* Saint [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] exiled from his bishopric in Alexandria at least five times for opposing Arianism.
* Saint [[John Chrysostom]] ([[Patriarch of Constantinople]]) dies in exile for criticizing the imperial court in his homilies.
==== Other material from this era ====
*[[Ambrose]] of Milan (bishop and saint)
*rise of desert [[monasticism]] (Saint [[Anthony the Great]], Saint [[Pachomius]])
=== Christological controversies ===
The [[Christological]] controversies include examinations of questions like the following.
*Was Christ divine, human, a created angelic being, or beyond simple classification into one category?
*Did Christ's miracles actually change physical reality or were they merely symbolic?
*Did Christ's body actually arise from the dead or was the resurrected Christ a supernatural being not limited to a physical frame?
See also
*[[Arius]], [[Athanasius]]
*[[Diodore]], [[Saint Theodore|Theodore]] and [[Apollinarius]]
*[[Cyril of Alexandria]] and [[Nestorius]]
*The anti-[[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] council at [[Ephesus]] and the anti-[[Monophysitism|Monophysite]] reaction at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.
*The search for reconciliation and the heresy of one will ([[monothelitism]], the belief that Jesus Christ had one (divine) will as opposed to two wills, one divine and one human will). [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]] condemned monothelitism and failed to achieve the reconciliation desired by the Byzantine emperor.
== Dark and Middle Ages ==
=== Conversion of the Mediterranean world ===
*[[Augustine of Hippo]]
*[[Jerome]]
=== Developing Christianity outside the Mediterranean world ===
Christianity was not restricted to the Mediterranean basin and its hinterlands; at the time of Jesus a large proportion of the Jewish population lived in Mesopotamia outside the Roman Empire, especially in the city of [[Babylon]], where much of the [[Talmud]] was developed.
*[[Saint Thomas Christians|Thomas Christians]] (Also known as [[Syro Malabar Christian]]s or [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Nasrani]]) established in [[India]] possibly as early as [[52]] and certainly before [[325]].
*[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]
*Christianity in the [[Sassanian Empire]]
*Christianity in [[Bosnia (region) | Bosnia]]
*Christianity comes to the [[British Isles]] whilst part of the Roman empire, lapses, then [[Christianity in the British isles 410-1066|returns]]).
**Christianity comes to [[Ireland]] (traditionally dated [[432]]) and the evolution of [[Celtic Christianity]]
**Irish missionaries and the spread of Christianity to Britain and Northern Europe
**The establishment of papal authority in Ireland after the [[Great Schism]]
*[[Nestorian]] Christians travel the [[Silk Road]] to establish a community in the [[Tang Dynasty]] capital of [[Chang'an]], building the [[Daqin Pagoda]] in [[640]]
* Christianity in [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]]
===The development of the Papacy===
*[[Pope]]
*[[Papacy]]
*[[Pope Damasus I|Damasus]]
*[[Pope Leo I|Leo]]
*[[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]]
*[[Pope Boniface VIII]], and [[Unam Sanctam]]
=== Persecutions ===
*[[Crusade|Crusades]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Iconoclasm]]
=== Spread of Christianity to central and eastern Europe ===
* Saints [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]] translated the Bible and liturgy into [[Old Church Slavonic|Church Slavonic]] in the 9th century
* The [[Baptism of Kiev]] in the 988 spread Christianity throughout [[Kievan Rus']], establishing the Eastern Christian identity of [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]] and [[Russia]].
=== Church and state in the Medieval west ===
*[[Pope Gregory VII]] - Hildebrand
*[[Inquisition]] and [[Medieval inquisition]]
*[[Witchhunts]]
=== Schisms between East and West ===
*[[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]
** This was a long time in developing; key issues were the role of the Pope in Rome, and the [[filioque clause]]
** The "official" schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch [[Michael Cerularius]] of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of the pope's representative.
** The personal excommunications were mutually rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople in the 1960s, although the schism is not at all healed.
*[[Apostolic succession]]
**[[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
**[[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]]
The Great Schism was between "Roman Catholicism" and "Eastern Or |
posed itself to the policies of the secular [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and [[Yasser Arafat]].
===Wahhabism===
Another influential strain of Islamist thought came from the [[Wahhabi]] movement in Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists, who emerged in the [[18th century]] led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, also believed that it was necessary to live according to the strict dictates of Islam, which they interpreted to mean living in the manner that the prophet [[Muhammad]] and his followers had lived in during the [[seventh century]] in [[Medina]]. Consequently they were opposed to many innovations developed since that time, including the [[minaret]], marked graves, and later television and radios. The Wahhabis also considered those Muslims who violated their strict interpretation to be heretics, and thus used violence against other Muslims. When King [[Ibn Saud|Abdul Aziz al-Saud]] founded [[Saudi Arabia]], he brought the Wahhabists into power with him. With Saud's rise to prominence, Wahhabism spread, especially following the [[1973 oil crisis|1973 oil embargo]] and the glut of oil wealth that resulted for Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists were proselytizers, and made use of their wealth to spread their interpretation of Islam.
===Recent history===
Islamism went through its major political and philosophical developments in the early part of the twentieth century, but it was not until the [[1980s]] that it became active in an international arena and rose to great prominence in the [[1990s]].
The reasons for the rise of Islamism during this period are still disputed. The ideologies that had dominated the [[Middle East]] since [[decolonization]] such as [[Ba'athism]], [[Arab Socialism]], and [[Arab Nationalism]] had, by 1980, failed to attain the economic and political goals expected of them. By the late 1980s the distinct Shi'ite version of political Islam had been drained of its vigour in the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. During the conflict against the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Afghanistan]], many Islamists came together to fight what they saw as an atheist invading force and were heavily funded by the United States. In [[Pakistan]], military dictators brought into power through coups (especially [[Zia-ul-Haq]]) exploited Islamist sentiments to consolidate their power, bringing Islamist political parties into prominence and all but destroying the traditional secularism that stemmed from the secular stance of the [[Muslim League]] and its leader [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]] (founder of Pakistan).
In his book ''Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam'' [[Gilles Kepel]] argues that the central importance of Islamism in the 1990s was a product of the [[Gulf War]]. Prior to 1990 organized political Islam had been mostly associated with [[Saudi Arabia]], a nation founded on Wahhabism and an ally of Islamist groups in Egypt and in Afghanistan. Saudi Arabia, as a close ally of the West and with a strong interest in regional stability, played an important restraining role on Islamist groups.
The Shi'ite clerics in Iran had long argued that Saudi Arabia was an apostate state, a puppet of the West that espoused a corrupted Islam. During the 1980s these accusations had little effect, largely because of their Shi'ite origin. However, Kepel argues that when [[Saddam Hussein]] turned on his former allies, he embraced this rhetoric, arguing that Saudi Arabia had betrayed its duty to protect the holiest sites of Islam. Kepel states that Saddam Hussein embraced Islamic rhetoric and trappings and tried to draw leading scholars and activists to his camp. Some of the main Islamist groups remained loyal to Saudi Arabia, but a number such as parts of the Muslim Brotherhood and Afghani [[mujahideen]] aligned themselves with Saddam. Far more groups declared themselves neutral in the struggle.
According to Kepel the rapid defeat of Saddam did not end this rift. As Saddam had likely predicted Saudi Arabia had found itself in a severe dilemma, the only way to counter the Iraqi threat was to seek help from the west, which would immediately confirm the Iraqi allegations of Saudi Arabia being a friend to the west. To ensure the regime's survival Saudi Arabia accepted a massive western presence in the country and de facto cooperation with [[Israel]] causing great offence to many in Islamist circles.
After the war Saudi Arabia launched a two pronged strategy to restore its security and leadership in Islamist circles. Those Islamist groups who refused to return under the Saudi umbrella were persecuted and any Islamists who had criticized Saudi regime were arrested or forced into exile, with most going to [[London]]. At the same time Saudi oil money began to flow freely to those Islamist groups who continued to work with the kingdom. Islamist [[madrassas]] around the world saw their funding greatly increased. More covertly Saudi money began to fund more violent Islamist groups in areas such as [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]] and the former [[Soviet Union]]. Saudi Arabia's western allies mostly looked the other way seeing the survival of their crucial ally as more important than the problem of more money and resources flowing to Islamist groups.
In the 1990s Islamist conflicts erupted around the world in areas such as [[Algeria]], the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Sudan]], and [[Nigeria]]. In [[1995]] a series of terrorist attacks were launched against [[France]]. The most important development was the rise to power of the Deobandi [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]] in [[1996]]. In the Taliban-ruled Afghanistan a number of anti-Saudi and anti-Western Islamist groups found refuge. Significantly, [[Osama bin Laden]], a wealthy Saudi influenced by Wahhabism and the writings of Sayed Qutb, joined forces with the Egyptian Islamic Jihad under [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] to form what is now called [[al-Qaeda]].
A considerable effort has been made to fight Western targets, especially the [[United States]]. The United States in particular was made a subject of Islamist ire because of its support for Israel, its presence on Saudi Arabian soil, what Islamists regard as its aggression against Muslims in Iraq, and its support of the regimes Islamists oppose. In addition some Islamists have concentrated their activity against Israel, and nearly all Islamists view Israel with hostility. Osama bin Laden, at least, believes that this is of necessity due to historical conflict between Muslims and Jews, and considers there to be a Jewish/American alliance against Islam.
There is some debate as to how influential Islamist movements remain. Some scholars assert that Islamism is a fringe movement that is dying, following the clear failures of Islamist regimes like the regime in Sudan, the Wahhabist Saudi regime and the Deobandi Taliban to improve the lot of Muslims. However, others (e.g. [[Ahmed Rashid]]) feel that the Islamists still command considerable support and cite the fact that Islamists in Pakistan and Egypt regularly poll 10 to 30 percent in electoral polls which many believe are rigged against them.
An alternative direction has been taken by many Islamists in [[Turkey]], where the Islamist movement split into reformist and traditionalist wings in [[2001]]. The reformists formed the moderate Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (Ak Party), which gained an overall majority in the Turkish parliament in [[2002]], and has sought to balance Islamic values with the requirements of a secular and democratic political system. Some in the Justice and Development Party see the [[Christian Democrat]] parties of Western Europe as a model, which has led some to question whether it is a genuinely Islamist movement.
== Islamism and modern political theory ==
The foundation of modern Islamist thought is the many centuries of Islamic theology and political science, but the development of modern Islamism was also both a reaction to and influenced by the other ideologies of the modern world. Modern Islamism began in the colonial period, and it was overtly anti-imperialist. It was also opposed to the local elites who wanted independence, but who also supported adopting western liberal ideals. Writers like the Egyptian [[Sayyid Qutb]] and the Pakistani [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] saw western style individualism as counter to centuries of tradition, and also as inevitably leading to a debauched and licentious society.
In the years after independence the most important ideological current in the Muslim world was socialism and communism. This influenced Islamism in two ways. Much Islamist thought and writing during this era was directly addressed to countering Marxism. For instance [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]]'s main works are detailed critiques of Marxism, paying much less attention to capitalism and liberalism. Another option was to try and integrate socialism and Islamism. This was most notably done by [[Ali Shariati]]. At several points Islamist and leftist groups found common cause, such as during the early stages of the [[Iranian Revolution]], and several organizations, such as the [[Islamic Socialist Front]] in Syria, were both overtly Marxist and overtly Islamist. While most Islamists reject Marxism, the influence of socialist ideologies during the formative period of modern Islamism means that Islamist works continue to be infused with Marxist language and concepts. For instance Qutb's view of an elite vanguard to lead an Islamic revolution is borrowed directly from [[Lenin]]'s [[Vanguard of the Proletariat]].
During the 1930s a number of [[fascism|fascistic]] groups arose in the Middle East. Some such as the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party|SSNP]] and the [[Kataeb Party]] were mostly supported by Christians and other minority groups, others like the Egyptian [[Misr al-Fatat]] were mainly Sunni Arab. The fascist method of seizing power did inspire Islamist [[Hassan al-Banna]], who founded organizations directly based on t |
984]] - [[Julio Cortázar]], Argentine writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1985]] - [[Nicholas Colasanto]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1992]] - [[Bep van Klaveren]], Dutch boxer (b. [[1907]])
*1992 - [[María Elena Moyano]], Peruvian activist (b. [[1960]])
*[[1993]] - [[James Bulger]], English murder victim (b. [[1990]])
*[[1995]] - [[Robert Bolt]], English writer (b. [[1924]])
*1995 - [[Philip Taylor Kramer]], American musician ([[Iron Butterfly]])
*[[1996]] - [[Bob Shaw]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2000]] - [[Screamin' Jay Hawkins]], American musician (b. [[1929]])
*2000 - [[Tom Landry]], American football coach (b. [[1924]])
*2000 - [[Charles Schulz]], American comics author (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Kristina Söderbaum]], German actress and photographer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2005]] - [[Brian Kelly]], American actor (b. [[1932]])
*2005 - [[Rafael Vidal]], Venezuelan athlete (b. [[1964]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[United States]] - [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's Birthday]] (traditionally).
* [[Georgia Day]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].
* [[National Freedom to Marry Day]] (unofficial).
* [[Darwin Day]].
* [[Red Hand Day]], International Day against the use of child soldiers
* Marriage Day Honoring the mother and father as heads of the household (as declared by Pope John Paul II)
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=12 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060212.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/12 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 11]] - [[February 13]] - [[January 12]] - [[March 12]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:12 Februarie]]
[[ar:12 فبراير]]
[[an:12 de frebero]]
[[ast:12 de febreru]]
[[bg:12 февруари]]
[[be:12 лютага]]
[[bs:12. februar]]
[[ca:12 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 12]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 12]]
[[co:12 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:12. únor]]
[[cy:12 Chwefror]]
[[da:12. februar]]
[[de:12. Februar]]
[[et:12. veebruar]]
[[el:12 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:12 de febrero]]
[[eo:12-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 12]]
[[fo:12. februar]]
[[fr:12 février]]
[[fy:12 febrewaris]]
[[ga:12 Feabhra]]
[[gl:12 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 12일]]
[[hr:12. veljače]]
[[io:12 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 12]]
[[id:12 Februari]]
[[ia:12 de februario]]
[[ie:12 februar]]
[[is:12. febrúar]]
[[it:12 febbraio]]
[[he:12 בפברואר]]
[[jv:12 Februari]]
[[ka:12 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:12 gromicznika]]
[[ku:12'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 12]]
[[lb:12. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 12]]
[[mk:12 февруари]]
[[ms:12 Februari]]
[[nap:12 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:12 februari]]
[[ja:2月12日]]
[[no:12. februar]]
[[nn:12. februar]]
[[oc:12 de febrièr]]
[[os:12 февралы]]
[[pl:12 lutego]]
[[pt:12 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:12 februarie]]
[[ru:12 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 12.]]
[[sco:12 Februar]]
[[sq:12 Shkurt]]
[[scn:12 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 12]]
[[sk:12. február]]
[[sl:12. februar]]
[[sr:12. фебруар]]
[[fi:12. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:12 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 12]]
[[tt:12. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 12]]
[[th:12 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:12 tháng 2]]
[[tr:12 Şubat]]
[[uk:12 лютого]]
[[wa:12 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 12]]
[[zh:2月12日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 12]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>French Horn</title>
<id>11159</id>
<revision>
<id>15908923</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-03T02:03:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Horn (instrument)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faramir</title>
<id>11160</id>
<revision>
<id>42058863</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:50:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|-
|{{Infobox LOTR |
image_character = Faramir2.jpg |
image_caption = [[David Wenham]] portrays '''Faramir''' in
[[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]'' films. |character_name = Faramir |
character_alias = none |
character_title = Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]] <br/> Captain of the White Tower <br/> Steward of [[Gondor]] <br/> Lord of [[Emyn Arnen]]<br/> Prince of Ithilien<br/> Steward of Gondor |
character_race = [[Men (Middle-earth)|Men]] |
character_culture = [[Dúnedain]], [[Gondorian]], [[House of Húrin]] |
character_gender = male |
character_realm = Gondor |
character_sub_realm = |
character_lifespan = 2983 [[Third Age|T.A.]] &ndash; 82 [[Fourth Age|F.A.]] (120 years) |
character_weapon = Sword and Bow |
character_actor = David Wenham |
character_voice = David Wenham |
}}
|}
<blockquote>'' 'Here was one with an air of high nobility such as Aragorn at times revealed, less high perhaps, yet also less incalculable and remote: one of the Kings of Men born into a later time, but touched with the wisdom and sadness of the Eldar Race. He knew now why Beregond spoke his name with love. He was a captain that men would follow, that he would follow, even under the shadow of the black wings.' '' <br/>&mdash;[[Peregrin Took]]'s thoughts after seeing Faramir for the first time</blockquote>
'''Faramir''' ([[Third Age|T.A.]] 2983 &ndash; [[Fourth Age|F.A.]] 82) is a wise man of nobility, the second of [[Denethor]]'s two sons in [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s fantasy universe, [[Middle-earth]]. As the '''Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]]''' (as well as the '''Captain of the White Tower''' after his brother's death) during the [[War of the Ring]], he had the strength belonging of his Númenorean ancestors, whose blood ran true in him, to reject the Ring without temptation&mdash;where else his brother, [[Boromir]], could not.
After his father's death, Faramir became the '''[[Steward of Gondor]]'''. Upon the arrival of the true king, [[Aragorn|King Elessar]], he laid down his office as Ruling Steward, but Elessar renewed his hereditary appointment as Steward and advisor to the King. Faramir was also appointed '''Prince of [[Ithilien]]''', also known as, '''Lord of [[Emyn Arnen]]'''.
==Biography==
Faramir was born in the [[Third Age]] of 2983 to [[Denethor II]] and [[Finduilas of Dol Amroth|Finduilas]], daughter of Adrahil of [[Dol Amroth]]. The following year, [[Ecthelion II]] died and his son, Denethor, succeeded him as the [[Stewards of Gondor#Ruling Stewards of Gondor|Ruling Steward of Gondor]].
When Faramir was five-years-old, Finduila died. Her death caused Denethor to become more somber, cold and detached from his family. The relationship between Faramir and [[Boromir]], who was five years elder of the brothers, grew closer and greater in love. Despite the obvious way that Denethor favored Boromir over Faramir, there was no jealously or rivalry between them. Boromir protected and helped Faramir, and Faramir looked up to his older brother. Although the siblings were very similar in appearance with their dark hair and grey eyes, it was not so in personality. Boromir was defined to be the more daring one, as well as the more fearless and strong warrior. Faramir’s boldness was incorrectly judged to be less due to his gentle nature and love of [[lore]] and music.
It was this interest that formed a friendship between Faramir and [[Gandalf]] the Grey. The youngest son of Denethor learned of what he could from Gandalf’s wisdom and mentoring. Denethor did not approve of Faramir as the “[[Wizards (Middle-earth) |wizard]]’s pupil”, for he neither trusted or liked the istar.
Faramir’s leadership, skill-in-arms, and swift but hardy judgment proved to be handy on the battlefield. During the War of the Ring, he was the Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]]; which consisted of the goodly [[Dúnedain]] of the South belonging to the line of the Lords of Westerneese. Faramir valiantly defended Gondor from the Enemy, but did not enjoy fighting for war’s sake.
<blockquote>''"War must be, while we defend our lives against a destroyer who would devour all; but I do not love the bright sword for its sharpness, nor the arrow for its swiftness, nor the warrior for his glory. I love only that which they defend: the city of the Men of Númenor, and I would have her loved for her memory, her ancientry, her beauty, and her present wisdom. Not feared, save as men may fear the dignity of a man, old and wise"'' (The Two Towers, "The Window on the West").</blockquote>
In June of 3018 T.A., [[Sauron]]’s forces attacked [[Osgiliath]], under the command of the [[Witch-king]], whose prescence caused the soldiers to drew back across the [[Anduin]]. When the last bridge was destroyed, in which Boromir’s and Faramir’s companies remained, the two brothers, along with two others, swam to shore and managed to hold all of the west shores of the Anduin.
The night before the assualt, Faramir had a prophectic dream of a voice speaking the following riddle:
<blockquote> ''“Seek for the Sword that was broken:<br />
''In Imladris it dwells; <br />
''There shall be counsels taken <br />
''Stronger than Morgul-spells. <br />
''There shall be shown a token <br />
''That Doom is near at hand, <br />
''For Isildur's Bane shall waken, <br />
''And the Halfling forth shall stand”'' (The Fellowship of the Ring, "The Council of Elrond”).</blockquote>
It came to Faramir and to his brother (once) as well, and they told of their dream to Denethor, who only told them that Imladris was an Elvish name for [[Rivendell]], home of [[Elrond]] and the Halfelven. Although Faramir had wanted to go for Gondor’s sake, Boromir, with t |
gt;3</sub>)
*[[Phosphorus pentafluoride]] (PF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Potassium fluoride]] (KF)
*[[Radon difluoride]] (RnF<sub>2</sub>)
*[[Silver(I) fluoride]] (AgF)
*[[Sulfur hexafluoride]] (SF<sub>6</sub>)
*[[Thionyl fluoride]] (SOF<sub>2</sub>)
*[[Tungsten(VI) fluoride]] (WF<sub>6</sub>)
*[[Uranium hexafluoride]] (UF<sub>6</sub>)
*[[Xenon hexafluoroplatinate]] (XePtF<sub>6</sub>)
*[[Xenon tetrafluoride]] (XeF<sub>4</sub>)
==See also==
* [[Fluorocarbon]]
* [[Isotopes of fluorine]]
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/9.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Fluorine]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Fluorine}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/F/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Fluorine]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele009.html It's Elemental &ndash; Fluorine]
* [http://www.chemie-master.de/pse/pse.php?modul=F Picture of liquid fluorine &ndash; chemie-master.de]
* [http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/fluorine.html Chemsoc.org]
* [http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/index-en.html Periodic Table of Elements]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
[[af:Fluoor]]
[[ar:فلور]]
[[bs:Fluor]]
[[ca:Fluor]]
[[cs:Fluor]]
[[cy:Fflworin]]
[[da:Fluor]]
[[de:Fluor]]
[[et:Fluor]]
[[el:Φθόριο]]
[[es:Flúor]]
[[eo:Fluoro]]
[[eu:Fluor]]
[[fr:Fluor]]
[[ko:플루오린]]
[[io:Fluoro]]
[[id:Fluorin]]
[[is:Flúor]]
[[it:Fluoro]]
[[he:פלואור]]
[[lv:Fluors]]
[[lt:Fluoras]]
[[hu:Fluor]]
[[mi:Hau kōwhai]]
[[nl:Fluor]]
[[ja:フッ素]]
[[no:Fluor]]
[[nn:Fluor]]
[[pl:Fluor]]
[[pt:Flúor]]
[[ru:Фтор]]
[[sk:Fluór]]
[[sl:Fluor]]
[[sr:Флуор]]
[[fi:Fluori]]
[[sv:Fluor]]
[[th:ฟลูออรีน]]
[[vi:Flo]]
[[tr:Flor]]
[[uk:Фтор]]
[[zh:氟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francium</title>
<id>10821</id>
<revision>
<id>40656700</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T02:41:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.134.34.197</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Characteristics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=87 | symbol=Fr | name=francium | left=[[radon]] | right=[[radium]] | above=[[caesium|Cs]] | below=[[Ununennium|Uue]] | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkali metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=1 | period=7 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(223)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 7s<sup>1</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | ? 1.87 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=300 | c=27 | f=80 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? 950 | c=? 677 | f=? }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | ca. 2 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ca. 65 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 404 | 454 | 519 | 608 | 738 | 946 | comment=(extrapolated) }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 1<br />(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 0.7 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 380 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | ? }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ? 3 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | ? 15 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-73-5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=francium | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=222 | sym=Fr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=14.2 [[minute|min]]
| dm=[[beta emission|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de=2.033 | pn=222 | ps=[[radium|Ra]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=223 | sym=Fr
| na=100% | hl=22.00 min
| dm1=β<sup>-</sup> | de1=1.149 | pn1=221 | ps1=[[radium|Ra]]
| dm2=[[alpha emission|&#945;]] | de2=5.430 | pn2=219 | ps2=[[astatine|At]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
'''Francium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Fr''' and [[atomic number]] 87. This is a highly [[radioactive]] [[alkali metal]] that is found in very small amounts in [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] ores.
== Characteristics ==
This element, which was named for [[France]], was discovered in [[1939]] by [[Marguerite Perey]] of the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]] in [[Paris]]. Francium is the heaviest alkali metal and occurs as a result of [[actinium]]'s [[alpha decay]] and can be artificially made by bombarding [[thorium]] with [[proton]]s.
Even though it naturally occurs in [[uranium]] [[mineral]]s, it has been estimated that there might be less than 30 grams of francium in the [[Crust (geology)|earth's crust]] at any one time, making it possibly one of the [[Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements|rarest elements]] in the crust, along with [[astatine]]. It is also the most unstable element among the first 101 and has the highest [[equivalent weight]] of any element.
There are 41 known [[isotope]]s of francium, the most of any element. With a 22-minute [[half life]], the longest lived isotope of this element is <sup>223</sup>Fr which is a daughter isotope of <sup>227</sup>[[actinium|Ac]] and is the only isotope of francium that occurs naturally. All known isotopes of francium are highly unstable, therefore knowledge of the properties of this element only comes from radiochemical procedures.
A small number of pictures of francium have been taken, but only of at the most 350,000 atoms at a time. The images were made by trapping the atoms and using a special [[fluorescent]] imaging camera. The atoms were produced by a nuclear transformation with a [[particle accelerator]] at [[Stony Brook University]]. <sup>18</sup>O nuclei are accelerated to an energy of 100 M[[Electron volt|eV]], to have sufficient energy to fuse with a [[gold]] nucleus and create nuclei of francium. The Fr nuclei last for typically three minutes, and must be trapped and observed before they decay.
This element is the least [[electronegative]]. Its electronegativity is 0.7 and [[caesium]] is right behind it.
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/87.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Francium]
*[http://fr.physics.sunysb.edu/francium_news/frconten.htm Stony Brook University Physics Dept.]
==External links==
{{Commons|Francium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/index.html WebElements.com - Francium]
*[http://www.andyscouse.com/pages/francium.htm Chemical information for Francium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkali metals]]
[[ca:Franci]]
[[cs:Francium]]
[[de:Francium]]
[[et:Frantsium]]
[[es:Francio]]
[[eo:Francio (elemento)]]
[[fr:Francium]]
[[gl:Francio (elemento)]]
[[ko:프랑슘]]
[[hr:Francij]]
[[io:Francio]]
[[is:Fransín]]
[[it:Francio]]
[[he:פרנציום]]
[[ku:Fransiyûm]]
[[lv:Francijs]]
[[lt:Francis]]
[[hu:Francium]]
[[nl:Francium]]
[[ja:フランシウム]]
[[no:Francium]]
[[nn:Francium]]
[[pl:Frans (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Frâncio]]
[[ru:Франций]]
[[sl:Francij]]
[[sr:Францијум]]
[[fi:Frankium]]
[[sv:Francium]]
[[th:แฟรนเซียม]]
[[uk:Францій]]
[[zh:钫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermium</title>
<id>10822</id>
<revision>
<id>41411993</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T03:43:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Chobot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=100 | symbol=Fm | name=fermium | left=[[einsteinium]] | right=[[mendelevium]] | above=[[erbium|Er]] | below=(Upn) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(257)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>12</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 30, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1800 | c=1527 | f=2781 }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 627 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-72-4 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=fermium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=252 | sym=Fm
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E4 s|25.39 h]]
| dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de2=7.153 | pn2=248 | ps2=[[californium|Cf]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=253 | sym=Fm
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|3 d]]
| dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=0.333 | pn1=253 | ps1=[[einsteinium|Es]]
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=7.197 | pn2=249 | ps2=[[californium|Cf]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=255 | sym=Fm
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=20.07 [[hour|h]]
| dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=7.241 | pn2=251 | ps2=[[californium|Cf]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=257 | sym=Fm
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|100.5 d]]
| dm1=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de1=6.864 | pn1=253 | ps1=[[californium|Cf]]
| dm2=SF | de2=- | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
'''Fermium''' is a [[synthetic |
earliest memories of Bismarck's generation of leaders encompassed the Napoleonic Wars and Prussia's attendant national humiliations. A perceived need not to manifest outward weakness made the adoption of more liberal means of government by these men unlikely, at best.
Intensified by the reign of the far more militaristic [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], Bismarck's legacy would contribute to the political culture in which [[Nazism]] found significant support-bases. This should raise questions over their true roles in history, despite the era of progress and prosperity over which they presided. Under Bismarck, much of this entails his strategies to suppress Catholic and socialist opposition while promoting militaristic Prussianism. As a result, in Germany, as in Japan and Italy, later attempts to extend democracy would succeed in establishing unstable democracies (the [[Weimar Republic]], [[Japan]] in the twenties, and [[Italy]] from the end of World War I to the [[1922]] appointment of [[Mussolini]] as premier by Victor Emmanuel III). Each of these constitutional democracies could not to cope with the severe problems of the day and the reluctance or inability to bring about fundamental structural changes.
Despite advances in industry and science under the Second Reich, Germany retained a despotic aspect to its character, due to its militaristic inclinations and having achieved its unification by "blood and iron". The armed forces, inculcated in the militarism of the Prussian ''Junkers'' &ndash; the glorification of war, and supreme and unquestioning loyalty to the state, leader, and hierarchy &ndash; remained passionately loyal to the [[Hohenzollern]] dynasty. The values of Prussia's repressive "garrison state," grounded in Prussia's repressive system of agriculture since the defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]], would be carried to a new extreme under the [[Third Reich]].
Prussianism caught on because prosperity satisfied the old support base of the middle class liberals, and the state was solicitous of the material welfare for many eventually won over&mdash;including the working class. German education emerged strong in vocational fields as well as propaganda. From the side of the landed aristocracy came the conceptions of inherent superiority in the ruling class and a sensitivity to matters of status, prominent traits well into the twentieth century. Fed by new sources, these conceptions could later be vulgarized and made appealing to the German population as a whole in doctrines of racial superiority. The royal bureaucracy introduced, against considerable aristocratic resistance, the ideal of complete and unreflecting obedience to an institution over and above class and individual.
At the foundation of these currents was centuries of economic, political, and cultural evolution starting with an agricultural system dominated for centuries by repressive means rather than through the market. German peasants were not only under the repressive watch of their landowners, but grounded in village and work structures that favor solidarity, diminishing their revolutionary potential. Thus, in the realm of propaganda, the ''Junkers'' established the generally successful [[Agrarian League]] in [[1894]], laying the groundwork for [[Nazi]] doctrine. The league sought the support of peasants in non-Junker areas of smaller farms, inculcating them in "führer worship," the idea of a corporative state, militarism, anti-Semitism. They would also make the distinction between "predatory" and "productive" capital, a distinction later used by the Nazis to appeal to [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] sentiments among the peasantry.
On the other hand the Kaiserreich did guarantee freedom of press, security of property and it managed to establish a system of public welfare based on compulsory insurance, which survived two World Wars and in its core survives still today. There was a modern election system to the federal Parliament, the Reichstag, which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the German Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play remarkable roles in the empire's political life, although both parties were officially regarded more or less as "foes of the empire". And the time of the Kaiserreich is well remembered in Germany as a period, when academic research and university life flourished as well as arts and literature. [[Thomas Mann]] published his novel the Buddenbrocks in 1901. [[Theodor Mommsen]] was awarded the [[Nobel prize for literature]] a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups [[Der Blaue Reiter]] and [[Die Brücke]] made a significant contribution to modern art. The [[AEG]] [http://www.courses.psu.edu/nuc_e/nuc_e405_g9c/berlin/bauten/turbinenhalle.jpg turbine building] in Berlin by [[Peter Behrens]] from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism.
Bismarck's unified Germany also had a significant impact in East Asia. The unification of Germany was considered a model for both the successful modernization of [[Japan]] (which modelled much its imperial constitution on the Hohenzollern empire) and the less successful modernization of [[China]] at the beginning of the 20th century. The German civil code became the basis of the legal systems of Japan and the [[Republic of China]] after the retreat of the latter to [[Taiwan]] remains as the basis of the legal system there. In addition, the Prussian military model (mainly army, the British impressed more as a naval power) had also influenced the Chinese and Japanese armies greatly until the Second World War through their employment of German military advisors, instructors and the acquisition of Germany military equipment. The Ottoman army was reorganised prior to World War One under German influence.
==References==
*Aronson, Theo. ''The Kaisers''. London: Cassell, 1971.
*Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. ''The Peculiarities Of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics In Nineteenth-Century Germany''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. ISBN 0198730586.
*[[Gordon A. Craig|Craig, Gordon]]. ''Germany: 1866-1945''. ISBN 0195027248
*[[Fritz Fischer|Fischer, Fritz]]. ''From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871-1945''. (translated and with an introduction by Roger Fletcher) London: Allen & Unwin, 1986. ISBN 0049430432.
*[[Fritz Fischer|Fischer, Fritz]]. ''War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914''. (translated from the German by Marian Jackson) New York: Norton, 1975. ISBN 0393054802.
*[[Gerhard Ritter|Ritter, Gerhard]]. ''The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany''. (translated from the German by Heinz Norden) Coral Gables: University of Miami Press 1969-73.
*[[Michael Stürmer|Stürmer, Michael]]. ''The German Empire, 1870-1918''. New York: Random House, 2000. ISBN 0679640908.
*[[Wolfgang Mommsen|Mommsen, Wolfgang]]. ''Imperial Germany 1867-1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian Sate''. (translated by Richard Deveson from ''Der Autoritäre Nationalstaat'') London: Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0340645342.
*[[Hans-Ulrich Wehler|Wehler, Hans-Ulrich]]. ''The German Empire, 1871-1918''. (translated from the German by Kim Traynor) Leamington Spa, Warwickshire: Berg Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0907582222.
==See also==
*[[Aftermath of World War I]]
*[[German colonial empire]]
*[[History of Germany]]
*[[Holy Roman Empire]]
*[[Nazi Germany]], so called "[[Third Reich]]"
*[[New Imperialism]]
*[[Reich]]
*[[States of the German Empire 1871-1918]]
*[[Weimar Republic]]
*[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]], the national anthem of the German Empire
==External links==
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~wggerman/map/germanempire.htm Map of the German Empire, 1871]
*[http://www.gemeindeverzeichnis.de/gem1900/gem1900.htm?gem1900_2.htm German Empire: administrative subdivision and municipalities, 1900 to 1910]
*[http://www.deutsche-kaiserreich.de/ Das Kaiserreich - Deutsches Reich 1871-1918]
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/german/germ_state1/ Germany: Heads of State: 1871-1945]
[[Category:19th century]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:German Empire]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[bg:Германска империя]]
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[[id:Kekaisaran Jerman]]
[[it:Impero germanico]]
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[[ru:Германская Империя]]
[[fi:Saksan keisarikunta]]
[[sv:Kejsardömet Tyskland]]
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<page>
<title>Gallienus</title>
<id>12677</id>
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<id>41453069</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gallienus bust.jpg|thumb|Head of Gallienus, in the Musée du [[Cinquantenaire]], [[Brussels]]]]
[[image:Gallienus_lead_seal_sm.jpg|thumb|Gallienus depicted on a lead [[Seal (device)|seal]]]]
'''Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus''' ([[218]]-[[268]]) ruled the [[Roman Empire]] as co-emperor with his father [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] from [[253]] to [[260]], and then as the sole [[Roman Emperor]] from 260 to [[268]]. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was unable to keep much of his realm from seceding.
==Reign==
One of the key characteristics of the [[Crisis of the Third Century]] was the inability of the Emperors to maintain their hold on the |
ts which lower [[surface tension]] can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolving of the gases into other liquid and solid fecal matter.
Often it is helpful to ingest small quantities of acidic liquids with meals, such as lemon juice or vinegar, to stimulate the production of hydrochloric acid, which in turn increases enzyme production. This facilitates digestion and may limit gas production.
==Health effects==
{{unreferenced}}
As a normal body function, the action of flatulence is an important signal of normal [[bowel]] activity and hence is often documented by nursing staff following surgical or other treatment of patients.
There is no particular harm to come from holding in flatus. Flatulence is not [[poisonous]]; it is a natural component of various intestinal contents. However, discomfort may develop from the build-up of gas pressure. In theory, pathological distension of the bowel, leading to [[constipation]], could result if a person holds in flatus.
If a person holds in flatulence during daytime, it will often be released during sleep when the body is relaxed.
==Environmental impact==
[[Livestock]] are a significant contributing factor to the [[greenhouse effect]], accounting for around 20% of global [[methane]] emissions[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6431]. Less than 10% of the total [[greenhouse gas]] emissions from livestock is produced by animal flatulence; most is produced by animal [[burping]]. Livestock in [[New Zealand]] account for 60% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions[http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1035851,00.html]. Livestock in [[Australia]] contribute approximately 14% of that country's greenhouse gas emissions.{{fact}}
==Social context==
In many [[culture]]s, excessive human flatulence is regarded as embarrassing and impolite, even to the point of being a [[taboo]] subject; and hence a natural subject for [[toilet humour]].
People will often strain to hold in the passing of gas when in polite company, or position themselves to conceal the noise and smell.
Flatulence can be considered humorous to some people, either due to the scent or the sounds produced. Some find humor in [[Fart lighting|flatulence ignition]], which is possible due to the presence of flammable gases such as hydrogen and methane, though the process can result in burn injuries to the rectum and anus.
== Literature and the arts==
[[Image:Walter_the_Farting_Dog.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Walter the Farting Dog]]
Flatulence has had a role in literature for centuries. In [[Rabelais]]' 16th century ''[[Gargantua]]'' cycle, the word ''pet'' (fart) appears several times.
In the translated version of Penguin's ''1001 [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights|Arabian Nights]] Tales'', a story titled "The Historic Fart" tells of a man that flees his country from the sheer embarrassment of farting at his wedding.
In [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', the last line of Inferno Chapter XXI reads: ''ed elli avea del cul fatto trombetta'' ("and he used his buttocks as a trumpet"), in the last example the use of this natural body function underlined a demoniac condition.
In [[Chaucer]]'s "[[Miller's Tale]]" (one of the ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''), the character Nicholas hangs his buttocks out of a window and farts in the face of his rival Absolom. Absolom then sears Nicholas's bum with a red-hot poker ("Nicholas quickly raised the window and thrust his ass far out...At this Nicholas let fly a fart with a noise as great as a clap of thunder, so that Absolom was almost overcome by the force of it. But he was ready with his hot iron and smote Nicholas in the middle of his ass."). (Lines 690&ndash;707)
In [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'', the main character [[Leopold Bloom]] breaks wind in the "Sirens" chapter of the book. [http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/sirens.html#1252]
In [[Emile Zola]]'s ''La Terre'' (the 15th volume of the series [[Les Rougon-Macquart]]), the eldest Fouan son can fart at will and keeps winning free drinks by betting on his skill.
The [[Walter the Farting Dog]] series of children's books by [[William Kotzwinkle]] with Glenn Murray feature a flatulent dog as a central comedic element.
In the cinema, farting has been featured in films intended for adult audiences such as ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' as well as children's films such as ''[[The Lion King]]''.
Farting is no longer summarily censored from television broadcasts in the [[United States]]. During the telecast of [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]], a beer advertisement featured a horse passing gas.
In the TV series ''[[South Park]]'', the in-series TV show ''[[Terrance and Phillip]]'' features two Canadian boys of the show's namesake who rely mostly on farts for their humor.
''[[The Gas We Pass]]'' (ISBN 0916291529) is a popular children's book in the United States about flatulence.
[[Beans Beans the Magical Fruit...]] is a popular children's song about [[bean]]s and their capacity to cause flatulence.
==Curiosities==
*[[Le Petomane]] "the Fartiste" a famous French performer in the 19th Century as well as many [[professional farter]]s before him did flatulence impressions and held shows.
*An apocryphal story about [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford|Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford]] is that he farted while swearing loyalty to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] and consequently went into self-imposed [[exile]] for [[seven]] years. After his return, the Queen was reported to have reassured de Vere: "My Lord, I had quite forgotten the fart." ([[John Aubrey]], ''[[Brief Lives]]'')
*[[Emperor Claudius]] passed a law legalizing farting at banquets out of concern for people's health. There was a widespread misconception that a person could be poisoned by retaining farts.
*In August [[2005]], ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine reported that inventors Michael Zanakis and Philip Femano had been awarded a US patent ({{US patent|6,055,910}}) for a "toy gas-fired missile and launcher assembly". The abstract of the patent makes it clear that this is, in fact, a fart-powered [[rocket]]:
*:"A ... missile is composed of a soft head and a tail extending therefrom formed by a piston. The piston is telescoped into the barrel of a launcher having a closed end on which is mounted an electrically activated igniter, the air space between the end of the piston and the closed end of the barrel defining a combustion chamber. Joined to the barrel, and communicating with the chamber therein, is a gas intake tube having a normally closed inlet valve. To operate the assembly, the operator places the inlet tube with its valve open adjacent [to] his anal region, from which a colonic gas is discharged. The piston is then withdrawn to a degree producing a negative pressure to inhale the gas into the combustion chamber to intermix with the air therein to create a combustible mixture. The igniter is then activated to explode the mixture in the chamber and fire the missile into space."
*British inventors have also patented fart-related ideas, such as "A fart collecting device," which includes a drawing of the invention deployed and ready for action, with helpful numbers to identify the various components. "It comprises a gas-tight collecting tube 10 for insertion into the rectum of the subject. The tube 10 is connected to a gas-tight collecting bag (not shown). The end of the tube inserted into the subject is apertured and covered with a gauze filter and a gas permeable bladder 28."
*[[Mambo Graphics]], an Australian surfwear label, features the iconic "Farting Dog" design [http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/australia_innovates/media/client/P402_9.jpg] in its lineup. Here the flatulence is depicted as a musical note emanating from the dog's backside.
==See also==
*[[professional farter]]
*[[Borborygmus]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| author = McGee, Harold
| title = [[On Food and Cooking]]
| publisher = Scribner
| year = 1984
| id = ISBN 0684843285
}}
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6431 "Burp vaccine cuts greenhouse gas emissions"] by Rachel Nowak, ''New Scientist'' website, [[25 September]] [[2004]], retrieved [[December 3]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1035851,00.html "Farmers raise stink over New Zealand 'fart tax'"] by David Fickling,''Guardian Unlimited'', [[September 5]] [[2003]], retrieved [[December 3]] [[2005]].
===Nontechnical Resources===
* {{cite book
| author = Franklin, Benjamin
| editor = Japikse, Carl (Ed.)
| title = Fart Proudly
| publisher = Frog Ltd/Blue Snake
| year = 2003
| edition = (Reprint)
| id = ISBN 1583940790
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Dawson, Jim
| title = Who Cut the Cheese?: A Cultural History of the Fart
| publisher = Ten Speed Press
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 1-58-008011-1
}}
==External links==
{{wiktionarypar2|fart|flatulence}}
*[http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section3/chapter32/32b.jsp The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Gas]
*[http://www.heptune.com/farts.html Facts on Farts]
*[http://www.sillyjokes.co.uk/fart_machine/fart_slang.html Dictionary of Fart Slang]
*[http://abc.net.au/spark/smelly/fartsurvey/default.htm The Great Fart Survey (simple statistical analysis of flatulence in youths) produced by Australian Broadcasting Corporation youth website, ''Rollercoaster'')]
[[Category:Reflexes]]
[[Category:Flatulence| Flatulence]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[de:Flatulenz]]
[[es:Flatulencia]]
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[[he:נפיחה]]
[[id:Kentut]]
[[it:Flatulenza]]
[[ja:屁]]
[[nl:Winderigheid]]
[[pl:Gazy jelitowe]]
[[pt:Flatulência]]
[[ru:Метеоризм]]
[[sv:Flatulens]]</text>
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<title>Forms in architecture</title>
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< |
.com/ Crochet About]
** [http://www.halfknits.com/ Halfknits - Crocheting for Charity]
*Free Crochet Patterns
** [http://www.crochetpatterncentral.com/directory.php Crochet Pattern Central] Directory
** [http://www.smartcrochet.com Smart Crochet]
** [http://www.marloscrochetcorner.com/patterns.html Marlo's Crochet Corner]
** [http://www.bevscountrycottage.com/patterns.html Bev's Country Cottage]
** [http://home.inreach.com/marthac/links.html Martha's Crochet & Craft links]
** [http://www.craftbits.com/viewCategory.do?categoryID=NED CraftBits]
** [http://www.geocities.com/crotiques/patterns.htm Crotiques]
** [http://www.modadea.com/designs.htm Moda Dea]
** [http://www.freevintagecrochet.com/ Free Vintage Crochet]
** [http://www.craftown.com/crochet.htm Craftown]
** [http://www.lionbrand.com/content-crochetPatternIndex.html Lion Brand]
** [http://www.freepatterns.com/ FreePatterns.com]
** [http://www.crochettreasures.com/freepatterns/archives.htm Crochet Treasures]
[[Category:Crochet]]
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[[sv:Virkning]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Coil</title>
<id>7425</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-07T13:30:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reddi</username>
<id>13833</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
: ''The term "Coil" is a part some names and ideas, see below for [[Coil#Other uses|other uses]] or the disambiguation page.
A '''coil''' is a [[series]] of [[loop]]s.
==General applications==
[[Image:Ressort de compression.jpg|thumb|180px|A helical spring.]]
A ''coil'' is made of materials, usually rigid, which can be fashioned into a [[spiral]] or [[helix|helical]] shape. Flexible materials like wire, rope, hose, or cable can also be coiled into empty loops, or wound around a central [[drum]] or [[spindle]].
Some common applications of coils include:
* A ''[[Spring (device)|coil spring]]'' is the most common type of spring.
* A set of [[stair]]s fashioned in a coil shape, which are called [[spiral staircase]]s.
* A [[Slinky]] is a ''coil-shaped'' toy.
* A ''[[coil stamp]]'' is a type of postage stamp sold as strips one stamp wide.
* A ''[[boiler]] coil'' is an element in a [[water heater]].
* ''[[Evaporator coil]]s'' are used in [[air conditioning]] and other [[refrigeration cycle]]s.
* ''Coil'' is a colloquial term applied to [[contraceptive]] [[intrauterine device]]s.
'''See also''': [[list of coil knots]]
==Electromagnetic==
[[Image:Transformers.png|thumb|Diagram of typical transformer configurations]]
In [[electrical engineering]], an ''electromagnetic coil'' is formed when a metallic or [[Conductor (material)|conductive]] [[wire]] is looped around a core to create an electronic [[inductor]] or [[electromagnet]]. One loop of wire is usually referred to as one ''turn''. A coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an [[electronic circuit]], [[electrical connection]] terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional [[insulator|insulation]] and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called a ''winding''. A [[transformer]] is an electromagnetic device that has a ''primary winding'' and a ''secondary winding'' that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another by magnetic coupling without moving parts. The term ''tickler coil'' usually refers to a third coil placed in relation to a primary coil and secondary coil.
Some common electromagnetic coils include:
* A ''[[bifilar coil]]'' is a coil that employs two [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] windings.
* A ''[[Barker coil]]'' is used in low field [[NMR imaging]].
* A ''[[Braunbeck coil]]'' is used in geomagnetic research.
* A ''[[Degaussing#The_degaussing_coil|degaussing coil]]'' is used in the process of removing [[permanent magnet]]ism (magnetic [[hysteresis]]) from an object.
* A ''[[Choke (electronics)|choke coil]]'' (or ''choking coil'') is low-[[electrical resistance|resistance]] [[inductor]] used to block [[alternating current]] while passing [[direct current]].
* A ''[[Garrett coil]]'' is used in [[metal detector]]s.
* A ''[[Helmholtz coil]]'' is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform [[magnetic field]].
* A ''[[hybrid coil]]'' (or ''[[bridge transformer]]'') is a single transformer that effectively has three windings.
* An ''[[induction coil]]'' (or ''[[ignition coil]]'') is an electrical device in common use as the [[ignition system]] (''ignition coil or spark coil'') of internal-combustion engines.
* A ''[[loading coil]]'' is, in electronics, a coil (inductor) inserted in a circuit to increase its [[inductance]]. Archaically called ''Pupin coils''.
* A ''[[multiple coil magnet]]'' is an [[electromagnet]] that has several coils of wire connected in parallel.
* A ''[[Maxwell coil]]'' is a device for producing almost a constant magnetic field.
* A ''[[Oudin coil]]'' is a disruptive discharge coil.
* The ''[[polyphase coil]]s'' are connected together in a polyphase system such as a generator or motor.
* A ''relay coil'' is the copper winding part of a [[relay]] that produces a magnetic field that actuates the mechanism.
* A ''[[Rogowski coil]]'' is an electrical device for measuring alternating current.
* A ''[[single coil]]'' is a type of pickup for the [[electric guitar]].
* A ''[[solenoid]]'' is a mechanical device, based around a ''coil of wire'', that converts energy into linear motion.
* A ''[[Tesla coil]]'' is category of disruptive discharge coils, usually denoting a resonant transformer that generates very high voltages at radio frequencies.
* A ''[[voice coil]]'' which is mounted to the moving cone of a [[loudspeaker]].
;Further reading
* Querfurth, William, "''Coil winding; a description of coil winding procedures, winding machines and associated equipment for the electronic industry''" (2d ed.). Chicago, G. Stevens Mfg. Co., 1958.
* Weymouth, F. Marten, "''Drum armatures and commutators (theory and practice) : a complete treatise on the theory and construction of drum winding, and of commutators for closed-coil armatures, together with a full résumé of some of the principal points involved in their design; and an exposition of armature reactions and sparking''". London, "The Electrician" Printing and Publishing Co., 1893.
* "''Coil winding proceedings''". International Coil Winding Association.
* Chandler, R. H., "''Coil coating review, 1970-76''". Braintree, R. H. Chandler Ltd, 1977.
;External articles
* R. Clarke, "''[http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/ Producing wound components]''". Surrey.ac.uk, 2005 October 9th.
==Chemistry==
[[Image:NA-comparedto-DNA thymineAndUracilCorrected.png|thumb|180px| RNA coil on the left and DNA coil on the right.]]
In the [[Chemistry|study of how molecules interact with each other]], there are a few specific references to ''organic coils''. During [[self-assembly]], organic elements organize to form this structural pattern. Molecular self-assembly assembles the molecules, without guidance or management from an outside source, into these shapes.
Examples of these structural patterns include:
* A ''[[coiled coil]]'' is a [[structural motif]] found in many proteins.
* The ''[[DNA|DNA coil]]'' is a nucleic acid structure that contains the [[genetics|genetic]] [[instruction]]s specifying the [[developmental biology|biological development]] of all cellular forms of [[life]] (and many [[virus]]es).
* A ''[[random coil]]'' is a [[polymer]] conformation where the [[monomer]]s are arranged at [[random]].
* The ''[[RNA|RNA coil]]'' is a [[nucleic acid]] structure consisting of a [[string (computer science)|string]] of [[covalent bond|covalently-bound]] [[nucleotide]]s.
As an acronym, ''COIL'' denotes the [[Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser]].
==Other uses==
'''Musician names'''
"''Coil''" is, or is part of, the name for some musicians or their albums.
''Name''
* ''[[Coil (band)|Coil]]'' is a British experimental band.
* ''[[Icon of Coil]]'' is a Norwegian electronic body music band.
* ''[[Lacuna Coil]]'' is an Italian goth heavy metal band.
* ''[[This Mortal Coil]]'' is a British dark cover band.
''Publication''
* ''[[Coil (album)|Coil]]'' is a 1997 album by American band [[Toad the Wet Sprocket]].
==External articles==
{{wiktionarypar|Coil}}
* For the definition of [[Wiktionary:Coil|Coil]] and words related to it, see Wiktionary.
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[[cs:Cívka (rozcestník)]]
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<title>Charles I of England</title>
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| [[Image:Carolus I.jpg|200px|thumb|Charles I, king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.]]
|-
|{{House of Stuart|arms=[[Image:J1&2,C1&2 Arms.png|150px]]}}
|}
'''Charles I''' ([[19 November]] [[1600]] &ndash; [[30 January]] [[1649]]) was [[monarch|King]] of [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Ireland]] from [[27 March]] [[1625]] until his [[capital punishment|execution]] in 1649. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the [[Parliament of England]]. As he was an advocate of the [[Divine Right of Kings]], many in England feared that he was attempting to gain [[political absolutism|absolute power]]. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying o |
d Arabic, respectively.
==Notes==
{{ent|1|Romanian}} According to Mitrica, an October 2005 Romanian report estimates that 1,061,400 Romanians are living in Italy, constituting 37.2% of 2.8 million immigrants in that country [http://www.evz.ro/eveniment/?news_id=201813] but it is unclear how the estimate was made, and therefore whether it should be taken seriously or not.
{{ent|2|dialects}}See also (in Italian): ''L. Lepschy e G. Lepschy, La lingua italiana: storia, varietà d'uso, grammatica, Milano, Bompiani''
== References ==
:''Other references can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.''
*Mitrica, Mihai [http://www.evz.ro/eveniment/?news_id=201813 Un milion de romani s-au mutat in Italia] ("One million Romanians have moved to Italy"). ''Evenimentul Zilei'', [[October 31]] [[2005]]. Retrieved [[October 31]] [[2005]].
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Italy}}
{{portal}}
===Official sites===
*[http://www.quirinale.it/ Presidenza della Repubblica] - Official site of the Italian president (in Italian)
*[http://www.parlamento.it/ Parlamento] - Official site of the Italian parliament (Senate in Italian only)
*[http://www.italia.gov.it/ Italia.gov.it] - Main governmental portal (in Italian)
*[http://www.esteri.gov.it/eng/ Ministero degli Affari Esteri] - Italian Foreign Office
*[http://www.istat.it Istituto nazionale di statistica] - National statistics office, (in Italian)
===Others===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{EU countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}
{{G8}}
[[Category:Italy| ]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>India</title>
<id>14533</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42103953</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:25:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rama's Arrow</username>
<id>591624</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ grammar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
native_name = Republic of India <br />भारत गणराज्य<br /> Bh{{Unicode|ā}}rat Ga{{Unicode|ṇ}}ar{{Unicode|ā}}jya<!-- IF YOU CANNOT SEE THE 'N' UPGRADE YOUR BROWSER -->|
common_name = India|the=|
image_flag = Flag of India.svg |
image_coat = EmblemofIndia-small.png |
national_motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]]<br /> [[Sanskrit]]: सत्यमेव जयते <br>{{IPA|/sətyəmeːvə ɟəjəteː/}}<br /> (Truth Alone Triumphs) |
image_map = IndiaLocation.png |
national_anthem = [[Jana Gana Mana]]<br /> [[Sanskrit]]: जन गण मन <br>{{IPA|/ɟənə gəɳə mənə/}}|
official_languages = [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]], and [[List of national languages of India|21 other languages]] |
capital = [[New Delhi]] |
latd = 28|latm=34|latNS=N|longd=77|longm=12|longEW=E |
government_type = [[Federal republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of India|President]]<br />[[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[APJ Abdul Kalam]]<br />[[Manmohan Singh|Dr. Manmohan Singh]] | largest_city = [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) |
area = 3,287,590 |
area_rank = 7th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 9.56 |
population_estimate = 1,112,225,812|
population_estimate_year = 2006 |
population_estimate_rank = 2nd |
population_census = 1,027,000,000 |
population_census_year = 2001 |
population_density = 329 |
population_density_rank = 19th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $3.678 trillion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 4th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3400 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 125th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.602 |
HDI_rank = 127th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence of India|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br />&nbsp;- Republic |
established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]<br />[[1947-08-15]]<br />[[1950-01-26]] |
currency = [[Indian Rupee|Rupee]] (Rs.)<sup>1</sup> |
currency_code = INR |
time_zone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] |
utc_offset = +5:30 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +5:30|
cctld = [[.in]] |
calling_code = 91 |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> '''Re.''' is singular
}}
The '''Republic of India''' is a country in [[South Asia]] which comprises of the majority of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It has a coastline of over seven thousand kilometres,{{inote|see Indian embassy|i-1}} borders [[Pakistan]] to the west, the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the northeast, and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the east. On the [[Indian Ocean]], it is adjacent to three [[island nation]]s — the [[Maldives]] to the southwest, [[Sri Lanka]] to the south, and [[Indonesia]] to the southeast. India also claims a border with [[Afghanistan]] to the northwest.{{mn|afgh|1}}
The name ''India'' /{{IPA|'ɪndiə}}/ is derived from the [[Old Persian]] version of ''[[Sindhu]]'', the historic local name for the [[Indus river]] (see [[Origin of India's name]]). The [[Constitution of India]] and common usage also recognise '''Bharat''' ({{lang-hi|भारत}} {{IPA|/bʰɑːrət̪/}} {{Audio|Bharat.ogg|listen}}) as an official name of equal status. This name is derived from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] name of an ancient [[Hindu]] king whose story can be found in the [[Mahabharata]] [[epic poem]]. A third name, '''[[Hindustan]]''' ({{lang-hi|हिन्दुस्तान}} <!-- THIS SPELLING IS CORRECT. PLEASE READ [[Wikipedia:Enabling complex text support for Indic scripts]] --> /{{IPA|hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn}}/) {{Audio|Hindustan.ogg|listen}} ([[Persian language|Persian]]: ''[[-stan|Land]] of the Hindus'') has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes by some over its representation as a national signifier.
India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of [[purchasing power parity]], and the tenth largest in absolute terms. It is the [[List of countries by population| second most populous]] [[country]] in the world, with a [[population]] of over [[1 E9|one billion]], and is the [[List of countries by area|seventh largest]] country by geographical [[area]]. It is home to some of the most [[Indus Valley Civilisation|ancient civilisations]], and a centre of important historic [[Trade route|trade routes]]. Four [[major world religions]]: [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] have Indian origins. Formerly a major part of the [[British Empire]] as the [[British Raj]] before gaining [[Indian independence movement|independence]] in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its [[Economy of India|economic]] and [[Military of India|military]] spheres, [[Regional power|regionally]] as well as [[Geopolitics|globally]].
==History==
<!-- THIS SECTION IS A SUMMARY. CONSIDER ADDING MATERIAL TO THE 'HISTORY OF INDIA' ARTICLE.-->
{{main|History of India}}
[[Stone Age]] rock shelters with paintings at [[Bhimbetka]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] are the earliest known traces of human life in present-day India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago, and gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], which began around [[3300 BC]] and peaked between [[2600 BC]] and [[1900 BC]]. It was followed by the [[Vedic Civilisation]]. From around [[550 BC]], many independent kingdoms came into being.
In the north, the [[Mauryan empire|Maurya dynasty]], which included [[Ashoka]], contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From [[180 BC]], a series of invasions from [[Central Asia]] followed. This led to the establishment of the [[Indo-Greek]], [[Indo-Scythian]] and [[Indo-Parthian]] kingdoms in the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]], and finally the [[Kushan Empire]]. From the 3rd century AD, the [[Gupta|Gupta dynasty]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age".
In the south, several dynasties, including the [[Chalukyas]], [[Cheras]], [[Cholas]], [[Kadambas]], [[Pallavas]] and [[Pandyas]] prevailed during different periods. [[Ancient Indian science and technology|Science, engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian Mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian science|astronomy]], [[Religion in India|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] flourished under the patronage of these kings.
[[Image:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Sanchi|Sanchi stupa]] in Sanchi, [[Madhya Pradesh]] built by emperor [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BC]]
Following the [[Islamic invasion of India|Islamic invasions]] from Central Asia and Persia in the beginning of the second millennium AD, much of north and central India came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and l |
ch grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola [[mahogany]]. The [[bark]] of the [[musuemba]] (''Albizzia coriaria'') is largely used in the tanning of [[leather]]. The [[mulundo]] bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a [[pomegranate]]. The fauna includes the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[cheetah]], [[elephant]], [[giraffe]], [[rhinoceros]], [[hippopotamus]], [[African Buffalo|buffalo]], [[zebra]], [[kudu]] and many other kinds of [[antelope]], [[wildpig]], [[ostrich]] and [[crocodile]]. Among fish are the [[barbel]], [[bream]] and [[African yellow fish]].
'''Geography - note:''' the province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] is an [[exclave]], separated from the rest of the country by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
== Extreme points ==
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Angola]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
'''''Angola'''''
* Northernmost Point - unnamed point on the border with [[Republic of the Congo]] (north of the town [[Caio Bemba]], [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] province (an Angolan [[exclave]])
* Easternmost Point - unnamed location on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province
* Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province
* Westernmost Point - [[Baía dos Tigres]] island, [[Namibe Province]]
'''''Angola (mainland)'''''
* Northernmost Point - a point on the border with the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] immediately to the north-west of the town [[Luvo]], [[Zaire Province]]
* Easternmost Point - unnamed point on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province
* Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province
* Westernmost Point - unnamed headland west of [[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre), [[Namibe Province|Namibe]]
== Sources ==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
*{{1911}}
== See also ==
*[[Angola]]
*[[Extreme points of Angola]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Angola| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Angola, Geography of]]
[[es:Geografía de Angola]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Angola]]
[[pt:Geografia de Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Angola</title>
<id>704</id>
<revision>
<id>41587062</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:00:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.131.142.187</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The '''demographics of Angola''' consist of three main ethnic groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or Lunda), Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and Africa) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is both the official and predominant language.
The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the Bangala of the middle [[Congo]]. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
[[Image:Angola population pyramid 2005.png|thumb|300px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]]
===Population===
:11,190,786 (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 43.4% (male 2,454,209/female 2,407,083)
:15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,059,339/female 2,955,060)
:65 years and over: 2.8% (male 139,961/female 175,134) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 18.12 years
:Male: 18.12 years
:Female: 18.11 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:1.9% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:44.64 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:25.9 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 191.19 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 203.68 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 178.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 36.61 years
:Male: 36 years
:Female: 37.25 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:6.27 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 3.9% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 240,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 21,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Angolan(s)
:Adjective: Angolan
===Ethnic groups===
:Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
===Religions===
:Indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
===Languages===
:Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 42%
:Male: 56%
:Female: 28% (1998 est.)
==References==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Geography of Angola]]
[[Category:Angolan society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Angola</title>
<id>705</id>
<revision>
<id>35512983</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T07:09:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acntx</username>
<id>104025</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* International organization participation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Angola}}
[[Angola]] changed from a [[Single-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[MPLA]] to a formal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections. President [[José Eduardo dos Santos|dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff never has taken place. The subsequent renewal of civil war and collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]] have left much of this process stillborn, but democratic forms exist, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]].
Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Const |
quot;China" is often used to refer to mainland China (Hong Kong and Macau excluded).
==History==
{{main articles|[[History of China]], [[History of the People's Republic of China]], and [[Timeline of Chinese history]]}}
After [[World War II]], the [[Chinese Civil War]] between the [[Communist Party of China]] and the [[Kuomintang]] ended in 1949 with the Communists in control of [[mainland China]] and the Kuomintang in control of [[Taiwan]] and some outlying islands of [[Fujian]]. On [[October 1]], [[1949]], [[Mao Zedong]] emphatically declared the People's Republic of China, establishing a [[communist state]], and proclaiming "the Chinese people have stood up."[[Image:China, Mao (2).jpg|thumb|right|230px|[[Mao Zedong]] declares the founding of the PRC in 1949]] <!-- This picture should really go in the history section but the infobox is preventing it from doing so -->
Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and [[sovereignty]] was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of [[infrastructure]], [[industry]], [[healthcare]], and [[education]], which raised [[standard of living]] for the average Chinese. They also believe that [[Political_campaign|campaign]]s such as the [[Great Leap Forward]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]] were essential in jumpstarting China's development and purifying its culture. More nuanced arguments claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate" on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters may also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns. Some, including Mao at the time, attributed the high death toll to [[natural disaster]]s; still others doubt this figure entirely, or claim that many more people died due to famine or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of [[Chiang Kai-Shek]].
Critics of Mao's [[regime]] assert that Mao's administration imposed strict controls over everyday life, and believe that campaigns such as the [[Great Leap Forward]] and [[Cultural Revolution]] contributed to or caused millions of deaths, incurred severe economic costs, and damaged China's [[cultural heritage]]. The [[Great Leap Forward]] in particular preceded a massive [[famine]] in China which, according to numbers guessed by credible Western and Eastern [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm sources], 20–30 million people died; most Western and many Chinese analysts attribute this to the [[Great Leap Forward]].
Following the dramatic economic failures of the early 1960s, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman of the People's Republic. The National People's Congress elected [[Liu Shaoqi]] as Mao's successor. Mao remained head of the Party but was removed from day to day management of economic affairs which came under the control of a more moderate leadership under the dominant influence of [[Liu Shaoqi]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and others who initiated economic reforms.
In 1966, Mao launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], which is viewed by his opponents (including both Western analysts and many Chinese people who were youth at the time) as a strike back at his rivals by mobilizing the youth of the country in support of his thought and purging the moderate leadership, but was viewed by his supporters as an experiment in direct [[democracy]] and a genuine attempt at purging Chinese society of [[political corruption|corruption]] and other negative influences. Mao's [[personality cult]] at the time and the relatively [[hierarchical|hierarchy]], top-down structure of the "[[Red Guard]]" tend to contradict this interpretation, however, as did the economic reconstruction needed in China after these events. Extreme disorder followed but gradually under the leadership of [[Zhou Enlai]] moderate forces regained influence.
After Mao's death, [[Deng Xiaoping]], seen as the leader of the economic reformists, succeeded in winning the power struggle, and Mao's widow, [[Jiang Qing]] and her associates, the [[Gang of Four]], who had assumed control of the country, were arrested and put on trial. Since then, the government has gradually and greatly loosened governmental control over people's personal lives, and began transitioning China's planned economy into a [[mixed economy]]. Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the [[consumer]] and [[export]] sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban [[middle class]] that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in [[GDP per capita]], consumer spending, [[life expectancy]], [[literacy rate]], and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms. Critics of the economic reforms claim that the reforms have caused [[wealth disparity]], [[environmental pollution]], rampant [[Political corruption|corruption]], widespread [[unemployment]] associated with layoffs at inefficient [[state-owned enterprise]]s, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved dramatically, and images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable. [[Image:Shanghai_-_Nanjing_Road.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Nanjing Road, Shanghai|Nanjing Road]] (&#21335;&#20140;&#36335;), one of the world's busiest shopping streets.]]<!-- something to represent the transformation to capitalism -->
Despite these concessions to capitalism, the Communist Party of China remains in control and has maintained policies against groups which it feels are threats, such as [[Falun Gong]] and the separatist movement in [[Tibet]]. Supporters of these policies claim that these policies safeguard stability in a society that is torn apart by class differences and rivalries, has no tradition of civil participation, and limited rule of law. Opponents of these policies claim that these policies severely violate norms of [[human rights]] that the international community recognizes, and further claim that this results in a [[police state]], which creates an atmosphere of fear and ignorance.
In 1989, the death of pro-reform official [[Hu Yaobang]] led to the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], during which students and others held protests in Beijing's [[Tiananmen Square]] and elsewhere to campaign for democratic reform and freedom. The protests ended on [[June 3]] - [[June 4]] when [[People's Liberation Army|PLA]] troops entered the square, killing hundreds. The event brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the PRC government. The PRC government itself has since remained relatively silent on the issue, though it has also defended it by saying that it was necessary for the continued stability of the country.
The People's Republic of China adopted its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on [[December 4]], [[1982]].
==Politics==
[[Image:National People's Congress.JPG|thumb|250px|The [[Great Hall of the People]], where the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC), highest legistlative body, of China convenes.]]
{{main|Politics of the People's Republic of China}}<!-- This section is on the politics of [[Mainland China]] -->
In the [[technical terminology]] of [[political science]] the PRC was a [[communist state]] for much of the 20th century, and is still considered a communist [[state]] by many, though not all [[List of political scientists|political scientist]]s agree. Attempts to characterize the nature of China's political [[structure]] into a single, simple category are typically seen as lacking sufficient depth to be satisfactory. A major reason for this is China's political history: for over two thousand years, prior to 1949, the state had been ruled by some form of [[Chinese Empire|centralized imperial monarchy]] with strong [[Confucian]] influences, which have left significant traces on subsequent political and social structures. This was followed by a chaotic succession of largely [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[Kuomintang|Chinese Nationalist]] governments as well as [[warlord]]-[[occupation|held]] administration since the first [[Chinese Revolution]] of 1912.
The PRC [[regime]] has variously been described as [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]], [[communism|communist]], [[socialism|socialist]] and various combinations of those terms. It has also been described as a [[Communist state|communist government]]. This may be called [[State capitalism|state capitalist]] by more left-leaning communists. It appears China is slowly becoming [[Capitalism|capitalist]] in its economic system. China recently released an official statement on its political structure, upholding the notion that the state should be ruled by democratic means. Personal freedoms have grown considerably since the early days of Communist rule. However, heavy restrictions remain in some areas, most notably [[Internet censorship in mainland China|internet censorship]] and [[freedom of the press]].
The government of the PRC is controlled by the [[Communist Party of China|China Communist Party]] (CPC). There are some other political parties in PRC, called "democratic parties". However they are very closely associated with the CPC. These minor parties participate in the [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] but mostly serve to endorse CPC policies. While there have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open [[conte |
istianity]]
[[cs:Chalkedonské vyznání]]
[[ja:&#12459;&#12523;&#12465;&#12489;&#12531;&#20449;&#26465;]]
[[ro:Crezul Calcedonian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conservation law</title>
<id>6956</id>
<revision>
<id>41633121</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:48:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yevgeny Kats</username>
<id>733501</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Exact laws */ no conservation of information (see Talk)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], a '''conservation law''' states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves.
== Exact laws ==
The following is a partial listing of conservation laws that have never been shown to be inexact.
* [[Conservation of energy]]
* [[Momentum#Conservation_of_momentum|Conservation of linear momentum]]
* [[Angular_momentum#Conservation_of_angular_momentum|Conservation of angular momentum]]
* [[Electric_charge#Conservation_of_charge|Conservation of electric charge]]
* conservation of [[color charge]]
* [[Conservation of probability]]
== Approximate conservation laws ==
There are also approximate conservation laws. These are approximately true in particular situations, such as low speeds, short time scales, or certain interactions.
* [[Conservation of mass]]
* Conservation of [[baryon number]] (See [[chiral anomaly]])
* Conservation of [[flavor (particle physics)|flavor]] (violated by the [[weak interaction]])
* Conservation of [[parity (physics)|parity]]
* [[CP symmetry]]
== Philosophy of conservation laws ==
[[Noether's theorem]] expresses the equivalence which exists between conservation laws and the [[invariance]] of physical laws with respect to certain transformations (typically called "[[symmetry|symmetries]]") for systems which obey the [[Principle of least action]] and hence having a [[Lagrangian]] and a Hamiltonian (See [[Classical mechanics]], [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] for details). For instance, [[time invariance]] implies that energy is conserved, [[translation invariance]] implies that momentum is conserved, and [[rotation invariance]] implies that angular momentum is conserved.
*''Things that remain unchanged, in the midst of change''
The idea that some things remain unchanging throughout the evolution of the universe has been motivating philosophers and scientists alike for a long time.
In fact, quantities that are conserved, the ''[[invariant (physics)|invariants]]'', seem to preserve what some would like to call some kind of a 'physical reality' and seem to have a more meaningful existence than many other physical quantities. These laws bring a great deal of simplicity into the structure of a physical theory. They are the ultimate basis for most solutions of the equations of [[physics]].
== See also ==
* [[Continuity equation]]
* [[Philosophy of physics]]
[[Category:Conservation laws| ]]
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[[ca:Llei de conservació]]
[[de:Erhaltungssatz]]
[[el:Νόμος Διατήρησης]]
[[fr:Loi de conservation]]
[[id:Hukum kekekalan]]
[[it:Leggi di conservazione]]
[[hu:Megmaradási tétel]]
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[[ja:保存則]]
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[[ru:Закон сохранения]]
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[[sv:Konserveringslag]]
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[[uk:Закони збереження]]
[[zh:守恒定律]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Country codes</title>
<id>6958</id>
<revision>
<id>15905065</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-05T07:45:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Secfan</username>
<id>62238</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Country code]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chord</title>
<id>6959</id>
<revision>
<id>39897932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T17:42:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paolo Liberatore</username>
<id>203600</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added [[Chord (graph theory)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chord''' may mean:
* [[Chord (geometry)]], a line segment joining two points on a curve
* [[Chord (graph theory)]], an edge joining two not-adjacent nodes in a cycle
* [[Chord (music)]], three or more notes sounded simultaneously
* [[Chord (aircraft)|Chord (aviation)]], the distance between the front and back of a wing, measured in the direction of the normal airflow. The term chord was selected due to the curved nature of the wing's surface.
* [[Chord project|Chord (computing)]], a distributed hash table protocol
* [[Chord (concurrency)|Chord (computing)]], a concurrency construct in some object-oriented programming languages
'''Chord''' may also refer to:
* [[Mouse chording]] or a [[chorded keyboard]], where multiple buttons are held down simultaneously to produce a specific action
{{disambig}}
[[de:Dreiklang]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Car Talk</title>
<id>6960</id>
<revision>
<id>41855338</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:15:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.59.147.210</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Car_Talk.gif|right]]
'''''Car Talk''''' is a [[radio]] [[talk show]] broadcast weekly on [[National Public Radio]] stations throughout the [[United States]] and elsewhere. Its subjects are cars and car repair, and it often takes humorous turns.
As a call-in radio show, listeners call in with [[automobile|car]]-related questions. The majority of callers are seeking advice of a diagnostic nature. The hosts, [[Tom Magliozzi|Tom]] and [[Ray Magliozzi]] (aka Click and Clack, the [[Tappet]] Brothers) listen to the caller describe the symptoms of his or her malfunctioning car, often asking them to replicate strange sounds, then attempt to identify the cause of the malfunction. While the hosts pepper their call-in sessions with jokes directed at both the caller and at themselves, their knowledge of automobiles is extensive and they are usually able to arrive at a diagnosis and give helpful advice.
Car Talk was first broadcast in Boston in 1977. It was picked up nationally by NPR ten years later.
Car Talk's [[theme song]] is "Dawggy Mountain Breakdown" by [[David Grisman]].
==Features==
A recurring feature is "Stump the Chumps", in which Tom and Ray revisit a caller from a previous show and find out what effect, if any, their advice has had (assuming the caller followed it at all).
A similar feature was started in May 2001 and entitled "Where Are They Now, Tommy?" Like "Stump the Chumps", they revisited a previous caller; but the difference with "Where Are They Now...?" was best described by Tom as "an excuse to talk to some of the previous wack jobs we've had on the show". The feature was short-lived, lasting only a few months. Some hold that this was because they had run out of callers from Alaska to harass.
Celebrities have been callers as well. Examples include [[Morley Safer]], [[Ashley Judd]], [[Gordon Elliott]], and at least one [[space shuttle]] [[astronaut]]. There have been numerous appearances from NPR personalities, including [[Bob Edwards]], [[Susan Stamberg]], [[Scott Simon]], [[Ray Suarez]], [[Will Shortz]], and commentator/author [[Daniel Pinkwater]]. On one occasion, the show featured an in-studio guest: [[Martha Stewart]], whom Click and Clack called "Margaret" twice.
== Hosts ==
''Car Talk''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s hosts are brothers [[Ray Magliozzi|Ray]] and [[Tom Magliozzi]] (aka, "Click and Clack, The Tappet Brothers"), two long-time [[car mechanic]]s. Ray Magliozzi has a degree in general science from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], while Tom has an undergraduate degree in chemical engineering from MIT, an MBA, and a Ph.D. in management from Boston University.
The duo, usually led by Tom, are known for long rants on the evils of the [[internal combustion engine]], the state of [[Montana]], people who talk on [[cell phones]] while driving, women named Donna (who always seem to drive [[Camaro]]s), the use (or misuse) of the [[English language]], and just about anything else, including themselves. They have a laid-back humorous approach to cars, car repair, [[cup holder]] competition amongst car makers, cats, dogs, lawyers, car mechanics, mini-vans, [[SUV]]s, and most everything else. They often cast a critical insider's eye (jaundiced, mostly) towards the auto industry. Tom and Ray are generally committed to the values of defensive driving and environmentalism. In the late [[1990s]] they pioneered an effort to rid the world of [[French language|French]] pronunciations of words, intentionally pronouncing many words phonetically such as "[[Chevrolet|Chev-ro-lette]]."
Click and Clack operate the "Good News Garage" in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] just a few blocks north of the MIT campus. Their offices are located nearby at the corner of JFK St. and Brattle St. in [[Harvard Square]], marked as "Dewey, Cheetham and Howe", the law firm they reference on-air.
The two were commencement speakers at MIT in 1999.
==Humor and other quirks==
The show is divided into "three halves." The show opens with a comedic monologue, followed by eight call-in sessions. During the winter shows, a contest called the "Puzzler" takes place, in which a puzzle (sometimes car-related, often not) is presented. The answer to the previous week's Puzzler is given during the second half of the show, and a new puzzler is given during the third half.
The humor of ''Car Talk'' also extends into the end credits. The show is produced under the Magliozzis' corporate banner, [[Dewey, Cheetham, and Howe]], a common lawyer joke. After listing (and lampooning) the actual staff of ''Car Talk'' (includi |
) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[philologist]] and [[lexicographer]].
[[Image:Ivaraasen.jpg|thumb|Ivar Aasen]]
Aasen was born at Åsen in [[Ørsta]] (then Ørsten), in the district of [[Sunnmøre]], on the west coast of [[Norway]]. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of [[H. C. Thoresen]], the husband of the eminent writer [[Magdalene Thoresen]], in [[Herøy, Møre og Romsdal|Herøy]] (then Herø), and there he picked up the elements of [[Latin language|Latin]]. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure.
About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, Sunnmøre; his first publication was a small collection of [[folk song]]s in the Sunnmøre dialect (1843). His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies undisturbed. His ''Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects'' (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country. Aasen's famous ''Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects'' appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite ''folke-maal'' (people's language) for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, but also through a latter policy aiming to merge this Norwegian language with Dano-Norwegian, this language has become ''[[Nynorsk]]'' ("New Norwegian"), the second of Norway's two official languages (the other being ''Bokmål'', the Dano-Norwegian descendant of the [[Danish language]] used in Norway at Aasen's time). An unofficial variety of Norwegian more close to Aasen's language is still found in [[Høgnorsk]] ("High Norwegian").
Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, ''The Heir'' ([[1855]]), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century of the [[1800s]], from [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje|Vinje]] to [[Arne Garborg|Garborg]].
Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in [[Oslo]] (then Christiania), surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular party.
Quite early in his career, in 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations; and the [[Storting]] (Norwegian [[parliament]]), conscious of the national importance of his work, treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his ''Dictionary'', he added but little to his stores. Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on [[September 23]], [[1896]], and was buried with public honours.
[[Ivar Aasen-tunet]], an institution devoted to the Nynorsk language, opened in June 2000. Their web page includes all of Aasens' texts, numerous other examples of Nynorsk literature (in Nettbiblioteket), and some articles, also in English, about language history in Norway.
[http://www.aasentunet.no]
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aasen, Ivar}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1813 births|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian philologists|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Lexicographers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian writers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian language|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[bs:Ivar Aasen]]
[[ca:Ivar Aasen]]
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[[et:Ivar Aasen]]
[[eo:Ivar AASEN]]
[[fr:Ivar Aasen]]
[[gl:Ivar Andreas Aasen]]
[[it:Ivar Aasen]]
[[nl:Ivar Aasen]]
[[no:Ivar Aasen]]
[[nn:Ivar Aasen]]
[[pl:Ivar Aasen]]
[[pt:Ivar Aasen]]
[[ru:Осен, Ивар Андреас]]
[[sv:Ivar Aasen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irredentism</title>
<id>15226</id>
<revision>
<id>42071916</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:00:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skookum1</username>
<id>534835</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Irredentist disputes */ Tibetan info PARTLY restored (PRC propagandists can just give up now, OK?)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Irredentism''' is an [[international relations]] term that involves advocating [[annexation]] of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common [[ethnicity]] and/or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. It is a feature of [[identity politics]] and [[cultural geography|cultural]] and [[political geography]]. Since most [[border]]s have been moved and redrawn at one point, a great many countries could theoretically present irredentist claims to their neighbours.
However, some countries are the subject of potential irredentism from birth. Many of Africa's borders were artificially imposed by European colonial powers. The result split ethnic groups between different countries, such as the [[Igbo]] who are divided between [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]].
An area that may be subjected to a potential claim is therefore sometimes called an '''''irredenta'''''. Not all potential irredentas are involved in actual irredentism.
==Origins==
{{main|Italia irredenta}}
The word was coined in [[Italy]] from the phrase ''[[Italia irredenta]]'' ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories in the northern [[Adriatic]] such as [[Trentino]] and [[Trieste]] during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]]. Today, [[Pakistan]] refers to the part of [[Kashmir]] controlled by its own forces as "redeemed" or "liberated", using the name [[Azad Kashmir]], meaning "Free Kashmir".
A common way to express a claim to adjacent territories on the grounds of historical or ethnic association is by using the epithet "Greater" before the country name, as in [[Greater Israel]], [[Greater Serbia]], [[Greater Albania]] or [[Greater Morocco]]. This conveys the image of national territory at its maximum conceivable extent with the country "proper" at its core, e.g. [[Serbia proper]].
==Irredentist disputes==
Not all [[territorial dispute]]s are irredentist, although they are often couched in irredentist [[propaganda|rhetoric]] to justify and [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimize]] such claims both internationally and within the country.
Prominent irredentist disputes during the past century have included:
* [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s occupation of [[Fiume]] (now [[Rijeka]]) from [[1919]]&ndash;[[1921]] &mdash; the original irredentist dispute (when the term was first popularized).
* Mutual counterclaims between the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] to territories currently controlled by the other:
** The [[People's Republic of China]] claims to the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Penghu]], [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]], [[Kinmen]], and [[Orchid Island]], collectively ruled by the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan). [[Arunachal Pradesh]] under Indian administration are also claimed by PRC as part of Tibet, although China's similar claims to Nepal and Bhutan have been dropped. China's ongoing occupation of Tibet is also seen as irredentist as also its rearrangement of Tibetan provincial boundaries.
** The [[Republic of China]]'s claims to [[Tannu Uriankhai]], now a republic of [[Russia]]; [[Outer Mongolia]] (i.e. the independent country of [[Mongolia]]); [[mainland China]], ruled by the [[People's Republic of China]], and most of the PRC's territorial claims.
* Claims among [[Aztlán|Mexican]]s to the Southwestern [[United States]], purchased by the [[United States]] from [[Mexico]] in the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] after the [[Mexican-American War]] for a sum of 15 million dollars, an amount equivalent today to 120 billion dollars.
* The [[PIRA]]'s claim that British rule in [[Northern Ireland]] hinders the prospect of a [[United Ireland]].
* [[France|French]] claims before [[World War I]] to [[Alsace-Lorraine]].
* [[Weimar Germany]]'s claims after World War I to Alsace-Lorraine, areas of [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Austria]] and the Czech [[Sudetenland]].
* [[Jew]]ish claims after [[World War I]] to territories within the [[British Mandate of Palestine]].
* [[Israeli]] claims to the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]] and the [[West Bank]], which includes [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Palestinian]] claims after division of the land under the British Mandate of Palestine to [[Israel]] and [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Syrian]] claims on the [[Golan Heights]].
* [[Argentina]]'s claims to the [[Falkland Islands]].
* [[Bolivia]]n claims to coastal regions of [[Chile]] annexed after the [[War of the Pacific]].
*[[Guatemala]]n claims to [[Belize]] and parts of [[Mexico]]
* [[Pakistan]]i claims to the [[Kashmir]] valley territory, which is divided between Pakistan and [[India]].
* [[Greater Hungary (political concept)|Hungarian]] claims to parts of the neigh |
ral Bank]
*[http://www.bankofcanada.ca Canadian Central Bank]
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/pleng/default.html Paper about the workings of the Fed]
*[http://www.ecb.int/pub/pdf/other/monetarypolicy2004en.pdf The ECB System]
*[http://www.bis.org/cbanks.htm Complete listing of central banks]
*[http://www.law.nyu.edu/centralbankscenter/banks/ Central Banks: Alphabetical Listing]
*[http://www.centralbanking.co.uk/links/index.htm Other list of central banks] - linked 18/02/2006
{{finance-footer}}
[[Category:Central banks| ]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[cs:Centrální banka]]
[[de:Zentralbank]]
[[es:Banco central]]
[[fa:بانک مرکزی]]
[[fr:Banque centrale]]
[[ko:중앙 은행]]
[[hr:Središnja banka]]
[[it:Banca centrale]]
[[nl:Centrale bank]]
[[ja:中央銀行]]
[[pl:Bank centralny]]
[[pt:Banco central]]
[[ru:Центральный банк]]
[[sr:Централна банка]]
[[fi:Keskuspankki]]
[[sv:Centralbank]]
[[zh:中央银行]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chlorine</title>
<id>5667</id>
<revision>
<id>41795485</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:27:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.195.109.4|199.195.109.4]] ([[User talk:199.195.109.4|Talk]]) to last version by 206.107.114.12</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=17 | symbol=Cl | name=chlorine | left=[[sulfur]] | right=[[argon]] | above=[[fluorine|F]] | below=[[bromine|Br]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=3 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cl,17| yellowish green }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|35.453]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>5</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 3.2 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=171.6 | c=-101.5 | f=-150.7 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=239.11 | c=-34.04 | f=-29.27 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (Cl<sub>2</sub>) 6.406 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (Cl<sub>2</sub>) 20.41 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (Cl<sub>2</sub>)<br />33.949 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 128 | 139 | 153 | 170 | 197 | 239 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &plusmn;'''1''', 3, 5, 7 <br />(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 3.16 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1251.2 | 2298 | 3822 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|100]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|79]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|99]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | &gt; 10 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 8.9 m}}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 0 °C) 206 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7782-50-5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=chlorine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=35 | sym=Cl | na=75.77% | n=18 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=36 | sym=Cl | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E12 s|3.01&times;10<sup>5</sup>]] [[year|y]] | dm1=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=0.709 | pn1=36 | ps1=[[argon|Ar]] | dm2=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de2=- | pn2=36 | ps2=[[sulfur|S]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=37 | sym=Cl | na=24.23% | n=20 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
'''Chlorine''' (from the [[Greek language]] ''Chloros'', meaning "pale green"), is the [[chemical element]] with [[atomic number]] 17 and symbol '''Cl'''. It is a [[halogen]], found in the [[periodic table]] in [[periodic table group|group]] 17. As the [[chloride]] ion, which is part of [[common salt]] and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most forms of life, including [[human]]s. As chlorine gas, it is [[green]]ish [[yellow]], is two and one half times as heavy as air, has an intensely disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly [[poison]]ous. In its liquid and solid form it is a powerful [[oxidation|oxidizing]], [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]ing, and disinfecting agent.
== Notable characteristics ==
The pure chemical element, has the physical form of a [[diatomic]] yellow-green gas, Cl<sub>2</sub>.
This element is a member of the [[salt]]-forming halogen series and is extracted from chlorides through [[oxidation]] and more commonly, by [[electrolysis]]. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that combines readily with nearly all other elements. At 10°[[Celsius|C]] one [[liter]] of [[water]] dissolves 3.10 liters of chlorine and at 30 °C only 1.77 liters.
== Applications ==
Chlorine is an important chemical for some processes of [[water purification]], in [[disinfectant]]s, and in [[bleach]]. [[Ozone]] can also be used for killing bacteria, and is preferred by many municipal drinking water systems because ozone does not form organochlorine compounds and does not remain in the water after treatment.
Chlorine is also used widely in the manufacture of many everyday items.
*Used (in the form of [[hypochlorous acid]]) to kill [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other microbes from [[drinking water]] supplies and [[swimming pool]]s. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated. ''See'' [[chlorination]].
*Used widely in [[paper]] product production, antiseptic, dyestuffs, food, [[insecticide]]s, paints, petroleum products, plastics, medicines, textiles, solvents, and many other consumer products.
[[Organic chemistry]] uses this element extensively as an oxidizing agent and in [[substitution]] because chlorine often imparts many desired properties in an [[organic compound]] when it is substituted for [[hydrogen]] (as in [[synthetic rubber]] production).
Other uses are in the production of chlorates, [[chloroform]], [[carbon tetrachloride]], and in the [[bromine]] extraction.
== History ==
Chlorine ([[Greek language|Gr.]] &chi;&lambda;&omega;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;, greenish yellow) was discovered in [[1774]] by Swedish chemist [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]], who mistakenly thought it contained [[oxygen]]. Chlorine was given its name in [[1810]] by [[Sir Humphry Davy]], who insisted that it was in fact an element.
Chlorine gas was first [[chemical warfare|used as a weapon]] against human beings in [[WWI]] on [[April 22nd]], [[1915]].
== Occurrence ==
In nature chlorine is found only as the [[chloride ion]]. Chlorides make up much of the [[salt]] dissolved in the Earth's [[ocean]]s&mdash;about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride ions. Even higher concentrations of chloride are dissolved in the [[Dead Sea]] and in underground [[brine]] deposits.
Most chlorides are soluble in water, so solid chlorides are usually only found in abundance in dry climates, or deep underground. Common chloride minerals include ''halite'' ([[sodium chloride]]), ''sylvite'' ([[potassium chloride]]), and ''[[carnallite]]'' (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate).
Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the [[electrolysis]] of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along with chlorine, this [[chloralkali process]] yields [[hydrogen]] gas and [[sodium hydroxide]], according to the [[chemical equation]]
:2 [[sodium chloride|NaCl]] + 2 [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]] &rarr; Cl<sub>2</sub> + [[hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]] + 2 [[sodium hydroxide|NaOH]]
== Isotopes ==
There are two principal stable [[isotope]]s of chlorine, of mass 35 and 37, found in the relative proportions of 3:1 respectively, giving chlorine [[atom]]s in bulk an apparent atomic weight of 35.5. Chlorine has 9 isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 32 to 40. Only three of these isotopes occur naturally: stable Cl-35 (75.77%)and Cl-37 (24.23%), and [[radioactive]] Cl-36. The ratio of Cl-36 to stable Cl in the environment is about 700*10<sup>-15</sup> to 1. Cl-36 is produced in the atmosphere by [[spallation]] of [[argon|Ar]]-36 by interactions with [[cosmic ray]] [[proton]]s. In the subsurface environment, Cl-36 is generated primarily as a result of [[neutron capture]] by Cl-35 or [[muon capture]] by [[calcium|Ca]]-40. Cl-36 decays to [[sulfur|S]]-36 and to [[argon|Ar]]-36, with a combined [[half-life]] of 308,000 years. The half-life of this [[hydrophilic]] nonreactive isotope makes it suitable for [[geologic dating]] in the range of 60,000 to 1 million years. Additionally, large amounts of Cl-36 were produced by irradiation of [[seawater]] during atmospheric detonations of [[nuclear weapon]]s between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl-36 in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in [[soil]] and [[ground water]], Cl-36 is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl-36 has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.
== Precautions ==
Chlorine irritates respiratory systems especially in children and the elderly. In its gaseous state it irritates [[mucous membrane]]s and when a liquid it burns [[skin]]. It takes as little as 3.5 [[part per million|ppm]] to be detected as a distinct odor, but it takes 1000 ppm or more to be fatal. Because of this, chlorine was one of the gases used during [[World War I]] as a [[chemical warfare|war gas]]. (See: [[Use of poison gas in World War I]])
|
and|Scottish]] actor [[Brian Cox]].
Agamemnon was the name of the Earth fleet Destroyer that John Sheridan commanded near the end of season 4 of Babylon 5.
{{1911}}
== References ==
* [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'';
* [[Homer]], ''[[Odyssey]]'' I, 28-31; XI, 385-464;
* [[Aeschylus]], ''[[Agamemnon (play)]][http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/aeschylus/aeschylus_agamemnon.htm]'';
* [[Aeschylus]], ''[[The Libation Bearers]]'';
* [[Sophocles]], ''[[Electra]]'';
* [[Euripides]], ''[[Electra]]'';
*[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'', II, 15-III, 22; VI, 23.
Troy movie 2004 Directed by [[Wolfgang Petersen]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
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[[da:Agamemnon]]
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[[gl:Agamenón]]
[[ko:아가멤논]]
[[it:Agamennone]]
[[he:אגממנון]]
[[la:Agamemnon]]
[[lt:Agamemnonas]]
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[[hu:Agamemnón]]
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[[ja:アガメムノン]]
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[[ru:Агамемнон]]
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[[zh:阿伽门农]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aga Khan I</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aga Khan I''' ({{lang-ar|أغا خان}})
([[1800]]-[[1881]]), was the title accorded by general consent to '''Hasan Ali Shah''' (born in [[Iran|Persia]], [[1800]]), when, in early life, he first settled in [[Bombay]] under the protection of the [[United Kingdom|British]] government. He was believed to have descended in direct line from [[Ali Ben Abu Talib|Ali]] by his wife [[Fatima Zahra]], the daughter of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. Ali's son, Husain, having married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of Muhammad, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal house of [[Iran|Persia]] from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. His ancestors had also ruled in [[Egypt]] as ''[[caliphs]]'' of the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] dynasty for a number of years, at the same time as the [[Crusade|Crusades]].
Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was appointed by the emperor [[Fateh Ali Shah]] to be [[governor-general]] of the extensive and important province of [[Kerman]]. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the Shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh. He fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, preferring to settle down eventually in [[India]], making Bombay his headquarters. At that period the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] was at its height, and in crossing over from Persia through [[Afghanistan]] the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services to the British army, and thus cast in his lot forever with the British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous services in the course of the [[Sindh]] campaign, when his help was utilized by [[Charles James Napier]] in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as their spiritual head. Napier held his Muslim ally in great esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to the British government, and when he finally settled down in India, his position as the leader of the large [[Ismailis|Ismaili]] section of Muslim British subjects was recognized by the government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with a large pension.
From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers in India, but towards the more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, [[Khorasan]], Persia, [[Arabia]], [[Central Asia]], and even distant [[Syria]] and [[Morocco]]. He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the [[British Raj]], and by his vast and unquestioned influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several expeditions led by British arms on the northwest frontier of India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the more turbulent Muslims in British India, which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, '''[[Aga Khan II]]'''. This prince continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him the distinction of a knighthood of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay.
== See also ==
*[[Aga Khan III]]
*[[Aga Khan IV]]
*[[Shi'a Islam]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Shia Imams]]
[[Category:1800 births|Aga Khan I]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Aga Khan I]]
[[zh:阿迦汗一世]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aga Khan III</title>
<id>1546</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aga Khan III.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Aga Khan]] III, founder of the Muslim League]]
'''Aga Khan III''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: آغا خان الثالث), [[Imperial Privy Council|PC]] ([[November 2]], [[1877]] &ndash; [[July 11]], [[1957]]), also known as '''Sultan Mahommed Shah''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: سلطان محمد شاه), was born in [[Karachi]] (then [[India]], now [[Pakistan]]) and was the only son of [[Aga Khan II]], and succeeded him on his death in [[1885]], becoming the head of the family. Under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of [[Iran|Persia]], he was given not only that religious and oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the [[Ismailis]] made indispensable, but a sound [[Europe]]an training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of education produced the happy result of fitting this [[Muslim]] chief in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties required of a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of his position.
The Aga Khan travelled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The distinction of a [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Commander of the Indian Empire]] was conferred upon him by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1897 (and later Knight Grand Commander in [[1902]] by [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]) and he received like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the sultan of Turkey, the shah of [[Iran|Persia]] and other potentates. In [[1934]] he was made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].
The Aga Khan was also a founding member and President of the "All India Muslim League," which advocated the division of United India in to Pakistan and India.
He was also an owner of thoroughbred racing horses, including five winners of the [[Epsom Derby]].
Bypassing his son [[Aly Khan]], he was succeeded by his grandson [[Aga Khan IV]]
*He married, in 1893, Shahazda Begum.
*He married, in 1903, Teresa Magliano.
*He married, in 1929, Andrée Joséphine Carron.
*He married, in 1944, Yvette Blanche Labrousse, elected "Miss Lyon 1929", then "Miss France 1930", named Om Habibah September 10, 1944, and later called HH Begum Mata Salamat (Mother of the Peace)
==See also==
* [[Aga Khan I]] &mdash; [[Fatimids]]
* [[Aga Khan Palace]]
==Additional reading==
*Naoroji M. Dumasia, ''A Brief History of the Aga Khan'' (1903).
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[[ja:アーガー・ハーン3世]]
[[zh:阿迦汗三世]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Agasias</title>
<id>1547</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Agasias''' was the name of two different [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]]s.
'''Agasias, son of Dositheus''', signed the remarkable statue called the [[Borghese Warrior]], in the [[Louvre]].
'''Agasias, son of Menophilus''', is the author of another striking figure of a warrior in the museum of [[Athens]].
Both belonged to the school of [[Ephesus]] and flourished approximately [[100 BC]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek sculptors]]
[[es:Agasio de Éfeso]]
[[it:A |
vich to a foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal. He had to be recovered and brought back to Russia at all costs. This difficult task was accomplished by Count [[Peter Tolstoi]], the most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants.
==The return==
Alexei would only consent to return on his father solemnly swearing, that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and marry Afrosina. On [[31 January]] [[1718]] the tsarevich reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a most searching [[inquisition]] in order to get at the bottom of the mystery of the flight. On [[18 February]] a "confession" was extorted from Alexei which implicated most of his friends, and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in favour of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich. A horrible reign of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged [[adultery]], while all who had in any way befriended Alexei were [[Impalement|impale]]d, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and isolate the tsarevich.
[[Image:gay_alexis.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich at Peterhof'', history painting by Nikolai Ge, 1871, State Tret'yakov Gallery, Moscow]]
In April 1718 fresh confessions were extorted from Alexei. Even now there were no actual facts to go upon. The worst that could be brought against him was that he had wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit. But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn to pardon him and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. The whole matter was solemnly submitted to a grand council of [[prelate]]s, [[senator]]s, [[Political minister|minister]]s and other [[dignitary|dignitaries]] on [[13 June]] [[1718]]. The [[clergy]] left the matter to the tsar's own decision. The temporal dignitaries declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that Alexei should be examined by torture.
Accordingly, on [[19 June]], the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty-five strokes with the [[knout]], and on the 24th - fifteen more. It was hardly possible that he could survive such treatment. On [[26 June]], Alexei died in the [[Petropavlovskaya fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], two days after the senate had condemned him to death for conspiring rebellion against his father, and for hoping for the cooperation of the common people and the armed intervention of his brother-in-law, the emperor. Some historians believe that Alexei actually died of [[strangulation]] by one of Peter's servants.
==Further Reading==
*Matthew S. Anderson, ''Peter the Great'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978).
*Robert Nisbet Bain, ''The First Romanovs 1613 – 1725'' (London, 1905; reprint, New York, 1967).
*Robert K. Massie, ''Peter the Great, His Life and World'' (New York: Ballantine, 1981).
*B.H. Sumner, ''Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia'' (London: English UP, 1968).
*Fredrick Charles Weber, ''The Present State of Russia'' vol 1, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968).
*---,''The Present State of Russia'' vol 2, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1690 births|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:1718 deaths|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Muscovites|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Romanov|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[de:Alexei von Russland]]
[[ru:Алексей Петрович]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Archimedes of Syracuse</title>
<id>1622</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archimedes]]
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<page>
<title>Andrew Jackson</title>
<id>1623</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:12:03Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
{{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Jackson
| nationality=american
| image=Andrew Jackson.jpeg|200px|
| order=7th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1829]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1837]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->
| predecessor= [[John Quincy Adams]]
| successor= [[Martin Van Buren]]
| birth_date= [[March 15]], [[1767]]
| birth_place= [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaws area]] of [[South Carolina]]
| death_date= [[June 8]], [[1845]]
| death_place= [[The Hermitage]], [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]
| spouse= Widowed. [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson]] (niece [[Emily Donelson Jackson]] and daughter-in-law [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]] were [[First Lady of the United States|first ladies]])
| party= [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident= [[John C. Calhoun]] (1829-1832) [[Martin Van Buren]] (1833-1837)
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' ([[March 15]], [[1767]] &ndash; [[June 8]], [[1845]]), was the seventh [[President of the United States]] (1829-1837), hero of the [[Battle of New Orleans]] (1815), a founder of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], and the [[eponym]] of the era of [[Jacksonian democracy]]. He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the [[Second Party System]] of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] in the 1820s and 1830s.
Nicknamed "Old Hickory," Jackson was the first President primarily associated with the American [[frontier]] (although born in South Carolina, he spent most of his life in Tennessee). .
==Early life and military career==
Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to [[Scots-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish]] immigrants in the [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaw area]] in the [[Carolinas]], on [[March 15]], [[1767]]. He was the youngest son in his family. Both [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]] have claimed him as a "native son." Jackson himself always stated that he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the [[Continental Army]] as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a [[prisoner of war]]. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family.
[[Image:Andrew Jackson brave boy 1780.jpg|thumb|250px|Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 [[lithography]])]]
During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, Jackson and his brother Robert were taken as prisoners, and nearly starved to death. When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at Jackson, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother--his entire remaining family--died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British. This [[anglophobia]] would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern "aristocrats", whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial "masters". Jackson admired [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], for his willingness to contest British military supremacy.
Jackson came to [[Tennessee]] by 1787, having barely read law, but finding that enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first [[U.S. House of Representatives|Congressman]], upon its statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the [[Tennessee Supreme Court]].
[http://www.virtualology.com/virtualwarmuseum.com/hallofamericanwarsandconflicts/andrewjackson.net/]
===Creek War and War of 1812===
{{main articles|[[Creek War]] and [[Battle of New Orleans]]}}
Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at [[Fort Mims Massacre|Fort Mims]] (in what is now Alabama) by Northern [[Creek people|Creek]] Band chieftain [[Peter McQueen]], Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the "[[Red Sticks]]". Creek leaders such as [[William Weatherford]] (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and [[Menawa]], who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands, and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent [[Benjamin Hawkins]]. In the [[Creek War]], a theatre of the [[War of 1812]], Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]], aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in p |
ntained in a strand of DNA is determined by the [[DNA sequence|sequence]] of bases along its length;
* The cell begins [[DNA replication]] by forcibly unzipping the DNA double strand down the middle, and then recreates the "other half" of each new single strand by exposing each half to a mixture of the four bases. An enzyme makes a new strand by finding the correct base in the mixture and pairing it with the original strand. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base will be on the new strand, and the cell ends up with an extra copy of its DNA.
* [[Mutation]]s are simply chemical imperfections in this process: a base is accidentally skipped, inserted, or incorrectly copied, or the chain is trimmed, or added to; many basic mutations can be described as combinations of these accidental "operations". Mutations can also occur through chemical damage (through [[mutagens]]), light ([[Ultraviolet|UV]] damage), or through other more complicated gene swapping events.
*[[Deoxyribozyme|DNA molecules that act as enzymes]] are known in laboratories, but none have been known to be found in life so far.
* In addition to the traditionally viewed duplex form of DNA, DNA can also acquire triplex and quadraplex forms. Here instead of the Watson Crick base pairing, Hoogsten base pairing comes into picture.
* DNA differs from [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA) by having a sugar 2-deoxyribose instead of [[ribose]] in its backbone. This is the basic chemical distinction between RNA and DNA.
===DNA pairing===
[[Image:Dna_pairing_aa.gif|thumb|300px|DNA base pairing]]
The paired bases are joined by [[hydrogen bond]]s. This image shows the normal base pairing. And also how on rare occasions, wrong pairing can happen, when [[thymine]] goes into its [[enol]] form or [[cytosine]] goes into its [[imino]] form.
==DNA in practice==
===DNA in crime===
[[Forensic science|Forensic scientists]] can use DNA located in [[blood]], [[semen]], [[skin]], [[saliva]] or hair left at the scene of a crime to identify a possible suspect, a process called [[genetic fingerprinting]] or DNA profiling. In DNA profiling the relative lengths of sections of repetitive DNA, such as [[short tandem repeats]] and [[minisatellite]]s, are compared. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by English geneticist [[Alec Jeffreys]], and was first used to convict Colin Pitchfork in 1988 in the [[Enderby murders]] case in [[Leicestershire]], [[England]]. Many jurisdictions require convicts of certain types of crimes to provide a sample of DNA for inclusion in a computerized database. This has helped investigators solve old cases where the perpetrator was unknown and only a DNA sample was obtained from the scene (particularly in [[rape]] cases between strangers). This method is one of the most reliable techniques for identifying a criminal, but is not always perfect, for example if no DNA can be
retrieved, or if the scene is contaminated with the DNA of several possible suspects.
===DNA in computation ===
An extremely important note: Despite its biological origins, DNA plays an important role in [[computer science]], both as a motivating research problem and as a method of computation in itself, called [[DNA computing]], not only for biological origins.
As a simple example, research on [[string searching algorithm]]s, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, was motivated by DNA research, where it is used to find specific sequences of nucleotides in a large sequence. In other applications like [[text editor]]s, even simple algorithms for this problem usually suffice, but DNA sequences cause these algorithms to exhibit near-worst-case behavior due to their small number of distinct characters.
[[Database]]s have also been strongly motivated by DNA research, which requires special tools for storing and manipulating DNA sequences. Databases specialized for this purpose are called [[genomic database]]s, and have a number of unique technical challenges associated with the operations of approximate matching, sequence comparison, finding repeating patterns, and homology searching.
In 1994, Leonard Adleman of the [[University of Southern California]] made headlines when he discovered a way of solving the directed [[Hamiltonian path problem]], an [[NP-complete]] problem, using tools from molecular biology, in particular DNA. The new approach, dubbed [[DNA computing]], has practical advantages over traditional computers in power use, space use, and efficiency, due to its ability to highly parallelize the computation (see [[parallel computing]]), although there is labor worth mentioning involved in retrieving the answers. A number of other problems, including simulation of various [[abstract machine]]s, the [[boolean satisfiability problem]], and the bounded version of the [[Post correspondence problem]], have since been analyzed using DNA computing.
Due to its compactness, DNA also has a theoretical role in [[cryptography]], where in particular it allows unbreakable [[one-time pad]]s to be efficiently constructed and used [http://www.citeseer.ist.psu.edu/gehani99dnabased.html].
=== DNA in historical and anthropological study ===
DNA research is also used to follow the course of human populations over time.
DNA evidence is also being used to try to identify the [[Ten Lost Tribes of Israel]] [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2706israel.html] [http://www.aish.com/societywork/sciencenature/the_cohanim_-_dna_connection.asp]
DNA has also been used to look at fairly recent issues of family relationships, such as establishing some manner of familial relationship between the descendents of [[Sally Hemings]] and the family of [[Thomas Jefferson]].
==Molecular structure==
[[Image:NA-comparedto-DNA thymineAndUracilCorrected.png|right|400px|thumb|Comparisons between DNA and single stranded RNA with the diagram of the bases showing.]]
Although sometimes called "the molecule of heredity", DNA macromolecules as people typically think of them are not single molecules. Rather, they are pairs of molecules, which entwine like vines to form a '''double [[helix]]''' (see the illustration at the right).
Each vine-like molecule is a strand of DNA: '''a chemically linked chain of [[nucleotide]]s, each of which consists of a [[sugar]] ([[deoxyribose]]), a [[phosphate]] and one of five kinds of [[nucleobase]]s ("bases")'''. Because DNA strands are composed of these nucleotide subunits, they are [[polymer]]s.
The diversity of the bases means that there are five kinds of nucleotides, which are commonly referred to by the identity of their bases. These are [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[uracil]] (U), [[cytosine]] (C), and [[guanine]] (G). U is rarely found in DNA except as a result of chemical degradation of C, but in some viruses, notably PBS1 phage DNA, U completely replaces the usual T in its DNA. Similarly, RNA usually contains U in place of T, but in certain RNAs such as [[transfer RNA]], T is always found in some positions. Thus, the only true difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, 2-deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.
In a DNA double helix, two polynucleotide strands can associate through the [[hydrophobic effect]] and [[pi stacking]]. Specificity of which strands stay associated is determined by [[base pair|complementary pairing]]. Each base forms [[hydrogen bond]]s readily to only one other -- A to T and C to G -- so that the identity of the base on one strand dictates the strength of the association; the more complementary bases exist, the stronger and longer-lasting the association.
The cell's machinery is capable of ''melting'' or disassociating a DNA double helix, and using each DNA strand as a template for synthesizing a new strand which is nearly identical to the previous strand. Errors that occur in the synthesis are known as [[mutations]]. The process known as [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]] (polymerase chain reaction) mimics this process [[in vitro]] in a nonliving system.
Because pairing causes the nucleotide bases to face the helical axis, the sugar and phosphate groups of the nucleotides run along the outside; the two chains they form are sometimes called the "'''backbones'''" of the helix. In fact, it is chemical bonds between the phosphates and the sugars that link one nucleotide to the next in the DNA strand.
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = ADN animation.gif |
title = Rotating DNA stick model |
description = Animation of a section of DNA rotating. (1.00 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). |
format = [[animated GIF]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==Sequence role==
Within a gene, the sequence of [[nucleotides]] along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence which then defines a [[protein]], that an [[organism]] is liable to manufacture or "[[gene expression|express]]" at one or several points in its life using the information of the sequence. The relationship between the nucleotide sequence and the [[amino acid|amino-acid]] sequence of the protein is determined by simple cellular rules of [[Translation (genetics)|translation]], known collectively as the [[genetic code]]. The genetic code is made up of three-letter 'words' (termed a codon) formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). These codons can then be translated with [[messenger RNA]] and then [[transfer RNA]], with a codon corresponding to a particular amino acid. There are 64 possible codons (4 bases in 3 places <math>4^3</math>) that encode 20 amino acids. Most amino acids, therefore, have more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying
the end of the coding region, namely the UAA, UGA and UAG codons.
In many [[species]], only a small fraction of the total sequence of the [[genome]] appears to encode protein. For example, only about 1.5% of t |
transform]] is used (i.e. its real part is less than or equal to zero)
OR
* lie on or inside the [[unit circle]] if the [[Z-transform]] is used (i.e. its module is less than or equal to one)
In the two cases, if respectively the pole has a real part strictly smaller of zero or a module strictly smaller than one, we speak of [[asymptotic stability]]: the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations, which are instead present if a pole has exactly a real part equal to zero (or a module equal to one). If a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time, and has no oscillations, it is referred to as [[marginal stability|marginally stable]]: in this case it has non-repeated poles along the vertical axis (i.e. their real and complex component is zero). Oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have also complex part not equal to zero.
Difference between the two cases are not a contradiction. The Laplace transform is in [[Cartesian coordinates]] and the Z-transform is in [[circular coordinates]] and it can be shown that
*the negative-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the interior of the unit circle
*the positive-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the exterior of the unit circle
If the system in question has an [[impulse response]] of
:<math>x[n] = 0.5^n u[n]</math>
and considering the [[Z-transform]] (see [[Z-transform#Example 2 (causal ROC)|this example]]), it yields
:<math>X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 0.5z^{-1}}\ </math>
which has a pole in <math>z = 0.5</math> (zero [[imaginary number|imaginary part]]). This system is BIBO (asymptotically) stable since the pole is ''inside'' the unit circle.
However, if the impulse response was
:<math>x[n] = 1.5^n u[n]</math>
then the Z-transform is
:<math>X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 1.5z^{-1}}\ </math>
which has a pole at <math>z = 1.5</math> and is not BIBO stable since the pole has a module strictly greater than one.
Numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system. These include graphical systems like the [[root locus]] or the [[Nyquist plot]]s.
== Controllability and observability ==
[[Controllability]] and [[observability]] are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied. Controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal. If a state is not controllable, then no signal will ever be able to force the system to reach a level of controllability. Observability instead is related to the possibility of "observing", through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to correct the closed-loop behaviour if such a state is not desirable.
From a geometrical point of view, if we look at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behaviour in the closed-loop system. That is, if one of the [[eigenvalues]] of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the close-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis.
Solutions to problems of uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors.
==Control specifications==
Several different control strategies have been devised in the past years. These vary from extremely general ones ([[PID controller]]), to others devoted to very particular classes of systems (es. [[Robotics]] or [[Aircraft]] cruise control).
A control problem can have several specifications. Stability, of course, is always present: the controller must ensure that the closed-loop system is stable: this both if the open-loop is stable or not. An inaccurate choice of the controller, indeed, can even worsen the stability properties of the open-loop system. This must normally be avoided. Sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop: i.e. that the poles have <math>Re[\lambda] < -\overline{\lambda}</math>, where <math>\overline{\lambda}</math> is a fixed value strictly greater than zero, instead of simply ask that <math>Re[\lambda]<0</math>.
Another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance: this can be easily obtained by including an [[integrator]] in the open-loop chain (i.e. directly before the system under control). Other classes of disturbances need different types of sub-systems to be included.
Other "classical" control theory specifications regard the time-response of the closed-loop system: these include the '''rise time''' (the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation), '''peak overshoot''' (the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value) and others (settling time, quarter-decay). Frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness (see after).
Modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error (IAE,ISA,CQI).
===Model identification and robustness===
{{Main|Model identification}}
A control system must always have some '''robustness''' property. A robust controller is such that his properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This specification is important: no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it in mathematical way. Sometimes a simpler mathematical model can be chosen in order to simplify calculations. Otherwise the true system dynamics can result so complicated that a complete model is impossible.
====System identification====
The process of determination of the equations of a model's dynamics is called [[model identification]]. This can be done off-line: for example, executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model, typically its [[transfer function]] or matrix. Such identification from the output, however, cannot take account of unobservable dynamics. Sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations: for example, in the case of a spring-damp system we know that <math> \ddot{{x(t)}} = - K x(t) - \Beta \dot{x(t)}</math>. Even assuming that a "complete" model is used, all the parameters included in these equations (called "nominal parameters") are never known with absolute precision: therefore the control system will have to behave correctly even in presence of their true values.
Some advanced control techniques include an "on-line" identification process (see later). The parameters of the model are calculated ("identified") while the controller itself is running: in this way, if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues (for example, if the robot's arm releases a weight), the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance.
====Analysis====
Analysis of the robustness of a SISO control system can be performed in the frequency domain, considering the system's transfer function and using [[Nyquist diagram|Nyquist]] and [[Bode diagram]]s. Topics include '''Phase margin''' and '''Amplitude margin'''. For MIMO and, in general, more complicated control systems one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique (see next section): i.e., if particular robustness qualities are needed, the engineer must shift his attention to a control technique including them in its properties.
====Constraints====
A particular robustness issue is the possibility of a control system to work even in presence of constraints. In the practice every signal is physically limited. It could happen that in its true working a controller will try to send signals that cannot be performed by the machinery: for example, trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed. This can provoke a bad behaviour of the closed-loop system, or even break up actuators or other subsystems. Specific control techniques are available to solve the problem: [[model predictive control]] (see later), and [[anti-wind up system (control)|anti-wind up systems]]. The latter consists of another control block that is added to a previously synthesized controller, and ensures that the control signal never overcomes the threshold given.
==Main control strategies==
Every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closed-loop behaviour. For [[linear system]]s, this can be obtained directly placing the poles. Non-linear control systems used instead specific theories (normally based on [[Aleksandr Lyapunov|Lyapunov's]] Theory) to ensure stability without regard to inner dynamics of the systems. The possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and/or the control strategy chosen. Here a summary list of the main control techniques is shown:
===PID controllers===
{{Main|PID controller}}
Using a so called '''PID controller''' is probably the most used control techniques, being the simplest one. "PID" means: Proportional-Integral-Derivative, referring to the three types of sub.-system which can be added before the system under control. If <math>u(t)</math> is the control signal sent to the system, <math>y(t)</math> is the measured output and <math>r(t)</math> is the desired output, and tracking err |
# Farrinor's name is variously spelled Farriner, Fraynor, Farryner, or Farynor.
# The Monument stands 61 metres (202 feet) tall, the height marking the monument's distance to the site of the king's baker Thomas Farynor's shop in Pudding Lane, where the fire began.
# In 1986, the Baker's Company issued a public apology for the fire.
==External links==
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/fire/experts.html Fire] Dr Simon Thurley, director of the [[Museum of London]], and other experts at the museum answered questions about the Great Fire of London.
[[Category:1666]]
[[Category:City of London]]
[[Category:Disasters in England]]
[[Category:Fires]]
[[Category:History of London]]
[[ca:Gran incendi de Londres]]
[[cs: Velký požár Londýna (1666)]]
[[de:Großer Brand von London]]
[[eo:Granda incendio de Londono]]
[[fr:Grand incendie de Londres]]
[[he:השריפה הגדולה של לונדון]]
[[nl:Grote brand van Londen]]
[[ja:ロンドン大火]]
[[no:Bybrannen i London 1666]]
[[pl:Pożar Londynu w roku 1666]]
[[sk:Veľký požiar Londýna]]
[[sv:Stora branden i London]]
[[uk:Велика пожежа (Лондон)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ga</title>
<id>12288</id>
<revision>
<id>38561956</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:09:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>sort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}
''In Wikipedia "GA" could stand for [[Wikipedia:Good articles|Good Article]].''
'''GA''' may refer to:
*[[Gabon]], a nation in west central Africa ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country code]] GA)
*[[Galaxy Angel]], an anime TV series
*[[Garuda Indonesia]], an airline ([[IATA airline designator]] GA)
*[[General American]], a variety of American English
*[[General assembly]], an official session of the members of a union, church, association, or similar organization
*[[General authority]], a member of a select body of approximately 100 men in the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
*General Availability, the final software [[development stage]]
*[[General aviation]], a category of civil aviation encompassing all aircraft flights other than scheduled airline activity
*[[Genetic algorithm]], a search technique used in computer science
*[[Georgia (U.S. state)]] (U.S. postal code GA)
*[[Germantown Academy]], the oldest nonsectarian day school in the United States
*[[Gigampere]] or [[Giga-ampere]], an SI unit of electric current (symbol GA, worth 10<sup>9</sup> A)
*[[Girls Aloud]], a British girl group; winners of ''Popstars: The Rivals''
*[[Tabun (nerve gas)]], a nerve agent also known as GA
'''Ga''' may refer to:
*[[Ga people]], an ethnic group of Ghana
*[[Ga language]], the language spoken by the Ga people
*[[Ga District]], Ghana
*[[Giga-annum]] or [[Gigayear]], a time period of 10<sup>9</sup> years, symbol Ga
*[[Gallium]], a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ga
'''ga''' may refer to:
*The [[Irish language]] or ''Gaeilge'' ([[ISO 639-1]]).
{{2LCdisambig}}
[[de:GA]]
[[et:GA]]
[[el:GA]]
[[fr:GA]]
[[ko:GA]]
[[it:Ga]]
[[la:GA]]
[[ja:GA]]
[[pt:GA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graphical user interface</title>
<id>12293</id>
<revision>
<id>41934869</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:01:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.1.157.212</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Individual Elements of User Interfaces */ rewrote</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Gui}}
A '''graphical user interface''' (or '''GUI''', sometimes pronounced "gooey") is a method of [[human-computer interaction|interacting with a computer]] through a [[metaphor]] of [[direct manipulation]] of graphical images and [[widget (computing)|widget]]s in addition to text.
GUIs display visual elements such as icons, windows and other gadgets. The precursor to GUIs was invented by researchers at the [[Stanford Research Institute]] (led by [[Douglas Engelbart|Doug Engelbart]]) with the development and use of text-based [[hyperlinks]] manipulated with a [[Computer mouse|mouse]] for the [[On-Line System]]. The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at [[Xerox PARC]], who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used [[GUI]]s as the primary interface for the [[Xerox Alto]] [[computer]]. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system. For this reason some people call this class of interface a '''''P'''ARC '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface'' (PUI) (note that PUI is also an acronym for ''perceptual user interface''). The PUI consists of graphical widgets (often provided by [[widget toolkit]] libraries) such as [[window (computing)|window]]s, [[menu (computing)|menu]]s, [[radio button (computing)|radio button]]s, [[check box]]es and [[icon (computing)|icon]]s, and employs a [[pointing device]] (such as a mouse, trackball or touchscreen) in addition to a keyboard. Those aspects of PUIs can be emphasized by using the alternative acronym [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]], which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and [[Pointing device]].
The GUI familiar to most of us today is either the Mac or the Windows operating systems and their applications originated at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Laboratory in the late 1970s. Apple used it in their first Macintosh computers. Later, Microsoft reused many of Apple's ideas in their first version of the Windows operating system for IBM-compatible PCs.
Examples of systems that support GUIs are [[Mac OS]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[NEXTSTEP]] and the [[X Window System]]. The latter is extended with toolkits such as [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] ([[CDE]]), [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] ([[KDE]]) and [[GTK+]] ([[GNOME]]).
[[Image:Kde35.png|thumb|250px|An example of [[KDE]], one of the X Window System's many graphical user interfaces available for [[Unix-like]] systems]]
[[Image:Windows XP GUI.JPG|thumb|250px|An example of the graphical user interface in [[Windows XP]]]]
[[Image:MacOSX10.4.png|thumb|250px|An example of the graphical user interface in Apple's [[Mac OS X]] ]]
== Types of GUIs ==
GUIs that are not PUIs are most notably found in [[computer game]]s, and advanced GUIs based on [[virtual reality]] are now frequently found in research. Many research groups in North America and Europe are currently working on the [[Zooming User Interface]], or ZUI, which is a logical advancement on the GUI, blending some 3D movement with 2D or "2½D" vectorial objects.
Some GUIs are designed for the rigorous requirements of [[vertical market]]s. These are known as "application specific GUIs." One example of such an application specific GUI is the now familiar touchscreen point of sale software found in restaurants worldwide and being introduced into self-service retail checkouts. First pioneered by [[Eugene Mosher|Gene Mosher]] on the [[Atari ST]] computer in 1986, the application specific touchscreen GUI has spearheaded a worldwide revolution in the use of computers throughout the food and beverage industry and in general retail.
Other examples of application specific touchscreen GUIs include the most recent [[automatic teller machine]]s, airline self-ticketing, information kiosks and the monitor/control screens in embedded industrial applications which employ a [[real time operating system]] (RTOS). The latest cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUI.
== GUI vs. CLI ==
GUIs were introduced in reaction to the steep learning curve of '''''C'''ommand '''L'''ine '''I'''nterfaces'' ([[Command line interface|CLI]]), [[Text user interface|text-based user interfaces]] requiring commands to be typed on the [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]. Since the command words in CLIs are usually numerous and composable, very complicated operations can be invoked using a relatively short sequence of words and symbols. This leads to high levels of efficiency once the many commands are learned, but reaching this level can take some time, because the command words are not easily discoverable. [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]s ("window, icon, menu, pointing device"), on the other hand, present the user with numerous [[widget (computing)|widget]]s that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands.
WIMPs extensively use [[Mode (computer interface)| modes]] as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time. [[CLI]]s use modes only in the form of a current directory.
Most modern [[Operating system|operating systems]] provide both a GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. The GUI is usually [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as [[Microsoft Bob]], [[3dwm]] or (partially) FSV.
Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]] wrapper around the CLI version. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Nowadays, the GUI is no longer an optional part of a successful application, because users have grown accustomed to the ease of use provided by their familiar GUIs.
== 3D user interfaces ==
3D GUIs are very common in science fiction literature and movies, such as in [[Jurassic Park]], which features [[Silicon Graphics]]' 3D filemanager, "File system navigator"&#xA0;[http://www.sgi.com/fun/freeware/3d_navigator.html], an actual file manager that never got any widespread use, as the user interface of a Unix computer. In science fiction, 3D user interfaces are often immersive environments like William Gibson's [[cyberspace]] or [[Neal Stephenson]]'s [[metaverse]]. 3D graphics is currently |
evitation]] and [[telepathy]].
===Judaism===
Although a lifelong atheist, Koestler's ancestry was Jewish. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] has claimed that Koestler deliberately disowned his Jewish ancestry.
Koestler's book ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]'' advanced the controversial thesis that [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are not descended from the Israelites of antiquity, but from the [[Khazars]], a [[Turkic]] people in the [[Caucasus]] who converted to [[Judaism]] in the [[8th century]] and were later forced to move westwards into current [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Poland]]. Koestler stated that part of his intent in writing ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' was to defuse [[anti-Semitism]] by undermining the identification of European Jews with Biblical Jews, with the hope of rendering anti-Semitic epithets such as "Christ killer" inapplicable. Ironically, Koestler's thesis that Ashkenazi Jews are not Semitic has become an important claim of many anti-Semitic groups. Some [[Palestinian]]s have eagerly seized upon this thesis, believing that to identify most Jews as non-Semites seriously undermines their historical claim to the [[land of Israel]]. The thesis of ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' has since been criticized. To date, the genetic evidence has been inconclusive. Some researchers claim to find a Middle Eastern genetic element in virtually all Ashkenazim. Others note both Turkic words and Turkic genetic markers in these populations. But the usefulness of genetic markers in determining ancestry can be problematic; for instance, Ashkenazim also display a high level of similarity to the genetic markers of [[Khoisan]] [[Bushmen]] in Southern Africa. A thorough review of the scientific literature can be found at [http://www.khazaria.com/ Khazaria.com].
When Koestler resided in Palestine during the 1920s, he lived on a [[kibbutz]], an experience forming the basis of his unfinished ''Thieves in the Night''. His view of [[Israel]] was that it would never be destroyed, short of a second [[Shoah]]. He supported the statehood of Israel, but opposed a diaspora Jewish culture. In an interview published in the ''London Jewish Chronicle'' around the time of Israel's founding, Koestler asserted that all Jews should either migrate to Israel, or assimilate completely into their local cultures. Koestler was also no dogmatic Zionist; for instance, he proposed that Israel drop the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for the [[Roman alphabet|Roman]].
== Cultural influence ==
In his younger days, the [[singer]] [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] was an avid reader of Koestler. His band of the time, [[The Police]] were to name one of their albums ''[[Ghost in the Machine]]'' after one of Koestler's books. The title ''[[Synchronicity (album)|Synchronicity]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', which mentions [[Carl Jung]]'s [[synchronicity|theory]] of the same name. Koestler knew little about the burgeoning [[New Wave music]] scene, and is alleged to have said:
<blockquote> Look at this. Did you ever see a magazine called the ''New Musical Express''? It turns out there is a pop group called [[The Police]] - I don't know why they are called that, presumably to distinguish them from the punks - and they've made an album of my essay ''The Ghost in the Machine''. I didn't know anything about it until my clipping agency sent me a review of the record. </blockquote>
The [[cyberpunk]] [[manga]] and [[anime]] series ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''The Ghost in the Machine''.
== Bibliography ==
An excellent introduction to Koestler's writing and thought is the following anthology of passages from many of his books, described as "A selection from 50 years of his writings, chosen and with new commentary by the author":
*1980. ''[[Bricks to Babel]]''. Random House, ISBN 0394518977
===Autobiography ===
*1952. ''[[Arrow in the Blue|Arrow In The Blue: The First Volume Of An Autobiography, 1905-31]]'', 2005 reprint, ISBN 0099490676
*1954. ''[[The Invisible Writing: The Second Volume Of An Autobiography, 1932-40]]'', 1984 reprint, ISBN 081286218X
*1937. ''[[Spanish Testament]]''.
*1941. ''[[Scum of the Earth (book)|Scum of the Earth]]''.
*1984. ''[[Stranger on the Square]]''.
The books ''The Lotus and the Robot'', ''The God that Failed'', and ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen'', as well as his numerous essays, all contain autobiographical information.
===Biographies===
* Atkins, J., 1956. ''Arthur Koestler''.
* Buckard, Christian G., 2004. ''Arthur Koestler: Ein extremes Leben 1905-1983''. ISBN 3406521770.
* [[David Cesarani]], 1998. ''Arthur Koestler: The Homeless Mind''. ISBN 0684867206.
* Hamilton, Iain, 1982. ''Koestler: A Biography''. ISBN 0025476602.
* Koestler, Mamaine, 1985. ''Living with Koestler''. ISBN 0297785311 or ISBN 0312490291.
* Levene, M., 1984. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 080446412X.
* Mikes, George, 1983. ''Arthur Koestler: The Story of a Friendship''. ISBN 0233976124.
* Pearson, S. A., 1978. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 0805766995.
[[Langston Hughes]]'s autobiography also documents their meeting in [[Turkestan]] during the [[Soviet]] era.
=== Books by Koestler (excluding autobiography) ===
*1933. ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen''. Very difficult to find.
*1935. ''The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....'' Unfinished and unpublished.
*1937. ''L'Espagne ensanglantée''.
*1939. ''[[The Gladiators (book)|The Gladiators]]'', 1967 reprint, ISBN 0025653202. A novel on the revolt of [[Spartacus]].
*1940. ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'', ISBN 0099424916
*1942. ''[[Dialogue with Death]]''. Abridgement of ''Spanish Testament''.
*1943. ''[[Arrival and Departure]]'', novel. 1990 reprint, ISBN 0140181199
*1945. ''[[The Yogi and the Commissar]] and other essays''.
*1945. ''[[Twilight Bar]]''. Drama.
*1946. ''[[Thieves in the Night (novel)]]''.
*1949. ''The Challenge of our Time''.
*1949. ''[[Promise and Fulfilment]]: Palestine 1917-1949''.
*1949. ''[[Insight and Outlook]]''.
*1955. ''[[The Trail of the Dinosaur]] and other essays''.
*1956. ''[[Reflections on Hanging]]''.
*1959. ''[[The Sleepwalkers]]: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''. ISBN 0140192468
*1960. ''The Watershed: A Biography of Johannes Kepler''. Based on ''The Sleepwalkers''. ISBN 0385095767
*1960. ''[[Lotus and the Robot]]'', ISBN 0090598911. Koestler's journey to India and Japan, and his assessment of East and West.
*1961. ''Control of the Mind''.
*1961. ''Hanged by the Neck''. Reuses some material from ''Reflections on Hanging''.
*1963. ''[[Suicide of a Nation]]''.
*1964. ''[[The Act of Creation]]''.
*1967. ''[[The Ghost in the Machine]]''. Penquin reprint 1990: ISBN 0140191925.
*1968. ''[[Drinkers of Infinity]]: Essays 1955-1967''.
*1970. ''The Age of Longing'', ISBN 0091045207.
*1971. ''[[The Case of the Midwife Toad]]'', ISBN 0394718232. An account of [[Paul Kammerer]]'s research on [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian evolution]] and what he called "serial coincidences".
*1972. ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', ISBN 0394719344. Sequel to ''The Case of the Midwife Toad''.
*1972. ''[[The Call Girls (play)|The Call Girls]]: A Tragicomedy with a Prologue and Epilogue'' (play).
*1973. ''The Lion and the Ostrich''.
*1974. ''[[The Heel of Achilles (essays)|The Heel of Achilles]]: Essays 1968-1973'', ISBN 0394495969.
*1976. ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage'', ISBN 0394402847.
*1976. ''Astride the Two Cultures: Arthur Koestler at 70'', ISBN 0394400631.
*1977. ''Twentieth Century Views: A Collection of Critical Essays'', ISBN 0130492132.
*1978. ''[[Janus: A Summing Up]]'', ISBN 0394500520. Sequel to ''The Ghost in the Machine''
*1981. ''[[Kaleidoscope (Koestler)|Kaleidoscope]]''. Essays from ''Drinkers of Infinity'' and ''The Heel of Achilles'', plus later pieces and stories.
===Writings as a contributor===
*''Encyclopaedia of Sexual Knowledge'' (1935)
*''Foreign Correspondent'' (1939),
*''The Practice of Sex'' (1940)
*''[[The God That Failed]]'' (1950) (collection of testimonies by ex-Communists)
*"[[Attila, the poet]]" (1954) (Encounter ; ; 1954.2 (5)). On loan at the UCL library of the School of Slavonic & Eastern European Studies.
*[http://library.ucl.ac.uk:80/F/482FU6EL2H2D5M313X59FNURXIJEXB9DEH6UNIIMKH4BHVDSG1-00222?func=item-global&doc_library=UCL01&doc_number=000806339&year=&volume=&sub_library=SSEES UCL library online]
*''Beyond Reductionism: The Alpbach Symposium. New Perspectives in the Life Sciences'' (co-editor with J.R. Smythies, 1969), ISBN 0807015350
*''[[The Challenge of Chance]]: A Mass Experiment in Telepathy and Its Unexpected Outcome'' (1973)
*''Life After Death'', (co-editor, 1976)
*''[[Humour]] and [[Wit]]. I'': [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 15th ed. vol. 9.([[1983]])
**<small>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9106291 humour - Encyclopædia Britannica](by Arthur Koestler)</small>
==Quotes==
"Courage is never to let your actions be influenced by your fears."
"Creative activity could be described as a type of learning process where teacher and pupil are located in the same individual."
"Nothing is more sad than the death of an illusion."
"Prometheus is reaching out for the stars with an empty grin on his face."
"Scientists are peeping toms at the keyhole of eternity."
"The more original a discovery, the more obvious it seems afterwards."
"The most persistent sound which reverberates through man's history is the beating of war drums."
"The principle mark of genius is not perfection but originality, the opening of new frontiers."
"True creativity often starts where language ends."
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] - Koestler and his third spouse left a large sum of money for research into parapsychology: this funded, amongst other t |
ant]] by [[Gilbert Stuart]]. ]]
In the 17th century, canal racing on wooden skates with iron blades was popular in the Netherlands. Also in that century, James, the younger son of the British monarch Charles I, came to the Netherlands in exile, he fell for the sport. When he went back to England, this "new" sport was introduced to the British aristocracy.
In the 18th century, ice skating became a world known sport and the Dutch created skates with much longer blades.
==How it works==
Ice skating works because the metal blade at the bottom of the ice skate shoe can glide with very little [[friction]] over the surface of the ice. However, slightly leaning the blade over and digging one of its edges into the ice ("rockover and bite") gives skaters the ability to increase friction and control their movement at will. In addition, by choosing to move along curved paths whilst leaning their bodies radially and flexing their knees, skaters can use gravity to control and increase their momentum. They can also create momentum by pushing the blade against the curved track which it cuts into the ice. Skillfully combining these two actions of leaning and pushing - a technique known as "drawing" - results in what looks like effortless and graceful curvilinear flow across the ice.
Research in materials has come up with a number of theories explaining the true nature of skating. The issue is that the precise mechanism by which the low-friction is generated is not fully understood, though a number of plausible theories abound usually involving explanations of air-ice boundary layer water and/or friction generated through the skate bottom.
The boundary layer of water being the cause of slipperiness has been disputed when measurements of the boundary layer water with an atomic force microscope finding the boundary layer to be too thin to supply sufficient friction reduction. Nevertheless, a popular theory of this is: Because the molecular structure of ice is a [[crystalline structure]], it turns out that having this structure abruptly stop when it reaches the top of the ice is not the most [[entropically favorable]] form. Instead, there is always a [[thin film]] of liquid water ranging in thickness from only a few molecules to thousands of molecules on top of the ice. This allows a smoother transition from the structured ice to the completely random structure of the air molecules. The thickness of this liquid layer depends almost entirely on the temperature of the surface of the ice (higher temperatures give a thicker layer), and the liquid layer disappears around −20°[[Celsius|C]] (−4°[[Fahrenheit|F]]). However, skating is still possible at temperatures much lower than −20°[[Celsius|C]]. Experiments show that ice has a minimum of kinetic friction at −7°C (−19°[[Fahrenheit|F]]), and many indoor skating rinks set their system to a similar temperature.
==External links==
* [http://www.skridsko.net/klubbar/data/science.html Scientific Papers]
* [http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/05/10_somorjai.html Gabor Somorjai, the father of modern surface chemistry]
* [http://schoonrijden.rinkes.nl schoonrijden or "fancy skating" (schoonrijden.rinkes.nl)]
* [http://www.skatelog.com/ice/ All About Ice skating]
==See also==
A number of sports are based on the principle of ice skating:
* [[figure skating]]
* [[ice hockey]]
* [[short track speed skating]]
* [[speed skating]]
* [[tour skating]]
* [[synchronized skating]]
* [[Rousette skating]] is a recreational event based on ice skating.
* [[Elfstedentocht]]
[[Category:Skating]]
[[de:Eislauf]]
[[fr:Patinage]]
[[fy:Reedriden]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1495;&#1500;&#1511;&#1492; &#1506;&#1500; &#1492;&#1511;&#1512;&#1495;]]
[[ja:&#12473;&#12465;&#12540;&#12488;]]
[[nl:Schaatsen]]
[[pl:&#322;y&#380;wiarstwo]]
[[pt:Patinagem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Olympic Committee</title>
<id>15147</id>
<revision>
<id>41498468</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:51:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Discospinster</username>
<id>82432</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Mission and role */ typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IOC}}
The '''International Olympic Committee''' is an organisation based in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], created by [[Pierre de Coubertin]] on [[June 23]] [[1894]] to reinstate the [[Ancient Olympic Games]] held in [[Greece]] between 776 BC to 396 AD. Its membership is 203 National Olympic Committees.
The IOC organises the Olympic Games: the [[Games of the Olympiad]] (Summer Olympic Games) are celebrated during the first year of an Olympiad, and the [[Olympic Winter Games]] during its third year. The first Games of the Olympiad of modern times were celebrated in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The first Olympic Winter Games were celebrated in Chamonix, France, in 1924.
Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.
==Presidents==
{{IOC_Presidents}}
The IOC Session (composed of the IOC Members) elects, by secret ballot, a President from among its members for a term of eight years renewable once for four years. The next President election will then take place in 2009.
The President represents the IOC and presides over all its activities.
Note: President [[Juan Antonio Samaranch]] has been elected Honorary President For Life. Samaranch was formerly Minister for Sport under General [[Francisco Franco|Franco's]] [[Fascist]] government.
== Presentation ==
On [[June 23]], [[1894]] the Olympic games were re-created by Pierre de Coubertin after a hiatus of 1500 years. The baron hoped to foster international communication and peace through the Olympic Games. The IOC is a parent organisation intended to localize administration and authority for the Games, as well as to provide a single legal entity which owns [[copyrights]], [[trademarks]], and other intangible properties associated with the Olympic games. For example, the Olympic logos, the design of the Olympic flag, the motto, creed, and anthem are all owned and administered by the IOC. There are other organisations which the IOC coordinates as well, which are collectively called the '''Olympic Movement'''. The IOC President is responsible for representing the IOC as a whole, and there are members of the IOC which represent the IOC in their respective countries.
== Mission and role ==
The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement.
The IOC’s role is:
1. to encourage and support the promotion of ethics in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is banned;
2. to encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions;
3. to ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games;
4. to cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace;
5. to take action in order to strengthen the unity and to protect the independence of the Olympic Movement;
6. to act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;
7. to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women;
8. to lead the fight against doping in sport;
9. to encourage and support measures protecting the health of athletes;
10. to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes;
11. to encourage and support the efforts of sports organisations and public authorities to provide for the social and professional future of athletes;
12. to encourage and support the development of sport for all;
13. to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held
accordingly;
14. to promote a positive legacy from the Olympic Games to the host cities and host countries;
15. to encourage and support initiatives blending sport with culture and education;
16. to encourage and support the activities of the International Olympic Academy (“IOA”) and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education.
''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''
== Organization ==
The powers of the IOC are exercised by its organs, namely:
1. the Session,
2. the IOC Executive Board,
3. the President
===The IOC Session===
The Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC. It is the IOC’s supreme organ. Its decisions are final. Each IOC Member has one vote.
An ordinary Session is held once a year. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.
Among others, the powers of the Session are:
1. To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.
2. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, honorary members and honour members.
3. To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.
4. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.
===The IOC Executive Board===
The IOC Executive Board consists of the President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other members. All members of the IOC Executive Board are elected by the Session, in a secret ballot, by a majority of the votes cast.
The IOC Executive Board assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the IOC and the ma |
ead at each end. According to [[Greek mythology]], the mythological amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from [[Medusa]] the [[Gorgon]]'s head as [[Perseus]] flew over the Libyan desert with it in his hand. Cato's army then encountered it along with other serpents on the march. Amphisbaenae fed off of the corpses left behind. The amphisbaena has been referred to by the [[poet]]s, such as [[Nicander]], [[John Milton]], [[Alexander Pope]], and [[Alfred Tennyson|Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and the amphisbaena as a mythological and legendary creature has been referenced by [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Isidore of Seville]], and [[Thomas Browne|Browne, Sir Thomas]], the last of which debunked its existence.
== Appearance ==
The earlier descriptions of the amphisbaena depict what looks basically like a snake (perhaps an [[Indian Sand Boa]]), but with a head at either end. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet and feathered wings. Some even depict it with horns on the front head and small, round ears on the other, or horns on both heads. These horns are long and either curved upwards or slightly spiraled. Also, some show it with the second head on the end of its tail, while others have both "necks" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet [[Nicander]] seems to contradict this by describing it as "always dull of eye". He also says: "From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other."
== Abilities ==
* regenerative abilities - if the amphisbaena is cut in half, the two parts can rejoin
* venomous fangs - the amphisbaena is venomous, as [[Pliny the Elder ]] indicates: "The amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail end as well, as though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth."
* efficient duplicity - the amphisbaena's heads can handle more than one task at once, as [[Thomas Browne|Browne, Sir Thomas]] explains: "...while one wept, the other laughing; while one was silent, the other speaking; while one awaked, the other sleeping; as is declared by three remarkable examples in Petrarch, Vincentius, and the Scottish History of Buchanan."
* speed - according to some accounts, the amphisbaena can slither (or run) very quickly, and, in the case of the limbless amphisbaena, it can slither in either direction, as [[Isidore of Seville]] indicates: "It can move in the direction of either head with a circular motion." The poet [[Nicander]], however, describes the amphisbaena as "slow in motion".
* rolling - by locking the jaws of its two heads or holding the neck of one in the mouth of the other, the amphisbaena can roll like a hoop, as depicted by medieval artists
* warmbloodedness - unlike most serpents, the amphisbaena was apparently unperturbed by the cold, as [[Isidore of Seville]] indicates: "Alone among snakes, the amphisbaena goes out in the cold."
== Uses ==
* pregnancy - pregnant women wearing an amphisbaena around their necks would supposedly have safe pregnancies; in accord with this, women in power would wear bracelets in the shape of amphisbaenae
* [[arthritis]] - wearing a dead amphisbaena or its skin would cure [[arthritis]]
* chilblains - wearing the skin of an amphisbaena will reduce this swelling of the hands caused by cold
* cold - wearing a dead amphisbaena or its skin is a cure for a cold
* woodcutting - nailing the skin of an amphisbeana to a tree before cutting it down will make it easier to fell the tree and keep the lumberjack warm
== References in [[heraldry]] ==
As well as a legendary creature referenced by ancient historians and a monster from [[Greek mythology]], the amphisbaena is a heraldic creature.
'''Amphibanes''', or '''Amphibenes''' is a heraldic term indicating the crest: "on a Saltire ''or'', interlaced by two Amphisbaenae ''azure'' [[tongue|langued]] ''gules'' a rose of the last barbed and seeded ''purpure''". This was the crest of [[Gwilt]].
In plain [[English language|English]], this means a rose with purple thorns and seeds interlaced by two blue, red-tongued amphisbaenae, with a yellow X in the background.
== Bibliography ==
* Hunt, Jonathan (1998). ''Bestiary: An Illuminated Alphabet of Medieval Beasts'' (1st ed.). Hong Kong: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-689-81246-9.
* Dave. Amphisbaena. Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places. Available: URL http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/amphisbaena.htm. Last accessed [[3 May]] [[2005]].
[[de:Amphisbäne]]
[[es:Anfisbena]]
[[gl:Anfisbena]]
[[pl:Amfisbeny]]
[[Category:Greek legendary creatures]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amyl alcohol</title>
<id>3045</id>
<revision>
<id>32097184</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T13:10:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are eight [[isomer]]s of '''[[amyl]] [[alcohol]]''' (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>OH):
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
|+Isomers of amyl alcohol
|-
! name || formula || [[Alcohol#Structure|alcohol structure]] || [[Systematic name|IUPAC Name]]
|-
| normal amyl alcohol
| CH<sub>3</sub>&bull;(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>&bull;OH
| primary
| [[pentanol|1-pentanol]]
|-
| isobutyl carbinol or isoamyl alcohol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>&bull;CH&bull;CH<sub>2</sub>&bull;CH<sub>2</sub>OH
| primary
| 3-methyl-1-butanol
|-
| active amyl alcohol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>)(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)''':'''CH&bull;CH<sub>2</sub>OH
| primary
| 2-methyl-1-butanol
|-
| tertiary butyl carbinol
or neopentyl alcohol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>C&bull;CH<sub>2</sub>OH
| primary
| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol
|-
| diethyl carbinol
| (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CH&bull;OH
| secondary
| 3-pentanol
|-
| methyl (n) propyl carbinol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>.CH<sub>2</sub>&bull;CH<sub>2</sub>)(CH<sub>3</sub>)''':'''CH''':'''OH
| secondary
| 2-pentanol
|-
| methyl isopropyl carbinol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>''':'''CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)''':'''CHOH
| secondary
| 3-methyl-2-butanol
|-
| dimethyl ethyl carbinol
or tertiary amyl alcohol
| (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>&bull;(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)&bull;''':'''C&bull;OH
| tertiary
| 2-methyl-2-butanol
|}
Three of these alcohols, active amyl alcohol, methyl (n) propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, contain an asymmetric carbon atom and can consequently each exist in two [[optical isomerism|optically active]], and one optically inactive form.
The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a constituent of [[fusel oil]]. It may be separated from fusel oil by shaking with strong [[brine]] solution, separating the oily layer from the brine layer and [[distillation|distilling]] it, the portion boiling between 125 &deg;C and 140 &deg;C. being collected. For further purification it may be shaken with hot [[lime water]], the oily layer separated, dried with [[calcium chloride]] and fractionated, the fraction boiling between 128 &deg;C and 132 &deg;C only being collected. It may be synthetically prepared from [[butanol|isobutyl alcohol]] by conversion into isovaleraldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of [[sodium amalgam]].
It is a colourless liquid of density 0.8247 g/cm&sup3; (0 &deg;C), boiling at 131.6 &deg;C, slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[chloroform]] and [[benzene]]. It possesses a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste. When perfectly pure, it is not a poison, although the impure product is. On passing its vapour through a red-hot tube, it undergoes decomposition with production of [[acetylene]], [[ethylene]], [[propylene]], etc. It is [[oxidation|oxidized]] by [[chromic acid]] mixture to isovaleraldehyde; and it forms crystalline addition compounds with [[calcium chloride]] and [[tin(IV) chloride]].
The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to obtain, its synthesis having first been accomplished in [[1891]], by L. Tissier (''Comptes Rendus'', 1891, 112, p. 1065) by the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam. It is a solid which melts at 48 to 50 &deg;C and boils at 112.3 &deg;C.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[de:1-Pentanol]]
[[pt:Álcool amílico]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amyl nitrite</title>
<id>3046</id>
<revision>
<id>42086790</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:09:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.23.210.149</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="250px" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:amylnitrite.JPG|100px]] <br/>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: <br />
''3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane''
|- align="center" style="border-botto |
that computer viruses cannot directly damage hardware, but only software.
While viruses can be intentionally destructive (for example, by destroying data), many other viruses are fairly benign or merely annoying. Some viruses have a delayed payload, which is sometimes called a ''bomb''. For example, a virus might display a message on a specific day or wait until it has infected a certain number of hosts. A ''time bomb'' occurs during a particular date or time, and a ''logic bomb'' occurs when the user of a computer takes an action that triggers the bomb. However, the predominant negative effect of viruses is their uncontrolled self-reproduction, which wastes or overwhelms computer resources.
Today ([[as of 2005]]), viruses are somewhat less common than network-borne worms, due to the popularity of the [[Internet]]. [[Anti-virus software]], originally designed to protect computers from viruses, has in turn expanded to cover worms and other threats such as [[spyware]].
== Definition ==
A virus is a type of program that can replicate itself by making (possibly modified) copies of itself. The main criterion for classifying a piece of executable code as a virus is that it spreads itself by means of 'hosts'. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium. Additionally, viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a [[File system#Network file systems|network file system]] or a file system that is accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with [[computer worm|worms]]. A worm, however, can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host. Many personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local-area networks, facilitating their spread. Today's viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the [[World Wide Web]], [[e-mail]], and [[file sharing]] systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms.
Viruses can infect different types of hosts. The most common targets are executable files that contain application software or parts of the operating system. Viruses have also infected the executable [[boot sector]]s of [[floppy disk]]s, script files of application programs, and documents that can contain [[macro virus|macro scripts]]. Additionally, viruses can infect files in other ways than simply inserting a copy of their code into the code of the host program. For example, a virus can overwrite its host with the virus code, or it can use a trick to ensure that the virus program is executed when the user wants to execute the (unmodified) host program. Viruses have existed for many different [[operating system]]s, including [[MS-DOS]], [[AmigaOS]], [[Mac OS]] and even [[Linux]]; however, the vast majority of viruses affect [[Microsoft Windows]].
A legitimate application program that can copy itself as a side effect of its normal function (e.g. backup software) is not considered a virus. Some programs that were apparently intended as viruses cannot self-replicate, because the infection routine contains bugs. For example, a buggy virus can insert copies of itself into host programs, but these copies never get executed and are thus unable to spread the virus. As long as at least some of the copies are able to make copies of themselves, they are still considered viruses, otherwise they are referred to as ''intended viruses''.
Some people incorrectly argue that malware is only classified as a virus if it both meets the above definition and can infect a computer without user activation. By this definition, malware that requires user activation to run would be classified as a trojan or a worm. But, before computers were networked together, the only way a virus would activate(excluding boot sector viruses) was by user activation, so this never was part of the definition of a virus.
==Use of the word "virus"==
The term "virus" was first used in an academic publication by [[Fred Cohen]] in his [[1984]] paper ''Experiments with Computer Viruses'', where he credits [[Len Adleman]] with coining it. However, a 1972 [[science fiction]] novel by [[David Gerrold]], ''[[When H.A.R.L.I.E. Was One]],'' includes a description of a fictional computer program called "VIRUS" that worked just like a virus (and was countered by a program called "ANTIBODY"); and [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s 1975 novel ''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'' describes programs known as "tapeworms" which spread through a network for deleting data. The term "computer virus" with current usage also appears in the [[comic book]] "Uncanny [[X-Men]]" No. 158, published in 1982. Therefore, we may conclude that although Cohen's use of "virus" may, perhaps, have been the first "academic" use, the term had been used earlier. ''[[Westworld]]'' is often cited as containing an early usage of the term, though the exact phrase is not actually used in the film.
The term "virus" is often used in common parlance to describe all kinds of [[malware]] (malicious software), including those that are more properly classified as [[computer worm|worms]] or [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojans]]. Most popular [[anti-virus software]] packages defend against all of these types of attack.
The English plural of "virus" is "viruses". Some people use "virii" or "viri" as a plural, although computer professionals seldom use these words. For a discussion about whether "viri" and "virii" are correct alternatives for "viruses", see ''[[plural of virus]]''.
Sometimes the word "virus" is also considered an [[acronym]] which stands for "Vital Information Resource Under Siege", but this only started relatively recently (meaning it is a [[backronym]] instead) and is unrelated to the initial use of the word "virus" for computer malware. [http://www.stands4.com/bs.asp?st=VIRUS]
==History==
A program called "[[Elk Cloner]]" is credited with being the first computer virus to appear "in the wild" -- that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created. Written in [[1982]] by [[Rich Skrenta]], it attached itself to the Apple DOS 3.3 operating system and spread by [[floppy disk]].
The first PC virus was a boot sector virus called [[(c)Brain]], created in [[1986]] by two brothers, Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi, operating out of [[Lahore, Pakistan]]. The brothers reportedly created the virus to deter pirated copies of software they had written.[http://www.brain.net.pk/aboutus.htm] However, analysts have claimed that the [[Ashar (virus)|Ashar]] virus, a variant of Brain, possibly predated it based on code within the virus.
Before computer networks became widespread, most viruses spread on [[removable media]], particularly [[floppy disk]]s. In the early days of [[personal computer]]s, many users regularly exchanged information and programs on floppies. Some viruses spread by infecting programs stored on these disks, while others installed themselves into the disk [[boot sector]], ensuring that they would be run when the user booted the computer from the disk.
As [[bulletin board system]]s and online software exchange became popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s, more viruses were written to infect popularly traded software. [[Shareware]] and [[copyright violation|bootleg]] software were equally common [[vector (computing)|vector]]s for viruses on BBSes. Within the "pirate scene" of hobbyists trading illicit copies of commercial software, traders in a hurry to obtain the latest applications and games were easy targets for viruses.
Since the mid-[[1990s]], [[macro virus]]es have become common. Most of these viruses are written in the scripting languages for Microsoft programs such as [[Microsoft Word|Word]] and [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]]. These viruses spread in [Microsoft Office] by infecting documents and spreadsheets. Since Word and Excel were also available for Mac OS, most of these viruses were able to spread on Macintosh computers as well. Numerically, most of these viruses did not have the ability to send infected [[electronic mail|e-mail]]. The ones that did usually worked by accessing the [[Microsoft Outlook]] [[Component Object Model|COM]] interface.
Macro viruses pose unique problems for detection software. Here are two examples. First, some versions of Word caused macros to replicate themselves with additional blank lines. The virus behaved identically but would be misidentified as a new virus. Second, if two macro viruses simultaneously infect a document, the combination of the two, if also self-replicating, can appear as a "mating" of the two and would likely be detected as a virus unique from the "parents." [http://www.people.frisk-software.com/~bontchev/papers/macidpro.html]
A computer virus may also be transmitted through instant messaging. A virus may send a web address link as an instant message to all the contacts on an infected machine. If the recipient, thinking the link is from a friend (a trusted source), goes to the website, the virus hosted at the site may be able to infect this new computer and continue propagating.
== Why people create computer viruses ==
Unlike biological viruses, computer viruses do not simply evolve by themselves, except in the cases where copying errors and recombination have led to actual evolution of computer viruses{{citeneeded}}; however, these cases are very rare compared to the rapid generation of new malware by human programmers. They cannot come into existence spontaneously, nor can they be created by [[Computer bug|bugs]] in regular programs. They are deliberately created by programmers, or by people who use virus creation software.
|
the hands of potential gerrymanderers is to create objective, precise criterion to which any district map must comply. Courts in the United States, for instance, have ruled that congressional districts must be continuous in order to be constitutional. This, however, is not a particularly binding constraint, as very narrow strips of land with little or no voters in them may be used to connect separate regions into the same district. <!-- other rules: equal population, concave. also note these rules are either not implemented, or not enforced. -->
{{sect-stub}}
==Gerrymandering computer technology==
The introduction of modern [[computer]]s and the development of elaborate [[voter database]]s alongside special districting software has made gerrymandering a far more precise science. Using these databases, politicians can obtain detailed information about every household including political party registration, previous campaign donations, and the number of times residents voted in previous elections. Using this information alongside other predictors of voting behavior such as age, income, race, or education level, drawers of a new electoral map can predict the voting behavior of each potential district with an astonishing degree of precision, greatly increasing the efficiency of gerrymandering and reducing the chance of accidentally making a district competitive.
:''See also: [[Geographic information system]]''
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==National historical examples==
===Gerrymandering in the United States===
[[Image:TravisCountyDistricts.png|thumb|300px|left|U.S. congressional districts covering [[Travis County, Texas]] (outlined in red) in 2002, left, and 2004, right. In 2003, Republicans in the Texas legislature redistricted the state, diluting the voting power of the heavily Democratic county by parceling its residents out to more Republican districts.]]
The United States has been subject to gerrymandering since the initial carving of [[territory|territories]] into [[US states]]. Combined with [[Apportionment (politics)|malapportionment]] rules for representation in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]], gerrymandering allowed the United States Congress significant amounts of control over its own political makeup. Prior to the [[American Civil War]], with the contentious issue of [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] dividing the Congress, states were admitted on a formula of "one free state for each slave state" in order to prevent one side from gaining the upper hand. This nearly prevented the state of [[Maine]] from seceding from [[Massachusetts]] until the [[Missouri Compromise]] was agreed upon, and it was decided that [[Texas]] and [[California]] would both enter as single, but large, states.
The practice of gerrymandering the borders of new states continued past the Civil War and into the late 19th century, where the territories of the [[Rocky Mountains]] were split up into relatively small states to help the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] maintain control of the Presidency - each new state brought in three [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]] regardless of its population size (Compare a map of the United States in 1860 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/us_terr_1860.jpg] with a map from 1870 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/us_terr_1870.jpg]). <!-- These images need to be put in wikimedia commons, rather than external links-->
Throughout U.S. history, the possibility of gerrymandering has made the process of [[redistricting]] extremely politically contentious within the United States. Under U.S. law, districts for members of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] are redrawn every ten years following each [[census]]; it is common practice for state legislative boundaries to be redrawn at the same time. Intense political battles over contentious redistricting typically take place within state legislatures responsible for creating the electoral maps, however federal courts are often also involved. Sometimes this process creates strange bedfellows interested in securing reelection; in some states, Republicans have cut deals with opposing black Democratic state legislators to create majority black districts. By packing black Democratic voters into a single district, these districts essentially ensure the election of a black Congressman or reelection of a black state legislator, however due to the packed concentration of Democratic voters the surrounding districts are more safely Republican.
Ironically, this kind of gerrymandering along racial lines has been used to both increase and decrease minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations.
====Voting Rights Act of 1965====
After the Civil War, with the rewarding of voting rights to freed slaves, state legislatures turned to racial gerrymandering and [[poll tax]]es to disenfranchise minorities, most of whom were in geographically distinct areas. Eventually, these practices led to a major civil rights conflict; gerrymandering for the purpose of reducing the political influence of a racial or ethnic minority group became illegal in the United States under the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] (along with poll taxes by the [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fourth Amendment]] in 1964), however gerrymandering for political gain remained legal.
After the Voting Rights Act, racial gerrymandering has still been used to create "majority-minority" districts. Using this practice, also called "affirmative gerrymandering", these districts were created with the stated purpose of redressing previous discrimination to ensure higher ethnic minority representation in government. Since the 1990s, however, gerrymandering based solely on race has been ruled unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] first by [[Shaw v. Reno]] (1993) and subsequently by [[Miller v. Johnson]] (1995). The constitutionality of racial considerations in creating districts remains ambiguous, however; in [[Hunt v. Cromartie]] (1999), the Supreme Court approved a racially focused congressional gerrymandering on the grounds that the drawing was not pure racial gerrymandering but instead partisan gerrymandering, which is constitutionally permissible.
===Gerrymandering in Northern Ireland===
<!-- Dates are needed here -->
A particularly famous case of gerrymandering occurred in [[Northern Ireland]], where the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|government]] created electoral boundaries for the [[Londonderry County Borough Council]] which, coupled with continuing non-universal voting rights based on economic and property status across Northern Ireland, ensured the election of a [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] council in a city where [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] were in the overwhelming majority. Coupled with a policy that gave council houses to unionists at the expense of nationalists all over [[Northern Ireland]] (in one famous case, giving a council house to a single [[Protestant]] woman employed by the UUP rather than a large [[Catholic]] family who were at the head of the list), this policy of gerrymandering produced the ''[[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]]''. The refusal of the government to consider equal rights in local government and an end to gerrymandered discrimination led indirectly to the tumultuous time known as ''[[The Troubles]]''.
In 1929 the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] passed a Bill returning the local electoral system from the relatively proportional [[Single Transferable Vote]] (where seat numbers approximately equate to vote percentage) first introduced in [[Sligo]] in 1918 and throughout Ireland in 1919 to the less proportional [[First Past the Post]] or [[block voting]] systems (where the seat percentage does not always equate even closely to the percentages.) The only exception was for the election of four Stormont MPs to represent [[Queen's University, Belfast]]). The [[United Kingdom|British]] Government was so opposed to the change, which it viewed as the abolition of the electoral safeguards provided in the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'', that it advised the King's representative in Northern Ireland, the [[Governor of Northern Ireland]] to withhold the [[Royal Assent in Northern Ireland|Royal Assent]] from the legislation. After a major row the British government backed down and advised the Governor to sign the Bill into law.
Allegations have been made that the boundaries were gerrymandered to under represent Nationalists, though some geographers and historians (for instance Professor [[John H. Whyte]] [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm] [http://www.ark.ac.uk/elections/hnihoc.htm]) have strongly challenged allegations of gerrymandering in Northern Ireland-wide parliamentary elections, arguing that the electoral boundaries for the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] were not gerrymandered to a greater level than that produced by any single-winner election system and that the number of Nationalist MPs barely changed with the system. The change to single-member seats is generally acknowledged however as being a key factor in stifling the growth of smaller groups such as the [[Northern Ireland Labour Party]] and independent Unionists.
The Parliament of Northern Ireland and its government were abolished in 1973, and STV was restored for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. Currently in Northern Ireland, only elections to the Westminister parliament do not use STV, following the pattern in the rest of the United Kingdom by using First Past the Post.
===Republic of Ireland, "Tullymandering"===
In the |
the designer of a scheme or plan.
"Architect" is derived from Latin: ''architectus'', and from Greek: ''arkhitekton'' (master builder), ''arkhi'' (chief) + ''tekton'' (builder, carpenter). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=architect&searchmode=none]
In the broadest sense, an '''architect''' is a person who interfaces between the end user of a planned structure and the [[builder]]. That is, the architect translates the user's needs into the builder's requirements. The architect must be completely conversant with the user's environment, that is, the area of business or industry for which the structure is to be used, so that s/he can fully and completely understand the image of the final result that the user is trying to convey. Equally as important, the architect must thoroughly understand the building and operational codes with which the builder must conform and, upon completion, during use of the structure. That degree of knowledge is necessary so that s/he is not apt to omit any necessary requirements, or produce improper, conflicting, ambiguous, or confusing requirements. S/he must understand the various methods available to the builder for building the user's structure, so that s/he can negotiate with the user to produce a best possible compromise of the results desired within explicit cost and time boundaries.
Architects are professionals considered on par with doctors, engineers, and lawyers, and they must frequently make building design and planning decisions that affect the safety and well being of the general public. Architects are required to obtain specialized education and documented work experience to obtain professional licensure, similar to the requirements for other [[professional]]s, with requirements for practice varying greatly from place to place (see below).
The most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the [[Pritzker Prize]]. It is considered the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] for [[architecture]]. Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national and regional professional associations such as the [[American Institute of Architects]] and [[Royal Institute of British Architects]].
<!--If you would like to describe someone who is not an architect, please consider adding another entry (or at least creating another paragraph). This one is intended to define the professional term Architect, which has a legal definition in most areas.-->
<!--This is not a legal dictionary-->
Although '''architect''' may be a specific term referring to a licensed professional, the word is frequently used in the broader sense noted above to define someone who brings order to the built or unbuilt environment through the use of rational constructs using (engineering) design tools. ['''Note:''' someone who brings order to the built and/or unbuilt environment through the use of rational '''or irrational''' constructs and '''who may or may not use''' design tools is normally referred to as an [[artist]]. Although structures described by [[architectures]] may often be said to contain [[artistic]] features, as a whole they are rarely referred to as works of [[art]]. Similarly, works of [[art]] are rarely referred to as having an [[architecture]].]
For example, '''naval architects, software architects,''' etc., and graduates of schools of architecture not doing regulated project/construction documents are often called '''architects.''' However, '''non-licensed architects''' and designers working in the [[construction industry]] are prohibited from referring to themselves as '''architects''' in most countries.
==Canada==
In [[Canada]], architects are required to belong to provincial architectural associations that require them to complete an accredited degree in architecture, finish a multi-year internship process, pass a series of exams, and pay an annual fee to acquire and maintain a license to practice.
The [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]] [http://www.raic.org/] aims to be "the voice of Architecture and its practice in Canada." Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix MRAIC after their names. All members of the RAIC hold accredited degrees in architecture, but not all Canadian architects are members of the RAIC.
==UK==
Architects in the [[UK]] qualify through courses and exams recognized by the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]] (RIBA) and prescribed by the [[Architects_Registration_Board|Architects Registration Board]] (ARB).
Typically the sequence of education leading to full [[professional certification|qualification]] and registration takes seven years and is:
* Three-year degree course
* RIBA Part 1 exam
* One year’s professional experience
* Further two-year course
* RIBA Part 2 exam
* Another year’s professional experience
* RIBA Part 3 exam
The title ‘architect’ has legal protection in the United Kingdom; under the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/97022--f.htm#20 Architects Act 1997] it is against the law for people who are not registered to practise or carry on business under any name, style or title that contains the word.
However, [[draughtsmen]] and [[architectural technologists]] (previously architectural technicians), as well as many who have chosen not to register, may also provide architectural services.
==USA==
In the [[United States]], people wishing to become licensed architects (interns) are required to have a degree from a school accredited by the [[#External Links|NAAB]] and pass a series of exams administered by the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB), referred to as the [[Architect Registration Exam]]ination (the ARE). In addition, interns must have a minimum of 3 years of documented, practical work experience (quantity depends on type of educational experience and type of educational degree earned) working under a licensed Architect before they may become eligible to take the ARE. Although the ARE is a national exam, each state has specific requirements and issues their own licenses (including California and Hawaii), due to varying environmental conditions in each region. Other states have reciprocity agreements, so licenses may be easily transferred between certain states. Schooling is not always required in such states as New York, for someone who works at least 10 years under an accredited architect is eligible for a licensing test.
There are three types of accredited ("professional") degrees in architecture in the United States; a Bachelor of Architecture, a Master of Architecture, or a Doctor of Architecture (abbreviated as B.Arch., M.Arch., and D.Arch., respectively). These are called professional degrees as they are required to enter the profession. A Bachelor of Arts in Architecture (BA), Bachelor of Fine Arts in Architecture (BFA Arch), Bachelor of Science in Architecture (BS), or Bachelor of Environmental Design (B.Envd) typically takes four years - as opposed to five for a B. Arch degree - and is considered a pre-professional degree. However a professional degree may still be required (to take the ARE and to practice) and the programs are often combined usually leading to an M.Arch degree. A pre-professional degree is not necessary to enter a professional degree program, but accelerates completion. It is possible to become licensed as an Architect in other ways: reciprical licensure for over-seas architects and working under an architect as an intern for an extended period of time. Following graduation from a professional program, documented apprenticeship (typically 3 year internship) is required before the individual is eligible to take the ARE and become licensed.
The [[American Institute of Architects]] [http://www.aia.org] is a professional organization dedicated to offering a network of services to architects in the United States. Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix AIA after their names. All architects who are licensed by their respective states have professional status as Registered Architects (RA), which is the suffix used if the architect is not also a member of the AIA.
==Hong Kong==
In [[Hong Kong]] to be an architect, one must be a graduate of a university specified by the HKIA plus a two year internship, then take the architect registration examination. Architects from U.K. and U.S.A. with 10 years experience aren't required to take the examination, but are required to attend an interview just as a formality.
Architects in Hong Kong are not authorized to submit building plans but use it as a 'title' only, unlike in most of the western world which carries a statutory obligation. To be able to submit building plans, architects, engineers or surveyors must go through another step by passing an authorized personal interview. Contrary to popular thought, most of the famous buildings in Hong Kong are designed by well-known international 'brand' architects and local architects act only as facilitators.
==Australia==
In [[Australia]] the title architect is legally protected and architects are registered through state boards. These boards are affiliated through the [http://www.aaca.org.au/index.html Architects Accreditation Council of Australia]. The AACA also provides accrediation for schools and assessments for architects with overseas qualifications for the purposes of migration.
There are three key requirements for registration. The first is a professional degree from a school of architecture accredited by the AACA. This is generally a Bachelor of Architecture degree of five or six years duration. The second is at least two years of practical experience and the third is the completion of the architectural practice examination.
Architects may also belong to the [http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] which is the professional organisati |
ndian Institute of Science]]
#[[Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management]]
#[[IIT Bombay]]
#[[IIT Delhi]]
#[[IIT Guwahati]]
#[[IIT Kanpur]]
#[[IIT Kharagpur]]
#[[IIT Madras]]
#[[IIT Roorkee]]
#[[Indiana Institute of Technology]]
#[[Indiana State University]]
#[[Indiana University system|Indiana University]]
#[[Indiana University Bloomington]]
#[[Indiana University Kokomo]]
#[[Indiana University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis]]
#[[Indiana University South Bend]]
#[[Indiana University Southeast]]
#[[Indiana Wesleyan University]]
# [[IGNOU]]
#[[Ingenieurschule HTL Chu]]
#[[Inha University]]
#[[Institut d'Informatique d'Entreprise]]
#[[Institut des Sciences de l'Ingenieur de Montpellier]]
#[[Institut f. Semantische Informationsverarbeitung]]
#[[Institut fur Lasertechnik]]
#[[Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer]]
#[[Institut Jozef Stefan]]
#[[Institut national agronomique Paris-Grignon]]
#[[Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique]]
#[[Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules]]
#[[Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon]]
#[[Institut National des Sciences Appliquees de Toulouse]]
#[[Institut National des Télécommunications]]
#[[Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble]]
#[[Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse]]
#[[Institut Superieur d'Informatique et d'Automatique]]
#[[Institut Superieur de Technologie]]
#[[Institut Superieur de Gestion]]
#[[Institut Superieure D'Electronique du Nord]]
#[[Institut Teknologi Bandung]]
#[[Institut Universitaire de Technologie de Sceaux]]
#[[Institut Universitari de l'Audiovisual]]
#[[Institute for Mathematical Sciences]]
#[[Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology]]
#[[Institute of Historical Research]]
#[[Institute of Industrial Science]]
#[[Institute of Paper Science and Technology]]
#[[Institute of Technology, Benaras Hindu University]]
#[[Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology]]
#[[Instituto Centroamericano de Adminstracion de Empresas]]
#[[Instituto Militar de Engenharia]]
#[[Instituto Peruano de Administracion de Empresas]]
#[[Instituto Politécnico Nacional]]
#[[Instituto Politecnico do Porto]]
#[[Instituto Superior de Ciencias do Trabalho e da Empresa]]
#[[Instituto Superior de Transportes]]
#[[Instituto Superior Técnico]]
#[[Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica]]
#[[Instituto Tecnologico de Merida]]
#[[ITESM|Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM)]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Chihuahua]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Ciudad de México]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Guadalajara]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Guaymas]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Sonora Norte]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Occidente]]
#[[Instituto de Ciencias de la Educacion]]
#[[Inter American University]]
#[[Intercollege]]
#[[Intercultural Open University]]
#[[International American University]]
#[[International College Penang]]
#[[International Islamic University Malaysia]]
#[[International Reform University]]
#[[International School for Advanced Studies]]
#[[International University]] ([[Cambodia]])
#[[International University Bremen]]
#[[International University College]]
#[[International University of Chabahar]] ([[Iran]])
#[[International University of Japan]]
#[[International University of Fundamental Studies St Petersburg Russia]]
#[[Interstaatliche Ingenieurschule Neu-Technikum Buchs (NTB)]]
#[[Interstate Institute of Technology St. Gallen]]
#[[Iona College]]
#[[Iowa State University]] ([[Ames, Iowa|Ames]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran]]
#[[Iranian Academy of Medical Sciences, Tehran]]
#[[Isfahan University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Isfahan University of Technology]]
#[[Isle of Man College]]
#[[Istanbul Technical University]]
#[[Istituto Universitario di Architettura (Venezia)]]
#[[Istituto di Teologia Ecumenico-Patristica Greco-Bizantina «San Nicola»]]
#[[Itasca Community College]]
#[[Ithaca College]]
#[[Ivanovo State Power University]]
#[[Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology]]
#[[Ivy Tech State College]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|I]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with J</title>
<id>6483</id>
<revision>
<id>35577326</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:51:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- '''J''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[J. E. Purkyne University]]
#[[Jackson State Community College]]
#[[Jackson State University]]
#[[Jacksonville State University]]
#[[Jacksonville State University, Alabama]]
#[[Jacksonville University]]
#[[Jadavpur University]]
#[[Jagiellonian University]] ([[Cracow, Poland]])
#[[James Cook University]]
#[[James Madison University]]
#[[Jamestown College]]
#[[Janus Pannonius University]]
#[[Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]]
#[[Japan Women's University]]
#[[Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University]]
#[[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]
#[[Jefferson College]]
#[[Jefferson Community College]]
#[[Jefferson State Community College]]
#[[Jessenius Faculty of Medicine]]
#[[Jilin University]]
#[[Jilin University (Alumni)]]
#[[Jin Wen College]]
#[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universät, Frankfurt]]
#[[Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Mainz]]
#[[Johannes Kepler University of Linz]]
#[[John A. Logan College]]
#[[John Abbott College]]
#[[John Brown University]]
#[[John Carroll University]]
#[[John F. Kennedy School of Government]]
#[[John F. Kennedy University]]
#[[John Marshall Law School]]
#[[John Snow College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Johns Hopkins University]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University, Colorado]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University, Florida]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University, North Carolina]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University, South Carolina]]
#[[Johnson & Wales University, Virginia]]
#[[Johnson C. Smith University]]
#[[Johnson County Community College]]
#[[Joliet Junior College]]
#[[Jones College (Jacksonville)]]
#[[Jones College (Rice University)]]
#[[Jones County Junior College]]
#[[Jonkoping International Business School]]
#[[Jonkoping University]]
#[[Jordanhill College]]
#[[Jordan University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Jschool: Journalism Education & Training, Australia]]
#[[Judson College]]
#[[Juhasz Gyula Teacher Training College]]
#[[Julius-Maximilians-Universitat, Wurzburg]]
#[[Juniata College]], Huntingdon, PA, USA
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|J]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with K</title>
<id>6484</id>
<revision>
<id>35577391</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:52:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- '''K''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universi |
BC (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday). When the two programmes were scheduled opposite each other in 1994, Corrie had millions more tuning in as the writers revealed that Emily Bishop's wedding was to be called off. The soaps clashed again in August 2001 however and EastEnders won the tussle, since then the two soaps have had no further clashes and ITV has agreed with the BBC that the shows will not clash again.
In 1981, over 24 million people in the [[United Kingdom]] watched Ken Barlow marry Deirdre Langton — more than the number of people who (just two days later) saw [[Prince Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]] marry [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana Spencer]]. Since then, viewing figures have declined: Ken and Deirdre's remarriage in 2005 attracted 12.9 million viewers. [http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=15387803&method=full&siteid=89488&headline=ken-and-deirdre-are-ratings-winners-name_page.html] However, this still beat the 8.7 million who watched coverage of the wedding of Prince Charles and [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall|Camilla Parker-Bowles]] earlier the same day. Partly due to the addition of new terrestrial and satellite channels and thus new rival programming, it still remains ITV's most-watched programme, with audiences in excess of 10 million. The show's [[omnibus (broadcast)|omnibus]] is shown on [[ITV2]]. Classic Corrie episodes aired on [[Granada Plus]] until that channel was closed in November 2004.
The special [[Christmas]] Day episode remains as central to many viewers' Christmas day celebration as the Queen's Speech. The Christmas Day episode that aired in 1987 was one of the most-watched episodes of all time; in the episode, [[Hilda Ogden]] left the Street to be a char to her doctor in the country. Nearly 27 million viewers tuned in.
===Other countries===
''Coronation Street'' is also shown in many countries worldwide, being the centre of the TV schedule of [[Ireland]]'s independent television station, [[TV3 Ireland]] (part-owned by Granada), which simulcasts it with ITV.
In [[Canada]], it moved from a daytime slot on [[CBC Television]] to primetime in 2004. In 2005, CBC briefly broadcast eight episodes a week in order to reduce the gap, and during a subsequent labour dispute, CBC broadcast nine (and soon ten) episodes each week. CBC has also, before and during the labour dispute, aired the "Coronation Street Specials". [[CBC Country Canada]], a digital television service operated by CBC, broadcasts older episodes as ''Corrie Classics''. The 2002 edition of the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' recognizes the 1,144 episodes sold to CBC-owned [[Saskatoon, Saskatchewan]] TV station [[CBKST]] by Granada TV on [[31 May]] [[1971]] to be the largest number of TV shows ever purchased in one transaction.
The programme is shown in [[Australia]] by the cable and satellite station [[UK.TV]]; the episodes are about 18 months behind the UK. This gap is comparable to that for the episodes currently showing in [[New Zealand]] on [[Television New Zealand|Television New Zealand's]] TV One. It is also exclusively shown only in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] on the [[Nine Network]]'s Perth affiliate ([[STW-9]])at 5:30pm Weeknights since [[October 2005]]. This has come with a massive advertising blitz and has proved to be quite popular thanks to the high percentage of British people living in Perth. The episodes shown are about 18 months behind Britain. This is the first time ''Coronation Street'' has been broadcast on Free to Air TV in Australia since a brief daytime run on Channel Nine in the mid 1990s.
A conspicuous holdout amongst English-language television markets is the [[United States]]. The [[Trio channel]] aired a few episodes of the serial as a part of special-interest programming project, but a concerted effort to air it in the American market has never materialized. A two-disc DVD compilation was released in America, however, provoking some optimism that a cable channel might be interested in showing the soap. In the early 1970s some episodes were shown on [[WGBH]] Channel 2, the public television station in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]; while in the early-1980s, [[USA Network]] aired Corrie on weekends, but only briefly.
American viewers in the parts of the northern U.S. can view CBC's ''Coronation Street'' telecasts. In particular, cable TV subscribers in places including [[Seattle]], [[Buffalo%2C_New_York|Buffalo]], parts of [[Michigan]] and [[New Hampshire]] are able to view the programme on CBC affiliates. Other Americans near the Canadian border can view the program via over-the-air reception from nearby CBC transmitters.
Dutch broadcaster [[VARA (radio and TV)|VARA]] showed 428 sub-titled episodes on [[Netherlands]] TV between 1967 and 1975.
===VHS and DVD releases===
In 1985, to celebrate the serial's 25th anniversary, two video tapes were released, entitled "The Jubilee Years - Part One" and "The Jubilee Years - Part Two". These featured a previously unseen character Alice Hughes revisit the Street to recall upon characters like Ena and Elsie and catch up on 'current happenings'.
In 1990, as a celebration for the serial's 30th anniversary, ten video tapes were released, each featuring four episodes from a specific year, introduced by someone who was close to the stories that year. (For example, Betty Turpin's husband Cyril died in 1974, therefore Betty Driver hosted the 1974 tape). These tapes were distributed by Granada Video for viewing in the UK. Also, many VHS tapes were made in the 1990s for the British market, from mail-order company [[Time-Life]] Distribution, with each tape consisting of edits for a particular character (for example, edits for Gail, or Rita, or the Duckworths). As they were made in [[PAL]] format, they were not distributed in the United States or Canada.
In 2003, a special DVD set called ''This is Coronation Street'' was released on Region 1 DVD. On the two-disc set is the ''40 Years on Coronation Street'' one-off special as well as the first five episodes of the programme. In 2004, a ''Coronation Street: Secrets'' DVD box set of televised specials was released in both the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Canada]], but not in the [[United States]], despite a Region 1 release in Canada.
Granada has also produced a number of [[straight-to-video]] spin-off productions, which were screened on television only after having been available in shops for some time, as an incentive to buyers. The first "exclusive" tape, released in 1995 featuring a storyline aboard the [[RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2|QE2]], caused a legal controversy when it was later broadcast. Subsequent releases have included carefully worded statements concerning future television broadcasting.
Further releases have included a crossover with ''[[Emmerdale]]'', and a [[United States]]-set special, ''Viva Las Vegas!'', released on [[VHS]] in 1999 and screened on ITV the following year. Written by [[Russell T. Davies]] (''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', ''[[The Second Coming (TV)|The Second Coming]]'', ''[[Doctor Who#2005 revival|Doctor Who]]''), the special featured a guest cameo from actor [[Neville Buswell]], who was then living in America, briefly reprising his role as Ray Langton.
In 2005, Network DVD released a box set of 10 DVDs, each featuring eight episodes from each year of 1970s. A matching box set dedicated to the 1980s was released in October.
==Trivia==
*The show's most famous fan is Queen Elizabeth II. Other famous fans include [[Prince Charles]], [[Ian McKellen]] (who have guested in the series), the late [[Laurence Olivier]] (who was supposed to have a guest appearance but scheduling problems got in the way), and numerous prime ministers.
*''[[Frasier]]'' star [[Jane Leeves]] ([[Daphne Moon]]) once commented that the only downside of living in the United States was that she was unable to see ''Coronation Street''.
* Between 1989 and 1999, the [[Granada Studios Tour]] allowed members of the public the opportunity to take a stroll down the cobbles of Coronation Street. During this period, the "set" remained closed to the public on Mondays since this was the day when exterior scenes for the series were filmed.
*The first swear word heard on the soap was "bloody", said by [[Ken Barlow]] in January 1961 following an argument with his mother Ida. The second swear word(s) heard was "Oh God", again spoken by the same character when his wife Val died in 1971.
*In an episode of [[Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights]], [[wheelchair]]-bound [[Brian Potter]] is seen pushing himself down a [[Blackpool]] street. He passes a sign "in memory of Alan", commemorating the time when the character Alan was killed by a Blackpool [[tram]].
*Only twice have any celebrities been allowed to play themselves on ''Coronation Street'': the first occasion was when HRH [[Prince Charles]] made an appearance on the show's 40th Anniversary episode (2000), and was seen shaking hands with character Audrey Roberts. The second occasion featured [[Francis Rossi]] and [[Rick Parfitt]] of the British [[rock band]] [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]] (the band itself also being a national institution). The band's drummer, [[Matt Letley]], also made a cameo in the episodes. (2005) Appearing in four episodes, Rossi and Parfitt call into the Rovers Return, and Rossi attacks character Les Battersby (who is played by actor [[Bruce Jones]], himself a massive fan of the group), as Battersby had previously caused him a grievous [[neck]] injury. The matter later gets resolved, and the band agree to play at Battersby's upcoming wedding.
==See also==
*[[Coronation Street cast]]
*[[Humour in Coronation Street]]
*[[Coronation Street timeline]]
==References==
===Print references===
*Collier, Katherine. ''Coronation Street: The Epic Novel''. London: Carlton, 2003. (ISBN 0233050973)
*Little, Daran. ''40 Years of C |
eneva Conventions.
===Symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions===
{{details|Emblems of the Red Cross}}
====Red Cross====
[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Cross.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Cross symbol]]
The Red Cross on white background was the original protection symbol declared at the 1864 Geneva Convention. It is, in terms of its color, a reversal of the [[Flag of Switzerland|Swiss national flag]], a meaning which was adopted to honor Swiss founder Henry Dunant and his home country. The ideas to introduce a uniform and neutral protection symbol as well as its specific design originally came from Dr. Louis Appia and General Henri Dufour, founding members of the International Committee. The Red Cross is defined as a protection symbol in Article 7 of the 1864 Geneva Convention, Chapter VII ("The distinctive emblem") and Article 38 of the 1949 Geneva Convention ("For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field"). There is an unofficial agreement within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement that the shape of the cross should be a cross composed of five squares. However, regardless of the shape, any Red Cross on white background should be valid and must be recognized as a protection symbol in conflict. Of the 183 national societies which are currently recognized by the ICRC, 151 are using the Red Cross as their official organization emblem. In addition, the Red Cross is currently used by the national society of [[Tuvalu]] which has applied for official recognition.
====Red Crescent====
[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Crescent.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Crescent symbol]]
During the [[Russo-Turkish War]] from 1876 to 1878, the [[Ottoman Empire]] used a Red Crescent instead of the Red Cross because its government believed that the cross would alienate its Muslim soldiers. When asked by the ICRC in 1877, [[Russia]] committed to fully respect the sanctity of all persons and facilities bearing the Red Crescent symbol, followed by a similar commitment from the Ottoman government to respect the Red Cross. After this de facto assessment of equal validity to both symbols, the ICRC declared in 1878 that it should be possible in principle to adopt an additional official protection symbol for non-Christian countries. The Red Crescent was formally recognized in 1929 when the Geneva Conventions were amended (Article 19). Originally, the Red Crescent was used by [[Egypt]] and the new [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]]. From its official recognition to today, the Red Crescent became the organizational emblem of nearly every national society in countries with majority [[Muslim]] populations. The national societies of some countries such as [[Pakistan]] ([[1974]]), [[Malaysia]] ([[1975]]), or [[Bangladesh]] ([[1989]]) have officially changed their name and emblem from the Red Cross to the Red Crescent. The Red Crescent is used by 32 of the 183 recognized societies worldwide and also by the national society of [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], which has applied for recognition.
====Red Crystal: the third Protocol emblem====
:{{main article|[[Red Crystal (symbol)]]}}
[[Image:Flag of the Red Crystal.svg|150px|thumb|right|The third protocol emblem, also known as the Red Crystal.]]
Because of the controversy over Israel's national society [[Magen David Adom]] and a number of other disputes, the introduction of an additional neutral protection symbol had been under discussion for a number of years, with the Red Crystal (previously referred to as the Red [[Lozenge]] or Red [[Diamond]]) being the most popular proposal. Other attempts have included [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1957]]) and [[India]] ([[1977]]) who tried to establish a [[Swastika|Red Swastika]] and also efforts by the national societies of [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Eritrea]] to use a unique combination of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, similar to the combination of both symbols used by the national society of the [[Soviet Union]] until its demise. However, amending the Geneva Conventions to add a new protection symbol requires a diplomatic conference of all 192 signatory states to the Conventions. The Swiss government organized such a conference to take place on December 5-6, 2005, to adopt a third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions introducing the Red Crystal as an additional symbol with equal status to the Red Cross or Red Crescent. Following an unplanned extension of the conference until December 7, the protocol was adopted after a vote successfully achieved the required two-thirds majority. From the countries which attended the conference, 98 voted in favour and 27 against the protocol, while 10 countries abstained from voting.
The official name of the new symbol is "the third Protocol emblem". The rules for the use of this symbol, based on the third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions, are the following:
* ''Within its own national territory'', a national society can use either of the recognized symbols alone, or incorporate any of these symbols or a combination of them into the Red Crystal. Furthermore, a national society can choose to display a previously and effectively used symbol, after officially communicating this symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions through Switzerland as the depositary state prior to the adoption of the proposed third additional protocol.
* ''For indicative use on foreign territory'', a national society which does not use one of the recognized symbols as its emblem [[Red Crystal flag#"Defaced" Red Crystal Flag Variants|has to incorporate its unique symbol into the Red Crystal]], based on the previously mentioned condition about communicating its unique symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions.
* ''For protective use'', only the symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions can be used. Specifically, those national societies which do not use one of the recognized symbols as their emblem have to use the Red Crystal without incorporation of any additional symbol.
====Red Lion with Sun: currently not in use====
[[Image:Red_Lion_with_Sun.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Lion with Sun symbol]]
From 1924 to 1980, [[Iran]] used a 'Red Lion with Sun' symbol for its national society, based on the flag and emblem of the [[Shah dynasty]]. The Red Lion with Sun was formally recognized as a protection symbol in 1929, together with the Red Crescent. Despite the country's shift to the Red Crescent in 1980, Iran explicitly maintains the right to use the symbol. Therefore, it is still recognized by the Geneva Convention as a protection symbol with equal status to the Red Cross, Red Crescent and Red Crystal.
===Other symbols used by specific national societies===
====Red Shield of David====
[[Image:Red_Star_of_David.svg|left|150px|thumb|The emblem of Magen David Adom for indicative use within Israel]]
[[Image:Red-magen-david.GIF|right|150px|thumb|The emblem for Magen David Adom for indicative use when operating abroad]]
[[Magen David Adom]], the national society of [[Israel]], has used the Red Shield of David as its organization emblem since its foundation. The Red Shield of David was initially proposed as an addition to the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion in Sun in 1931. The proposal was rejected, for fear of symbol proliferation. Israel again tried to establish the emblem as a third protection symbol in the context of the Geneva Conventions, but a respective proposal was narrowly defeated when the conventions were amended in 1949. As the Red Shield of David is not a recognized protection symbol under the Geneva Conventions, Magen David Adom was not recognized as a national society by the ICRC (see requirements for recognition above). However, the relationship between the ICRC and Magen David Adom has become significantly closer in the last five years.
With the adoption of the third protocol emblem, recognition of Magen David Adom and its admission as a full member of the International Federation can be expected for the near future. The rules of the third protocol allow Magen David Adom to continue using the Red Shield of David when operating within Israel as well as provide a solution for Magen David Adom for abroad missions. Despite limitations due to the previous situation, the organization has had an excellent reputation within the Movement for many years and, in cooperation with both the ICRC and the Federation, takes part in many international activities.
==Mottos of the Movement, Commemoration Day and places of interest==
[[Image:Red_Cross_Memorial_in_Solferino.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Red Cross Memorial in Solferino, Italy]]
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was ''Inter Arma Caritas'' ("In War, Charity"). This Christian-spirited slogan was amended in 1961 with the neutral motto ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' or "With humanity, towards peace". While ''Inter Arma Caritas'' is still the primary motto of the ICRC (as per Article 3 of the ICRC statutes), ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' is the primary motto of the Federation (Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federation). Both organizations acknowledge the alternative motto, and together both slogans serve as the combined motto of the International Movement.
The mission statement of the International Movement as formulated in the "Strategy 2010" document of the Federation is ''to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity''. From 1999 to 2004, the common slogan for all activities of the International Movement was ''The Power of Humanity''. In December 2003, the 28th International Conference in Geneva adopted the conference motto ''Protecting Human Dignity'' as the new Movement slogan.
The 16th International Conference which convened in [[London]] in 1938 officially decided to make [[May 8]], the birthday of Henry Dunant, as the official annual commemoration and celebration day |
masters' degree which included a year of advanced coursework and a year or two of original research culminating in a short thesis. Registration for a Ph.D. course required the masters' degree to be conferred with sufficiently high honours, and thus a British-style masters' degree is comparable to coursework and oral examinations in North America. The upshot of this system is that, though the Ph.D. course is shorter in the British-style universities (often as little as three years), the time required to obtain a Ph.D. from first matriculation is approximately the same.
==Assessment==
The doctoral candidate's progress is usually overseen by a thesis advisor, or supervisor, who chairs a [[thesis committee]] that supervises the doctoral candidate. In the U.S., doctoral programs typically require a series of required and optional courses at the beginning of the program, but education in the latter portion of the program tends to consist of informal discussions with the thesis advisor and individual research by the student. Many U.S. and Canadian universities separate the program into two portions (doctoral student and doctoral candidate) with a required pre-doctoral examination before allowing a student to be formally admitted to the doctoral program. Alternatively, a student may be admitted to the program, but is still required to complete a comprehensive examination on his or her field before being admitted to ''candidacy'', i.e. the dissertation-writing stage.
If a candidate completes all coursework up to but not including the final dissertation, he or she may use the informal [[All But Dissertation]] (ABD) status (United States) or receive a [[C.Phil.]] (United Kingdom).
==Funding==
The funding of students varies from field to field, and many American graduate students in the sciences and engineering work as [[teaching assistant]]s or research assistants while they are doctoral students, or obtain grants from government research agencies such as the [[National Science Foundation]] and the [[National Institutes of Health]]. Many [[Ivy League]] and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the course, or for most of it.
In Australia, Ph.D. students are quite often offered a scholarship to study their Ph.D. The most common of these is the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship, which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AUD$19,000 a year (tax free). Most universities also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but is funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly harder to obtain.
In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AUD$10,000 more than the usual APA rate. Australian students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income.
In the U.K., funding for Ph.D. students is often provided by government-funded [[Research Council|Research Councils]] such as the [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council|EPSRC]] for Engineering and the Physical Sciences, the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|MRC]] for Medicine and the [[Arts and Humanities Research Council|AHRC]] for students of the arts and humanities. The funding takes the form of a [[Income tax|tax-free]] [[bursary]] of around [[£]]12,000 per year for three years, whether or not the degree continues for longer.
Research Council funding is typically allocated to an academic department which then allocate it to students. In order to ensure that students receiving such funding use it to complete their degree rather than for a paid three-year holiday, funding is provided to departments on the basis that future funding will be reduced by one half of a student for each student who does not complete a funded degree. This means that departments have a strong incentive to ensure that funding is allocated only to students who are likely to finish the degree.
Students at British universities may also take part in tutoring, work as a research assistant or even occasionally lecturing, either to supplement existing funding or as a sole means of funding.
==Oral defense==
In some countries, a Ph.D. candidate is required to present an oral defense of his or her thesis, known in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as a '''viva''' (short for ''viva voce'', Latin for "by live voice") before a committee. In [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[France]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], and [[Switzerland]], before a degree can be granted, the dissertation has to be defended in what is, using a medieval term, called a '''[[disputation]]''': an expert in the field, often from another university, is appointed who will present the dissertation, subject it to a critical examination and discuss it with the author. In the context of the disputation, the critical examiner is termed the ''opponent'', and the author of the dissertation the ''respondent''. The dissertation has to be generally available in its final or at least in a preliminary published form a few weeks before the disputation (7 weeks in Sweden), which is open to the public; after the opponent is finished, anyone present is allowed to ask critical questions (anyone who does is called an "opponent ex auditorio"&mdash;an opponent from the auditorium). The final grade is decided after the disputation in a meeting between the opponent and a grading committee of three or (sometimes) four people. In theory, also the points raised by ''oppenenti ex auditorio'' affect the grade. It has happened, that such opponent has caused the committee not to pass the ''respondent'', although this would be extremely extraordinary nowadays.
In the United States a final oral defense before one's dissertation committee is required although it is rare that at this stage the thesis is not accepted. Nonetheless, there are typically several candidates per decade in each college of each major U.S. university who somehow do fail to defend successfully. Most who fail do not complete the process at a subsequent defense. It is a largely unwritten rule in the U.S. that unqualified candidates are eliminated during the coursework or dissertation research phases, and are never permitted to defend, hence the rarity of failing to pass the final defense in most cases. Minor edits are often (most times) required during the defense by committee members, and must be made prior to the final signing of the committee's recommendation paperwork by all committee members. At the end of the defense, the candidate is excused from the room, and the committee votes in secret whether to grant the degree. Upon successfully voting in the affirmative unanimously, the committee then calls the candidate back in to the room by addressing him or her using the honorific Dr. (with their last name) if successful, or Mr. or Ms. (with their last name) if unsuccessful. In some universities, the candidate is considered to become a Doctor of Philosophy at the instant that all committee members vote in the affirmative. In others, the degree must be conferred by the university corporation.
The rare case of not successfully defending is also true in the [[Netherlands]], where the oral defense ("promotie") typically happens after the thesis has already been approved by examiners. The oral defense is ended after a preset amount of time by the University-appointed 'pedel' or ''custos'' who is in charge of the protocol and will end the defense with the words "Hora est!" (latin for ''it is time'' or ''the hour has come'').
In contrast, examinations ''viva voce'' in British universities are by no means a rubber stamp. Whilst many (perhaps most) theses are passed with some minor corrections or revisions required by the examiners, very few are passed with no corrections whatsoever, and indeed a pass-without-correction is considered a particular honour. Moreover, it is not uncommon for British theses to be failed, as well &mdash; in which case, either major re-writes are required, followed by a new viva, or else the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil ([[Master of Philosophy]]) instead.
== Comparative value ==
A Ph.D. does not confer commensurate advantage in every sphere. For example, many commercial organizations regard a [[Professional Master's degree|professional Master's degree]], such as an [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]], or professional designation, such as [[Certified Public Accountant|CPA]], as the highest level of education that is desirable. Traditional views of the value of academic study in commerce are changing {{inote|MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. ''Secrets of Their Success'' (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002) pp. 16-19|NEF2002}} but scepticism about the commercial value of a Ph.D. prevails. Medical schools may offer research Ph.D. degrees in conjunction with their M.D. programs, although an M.D. by itself is all that is required to teach medicine.
==Criticism==
The Ph.D. is often the topic of scholarly debate and criticism, given its almost exclusive concern with [[research]] and publication to the alleged neglect of numerous other faculty responsibilities that include [[teaching]], collegial evaluation, collective and individual curricular planning, etc. Solutions have met with varying degrees of success. In the 1960s, the prestigious [[Carnegie Foundation]] helped promote and establish the [[Doctor of Arts]] degree as an alternative to the Ph.D. The D.A. degre |
ec]] peoples, among others, are also known as codices. See also: [[Maya codices]].
A legal text or code of conduct is sometimes called a '''codex''' (for example, the ''Justinian Codex''), since laws were recorded in large codices.
==Some codices==
Codices are usually named for their most famous resting-place, whether a city or a private library. An example of a somewhat later codex than these would be the [[Book of Kells]].
*[[Codex Abrogans]]
*[[Codex Alexandrinus]]
*[[Codex Alimentarius]]
*[[Codex Alimentarius Austriacus]]
*[[Codex Amiatinus]]
*[[Codex Argenteus]]
*[[Codex Astensis]]
*[[Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram]]
*[[Codex Aureus of Lorsch]]
*[[Codex Berolinensis]]
*[[Codex Bezae]]
*[[Codex Claromontanus]]
*[[Codex Cumanicus]]
*[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus]]
*[[Codex Exoniensis]]
*[[Codex Flatoiensis]]
*[[Codex Gigas]]
*[[Codex Hammer]]
*[[Codex Hierosolymitanus]]
*[[Codex Justinianus]]
*[[Codex Leicester]]
*[[Codex Manesse]]
*[[Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis]]
*[[Codex Mendoza]]
*[[Codex Pisanus]]
*[[Codex Regius]]
*[[Codex Runicus]]
*[[Codex Sinaiticus]]
*[[Codex Theodosianus]]
*[[Codex Usserianus Primus]]
*[[Codex Vaticanus]]
*[[Codex Wallerstein]]
*[[Codex Zamoscianus]]
*[[Codex Zouche-Nuttall]]
*[[Codex ms. 3227a]]
*[[Leningrad Codex]]
*[[Nowell Codex]]
*[[Rohonczi Codex]]
*[[Aleppo Codex]]
*[[Nag Hammadi library]], collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts in codex form discovered in the town of [[Nag Hammadi]].
==Codex in Open Source==
The word "codex" has also been used to refer to a developer's guidebook for an open source software project. [http://codex.wordpress.org/ WordPress] and [http://codex.gallery2.org the Gallery project] are examples.
==See also==
*[[Codicology]]
*[[Paleography]]
*[[Philology]]
----
The '''codex''' is the songbook used at a [[cantus]].
[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Manuscripts]]
[[cs:Kodex]]
[[de:Kodex]]
[[es:Códice]]
[[fr:Codex]]
[[he:מצחף]]
[[nl:Codex]]
[[pl:Kodeks (bibliologia)]]
[[sv:Codex]]
[[uk:Рукописна книга]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calf</title>
<id>5692</id>
<revision>
<id>39098265</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T18:31:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.106.238.31</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link to rennet added</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the anatomical feature, see [[calf muscle]].''
[[Image:Calf.jpg|thumb|Cattle calf]]
'''Calves''' are young [[animal]]s. The term is mainly used for [[cattle]], although [[deer]], [[whale]]s and [[elephant]]s also have calves.
A cattle calf is a child of a [[cattle|cow]] and a [[bull]] and a calf that has lost its mother is referred to as a ''dogie''. The plural is calves. With respect to cattle calves, calf meat is called [[veal]]; fine calf skin used for [[page (paper)|page]]s in early [[codex]]es is called [[pergamon]]. The fourth stomach of slaughtered milk fed calves is the source of [[rennet]]. Calves feed from their mother's udders for a few weeks before eating solid food.
[[Image:Cow with calf dsc06514.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A suckling calf with its mother]]
[[Image:Dairy calf pens 8688.jpg|thumb|350 px|left|A modern [[dairy]] farm with calf pens in front, [[Elba, New York]]]]
{{mammal-stub}}
[[ca:Vedella]]
[[da:Kalv (dyreunge)]]
[[de:Kalb]]
[[es:Novillo]]
[[fr:Veau]]
[[sv:Kalv]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Elwood Shannon</title>
<id>5693</id>
<revision>
<id>41080815</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:53:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>171.64.89.109</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Biography */ Typo fixed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shannon.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Claude Shannon]]
'''Claude Elwood Shannon''' ([[April 30]], [[1916]] &ndash; [[February 24]], [[2001]]), an [[United States|American]] [[electrical engineer]] and [[mathematician]], has been called "the father of [[information theory]]", and was the founder of practical [[digital circuit]] design theory.
==Biography==
Shannon was born in [[Gaylord, Michigan]] and was a distant relative of [[Thomas Edison]]. While growing up, he worked as a messenger for [[Western Union]].
In [[1932]], Shannon entered the [[University of Michigan]], where he eventually took a course that introduced him to the works of [[George Boole]]. He graduated in [[1936]] with two [[bachelor's degree]]s, one in [[electrical engineering]] and one in [[mathematics]], then began graduate study at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], where he worked on [[Vannevar Bush]]'s [[differential analyzer]], an [[analog computer]].
While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of the differential analyzer, Shannon saw that Boole's concepts could be used to great utility. A paper drawn from his [[1937]] master's [[thesis]], ''[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]'', was published in the [[1938]] issue of the ''Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers''. It also earned Shannon the <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CONFUSE WITH THE NOBEL PRIZE-->[[Alfred Noble Prize|Alfred Noble American Institute of American Engineers Award]] in [[1940]]. [[Howard Gardner]], of [[Harvard University]], called Shannon's thesis "possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century".
In this work, Shannon proved that [[Boolean algebra]] and [[binary arithmetic]] could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical [[relays]] then used in telephone routing switches, then turned the concept upside down and also proved that it should be possible to use arrangements of relays to solve Boolean algebra problems. Exploiting this property of electrical switches to do logic is the basic concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannon's work became the foundation of practical [[digital circuit]] design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after [[World War II]]. The theoretical rigor Shannon's work supplied completely replaced the "ad hoc" methods that had prevailed heretofore.
Flush with this success, Vannevar Bush suggested that Shannon work on his dissertation at [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]], funded by the Carnegie Institution headed by Bush, to develop similar mathematical relationships for [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[genetics]], which resulted in Shannon's [[1940]] [[PhD]] thesis at MIT, ''[[An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics]].'' Shannon then joined [[Bell Labs]] to work on fire-control systems and cryptography during World War II. He returned to MIT to hold an endowed chair in 1956.
In [[1948]] Shannon published ''[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]'' in two parts in the July and October numbers of the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]''. This work focuses on the problem of how to best encode the [[information]] a sender wants to transmit. In this fundamental work he used tools in probability theory, developed by [[Norbert Wiener]], which were in their nascent stages of being applied to communication theory at that time. Shannon developed [[information entropy]] as a measure for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing what became known as the dominant form of "information theory."
The book co-authored with [[Warren Weaver]], ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication'', reprints Shannon's 1948 article and Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-specialist. Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in [[John Robinson Pierce]]'s ''Symbols, Signals, and Noise''.
Another notable paper published in [[1949]] is ''[[Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems]]'', a major contribution to the development of a mathematical theory of [[cryptography]]. He is also credited with the introduction of [[Nyquist-Shannon_sampling_theorem|Sampling Theory]], which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples.
Outside of his academic pursuits, Shannon was interested in [[juggling]], [[unicycling]], and [[chess]]. He also invented many devices, including a rocket-powered pogo stick, a wearable computer to predict the result of playing [[roulette]] [http://c2000.cc.gatech.edu/classes/cs8113c_99_spring/readings/thorp.pdf], and a flame-throwing trumpet for a science exhibition. One of his more humorous devices was a box he kept on his desk with a single switch on the side. When the switch was flipped, the lid of the box opened and a mechanical hand reached out, flipped off the switch, then retracted back inside the box.
From [[1956]] to [[1978]] he was a professor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. To commemorate his achievements, there were celebrations of his work in 2001, and there are currently four statues of Shannon: one at the [[University of Michigan]], one at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the [[MIT Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems| Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems]], one in [[Gaylord, Michigan]] and another at Bell Labs. After the breakup of the Bell system, the part of Bell Labs that remained with [[AT&T]] was named Shannon Labs in his honor.
[[Robert G. Gallager|Robert Gallager]] has called Shannon the greatest scientist of the [[20th century]]. According to AT&T fellow Neil Sloane, the perspective introduced by Shannon's "communication theory" (now called "information theory") is the foundation of the digital revolution and every device containing a microprocessor or microcontroller is a conceptual descendant of Shannon's 1948 publication <ref>[http://www.nj.com/printer/printer.ssf?/page1/ledger/127960e.html C. Shannon, a genius of digital life] (''[[Star-Ledger|The Star-Ledger]]'', [[27 February]], [[2001]])</ref |
nceptions.html Misconceptions Transitional fossils]
# {{note|tf2}} [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/eldredge.asp ''Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism'']
# {{note|tf3}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Stephen Jay Gould, Natural History, May 1994]
# {{note|chance}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions - Random chance]]
# {{note|overwhelming}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]].
# {{note|junk}} [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.
# {{note|NAS}} "[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/25.html Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science]" In ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition'' National Academy of Sciences, 1999
# {{note|AAAS}} [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml Resolution]
# {{note|aust}} [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html text of resolution]
# {{note|conc1}} "''Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.''" Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin]. "''This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy.''" Johnson 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution]. "''So the question is: "How to win?" That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the [[Wedge strategy|"wedge" strategy]]: "Stick with the most important thing"—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, "Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?" and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do.''" Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] "''I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science."..."Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth?"..."I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.''" Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won]
# {{note|kitz2}} [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Intelligent design]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ACF Fiorentina</title>
<id>3165</id>
<revision>
<id>42042050</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poulsen</username>
<id>523305</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>shorten intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Fiorentina |
image = [[Image:Acf_fiorentina.gif|75px|logo]] |
fullname = ACF Fiorentina SpA |
nickname = ''Viola'' (Purple)|
founded = August 26, 1926 (AC Fiorentina)<br>2002 (ACF Fiorentina) |
ground = [[Stadio Artemio Franchi (Florence)|Stadio Artemio Franchi]],<br/>[[Florence]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 47,282 |
chairman = [[Andrea Della Valle]] |
manager = [[Cesare Prandelli]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Serie A]], 16th |
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leftarm1=800080|body1=800080|rightarm1=800080|shorts1=800080|socks1=800080|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
shirtsupplier=[[Lotto]] |
shirtsponsors=[[Toyota]]
}}
'''ACF Fiorentina''', formerly '''Associazione Calcio Fiorentina''', is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Florence]] (Firenze), [[Tuscany]]. The club's traditional colors were originally red and white but were changed to purple and white in 1928; since then, the club has been generally known as "i Viola" (the purple ones). The club usually plays at the 47,282-capacity all-seater 'Comunale' Stadium "[[Stadio Artemio Franchi|Artemio Franchi]]" (known until 1991 as ''Comunale di Firenze'', which had itself replaced the "Giovanni Francesco Berta" in the 1930s).
==History==
The club was founded on [[August 26]] [[1926]] by the merger of ''Libertas'' and ''Club Sportivo Firenze''. The club won its first trophy in 1939-40 with the [[Coppa Italia]] and its first ''[[scudetto]]'' (Italian championship) in 1955-[[1956]], the club were runners-up in the four following seasons. In the 1960-[[1961]] season the club won the Coppa Italia again and was also successful in Europe, winning the first [[Cup Winners' Cup]] against [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]].
In the [[1960s]] the club won the Coppa Italia and the [[Mitropa Cup]] in 1966 and were league champions again in the 1968-[[1969]] season. In 1974 the ''Viola'' won the [[Anglo-Italian Cup]]. Success in the Coppa Italia was repeated in 1975, but from then until the late [[1990s]] the club found itself in the doldrums, culminating in a season in [[Serie B]] (second division) in 1993-[[1994]]. Upon return to [[Serie A]] the club again proved able in the cup competitions, winning the Coppa Italia again in 1996 and 2000 and the Italian SuperCoppa.
2001 heralded major changes for Fiorentina, as the terrible state of the club's finances was revealed; they were unable to pay wages and had debts of around USD 50 million. The club owner, Vittorio Cecchi Gori, was able to raise some more money, but even this soon proved to be insufficient resources to sustain the club. Then, Fiorentina were relegated at the end of the 2001-2002 season and went into judicially controlled administration in June 2002. This form of [[bankruptcy]] (sports companies cannot exactly fail in this way in Italy, but they can suffer a similar procedure) meant that the club was refused a place in Serie B for the 2002-2003 season, and as a result, effectively ceased to exist.
The club was promptly re-established in August 2002 as '''Florentia Viola''' with a new owner, Diego Della Valle, and was admitted into [[Serie C2]], one of the lower tiers in Italian football. The only player to remain at the club as they began their new life was [[Angelo Di Livio]], whose commitment to the cause of resurrecting the club further endeared him to the fans. Helped by Di Livio, the club won it's regional section in Serie C2 with considerable ease at the end of the 2002-2003 season, which would normally have led to a promotion to Serie C1. However, due to the bizarre [[Calcio Catania|''Caso Catania'']] (Catania Case) the club skipped Serie C1 and was admitted into Serie B. This was only possible because the [[Italian Football Federation]] chose to resolve the Catania situation by increasing the number of teams in Serie B from 20 to 24. In the 2003 off-season, the club also bought back the right to use the Fiorentina name and the famous shirt design, and re-incorporated itself as ACF Fiorentina. Matches were still being played at the Artemio Franchi stadium.
The club's unusual double promotion was not without controversy, with some suggesting that Fiorentina did not deserve it; however, the club remained in Serie B and managed to finish the 2003-2004 season in sixth place. This achievement placed the Viola in a two-legged [[test match (football)|playoff]] against [[A.C. Perugia|Perugia]] (the 15th-place finisher in Serie A) for a position in Serie A. Fiorentina completed their remarkable comeback by winning the match 2-1 on aggregate, with both goals scored by Enrico Fantini, to gain promotion back to Serie A. In their first season back in Italian football's top flight, the club struggled to avoid relegation, securing survival only on the last day of the season, and avoiding a relegation playoff only on head-to-head record against [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]] and [[Parma F.C.|Parma]]. So far in 2005-06, their form has greatly improved, and they are currently in contention for a [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] place. The combination of Jorgensen, Fiore and Toni proved to be dominant as Toni scored over 21 goals so far.
==Honours==
'''Serie A winners'''
*1955/56
*1968/69
'''Coppa Italia winners'''
*1939/1940
*1960/1961
*1995/1966
*1974/1975
*1995/1996
*2000/2001
'''Cup Winners' Cup winners'''
*1960/1961[http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ECWC/news/Kind=81 |
to locate his old enemy. Their first encounter in centuries proves to be indecisive, though.
Soon enough, Connor is also reached by Ramirez. The latter joins MacLeod and Louise in their plan to take down the Shield. Katana had apparently predicted this, and so forges an uneasy alliance with David Blake. The conflict between the two sets of allies eventually leads to the subsequent deaths of Dr. Allan Neyman (employed by Blake and informant of Connor, killed by his employer as a "traitor"), Ramirez (sacrificing himself to save Connor and Louise), David Blake (killed by Katana while trying to double-cross him), and General Katana (killed by Connor in their final confrontation). MacLeod succeeds in taking down the Shield by using the combined energies of his final Quickening from General Katana. Louise sees the stars for the first time in her life. Then Connor claims his Prize by returning to Zeist with Louise accompanying him (only in the syndicated TV cut of the film...in the theatrical and DVD versions, both remain on Earth).
=== Criticism ===
Set in the early 21st century, this film veers towards [[science fiction]]. It was again directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]], and scripted by Peter Bellwood, with other material by [[Brian Clemens]] and [[William Panzer]]. Upon release, this film was met with harsh criticism by both critics and audiences. Fans of the original film were less than pleased with the concept of Immortals being [[extraterrestrial life|aliens]] from Planet Zeist and with the revival of Ramirez, whose dramatic death scene in the previous film was considered among its highlights. This is often viewed as contradicting the original movie.
Apart from being inconsistent with the 1986 original's storyline, audiences found the conflict between the rebellion and General Katana to be too reminiscent of the conflict between the [[Rebel Alliance (Star Wars)|Rebel Alliance]] and the [[Galactic Empire (Star Wars)|Galactic Empire]] featured in [[Star Wars]]. Critics and audiences alike pointed out that the characters suffered from a lack of development and motivation, as gratuitous action scenes left little time for it. An example often offered is that no reason was provided for Katana's sudden interest in Connor after apparently losing contact with him for 506 years, and his insistence on killing his old enemy while he could wait for him to die without outside interference. However, it should be noted that the film has found a number of fans who found its faults to be a source of amusement and ridicule.
Highlander II's apparent failure has been seen by some as a result of the producers' interference with the [[director's cut|work of director]] [[Russell Mulcahy]], who personally hated the final product so much he walked out of the film's world premiere after viewing its first 15 minutes. For similar reasons, Christopher Lambert threatened to walk out of the project when it was nearing fruition, but he didn't, due to contract obligation.
Some time later, Mulcahy made a [[director's cut]] version known as '''''Highlander II: The Renegade Version'''''. The film was reconstructed largely from scratch, with certain scenes removed and others added back in, and the entire sequence of events changed. All references to the Immortals being aliens from another planet were eliminated; instead, this cut reveals that the Immortals are from an unspecified, distant past on Earth, banished by priests into random locations in the future to keep the Prize from being won in their lifetime (the option to return to the past is an option offered ''in addition'' to the mystical Prize of the first film). This version is generally considered a major improvement on the theatrical release, and obtained a far more favourable reception. Nevertheless, the events of both versions were generally ignored by the subsequent films and series.
One joke from fans of the first film is a suggested [[tagline]] based on a phrase from the films:
"''Highlander II: There should have been only one!''"
==''Highlander III: The Sorcerer'' (''Highlander: The Final Dimension'')==
First released on [[November 25]], [[1994]]. Effectively a prequel to ''Highlander II'', as the main events take place in [[1994]].
The film starts with a flashback that occurs sometime after the death of Heather. Events of the flashback can be estimated to occur during the late 16th century or early to middle 17th century. Connor has travelled to [[Japan]] to request training from the immortal Japanese sorcerer Nakano ([[Makoto Iwamatsu]], better known as Mako), an acquaintance of Ramirez. Nakano held his residence in a cave of Mount Niri and had gained a reputation as a master of [[illusion]]. The screenplay gives Nakano's first "death" as occurring in [[743 BC]].
How long this training lasted is left uncertain, but it was never completed. A fellow immortal named Kane ([[Mario Van Peebles]]) and apparently an old acquaintance of Nakano, was also interested in mastering the power of illusion. Nakano had reportedly denied him training two centuries ago. Kane had apparently gained in experience and ability since that time. He was making his way across [[Asia]] in order to reach Nakano again. He also had two traveling companions with him. These two [[Mongolia]]n Immortals were left unnamed in the film but the novelization named them as Khabul Khan ([[Jean-Pierre Perusse]]) and Senghi Khan ([[Raoul Trujillo]]).
Kane would supposedly attack and decapitate every other Immortal the trio encountered during their journey. Eventually they passed from [[China]] to Japan, and started seeking Niri. Entering a nearby village seeking information, they proceeded to burn it to the ground and massacre its population. Eventually they managed to reach the cave. Kane soon managed to defeat and decapitate Nakano, despite Connor's attempts to prevent this. However the energies released during the battle cause the cave to collapse. Connor managed to escape in time, but Kane and his men were left trapped. They were apparently soon forgotten, and their situation prevented them from participating in the Gathering of [[1985]].
Another extended flashback describes events in the late 18th century. In [[1788]]/[[1789]] Connor was in [[France]] when he made the acquaintance of Sarah Barrington ([[Deborah Unger]]), an Englishwoman visiting relatives there. The two soon started to enjoy conversing together and then racing their [[horse]]s against each other. Eventually they became lovers. But when the [[French Revolution]] began, Sarah had to return to [[England]] while Connor became involved in its events.
During the revolution [[Joseph-Ignace Guillotin]] introduced the [[guillotine]] as the main method of [[capital punishment]]. Historically the first execution of this kind in France occurred on [[April 25]], [[1792]]. In the context of the film it was effective against both mortals and immortals. At some point Connor was sentenced to this manner of execution, supposedly for treason against King [[Louis XVI of France]]. His Immortal friend Pierre Bouchet explained that he was tired of his immortal life, and so offered to die in his place. Connor was falsely reported deceased. Believing her lover dead, Sarah was left grieving. Historically, Louis XVI was deposed on [[August 10]], [[1792]], and the monarchy officially abolished on [[September 21]], [[1792]]. So it can be supposed that Connor's failed execution occurred between April and August of [[1792]].
By [[1800]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] had managed to establish himself namely as [[First Consul]] of France, and effectively as its [[dictator]]. The Revolution was over, and Connor apparently left France for England in an attempt to reintroduce himself to Sarah. Connor soon located her. But Sarah still considered him deceased, and was by this point a married woman and mother of a number of children. Connor left without contacting her and returned to his own solitude.
In [[1994]], Connor was again a widower. In [[1987]], Brenda, his last wife, was reportedly killed in a car accident after only two years of marriage. Connor survived the accident relatively unharmed. He was left alone to raise their adoptive son John MacLeod ([[Gabriel Kakon]]). They had settled in [[Marrakech]], [[Morocco]], and Connor was at peace for the first time in centuries. This peace would prove short-lived, though. In [[Japan]], two [[archeology|archaeologist]]s had started excavating Nakano's cave in order to discover whether the sorcerer's legend was based on fact or not. American [[Dr. Alexandra "Alex" Johnson]] ([[Deborah Unger]]), apparently a distant descendant of Sarah who greatly resembled her, believed Nakano was a historical figure. Japanese Dr. Fuji Takamura ([[Daniel Do]]) -- apparently a great fan of [[Babe Ruth]] -- on the other hand, believed Nakano to be a legendary figure.
The film sees MacLeod defeat a wizard with hypnotic abilities. The third movie largely ignores many of the plot inconsistencies introduced by the second film.
Most of the film was shot in [[Culture of Morocco#Movies in Morocco|Morocco]].
== ''Highlander: Endgame'' ==
[[Image:heg498c.jpg|right|thumb|Bruce Payne as Jacob Kell]]
First released on [[September 1]] [[2000]], this film was an attempt to merge characters from Highlander I and characters and situations from the [[Highlander: The Series|''Highlander'' television series]]. The story begins with a flashback to 16th century Scotland, where we are introduced to Jacob Kell ([[Bruce Payne]]), once a friend of Connor MacLeod's ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]]).
While attempting to execute Connor Macleod's mother for witchcraft in the village of Glenfinnan, both Kell and his adopted father, a priest named Father Rainey, are seemingly killed by a vengeful Connor. Glenfinnan is set ablaze, as Connor escapes with the corpse of his murdered mother. Jacob Kell was, however |
as the presence or absence of a carrier wave. This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit [[Morse code]], referred to as [[continuous wave]] (CW) operation.
== Example ==
Suppose we wish to modulate a simple sine wave on a carrier wave. The equation for the carrier wave of frequency <math>\omega_c</math>, taking its phase to be a reference phase of zero, is
:<math>c(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t)</math>.
The equation for the simple sine wave of frequency <math>\omega_m</math> (the signal we wish to broadcast) is
:<math>m(t) = M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)</math>,
with <math>\phi</math> its phase offset relative to <math>c(t)</math>.
Amplitude modulation is performed simply by adding <math>m(t)</math> to <math>C</math>. The amplitude-modulated signal is then
:<math>y(t) = (C + M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)) \sin(\omega_c t)</math>
The formula for <math>y(t)</math> above may be written
:<math>y(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t) + M \frac{\cos(\phi - (\omega_m - \omega_c) t)}{2} - M \frac{\cos(\phi + (\omega_m + \omega_c) t)}{2}</math>
The broadcast signal consists of the carrier wave plus two sinusoidal waves each with a frequency slightly different from <math>\omega_c</math>, known as sidebands. For the sinusoidal signals used here, these are at <math>\omega_c + \omega_m</math> and <math>\omega_c - \omega_m</math>. As long as the broadcast (carrier wave) frequencies are sufficiently spaced out so that these side bands do not overlap, stations will not interfere with one another.
===A more general example===
:''This relies on knowledge of the [[Fourier Transform]]. The discussion of the figure may prove more useful for a quicker understanding.''
Consider a general modulating signal <math>m(t)</math>, which can now be anything at all. The same basic rules apply:
:<math>\,y(t) = [C + m(t)]\cos(\omega_c t)</math>.
Or, in [[complex]] form:
:<math>y(t) = [C + m(t)]\frac{e^{j\omega_c t} + e^{-j\omega_c t}}{2}</math>
Taking Fourier Transforms, we get:
:<math>|Y(\omega)| = \pi{}C\delta(\omega - \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega - \omega_c) + \pi{}C\delta(\omega + \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega + \omega_c)</math>,
where <math>\delta(x)</math> is the [[Paul Dirac|Dirac]] [[delta function]] &mdash; a unit impulse at <math>x</math> &mdash; and capital functions indicate Fourier Transforms.
This has two components: one at positive [[frequency|frequencies]] (centered on <math>+\omega_c</math>) and one at negative frequencies (centered on <math>-\omega_c</math>). There is nothing mathematically wrong with negative frequencies, and they need to be considered here &mdash; otherwise one of the sidebands will be missing. Shown below is a graphical representation of the above equation. It shows the modulating signal's [[spectral density|spectrum]] on top, followed by the full spectrum of the modulated signal.
[[Image:AM spectrum.png|thumb|center|500px|The (2-sided) spectrum of an AM signal.]]
This makes clear the two sidebands that this modulation method yields, as well as the carrier signals that go with them. The carrier signals are the impulses. Clearly, an AM signal's spectrum consists of its original (2-sided) spectrum shifted up to the carrier frequency. The negative frequencies are a mathematical nicety, but are essential since otherwise we would be missing the lower sideband in the original spectrum!
As already mentioned, if multiple signals are to be transmitted in this way (by [[frequency division multiplexing]]), then their carrier signals must be sufficiently separated that their spectra do not overlap. This analysis also shows that the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the signal's original ([[baseband]]) bandwidth &mdash; since both the positive and negative sidebands are 'copied' up to the carrier frequency, but only the positive sideband is present originally. Thus, double-sideband AM (DS-AM) is spectrally inefficient. The various suppression methods in [[#Forms of AM|Forms of AM]], can be seen clearly in the figure &mdash; with the carrier suppressed there will be no impulses and with a sideband suppressed, the transmission bandwidth is reduced back to the original, baseband, bandwidth &mdash; a significant improvement in spectrum usage.
An analysis of the power consumption of AM reveals that DS-AM with its carrier has an efficiency of about 33% &mdash; very poor. The forms of AM with suppressed carriers are found to be 100% power efficient, since no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information.
==Modulation index==
As with other [[modulation index|modulation indices]], in AM, this quantity, also called ''modulation depth'', indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its 'original' level. For AM, it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as:
:<math>h = \frac{\mathrm{peak\ value\ of\ } m(t)}{C}</math>.
So if <math>h=0.5</math>, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its unmodulated level, and for <math>h=1.0</math> it varies by 100%. Modulation depth greater than 100% is generally to be avoided - practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit, such as a [[VOGAD]], to ensure this.
Variations of modulated signal with percentage modulation are shown below. In each image, the maximum amplitude is higher than in the previous image. Note that the scale changes from one image to the next.
<center>[[Image:AM signals.svg]]</center>
== Amplitude modulator designs ==
===Circuits===
A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM, but one of the simplest circuits uses anode or collector modulation applied via a [[transformer]]. While it is perfectly possible to create good designs using solid-state electronics, [[thermionic valve|valved]] (tube) circuits are shown here. In general, valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be achieved using solid state. Most high-power broadcast stations still use valves.
[[Image:ammodstage.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Anode modulation using a transformer. The [[tetrode]] is supplied with an anode supply (and screen grid supply) which is modulated via the transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias, both the input and outputs are tuned [[LC circuit]]s which are tapped into by inductive coupling]]
Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level.
=== Low level ===
Here a small [[Sound|audio]] stage is used to [[modulation|modulate]] a low power stage, the output of this stage is then amplified using a [[Linear amplifier|linear]] RF amplifier.
* Advantages
The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated, which only requires a small [[audio amplifier]] to drive the modulator.
* Disadvantages
The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifer chain is less [[electrical efficiency|efficient]], because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence [[Electronic amplifier#Class C|Class C amplifiers]] cannot be employed.
An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled [[diode]]) recovers the audio signal, and this is used as [[negative feedback]] to the audio modulator stage. The overall chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned, though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM [[radiotelephone]]s.
=== High level ===
; Advantages
One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller [[Direct current|DC]] power input. However in many designs in order to obtain better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage.
; Disadvantages
A large audio amplifer will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is also possible (known as a [[cascode]] arrangement), though this usually requires quite a high DC supply voltage (say 30V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units.
== See also ==
* [[AM radio]] also referred to as [[Mediumwave]]
* [[shortwave radio]] almost universally uses AM modulation, narrow FM occurring above 25 MHz.
* [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques
* [[AMSS]] Amplitude Modulation Signalling System, a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an AM signal.
* [[Sideband]], for some explanation of what this is.
==References==
* Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), ''The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications'' (81st ed.), pp. 15.1&ndash;15.36. Newington: ARRL. ISBN 0-87259-196-4.
[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]
[[de:Amplitudenmodulation]]
[[es:Amplitud Modulada]]
[[fr:Modulation d'amplitude]]
[[ko:진폭 변조]]
[[he:איפנון משרעת]]
[[nl:Amplitudemodulatie]]
[[ja:振幅変調]]
[[no:Amplitudemodulasjon]]
[[pl:Modulacja amplitudy]]
[[pt:Modulação em Amplitude]]
[[fi:AM]]
[[zh:振幅調變]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Augustin-Jea |
ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DMA''' can refer to:
* In [[computing]]:
** [[Direct memory access]] (most common)
** [[Dynamic memory allocation]]
** [[Document Management Alliance]]
** DMA Design - The former name of [[Rockstar North]], a game developer
* [[Digital media adapter]] - In [[consumer electronics]], for use between computers and other equipment (stereos, TVs, etc.)
* [[Direct Marketing Association]] - A trade organization
* [[Doctor of Musical Arts]] - A postgraduate educational degree
* In [[mechanical engineering]]:
** [[Dynamic Mechanical Analysis]] - A [[thermal analysis]] technique
** [[Dynamic Mechanical Analyser]] - An instrument for perfoming Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
* [[Media market|Designated Market Area]] - A synonym for [[media market]]
* Defense Mapping Agency - Predecessor of the [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]
* Direct Market Access - Used in [[financial markets]]
* In [[chemistry]]:
** [[dimethylamine]] - An organic compound
** [[dimethylacetamide]] - An organic solvent
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:DMA]]
[[de:DMA]]
[[fr:DMA]]
[[ja:DMA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DSM-IV</title>
<id>8497</id>
<revision>
<id>26236109</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-23T01:55:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tejastheory</username>
<id>178386</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert - sorry, edited wrong page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</title>
<id>8498</id>
<revision>
<id>42085475</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:58:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>208.143.235.3</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSM-IV.jpg|thumb|200px|The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association]]
The '''''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders''''', published by the [[American Psychiatric Association]], is the handbook used most often in diagnosing [[mental disorder]]s in the [[United States]] and internationally. The ''[[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]'' (ICD) is a commonly-used alternative. Both assume medical concepts and terms, and propose that there are numerous categorical disorders that can be distinctly diagnosed by set lists of criteria.
Some psychologists have stated that they use DSM primarily for completing forms for the government or insurance companies, some of which require a patient to be classified by a diagnosis.
==Development==
The criteria and classification system of the DSM are based on a process of consultation and committee meetings involving primarily psychiatrists. Therefore, the content of the DSM does not reflect all opinions on the subject of psychopathology, emotional distress and social functioning. Nor are there any objective, biological verifiable standards to which it adheres. The criteria, and the way they are applied by individual clinicians are at least to some extent influenced by cultural variables and are periodically altered to reflect the contemporary social landscape. What is and what is not considered a mental disorder changes over time. For example, prior to a psychiatric plebescite in 1973, [[homosexuality]] was listed in the DSM as a diagnosable mental illness. (All conditions entered in the ever-expanding DSM-IV are considered to be mental illnesses. Far more conditions are added than are deleted.) It is also known that the diagnosis of some mental disorders is influenced by [[gender role]] expectations. That is, while diagnostic criteria do not mention gender, clinicians diagnose women's and men's behaviour in different ways.<sup>1</sup>
The categories do not represent a complete list of all psychiatric disorders or research topics. For instance, the DSM does not categorize mental disorders that are specific to other (i.e. non-American) cultures, such as [[Koro (sexual disorder)|koro]], [[susto]], or [[taijin kyofusho]]. The DSM categories do not include many uncommon or rare syndromes although at times they are mentioned in the text.
The primary and senior editor of the DSM through several revisions is one Robert L. Spitzer, M.D., who is the author of most of the mental illness descriptions. His influence and domination in the North American field of psychiatry easily surpasses that of established professionals in any area of advanced study.
In the United States, health insurance typically will not pay for psychological or psychiatric services unless a DSM-IV mental disease diagnosis accompanies the insurance claim. This fact has clearly fueled the ever-expanding number of disease categories.
== Brief history ==
Users should be reminded that the manual is, to an extent, a historical document. The science used to create categories, taxonomies, and diagnoses is based on statistical models. These systems are thus subject to the limitations of the methods used to create them. [[deconstruction|Deconstructive]] critics assert that DSM invents illnesses and behaviors. Detractors of DSM argue that patients frequently fail to fit into any particular category or fall into several, that time limits and numbers of clinical characteristics required for a categorisation are arbitrary and that attention directed towards finding a suitable DSM category for a patient would be better spent discussing possible life-history events that precipitated a mental disturbance or monitoring treatment. Since effective treatment is the aim of the psychiatric profession they would argue that it makes more sense to regard ailments on the basis of how they should be treated rather than on deciding what clinically irrelevant differences place them in one category and not another. This would allow for the modular treatment of different sets of symptoms, for instance prescribing antidepressants for a deficit of serotonin and tranquillisers to deal with acute anxiety.
* The first edition ('''DSM-I''') was published in [[1952]], and had about 60 different [[disorder]]s.
* '''DSM-II''' was published in [[1968]].
:Both of these editions were strongly influenced by the [[Psychodynamic psychotherapy|psychodynamic]] approach, which provides no sharp distinction between [[normal (behavior)|normal]] and abnormal. All disorders are considered reactions to environmental events, with mental disorders existing on a continuum of behavior. In this sense, everyone is more or less abnormal. The people with more severe abnormalities have more severe difficulties with functioning.
:The classificatory structure of early editions of the DSM was rooted in a distinction between two poles of mental disorder, [[psychosis]] and [[neurosis]]. A ''psychosis'' is a severe mental disorder characterized by a disconnection from reality. Psychoses typically involve [[hallucinations]], [[delusion]]s, and illogical thinking. A ''neurosis'', however, is a milder mental disorder characterized by distortions of reality, but not a complete break with reality. Neuroses typically involve anxiety and depression.
:Among the most noted examples of controversial diagnoses is the classifying in the DSM-II of [[homosexuality]] as a mental disorder, a classification that was removed by vote of the APA in [[1973 in gay rights|1973]] after three years of various gay activists groups demonstrating at APA meetings (see also [[homosexuality and psychology]]).
* In [[1980]], with '''DSM-III''', the psychodynamic view was abandoned and the [[biomedical model]] became the primary approach, introducing a clear distinction between normal and abnormal. The DSM became ''atheoretical'' since it had no preferred [[etiology]] for mental disorders.
* In [[1987]] the '''DSM-III-R''' appeared as a revision of DSM-III. Many criteria were changed.
* In [[1994]], it evolved into '''DSM-IV'''. This work is currently in its fourth edition.
* The most recent version is the 'Text Revision' of the DSM-IV, also known as the '''DSM-IV-TR''', published in [[2000]]. The vast majority of the criteria for the diagoses were not changed from DSM-IV. The text in between the criteria was updated.
* '''DSM-V''', is tentatively scheduled for publication in [[2012]], with initial planning having begun in [[1999]]. The APA Division of Research expects to begin forming DSM development workgroups in [[2007]] [http://www.dsm5.org/].
== A multiaxial approach ==
The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], presently in its fourth revised (IV-TR, 2000) edition, systemizes psychiatric diagnosis in five axes:
* ''Axis I:'' major mental disorders, developmental disorders and learning disabilities
* ''Axis II:'' underlying pervasive or personality conditions, as well as mental retardation
* ''Axis III:'' any nonpsychiatric medical condition ("[[somatic]]")
* ''Axis IV:'' social functioning and impact of symptoms
* ''Axis V:'' [[Global Assessment of Functioning]] (on a scale from 100 to 0)
Common Axis I disorders include [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anxiety disorders]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[ADHD]], and [[schizophrenia]]. Common Axis II disorders include [[borderline personality disorder]], [[schizotypal personality disorder]], [[antisocial personality disorder]], and [[Mental Retardation|mild mental retardation]].
The contents of the DSM are determined by experts whose mandate is to create a set of diagnoses that are replicable and meaningful. While the classification system was originally intended to enhance research into both diagnosis and treatment, the nomenclature is now widely used by both clinicians and insurance companies.
== Limitations ==
The DSM is intended for use by mental health professionals, and for use in research and a |
and he can make out of the seven in his hand wins the pot.
In some casual games, the showdown is replaced by a [[rollout]] phase, as described above in "Shotgun". This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds.
==Ad hoc variants==
Any of the above games can be modified in many ways upon player whim, by designating additional wild cards, betting rounds, more or fewer cards, altered hand values, and any other change agreed upon by all players prior to each deal. You can announce such a game by using the name of an existing game and specifying the variations, for example "Three-card Triple-draw California lowball, Kings wild" (a surprisingly good game heads up). Many times this will result in a game that does not play well, but occasionally will produce a game that is well-suited to a particular group of players. Even if it doesn't, such games can be used sparingly to enliven an otherwise serious game.
Here are some general guidelines:
* If you want to designate some normal suited cards as wild, choose cards that would otherwise be bad for the game being played. For example, deuces wild for high-hand games, kings wild for lowball, '''9'''-spots wild for [[high-low split]] (where an '''8'''-high or lower is necessary to win low).
* High-low split games play best with more than four players.
* When playing high-low split, it is necessary to have either a [[Declaration (poker)|declaration]] phase or a qualifier (but not both). The most common form is '''8'''-high or better to qualify low, but also common is any pair/no pair (that is, a pair or better is required to win high, and no pair or better low is required to win low), and '''9'''-high for low.
* Designating more than four wild cards (or possibly six) will result in considerable confusion and many ties.
* Two to five betting rounds makes a good game. One round or more than five rounds reduces the amount of skill involved.
* Sometimes there is no betting round before the draw; players pick up their cards, discard and draw, and then the betting starts.
* Giving each player more than eight or nine cards usually makes a bad game. (Note that in Anaconda, each player will have seen up to thirteen cards!)
[[Category:Poker variants]]
[[fr:Poker fermé]]
[[pt:Pôquer fechado]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Defensive team</title>
<id>7987</id>
<revision>
<id>41059099</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:15:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.98.45.253</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''defensive team''' or '''defense''' in [[American football]] or [[Canadian football]], is the team that begins a [[play from scrimmage]] not in possession of the ball.
Unlike the offensive team, there are no formally defined defensive positions. A defensive player may line up anywhere on his side of the line of scrimmage and perform any legal action. However, most sets used in American football include a line composed of '''defensive ends''' and '''defensive tackles''' and, behind the line, '''linebackers''', '''cornerbacks''', and '''safeties'''.
Defensive ends and tackles are collectively called '''defensive line''', while the cornerbacks and safeties are collectively called '''the secondary''', or '''defensive backs'''.
*'''defensive end (DE)''' - the two defensive ends play on opposite outside edges of the defensive line. Their function is to rush and / or attack the passer, or stop offensive runs to the outer edges of the line of scrimmage. The faster of the two is usually placed on the right because this is a right-handed [[quarterback]]'s blind side.
*'''defensive tackle (DT)''' - (sometimes called a ''defensive guard''), defensive tackles are side-by-side linemen who are 'sandwiched' between the defensive ends. Their function is to rush the passer (if they can shove past the offensive linemen blocking them), and stop running plays directed at the middle of the line of scrimmage. A defensive tackle that lines up directly across from the ball (and therefore, is almost nose-to-nose with the offense's ''[[center]]'') is often called a ''nose tackle'' or ''[[nose guard]]''. Common defensive sets have from one to three defensive tackles.
*'''linebacker (LB; more specifically, OLB, MLB, LOLB, ROLB )''' - linebackers play behind the defensive line and perform various duties depending on the situation, including rushing the passer, covering receivers, and defending against the run. Most defensive sets have between two and four linebackers. Linebackers are usually divided into three types: strongside (Left- or Right- Outside Linebacker: LOLB or ROLB); middle (MLB); and weakside (LOLB or ROLB). The strongside linebacker usually lines up across from the offense's [[tight end]]; he is usually the strongest LB because he must be able to shed lead blockers quickly enough to tackle the [[running back]]. The middle linebacker must correctly identify the offense's formations and what adjustments the entire defense must make, all in the fleeting seconds before the offense starts play (by snapping the ball to the [[quarterback]]). Because of this, the middle linebacker is nicknamed the 'quarterback of the defense'. The weakside linebacker is usually the most athletic or fastest linebacker, because he usually must defend an open field.
*'''cornerback (CB)''' -- (typically) two players that primarily cover the wide receivers; they attempt to prevent successful quarterback passes by either swatting the airborne ball away from the receiver, or by catching the pass themselves (automatically switching possession of the ball to their team) -- an ''interception''. In rushing situations, their job is to contain the rusher.
*'''safety (FS or SS)''' -- the safeties are the last line of defense (farthest from the line of scrimmage), and usually help the corners with deep-pass coverage. The ''strong safety'' (SS) is usually the larger and stronger of the two, providing extra protection against run plays by standing somewhere between the free safety and the line of scrimmage. The ''free safety'' (FS) is usually the smaller and faster of the two, providing variable and extra pass protection. However, more recently, teams are looking for hybrid safeties who can do both jobs, as in a cover 2 defence, the strong safety has a greater role to play in coverage.
*'''nickel'''- and '''dime'''- backs -- in certain formations one extra (i.e., a fifth) defensive back (called a 'nickel' defense: a nickel coin = ''five'' cents) -- or even two extra (a fifth and sixth) DBs (called a 'dime' package: a dime = two nickels) -- may be used to augment the backfield and / or defensive line. Nickelbacks and dimebacks are usually used to defend pass plays with extra receivers, but they can also be used to rush quarterbacks or runningbacks more quickly than linemen or most linebackers can. A starting cornerback who is good at blitzing and tackling will sometimes be refered to as a nickleback, to distinguish them from cornerbacks who are better in coverage and poor in this respect.
==See also==
*[[American football defensive schemes]]
*[[Lineman (football)]]
*[[Defensive back]]
*[[Offensive team]]
*[[Special team]]s
*[[Glossary of American football]]
[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dual space</title>
<id>7988</id>
<revision>
<id>39919912</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T20:57:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.187.0.164</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the existence of a '''dual vector space''' reflects in an abstract way the relationship between ''row'' vectors (1&times;n) and ''column'' vectors (n&times;1). The construction can also take place for infinite-dimensional spaces and gives rise to important ways of looking at [[measure (mathematics)|measures]], [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s, and [[Hilbert space]]. The use of the dual space in some fashion is thus characteristic of [[functional analysis]]. It is also inherent in the [[Fourier transform]].
== Algebraic dual space ==
Given any [[vector space]] V over some [[field (mathematics)|field]] F, we define the '''dual space''' V* to be the set of all [[linear functional]]s on V, i.e., [[scalar]]-valued [[linear transformation]]s on V (in this context, a "scalar" is a member of the base-field F). V* itself becomes a vector space over F under the following definition of addition and scalar multiplication:
:<math> (\phi + \psi )( x ) = \phi ( x ) + \psi ( x ) \,</math>
:<math> ( a \phi ) ( x ) = a \phi ( x ) \,</math>
for all &phi;, &psi; in V*, ''a'' in F and ''x'' in V.
In the language of [[tensor]]s, elements of V are sometimes called [[covariant]] vectors, and elements of V*, [[contravariant]] vectors, '''covectors''' or '''[[one-form]]s'''.
===Examples===
If the [[Hamel dimension|dimension]] of V is finite,
then V* has the same dimension as V;
if {'''e'''<sub>1</sub>,...,'''e'''<sub>''n''</sub>} is a [[basis of a vector space|basis]] for V, then the associated ''dual basis'' {'''e'''<sup>1</sup>,...,'''e'''<sup>''n''</sup>} of V* is given by
:<math>
e^i (e_j)= \left\{\begin{matrix} 1, & \mbox{if }i = j \\ 0, & \mbox{if } i \ne j \end{matrix}\right.
</math>
In the case of R<sup>2</sup>, its basis is B={e<sub>1</sub>=(1,0),e<sub>2</sub>=(0,1)}.Then, e<sup>1</sup> is a one-form (function which maps a vector to a scalar) such that e<sup>1</sup>(e<sub>1</sub>)=1, and e<sup>1</sup>(e<sub>2</sub>)=0. Similarity for e<sup>2< |
ajor emphasis of the BNP's electoral propaganda appears to be anti-Islamic, alleging widespread support of extremism and terrorism amongst the [[Muslim]] community. Despite this, the BNP arguably has some overlapping ideological convergences with Islamist extremism. When current leader Nick Griffin was still a member of the National Front, he appealed to Ayotolla [[Khomeini]] and Colonel [[Gadaffi]] for funding, and both were praised in the NF's publications.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/the_leader/biography.stm]
A further ironic development is the conversion of [[David Myatt]], the cultural guru of [[Combat 18]](C18) to [[Islamism]]. Myatt continues to be respected by ex C18 members, several of whom are now BNP candidates.
==Electoral performance==
The BNP currently has 24 elected local councillors, out of the many thousands of local councillors across the UK. Nick Griffin light-heartedly described the Party's PR department (one of its most important strata) as being "''basically made with shoestring, sealing wax and bits of orange peel''". However, with the parties growth comes greater resources, so we can expect to see more work from BNPtv, their audio/visual wing.[http://www.bnp.org.uk/bnptv/bnptv_intro.htm]
The BNP's first electoral success came in September [[1993]], when [[Derek Beackon]] was returned as councillor for [[Millwall]] (in [[London]]) on a low turnout. He lost his seat in further elections the next year, although his personal vote actually increased by 30% (on a turnout of 70%). The Millwall seat was the Party's only electoral victory in John Tyndall's seventeen year reign as leader.
In the council elections of May 2002, three BNP candidates gained seats on [[Burnley]] council. This was interpreted in some quarters as an indicator of the mood of the British electorate. The BNP had fielded 68 candidates nationwide.
In the council elections of May 2003, the BNP increased its Burnley total by five seats, thus briefly becoming the second-largest party and official opposition on that council, a position it narrowly lost soon afterwards to the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], which beat the BNP by a margin of just 0.4% in a by-election. The five new Burnley seats were formerly held by a combination of all three mainstream political parties, suggesting that the BNP was winning votes from across the political spectrum. The Party contested a record 221 seats nationwide (just under 4% of the total available). They won eleven council seats in all, though Nick Griffin was unsuccessful in his attempt to gain a place on [[Oldham]] Metropolitan Council.
The BNP failed to win any council seats in [[Sunderland]] despite putting candidates up for election in all 25 of the city's wards, and an extensive campaign. However, the Party did substantially increase its Sunderland vote. In the general election of 2001, their candidate received 1,263 votes. In the May 2002 council election, the BNP fielded a candidate in just one ward, receiving slightly over 13% of the vote on a 22% turnout. In the 2003 elections, the party received an average of just under 14% of the votes across all 25 seats, on an increased average turnout of 46%. The party retained 24 of its 25 election deposits, narrowly losing the other one with a vote of 4.84% against the deposit retention benchmark of 5%. Of the other 24 seats, six gained between 5 and 10% of the vote, twelve between 10 and 20%, and six between 20 and 29.65%, the latter figure being the highest single percentage. The total vote gained was 13,652, more than ten times the general election figure of just two years previously. One of the most interesting points about the Sunderland elections was how the different news media reported the outcome. The BNP has also gained council seats in parts of the [[Black Country]] in the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] and in [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Essex, England|Essex]] in the South East of England.
Local council election results in the second half of 2003 have proved encouraging for the party, winning three out of six seats contested and narrowly missing out on a fourth. In September 2003, the newspaper ''[[The Independent]]'' described the BNP as an "emerging" threat to the Labour Party, whilst a Labour MEP warned his party that the BNP could gain a seat in the [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (UK)|2004 elections to the European Parliament]]. The BNP has also stated that it believed it could win "between one and three seats" in that election, almost certainly including the "North West England" EU constituency. In fact, although their share of the vote increased to 4.9%, they failed to win a single seat.
As of October 2003, the Party has seventeen elected councillors, all in England. This was previously eighteen, but the BNP expelled one of its existing Burnley councillors from the Party after his alleged unruly behaviour at its annual 'Red, White and Blue' festival. At the Party's request, the councillor subsequently resigned his council seat. The former councillor in question had been hurriedly chosen after the party's first choice was unavailable to stand for election at very short notice. The BNP claimed it had no way of predicting the unsuitability of this last-minute choice due to the circumstances, and describes the incident as only a "minor setback." The party lost the subsequent by-election caused by the resignation.
The BNP is a UK-wide party and has contested seats in [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]], as well as England. In the Scottish parliamentary elections of 2003, it contested only the Glasgow region (with only one person on their list) and polled poorly. It failed to contest any Scottish seats in the 2001 elections, but did put up a candidate for [[Newport West]] in Wales. It has now announced plans to contest elections in [[Northern Ireland]] and has already selected some candidates. On [[18 December]], [[2003]], the party polled 14.7% in a by-election in Aston Ward for Flintshire County Council, north Wales.
The Party is also picking up an increasing share of the vote in the [[South West England|South West]] of England, where its strongly [[eurosceptic]] policies were believed to be most popular.
Many commentators have put the electoral successes of the BNP down to voters' casting a 'protest vote' against what they perceive as incompetence by their local councils, and disillusionment with the mainstream parties, rather than support for the BNP's policies. However, the BNP's consistent good polling in some areas has led some to question this analysis.
In [[December 2003]], the BNP welcomed its first councillor defector - a former member of the Conservative party on Calderdale council [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news/2003_dec/news_dec06.htm], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_yorkshire/2990052.stm].
The move surprised many commentators, but the party has stated that it expects such events to become frequent occurrences: "''A number of councillors from other parties are reported to be awaiting the outcome of next June's Local Election results and where a BNP Group (two or more councillors) exists we expect quite widespread defection from the Tories in particular.''" Since this statement was made, three further defections to the party have taken place (as of October 2004).
The party's most recent election success saw it gain its highest ever proportion of the vote - 51.9% (on a turnout of 28.8%), more than all the other parties put together, in the Goresbrook ward of [[Barking]] on [[16 September]] [[2004]]. However, less than ten months after his election, BNP Cllr. Daniel Kelley has, after complaining to the local press that other councillors treated him "like a leper" and on supposed grounds of ill-health, resigned his seat. Kelley had also told the local newspaper, the Barking and Dagenham Recorder [http://www.bdrecorder.co.uk], that "There's meetings that go right over my head and there's little point in me being there". A new election was held on [[23 June]] [[2005]], in which this time the Labour candidate gained 51% of the vote, and the BNP came second with 32%. [http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/9-democracy/elections/results/elect-by-goresbrook-05.html]
In a subsequent byelection in the nearby Village Ward in [[Dagenham]] on [[7 October]] it polled 38.4% of the vote, coming second to Labour and gaining more than twice the vote of the Conservative candidate. No other parties stood.
In the 2005 General Election the British National Party stood 119 candidates across England, Scotland and Wales. Between those candidates the BNP polled 192,850 votes, gaining an average of 4.2% across the seats they stood in, and 0.7% nationwide - a 0.5% rise from the 2001 election. In those seats which the BNP stood in they were the 4th largest party. However, they did not stand nationwide, meaning that their national share of the vote was substantially lower than other minor parties.
==Opposition to the BNP==
The BNP's policies have been rejected by a majority of the voters in most places where its candidates have stood for election, although its share of the vote has increased in recent years in many of the areas in which they have stood.
The BNP is condemned by all sections of the mainstream media, including right-wing newspapers, such as the Sun and Daily Mail, which share some of the party's concerns over immigration. Representatives of the three major mainstream political parties all condemn the BNP, although the party has taken council seats from them all in various areas. High-ranking politicians from each of the mainstream parties have, at various times, called for their own supporters to vote for anyone but the BNP. This message has confused many as, for instance, Conservative supporters are not sure whether their own party are asking them ''not'' to vote for their |
st in classical culture which some have called the [[Dark Ages]], though modern scholars do not use this phrase, and almost all scientific research ground to a halt. The rise of [[Christianity]] saw the suppression and destruction of most classical Greek philosophy (along with Greek and Roman art, literature and religious iconography) as heretical and pagan. In the Middle East, however, many Greek natural philosophers were able to find support for their work, and scholars built upon previous work in astronomy and mathematics while developing such new fields as alchemy (chemistry).
After the [[Arab]]s conquered [[Persia]], scientists arose among the [[Persian people]]. They picked up the Greeks' learning, and helped to preserve it while it faded away in Europe. A Persian scientist, possibly [[Mohammed al-Fazari]], invented the [[astrolabe]]. [[al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to what we now call an [[algorithm]], and developed [[algebra]].
''See also, [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]].''
=== Indian contributions to physics ===
Modern physics can hardly be imagined without a system of arithmetic in which simple calculation is easy enough to make large calulations even possible. The positional [[numeral system]] and the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] were first developed in [[India]] and were adopted by the [[Islam]]ic empire.
=== The Middle Ages ===
In the [[12th century]], the birth of [[medieval university]] and the rediscovery of the works of ancient philosophers through contact with the [[Arab]]s, during the process of [[Reconquista]] and the [[Crusades]], started an intellectual revitalization of Europe.
By the [[13th century]], precursors of the modern [[scientific method]] can be seen already on [[Robert Grosseteste]]'s emphasis on [[mathematics]] as a way to understand nature and on the [[empiricism|empirical]] approach admired by [[Roger Bacon]].
The monk [[Roger Bacon]] conducted experiments into optics, although much of it was similar to what had been done and was being done at the time by Arab scholars. He did make a major contribution to the development of science in medieval Europe by writing to the [[Pope]] to encourage the study of natural science in university courses and compiling several volumes recording the state of scientific knowledge in many fields at the time. He described the possible construction of a [[telescope]], but there is no strong evidence of his having made one. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results - a cornerstone of the [[scientific method]], and a continuation of the work of researchers like [[Al Battani]].
In the [[14th century]], some scholars, such as [[Jean Buridan]] and [[Nicolas Oresme]], started to question the received wisdom of [[Aristotle]]'s mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory of [[impetus]] which was the first step towards the modern concept of [[inertia]].
In his turn, Oresme showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens. In the whole of his argument in favor of the earth's motion Oresme is both more explicit and much clearer than that given two centuries latter by [[Copernicus]]. He was also the first to assume that color and light are of the same nature and the discoverer of the curvature of light through [[atmospheric refraction]]; even though, up to now, the credit for this latter achievement has been given to [[Hooke]].
Then came the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], that sealed a sudden end to the previous period of philosophic development. The plague killed a third of the people in Europe. Recurrences of the plague and other disasters caused a continuing decline of population for a century.
In spite this halt, the [[15th century]] saw the artistic flourishing of the [[Renaissance]]. The rediscovery of ancient texts was improved when many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars had to seek refuge in the West, after the [[fall of Constantinople]], in [[1453]]. Meanwhile, the invention of [[printing]] was to democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas. All that paved the way to the [[Scientific Revolution]], which may also be understood as a resume of the process of scientific change halted around the middle of the 14th century.
== The scientific revolution ==
The [[scientific revolution]] can be viewed as a flowering of the
Renaissance and the portal to modern civilization. This was in part brought about by the re-discovery of those elements of ancient Greek, Indian, Chinese and Islamic culture preserved and further developed by Islam from the [[8th century|8th]] to the [[15th century|15th]] centuries, and translated by Christian Monks into Latin, such as the ''Almagest''.
It started with only a few researchers, evolving into an enterprise which continues to the present day. Starting with astronomy, the principles of natural philosophy crystallized into fundamental [[law of physics|laws of physics]] which were enunciated and improved in the succeeding centuries. By the 19th century, the sciences had segmented into multiple fields with specialized researchers and the field of physics, although logically pre-eminent, no longer could claim sole ownership of the entire field of scientific research.
=== 16th century ===
In the [[16th century]] [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] revived the [[heliocentric]] model of the [[solar system]] devised by [[Aristarchus of Samos]] (which survives primarily in a passing mention in [[the Sand Reckoner]] of [[Archimedes]]). When this model was published at the end of his life, it was with a preface by [[Andreas Osiander]] that piously represented it as only a mathematical convenience for calculating the positions of planets, and not an account of the true nature of the planetary orbits.
In England [[William Gilbert]] (1544-1603) studied [[magnetism]] and published a seminal work, ''De Magnete'' (1600), in which he thoroughly presented his numerous experimental results.
=== 17th century ===
In the early [[17th century]] [[Johannes Kepler]] formulated a model of the solar system based upon the five [[Platonic solid]]s, in an attempt to explain why the orbits of the planets had the relative sizes they did. His access to extremely accurate astronomical observations by [[Tycho Brahe]] enabled him to determine that his model was inconsistent with the observed orbits. After a heroic seven-year effort to more accurately model the motion
of the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] (during which he laid the foundations of modern [[integral calculus]]) he concluded that the planets follow not circular orbits, but [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. This breakthrough overturned a millennium of dogma based on [[Ptolemy]]'s idea of "perfect" circular orbits for the "perfect" heavenly bodies. Kepler then went on to formulate his [[Laws of Kepler|three laws of planetary motion]]. He also proposed the first known model of planetary motion in which a force emanating from the Sun deflects the planets from their "natural" motion, causing them to follow curved orbits.
During the early [[17th century]], [[Galileo Galilei]] pioneered the use of experiment to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in the [[scientific method]]. Galileo's use of experiment, and the insistence of Galileo and Kepler that observational results must always take precedence over theoretical results (in which they followed the precepts of [[Aristotle]] if not his practice), brushed away the acceptance of dogma, and gave birth to an era where scientific ideas were openly discussed and rigorously tested. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]], including the correct law of accelerated motion, the parabolic trajectory, the relativity of unaccelerated motion, and an early form of the Law of [[Inertia]].
In [[1687]], [[Isaac Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]],'' detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], from which arise [[classical mechanics]]; and [[gravity|Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the [[fundamental force]] of [[gravity]]. Both theories agreed well with experiment. Classical mechanics would be exhaustively extended by [[Joseph-Louis de Lagrange]], [[William Rowan Hamilton]], and others, who produced new formulations, principles, and results. The Law of Gravitation initiated the field of [[astrophysics]], which describes [[astronomy|astronomical]] phenomena using physical theories.
=== 18th century ===
From the [[18th century]] onwards, [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic]] concepts were developed by [[Robert Boyle]], [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], and many others, concurrently with the development of the steam engine, onward into the next century. In [[1733]], [[Daniel Bernoulli]] used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of [[statistical mechanics]]. [[Benjamin Franklin]] conducted his researches into the nature of [[electricity]] in [[1752]]. In [[1798]], [[Benjamin Thompson]] demonstrated the conversion of unlimited mechanical work into heat; it would take the work of [[James Prescott Joule]] to demonstrate the [[conservation of energy]] in the next century.
=== 19th century ===
In a letter to the [[Royal Society]] in [[1800]], [[Alessandro Volta]] described his invention of the [[Battery (electricity)|electric battery]], thus providing for the first time the means to generate a constant electric current, and opening up a new field of physics for investigation.
In [[1847]] [[James Prescott Joule]] stated the law of co |
odified messages as new (due to a differing UIDL calculation which is often performed on the entire message body, headers included) and result in clients re-retrieving previously downloaded messages.
==Common implementations==
The following IMAP-[[server]]s are common:
*[[Binc IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format, designed to be familiar for users of [[qmail]] and qmail-pop3d [http://www.bincimap.org/]
*[[Citadel/UX|Citadel]]
*[[Courier IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format.
*[[Cyrus IMAP server]] - uses a format similar to [[Maildir]] or [[MH Message Handling System|MH]].
*[[Dovecot (software)|Dovecot]] - Secure IMAP server
*[[FirstClass | FirstClass Server]] - FirstClass Server [http://www.firstclass.com/]
*[[IBM Lotus Domino]] Server
*[[Mac OS X Server]]
*[[Merak Mail Server]]
*[[Mercury/32]] - Mercury/32 [http://www.pmail.com/overviews/ovw_mercury.htm]
*[[Microsoft Exchange Server]]
*[[Mirapoint]] [http://www.mirapoint.com/]
*[[Stalker Communigate Pro]] [http://www.stalker.com/CommuniGatePro/]
*[[UW IMAP]] - supports multiple formats including [[mbox]], mbx, [[MMDF]], tenex, mtx, [[MH Message Handling System|MH]], mx, and [[Usenet]] news spools.
*[[Zimbra]] [http://www.zimbra.com/]
The following IMAP-[[client]]s are common (see also [[List_of_e-mail_clients|List of mail clients]]):
[[Command line interface|text-based]] clients:
*[[Pine (e-mail client)|UW PINE]] - One of the first IMAP clients
*[[Mutt (e-mail client)|Mutt]] - e-mail client found in many [[Linux]] distributions
[[Graphical user interface|GUI]] clients:
*[[Novell Evolution]]
*[[KMail]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook Express]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook]]
*[[Mozilla Thunderbird]] - A cross-platform and increasingly popular mail client.
*[[Mail.app|Mac OS X Mail]]
The following Web-based email services support IMAP access
*[[AIM]] [http://www.aim.com/aim_mail.adp]
== See also ==
*[[E-mail client]]
*[[Internet Mail 2000]], an alternative proposal for mail
*[[Post Office Protocol]]
*[[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]]
*[[webmail]]
*[[List of mail servers]]
*[[Comparison of mail servers]]
*Johnson, Kevin. 2000. Internet E-mail Protocols: A Developer's Guide. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-43288-9.
== External links ==
* RFC 3501 ([http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc3501.html HTML version]) - specification of IMAP version 4 revision 1
* [http://www.imap.org/ The IMAP connection] - resources for developers of programs using the IMAP protocol.
* [http://www.imap.org/products/ IMAP connection's listing of products and service providers supporting IMAP]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inertial frame of reference</title>
<id>14838</id>
<revision>
<id>40004361</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:41:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unfinishedchaos</username>
<id>294794</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''inertial frame''' is a [[coordinate system]] defined by the non-accelerated motion of objects with a common direction and speed (as opposed to a [[non-inertial reference frame]]).
==Introduction==
In [[physics]], an object has '''inertial motion''' if no external forces are being applied to it, famously stated as [[Newton's first law of motion]]. When such an object’s state of motion is extrapolated over a region of space to take in all other possible objects in the region with the same state of motion, and these are used to define a common [[coordinate system]], this system is referred to as a '''frame'''.
==Use of inertial frames==
Inertial frames of reference are relevant to [[Newtonian relativity]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]].
* Under '''[[Newtonian physics|Newtonian mechanics]]''', all inertial states of motion are considered to be equivalent: if two inertial observers, '''"A"''' and '''"B"''' have a relative velocity, then the laws of physics should be the same regardless of whether we take '''"A"''' as our “stationary” reference and say that '''"B"''' is moving, or if we take '''"B"''' as our fixed reference and say that '''"A"''' is moving. Included in these rules of physics is the explicit assumption that time progresses at the same rate for all observers, meaning that clocks calibrated in one inertial coordinate system will not become uncalibrated due to one of them being moved into another inertial frame of reference.
* '''Under special relativity''', this equivalence of different inertial states of motion still applies. However, the assumption of constant progression of [[proper time]] in all frames of reference is replaced by the assumption that the [[speed of light]] is constant, and that this is equally true for every inertial observer. This required the use of a set of protocols, originally discussed by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900) in relation to [[Hendrik Lorentz]]'s local time and used, apparently independently, by Einstein ([[Einstein synchronisation]], [[relativity of simultaneity]]). This protocol allows observers to define apparent distances and times according to the assumption of fixed light speed in their own frame, and then build an extended coordinate system for labeling the times and distances of distant events. Observers using different reference frames will derive different nominal distance and time separations between the same two events. The formulas for converting, or "[[Lorentz transformation|transforming]]" values between different frames of reference allow each observer to calculate how the physics taking place appears for another observer. As seen from different points of view the nominal distance and time separation between two events differs, but the combined [[spacetime interval]] is unchanged: it is "frame-independent", or "[[invariant (physics)|invariant]]".
==Transformations==
The way that nominal distances and times are converted from one coordinate system to another is referred to as a [[Transformation (mathematics)|transformation]].
In classical mechanics the [[kinetic energy]] of a system depends on the inertial frame of reference. It is lowest with respect to the [[center of mass]], i.e., in a frame of reference in which the center of mass is stationary. In another frame of reference the additional kinetic energy is that corresponding to the total mass and the speed of the center of mass.
Einstein argued that if we only assume that light propagates at ''c'' in a single [[preferred frame]] (i.e., if we assume an absolute fixed aether, [[classical theory and special relativity|classical theory]]), transformation of space and time coordinates is performed using [[Galilean transformation]]s, whereas with special relativity we obtain [[Lorentz transformation]]s, which only coincide with the earlier results for relative velocities that are reasonably small in comparison with the speed of light.
==Einstein’s general theory of relativity==
Einstein’s [[general relativity|general theory]] modifies the distinction between nominally "inertial" and "noninertial" effects, by replacing special relativity's "flat", [[Euclidean]] geometry with a curved [[non-Euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean]] metric. In general relativity, the principle of inertia is replaced with the principle of [[geodesic (general relativity)|geodesic motion]], whereby objects move in a way dictated by the curvature of spacetime. As a consequence of this curvature, it is not a given in general relativity that inertial objects moving at a given rate with respect to each other will continue to do so. This phenomenon of [[geodesic deviation]] means that inertial frames of reference do not exist globally as they do in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.
However, the general theory reduces to the special theory over sufficiently small regions of spacetime, where curvature effects become less important and the earlier inertial frame arguments can come back into play. Consequently, modern SR is now sometimes described as only a “local theory”. (However, this refers to the theory’s application rather than to its derivation.)
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
==References==
* Edwin F. Taylor and John Archibald Wheeler, '''Spacetime Physics 2nd ed.''' (Freeman, NY, 1992)
* Albert Einstein, '''Relativity, the special and the general theories, 15th ed.''' (1954)
* Poincaré, H. (1900) "La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction", ''Archives Neerlandaises'', '''V''', 253-78.
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[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Frames of reference]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irix</title>
<id>14839</id>
<revision>
<id>15912371</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-20T11:43:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus.de</username>
<id>14063</id>
</contributo |
Not the Better Sex, the Opposite Sex, or the Inferior Sex''. Simon and Schuster, 1992. ISBN 0671662740
* Thomas, Calvin. (ed.) "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", ''Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality'', p.39n. University of Illinois Press (2000)
* Wertheim, Margaret. ''Pythagoras' Trousers - God, Physics, and the Gender Wars'', W.W. Norton & Co. (1995, 1997)
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
===Feminist organizations===
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust]
*[http://www.awpsych.org/ Association for Women in Psychology]
*[http://www.ALF.org The Association of Libertarian Feminists]
*[http://www.cawinfo.org/ Committee for Asian Women]
*[http://www.feministinitiative.bc.ca/ FemINist INitiative of BC]
*[http://feminist.org Feminist Majority]
*[http://feministsforlife.org Feminists for Life] - Anti-abortion group in the United States.
*[http://naral.org NARAL Pro-Choice America]
*[http://now.org NOW] - National Organization for Women in the United States
*[http://ppfa.org Planned Parenthood Federation of America]
*[http://www.wluml.org/english/ Women living under muslim laws]
===Supportive of feminism===
*[http://www.amynelson.co.uk/womenswiki Women's Wiki] Women's Wiki Organization
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/gender.shtml Asian-Nation: Asian American Feminism & Gender Issues]
*[http://www.wifp.org/DWM/DirectoryWomensMedia.html Directory of Women's Media]
*[http://www.iinet.net.au/~rabbit/femsup.htm Feminist support pages (Australia)]
*[http://www.womenorganizingwomen.com/wgs3150/index.html Don't Be Scared By Feminist Theory]
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/donnaharaway.html Donna Haraway - Bibliography]
*[http://www.fnsa.org/ Feminism & Nonviolence Studies]
*[http://www.susanbrownmiller.com Susan Brownmiller.com: Where Feminism Lives]
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/judithbutler.html Judith Butler - Bibliography]
*[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/wolf.html Naomi Wolf - Resources]
*[http://www.fembio.org/default.shtml FemBio - Notable Women International]
*[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/faludi.html Susan Faludi - Resources]
*[http://personalispolitical.tripod.com/ The Personal Is Political]
*[http://www.yourquotations.net/Feminism.html Famous Quotes on Feminism]
*[http://www.ladywiki.org/cgi-bin/wiki.pl/LadyWiki LadyWiki - open site for discussion & exchange]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/women.html The Seneca Falls Convention: Teaching about the Rights of Women and the Heritage of the Declaration of Independence]
*[http://www.library.arizona.edu/branches/spc/treadwell/ The Sophie Treadwell Collection]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-approaches/ Approaches to Feminism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/femapproach-analytic/ Feminism and Analytic Philosophy]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/femapproach-pragmatism/ Pragmatism and Feminism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-topics/ Topics in Feminism]
*[http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=191 Smash Patriarchy, Smash the State]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
===Critical of feminism===
*[http://www.pariwariksuraksha.org Feminism-indian society]
*[[Camille Paglia]]
*[http://www.bullyonline.org/related/family.htm Bullying in the Family (UK National Workplace Bullying Website)]
*[http://Mensactivism.org/ Men's Activism News Network]
*[http://www.shethinks.org/ Independent Women's Forum]
*[http://www.ladiesagainstfeminism.com Ladies Against Feminism]
*[http://www.savethemales.ca/ SaveTheMale.com by Henry Makow Ph.D.]
*[http://www.cblpolicyinstitute.org/ Clare Boothe Luce Policy Institute]
*[http://www.nvsh.nl/points/issuesFeminism.htm NVSH] ([[Dutch Society for Sexual Reform|NVSH]])
*[http://www.debunker.com/patriarchy.html The Domain of Patriarchy]
*[http://www.users.bigpond.com/sarcasmo/femo.html Against feminist sexism: A balanced view of male and female power]
*[http://jkalb.org/book/view/2 Turnabout: Sex and Gender]
*[http://www.equityfeminism.com Equity feminism]
*[http://www.ejfi.org/DV/dv.htm Equal Justice Foundation: Domestic Violence]
*[http://www.eagleforum.org Eagle Forum]
*[http://www.debunker.com/texts/noblelie.html The Noble Lie]
*[http://www.ukmm.org.uk/issues/masc.htm The Masculist Perspective: Response to Feminist Claims]
*[http://www.cooltools4men.com Freedom, Independence & Power for Men]
*[http://www.angryharry.com Angry Harry]
*[http://www.saveindianfamily.org Save Indian Family]
===Feminism and religion===
* [http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_101_150/religious_conservatism.htm Riffat Hasan on ''Religious conservatism: Feminist theology as a means of combating injustice towards women in muslim communities/culture'']
*[http://www.jwa.org/feminism Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution] from the Jewish Women's Archive
*[http://www.liberalislam.net/women.html Islam from Patriarchy to Feminism]
*[http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/free_and_equal.html Free and Equal under the Qur'an] - an analysis by Havva G Guney-Ruebenacker
*[http://www.heartless-bitches.com/rants/doublestandards.shtml Double Standards] - A woman's point of view
===History of feminism===
*[http://gerritsen.chadwyck.com/ The Gerritsen Collection - Women's History Online, 1543-1945]
*[http://www.jwa.org/feminism/ Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution] from the Jewish Women's Archive
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federal Aviation Administration</title>
<id>11186</id>
<revision>
<id>36936017</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T12:46:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cleared as filed</username>
<id>318771</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv POV, anti-FAA commentary; if this info is to be included in some form, it needs to be NPOV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federal Aviation Administration logo.png|200px|thumb|right| ]]
{{redirect|FAA}}
The '''Federal Aviation Administration''' ('''FAA''') is the entity of the [[United States]] government which regulates and oversees all aspects of civil [[aviation]] in the U.S.
==Activities==
Along with the European [[Joint Aviation Authorities]], the FAA is one of the two main agencies worldwide responsible for the certification of new aircraft.
The FAA issues a number of [[awards]] to holders of its licenses. Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as a mechanic, an instructor, a 50-year aviator, or as a safe pilot. The latter, the FAA "Wings Program", provides a series of ten badges for pilots who have undergone several hours of training since their last award. A higher level can be claimed each year. For more information see "FAA Advisory Circular 61-91H".
==History==
The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the Federal Government's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certificating aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. A new Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight.
In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety rulemaking and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the Nation's system of lighted airways, a task that had been begun by the Post Office Department. The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation.
The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities.
In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving them the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve.
President Franklin Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board |
ce="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Ferdinand Magellan |
image_name = Ferdinand Magellan.jpg |
image_caption = [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] |
date_of_birth = Spring [[1480]] |
place_of_birth = [[Sabrosa]], [[Portugal]] |
date_of_death = [[April 27]], [[1521]] |
place_of_death = [[Mactan Island]], [[Cebu]], [[Philippines]]}}
'''Ferdinand Magellan''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Fernão de Magalhães'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA pronunciation]]: /{{IPA|fɨɾ.'nɐ̃w̃ dɨ mɐ.ɣɐ.'ʎɐ̃j̃ʃ}}/; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Fernando'' or ''Hernando de Magallanes''; Spring [[1480]]&ndash;[[April 27]], [[1521]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] who led the first successful attempt to [[Circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] the Earth. Magellan himself did not complete his final voyage; he was killed during the [[Battle of Mactan]] in the [[Philippines]]. He did, however, die further west than the [[Spice Islands]], which he had visited on earlier voyages, making him one of the first individuals to cross all the [[Longitude|longitudes]] of the globe. He became the first person to lead an expedition sailing westward from [[Europe]] to [[Asia]] and to cross the [[Pacific Ocean]].
Of the 250 or so crew members who set out with Magellan to circumnavigate the globe, only 18 managed to return to Spain and thereby complete the circumnavigation. They were led by Spaniard [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], who took over command of the expedition after Magellan's death.
==Early life==
Magellan was born in [[Sabrosa]], near [[Vila Real]] in the province of [[Trás-os-Montes]], [[Portugal]]. He was the son of Alda de Mesquita and Pedro Rui de Magalhães, the mayor of the town. He had two siblings, an elder brother Diogo de Sousa (named after his grandmother) and a sister Isabel.
Magellan's parents died when he was ten. At 12, he followed his brother to become a page at the [[Noble court|court]] of [[John II of Portugal]] and Queen Eleonora in [[Lisbon]]. Here, alongside his cousin Francisco Serrano, Magellan continued his education and became interested in geography and astronomy. He may have been taught by [[Martin Behaim]]. In 1496, at age 16, Magellan became a [[squire]].
==First voyages==
Magellan's first voyage to sea came at age 25 in 1505 when he was sent to [[India]] to install [[Francisco de Almeida]] as the Portuguese [[viceroy]]. The voyage gave Magellan his first experience of battle, when a local king, who had paid tribute to da Gama three years earlier, refused to pay tribute to Almeida. Almedia's party attacked and conquered the capital of [[Kilwa]] in present-day [[Tanzania]].
In 1506, Magellan travelled to the [[East Indies]] and joined expeditions to the Spice Islands. In February [[1509]], he took part in the naval [[Battle of Diu]]&ndash;which marked the decline of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] influence in the area &ndash; and in 1510 he was made a [[captain]]. Within a year, however, he had lost his commission after sailing a ship eastward without permission. He was forced to return to Portugal.
In 1511, Magellan was sent to [[Morocco]], where he fought in the [[Battle of Azamor]] and received a severe knee wound. After taking leave without permission, he fell out of favor with Almeida, and was also accused of trading illegally with the [[Moors]]. Several of the accusations were subsequently dropped, but Magellan fell into disfavor at the court of the new king, [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]]. He refused to increase Magellan's pension and told him that there would be no further offers of employment after [[May 15]], [[1514]]. Magellan therefore decided to offer his services to the court of [[Spain]].
==Move to Spain==
Magellan arrived in [[Seville]], Spain's major port, on[October 20, 1517. From there he traveled to [[Valladolid]] to see the teenage Spanish king, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] (later Charles V, [[Holy Roman Emperor]]). With the endorsement of friends such as [[Diogo Barbosa]] (the Portuguese father of [[Duarte Barbosa]]) and Juan de Aranda, one of the three chief officials of Seville's [[Casa de Contratación|India House]], Magellan became a naturalized Spaniard. He soon acquired great influence, gaining the ear of Charles I and [[Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca]], bishop of [[Burgos]] and enemy of [[Christopher Columbus]].
Having revealed the Portuguese cartographical knowledge to the Spanish court, Magellan pointed out that there would exist some passage (that he thought would be the [[Río de la Plata]]) from [[South America]] to the Pacific Ocean, forming a large bay-like [[river delta]]. He decided to pioneer this route and reach the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] (Spice Islands), the key to the strategic and tremendously lucrative spice trade. He allegedly declared himself ready to sail southward as far as 75° to realize his project.
Ruy Faleiro, an [[astronomer]] and Portuguese [[exile]], aided him in his planning, and he found an invaluable financial ally in Christopher de Haro, a member of a great [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]] firm who held a grudge against the king of Portugal. On March 22, 1518, Charles approved Magellan's plan and granted him generous funds. Under the contract, Magellan and Faleiro, as joint [[captain]]s-general, would receive one-twentieth of all profits, and they and their heirs would also gain the government of any lands discovered, with the title of ''[[Adelantado]]s''. Magellan also took an oath of allegiance in the church of Santa María de la Victoria de Triana, giving money to the monks of the monastery so they would pray for his success.
With the money that Magellan and Faleiro had received from the king, the pair obtained five ships: ''Trinidad'' (tonnage 110, crew 55), ''San Antonio'' (tonnage 120, crew 60), ''Concepción'' (tonnage 90, crew 45), [[Victoria (ship)|''Victoria'']] (tonnage 85, crew 42), and ''Santiago'' (tonnage 75, crew 32). The ''Trinidad'' was Magellan's [[flagship]], and besides Faleiro, the captains for the other four were Juan de Cartegena, Gomez, Gaspar de Quesada and Luis de Mendoza, respectively.
==The journey==
[[Image:AndalusAndMorocco.jpg|100px|thumb|left|The arrow points to the city of [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda]] on the delta of the [[Guadalquivir River]], in [[Andalusia]]]]
On August 10, 1519, five ships under Magellan's command left Seville and traveled from the [[Guadalquivir|Guadalquivir River]] to San Lucar de Barrameda at the mouth of the rivers, where they remained more than five weeks. Spanish authorities were wary of the Portuguese [[admiral]] and almost prevented Magellan from sailing, but on September 20, Magellan set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda with about 270 men.
===The voyage===
King Manuel ordered a naval detachment to pursue Ferdinand Magellan, but Magellan avoided the Portuguese. After stopping at the [[Canary Islands]], Ferdinand Magellan arrived at the [[Cape Verde]] Islands, where they set course for Cape St. Augustine in [[Brazil]]. On November 20, they crossed the [[equator]]; on December 6, the crew sighted Brazil.
Since Brazil was Portuguese territory, Magellan avoided it, and on December 13 anchored near present-day [[Rio de Janeiro]]. There the crew was resupplied, but these good conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along [[South America]]'s east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached Río de la Plata on January 10, 1520.
On March 31, the crew established a settlement that they called Puerto San Julian. A mutiny involving two of the five ship captains broke out. It was unsuccessful because the crew remained loyal. Quesada was executed; Cartagena and a [[priest]] were [[Marooning|marooned]] on the coast.
[[Image:Strait of Magellan.jpeg|thumb|right|The Straits of Magellan cut through the southern tip of [[South America]] connecting the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]]]
The journey resumed. ''Santiago'', sent down the coast on a scouting expedition, was wrecked in a sudden storm. All of its crewmembers survived and made it safely to shore. Two of them returned, overland, to inform Magellan of what had happened, and bring rescue to their comrades. After this experience, Magellan decided to wait for a few weeks more before again resuming the voyage.
At 52°S latitude on August 24, 1520, the fleet reached [[Cape Virgenes]] and concluded they had found the passage, because the waters were [[brine]] and deep inland. Four ships began an arduous passage through the 373-mile long passage that Magellan called the ''Estreito (Canal) de Todos los Santos'',
("All Saints' Channel"), because the fleet traveled through it on November 1&ndash;[[All Saints' Day]]. The strait is now named the [[Strait of Magellan]]. Magellan first assigned ''Concepcion'' and ''San Antonio'' to explore the strait, but the latter, commanded by Gomez, deserted and returned to Spain. On November 28, the three remaining ships entered the [[Oceania|South Pacific]]. Magellan named the waters the ''Mar Pacifico'' ([[Pacific Ocean]]) because of its apparent stillness.
====Death of Magellan====
Heading northwest, the crew reached the equator on February 13, 1521. On March 6, they reached the [[Marianas]] and on March 16, the island of Homonhon in the [[Philippines]], with 150 crewmen left. Magellan was able to communicate with the native peoples because his [[Malay people|Malay]] interpreter could understand their language. They traded gifts with Rajah Kolambu of [[Limasawa Island|Limasawa]], who guided them to [[Cebu]], on April 7. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly to them, and even agreed to accept Christianity.
The initial peace with the Philippine natives proved misleading. Magellan was killed in the [[Battle o |
, I Feel Sick, Everything can be Beaten, Fillerbunny, Bad art Collection, Happy Noodle Boy
====Cartoonists of action/superhero comic books====
* [[Jack Cole (artist)|Jack Cole]], creator of [[Plastic Man]], later set the style for cartoons in ''[[Playboy Magazine]]''
* [[Steve Ditko]], creator of many [[Marvel Comics]], including [[Spider-Man]] and [[Doctor Strange]] with editor [[Stan Lee]]
* [[Will Eisner]], creator of [[The Spirit]], teacher, publisher, one of the first to popularize the term ''[[graphic novel]]'', in his book ''A Contract with God''
* [[Bob Kane]], creator of [[Batman|The Batman]] with writer [[Bill Finger]]
* [[Jack Kirby]], creator of [[Captain America]] with his partner [[Joe Simon]], many other comics through the years
* [[Jeff Smith (cartoonist)|Jeff Smith]], creator of Bone
* [[Frank Miller]], creator of Sin City
* [[Raymond Mullikin]], creator of Quackup
* [[Paul Palnik]], creator of The God of Cartoons
* [[Alan Davis]], creator of ClanDestine
* [[Kyle Baker]], creator of Why I Hate Saturn
* [[Mike Mignola]], creator of Hellboy
* [[Elito V. Circa]], Pantabangan Folk Artist
* [[Lipe Dias]], creator of Amigos da Net
==See also==
* [[Illustrator|list of illustrators]]
* [[mangaka]] (list of japanese cartoonists)
[[Category:Animation]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Cartoonists]]
[[Category:Cartoonists|*List of cartoonists]]
[[it:Autori di fumetti]]
[[nl:Lijst van stripauteurs]]
[[sv:Lista över serietecknare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civilization</title>
<id>6258</id>
<revision>
<id>42047464</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lemuel Gulliver</username>
<id>253646</id>
</contributor>
<comment>civis = citizen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The word '''civilization''' (or '''civilisation''') has a variety of meanings related to human [[society]]. The word "civilization" comes to us from the Latin where the word for townsman or citizen, ''civis'', and its adjectival form, ''civilis''. To be civilized essentially meant you were a townsman, governed by the constitution and legal statutes of that community. [[Roman]] [[Civil Law]] was gathered together into a consolidated body of the “[[Code Civil]]” in the [[6th Century]] for [[Emperor Justinian]] ([[483]]-[[565]] CE). Justinian's code was rediscovered and used by law professors at the first [[University]] established in Western Europe, at [[Bologna]] in the [[11th century]], when learning returned to Western Europe after a long absence through the Dark Ages. From [[1388]] the word “civil” appeared in English, whilst “civilization” as a “law which makes a criminal process civil”, appeared in [[1704]], closely followed in [[1722]] with “civilization” meaning the opposite of “barbarity” coming probably from the French language at about that time.
[[Image:Mexico.Mex.Teotihuacan.PyramidMoon.01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Pyramid of the Moon in [[Teotihuacan]], Mexico. Building projects of this size require the social organization found in civilizations.]][[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The ruins of [[Machu Picchu]], "the Lost City of the Incas," has become the most recognizable symbol of the [[Inca]] civilization.]]
==Senses of the word==
===Literal and technical definitions===
By the most minimal, literal definition, a ''civilization'' is a [[complex society|complex]] [[society]]. Technically, [[anthropologists]] distinguish civilizations in which many of the people live in [[city|cities]] and get their food from [[agriculture]], from [[band society|band]] and [[tribe|tribal]] societies in which people live in small settlements or nomadic groups and [[subsistence| subsist]] by foraging, hunting, or working small [[horticulture|horticultural]] gardens. When used in this sense, civilization is an exclusive term, applied to some human groups and not others.
===Broader sense===
In a broader sense, ''civilization'' often can refer to any distinct society, whether complex and city dwelling, or simple and tribal. This sense is often perceived as less exclusive and ethnocentric than the first. In this sense, civilization is nearly synonymous with [[culture]].
===Human society as a whole===
"Civilization" can sometimes refer to human society as a whole, as in "A nuclear war would wipe out Civilization" or "I'm glad to be safely back in Civilization after being lost in the wilderness for 3 weeks". Additionally, it is used in this sense to refer to the potential [[global civilization]].
===A standard of behavior===
Civilization can also mean the standard of behavior, similar to [[etiquette]]. "Civilized" behavior is contrasted with "barbaric" or crude behavior. In this sense, civilization implies sophistication and refinement.
===Superior vs. less complex societies===
Another use of ''civilization'' combines the first and fourth meanings of the word, implying that a complex society is naturally superior to less complex societies. This point of view has been used to justify [[racism]] and [[imperialism]]; powerful societies have often believed it was their right to "civilize," or culturally dominate, weaker ones ("[[barbarian]]s"). (The colonization or 'civilizing' of non-Western peoples was sometimes called the "[[White Man's Burden]]" when engaged in by Modern Europeans.)
This article will mainly treat civilizations in the first, narrow, sense. See [[culture]], [[society]], [[etiquette]], and [[ethnocentrism]] and for topics related to the broader senses of the term. See also [[Civilization#Problems with the term "civilization"|Problems with the term]].
===As a way of characterizing human cultures===
[[Morton Fried]], the conflict theorist, and [[Elman Service]], the integration theorist, have produced a system of classification for all human cultures and societies that on the basis of the evolution of social inequality range from
* [[hunter-gatherer]] [[bands]], that are generally [[egalitarian]], through
* [[tribal]] societies in which [[social rank]] plays increasing importance to the
* [[chieftains]] leading [[social stratification|stratified ]]structures and thence to
* civilizations of organized instituted state systems.
==What characterizes civilization==
[[Image:Egyptianplow.jpg|300px|thumbnail|An Egyptian farmer using a plow drawn by domesticated animals, two developments in agriculture that started the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and led to the first civilizations.]]
Literally, a civilization is a complex society, as distinguished from a simpler society. Everyone lives in a society and a culture, but not everyone lives in a civilization. [[V. Gordon Childe]] suggested the following characteristics of civilized life
# the great increase in the size of the largest settlements
# the institution of tribute or taxation and the central accumulation of capital
# monumental public works and infrastructure
# development of naturalistic representational arts
# the art of written communication
# the development of exact and predictive sciences (geometry, arithmetic and astronomy)
# expansion of foreign trade with developed economic institutions
# full time technical specialists
# a privileged and leisured ruling class
# the state, or a structure of society which defines residence, and is independent of kinship
Historically, civilizations have shared some or all of the following traits:
* Intensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] techniques, such as the use of human power, [[crop rotation]], and [[irrigation]]. This has enabled farmers to produce a surplus of food that is not necessary for their own subsistence.
* A significant portion of the population that does not devote most of its time to producing food. This permits a [[division of labor]]. Those who do not occupy their time in producing food may instead focus their efforts in other fields, such as [[industry]], [[war]], [[science]] or [[religion]]. This is possible because of the food surplus described above.
* The gathering of some of these non-food producers into permanent settlements, called [[city|cities]].
* A form of social organization. This can be a [[chiefdom]], in which the [[chieftain]] of one noble family or [[clan]] rules the people; or a [[state]] society, in which the [[ruling class]] is supported by a [[government]] or [[bureaucracy]]. Political power is concentrated in the cities.
* The institutionalized control of food by the ruling class, government or bureaucracy.
* The establishment of complex, formal social institutions such as organized [[religion]] and [[education]], as opposed to the less formal traditions of other societies.
* Development of complex forms of [[economics|economic]] exchange. This includes the expansion of [[trade]] and may lead to the creation of [[money]] and [[market]]s.
* The accumulation of more material possessions than in simpler societies.
* Development of new [[technology|technologies]] by people who are not busy producing food. In many early civilizations, [[metallurgy]] was an important advancement.
* Advanced development of the [[arts]], including [[writing]].
Generally it would appear that despite their many differences all civilizations have the following characteristics.
# All civilizations start small, establishing their genesis with the creation of state systems for maintaining the elite.
# Successful civilizations then flourish and grow becoming larger and larger in an accelerating fashion.
# They then reach a limiting maximum extent, perhaps managing to hold a degree of stability for a length of time
# Competition between states in a civilization may result in one achieving predominance over the others.
# Dominance may be indirect, or may formalize into the structure of single multi-ethnic empires.
# Over the long terms civilizations eithe |
per produced a special pull-out section on whistles. The crime sparked panic amongst the populace (and excitement among the police who finally had something to do), leading to one elderly resident to speculate that drive by shootings would not be far behind, and that the island would soon resemble a scene from ''[[Boyz N the Hood]]''.
Some of the few entertainment possiblities the island does possess are the fun fair, and the annual "Lovely Girl" competition and "King of the Sheep" competition.
The majority of the island is Church going and admire Father Ted's ability to say a very fine mass. The devotion of the populace was proven that even after allegation that Father Ted was a racist, one citizen was concerned that they might not have time to devote themselves to racism full-time.
Its neighbouring island is the eerily similar Rugged Island. Barren Island is not too far off either.
==Places of interest==
*'''The Holy Stone of Clonrichert'''. This used to be up in Fermanagh, but wasn't doing very good business. It is now a famous attraction of Craggy Island, and someone was cured there last year. ("No Dougal, someone was lured there.") It was recently upgraded to a Class 2 Relic, but thanks to Father Jack spent a short period lodged in a bishop.
*'''The Field'''. Actually, The Field is not really a field, but it has less rocks in it than most places. The Field hosts the annual Fun Festival, which contains such frolics as the Crane of Death (a park bench on a crane, so called because someone died on it), the Spinning [[Cat]] (a cat on a record turntable), Freak Pointing, Goading the Fearsome Man, Duck Startling, The Ladder (a ladder),The Whirley-go-Round and of course 'The Spider Baby'.
*'''The Magic Road'''. A sort of weird freak of nature where nothing works the way it's supposed to. A bit like Dougal. This road has a trick of perspective so that things appear to roll uphill, including Father Jack. It leads to the cliffs near Kilkelly Caravan Park.
*'''St. Kevin's Stump'''. The identity of St. Kevin is unknown, but his stump appears to be a less than averagely interesting tree stump.
*'''Craggy Island Crazy Golf Course'''. This particular golf course (1 hole only), is a squalid example of the genre, even before it was struck by lightning via the body of Father Stone.
*'''The cinema''' became a top tourist spot when thousands of people from all over Europe flocked to see the nudie film, "[[The Passion of St. Tibulus]]"
*'''The picnic spot'''. Even more bleak than the rest of the island, a few deckchairs on a windswept piece of moorland and a list of rules suffice for the islander's picnic needs. Although they do have to contend with the fearsome guardian Mr Benson.
*'''The Shrine of Kinlettle'''. The Blessed Virgin appeared to a man on the golf course near here and so the spot was forever enshrined. You can even buy a tacky souvenir money-box depicting the event.
*'''Vaughans''', a bar frequented by Craggy Island's Chinese community.
*'''St Patrick's Hill''' - a popular spot for Lenten pilgrimages, especially with Mrs Doyle. You have to take your socks off before you go up, and then you get chased down with a plank.
*'''St Clabbert's''' home for elderly priests, also known as 'Jurassic Park'.
The real Craggy Island seen from helicopter shots is [[Inisheer]]. The actual parochial house used in the series is on the mainland in [[County Clare]], near [[Lisdoonvarna]]. Drive south-east from [[Lisdoonvarna]] to [[Kilfenora]] and follow the road onwards to the tiny town of [[Kilnaboy]]. Once in the town, look for the left turn for the school (it's the only junction in town). Follow this road for a couple of miles. It is a very thin secluded road, but all of a sudden you will emerge from the greenery to the sight of the Parochial House (in real life McCormack's at Glenquin).
A [[map]] of the island appeared in the episode [[Father Ted|Night of the Nearly Dead]], when a middle-aged woman contacted people about pop-star Eoin McLove's visit to the Parochial House, even though it was meant to be a secret.
[[Category:Fictional islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Control engineering</title>
<id>7011</id>
<revision>
<id>37456550</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T02:59:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghostal</username>
<id>97239</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Control engineering''' is the [[engineering]] discipline that focuses on the mathematical [[mathematical model|modelling]] systems of a diverse nature, analysing their dynamic behaviour, and using [[control theory]] to make a controller that will cause the systems to behave in a desired manner.
== Background ==
Modern Control engineering is closely related to [[electrical and electronics engineering]], as electronic circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. At many universities, control engineering courses are primarily taught by electrical engineering faculty. Previous to Modern Electronics, process control devices were devised by Mechanical Engineers using mechanical feedback along with pneumatic and hydraulic control devices. It may be hard to imagine but some of these old mechanical devices are still in use.
The field of control within [[chemical engineering]] is often known as [[process control]]. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program. It employs many of the principles in control engineering, and is a well-established field in its own right.
Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering, as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived.
Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behaviour. Students of control engineering may start with a Linear Control System course which requires elementary mathematics and Laplace Transforms (called classical Control Theory). In Linear Control, the student does Frequency and Time domain analysis. Digital Control and Non Linear Control courses require Z Transformations and Algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. From here onwards there are several sub branches.
== Control systems ==
[[Image:Shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|Control systems play a critical role in [[space flight]]]]
[[Control engineering]] is the engineering [[discipline]] that focuses on the [[mathematical model|modelling]] of a diverse range of [[dynamic system]]s and the design of [[Controller (control theory)|Controller]]s that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering.
[[Electrical circuit]]s, [[digital signal processing|digital signal processors]] and [[microcontroller]]s can all be used to implement [[Control system]]s. [[Control engineering]] has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of [[Airliner|commercial airliners]] to the [[cruise control]] present in many modern [[automobile]]s.
Control engineers often utilize [[feedback]] when designing [[Control system|control systems]]. For example, in an [[automobile]] with [[cruise control]] the vehicle's [[speed]] is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the [[motor|motor's]] [[speed]] accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, [[control theory]] can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems [[stability]] is important and [[control theory]] can help ensure stability is achieved.
Although feedback is an important aspect of [[control engineering]], control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as [[open loop control]]. A classic example of [[open loop control]] is a [[washing machine]] that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of [[sensor]]s.
==See also==
* [[Process control]]
* [[H infinity]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Optimal control]]
* [[Servomechanism]]
* [[Non-linear control]]
* [[Adaptive control]]
* [[Robust control]]
* [[Intelligent control]]
* [[State space (controls)]]
* [[Model predictive control]]
* [[Quantitative feedback theory]]
* [[Building Automation]]
* [[Feedback]]
* [[VisSim]]
* [[Robotic unicycle]]
==External links==
*[http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=109 The International Journal of Automation and Control (IJAAC)] publishes research papers on various aspects of control.
*[http://www.kontrol.itu.edu.tr Istanbul Technical University Control Eng. Program] One of the programs which educate control engineers at undergraduate degree.
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[de:Regelungstechnik]]
[[ja:&#21046;&#24481;&#24037;&#23398;]]
[[pl:Automatyka]]
[[pt:Engenharia de controlo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chagas disease</title>
<id>7012</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41940286</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Chagas disease |
ICD10 = B57 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|086}} |
}}
'''Chagas disease''' (also called '''''American trypanosomiasis''''') is a human [[tropical disease|tropical]] [[parasitic disease]] which occurs in [[the Americas]], particularly in [[South America]]. Its [[pathogen]]ic [[Vector (biology)|agent]] is a [[flagellate]] [[protozoa]]n named ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi]]'', which is transmitted to human |
of recently visited web pages can be managed by your [[Web browser]]. Some browsers are configured to use an external [[proxy server|proxy]] [[web cache]], a server program through which all web requests are routed so that it can cache frequently accessed pages for everyone in an organization. Many [[internet service provider]]s use proxy caches to save [[bandwidth]] on frequently-accessed web pages.
Another type of caching is storing computed results that will likely be needed again, or [[memoization]]. An example of this type of caching is [[ccache]], a program that caches the output of the compilation to speed up the second-time compilation.
===The difference between buffers and cache===
Buffers are allocated by various processes to use as input queues, etc. Most time, buffers are some processes' output, and they are file buffers. A simplistic explanation of buffers is that they allow processes to temporarily store input in memory until the process can deal with it.
Cache is typically frequently requested disk I/O. If multiple processes are accessing the same files, much of those files will be cached to improve performance (RAM being so much faster than hard drives), it's disk cache.
==See also==
*[[Cache algorithms]]
*[[Cache coloring]]
*[[CPU cache]]
*[[Web cache]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[Category:Computer memory]]
[[als:Cache]]
[[cs:Cache]]
[[de:Cache]]
[[es:Caché]]
[[fi:Välimuisti]]
[[fr:Mémoire cache]]
[[hr:Cache]]
[[it:Cache]]
[[he:זיכרון מטמון]]
[[hu:Gyorsítótár]]
[[ja:キャッシュ (コンピュータシステム)]]
[[ko:캐시]]
[[lt:Kešavimas]]
[[ms:Cache]]
[[nl:Cache]]
[[pl:Cache]]
[[pt:Cache]]
[[ru:Кеш-память]]
[[sk:Rýchla vyrovnávacia pamäť]]
[[sv:Cache]]
[[th:แคช]]
[[tr:önbellek]]
[[zh:高速缓存]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbus, Indiana</title>
<id>6830</id>
<revision>
<id>41248545</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T01:29:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.77.160.131</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Columbus, Indiana |
nickname =|
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Columbus.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Bartholomew County, Indiana|Bartholomew]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = Fred Armstrong |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E7 |
area_total = 68.3 |
area_land = 67.2 |
area_water = 1.1 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 39,059 |
population_density = 581.1 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = −5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = −4 |
latitude = 39&deg;12'50" N |
longitude = 85&deg;54'40" W |
website = www.columbus.in.gov |
footnotes =|
}}
'''Columbus''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Bartholomew County, Indiana]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 39,059. It is a small city approximately 40 miles south of [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], {{GR|6}} on the east fork of the [[White River]].
== History ==
In 1820, the land which is now Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel. General Tipton built a log cabin on Mt. Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested, swampy valley. A ferry was established in order to avoid crossing both the Flat Rock and Driftwood rivers, which join only a short distance above the site of the ferry. This became a village of three or four log cabins and in 1821, the first store was added. In the same year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named after the famous Indian fighter, General Joseph Bartholomew. Columbus, Indiana was chartered as a city in [[1864]].
For years, it was recorded in the local history books that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by General Tipton. It has recently come to light that General Tipton actually sold the land. A deed showing sale of the land was acquired by the Historic Columbus Indiana website (http://www.historiccolumbusindiana.org) in 2003.
When the city of Columbus was first formed, it was called Tiptona. This name only lasted about a month, when the name was changed to Columbus. General Tipton was very upset by this, and he moved from Columbus. Later, when General Tipton became the Highway Commissioner for the state of Indiana, he decided to bypass Columbus. This was the first bypass road ever built. He was in charge of building a road from Indianapolis to Louisville and just south of Franklin, he built the Mauxferry Road and brought it south, around the west side of Columbus on its way to Seymour.
In 1844, the first railroad in Indiana reached Columbus from Madison, Indiana. This was known as the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad caused the community to grow into one of the larger communities of the State of Indiana. By 1850, three more railroads came into the city.
Columbus is host to the oldest theatre in the State of Indiana: the Crump Theatre, which was built in 1889 by John Crump. Today, the building is a historical landmark. Columbus is also host to the oldest, continually operated bookstore in the State of Indiana: Cummins Bookstore first began its operations in 1892.
==Architecture==
Columbus is a city known for its architecture. J. Irwin Miller, owner of the Cummins Engine Company, a local concern manufacturing diesel engines, instituted a program in which Cummins would pay the architects' fee on any building if the client selected a firm from a list they compiled. The plan was initiated with public schools. It was so successful that Miller went on to defray the design costs of fire stations, public housing and other community structures. Columbus has come to have an unusual number of notable public buildings and sculpture, designed by such individuals as Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Robert Venturi, Cesdar Pelli, Richard Meier and others. Six of its buildings, built between 1942 and 1965, are [[National Historic Landmark]]s, and 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County capital seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture.
The National Historical Landmarks are:
[[Image:North Christian Church.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[Eero Saarinen]]'s [[North Christian Church]] depicts an example of contemporary architecture in Columbus.]]
* [[First Baptist Church, Columbus, Indiana|First Baptist Church]] by [[Harry Weese]]
* [[First Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana|First Christian Church]] by [[Eliel Saarinen]], 1942; the first of the series
* [[Irwin Union Bank, Columbus, Indiana|Irwin Union Bank]] by [[Eero Saarinen]], with landscape by Dan Kiley; and its addition by [[Kevin Roche]]
* [[Mabel McDowell School]] by [[John Carl Warnecke]]
* [[Miller House]], 1957, the esidence of [[J. Irwin Miller]] by Eero Saarinen, with landscape by Dan Kiley.
* [[North Christian Church]] (congregation founded in 1955), designed by [[Eero Saarinen]] in 1964.
Other notable buildings include:
* [[Cleo Rogers Memorial Library]], designed by [[I. M. Pei]]
* [[Commons-Courthouse Center]], by [[César Pelli]]
* Columbus East High School, by [[Romaldo Giurgola]]
* ''Large Arch'', sculpture by [[Henry Moore]]
Columbus is also the home of several companies, including [[Cummins|Cummins Inc.]] and [[ArvinMeritor Incorporated|ArvinMeritor Industries]].
== Geography ==
Columbus is located at 39&deg;12'50" North, 85&deg;54'40" West (39.213998, -85.911056){{GR|1}}. The [[Driftwood River|Driftwood]] and [[Flatrock River|Flatrock]] Rivers join at Columbus to form the East Fork of the [[White River (Indiana)|White River]].
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 68.3 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (26.4 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 67.2 km&sup2; (26.0 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.1 km&sup2; (0.4 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.59% water.
== Demographics ==
In [[1900]], 8,130 people lived in Columbus, Indiana; in [[1910]], 8,813; and in [[1940]], 11,738. As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 39,059 people, 15,985 households, and 10,566 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 581.1/km&sup2; (1,505.3/mi&sup2;). There are 17,162 housing units at an average density of 255.3/km&sup2; (661.4/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 91.32% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.71% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.13% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.23% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.39% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.19% from two or more races. 2.81% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
===Households===
There are 15,985 households out of which 31.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% are non-families. 29.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.39 and the average family size is 2.94.
===Ages===
In the city the population is spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males.
===Income===
The median income for a household in the city is $41,723, and the median income for a family is $52,296. Males have a median income of $40,367 versus $24,446 for females. The [[per c |
r [[homeland]]s following the demise of the regime that exiled them.
== Government in exile ==
{{main|Government in exile}}
During a foreign [[occupation]] or after a [[coup d'etat]], a ''government in exile'' of a such afflicted country may be established abroad.
== Nation in exile ==
{{main|Diaspora}}
When large groups, or occasionally a whole people or nation is exiled, it can be said that this nation is in ''exile'', or '''[[Diaspora]]'''. Nations that have been in exile for substantial periods include the [[Jew]]s, who were deported by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon]] in [[597 BC]] and again in the years following the destruction of the second [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in the year AD [[70]].
After the [[partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, and following the [[uprising]]s (like [[Kosciuszko Uprising]], [[November Uprising]] and [[January Uprising]]) against the partitioning powers ([[Russian Empire]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austro-Hungary]]), many Poles have chosen - or be forced - into exile, forming large diasporas (known as [[Polonia]]), especially in France and United States.
The entire population of [[Crimean Tatars]] (200,000) that remained in their homeland [[Crimea]] was exiled on [[18 May]] [[1944]] to [[Central Asia]] as a form of [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[collective punishment]] on false accusations.
At [[Diego Garcia]], between [[1967]] and [[1973]] the [[British Government]] forcibly removed some 2,000 [[Ilois]] resident islanders to make way for a [[military base]] today jointly operated by the [[United States|US]] and [[UK]].
== Tax exile ==
{{main|tax haven}}
A wealthy citizen who departs from a former abode for a lower tax jurisdiction in order to reduce his/her [[taxation|tax burden]] is termed a ''tax exile''.
== Famous people who have been in exile ==
*[[Manuel Altolaguirre]], exiled from [[Spain]], to [[Cuba]] and [[Mexico]].
*[[Michel Aoun]], exiled from [[Lebanon]], to [[France]]
*[[Reinaldo Arenas]] exiled from [[Cuba]], to [[United States]]
*[[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], exiled from [[Haiti]], to [[Venezuela]] and [[United States]] (1990-1994), and then to [[Central African Republic]] and [[South Africa]] (2004-present)
*[[Miguel Ángel Asturias]] exiled from [[Guatemala]] to [[France]]
*[[Francisco Ayala]], exiled from [[Spain]] to [[Argentina]]
*Emperor [[Bao Dai]] of Vietnam
*Crown Prince [[Bao Long]] of Vietnam
*Saint [[Thomas à Becket]], fled to France
*[[Gioconda Belli]], exiled from [[Nicaragua]], to [[Mexico]]
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] exiled from [[France]] to [[Elba]] and, later, [[St Helena]]
*[[Kigeri V of Rwanda]] exiled from [[Rwanda]] to [[Uganda]] and, later, recieved political asylum to live in the [[USA]]
*[[Willy Brandt]] exiled to [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]], during the Nazi era
*[[Bertolt Brecht]]
*[[Breyten Breytenbach]]
*[[Joseph Brodsky]], exiled from [[Soviet Union]] to [[United States]]
*[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], exiled from [[United Kingdom]], to [[Italy]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Alejo Carpentier]], exiled from [[Cuba]] to [[Haiti]] and [[Venezuela]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]], exiled from [[Poland]] to [[France]]
*[[El Cid]], banned from [[Castile]], served other Iberian kings ending with the conquest of [[Valencia]]
*[[Nadia Comaneci]], famous Romanian gymnast, self-exiled to [[United States]]
*[[Celia Cruz]], exiled from [[Cuba]] to [[United States]]
*[[Humberto Delgado]], exiled from [[Portugal]] to [[Brazil]] and [[Algeria]]
*[[Porfirio Díaz]], exiled from [[Mexico]] to [[France]]
*[[Ariel Dorfman]], exiled from [[Chile]], to [[United States]]
*[[Du Fu]]
*[[Jean-Claude Duvalier]], exiled form [[Haiti]] to [[France]]
*[[Albert Einstein]] self-exiled from Germany to the [[United States]]
*[[Bobby Fischer]] from the [[United States]] to the [[Philippines]], [[Japan]] and [[Iceland]]
*[[Lion Feuchtwanger]],
*[[Sigmund Freud]] self exiled from [[Austria]] to [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Alberto Fujimori]], exiled from [[Peru]] to [[Japan]]
*[[Eduardo Galeano]], exiled from [[Uruguay]] to [[Argentine]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] exiled to [[South America]]
*[[Francisco de Goya]] exiled to [[Bordeaux]] as ''[[afrancesado]]''
*[[Jorge Guillén]]
*[[Tenzin Gyatso]], 14th [[Dalai Lama]], exiled from [[Tibet]] to [[India]]
*[[Heinrich Heine]]
*[[Victor Hugo]] exiled from [[France]] to the [[Channel Islands]]
*[[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], fled to [[United States]], [[Cuba]], and finally to [[Puerto Rico]]
*[[Arthur Koestler]]
*[[Kim Dae-jung]]
*[[Idi Amin]], exiled to [[Libya]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] until his death.
*[[Konstantinos Karamanlis]]
*[[Ruhollah Khomeini]], exiled from Iran to France.
*[[Pavel Kohout]]
*[[Jan Amos Komenský]]
*[[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]
*[[Lajos Kossuth]]
*Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]], exiled from [[Cambodia]] to [[China]] and [[North Korea]] twice.
*[[Peter Kropotkin]]
*[[Lenin]] self-exiled to [[Switzerland]]
*[[Lotte Lehmann]]
*[[Fernão Lopez]] self-exile to [[Saint Helena]]
*[[La Lupe]], to [[Puerto Rico]] and [[United States]]
*[[Heinrich Mann]] self-exile to [[Switzerland]] and to the [[United States]]
*[[Thomas Mann]] self-exile to [[Switzerland]] and to the [[United States]], moved back to Switzerland
*[[Ferdinand Marcos]] exiled from the [[Philippines]] to [[Hawaii]]
*[[Karl Marx]] self-exiled from [[Germany]] to [[Great Britain]]
*[[José Martí]]
*[[Giuseppe Mazzini]]
*[[Rigoberta Menchú]], exiled from [[Guatemala]], to [[Mexico]]
*[[Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov]]
*[[Ezekiel Mphahlele]], exiled from [[South Africa]] to [[Kenya]], [[Zambia]] and [[United States]]
*[[Adam Mickiewicz]]
*[[Mobutu Sese Seko]]
*[[Mireya Moscoso]], fled to [[Spain]]
*[[Kwame Nkrumah]] exiled from [[Ghana]] to [[Guinea]]
*[[Juan Carlos Onetti]] exiled from [[Uruguay]] to [[Spain]] until his death
*[[Ovid]]
*[[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], exiled from [[Bolivia]] to [[Argentina]], [[Perú]]
*[[Carlos Andrés Pérez]], exiled from [[Venezuela]], to [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[United States]]
*[[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]], exiled from [[Venezuela]] to [[USA]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Juan Perón]] exiled from [[Argentina]] to [[Paraguay]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Saint-John Perse]] exiled from [[Vichy France]] to [[United States]]
*[[Bob Powell]]
*[[Ferenc Puskás]] from Hungary to Spain
*[[Victor Raúl Haya de la Torre]], fled to [[Mexico]]
*[[Romain Rolland]], fled to [[Switzerland]]
*[[Wilhelm Röpke]] fled Germany during Nazi rule
*Prince [[Sauryavong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Crown Prince [[Soulivong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Prince [[Vong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*[[Jorge Semprún]], exiled from [[Spain]], to [[France]]
*[[Costas Simitis]], exiled from [[Greece]], to [[Germany]]
*Prince [[Mangkra Souvannaphouma]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Prince [[Nguyen Phuc Buu Chanh]] of [[Vietnam]], lives in exile in the [[United States]]
*Prince [[Shwebomin]] lives in exile in [[London]], [[England]]
*Prince [[Hso Khan Pha ]] lives in exile in [[Canada]]
*[[Fernando Savater]]
*Emperor [[Amha Selassie I]], lived in exile in [[Djibouti]],[[Israel]], [[Great Britain]], and [[United States]].
*Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] of Ethiopia
*[[Crown Prince Zera Yacob Amha Selassie]] lived in exile in [[Djibouti]], [[Israel]], [[Great Britain]], and [[United States]]
*[[Juliusz Slowacki]]
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] exiled from the [[Soviet Union]], returned after the fall of [[Communism]]
*[[Mario Soares]]
*[[Wole Soyinka]]
*[[Alfredo Stroessner]] exile from [[Paraguay]] to [[Brazil]]
*[[Sun Yat-sen]]
*[[Oliver Tambo]]
*[[Leon Trotsky]] exiled to [[Turkey]], [[France]], [[Norway]] and [[Mexico]]
*[[Miguel de Unamuno]] confined to [[Fuerteventura]], fled to France.
*[[Clement Vallandingham]], exiled to the [[Confederate States of America]], to [[Bermuda]], then [[Canada]]
*[[Mario Vargas Llosa]], exiled from [[Perú]], to [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Great Britain]]
*[[Bruno Walter]]
*[[Mohammad Zaher Shah]] exile from [[Afghanistan]] to [[Italy]]
*[[Nicholas I of Montenegro]]
*[[Raúl Salinas de Gortari]] self-exiled to [[Ireland]]
*[[Herold Pinter]]
*[[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|The Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor]], by virtue of his marriage to [[Wallis Simpson]] and his falling-out with the [[British Royal Family|Royal Family]] and his brother [[King George VI]], to [[France]]
== [[fictional character|Fictional people]] who have been in exile ==
*Philip Nolan in [[Edward Everett Hale]]'s novel ''[[The Man Without a Country]]''
*[[Obi-Wan Kenobi]], after the [[Great Jedi Purge]], going into hiding on [[Tatooine]] to watch over [[Luke Skywalker]]
*[[Yoda]], self-exile to [[Dagobah]] after the [[Great Jedi Purge]]
*[[Oedipus|Oedipus the King]] in the self-titled [[Sophocles]] [[Oedipus the King|play]]
== See also ==
* [[Ban (law)|Ban]]
* [[Ostracism]]
* [[Refugee]]
==References==
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{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}
For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; & Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}
For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
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{{unreferenced}}
{{wiktionary|exile}}
[[Category:Exile| ]]
[[bg:Изгнание]]
[[da:Eksil]]
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[[he:גלות]]
[[it:Esilio]]
[[nl:Ballingschap]]
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[[nn:Eksil]]
[[pl:Banicja]]
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[[sv:Exil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ELF</title>
<id>9856</id>
<revision>
<id>15907720</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-17T18:52:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Elf (disambiguat |
l author of the book was Moses, and that the book really was lost and recovered (e.g. [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/What_is_the_Torah/Origins_of_Torah/Traditional_Torah930.htm]). Their [[apologetics]] argues that:
*The book itself claims to have been written by Moses (1:1; 29:1; 31:1, 9-11, etc.), and, as everyone agrees, was obviously intended to be accepted as his work.
*The frequent references to it in the later books of the canon ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 8:31; [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 2:3; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 14:6; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 3:2; 7:6; [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 8:1; [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 9:11, 13) prove its antiquity.
*Orthodox Jews point to testimony, within the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]], that Moses authored nearly all of Deuteronomy.
*Christians identify further testimony of Mosaic authorship from the [[New Testament]]. [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:7 and 8, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:3 and 4, [[Gospel of John|John]] 5:46 and 47, [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 3:22 and 7:37, and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 10:19, all establishes the same conclusion.
=== Modern critical analysis ===
{{main|Deuteronomist}}
Despite the apologetics of many religious thinkers, modern academic criticism completely rejects Moses as the work's author. While the book claims to have been written by Moses, such a claim could be made by any author. While there are frequent references to the book in later works of canon, this can simply be explained as the works being later. In particular, while the books from Joshua to Kings reference Deuteronomy at points prior to the finding of Deuteronomy by Hilkiah, this can simply be explained by those books too not being fully written before the reign of Josiah.
Although Israel is represented as being about to enter Canaan, at an early stage in its nationhood, the language details laws for a state that is highly developed, has the institutions of a king, priesthood, central criminal tribunal, and so forth. Similarly the language within the discourse refers to the land east of the Jordan as being ''on the other side of the Jordan'', implying the author is on the west of the Jordan, a location that Moses supposedly never entered.
The style and method of this book, and its peculiarities of expression, show that it came from a school of thought separate from the rest of the [[Torah]]. In fact, Deuteronomy often refers to itself as a separate code of law (1:5, 8:26, 27:3, 31:26), distinct from the four preceding books of the Bible. Scholars have also noted differences in language and style, the laws themselves, and some anachronisms in the text, such as the variations in the text of the [[Ten Commandments]], compared to the version at Exodus 20.
The text is most reminiscent of [[Jeremiah]], with whom the style, and laws, of Deuteronomy have extreme influence. In fact, the style is so strongly similar to Jeremiah, that several scholars have posited him, or his scribe, as the real author. Similarly, it is extremely notable that neither [[Amos]], nor [[Hosea]], nor the undisputed portions of [[Isaiah]], show even the remotest familiarity with Deuteronomy. These facts can easily be explained if Deuteronomy was written after these three prophets, and before Jeremiah, placing its creation squarely in the seventh century BC.
Modern bible scholarship therefore identifies the work as being created in the seventh century BC, in, or very close to, the reign of Josiah. Further study of the other books of the torah has led over 90% of the academic community of biblical scholars to support the [[documentary hypothesis]]. This hypothesis identifies multiple authors for the torah, Deuteronomy mostly being considered the work of the [[deuteronomist]] ("D"). The Deuteronomists work is believed to have also included the editing together of earlier histories into the books of Joshua, Judges, Kings, and Samuel.
According to such critical scholarship, the origin of almost 100% of Deuteronomy is as the [[Shiloh]] priesthood's response to the [[Priestly Code]], the law code created by the [[Priestly source]] ("P"), their Aaronid rivals. It is believed that the original element of Deuteronomy, the portion found in the temple, is the central core, the [[Deuteronomic Code]], at Deuteronomy 12-26. Having been pronounced to the public, it is believed that two alternative editions were created, potentially by the same author, and published simultaneously:
*one containing the core, as well as the historical introduction, Deuteronomy 1-4, as well as a simple hortatory conclusion, with a list of curses, Deuteronomy 27
*the other containing the core, as well as the theological introduction, Deuteronomy 5-11, and a more extensive hortatory conclusion, Deuteronomy 28-30
While the first of these editions would present the law as the remembrance by Moses of the events at Sinai, the second presents it in the form of a [[suzerain]]-[[vassal]] treaty, of a form similar to the [[Covenant Code]]. As the Covenant Code is thought, in critical scholarship, to be the much older basis of the Deuteronomic Code, this second edition simply reflects a fuller adherence to its structure.
While the purpose of separate editions could have various reasons, for example one being for the priesthood and the other for the people, it is generally agreed, by [[textual criticism|textual critics]], that at some point, shortly after these versions were written, they were combined together ("Dtr1") mostly in the manner in which they are now found. Subsequently, the great hero of the reform, [[Josiah]], was killed at [[Megiddo]], and the Babylonians conquered and dispersed the [[kingdom of Israel]].
Consequently the positive attitude of the code thus far became less appropriate, and so critical scholarship identifies a second edition of the combined work (known as "Dtr2"), containing additional warnings about obliteration and exile, as well as promises of restoration in the event of repentance. This second edition is believed to also have inserted two originally independant documents, and framings for them, which now comprise the two poems at Deuteronomy 31-33. The account of Moses' death is believed to simply have been moved to where it lies now, Deuteronomy 34, to make way, and accordingly, after the torah was later redacted together, Deuteronomy 34 also gained verses describing the death of Moses from both the [[Jahwist]] and the [[Priestly source]].
==See also==
*[[Torah]]
*[[Tanakh]]
==External links==
Online versions and translations of [[Deuteronomy]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0501.htm &#1491;&#1468;&#1456;&#1489;&#1464;&#1512;&#1460;&#1497;&#1501; ''Devarim'' - Deuteronomy] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0501.htm Deuteronomy at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=5&CHAPTER=1 Deuteronomy (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=8164 Devarim - Deuteronomy (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
* [[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/05_deuteronomy.htm ''Deuteronomy'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Deuteronomy}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Deuteronomy ''Deuteronomy'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
* Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]:
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomist source, First Deuteronomist Version, Deuteronomic Laws|The law code of Deuteronomy isolated, at wikisource]]
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomist source, First Deuteronomist Version, Narrative|The narrative of Deuteronomy in isolation, at wikisource]]
Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=292&letter=D&search=Deuteronomy ''Book of Deuteronomy'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* [http://www.humash.org Teacher's Guide to Teaching Deuteronomy]
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jedp/deut.html Dealing with Deuteronomy. Or, a Treaty Poorly Treated]
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_deuteronomy.html ''Deuteronomy'' by Rob Bradshaw]
[[Category:Torah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books]]
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[[pt:Deuteronômio]]
[[ru:Второзаконие]]
[[scn:Deuterunomiu]]
[[sk:Deuteronómium]]
[[fi:Viides Mooseksen kirja]]
[[sv:Femte Moseboken]]
[[th:พระราชบัญญัติ]]
[[zh:申命記]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daniel</title>
<id>8548</id>
<revision>
<id>41730492</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.96.137.113</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to people in the Bible named Daniel.''
:''For other uses of this term, see [[Daniel (disambiguation)]] and [[Daniel (name)]].''
'''Daniel''' ('''&#1491;&#1468;&#1464;&#1504;&#1460;&#1497;&#1468;&#1461;&#1488;&#1500;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Daniyyel''', [ |
l]]
[[ja:4月27日]]
[[no:27. april]]
[[nn:27. april]]
[[oc:27 d'abril]]
[[pl:27 kwietnia]]
[[pt:27 de Abril]]
[[ro:27 aprilie]]
[[ru:27 апреля]]
[[sco:27 Aprile]]
[[sq:27 Prill]]
[[scn:27 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 27]]
[[sk:27. apríl]]
[[sl:27. april]]
[[sr:27. април]]
[[fi:27. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:27 april]]
[[tl:Abril 27]]
[[tt:27. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 27]]
[[th:27 เมษายน]]
[[vi:27 tháng 4]]
[[tr:27 Nisan]]
[[uk:27 квітня]]
[[ur:27 اپریل]]
[[wa:27 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月27日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ayahuasca</title>
<id>2328</id>
<revision>
<id>41850466</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:33:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.191.194.83</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew; for information on the vine of the same name, see [[Banisteriopsis caapi]].''
The widely used [[Quechua language|Quechua]] name '''''ayahuasca''''' has two highly interrelated yet distinct meanings and referents: 1) an [[Amazon Basin|Amazonian]] giant vine native to the [[rainforest]] containing various [[harmala]] [[alkaloid]]s, generally ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', and, by extension, 2) [[pharmacology|pharmacologically]] complex infusions prepared from it for [[shamanism|shaman]]ic, [[folk medicine|folk-medicinal]], and [[religion|religious]] purposes. Sections of vine are boiled alone or with leaves from any of a large number of other plants, including ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'' (''chakruna'' in Quechua) or ''[[Diplopterys cabrerana]]'', yielding a brew containing the powerful [[entheogen|entheogenic]] alkaloid [[N,N-dimethyltryptamine]] (DMT), a [[psychedelic drug|hallucinogen]] which is active orally only when combined with an [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAOI]]. Western brews often substitute plant sources such as [[harmal|Syrian Rue]] or other harmala containing plants in lieu of the ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' vine. [[Image:aya-preparation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ayahuasca being prepared in the [[Napo Province|Napo]] region of [[Ecuador]].]]
Often brews are made with no DMT-containing plants; sometimes they are made with plants such as ''Justicia pectoralis'', [[Brugmansia]], or various cacti; and often they are made with no plants other than the ayahuasca vine itself. The potency of this brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in strength and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the [[shaman]] producing it, as well as other admixtures sometimes added.
==Names==
* "caapi", "daime", "hoasca" in [[Brazil]]
* "yagé" or "yajé" in [[Colombia]]; popularized in English by the [[beatnik]] writers [[William S. Burroughs]] and [[Allen Ginsberg]]
* "ayahuasca" or "ayawaska" in [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]], also to a lesser extent in Brazil ("vine of the dead" or "vine of souls": in Quechua, ''aya'' means "spirit," "ancestor," or "dead person," while ''waska'' means "vine" or "rope"). The name is properly that of the plant ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', one of the primary sources of beta-carbolines for the brew.
It should be noted that the spelling ''ayahuasca'' is the hispanicized version of the name; many Quechua or [[Aymara]] speakers would prefer the spelling ''ayawaska''.
==Usage==
Ayahuasca is used in large part as a religious sacrament, no matter the culture it is tied with. This means that those who use ayahuasca in non-traditional areas often align themselves with the traditions of the visionary shamans. This includes citizens of modern Western countries, who put their faith above the restricting laws of their governments.
However, while this is the main use of ayawaska known by non-native users, it is far from the only use of these brews. Traditional usage revolves around the medicinal properties of ayahuasca, and its purgative properties are highly important (many people refer to it as ''la Purga'', "the purge") as the intense vomiting it produces can clear the body of dangerous worms and other [[parasite]]s common in the rainforest.
[[Image:aya-cooking.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Ayahuasca cooking in the [[Napo Province|Napo]] region of [[Ecuador]].]]
Dietary taboos are almost always associated with the use of Ayahuasca; in the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self- abstaining from spicy and heavily spiced foods, fat, salt, and sex before, after, or both before and after a ceremony. In western usage, a diet is usually followed that avoids [[list of foods containing tyramine|foods containing tyramine]], as the interaction of [[tyramine]] and an maoi can lead to a [[hypertensive crisis]]; most tyramine comes from the aging of food, and is therefore not usually a problem in South American traditional culture. While the Western diet is designed to avoid physical complications from the ingestion of maois, the traditional diet is largely spiritual in nature; many Western users opt to follow the traditional diet as well around ceremonies.
===Traditional and Western===
Nowadays, the term ayahuasca is also used outside of its native region to mean analogous concoctions made with other plants that contain the two main components, an [[MAOI]] and [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], one of its analogues, or [[pharmahuasca]], made from pure chemical extracts. In this usage, the [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] is generally considered the main "active ingredient", causing the desired effects. The MAOI is necessary for DMT to be active orally. However, most ayahuasqueros and many who work with the tea regularly object to this and state that the ''Banisteriopsis'' vine is the only defining ingredient, everything else being of secondary importance. In some areas, it is even said that the chacruna or chaliponga admixtures are added only to make the tea taste sweeter. This is a strong indicator of the often wildly divergent intentions and cultural differences between the native ayahuasca-using cultures and psychedelics enthusiasts in other countries. While the DMT can be thought of as creating the desired state, the vine itself is considered by many to be the "spirit" of the tea; it is the gatekeeper to the other realms and the guide through the experience, controlling access to the altered states and helping one navigate them. Traditionally, ''B. caapi'' is and has been the defining ingredient of the tea.
In modern [[Europe]] and [[North America]], ayawaska analogues are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant [[harmal]] are often used as a substitute for the ayawaska vine, and the DMT-rich ''[[Mimosa hostilis]]'' is used in place of ''chakruna''. [[Australia]] has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of ''[[Acacia]]''.
In modern Western culture, [[entheogen]] users sometimes base concoctions off of Ayahuasca. When doing so, most often Rue or ''B. caapi'' are used with a non-traditional, non-DMT admixture, such as [[psilocybin]] or [[mescaline]]. Nicknames such as Psilohuasca or shroomahuasca for mushroom based mixtures, or Pedrohuasca (from the San Pedro Cactus, which contains mescaline) are often given to such brews. This is usually only done by experienced entheogen users who are more familiar with the chemicals and plants being used, as the uninformed combination of various neuro-chemicals can be dangerous and most are unaware that such combinations can be made.
It seems unlikely that Ayahuasca could ever emerge as a "street-drug", given the difficulty of making the tea and the intense experience it provides. Most Western users employ it almost exclusively for spiritual purposes, in line with both traditional, animist usage and organized churches such as the UDV. A diet is almost always followed before use, including a day of fasting, to rid the body of tyramines and other contraindicated chemicals; a "''dieta''" is often followed as well, to spiritually cleanse the body before and after the experience. Most recreational drug users have never even heard of Ayahuasca, DMT or MAOIs, or the possibility of alterations to the shamanic brew.
===Introduction to the West===
Ayahuasca is mentioned in the writings of some of the earliest [[missionary|missionaries]] to [[South America]], but it wasn't for some time that it became commonly known in the West. The early missionary reports generally claim it as [[demon]]ic, and great efforts were made by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church to stamp it out.
When originally researched in the [[20th century]], the active chemical constituent of Caapi was called ''[[telepathine]]'', but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from ''Peganum harmala'' and given the name harmaline.
William Burroughs sought yagé (still considered to be "telepathine") in the [[1950s]] while traveling through South America, in the hopes that it could relieve or cure [[opiate]] [[addiction]]. ''[[The Yage Letters]]'', written between Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg were probably the first major introduction of Ayahuasca to the West.
Ayahuasca was made more widely known by [[Terence McKenna|Terence]] and [[Dennis McKenna]]'s experiences with Amazonian tribes as detailed in the book ''[[Invisible Landscape]]'', which they co-authored. Their journey to the rainforest to search for Ayahuasca was spurred by their reading of Burroughs and Ginsberg. Dennis later extensively studied the [[pharmacology]], [[botany]], and [[chemistry]] of ayahuasca and [[oo-koo-he]], which were the subjects of his master's thesis.
In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being ''[[Santo Daime]]'' and the ''[[Uniao do Vegetal]]'' (or UDV), usu |
as well as those of the future, when stability and prosperity change the political landscape. Commission members have traveled throughout the country and to Eritrean communities abroad holding meetings to explain constitutional options to the people and to solicit their input. A new constitution was promulgated in [[1997]] but has not yet been implemented, and general elections have been postponed.
'''Country name:'''
<br />''conventional long form:'' State of Eritrea
<br />''conventional short form:'' Eritrea
<br />''local long form:'' Hagere Ertra
<br />''local short form:'' Ertra
<br />''former:'' Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia
'''Data code:''' ER
'''Government type:'''
transitional government
<br />''note:'' following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 23-[[25 April]] [[1993]], a National Assembly, composed entirely of the PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; a Constitutional Commission was also established to draft a constitution; [[Isaias Afewerki]] was elected president by the transitional legislature; the constitution, ratified in August 1997, did not enter into effect, pending parliamentary and presidential elections; those elections have been postponed indefinitely following the start of the border conflict with Ethiopia.
'''Capital:'''
[[Asmara]] (formerly Asmera)
<br />''Administrative divisions:'' 8 provinces (singular - ''awraja''); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye
<br />''note:'' in May [[1995]] the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed [[Southern Red Sea]], [[Northern Red Sea]], [[Anseba]], [[Gash-Barka]], [[Southern region, Eritrea|Southern]], and [[Central region, Eritrea|Central]].
'''Independence:''' between [[23 April]]-25 1993 a referendum was held with vote for independence as the outcome; [[May 24]], 1993 (from Ethiopia; formerly the Eritrea Autonomous Region)
'''National holiday:'''
National Day (independence from [[Ethiopia]]), [[24 May]] (1993)
'''Constitution:'''
the transitional constitution, decreed on [[May 19]], 1993, was replaced by a new constitution adopted on [[23 May]] [[1997]], but not yet implemented
'''Legal system:'''
operates on the basis of transitional laws that incorporate pre-independence statutes of the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), revised Ethiopian laws, customary laws, and post independence enacted laws.
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br />''chief of state:'' President Isaias Afewerki (since [[8 June]] [[1993]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br />''head of government:'' President Isaias Afewerki (since [[8 June]] [[1993]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br />''cabinet:'' State Council is the collective executive authority
<br />''note:'' the president is head of the State Council and National Assembly
<br />''elections:'' president elected by the National Assembly; election last held [[8 June]] [[1993]] (next to be held TBA)
<br />''election results:'' Isaias Afewerki elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - Isaias Afewerki 95%
'''Legislative branch:''' unicameral National Assembly (150 seats; term limits not established)
<br />''elections:'' in May 1997, following the adoption of the new constitution, 75 members of the PFDJ Central Committee (the old Central Committee of the EPLF), 60 members of the 527-member Constituent Assembly which had been established in 1997 to discuss and ratify the new constitution, and 15 representatives of Eritreans living abroad were formed into a Transitional National Assembly to serve as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections to a National Assembly are held; only 75 members will be elected to the National Assembly - the other 75 will be members of the Central Committee of the PFDJ
'''Judicial branch:''' Supreme Court; 10 provincial courts; 29 district courts
'''Political parties and elections:'''
{{main|List of political parties in Eritrea}}
Eritrea is a single-party state.
{{Eritrea composition}}
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:''' Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ); Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) [ [[Abdullah Muhammed]] ]; Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC) [ [[Ahmed Nasser]] ]; Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization (ELF-UO) [ [[Mohammed Said Nawd]] ]
'''International organization participation:''' ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, [[IGAD]], ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
<br />''chief of mission:'' Ambassador [[Semere Russom]]
<br />''chancery:'' 1708 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
<br />''telephone:'' [1] (202) 319-1991
<br />''FAX:'' [1] (202) 319-1304
'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
<br />''chief of mission:'' Ambassador [[Scott H. De Lisi]]
<br />''embassy:'' Franklin D. Roosevelt Street, Asmara
<br />''mailing address:'' P. O. Box 211, Asmara
<br />''telephone:'' [291] (1) 120004
<br />''FAX:'' [291] (1) 127584
'''Flag description:''' red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle
:''See also :'' [[Eritrea]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Eritrea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Eritrea</title>
<id>9381</id>
<revision>
<id>41595831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:08:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>US -> U.S. per MoS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Eritrea]] secured independence from [[Ethiopia]] on [[May 24]], [[1993]]. Eritrea faced major economic problems and is in the process of rebuilding its economy. The [[United Nations]] has ranked Eritrea as 164 out of 174 nations in 2005 on its [[Human Development Index]], an indicator of economic and physical conditions in a country. Eritrea has experienced modest economic growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in [[Gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2004 of 2.5% over 2003. However, worker remittances from abroad currently contribute 40%-50% of GDP.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 width=100 style="float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;"
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|<big>Economy of Eritrea</big>
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Currency
|colspan="2" valign="top"|1 [[nakfa]] = 100 cent
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Fiscal year
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Calendar year
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Statistics [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ranking
|colspan="2" valign="top"|177th by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|per capita (at PPP)]] (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$4.154bn (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP growth
|colspan="2" valign="top"|2.4% (2004 est.))
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP per capita
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$900 (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP by sector
|colspan="2" valign="top"|agriculture (12.4%), industry (25.9%), services (61.7%) (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Inflation]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|10% (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Pop below [[poverty line]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|50% (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force
|colspan="2" valign="top"|NA
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force by occupation
|colspan="2" valign="top"|agriculture (80%) services (20%).
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Unemployment]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|NA (2003 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main industries
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[salt]], [[cement]], commercial ship repair
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Exports
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$64.44 million free on basis. (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main partners
|colspan="2" valign="top| [[Malaysia]] 54.7%,
[[Italy]] 8.8%, [[France]] 3.7% (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Imports
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$622 million free on basis. (2004 est.)
|-
!align |
ikely water-ammonia mixtures. These environments are considered suitable for carbon or noncarbon life, while opening more temperature ranges (and thus worlds) for life.
A third assumption is to focus on Sun-like stars. Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life would not likely have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally "locked" to the star. Without a thick atmosphere, one side of the planet would be perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen. In 2005, the question was reopened, as the long lifetimes of [[red dwarf|red dwarves]] could allow some biology on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant, as red dwarves are extremely common.
About 10% of the stars in our galaxy are Sun-like, and there are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of our Sun. These stars would be useful primary targets for interstellar listening. However, we only know of one planet where life exists: our own. There is no way to know if any of the simplifying assumptions are correct.
=== The sciences of Astrobiology ===
==== Astronomy ====
Most astronomy-related astrobiological research falls into the category of [[extrasolar planet]] (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect 'Earth-like' exoplanets are under development, most notably [[NASA]]'s [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] (TPF) and [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] programs. A number of less ambitious ground-based efforts are also underway (see [[exoplanet]]).
The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to image them [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]]. By examining planetary spectra it will be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and surface; given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory[http://vpl.ipac.caltech.edu] (VPL), is using computer modelling to generate a wide variety of 'virtual' planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these 'virtual' planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.
An estimate for the number of planets with (intelligent) extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the [[Drake equation]], essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise. However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable error limits any time soon. The first term, Number of Stars, is generally constrained within a few orders of magnitude. The second and third terms, Stars with Planets and Planets with Habitable Conditions, are being evaluated for the Sun's neighborhood. Another associated topic is the [[Fermi paradox]], which suggests that if intelligent life is common in the universe then there should be obvious signs of it. This is the purpose of project like [[SETI]], which tries to detect signs of radio transmissions from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations.
Another active research area in astrobiology is [[solar system]] formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of our solar system (for example, the presence of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] as a protective 'shield' or the planetary collision which created the [[Moon]]) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on our planet. No firm conclusions have been reached so far.
==== Biology ====
[[Extremophiles]] (organisms able to survive in extreme environments) are a core research element for astrobiologists. Such organisms include [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] able to survive kilometers below the ocean's surface near [[hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vents]] and [[microbe|microbes]] that thrive in highly acidic environments. Characterization of these organisms&mdash;their environments and their evolutionary pathways&mdash;is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe.
The origin of life, as distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. [[Oparin]] and [[Haldane]] postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic precursors and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common to all forms of life we see today. The study of this process, known as [[prebiotic chemistry]], has made some progress but it is still unclear whether or not life can have formed in such a manner on Earth. The alternative theory of [[panspermia]] is that the first elements of life may have formed on another planet with even more favourable conditions, and then have been carried over to Earth by a variety of means.
==== Geology ====
The [[fossil record]] provides the oldest known evidence for life on Earth. By examining this evidence, geologists are able to better understand the types of organisms that arose on the early Earth. Some regions on Earth, such as the [[Pilbara]] in [[Western Australia]] are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars and as such might be able to provide clues to possible [[Life on Mars|Martian life]].
== Criticisms ==
Like any emerging scientific field, astrobiology has had to struggle for respectability. While many scientists are enthusiastic about the broad questions involved, there remains concern as to whether astrobiology is distinct enough from its parent disciplines (particularly biology) to constitute a true science. Astrobiology is at present a largely speculative extrapolation of Earth conditions into off-Earth environments. Extremophiles, for example, ''may'' reveal how life has evolved in exotic locales throughout the universe, yet this remains unverified and the study of extremophiles is adequately covered under the rubric of biology. This ambivalent status is reflected by academic acceptance: those interested may specialize in astrobiology as a subset of an established science. Although some have thought a formal degree program in astrobiology unlikely[http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/astrobio/astrobio_detail.cfm?ID=477], the University of Glamorgan, UK, have started just such a degree this year. [http://case.glam.ac.uk/CASE/Degrees/AstroBio.html]
Perhaps a more serious criticism of astrobiology is whether the very act of extrapolating from a single data source is unscientific. At best, this creates tautologies ("Earth-like life will evolve under circumstances which are sufficiently Earth-like for a sufficient period of time") and at worst it may abrogate critical aspects of the [[scientific method]]. Characterization of non-Earth life is extraordinarily unsettled; hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary wildly; true astrobiological experiments (with modest exceptions such as the [[ALH84001]] meteorite) simply cannot occur at present. Finally, astrobiology has been criticized for being [[Evolving the Alien|unimaginative]] in the tacit assumption that Earth-like life presents the most likely template for life elsewhere.
==Publications==
[http://www.liebertpub.com/ast Astrobiology], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is the authoritative peer-reviewed international journal created as a forum for scientists seeking to advance our understanding of life's origin, evolution, and distribution in the universe. <em>Astrobiology</em> brings together researchers through the dissemination of original research, hypothesis, education articles, and reviews.
== See also ==
* [[Alternative biochemistry]]
* [[Artificial life]]
* [[Astrosociobiology]]
* [[Extraterrestrial life]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#astrobiology|Publications in astrobiology]]
* [[NASA Astrobiology Institute]]
* [[Origin of life]]
* [[Panspermia]]
* [[Planetary habitability]]
* [[SETI]]
* [[Terraforming]]
* [[Xenolinguistics]]
* [[Aurelia]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.astrobiology.co.uk/ Astrobiology@home]
* [http://aca.mq.edu.au/ Australian Centre for Astrobiology]
* [http://www.astrobiology.com/ The Astrobiology Web]
* [http://www.astrobio.net/ Astrobiology Magazine]
* [http://pokey.arc.nasa.gov/~astrochm/LifeImplications.html Possible Connections Between Interstellar Chemistry and the Origin of Life on the Earth]
* [http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/news_stories/news_detail.cfm?ID=207 Scientists Find Clues That Life Began in Deep Space - NASA Astrobiology Institute]
* [http://www.solstation.com/habitable.htm Stars and Habitable Planets]
* [http://www.emse.fr/~yukna/researchers/reddwarf.htm Life Around a Red Dwarf Reading Exercise]
* [http://www.markelowitz.com/exobiology.htm Mark Elowitz's Web site on Exobiology and SETI]
* [http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/rocket3aa.html Let's Build an Extraterrestrial]
* [http://www.ebicom.net/~rsf1/vel/1918.htm Influenza 1918, A Venus Connection?]
[[Category:Astrobiology| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
{{Astrobiology-footer}}
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[[de:Exobiologie]]
[[et:Astrobioloogia]]
[[es:Astrobiología]]
[[eo:Astrobiologio]]
[[fa:دگرزیستشناسی]]
[[fr:Exobiologie]]
[[is:Stjörnulíffræði]]
[[it:Esobiologia]]
[[he:אקסוביולוגיה]]
[[lt:Astrobiologija]]
[[hu:Asztrobiológia]]
[[mk:Астробиологија]]
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[[simple:Astrobiology]]
[[sl:as |
s "Willie John, Little (as given name)": John is a middle name), (born 1937), musician
*[[Stern John|John, Stern]] (born 1976), Trinidad and Tobago footballer
*[[Tommy John|John, Tommy]] (born 1943), baseball player
*[[Danny John-Jules|John-Jules, Danny]], actor
=== Johns ===
==== People named Johns ====
*[[Daniel Johns|Johns, Daniel]], (born 1978), singer
*[[Glynis Johns|Johns, Glynis]], (born 1923), actress
*[[Jasper Johns|Johns, Jasper]], (born 1930), painter
*[[Michael Johns|Johns, Michael]], (born 1964), business executive and former White House speechwriter to former President George H.W. Bush
*[[Orrick Glenday Johns|Johns, Orrick Glenday]], (died 1946), poet, playwright
==== Johnse ====
*[[Erland Johnsen|Johnsen, Erland]], (born 1967), Norwegian footballer
*[[Hinrich Philip Johnsen|Johnsen, Hinrich Philip]], (1716 - 1779), composer
*[[Julia E. Johnsen|Johnsen, Julia E.]], (fl. [[1920s]]), social-science editor
==== Johnso ====
===== Johnson =====
====== Johnson, A-C ======
*[[Abigail Johnson|Johnson, Abigail]] (born 1962)
*[[Amy Johnson|Johnson, Amy]] (1903-1941), British flier
*[[Andrew Johnson|Johnson, Andrew]] (1808-1875), American politician
*[[Avery Johnson|Johnson, Avery]] (born 1965), basketball player
*[[Ben Johnson (athlete)|Johnson, Ben]] (born 1961), sprinter
*[[Ben Johnson (actor)|Johnson, Ben]] (1918-1996), actor
*[[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Johnson, Bill]] (1872-1972), musician
*[[Bill Johnson (hockey)|Johnson, Bill]] (born 1928), Canadian hockey player <!--(see [[List of NHL one gamers#J]]) -->
*[[Bill Johnson (skier)|Johnson, Bill]] (born 1960), American skier
*[[Bill "Tiger" Johnson|Johnson, Bill "Tiger"]] (born 1926), American football player & coach
*[[Blind Willie Johnson|Johnson, "Blind" Willie]] (c. 1902-1947), musician
* [[Bob Johnson (baseball)|Johnson, Bob "Indian Bob"]] (1905-1982), baseball player
* [[Bob Johnson (ice hockey)|Johnson, Bob]] (1931-1991), hockey coach
* [[Boris Johnson|Johnson, Boris]] (born 1964), British journalist
* [[Brian Johnson|Johnson, Brian]] (born 1947), Australian musician
*[[Bunk Johnson|Johnson, Bunk]] (1879?-1949), musician
* [[Bushrod Johnson|Johnson, Bushrod]] (1817-1880), American soldier
*[[Byron Ingemar Johnson|Johnson, Byron Ingemar]] (1890-1964), Canadian politician
*[[Celia Johnson|Johnson, Celia]] (1908-1982), actress
*[[Charles Johnson (pirate biographer)|Johnson, Charles]] (fl. 1720s), British biographer
*[[Charles Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Charles]] (1679-1748), British playwright
*[[Charles Johnson (U.S. politician)|Johnson, Charles]] (1752-1802), American politician
*[[Charles E. Johnson|Johnson, Charles E.]] (fl. 2000s), American politician
*[[Charles Johnson (baseball)|Johnson, Charles Edward]] (born 1971), American baseball player
*[[Clarence Johnson|Johnson, Clarence L. "Kelly"]] (1910-1990), American engineer
* [[Clark Johnson|Johnson, Clark]] (born 1954), actor
====== Johnson, D-H ======
*[[David Johnson (fur trapper)|Johnson, David]], North American fur trapper
*[[David Johnson (governor)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 1840s), American politician <!-- Governor of South Carolina, 1846-1848 -->
*[[David Johnson (Canadian politician)|Johnson, David]], (born 1945), Canadian politician <!-- ([[Results of the Canadian federal election, 2004#Suburban Toronto|Ontario]]) -->
*[[David Johnson (footballer)|Johnson, David]], (born 1951), British football player <!-- ([[Liverpool F.C.]]) -->
*[[David Johnson (U.S. politician)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 2000s), politician <!-- ([[U.S. Senate election, 2000|Indiana]]) -->
*[[David Johnson (cinematographer)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 2000s), cinematographer <!-- ''[[Alien vs. Predator (movie)|Alien vs. Predator]]'')-->
*[[David S. Johnson|Johnson, David S.]], (born 1945) computer scientist
*[[Dink Johnson|Johnson, Dink]], (1892-1954), jazz musician
*[[Don Johnson|Johnson, Don]], (born 1959), American actor
*[[E. Pauline Johnson|Johnson, E. Pauline]], (1861-1913), Canadian writer and poet
*[[Eyvind Johnson|Johnson, Eyvind]], (1900-1976), Swedish writer
*[[Fenton Johnson|Johnson, Fenton]], poet
*[[Fergus Johnson|Johnson, Fergus]], Irish cultural figure <!-- member of [[Aosdána]] -->
*[[George W. Johnson|Johnson, George W.]], (c.1855-1914) pioneer recording artist
*[[Georgia Douglas Johnson|Johnson, Georgia Douglas]], poet
*[[Harold Johnson|Johnson, Harold]], (born 1928), boxer
*[[Helene Johnson|Johnson, Helene]], poet
*[[Hiram Johnson|Johnson, Hiram Warren]], (1866-1945), American politician & activist
====== Johnson, J ======
*[[J.B. Johnson|Johnson, J.B.]] (1887-1970), American engineer
*[[J. J. Johnson|Johnson, J.J.]] (1924-2001), musician
*[[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Johnson, Jack]] (1878-1946), American boxer
*[[Jack Johnson (musician)|Johnson, Jack]], musician
*[[James Johnson (World War II)|Johnson, James]], British air-soldier
*[[James P. Johnson|Johnson, James P.]], (1894-1955), American pianist & composer
*[[James Weldon Johnson|Johnson, James Weldon]], (1871-1938), writer, folklorist, activist
*[[Janis G. Johnson|Johnson, Janis G.]], Canadian politician
*[[Jimmie Johnson|Johnson, Jimmie]], (born 1975), racecar driver
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Johnson, Jimmy]], (born 1943), American football coach & TV analyst
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football player)|Johnson, Jimmy]], (born 1938), American football player
*[[John Johnson (Composer)|Johnson, John]], (c. 1550-1594), English lutenist & composer
*[[John Johnson (Seigneur of Sark)|Johnson, John, Seigneur of Sark]], (d. 1723), British ruler
*[[John Johnson (Loyalist)|Johnson, John, Sir]], (1742-1830), American soldier & exile to Canada
*[[John Johnson (Ohio)|Johnson, John]], (1805-1867), American politician - Ohio
*[[John de Monins Johnson|Johnson, John de Monins]], (1882-1956), British scholar & printer
*[[John H. Johnson|Johnson, John H.]], (1918-2005), African American publisher
*[[John Henry Johnson|Johnson, John Henry]], (b. 1956), baseball player
*[[John Howard Getty Johnson|Johnson, John Howard Getty]], (fl. 1970s), American basketball player
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson|Johnson, John "Liver-Eating"]], (c. 1824-1900), American frontier figure
*[[John Neeley Johnson|Johnson, John Neeley]], (1825-1872), American politician - California
*[[J. Rosamond Johnson|Johnson, John Rosamond]], (1873-1954), composer & opera singer
*[[John Johnson (Mohawk)|Johnson, John "Smoke"]], (1792–1886), Canadian Mohawk leader
====== Johnson, K-P ======
*[[Ken Johnson|Johnson, Ken]], (born 1962), American
*[[Kevin Johnson|Johnson, Kevin]], (born 1965), American basketball player
*[[Lady Bird Johnson|Johnson, Lady Bird]], (born 1912), American political-family member
*[[Leavander Johnson|Johnson, Leavander]], (born 1969), boxer
*[[Lionel Johnson|Johnson, Lionel]], poet
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson|Johnson, "Liver-Eating"]], (c. 1824-1900), American frontier figure
*[[Lonnie Johnson|Johnson, Lonnie]], musician
*[[Louis A. Johnson|Johnson, Louis Arthur]], (1891-1966)
*[[Lucius E. Johnson|Johnson, Lucius E.]], (1846-1921), American railroader
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson, Lyndon Baines]], (1908-1973), American politician
*[[Magic Johnson|Johnson, Magic]] (born 1959), American basketball player
*[[Marc Johnson|Johnson, Marc]] (born 1953), American musician
*[[Marv Johnson|Johnson, Marv]] (born 1954), musician
*[[Marvin Johnson|Johnson, Marvin]], boxer
*[[Michael Johnson (athlete)|Johnson, Michael]], (born 1967), track-and-field athlete
*[[Scott Johnson|Johnson, M. Scott]] (born 1968), American sculptor
*[[Michael Johnson (politician)|Johnson, Michael]], Australian politician
*[[Nunnally Johnson|Johnson, Nunnally]], (1897-1977), American filmmaker
*[[Opha Mae Johnson|Johnson, Opah Mae]], (born c. 1900), American soldier
*[[Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.|Johnson, Paul]], (born 1955), American engineer
*[[E. Pauline Johnson|Johnson, Pauline]], (1861-1913), Canadian writer & poet
*[[Pete Johnson|Johnson, Pete]] (1904-1967), American musician
*[[Philip Johnson|Johnson, Philip]], (born 1906), architect
====== Johnson, R-W ======
*[[Rafer Johnson|Johnson, Rafer]], (born 1935), American athlete
*[[Richard Mentor Johnson|Johnson, Richard]], (died 1850), American politician
*[[Robert Johnson|Johnson, Robert]], (1911-1938), musician
*[[Robert L. Johnson|Johnson, Robert L.]], (born 1946), media entrepreneur
*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], (1709-1784), English poet
*[[Sargent Johnson|Johnson, Sargent]], (1888-1967), painter
*[[John Johnson (Mohawk)|Johnson, "Smoke"]], (1792–1886), Canadian Mohawk leader
*[[Stephen C. Johnson|Johnson, Stephen C.]], computer scientist
*[[Thomas Johnson (designer)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1714-1778), English woodcarver and furniture designer
*[[Thomas Johnson (governor)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1732-1819), American politician & jurist
*[[Thomas Johnson (Kansas)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1802-1865), American politician in Kansas
*[[Thomas Johnson (TD)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1873-1963), Irish activist and politician
*[[Uwe Johnson|Johnson, Uwe]], (born 1934), writer
*[[Van Johnson|Johnson, Van]], (born 1916), actor
*[[Mickey Johnson|Johnson, Wallace Edgar "Mickey"]] (born 1952), American basketball player
*[[Walter Johnson|Johnson, Walter]], (1887-1946)
*[[William Johnson (judge)|Johnson, William]], (1771-1834), American jurist
* [[William Johnson (soldier)|Johnson, William]] (died 1903), American soldier <!-- recipient of the Medal of Honor [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7877286] -->
* [[William A. Johnson, Jr.|Johnson, William A.]] (fl. 1990s), American politician <!-- mayor of Rochester, New York -->
* [[William E. Johnson|Johnson, William E.]] (1862-1950), American activist <!-- temperance movement leader -->
* [[William Ernest Johnson|Johnson, William Ernest]] (1858-1931), British logician
* [[Bunk Johnson|Johnson, William Gary " |
nservation of [[energy]], in the form of heat as well as mechanical energy. However, the principle of conservation of energy had been suggested or enunciated in various forms by perhaps a dozen German, French, British and other scientists during the first half of the 19th Century.
The behavior of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] was studied by [[Michael Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm]], and others. Faraday, who began his career in chemistry working under [[Humphry Davy]] at the Royal Institution, demonstrated that electrostatic phenomena, the action of the newly discovered electric pile or battery, electrochemical phenomena, and lightning were all different manifestations of electrical phenomena. Faraday further discovered in 1821 that electricity can cause rotational mechanical motion, and in 1831 discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, by which means mechanical motion is converted into electricity. Thus it was Faraday who laid the foundations for both the [[electric motor]] and the [[electric generator]].
In [[1855]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified the two phenomena into a single theory of [[electromagnetism]], described by [[Maxwell's equations]]. A prediction of this theory was that [[light]] is an [[electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic wave]]. A more subtle part of Maxwell's deduction was that the observed speed of light does not depend on the speed of the observer, a premonition of the development of [[special relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]].
With two installments in [[1876]] and [[1878]], [[Willard Gibbs|Josiah Willard Gibbs]] develops much of the theoretical formalism for [[thermodynamics]], and a decade later firmly lays the foundation for [[statistical mechanics]] &mdash; this [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] had independently invented.
In [[1887]] the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]] is conducted and it is interpreted as counter to the general held theory of the day, that the [[Earth]] was moving through a "[[luminiferous aether]]". The development of what later became Einstein's [[Special relativity|Special Theory of Relativity]] provided a complete explanation which did not require an aether, and was consistent with the results of the experiment. [[Albert Abraham Michelson]] and [[Edward Morley]] are not convinced of the non-existence of the aether. Morely goes on to conduct experiments with [[Dayton Miller]].
In [[1887]], [[Nikola Tesla]] investigates [[X-ray]]s using his own devices as well as Crookes tubes. In [[1895]], [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] observes and analyses X-rays, which turned out to be high-frequency [[electromagnetic radiation]]. [[Radioactivity]] was discovered in [[1896]] by [[Henri Becquerel]], and further studied by the [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] and others. This initiated the field of [[nuclear physics]].
In [[1897]], [[J.J. Thomson]] studies the [[electron]], the elementary particle which carries electrical current in circuits. He deduces that [[cathode ray tube|cathode ray]]s existed and were negatively charged "''particles''", which he called "''corpuscles''".
=== 20th century ===
The beginning of the [[20th century]] brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Not only did [[quantum mechanics]] show that the laws of motion didn't hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, [[general relativity]] showed that the fixed background of [[spacetime]], on which both [[Newtonian mechanics]] and [[special relativity]] depended, could not exist.
In [[1904]], Thomson proposed the first model of the [[atom]], known as the [[atom/plum pudding|plum pudding model]]. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in [[1808]] by [[John Dalton]].)
In [[1905]], Einstein formulated the theory of [[special relativity]], unifying space and time into a single entity, [[spacetime]]. Relativity prescribes a different transformation between [[inertial frame of reference|reference frames]] than classical mechanics, necessitating the development of relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low (relative) velocities, the two theories agree. In [[1915]], Einstein extended special relativity to explain gravity with the [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]], which replaces Newton's law of gravitation. In the regime of low masses and energies, the two theories agree. One principal result of general relativity is the [[gravitational collapse]] into [[black holes]], which was anticipated two centuries earlier, but elucidated by [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. Oppenheimer would later direct the [[Manhattan Project]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]]. Important exact solutions of [[Einstein's field equation]] were found by [[Karl Schwarzschild]] in 1915 and [[Roy Kerr]] only in 1963.
A ''[[variational principle]]'' is a principle in [[physics]] which is expressed in terms of the [[calculus of variations]]. According to [[Cornelius Lanczos]], any physical law which can be expressed as a variational principle describes an expression which is [[self-adjoint]]<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup>. These expressions are also called [[Hermitian]]. Thus such an expression describes an [[invariant]] under a Hermitian transformation. [[Felix Klein]]'s [[Erlangen program]] attempted to identify such invariants under a group of transformations. On [[July 16]], [[1918]], before a scientific organization in [[Göttingen]], Klein read a paper written by [[Emmy Noether]], because she was not allowed to present the paper before the scientific organization herself. In particular, in what is referred to in physics as [[Noether's theorem]], this paper identified the conditions under which the [[Poincaré group]] of transformations (what is now called a [[gauge group]]) for [[general relativity]] define [[conservation law]]s. The relationship of these invariants (the symmetries under a group of transformations) and what are now called conserved currents, depends on a variational principle, or [[Action (physics)|action principle]]. Noether's papers made the requirements for the conservation laws precise.
[[David Hilbert]] had derived the same equation as the [[Einstein equation]] for general relativity within a period of the same few weeks as Einstein, in November 1915. The chief difficulty, which concerned Hilbert, was that the conservation of energy did not hold for a region subject to a gravitational field. (Byers' commentary{{fn|2}} notes that sometimes the objects which are needed to define conserved quantities are not [[tensor]]s, but [[pseudotensor]]s.{{fn|3}}) <!-- Hilbert's unified theory remained uncelebrated because of this difficulty. --> Noether's theorem remains right in line with current developments in physics to this day.
In [[1911]], [[Ernest Rutherford]] deduced from [[Rutherford scattering|scattering experiments]] the existence of a compact [[atomic nucleus]], with positively charged constituents dubbed [[proton]]s. [[Neutron]]s, the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in [[1932]] by [[James Chadwick]].
Beginning in [[1900]], [[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Niels Bohr]], and others developed [[quantum]] theories to explain various anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels. In [[1925]], [[Werner Heisenberg]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]] formulated [[quantum mechanics]], which explained the preceding quantum theories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes of physical measurements are inherently [[probability|probabilistic]]. The theory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales.
Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for [[condensed matter physics]], which studies the physical behavior of solids and liquids, including phenomena such as [[crystal]] structures, [[semiconductor|semiconductivity]], and [[superconductor|superconductivity]]. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include [[Felix Bloch]], who created a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in [[1928]].
In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] published his discovery that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance. This is the basis for understanding that the [[universe]] is expanding. Thus, the universe must have been smaller and therefore hotter in the past. By the [[1940]]s, researchers like [[George Gamow]] proposed the ''[[Big Bang]]'' theory{{fn|4}}, evidence for which was discovered in [[1964]]{{fn|5}}; [[Enrico Fermi]] and [[Fred Hoyle]] were among the doubters in the [[1940]]s and [[1950]]s. Hoyle had dubbed Gamow's theory the ''Big Bang'' in order to debunk it. Today, it is one of the principal results of [[cosmology]], with a well-accepted age of the universe.
During [[World War II]], physics became a major source of government funding and research on all sides of the conflict. Its importance in the technologies of [[radar]], [[rocketry]], [[operations research]], and [[anti-aircraft]] weapons was seen as paramount to the war efforts of both the [[Allies|Allied]] and [[Axis Powers|Axis]] powers. Though physics had received some more funding after [[World War I]], this was dwarfed by the amount it received only a few decades later.
In [[1934]], the Italian physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] had discovered strange results when bombarding [[uranium]] with [[neutron]]s, which he believed at first to have created [[transuranic]] elements. In [[1939]], it was discovered by the chemist [[Otto Hahn]] and the physicist [[Lise Meitner]] that what was actually happening was the process of [[nuclear fission]], whereby the nucleus of uranium was actually being split into two pieces, releasing a considerable amount of energy in the process. At this point it became clear to a number of |
g ''[[Psycho]]''.
===The 1960s===
The 1960s saw the increasing decline of the studio system in [[Hollywood]]. Many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as [[Pinewood]] in [[England]] and [[Cinecittà]] in [[Rome]]. Hollywood movies were still largely aimed at big family audiences, and it was often the more old-fashioned films that produced the studios' biggest successes. Productions like ''[[Mary Poppins (1964 film)|Mary Poppins]]'' ([[1964]]), ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[The Sound of Music]]'' ([[1965]]) were among the biggest money-makers of the decade, but American films were losing the creative impetus to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[European]] film makers. The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline in traditional Hollywood studio production.
There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema in this period. The late 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the [[French New Wave]] with films like ''[[The 400 Blows|Les quatre cents coups]]'' and ''[[Jules et Jim]]'' from directors such as [[François Truffaut]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]]. [[Italy|Italian]] films like [[Federico Fellini]]'s ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'', and the stark dramas of [[Sweden]]'s [[Ingmar Bergman]] were also making an impact outside their home countries.
In Britain the "Free Cinema" of [[Lindsay Anderson]], [[Tony Richardson]] and others lead to a group of realistic and ground-breaking dramas including ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'', ''[[A Kind of Loving]]'' and ''[[This Sporting Life]]''. Other British films such as ''[[Repulsion]]'', ''[[Darling]]'', ''[[Alfie]]'', ''[[Blow-up]]'' and ''[[Georgy Girl]]'' (all in [[1965]]-[[1966]]) helped to break taboos around sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the [[James Bond]] films, beginning with ''[[Dr. No]]'' in [[1962]] would turn the series into a worldwide phenomenon.
Africans had been denied the right to make movies for decades. In the sixties, however [[Ousmane Sembène]] produced several French- and [[Wolof language|Wolof-language]] films became the 'father' of [[African Cinema]].
In Latin America the dominance of the Hollywood model was challenged by many film makers. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Gettino called for a politically engaged [[Third Cinema]] in contrast to Hollywood and the european auteur cinema.
In [[documentary film]] the sixties saw the blossoming of
[[Direct Cinema]], an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like ''The year of the pig'' about the [[Vietnam War]] by [[Emile de Antonio]].
By the late [[1960s]] however, Hollywood was beginning to claw back some of the creative impetus with films like ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[The Graduate]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'' ([[1969]]), and ''[[The Wild Bunch]]'' ([[1969]]). ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'' is often seen as the beginning of the [[New Hollywood]].
===The 1970s===
The [[1970s]] saw the emergence of a new generation of [[film school]]-trained American film makers, like [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Brian de Palma]]. This coincided with the increasing popularity of the [[auteur theory]] in film literature and the media, a development which gave these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This lead to some enormous critical and commercial successes, like Coppola's ''[[The Godfather]]'' films, Spielberg's ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' and ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' and [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''. It also, however, lead to some inevitable failures, including [[Peter Bogdanovich]]'s ''[[At Long Last Love]]'' and [[Michael Cimino]]'s ''[[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]]''. The latter almost single-handledly brought down backer [[United Artists]] following its release in 1980.
The phenomenal success of ''Jaws'' and ''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'' in particular, lead to the rise of the modern [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]], with the Hollywood studios increasingly intent on producing a smaller number of very high budget films with massive marketing and promotional backing. This development has continued to the present day.
The mid-[[1970s]] had also seen a big increase in adult cinemas and the legal production of [[hardcore pornography|hardcore pornographic]] films in the U.S. ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'' and its star [[Linda Lovelace]] became something of a phenomenon and lead to a spate of similar sex films throughout the decade. These would finally die out with the introduction of [[VCR]] technology in the [[1980s]].
The early '70s also alerted English language audiences to the new [[West German]] cinema, with [[Werner Herzog]], [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] and [[Wim Wenders]] among its leading exponents.
The end of the decade saw the first major international interest in [[Australian]] cinema. [[Peter Weir]]'s films ''[[Picnic at Hanging Rock]]'' and ''[[The Last Wave]]'' and [[Fred Schepisi]]'s ''[[The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith]]'' gained critical acclaim, while [[George Miller]]'s violent futuristic actioner ''[[Mad Max]]'' was a substantial hit in [[1979]] and marked the beginning of Australian attempts to target the international market.
===The '80s: sequels, blockbusters and videotape===
The shift that occurred in the [[1980s]] from seeing movies in a theater to watching videos on a VCR, is a move close to the original concepts of Thomas Edison. In the early part of that decade, the [[movie studio]]s tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of [[copyright]], which proved unsuccessful. That proved most fortunate, however, as the sale and rental of their movies on [[home video]] became a significant source of revenue for the movie companies. [[THX|THX Ltd]], a division of [[Lucasfilm]] launched in [[1982]]. [http://www.thx.com/mod/company/milestones.html] [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[Raging Bull]]'' ([[1980]]); ''[[After Hours (movie)|After Hours]]'' ([[1985]]); ''[[The King of Comedy (1983)|The King of Comedy]]'' ([[1983]]).
===The Digital Age===
After the decade of the 1970s helped define the [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] motion picture, the way Hollywood released its films changed. Now films, for the most part, would premiere in an even wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some movies still premiere using the route of the [[Roadshow theatrical release|limited/roadshow release system]]. Until this new "Digital Age", the primary way for audiences to see their favorite films again and again was to re-release films. But the medium of home video would change all of this.
Among the terms most associated with this new era include:
* [[George Lucas]]: The ''[[Star Wars]]'' films
* [[Industrial Light and Magic]]
* [[Steven Spielberg]]: ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]''
===The 1990s: technical advances===
The history of film and video distributed online began in the year 1994 with the first public showing of
[[Quentin Tarantino]]'s ''[[Pulp Fiction]]''. Influence of [[Comic Books|Comics]]. ''[[Smoke]]'', [[1995]]. In the [[1990s]], cinema began the process of making another transition, from physical film stock to [[digital cinema]] technology. [[Pixar]], ''[[The Matrix]]''. Meanwhile, in the home video realm, the [[DVD]] would become the new standard for watching movies after their standard theatrical releases.
===The new millennium===
[[Peter Greenaway]]'s ''[[The Tulse Luper Suitcases]]'' takes advantage of new media and high definition technology. Interactivity of [[PlayStation]], &, ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' relationship w/cinema: actors, soundtrack, narrative structure. The [[Superhero film]] also began to fully emerge in prominence and more consistent artistic sophistication, notably with the huge success of ''[[X-Men (movie)|X-Men]]'' starting the trend. The [[documentary film]] also rises as a potently commercial genre. Faster edits. [[home theatre]]. The Lord of the Rings trilogy is released and innovates many techniques in visual effects, while giving the word "Epic" a whole new meaning. Future: Problems of digital distribution to be overcome -- higher compression, cheaper technology. [[Content security]]. Expiration of copyrights, enforcing copyright.
==The underground==
{{main|underground film}}
Alongside the Hollywood tradition, there has also been an [[underground film]] tradition of low budget, often self-produced works created outside of the studio system and without the involvement of [[labor union]]s.
==Addendum==
"[[Independent film]]" may be defined as any motion picture financed and produced without the aid of a movie studio. These works have contributed to the history of cinema from the early days, and will continue to do so. Notable independent flmmakers include a plethora of diverse auteurs such as [[D. W. Griffith]],
[[Maya Deren]], [[Orson Welles]], [[Russ Meyer]], [[John Sayles]], [[Jim Jarmusch]], [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], and [[Roger Corman]].
==See also==
*[[Experimental film]]
*[[Fictional film]]
*[[History of science fiction films]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]] (extensive alphabetical listing)
*[[Women's Cinema]]
==References==
===Print===
*Acker, Ally . ''Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present''. London: B.T. Batsford, 1991.
*Basten, Fred E. ''Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow''. AS Barnes & Company, [[1980]].
*Cook, David A. ''A History of Narrative Film'', 2nd edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-95553-2
*Eisner, Lotte H. ''The Haunted Screen: Expressionism in the German Cinema and the Influence of M |
enforcement agency of Chicago, under the jurisdiction of the mayor. It is the largest [[police]] department in the [[Midwest]] and the second largest in the nation (with 13,619 sworn officers and 2,625 other employees covering 234 square miles as of 2003), and one of the oldest organized police forces in the world. By comparison, Los Angeles, the nation's second largest city, has just over 9,000 sworn officers covering 469 square miles.
There are twenty-five police districts, each led by a commander. Each commander oversees a network of administrative and operational departments that include patrol officers, detective forces, and other investigative units. Commanders report to the superintendent of police who in turn is subject to the authority of the [[List of mayors of Chicago|mayor of Chicago]].
====See also====
*[[Chicago City Hall]]
*[[List of Chicago city departments]]
*[[List of mayors of Chicago]]
*[[Municipal Flag of Chicago]]
*[[Chicago City Council]]
*[[Chicago Police Department]]
*[[Chicago Fire Department]]
*[[Sister Cities of Chicago]]
*[http://library7.municode.com/gateway.dll/IL/illinois/7539?f=templates&fn=default.htm&npusername=13322&nppassword=MCC&npac_credentialspresent=true&vid=default Municipal Code of Chicago]
==People and culture==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Chicago}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=3| '''City of Chicago <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|Year || Population
|Rank
|-
|1840 || 4,470
|92
|-
|1850 || 29,963
|24
|-
|1860 || 112,172
|9
|-
|1870 || 298,977
|5
|-
|1880 || 503,185
|4
|-
|1890 || 1,099,850
|2
|-
|1900 || 1,698,575
|2
|-
|1910 || 2,185,283
|2
|-
|1920 || 2,701,705
|2
|-
|1930 || 3,376,438
|2
|-
|1940 || 3,396,808
|2
|-
|1950 || 3,620,962
|2
|-
|1960 || 3,550,404
|2
|-
|1970 || 3,366,957
|2
|-
|1980 || 3,005,072
|2
|-
|1990 || 2,783,726
|3
|-
|2000 || 2,896,016
|3
|}
People living in Chicago are called "Chicagoans." The [[metropolitan area]] is referred to as "Chicagoland" therefore the term is also sometimes applied colloquially to those living in one of the neighboring communities.
As of the 2000 [[census]], there are 2,896,016 people, 1,061,928 households, and 632,909 families residing in the city of Chicago proper. A 2006 estimate puts the city's population at over 3 million. This encompasses about one-fifth of the entire population of the state of [[Illinois]] and 1% of the population of the [[United States]]. The [[population density]] is 4,923.0/km² (12,750.3/mi²). There are 1,152,868 housing units at an average density of 1,959.8/km² (5,075.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 36.39% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 31.32% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 26.02% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]], 4.33% [[Asian American|Asian]] and [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.64% from two or more races, 0.15% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], and 0.15% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]]. For changes between the 1990 and 2000 census, see [http://www.chicagoneighborhoods.cc/chicago-demographics.html].
[[Image:Millenium Park Fountain 3.jpg|thumb|left|165px|Children playing in Chicago's Millennium Park]]
The city itself makes up 23.3% percent of the total population of Illinois, down from a high of 44.3% in 1930.
Chicago's unique [[culture]] arises from it being a [[melting pot]], with nearly even percentages of [[whites|Caucasian]]s and [[African-American]]s and a sizeable [[Hispanic]] minority.
The main [[European]] ethnic groups in Chicago are the [[Irish-American|Irish]], [[German-American|Germans]], [[Italian-American|Italians]] and [[Polish-American|Polish]]. Chicago has a large Irish-American population on its [[Neighborhoods of Chicago|South Side]]. Many of Chicago's politicians have come from this population, including current mayor [[Richard M. Daley]]. Chicago has the largest population of [[Swedish-American]]s of any city in the US, numbering 123,000. After the [[Chicago Fire]], many Swedish carpenters helped to rebuild the city, which is why it is sometimes called ''the city the Swedes built''.
Today, Chicago has the largest ethnically [[Polish people|Polish]] population outside of [[Poland]], making it one of the most important [[Polonia]] centers. [[Polish cuisine|Polish food]] and customs have melted into the culture of the city. Chicago is also considered to be the second-largest [[Serbian]] and [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] city in the world, and the third largest [[Greeks|Greek]] city after [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]. The city also has the country's largest [[Assyrians|Assyrian]] population, numbering as many as 80,000 and is the location of the seat of the head of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Mar Dinkha IV]].
The Chicago Metropolitan area is also becoming a major center for [[Indian-American]]s and [[South Asian]]s. Chicago has the third largest South Asian population in the country, after [[New York City]] and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. The Devon Avenue corridor on Chicago's north side is an example of this, as it is one of the largest [[South Asian]] neighborhoods in [[North America]].
There are 1,061,928 households, of which 28.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 18.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% are non-families. Of all households, 32.6% are made up of individuals and 8.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.50.
Of the city population, 26.2% are under the age of 18, 11.2% are from 18 to 24, 33.4% are from 25 to 44, 18.9% are from 45 to 64, and 10.3% are 65 years of age or older. The [[median]] age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $38,625, and the median income for a family is $42,724. Males have a median income of $35,907 versus $30,536 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,175. Below the [[poverty line]] are 19.6% of the population and 16.6% of the families. Of the total population, 28.1% of those under the age of 18 and 15.5% of those 65 and older are living below the [[poverty line]].
===Museums and galleries===
[[Image:John G Shedd Aquarium Chicago 040724.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Shedd Aquarium]].]]
In 1998, the City of Chicago officially opened the [[Museum Campus Chicago|Museum Campus]], a 10 acre lakefront park surrounding three of the city's main museums, the [[Field Museum of Natural History]], the [[Shedd Aquarium]] and the [[Adler Planetarium]]. The Museum Campus was constructed on the southern section of [[Grant Park (Chicago)|Grant Park]]. The construction project involved re-routing [[Lake Shore Drive|Lakeshore Drive]] to make room for the new park. Grant Park is also home to Chicago's other major downtown museum, the [[Art Institute of Chicago]]. Some other major museums and galleries of the Chicago area include:
*[[Adler Planetarium]] and Astronomy Museum, 1300 S. Lake Shore Dr.
*[[Art Institute of Chicago]], 111 S. Michigan Ave. One of the premier art museums in the United States. Famous pieces include ''American Gothic'' by [[Grant Wood]], and [[Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte|''A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte'']] by [[Georges Seurat]]. The Museum is partnered with The School of the Art Institute of Chicago.
*[[Chicago Cultural Center]] ''([http://www.ci.chi.il.us/Tourism/CultureCenterTour/ Home Page])'', 78 E. Washington St. Built in 1897 as Chicago's first [[public library]], the building now houses the city's Visitor Information Center, galleries, and exhibit halls. The ceiling of Preston Bradley Hall includes a 38-foot [[Louis Comfort Tiffany|Tiffany glass]] dome.
*[[DuSable Museum|DuSable Museum of African-American History]], 740 East 56th Place. Displays many artifacts of many well known [[African-Americans]] and rich history.
*[[Field Museum of Natural History]], 1400 S. Lake Shore Dr., Chicago's natural history museum. Highlights include Sue, the largest ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skeleton in the world as well as a great, kids-friendly [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] exhibit.
*[[Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum]], 1852 West 19th St., a museum dedicated to [[Culture of Mexico|Mexican]], [[Latino]] and [[Chicano]] art and culture.
*[[Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago|Museum of Contemporary Art]], 220 E. Chicago Ave. Art of all types from around the world made since 1945.
*[[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago]], 5700 S. Lake Shore Dr. Highlights include the [[U-505]] [[submarine]] and working [[Coal mining|coal mine]].
* [[Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum]], 2430 N. Cannon Drive. Museum dedicated to ecology. It is noted for it's [[butterfly]] exibit.
* [[Oriental Institute]], part of the [[University of Chicago]], one of the best collections of [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] and [[Near East|Near Eastern]] archeology in the world.
*[[Shedd Aquarium]], 1200 S. Lake Shore Dr. Located on the Museum Campus, the Shedd Aquarium is home to a large collection of [[marine life]] from throughout the world. The [[Pacific Northwest]]&ndash;themed Oceanarium features dolphins, whales, and other animals from the region, as well as a panoramic view of Lake Michigan. This aquarium was the largest indoor aquarium in the world until the [[Georgia Aquarium]] opened in November 2005.
===Performing arts===
[[Image:Secondcity.jpg|thumb|right|130px|A Promotional Sign for Chicago's "Second City" Comedy Tr |
erchant marine:'''
<br>''total:''
123 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,402,058 GRT/3,792,094 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
bulk 22, cargo 5, chemical tanker 31, container 2, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 21, refrigerated cargo 35, roll on/roll off 5, specialized tanker 1
<br>''note:''
some foreign ships register in the Cayman Islands as a flag of convenience; includes ships from 11 countries among which are: Greece 15, US 5, UK 5, Cyprus 2, Denmark 2, Norway 3 (2002 est.)
'''Airports:'''
3 (2002)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2 (2002)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2002)
:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Transportation on the Cayman Islands|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Cayman Islands</title>
<id>5476</id>
<revision>
<id>29570496</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grutness</username>
<id>117878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Military branches:'''
Royal Cayman Islands Police Service (RCIPS)
'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]
The '''Cayman Island Cadet Corps''' was formed in march, 2001.
:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]
{{Caymans-stub}}
[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands</title>
<id>5477</id>
<revision>
<id>15903684</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-11T19:29:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.153.34.79</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>made Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty a link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''foreign relations of the [[Cayman Islands]]''' are largely managed from the [[United Kingdom]], as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and [[Jamaica]], in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the [[United States]].
Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and [[money laundering]]. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the [[United Nations]], or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the [[Central Development Bank]] and [[International Olympic Committee]], an associate member of [[Caricom]] and [[UNESCO]], and a member of a subbureau of [[Interpol]].
:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central African Republic</title>
<id>5478</id>
<revision>
<id>42018474</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:31:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.87.81.236</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* French Colonialism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Central Africa]] and [[Central African Federation]].''
{{Infobox Country| <!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Central African Republic]] also -->
common_name = Central African Republic|
native_name = République Centrafricaine<br>Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka|
image_flag = Flag of the Central African Republic.svg|
image_coat = centralaf22.PNG|
image_map = LocationCentralAfricanRepublic.png|
national_motto = Unité, Dignité, Travail<br>([[French language|French]]: Unity, Dignity, Work)|
national_anthem = French version "[[La Renaissance]]" (Sango version "E Zingo")|
official_languages = [[French language|French]] (official), [[Sango language|Sango]], and various tribal languages)|
capital = [[Bangui]] |
latd=4|latm=22|latNS=N|longd=18|longm=35|longEW=E|
largest_city = Bangui |
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of the Central African Republic|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of the Central African Republic|Prime Minister]]|
leader_names = [[François Bozizé]]<br>[[Elie Doté]]|
area = 622,984|
areami² = 240,535.5 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank=42nd|
area_magnitude=1 E10|
percent_water=0|
population_estimate = 3,683,538|
population_estimate_year=2003|
population_estimate_rank=124th|
population_density = 5.8|
population_densitymi² = 15.0 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 181st |
population_census = 8,032,926|
population_census_year = 2003|
GDP_PPP = $4.53 billion|
GDP_PPP_year = 2005|
GDP_PPP_rank = 156th|
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,107|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 172nd|
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.355 |
HDI_rank = 171st |
HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = From France|
established_dates=<br>[[August 13]], [[1960]]|
currency = [[CFA franc|Franc]]&sup1;|
currency_code=XAF|
time_zone = [[Coordinated Universal Time|CUT]] |
utc_offset=+1 |
time_zone_DST = ''not observed'' |
utc_offset_DST =+1 |
cctld = [[.cf]] |
calling_code = 236|
footnotes =
}}
The '''Central African Republic''' ([[French language|French]]: ''République Centrafricaine'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[central Africa]]. It borders [[Chad]] in the north, [[Sudan]] on the east, the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on the south, and [[Cameroon]] on the west. Most of the CAR consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas but it also includes a [[Sahelo-Sudanese]] zone in the north and an Equatorial forest zone in the south. Two thirds of the country lies in the basins of the [[Ubangi]] river, which flows south into the [[Congo River]], while the remaining third lies in the basin of the [[Shari]] river, which flows north into [[Lake Chad]]. Since most of the territory is located in the Ubangi and Shari river basins, the French called the colony it carved out in this region [[Ubangi-Shari]], or [[Oubangui-Chari]] in French. This French colony of Ubangi-Shari became a semi-autonomous territory of the [[French Community]] in 1958 and then an independent nation on 13 August 1960. For over three decades since independence the CAR was ruled by presidents who were not chosen in truly democratic elections or who took power by force. The first fair democratic elections were held in 1993 and brought [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] to power, but President Patassé was overthrown by General [[François Bozizé]] in 2003. General Bozizé won a democratic election in May 2005 and remains in power today.
== History ==
{{main|History of the Central African Republic}}
===Prehistory===
Between about 1000 BCE and 1000 CE, [[Adamawa-Eastern]]-speaking peoples spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan and settled in most of the territory of the CAR. During the same period, a much smaller number of [[Bantu]]-speaking immigrants settled in southwestern CAR and some [[Central Sudanic]]-speaking populations settled along the CAR's northern borderlands with Chad. The majority of the CAR's inhabitants thus speak Adamawa-Eastern languages or Bantu languages belonging to the [[Niger-Congo]] family. A minority speak Central Sudanic languages of the [[Nilo-Saharan]] family. More recent immigrants include many Muslim merchants who most often speak Arabic or Hausa.
===Exposure to the outside world===
Until the early 1800s, the peoples of the CAR lived beyond the expanding Islamic frontier in the Sudanic zone of Africa and thus had relatively little contact with world religions or the world economy. During the first decades of the nineteenth century, however, Muslim traders began increasingly to penetrate the region of the CAR and to cultivate special relations with local leaders in order to facilitate their trade and settlement in the region. The initial arrival of Muslim traders in the early 1800s was relatively peaceful and depended upon the support of local peoples, but after about 1850, slave traders with well-armed soldiers began to penetrate the region. Between c. 1860 and 1910, slave traders from [[Sudan]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]], [[Dar al-Kuti]] in northern CAR and [[Nzakara]] and [[Zande]] states in southeastern CAR exported much of the population of eastern CAR, a region with very few inhabitants today.
===French Colonialism===
European penetration of Central African territory began in the late nineteenth century during the [[Scramble for Africa]] (c. 1875-1900). Count [[Savorgnan de Brazza]] took the lead in establishing the [[French Congo]] with headquarters in the city named after him, [[Brazzaville]], and sent expeditions up the Ubangi river in an effort to expand France's claims to territory in Central Africa. [[King Leopold II]] of [[Belgium]], [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] also competed to establish their claims to territory in the Centr |
d>527566</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Sources */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TotallyDisputed}}
A '''dhimmi''' (also '''zimmi''', [[Arabic Language|Arabic]]''' ذمي''', usually translated as "protected") is a non-Muslim subject of a state where [[sharia|Islamic law]] is implemented. Dhimmis were officially allowed to practice their religion in return for accepting multiple legal disabilities as well as paying special taxes.
==Background==
The [[Arabic Language|Arabic]] word ''dhimmi'' is an adjective derived from the noun "''dhimma''", which means "being in the care of". The term initially applied to "[[People of the Book]]" living in lands under Muslim rule, namely [[Jew]]s and [[Christian|Christians]]. Over time Muslims extended this category to [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Mandean]]s, and [[Sikh]]s. Many, but not all, extend this to [[Hindus]].
==Sources==
The mediaeval Quranic commentator [[Ibn Kathir]] justified the ''dhimma'' in terms of [[Sura]] 9:29 of the [[Qur'an]] [http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=20980]. The verse calls Muslims to fight against the People of the Book until they pay the [[jizya]] head tax and are humbled:<blockquote>Fight those who believe not in [[Allah]] nor the Last Day, nor hold forbidden that which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.</blockquote>
A classic precedent of ''dhimma'' was an agreement between [[Muhammad]] and the Jews of [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]], an oasis about 95 miles from [[Medina]]. Khaybar was the first territory attacked, conquered, and subjugated by the Muslim state ruled by Muhammad himself. The Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a month and a half of siege; Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to Muslims one half of their annual produce. The Khaybar case served as a precedent for later Islamic scholars in their discussions on the issue of ''dhimma'', even though the second [[caliph]] [[Umar|Umar I]] subsequently expelled the Jews from the oasis.{{ref|khayblewis}}
The [[Pact of Umar]] [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pact-umar.html], allegedly concluded between Umar I and the conquered Christians, was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis. However, modern historians, like Arthur S. Tritton, [[Bernard Lewis]], or Hugh Goddard, dispute the authenticity of the Pact, describing it as a product of later jurists who attributed it to the caliph Umar in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions.
Discriminatory legislation enacted against Jews and non-[[Melkite]] Christians in the [[Byzantine Empire]], as well as laws regarding Jews and Christians in the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] [[Persian Empire]], was yet another source of dhimmi regulations, though Islamic jurists never mentioned it explicitly as such. Numerous provisions of the [[Codex Theodosianus|Theodosian Code]] of 438 and the [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian's Code]] of 529 migrated into the Islamic law virtually unchanged. Under the Byzantine rule, Jews were obliged not to pray loudly so that their prayers could not be heard in the nearby church. Building new synagogues (and repairing existing ones) was likewise prohibited unless the buildings threatened to collapse and a special permission was obtained. Jews were banned from all public offices and the army; they were prohibited from critizing Christianity, marrying a Christian, or owning a Christian slave. On top of that, Jews paid special taxes, possibly the precursors of jizya. Amplified and expanded, these regulations were applied to Christians too after Byzantine lands fell under the Muslim rule.{{ref|byzsource}}
== Status of dhimmis ==
Under Muslim rule, dhimmis were allowed to observe the commandments of their religions, albeit with restrictions attached. In exchange, they had to pay taxes for the benefit of the Muslim community and faced additional regulations, some of them intentionally humiliating and serving to remind dhimmis of their inferiority vis-a-vis Muslims.{{ref|inf}} The overarching principle in the treatment of dhimmis is encapsulated in the statement: "Islam is exalted, and nothing is exalted above it"{{ref|exalted}}. In the words of the British historian [[Bernard Lewis]]:
<blockquote>It is only very recently that some defenders of Islam began to assert that their society in the past accorded equal status to non-Muslims. No such claim is made by spokesman for resurgent Islam, and historically there is no doubt that they are right. Traditional Islamic societies neither accorded such equality nor pretended that they were so doing. Indeed, in the old order, this would have been regarded not as a merit but as a dereliction of duty. How could one accord the same treatment to those who follow the true faith and those who willfully reject it? This would be a theological as well as a logical absurdity.{{ref|lewis}}</blockquote>
The treatment of dhimmis varied over time and space, mostly depending on a goodwill of the ruler. Arthur S. Tritton describes dhimmis living under the rule of caliphs as vulnerable to whims of rulers and violence of mobs.{{ref|tritton}} Dhimmis were allowed to live, and even prosper, according to historian Clifford Bosworth, largely because they practiced valuable trades such as doctors or performed functions such as [[usury]] that Muslims could not perform for religious reasons.{{ref|bosw|}} Stil, in the late [[Middle Ages]] some Jews preferred living as dhimmis in Muslim lands to living under Christian rule. In the 15th century, Isaac Zarfati, who fled from [[Germany]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]], wrote ''"I proclaim to you that Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking, and where, if you will, all shall yet be well with you . . . Here every man may dwell at peace under his own vine and fig tree. Here you are allowed to wear the most precious garments. In Christendom, on the contrary, you dare not even venture to clothe your children in red or in blue, according to our taste, without exposing them to the insult of beaten black and blue, or kicked green and red"''{{ref|zarfati}} and in the 16th century Samuel Usque, a Portuguese refugee, wrote ''"here [in Turkey] the gates of liberty are always open for the observance of Judaism"''.
===Religious aspects===
====Freedom of religion and forced conversions====
[[Image:Rambam.jpg|frame|Maimonides]]
The pledge of protection granted dhimmis freedom to practice their religion and spared them from forced conversions. Indeed, in the early centuries of Islamic conquests, forcible conversions were rare, and it is possible that as late as at the time of the [[Crusades]] non-Muslims still constituted a majority of the population.{{ref|lewismaj}} In some cases overeager rulers broke the pledge and dhimmis were occasionally forced to choose between conversion to Islam and death. In the 12th century, rulers of the [[Almohad]] dynasty killed or forcibly converted many Jews and Christians in [[Andalusia]] and [[Maghreb]], possibly putting an end to the existence of Christian communities in North Africa outside [[Egypt]].{{ref|almohad}} According to Bernard Lewis, during the [[Cordoba]] massacre of 1148, the Jewish philospher, theologian, and physician [[Maimonides]] spared his life only through conversion to Islam; after Maimonides moved to Egypt, this conversion was ruled void by a [[qadi|Muslim judge]] who was a friend and patient of Maimonides.{{ref|maimon}} Other sources say that Maimonides, then 13, accepted exile with his family and most other Jews of the city over conversion or death.{{ref|maimonnoconvert}} {{ref|maimonnoconvert2}} Sporadic waves of forced conversions occurred at different times and places, for example, in [[Lybia]] in 1558-89, in [[Tabriz]] in 1291 and 1338, or in [[Baghdad]] 1333 and 1344.{{ref|conv}} In 1839, Jews were massacred in [[Meshed]] and survivors were forcibly converted.{{ref|meshed}}
Dhimmis had the right to choose their own religious leaders, [[patriarchs]] for Christians, [[exilarch]]s and [[geonim]] for Jews. However, the choice of the community was subject to the approval of the Muslim authorities, who sometimes blocked candidates or took the side of the party that offered the larger bribe{{ref|rleaders}}.
Dhimmis were prohibited from [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] on pain of death. They were also not allowed to obstruct the spread of Islam in any manner. Other restrictions included a prohibition on publishing or sale of non-Muslim religious literature, and a ban on teaching the Qur’an.
====Rituals====
Although dhimmis were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims. Display of non-Muslim religious symbols, such as crosses or icons, was prohibited on buildings, as well as on clothing (unless mandated as part of ''[[Dhimmi#Distinctive clothing|distinctive clothing]]''). Loud prayers were forbidden, as were ringing bells or trumpeting [[shofar]]s. According to one [[hadith]], [[Muhammad]] said: “The bell is the devil’s pipe.”{{ref|transl}} ([[Sahih Muslim]], book 24, #5279). Furthermore, dhimmis had to bury their dead without loud lamentations and prayers.
====Places of worship====
According to the Islamic law, the permission for dhimmis to retain their places of worship and build new ones depended upon the circumstances in which the land fell under the Muslim rule. According to an Islamic jurist [[al-Nawawi]], dhimmis could not use churches and synagogues if their land was conquered by attack. Islamic law does not allow dhimmis to build new churches and synagogues, expanding, or repairing existing ones, even if they fell in ruin, as well as in towns founded after t |
ons.com Short descriptions of the English Tenses]
[[Category:Grammatical tenses| ]]
[[br:Amzer (yezhoniezh)]]
[[de:Tempus]]
[[fr:Temps (grammaire)]]
[[hu:Igeidő]]
[[ja:時制]]
[[nn:Tempus]]
[[pl:Czas (gramatyka)]]
[[pt:Tempo verbal]]
[[ru:Время (грамматика)]]
[[fi:Aikamuoto]]
[[sv:Tempus]]
[[es:Tiempo (gramática)]]
[[zh:时态]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical aspect</title>
<id>12948</id>
<revision>
<id>41031769</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:42:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''grammatical aspect''' is a property of a [[verb]] that defines the nature of temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state.
It is to be stressed that aspect, as discussed here, is a ''formal'' property of a language. Some languages distinguish a large number of formal aspects (see the list below), while others distinguish none at all. Even languages that do not mark aspect formally, however, can convey such distinctions, if important, by the use of adverbs, phrases, serial verb constructions or other means.
==Common aspectual distinctions==
The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between [[perfective aspect]] and [[imperfective aspect]]. This is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages. It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the tenses known respectively as the [[aorist]] and [[imperfect]] in Greek, the [[preterite]] and imperfect in Spanish, the [[simple past]] (passé simple) and imperfect in French, and the [[perfect]] and imperfect in Latin. Essentially, the perfective aspect refers to a single event conceived as a unit, while the imperfective aspect represents an event in the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event. In the past tense, the distinction often coincides with the distinction between the simple past "X-ed", as compared to the progressive "was X-ing". For example, the perfective would translate both verbs in the sentence "He raised his sword and struck the enemy". However, in the sentence "As he was striking the enemy, he was killed by an arrow", the first verb would be rendered by an imperfective and the second by a perfective.
==Aspect vs. tense==
Aspect is a somewhat difficult concept to grasp for the speakers of most modern [[Indo-European]] languages, because they tend to conflate the concept of aspect with the concept of [[grammatical tense|tense]]. (The two concepts are mostly independent in the modern [[Slavic languages]], such as [[Russian language|Russian]], and in [[Greek language|Greek]].) Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect and progressive perfect) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is common in most other languages. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in informal English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten yet?" and "Did you eat yet?". Another is in the past perfect ("I had eaten"), which sometimes represents the combination of past tense and perfect aspect ("I was full because I had already eaten"), but sometimes simply represents a past action which is anterior to another past action ("A little while after I had eaten, my friend arrived"). (The latter situation is often represented in other languages by a simple perfective tense. Formal Spanish and French use a [[past anterior]] tense in cases such as this.)
==Lexical vs. grammatical aspect==
It is extremely important to distinguish between grammatical aspect, as described here, and [[lexical aspect]]. Lexical aspect is an inherent property of verbs, and is not marked formally. The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect; typical distinctions are between states ("I have"), activities ("I shop") and achievements ("I buy"). These distinctions are often relevant syntactically. For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used with a prepositional ''for''-phrase describing a time duration: "I had a car for five hours", "I shopped for five hours", but not "*I bought a car for five hours". Lexical aspect is sometimes called ''[[Aktionsart]]'', especially by [[German language|German]] and [[Slavist|Slavic]] linguists.
==Usage of aspects==
In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are a number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category is [[Chinese language|Chinese]], which differentiates a whole slew of aspects but relies exclusively on (optional) time-words to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern [[Indo-European language]]s (except [[Slavic languages]]), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in the tense system, with time.
In [[Russian language|Russian]], aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]], and still others with [[auxiliary verb|auxiliaries]] (e.g., English).
[[Arabic language|Arabic]] shows a contrast between [[dynamic aspect|dynamic]] and [[static aspect]]. For example, the concepts 'ride' and 'mount' are shown by forms of the same verb ''rukubun'', static in the former case and dynamic in the latter.
Important qualifications:
*In many cases, the English simple past is used in situations that would be rendered in the imperfective in most other languages, not the perfective. This occurs particularly with verbs that represent ongoing states, rather than actions ("He had two dogs" or "There was a chair on the floor"), and in constructions describing habitual actions ("He walked his dog every day").
*Although the perfective is often thought of as representing a "momentary action", this is not strictly correct. It can equally well be used for an action that took time, as long as it is ''conceived of'' as a unit, with a clearly defined start and end, such as "Last summer I visited France".
*Grammatical aspect represents a formal distinction encoded in the grammar of a language. Although languages that are described as having imperfective and perfective aspects will agree in most cases in their usage of these aspects, no two languages will agree in every situation. For example:
**Some languages have additional grammatical aspects. Spanish and Ancient Greek, for example, have a [[perfect aspect]] (not the same as the perfective!), which refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time). This corresponds (roughly) to the "have X-ed" construction in English, as in "I have recently eaten". Languages that lack this aspect (such as Portuguese, which is closely related to Spanish) often use the past perfective to render the present perfect (compare the synonymous American English sentences "Have you eaten yet?" and "Did you eat yet?").
**In some languages, the formal representation of aspect is optional, and can be omitted when the aspect is clear from context or does not need to be emphasized. This is the case, for example, in Chinese, with the perfective suffix ''le'' and (especially) the imperfective ''zhe''.
**For some verbs in some languages, the difference between perfective and imperfective conveys an additional meaning difference; in such cases, the two aspects will typically be translated using separate verbs in English. In Greek, for example, the imperfective sometimes adds the notion of "try to do something" (the so-called ''conative imperfect''); hence the same verb, in the imperfective (present or imperfect tense) and aorist, respectively, is used to convey ''look'' and ''see'', ''search'' and ''find'', ''listen'' and ''hear''. (For example, &#951;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#959;&#956;&#949;&#957; ''ēkouomen'' "we listened" vs. &#951;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#945;&#956;&#949;&#957; ''ēkousamen'' "we heard".) Spanish has similar pairs for certain verbs, such as (imperfect and preterite, respectively) ''sabía'' "I knew" vs. ''supe'' "I found out", ''podía'' "I was able to" vs. ''pude'' "I succeeded (in doing something)", ''quería'' "I wanted to" vs. ''quise'' "I tried to", ''no quería'' "I didn't want to" vs. ''no quise'' "I refused (to do something)". Such differences are often highly language-specific.
==Aspect in English==
According to one prevalent account, the English tense system is considered to have strictly only two basic ''times'' (since no primitive future tense exists in English, and the futurity of an event is expressed in English through the use of the [[auxiliary verb]]s "[[will future|will]]" and "[[shall]]", by use of a present form, as in "tomorrow we go to Newark", or by some other means). But present and past are expressed using direct modifications of the verb, which may then be modified further by the [[progressive aspect]] (also called the ''continuous'' aspect), the [[perfect aspect]] (also called the ''completed'' aspect), or both. E |
l". Still others believe that the name derives from [[Sanskrit]] ''upa-ganah'', said to mean "allied tribes".
Another etymological view is that the name ''Afghan'' evidently derives from [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] or [[Ashvakan]] (q.v), the Assakenoi of [[Arrian]]. This view was propounded by J. W. McCrindle and is supported by numerous modern scholars (including C. Lassen, S. Martin, Bishop, Crooks, W. Crooke, J. C. Vidyalnar, M. R. Singh, P. Smith, N. L. Dey, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S. Kirpal Singh and several others). In Sanskrit, word ''ashva'' ([[Iranian languages|Iranian]] ''aspa'', [[Prakrit]] ''assa'') means "horse", and ''ashvaka'' (Prakrit ''assaka'') means "horseman". Pre-Christian times knew the people of eastern Afghanistan as ''Ashvakas'' ([[cavalry |horsemen]]), since they raised a fine breed of horses and had a reputation for providing expert [[cavalrymen]]. The fifth-century-BCE [[India]]n grammarian [[Panini]] calls them ''Ashvayana'' and ''Ashvakayana''. Classical writers use the respective equivalents ''Aspasios'' (or Aspasii, Hippasii) and ''Assakenois'' (or Assaceni/Assacani, Asscenus). The Aspasios/Assakenois (= Ashvakas = cavalrymen) is stated to be another name for the [[Kambojas]] because of their [[equestrian]] characteristics (see [[List of country name etymologies]]).
The last part of the name ''Afghanistan'' originates from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''st&#257;n'' (''country'' or ''land''). The English word ''Afghanland'' that appeared in various treaties between [[Qajars|Qajar-Persia]] and the [[United Kingdom]] dealing with the Eastern lands of the Persian kingdom (modern Afghanistan) was adopted by the Afghans and became ''Afghanistan''.
Before being called 'Afghanistan', the region had gone through several name changes in its long history of around 5000 years. One of the most ancient names, according to historians and scholars, was ''Ariana'' - the Greek pronunciation of the ancient [[Avestan]] ''Aryanam Vaeja'' or the [[Sanskrit]] "Aryavarta", ''Land of the [[Aryans]]''. Today this Old-Persian, and [[Avestan]] expression is preserved in the name ''[[Iran]]'' and it is noted in the name of the Afghan national airline, ''[[Ariana Airlines]]''. The term 'Ariana Afghanistan' is still popular amongst Persian speakers in the country.
Many centuries later, Afghanistan was part of [[Greater Khorasan]], and hence was recognized with the name [[Khorasan]] (along with regions centered around [[Merv]] and [[Neishabur]]), which in [[Pahlavi]] means "The Eastern Land" (خاور زمین in Persian). ''([[Dehkhoda]], p8457)''
==History==
{{main|History of Afghanistan}}
Afghanistan exists at a unique nexus-point where numerous Eurasian civilizations have interacted and often fought and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region today known as ''Afghanistan'' has been invaded by a host of peoples, including the [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]], [[Medes]], [[Achaemenids|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryans]], [[Kushans]], [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[British]], and [[Soviets]], but rarely have these groups managed to exert complete control over the region. On other occasions, native Afghan entities have invaded surrounding regions to form empires of their own.
[[Image:Bamiyan.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Buddhas of Bamiyan, dating back to 1st century pre-Islamic Afghanistan, were the largest Buddha statues in the world. They were destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001 calling them "Us-Islamic". Photo by Hadi Zaheer]]
Between 2000 and 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], waves of [[Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]] are thought to have flooded into modern-day Afghanistan, setting up a nation that became known as ''Aryānām Xšaθra'', or "Land of the Aryans." [[Zoroastrianism]] is speculated to have possibly originated in Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BCE. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages such as [[Avestan]] may have been spoken in Afghanistan around a similar time-line with the rise of Zoroastrianism. Around 1000 BCE (or earlier), the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] [[Vedic]] civilization may have arisen near the vicinity of the [[Kabul]] valley of eastern Afghanistan, but this remains speculative as more viable theories based upon archaeological finds tend to support the emergence of the Vedic civilization east of the [[Indus]] and/or [[Ganges]] in what is today Pakistan and India. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the [[Achaemenids|Persian Empire]] supplanted the [[Medes]] and incorporated Aryana within its boundaries; and by 330 BCE, Alexander the Great had invaded the region. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenic successor states of the [[Seleucids]] and [[Bactrians]] controlled the area, while the [[Maurya]]ns from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced [[Buddhism]] to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.
During the 1st century [[Common Era|CE]], the [[Kushan]]s, a [[Tocharian]] people from Central Asia with Indo-European origins, occupied the region. Thereafter, Aryana fell to a number of Eurasian tribes &mdash; including [[Parthians]], [[Scythians]], and [[Hepthalites|Huns]], as well as the [[Sassanian]] Persians and local rulers such as the [[Hindu]] [[Shahi]]s in Kabul &mdash; until the 7th century CE, when Muslim [[Arab]] armies invaded the region.
The Arabs initially annexed parts of western Afghanistan in 652 and then conquered most of the rest of Afghanistan between 706-709 CE and administered the region as [[Khorasan]], and over time much of the local population converted to Islam, but retained their [[Iranian languages]]. Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] (962-1151), founded by a local [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ruler from [[Ghazni]] named [[Mahmud Ghaznavi|Yamin ul-Dawlah Mahmud]], that expanded its suzerainty over a vast area from [[Kurdistan]] to northern India. This empire was replaced by the Ghorid Empire (1151-1219), founded by another local ruler, this time of [[Tajik]] extraction, [[Muhammad Ghori]], whose domains included huge parts of Central and South Asia, and laid the foundations for the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in India.
In 1219, the region was overrun by the Mongols under [[Genghis Khan]], who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]]s, and was extended further following the invasion of [[Tamerlane]] (Timur Leng), a ruler from Central Asia. By 1400, all of Afghanistan came under his dominion, and he also laid the foundation of another Islamic empire in India, the [[Mughal Empire]]. The [[Uzbek]]-born [[Babur]], a descendant of both Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, established an empire with its capital at Kabul by 1504, and then expanded into South Asia in 1525 and established the Mughal Empire's rule throughout much of what is today Pakistan and northern India by 1527. As the empire shifted eastward, the [[Safavids]] of Persia challenged Mughal rule while the two superpower empires of the day battled over the fate of Afghanistan for decades with the Persians acquiring the area by the mid-17th century.
Local [[Ghilzai]] Pashtun tribesmen, lead by Khan Nashir, successfully overthrew Safavid rule, and under the [[Hotaki]] dynasty, briefly controlled all or parts of Persia itself from 1722 to 1736. Following a brief period under the rule (1736-1747) of the Turko-Iranian conqueror [[Nadir Shah]], one of his high-ranking military officers, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], himself a Pashtun tribesman of the [[Durrani|Abdali]] clan, called for a ''loya jirga'' following Nadir Shah's assassination (for which many implicate Abdali) in 1747. The Afghans/Pashtuns came together at Kandahar in 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah, who changed his last name to Durrani (meaning 'pearl of pearls' in Persian), to be king. The Afghanistan nation-state as it is known today came into existence in 1747 as the [[Durrani Empire]], and expanded outward from traditional Pashtun territories to include all of what is today Afghanistan, a portion of [[Mashad]] in Iran, and all of Pakistan and Kashmir as well. The Durrani Empire lasted for nearly a century until internecine conflict and wars with the Persians and [[Sikhs]] diminished their empire by the early 19th century. However, the current borders of Afghanistan would not be determined until the coming of the British.
During the 19th century, following the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]] (fought in 1839-1842, 1878-1880, and lastly in 1919), Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The United Kingdom exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King [[Amanullah]] acceded to the throne in 1919 (see "[[The Great Game]]") that Afghanistan regained complete independence. During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], and this would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and [[British India]], and later the new state of Pakistan, over what came to be known as the [[Pashtunistan]] debate.
The historical rulers of Afghanistan were part of the Abdali tribe of the ethnic Afghans, whose name was changed to [[Durrani]] upon the accession of [[Ahmad Shah]]. They belonged to the Saddozay segment of the [[Popalzay]] clan, or to the Mohammadzay segment of the Barakzay clan, of the ethnic Afghans. The Mohammadzay frequently furnished the Sadozay kings with top counselors, who served occasionally as regents, and identified with the name Mohammadzay.
Since 1900, eleven monarchs and rulers have been unseated through undemocratic means: in 1919 (assassination), 1929 (abdication), 1929 (execution), 1933 (assassination), 1973 (deposition), 1978 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1987 (removal), 1992 (overthrow), 199 |
ona started charging for interviews, a move that generated some controversy.
After breaking up with Cyterszpiller, Diego hooked up with Guillermo Coppola, a bank employee who started representing players as a hobby and evolved into a major agent. Coppola oversaw the biggest contracts of Diego's career, but also was involved in the drug scandals of the early 1990s. Maradona and Coppola parted ways acrimoniously, and they still refer to the end of their relations as an "open wound".
==Retirement and honours==
In [[2000]], Maradona published his autobiography ''Yo Soy El Diego'' ("I am ''The Diego''"), which became an instant [[bestseller]] in his home country. In the same year, Maradona was voted Player of the Century in an official FIFA [[opinion poll|poll]] conducted on the [[Internet]], garnering 53.6% of the votes. Then, in an unannounced move, FIFA appointed a "Football Family" committee, which voted to elect [[Pelé]] alongside the Argentine. Maradona cried foul and left the awards ceremony as soon as his prize was awarded. (For more on FIFA's handling of the issue, see this [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/11/pele_maradona/ Sports Illustrated article].)
In [[2001]], the [[Argentine Football Association]] asked FIFA for authorization to retire [[jersey number]] 10 as a homage to Maradona. Even though Argentine officials have claimed that FIFA hinted that it would grant the request, the authorization was denied.
Maradona has won other polls, including a [[2002]] FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the [[Goal of the Century|best goal ever scored in a World Cup]]; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team.
On [[22 June]] [[2005]], it was announced that Maradona would return to [[Boca Juniors]] as a sports vice president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disastrous [[2004-2005 in Argentine football|2004&ndash;05]] season, which coincided with Boca's centenary). His contract began [[1 August]] [[2005]], and one of his first reccomendations proved to be very effective: he was the one who decided to hire [[Alfio Basile]] as the new coach. With Maradona staying very close to the players, Boca went on to win the 2005 [[Apertura]] title, the [[Copa Sudamericana]] and the [[Recopa]]. Maradona remains aloof of day-to-day activities.
On [[15 August]] [[2005]], Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, ''[[La Noche del 10]]'' ("The Night of #10"). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. In subsequent programs, he led the ratings with only one exception. Almost all guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business.
==Personal Life==
Maradona married long-time fiancée Claudia Villafañe on [[November 7]], [[1989]] in Buenos Aires, after she gave birth to their daughters, Dalma Nerea (b. 1987) and Giannina Dinorah (b. 1989). In his autobiography, Maradona admits not always being faithful to Claudia, even though he refers to her as the love of his life.
Diego and Claudia [[divorce]]d in 2004. Daughter Dalma has since asserted that the divorce was the best solution for all, as her parents remained on friendly terms. Diego and Claudia traveled together to Napoli for a series of homages in June 2005. [http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334497]
During the divorce proceedings, Maradona admitted he was the father of [[Diego Sinagra]] (b. [[Naples]], 1986), as was claimed by his mother, Cristiana Sinagra. (The Italian courts had so ruled in 1993, after Maradona refused to undergo [[DNA]] tests for proving or disproving his paternity.) He met Maradona for the first time in May 2003 after the 17 year old tricked his way onto a golf course in Naples where Maradona was playing. Diego had spells on trial with [[Blackburn Rovers]] and [[Dunfermline Athletic]]. [http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334523]
After the divorce, Claudia embarked on a career as a theater producer, and Dalma is seeking an acting career; she has expressed her desire to attend the [[Actor's Studio]] in [[Los Angeles]]. [http://www.clarin.com/diario/2005/06/03/espectaculos/c-00811.htm], [http://www.clarin.com/diario/2005/06/19/sociedad/s-998340.htm]
==Health situation==
In marked contrast to the athleticism he showed during his years as a football player, since his retirement Maradona has been plagued by a series of health problems.
Since the 1990s, Maradona has been battling a [[cocaine]] [[Drug addiction|addiction]], which included spells in [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and Cuban detox clinics. Between 2002 and 2005, Maradona spent most of this time in Cuba.
On [[April 18]] [[2004]], doctors reported that Maradona had suffered a major [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] following a cocaine overdose; he was admitted to intensive care in a Buenos Aires hospital. Scores of fans gathered around the clinic. Days after the heart attack, a nurse was caught taking photos of Maradona with a [[cellular telephone]] and was promptly fired by the hospital managers.
After he showed improvement, Maradona was taken off the respirator on April 23 and remained in intensive care for several days before being discharged on April 29. He returned to Cuba in May.
Maradona has always had a tendency to put on weight, and has displayed a remarkable level of [[obesity]] since the late 1990s. On [[March 6]] [[2005]], it was announced that Maradona underwent [[gastric bypass surgery]] in a clinic in [[Cartagena de Indias]], [[Colombia]]. When Maradona resumed public appearances shortly afterwards, he displayed a notably thinner figure.
==Football style==
Short and stocky, Maradona had a very strong physique and could withstand physical pressure better than almost all players. His strong legs and low center of gravity gave him additional advantage in short sprints. This is illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup.
He was also a wizard with the ball and could manage himself in limited spaces, attracting defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second goal against England), or pass to a free teammate who would take the ball and score, like [[Jorge Burruchaga|Burruchaga]] did to secure the 1986 World Cup.
Maradona could convert fragile possessions into goals. His goal against Italy in the 1986 World Cup demonstrated this. In Maradona's time defenses became more athletic, so both dribbling and securing possession of the ball required additional speed and the ability to think under stress.
One of Maradona's trademark moves was [[dribbling]] full-speed as a left wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering accurate passes to his teammates that many times proved lethal. Another trademark was the ''[[Rabona]]'' or reverse-cross pass (shot behind the leg that holds all the weight), with which he provided several assists, such as the powerful cross for [[Ramón Díaz]]'s headed goal in the 1984 friendly match against [[Switzerland national football team|Switzerland]].
Maradona's kicking had a mixture of precision and power that enabled him to score many free kicks. Since he seldom used his right foot for any decisive action, defenders were confounded the few times he did.
==Political views==
In later years, Maradona has shown sympathy to [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] ideologies. He became friends with [[Fidel Castro]] while in treatment in [[Cuba]], and has a [[tattoo]] of [[Ernesto Guevara|Ernesto ''Che'' Guevara]] on his right arm. He has declared his opposition to [[imperialism]], notably during the [[2005]] [[Mar del Plata Summit of the Americas|Summit of the Americas]] in [[Mar del Plata]], Argentina, where he protested [[George W. Bush]]'s presence in Argentina, wearing a ''Stop Bush'' T-shirt.
==Reputation==
Ever since 1986, it is common for Argentines abroad to hear Maradona's name as a token of recognition, even in remote places. In Argentina, Maradona is often talked about in terms reserved for legends. In the Argentine film ''Son of the Bride'' (''El Hijo de la Novia''), an actor who impersonates a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Priest#Catholic_and_Orthodox|priest]] says to a bar patron: "they idolized him and then crucified him". When scolded by a friend for taking the prank too far (by elaborating on the [[passion]] of [[Jesus]]), the fake priest retorts: "But I was talking about Maradona".
In Buenos Aires, fans organized the "Church of Maradona." Maradona's 43rd birthday in 2003 marked the start of the Year 43 D.D. - "despues de Diego" or After Diego - for its founding 200 members. Tens of thousands more have become members via the Church's official web site.
Commentators in Argentina have often compared Maradona to [[Esteban Laureano Maradona]] ([[1895]]&ndash;[[1995]]), a [[physician]] who helped indigenous communities achieve better health standards, and was the recipient of the 1987 [[United Nations|UN]] Medicine for Peace prize. Dr. Maradona was renowned for his modesty, and worked until he turned ninety, so the comparison was often unfavorable to the footballer. Broadcaster [[Alejandro Dolina]] was the first to denounce the unfairness of this treatment.
Hounded for years by [[yellow journalism]], Maradona even fired a [[air rifle|compressed-air rifle]] against reporters who, so he claimed, invaded his privacy. This quote from former teammate [[Jorge Valdano]] summarizes the feelings of many:
:He is someone many people want to emulate, a controversial figure, loved, hated, who stirs great upheaval, especially in Argentina... Stressing his personal life is a mistake. Maradona has no peers inside the pitch, but he has turned his life into a show, and is now living a personal ordeal that should not be imitated. <!--Es un personaje al que mucha gente quiere i |
Klassik]]
[[el:Κλασσική μουσική]]
[[es:Música clásica]]
[[eo:Klasika epoko (eŭropa muziko)]]
[[fr:Musique de la période classique]]
[[ko:고전파 음악]]
[[id:Zaman Klasik (Musik)]]
[[he:מוזיקה קלאסית בתחילת העת החדשה]]
[[ja:古典派音楽]]
[[nn:wienerklassisismen]]
[[no:wienerklassisismen]]
[[pl:Klasycyzm w muzyce]]
[[pt:Era clássica]]
[[fi:Klassismin musiikki]]
[[zh:古典主义音乐]]</text>
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<title>Card games</title>
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<title>Casino games</title>
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<title>Computer games</title>
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<timestamp>2005-10-17T01:20:34Z</timestamp>
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<username>Andrevan</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Frazzydee</comment>
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<title>Collectable card games</title>
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<title>Character encoding</title>
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<ip>200.44.116.68</ip>
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<comment>More precision. The rules in an encoding could be more complex than a simple table pairing characters with octets. This is slightly more general than the previous definition.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''character encoding''' consists of a [[code]] that pairs a sequence of [[character (computing)|characters]] (representations of [[grapheme]]s or grapheme-like units, such as might appear in an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]] for the communication of a [[natural language]]) from a given [[set (computer science)|set]] with something else, such as a sequence of natural [[number]]s, [[octet (computing)|octets]] or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the [[computer storage|storage]] of [[text]] in [[computer]]s and the transmission of text through telecommunication networks. Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Latin alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a [[telegraph key]]; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols, both as [[integer]]s and as 7-[[bit]] [[Binary numeral system|binary]] versions of those integers (generally zero extended to 8 bits and stored in an octet).
In earlier days of computing, the introduction of '''character sets''' such as [[ASCII]] (1963) and [[EBCDIC]] (1964) began the process of standardisation. The limitations of such sets soon became apparent, and a number of ad-hoc methods developed to extend them. The need to support multiple [[writing system]]s, including the [[CJK]] family of East Asian scripts, required support for a far larger number of characters and demanded a systematic approach to character encoding rather than the previous ad hoc approaches.
==Simple character sets==
Conventionally character set and character encoding were considered synonymous, as the same standard would specify both what characters were available and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code units (usually with a single character per code unit). For historical reasons [[MIME]] and systems based on it use the term '''charset''' to refer to the complete system for encoding a sequence of characters into a sequence of octets.
==Modern encoding model==
[[Unicode]] and its parallel standard, ISO 10646 [[Universal Character Set]], which together constitute the most modern character encoding, broke away from this idea, and instead separated the ideas of what characters are available, their numbering, how those numbers are encoded as a series of "code units" (limited size numbers), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream of octets (bytes). The idea behind this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways. To correctly describe this model needs more precise terms than "character set" and "character encoding".
A '''character repertoire''' means the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. The repertoire may be closed, that is no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case with ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series), or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode and to a limited extent the [[Windows code pages]]).
A '''coded character set''' specifies how to represent a repertoire of characters using a number of non-negative integer codes. multiple coded character sets may share the same repertoire, for example [[ISO-8859-1]] and IBM code pages [[code page 037|037]] and [[code page 500|500]] all cover the same repertoire but map them to different codes.
A '''character encoding form''' (CEF) specifies the conversion of the integer code into a series of fixed size integer ''code values'' that facilitate storage in a system that uses fixed bit-widths (e.g. virtually any computer system). The simplest system is simply to choose a large enough fixed size that the values from the coded character set can be encoded directly. This works well for coded character sets that fit in 8 bits (as most legacy non-CJK encodings do) and reasonably well for coded character sets that fit in 16 bits (such as early versions of Unicode). However, as the size of the coded character set increases (e.g. modern Unicode requires at least 21 bits/character), this becomes less and less efficient, and it is difficult to adapt existing systems to use larger code values. Therefore, most systems working with Unicode today use either [[UTF-8]], which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or [[UTF-16]], which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words.
Finally, a '''character encoding scheme''' (CES) specifies how the fixed-size integer codes should be mapped into an octet sequence suitable for saving on an octet-based file system or transmitting over an octet-based network. With Unicode in most cases a simple character encoding scheme is used, simply specifying if the bytes for each integer should be in big-[[endian]] or little-endian order (even this isn't needed with UTF-8). However, there are also compound character encoding schemes, which use escape sequences to switch between several simple schemes (such as [[ISO 2022]]), and compressing schemes, which try to minimise the number of bytes used per code unit (such as [[SCSU]], [[BOCU]], and [[Punycode]]).
==Popular character encodings==
* [[ISO/IEC 646|ISO 646]]
** [[ASCII]]
* [[EBCDIC]]
* [[ISO/IEC 8859|ISO 8859]]:
** [[ISO/IEC 8859-1|ISO 8859-1]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-2|ISO 8859-2]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-3|ISO 8859-3]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-4|ISO 8859-4]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-5|ISO 8859-5]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-6|ISO 8859-6]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-7|ISO 8859-7]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-8|ISO 8859-8]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-10|ISO 8859-10]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-11|ISO 8859-11]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-13|ISO 8859-13]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-14|ISO 8859-14]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-15|ISO 8859-15]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-16|ISO 8859-16]]
* DOS character sets, also known as '''IBM [[Code page|code pages]]''':
** [[Code page 437|CP437]], [[Code page 737|CP737]], [[Code page 850|CP850]], [[Code page 852|CP852]], [[Code page 855|CP855]], [[Code page 857|CP857]], [[Code page 858|CP858]], [[Code page 860|CP860]], [[Code page 861|CP861]], [[Code page 863|CP863]], [[Code page 865|CP865]], [[Code page 866|CP866]], [[Code page 869|CP869]]
* [[Microsoft Windows | Windows]] character sets:
** [[Windows-1250]]
** [[Windows-1251]] for Cyrillic alphabets
** [[Windows-1252]]
** [[Windows-1253]]
** [[Windows-1254]]
** [[Windows-1255]] for Hebrew
** [[Windows-1256]] for Arabic
** [[Windows-1257]]
** [[Windows-1258]] for Vietnamese
* [[KOI8-R]], [[KOI8-U]], [[KOI7]]
* [[MIK Code page|MIK]]
* [[ISCII]]
* [[VISCII]]
* [[Big5]]
** [[HKSCS]]
* [[Guobiao code|Guobiao]]
** [[GB2312]]
** [[GB18030]]
* [[ISO 2022]], [[Shift-JIS]], [[Extended Unix Coding|EUC]]
* [[Unicode]] (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane'). See [[UTF-8]]
==See also==
* [[:Category:Character encoding]] &mdash; articles related to character encoding in general
* [[:Category:Character sets]] &mdash; articles detailing specific character encodings
* ''[[Mojibake]]'' &mdash; character set mismap.
==External links==
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]
* [http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr17/ Unicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model]
* [http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id= SIL's freeware fonts, editors and documentation] See [[SIL]]
* [http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/icu/demo/converters ICU Converter Explorer]
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrill |
to three years may pass before the complete effects are known. Complete [[occlusion]] of the AVM may or may not occur.
[[Embolization]], that is, occlusion of blood vessels via coils or screens introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, is frequently used as an adjunct to either surgery or radiation treatment. However, embolization alone is rarely successful in completely blocking blood flow through the AVM.
==External links==
*[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/avms.htm NINDS Arteriovenous Malformation Information Page]
*[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/detail_avms.htm NINDS Arteriovenous Malformations Fact Sheet]
*[http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/cerebro/AVM.html Arterio Venous Malformations of the Brain and Spine]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000779.htm Medline AVM Description]
*[http://www.irsa.org/index.html International RadioSurgery Association]
[[Category:Anatomical pathology]]
[[Category:Neurosurgery]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]
[[ja:脳動静脈奇形]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comparative method</title>
<id>7660</id>
<revision>
<id>42053187</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:57:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mark Dingemanse</username>
<id>119869</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* 1. Assemble cognate lists */ even English... wow!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the constant comparative method by [[Barney Glaser]] and [[Anselm Strauss]], see [[Grounded theory]].''
The '''comparative method''' (in [[linguistics]]) is a method used to detect genetic relationships between languages and to establish a consistent relationship hypothesis by reconstructing:
*the common ancestor of the languages in question,
*a plausible sequence of regular changes by which the historically known languages can be derived from that common ancestor.
The comparative method is the "gold standard" by which mainstream linguists judge whether two languages are related; relation is deemed certain only if a reconstruction of the common ancestor (or at least a partial reconstruction) is feasible. Other approaches to the problem that have been proposed, such as [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s "[[mass lexical comparison]]" method, are still considered too unreliable by most linguists.
==Genetically Related languages==
In the present context, "related" has a specific meaning: two languages are said to be [[genetic (linguistics)|genetic]]ally related if they are descended from the same ancestor language. Thus, for example, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]] are both descended from [[Latin]]. "Descent", in turn, is defined in terms of transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and are then influenced by their peers; they then transmit it to the next generation, and so on (how and why changes are introduced is a complicated, unresolved issue). A continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants.
This definition of relatedness implies that even if two languages are quite similar in their vocabularies, they are not necessarily closely related. Modern [[Persian language|Persian]] in fact takes more of its words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] than from its direct ancestor, [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]. This is because of heavy [[borrowing]] over the years from Arabic into Persian. But under the definition just given, Persian is considered to be descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian, and not from Arabic.
The comparative method is a method for proving relatedness in the sense just given, as well as a method for reconstructing the proto-phonemes of a languages of a family and uncovering the phonological changes the languages of a family have undergone.
==How the comparative method works==
{{IPA notice}}
Although there is no concrete set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, linguists generally agree on the basic steps, which are as follows:
===1. Assemble cognate lists===
Relationship between two (or more) languages can be suspected if they show a number of regular correspondences in lexicon, which means that there is a regularly recurring match between the phonetic structure of words with similar meanings. Thus, this step simply involves making lists of words which are likely cognates among the languages being compared. For example, looking at the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian family]], we might come up with the following list (although in practice a real list would be much longer):
{| class=wikitable
! Gloss
! [[Tongan language|Tongan]]
! [[Samoan language|Samoan]]
! [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]]
! [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
! [[Maori language|Māori]]
|-
| "one"
| ''taha''
| ''tasi''
| ''{{IPA|taʔi}}''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)kahi}}''
| ''tahi''
|-
| "two"
| ''ua''
| ''lua''
| ''rua''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)lua}}''
| ''rua''
|-
| "three"
| ''tolu''
| ''tolu''
| ''toru''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)kolu}}''
| ''toru''
|-
| "four"
| ''fā''
| ''fā''
| ''{{IPA|ʔā}}''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)hā}}''
| ''{{IPA|ɸā}}''
|-
| "five"
| ''nima''
| ''lima''
| ''rima''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)lima}}''
| ''rima''
|-
| "man"
| ''taŋata''
| ''taŋata''
| ''taŋata''
| ''kanaka''
| ''taŋata''
|-
| "sea"
| ''tahi''
| ''tai''
| ''tai''
| ''kai''
| ''tai''
|-
| "forbidden"
| ''tapu''
| ''tapu''
| ''tapu''
| ''kapu''
| ''tapu''
|-
| "octopus"
| ''feke''
| ''{{IPA|feʔe}}''
| ''{{IPA|ʔeke}}''
| ''{{IPA|heʔe}}''
| ''{{IPA|ɸeke}}''
|-
| "canoe"
| ''vaka''
| ''{{IPA|vaʔa}}''
| ''vaka''
| ''{{IPA|waʔa}}''
| ''waka''
|-
| "enter"
| ''hū''
| ''ulu''
| ''uru''
| —
| ''uru''
|}
However, caution needs to be exercised to avoid including borrowings or false cognates in the list, which could skew or obscure the correct data. This problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary (such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts, pronouns, and other basic terms). Nonetheless, basic vocabulary can be borrowed ([[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example, borrowed the word for "mother," ''äiti'', from [[Gothic language|Gothic]], while [[Pirahã language|Pirahã]], a [[Muran languages|Muran language]] of South America, borrowed all its pronouns from [[Língua Geral|Nhengatu]]; likewise, English borrowed the pronouns ''they'', ''them'', and ''their(s)'' from [[Old Norse language|Norse]]).
===2. Establish correspondence sets===
Once cognate lists are established, the next step is to determine the regular sound correspondences they exhibit. The notion of regular correspondence is very important here: mere phonetic similarity, as between English ''day'' and [[Latin language|Latin]] ''dies'' (both with the same meaning), has no probative value. English initial ''d-'' does '''not''' regularly match Latin ''d-'', and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to borrowing (e.g. Latin ''diabolus'' and English ''devil'', both ultimately of Greek origin). The [[Neogrammarian]]s ([[German language|German]] ''Junggrammatiker''), a group of radical young German linguists, mostly from the University of Leipzig, first emphasized this point in the late 1800s. Their motto, "sound laws have no exceptions," has remained a fundamental idea in historical linguistics to this day.
For example, although the correspondence ''d-'' : ''d-'' (where the notation "A : B" means "A corresponds to B") in English and Latin ''day'' and ''dies'' above is not regular, English and Latin '''do''' exhibit a very regular correspondence of ''t-'' : ''d-''. For example (in Latin, <c> represents /k/):
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! Latin
|-
| ''ten''
| ''decem''
|-
| ''two''
| ''duo''
|-
| ''tow''
| ''duco''
|-
| ''tongue''
| ''dingua'' (Old Latin)
|-
| ''tooth''
| ''dent-''
|}
Since a really systematic correspondence can hardly be accidental, if we can rule out alternative possibilities like massive borrowing, the correspondence can be attributed to common descent. If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more the better), and if they add up to a sensible pattern (one that could have been produced by known types of sound change), and if some of the correspondences are non-trivial (''t : t'' is trivial but ''{{IPA|ŋ}} : b'' is not), then common origin becomes a virtual certainty.
===3. Discover which sets are in complementary distribution===
During the time the comparative method was being developed (late 18th to late 19th century), two major developments occurred which improved the method's effectiveness.
First, it was found that many sound changes are conditioned by a particular '''context'''. Thus for example, in both Greek and Sanskrit, an aspirated stop evolved into an unaspirated one, but only if a second aspirate occurred later on in the same word; this is the so-called "[[Grassmann's law]]", known to the ancient Indian grammarians and promulgated as a historical discovery by [[Hermann Grassmann]].
Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in ''contexts that were later lost''. For instance, in Sanskrit [[velar]]s (''k''-like sounds) were replaced by [[palatal]]s (''ch''-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was ''*i'' or ''*e'' (the asterisk means that the sound is inferred rather than historically documented). Subsequent to this change, all instances of ''*e'' were replaced by ''a'' (or, more accurately, earlier ''*e'', ''*o'', and ''*a'' merged as ''a''). The situation would probably have been unreconstructable, had not the original distribution of ''e'' and ''a'' been recoverable from the evidence of other Indo-European languages. Thus, for instance, Latin ''que'', "and," preserves th |
dicembre]]
[[nl:19 december]]
[[ja:12月19日]]
[[no:19. desember]]
[[nn:19. desember]]
[[oc:19 de decembre]]
[[os:19 декабры]]
[[pl:19 grudnia]]
[[pt:19 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:19 decembrie]]
[[ru:19 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 19.]]
[[sco:19 December]]
[[sq:19 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:19 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 19]]
[[sk:19. december]]
[[sl:19. december]]
[[sr:19. децембар]]
[[fi:19. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:19 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 19]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 19]]
[[tt:19. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 19]]
[[th:19 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:19 tháng 12]]
[[tr:19 Aralık]]
[[uk:19 грудня]]
[[wa:19 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 19]]
[[zh:12月19日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 19]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 20</title>
<id>8849</id>
<revision>
<id>42011789</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:15:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 20]]''' is the 354th day of the year (355th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 11 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[217]] - The papacy of [[Pope Zephyrinus]] ends.
*[[1522]] - [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] accepts the surrender of the surviving [[Knights of Rhodes]], who are allowed to evacuate. They eventually re-settle on [[Malta]] and become known as the [[Knights of Malta]].
*[[1803]] - [[Louisiana Purchase]] completed.
*[[1860]] - [[South Carolina]] becomes first state to [[secession|secede]] from the [[United States]].
*[[1915]] - Last [[Australia]]n troops evacuated from [[Gallipoli]].
*[[1917]] - [[Cheka]], first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] secret police, founded.
*[[1951]] - Nuclear power first harvested when [[EBR-1]] powers four light bulbs.
*[[1952]] - [[United States Air Force]] [[C-124]] crashes and burns in [[Moses Lake]], [[Washington]] killing 87.
*[[1960]] - [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam]] is formed.
*[[1973]] - The Spanish [[Prime Minister]], Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, is assassinated by a [[car bomb]] attack in [[Madrid]].
*[[1984]] - The [[Summit tunnel fire]] is the largest underground fire in history, as a freight train carrying over 1 million litres of petrol derails near the town of [[Todmorden]] in the [[Pennines]].
*[[1988]] - The [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]] is signed at [[Vienna]].
*[[1989]] - [[Operation Just Cause]]: United States sends troops into [[Panama]] to overthrow government of [[Manuel Noriega]].
*[[1995]] - [[NATO]] begins peacekeeping in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]].
*1995 - An [[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 965|Flight 965]] [[Boeing 757]] crashes into a mountain 50 km north of [[Cali]], [[Colombia]] killing 160.
*[[1996]] - [[NeXT]] merges with [[Apple Computer]], starting the path to [[Mac OS X]].
*[[1999]] - [[Vermont]]'s [[Supreme Court]] rules that [[homosexuality|homosexual]] couples are entitled to same benefits and protections as married [[heterosexual]] couples.
*1999 - [[Macau]] is handed over to the [[People's Republic of China]] by [[Portugal]].
*2001 - [[Argentine economic crisis (1999-2002)]]: [[President of Argentina]] [[Fernando de la Rúa]] is forced out of office.
*[[2002]] - US Senator [[Trent Lott]] resigns as [[United States Senate Majority Leader|majority leader]].
*[[2005]] - [[2005 New York City transit strike]]: [[New York City]]'s [[Transport Workers Union]] Local 100 goes on strike, shutting down all [[New York City Subway]] and [[New York City Bus|Bus]] services.
==Births==
*[[1537]] - King [[John III of Sweden]] (d. [[1592]])
*[[1566]] - [[Edward Wightman]], English Baptist preacher (d. [[1612]])
*[[1579]] - (baptized) [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]], English playwright (d. [[1625]])
*[[1626]] - [[Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff]], German statesman (d. [[1692]])
*[[1629]] - [[Pieter de Hooch]], Dutch painter (d. [[1684]])
*[[1717]] - [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes]], French statesman and diplomat (d. [[1787]])
*[[1786]] - [[Pietro Raimondi]], Italian composer (d. [[1853]])
*[[1792]] - [[Nicolas Charlet]], French painter (d. [[1845]])
*[[1833]] - [[Samuel Mudd]], American physician (d. [[1883]])
*[[1838]] - [[Edwin Abbott Abbott]], English schoolmaster, theologian, and author (d. [[1926]])
*[[1841]] - [[Ferdinand Buisson]], French pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1932]])
*[[1860]] - [[Dan Leno]], English entertainer (d. [[1904]])
*[[1861]] - [[Ivana Kobilca]], Slovenian painter (d. [[1926]])
*[[1868]] - [[Harvey Firestone]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1881]] - [[Branch Rickey]], baseball executive (d. [[1965]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman]], American tennis player (d. [[1974]])
*[[1890]] - [[Yvonne Arnaud]], French-born actress (d. [[1958]])
*1890 - [[Jaroslav Heyrovský]], Czech chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
*[[1894]] - Sir [[Robert Menzies]], twelfth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1978]])
*[[1898]] - [[Irene Dunne]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1901]] - [[Robert Van de Graaff]], American physicist and inventor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1902]] - [[Sidney Hook]], American philosopher (d. [[1989]])
*1902 - [[George Edward Alexander Windsor]], Duke of Kent (d. [[1942]])
*[[1917]] - [[David Bohm]], American-born physicist, philosopher, and neuropsychologist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1922]] - [[George Roy Hill]], American film director (d. [[2002]])
*[[1926]] - Sir [[Geoffrey Howe]], British politician
*1926 - [[Otto Graf Lambsdorff]], German politician
*[[1927]] - [[Kim Young-sam]], [[President of South Korea]]
*[[1933]] - [[Jean Carnahan]], U.S. Senator
*[[1944]] - [[Bobby Colomby]], American musician ([[Blood, Sweat & Tears]])
*[[1945]] - [[Peter Criss|Peter George Criscoula]], American drummer and singer ([[KISS (band)]])
*[[1946]] - [[Uri Geller]], Israeli psychic
*1946 - [[Dick Wolf]], American television series creator
*[[1947]] - [[Gigliola Cinquetti]], Italian singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1949]] - [[Soumaïla Cissé]], Malian politician
*[[1952]] - [[Jenny Agutter]], English actress
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Badalucco]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Billy Bragg]], English singer and songwriter
*1957 - [[Mike Watt]], American bassist
*1957 - [[Joyce Hyser]], American actress
*1957 - [[Anna Vissi]], Greek singer
*[[1960]] - [[Nalo Hopkinson]], Canadian writer
*[[1963]] - [[Infanta Elena of Spain]], Duchess of Lugo
*[[1965]] - [[Rich Gannon]], American football player
*[[1966]] - [[Chris Robinson]], American singer ([[Black Crowes]])
*[[1970]] - [[Nicole DeBoer]], Canadian actress
*[[1978]] - [[Njitap Geremi]], Cameroon footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Ashley Cole]], English footballer
*[[1990]] - [[JoJo]](Joanna Levesque), American singer
==Deaths==
*[[217]] - [[Pope Zephyrinus]]
*[[860]] - King [[Ethelbald of Wessex]]
*[[910]] - [[Alfonso III of Leon]]
*[[1022]] - [[Elvira Mendes]], queen of [[Alfonso V of Castile]] (b. [[996]])
*[[1494]] - [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]], Italian poet
*[[1524]] - [[Thomas Linacre]], English scholar and physician
*[[1539]] - [[Johannes Lupi]], Flemish composer
*[[1590]] - [[Ambroise Paré]], French physician (b. [[1510]])
*[[1722]] - [[Kangxi Emperor]] of China (b. [[1654]])
*[[1740]] - [[Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon]], English military officer and statesman (b. [[1675]])
*[[1768]] - [[Carlo Innocenzio Maria Frugoni]], Italian poet (b. [[1692]])
*[[1812]] - [[Sacagawea]], Shoshone guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition
*[[1929]] - [[Émile Loubet]], 7th [[President of France]] (b.[[1838]])
*[[1937]] - [[Erich Ludendorff]], German general (b. [[1865]])
*[[1941]] - [[Igor Severyanin]], Russian poet (b. [[1887]])
*[[1954]] - [[James Hilton]], American author (b. [[1900]])
*[[1961]] - [[Moss Hart]], American author (b. [[1904]])
*1961 - [[Earle Page]], eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1880]])
*[[1968]] - [[John Steinbeck]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*[[1973]] - [[Luis Carrero Blanco]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]] (assassinated) (b. [[1903]])
*1973 - [[Bobby Darin]], American singer (b. [[1936]])
*[[1974]] - [[André Jolivet]], French composer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1976]] - [[Richard J. Daley]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1902]])
*[[1982]] - [[Arthur Rubinstein]], Polish-born pianist (b. [[1887]])
*[[1984]] - [[Gonzalo Márquez]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player (b. [[1946]])
*[[1989]] - [[Kurt Böhme]], German bass (b. [[1908]])
*[[1994]] - [[Dean Rusk]], [[United States Secretary of State]] (b. [[1909]])
*[[1996]] - [[Carl Sagan]], American astronomer and writer (b. [[1934]])
*[[1997]] - [[Denise Levertov]], English-born poet (b. [[1923]])
*1997 - [[Juzo Itami]], Japanese actor and director (b. [[1933]])
*[[1998]] - [[Irene Hervey]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*1998 - [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]], British scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]])
*[[1999]] - [[Hank Snow]], Canadian singer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2000]] - [[Mirza Ghulam Hafiz]], Indian statesman, politician, and philanthropist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2001]] - [[Foster Brooks]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1912]])
*2001 - [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], first [[President of Senegal]] (b. [[1906]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Dominic of Silos]]
* Also see [[December 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/20 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 19]] - [[December 21]] - [[November 20]] - [[January 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:20 Desember]]
[[ar:20 ديسمبر]]
[[an:20 d'abiento]]
[[ast:20 d'avientu]]
[[bg:20 декември]]
[[be:20 сьнежня]]
[[bs:20. decembar]]
[[ca:20 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 20]]
[[cv:Раш |
e]]
[[Category:Wars of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[ar:حروب البلقان]]
[[bg:Балканска война]]
[[de:Balkankriege]]
[[el:Βαλκανικοί πόλεμοι]]
[[es:Guerras de los Balcanes]]
[[fi:Balkanin sodat]]
[[fr:Guerres des Balkans]]
[[hr:Balkanski ratovi]]
[[ja:バルカン戦争]]
[[nl:Balkanoorlogen]]
[[pl:Wojny bałkańskie]]
[[pt:Guerra dos Balcãs]]
[[sl:Balkanski vojni]]
[[sv:Balkankrigen]]
[[tr:Balkan Savaşları]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buffalo</title>
<id>4824</id>
<revision>
<id>40391330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T05:53:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>35.11.133.67</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''buffalo''' is one of several species of [[bovine]]. It includes:
* members of the Asian genus ''[[Bubalus]]'' &mdash; the [[water Buffalo]], the [[anoa]] and the [[tamaraw]] (sometimes referred to as ''true'' buffalo).
* a member of the African genus ''Syncerus'' &mdash; the [[African Buffalo]] (or Cape Buffalo).
* a North American member of the genus ''[[Bison]]'' &mdash; the [[American Bison]] (or buffalo).
== Places called Buffalo==
'''Buffalo''' is also the name of several places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*'''[[Buffalo, New York]]'''
*[[Buffalo, Indiana]]
*[[Buffalo, Iowa]]
*[[Buffalo, Kansas]]
*[[Buffalo, Minnesota]]
*[[Buffalo, Missouri]]
*[[Buffalo, North Dakota]]
*[[Buffalo, Oklahoma]]
*[[Buffalo, South Carolina]]
*[[Buffalo, South Dakota]]
*[[Buffalo, Texas]]
*[[Buffalo, West Virginia]]
*[[Buffalo, Wisconsin]]
**[[Buffalo, Buffalo County, Wisconsin]]
**[[Buffalo, Marquette County, Wisconsin]]
** [[Buffalo City, Wisconsin]]
*[[Buffalo, Wyoming]]
*[[Buffalo Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Buffalo County, Wisconsin]]
*[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois]]
*[[Buffalo City Municipality, Eastern Cape]] in South Africa
*several [[Buffalo river]]s throughout the US and one in South Africa
== Other things called Buffalo==
* Buffalo is also a type of [[grass]].
* The intercollegiate athletic teams of the University of Colorado are known as the Buffaloes or [http://www.cubuffs.com/ "Buffs".]
* [[Buffalo (band)|Buffalo]] is the name of a heavy metal band.
* BUFFALO is also an acronym for ''Bit User Fast Friendly Aid to Logical Operations'', a monitor program for the [[Freescale 68HC11]] [[microcontroller]].
* Buffalo was at one time the proposed name for a province in Western [[Canada]] that would have encompassed what is now [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]], both of which emerged instead in 1905.
* '''Buffalo''' was a type of [[amphibious vehicle]] used by Allied forces during [[World War II]]
* The Buffalo or [[Brewster_F2A]] was a type of [[plane]] used by Allied (and Finnish) forces during [[World War II]]
* [[Buffalo fish]] is a type of fish found in the Mississippi valley.
* [[Buffalo Boots]] is a shoe brand.
* [[Buffalo Springfield]] was a folk and psychedelic rock band.
* [[South Africa (Australian rules football National Team) | Buffaloes]] the [[nickname]] of [[South Africa]]'s national [[Australian rules football]] team.
* [[Buffalo (game)|Buffalo]] is the name of a drinking game, especially popular in [[Iceland]].
* [[Buffalo wings]] are, in fact, chicken wings, deep-fried and coated in a spicy sauce.
* [[Buffalo Club]] is a [[country music]] band that debuted in [[1998]].
* [[Buffalo (mine protected vehicle)]]
* Buffalos are [[Belgians]] who immigrated to America in the early 20th century. They traveled through the city of Buffalo on their way to Detroit and Chicago.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Buffalo (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Búfalo]]
[[nl:Buffel]]
[[ja:バッファロー]]
[[pl:Bawół]]
[[sv:Buffalo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BeBox</title>
<id>4825</id>
<revision>
<id>37439634</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T00:49:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ali@gwc.org.uk</username>
<id>86816</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bebox.jpeg|right|thumb|The BeBox]]
The '''BeBox''' was a short-lived dual processor [[personal computer|PC]], offered by [[Be Incorporated]] to run their own [[operating system]], [[BeOS]].
The BeBox made its debut in October [[1995]] (BeBox Dual603-66). The processors were upgraded to 133 MHz in August [[1996]] (BeBox Dual603e-133). Production was halted at the end of 1996, following the port of BeOS to the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], in order for the company to concentrate on software. Be sold around 1000 66 MHz BeBoxes and 800 133 MHz BeBoxes.
== Hardware specifications ==
Initial prototypes were equipped with two [[AT&T Hobbit]] processors and three [[digital signal processor|DSP]]s.
Of particular note were the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] [[load meter]]s on the front of the unit, and the GeekPort in back, which allowed for experimentation.
* Two [[PowerPC 603]] [[Central processing unit|processors]] running at 66 or 133 [[Megahertz|MHz]] (a prototype version has also been found with two 200 MHz CPUs, though it was never released to the public)
* GeekPort: a digital and analog [[Input/output|I/O]] and [[Direct current|DC power]] connector, 37-pin connector on the [[ISA bus]].
** Two independent, bidirectional 8-bit ports
** Four A/D pins routing to a 12-bit [[Analog-to-digital converter|A/D converter]]
** Four D/A pins connected to an independent 8-bit [[Digital-to-analog converter|D/A converter]]
** Two signal [[ground (electricity)|ground]] reference pins
** Eleven power and ground pins:
*** Two at +5 V, one at +12 V, one at -12 V, seven ground pins.
== External links ==
* [http://www.bebox.nu/ The BeBox Zone]
* [http://www.josephpalmer.com/BeBox/BeBox.shtml BeBox Photo Gallery (Joseph Palmer: Be HW Engineer)]
{{compu-hardware-stub}}
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:PowerPC mainboards]]
[[cs:BeBox]]
[[de:BeBox]]
[[fr:BeBox]]
[[fi:BeBox]]
[[ia:BeBox]]
[[it:BeBox]]
[[nl:BeBox]]
[[pt:BeBox]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biomedical engineering</title>
<id>4827</id>
<revision>
<id>41788410</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:31:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Discordance</username>
<id>762600</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Further reading */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{globalize}}
[[Image:Flu Vaccine.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Vaccine]]
'''Biomedical Engineering''' is a discipline concerned with the development and manufacture of [[prosthesis|prostheses]], [[medical device]]s, diagnostic devices, [[medication|drugs]] and other therapies as well as the application of [[engineering]] principles to [[biological science]] problems. It combines the expertise of engineering with medical needs to improve [[healthcare]]. It is more concerned with biological, safety and regulatory issues than other forms of [[engineering]]. It may be defined as "The application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field." The field is often synonymous with [[bioengineering]], which is often considered the parent field. [[Tissue engineering]] is also often considered part of biomedical engineering.
Biomedical engineers usually require degrees from recognized universities, and sound knowledge of engineering and human anatomy and physiology. Their jobs often pay well (ranging from US $50,000 to $100,000 per year in 2005). Though the number of biomedical engineers is currently low (under 10,000), the number is expected to rise as modern medicine improves. Universities are now improving their undergraduate biomedical engineering courses because interest in the field is increasing.
It was not until the late [[1930s]] when researchers began to understand the effects of [[X-ray]]s on [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s and the electrical properties of tissues. These discoveries permitted doctors to use X-rays to get images of most [[organ systems]]. These techniques encouraged manufacturers to develop the modern array of [[medical imaging]] technologies. These technologies nearly eliminated the need for exploratory [[surgery]].
Imaging technologies were the first modern applications of scientific engineering to medical needs. Earlier devices were built as a craft by instrument-makers. These earlier devices included [[crutch]]es, platform shoes, [[artificial teeth|wooden teeth]], and the ever-changing instruments in the doctor’s bag. Some of the modern devices that followed medical imaging include [[pacemaker]]s, [[infusion pump]]s, the [[heart-lung machine]], [[dialysis]] machines, diagnostic equipment, imaging technologies of every kind, and [[tissue engineering|artificial organs]], implants, and advanced prosthetics.
Most biomedical devices are either inherently safe, or have added devices and systems so that they can sense their failure and shut down into an unusable, thus very safe state. A typical, basic requirement is that no single failure should cause the therapy to become unsafe at any point during its life-cycle. See [[safety engineering]] for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems.
Many biomedical devices need to be [[Sterilization (microbiology) |sterilized]]. This creates a unique set of problems, since most sterilization techniques can cause damage to machinery and materials.
Most biomedical devices are completely tested. That is, every line of [[Computer software|software]] is executed, or every possible setting is exercised and [[verification|verified]]. Most devices are intentionally simplified in some way to make the testing process less expensive, yet accurate.
==Regulatory Issues==
Regulatory issues are never far from the mind of a biomedical engineer. To satisfy safety regulations, most biomedical systems must have documentation to show that they were managed, designed, built, tested, delivered and used using a planned, approved process. This is thou |
''Endurance'']] was dispatched to remove the camp on [[25 March]], but was prevented from doing so by three Argentine [[warship]]s, forcing it to retreat. However, despite further evidence that the Argentine Navy had begun to assemble troops in [[Puerto Belgrano]], the [[UK Joint Intelligence Committee]]'s [[Latin America]]n group stated on [[30 March]] that "invasion was not imminent".
===Failed diplomacy===
Since formal [[Diplomacy|diplomatic relations]] were ended between the United Kingdom and Argentina, separate nations represented each nation's diplomatic interests. [[Peru]] was the representative of [[Argentina]] in the [[United Kingdom]], while [[Switzerland]] represented the [[United Kingdom]] in [[Argentina]]. By this arrangement, Argentine [[diplomat]]s in [[London]] were credentialed as Peruvian diplomats of Argentine [[nationality]], while United Kingdom diplomats in [[Buenos Aires]] were credentialed as Swiss diplomats of British nationality. The then-[[Peru|Peruvian]] [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]], [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], announced that his efforts in favour of peace were futile. Although [[Peru]] and [[Switzerland]] exerted great diplomatic pressure to avoid war, they were both unable to head off the conflict, and a [[peace plan]] proposed by [[President of Peru|Peruvian president]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was rejected by both sides.
===Invasion===
:''Main article: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]''
The [[Government of the United Kingdom|British Government]] warned [[Rex Masterman Hunt]], the then [[Governor of the Falkland Islands]], of a possible Argentine invasion on [[31 March]]. Hunt then organised a defence, and gave military command to [[Mike Norman|Major Mike Norman RM]] who managed to muster a small force of [[royal Marines|British Royal Marines]]. The Argentine [[Lieutenant-Commander]] in charge of the invasion, [[Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots]], landed his [[squadron]] of [[special forces]] at [[Mullet Creek]]. He proceeded to attack the [[Moody Brook Barracks]], the [[Government House]], and [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], until the British Falkland Islands government located at the Government House [[Surrender (military)|surrender]]ed on [[4 April]].
===Life under the occupation===
Argentina attempted to make several unwelcome changes to the culture of the Falkland Islands, in spite of earlier assurances that the Islanders' way of life and cultural identity would be maintained. Argentina changed Stanley's name to ''Puerto Argentino'', made [[Spanish language|Spanish]] the official language of the Islands, and commanded traffic to [[rules of the road|drive on the right]] by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and traffic signs. Despite the arrows, islanders defiantly continued to drive on the left, demonstrating their determination to remain British.
===Task force===
The British were quick to organise diplomatic pressure against Argentina and because of the long distance between the Falklands and United Kingdom, the British were reliant on a naval [[task force]], centred around the [[aircraft carrier]]s [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']] and the newly-commissioned [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']] and commanded by [[Sandy Woodward|Rear Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward]]. This task force would have to be self-reliant and able to project its force across the [[littoral]] area of the Islands. A second component was the amphibious assault shipping, commanded by Commodore M.C. Clapp RN. Contrary to common belief, Admiral Woodward did not command Commodore Clapp's ships. The embarked force comprised [[3 Commando Brigade]] Royal Marines, (including units from the [[Parachute Regiment]]) under the command of [[Brigadier J. Thompson]] RM to bring it up to its wartime strength. Most of this force was aboard the hastily commandeered cruise liner [[RMS Canberra|''Canberra'']]. Both Clapp and Woodward reported directly to the Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), Admiral Sir [[John Fieldhouse]], in Britain, who was the overall commander of the operation. In order to keep neutral shipping out of the way during the war, the UK declared a 'total exclusion zone' of 200 nautical miles (370 km) around the Falklands before commencing operation.
[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York|Prince Andrew]] served as a [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] helicopter pilot in HMS ''Invincible'' during the war, flying anti-submarine patrols. His helicopter was equipped with a [[Marconi Searchwater]] radar and acted as an improvised [[Airborne Early Warning]] platform, which would have been a valuable target. He also flew missions as an [[Exocet]] missile decoy - as he revealed in an apparently inadvertant admission shortly afterwards.
The British called their counter-invasion [[Operation Corporate]]. When this task force sailed from Britain the American news magazine ''[[Newsweek]]'' cover headline proclaimed "The Empire Strikes Back!" (in reference to the [[The Empire Strikes Back|Star Wars movie]])
Although the public mood in the UK was in support of an attempt to reclaim the islands, international opinion was much more divided. To some, Britain was a former [[colonialism|colonial]] power, seeking to reclaim a colony from a local power, and this was a message that the Argentinians initially used to garner support. Others supported Britain as a stable [[democracy]] invaded by a military dictatorship. British diplomacy centred on arguing that the Falkland Islanders were entitled to use the [[UN]] principle of self-determination and an apparent willingness to compromise. The UN [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] said that he was amazed at the compromise that the UK had offered. Nevertheless, Argentina rejected it, basing their arguments on rights to territory based on actions before 1945 and the creation of the UN. Many UN members realised that if territorial claims this old could be resurrected, and invasions of territory allowed unchallenged, then their own borders were not safe. So on [[April 3]] the [[UN Security Council]] passed Resolution 502, calling for the withdrawal of Argentine troops from the islands and the cessation of hostilities. On [[April 10]] the [[European Community|EEC]] approved trade sanctions against Argentina. President [[Ronald Reagan]] and the U.S. administration did not issue direct diplomatic condemnations, instead providing intelligence support to the British military.
===Shuttle diplomacy and U.S. involvement===
Legally, the United States had military treaty obligations to both parties in the war, bound to the UK as a member of [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] and to Argentina by the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (the "Rio Pact"). However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] only obliges the signatories to support if the attack occurs in Europe or North America above the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. The Rio Pact only obliges the US to intervene if one of the adherants to the treaty is attacked - the UK never attacked Argentina, only Argentine forces on British territory. In March, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Alexander Haig]] directed the U.S. Ambassador to Argentina to warn the Argentine government away from any invasion. President [[Ronald Reagan]] requested assurances from Galtieri against an invasion and offered the services of his Vice President, [[George H. W. Bush]], as mediator, but was refused.
In fact, the [[Reagan Administration]] was sharply divided on the issue. Meeting on [[5 April]], Haig and Assistant Secretary of State for Political Affairs [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] favored decisive backing of Britain, concerned that equivocation would undermine the NATO alliance. Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Thomas Enders, however, feared that supporting Britain would undermine U.S. [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] efforts in Latin America. He received the firm backing of [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|U.N. Ambassador]] [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], Haig's nominal subordinate and political rival.
The [[White House]] continued its [[neutrality]]; Reagan famously declared at the time that he could not understand why two allies were arguing over "That little ice-cold bunch of land down there". But he assented to Haig and [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Caspar Weinberger]]'s position. Haig briefly ([[April 8]]&ndash;[[April 30]]) headed a "shuttle diplomacy" mission between London and Buenos Aires, but at the end of the month Reagan blamed Argentina for the failure of the mediation, declared U.S. support for Britain, and announced the imposition of economic sanctions against Argentina.
In an infamous episode in June, Kirkpatrick cast a second veto of a [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] resolution calling for an immediate cease-fire, then announced minutes later that she had received instructions to abstain. The situation was blamed on a delay in communications, but perceived by many as part of an ongoing power struggle between Haig and Kirkpatrick.
Galtieri likely did not think that the UK would react; otherwise, it is doubtful that Argentina would have launched the attack. Of course, this would have been astounding to British people at the time, already familiar with [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s uncompromising style of government. She declared that the democratic rights of the Falkland Islanders had been assaulted, and would not surrender the islands to the Argentine jackboot. This stance was aided, at least domestically, by the staunchly loyalist British press, especially ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', which ran such headlines as 'GOTCHA' (following the sinking of the ''General Belgrano''). ''[[The Daily Mirror]]'', |
ustralia and most of Japan, has recently begun a [[world war]] against the combined European powers of the Octuple Alliance.
* ''[[Ill Bethisad]]'' is an ongoing, collaborative project with currently ca. 45 participants, originally created by [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/ Andrew Smith] from [[New Zealand]].
* ''[http://shwi.alternatehistory.com/Mr%20Hughes%20Goes%20to%20War.txt Mr. Hughes Goes to War]'' An alternate history where [[Charles Evans Hughes]] is elected [[President of the United States]] in [[1916]]
* ''[http://www2.gilemon.com:8080/mediawiki/index.php/Main_Page WikiDusk]'' is an Open Source novel - Wiki-editable - where on [[December 27]] [[2004]], a [[Starquake (star)|huge explosion halfway across the galaxy]] had packed even more power. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050718_star_quake.html]
[[Eric Flint]]'s rare policy of supporting [[fanfiction]] based on his [[1632 (novel)|1632 novel]] universe has created a vibrant forum section at [[Baen's Bar]], discussing the consequences of an event in which the fictional modern American town is transported back in time into the middle of the [[Thirty Years' War]], in the German province of [[Thuringia]].
==Further Reading==
*Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). ''Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction''. Mellen, [[2003]]
*Collins, William Joseph. ''Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History''. University of California at Davis [[1990]]
*Gevers, Nicholas. ''Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy''. University of Cape Town, [[1997]]
*Hellekson, Karen. ''The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time''. [[Kent State University]] Press, [[2001]]
*McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [[1994]]
*Snider, Adam. "Thinking Sidewise: Tips for building an Alternate History collection". ''School Library Journal'' April [[2004]][http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/article/CA406675]
==See also==
* [[Parallel universe (fiction)]]
* [[Virtual history]]
* [[Invasion literature]]
* [[Time travel in fiction]]
==External links==
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/soc.history.what-if soc.history.what-if] is the [[usenet]] [[newsgroup]] on alternate history
*[http://games.groups.yahoo.com/group/SHWI-ISOT/ SHWI-ISOT] is an online [[Role playing game|RPG]] set in an alternate early 19th Century where people from the early 21st Century have been sent back and are altering history
*[http://www.shadesofblack.org/wikisot/index.php?title=Main_Page WIKISOT] is the wiki record of history and events for the SHWI-ISOT online [[Role playing game|RPG]]
*[http://www.uchronia.net/ Uchronia] has a good [http://www.uchronia.net/intro.html introduction to the topic], and lists over 2000 works of alternate history.
*[http://www.alternatehistory.com/discussion Alternate History Discussion] is a moderated forum devoted to discussing alternate history.
*[http://www.uchronia.net/sidewise The Sidewise Award for Alternate History] lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration.
*[http://althistory.blogspot.com/ Today in Alternate History], a daily-updated blog, featuring "Important Events In History That Never Occurred Today" in several recurring timelines.
*[http://www.othertimelines.com/ This Day in Alternate History], not to be confused with the above.
*[http://www.histalt.com/ Histalt.com] is author [[Richard J. (Rick) Sutcliffe]]'s collection of Alternate History links.
*[http://www.paulkincaid.co.uk/article04.htm "How to change the world" - on Alternative histories]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/alternate-history mailing list about Alternate History]
*[http://althistory.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page The Alternate History Wiki]
*[http://www.johnreilly.info/althis.htm John Reilly's Alternative History]
*[http://www.changingthetimes.net/ Changing The Times], is an Alternate History Electronic Magazine written and maintained by Alternate Historians.
*[http://www.giampietrostocco.it/english.html Giampietro Stocco's thinking counterfactual], an Italian uchronic novelist's English homepage.
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Alternate history| ]]
[[Category:Science fiction genres]]
[[bg:Алтернативна история]]
[[cs:Alternativní historie]]
[[de:Alternativweltgeschichte]]
[[es:Ucronía]]
[[fr:Uchronie]]
[[it:Ucronia]]
[[no:Kontrafaktisk historie]]
[[nl:Alternatieve geschiedenis]]
[[pl:Historia alternatywna]]
[[sv:Alternativvärld Historia]]--></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Audiogalaxy</title>
<id>1204</id>
<revision>
<id>40100111</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T03:16:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.71.60.92</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>deleted "Joan Baez" you stupid losers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGSatellite609.png|thumb|300px|Audiogalaxy Satellite 0.609]]
'''Audiogalaxy''' was a [[file sharing]] system located at http://www.audiogalaxy.com/ that indexed [[MP3]] files. Founded by [[Michael Merhej]] and sporting a web-based [[search engine]], always-on searching for requested files, auto-resume and low system impact, it quickly gained ground among file sharers abandoning [[Napster]] in [[2001]]. Some observing the previous downfall of Napster via lawsuit were shocked at the design of Audiogalaxy, which was in some ways more centralized than Napster.
*"I don't get it- why do you guys still come here? lol"- Famous quote by Michael Merhej who posted on the GD board!!!
* In May of 2001, Audiogalaxy implemented "groups" which allowed group members to send songs to everyone in the group. Clever hackers used this backdoor to circumvent the "blocked songs" restriction, where Audiogalaxy could deny transfer of specific copyrighted songs.
* For those curious, here is how blocked songs could be downloaded, Not quite "hacking" but a clever workaround:
"You need 2 accounts, so sign up for a second if you only have one.
create a group with your 1st a/c and get your 2nd a/c to join it,
go into your 2nd a/c & click the song with the X you want 2 download,
it will tell you its copyrighted
look at the url in the address bar & take note of the numbers at the end,
paste this into the address bar & add the numbers (and go to that url):
http://www.audiogalaxy.com/groups/sendSong.php?&g=
click send to group
go back into your 1st a/c & run the satellite
the copyrighted song will start downloading!"
* On [[May 9]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy required songs to be in the sender's shared folder to be sent. Previously, one could send any song to anyone by editing the [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] parameters. This protection was quickly defeated by creating a "dummy" file in one's shared folder, and sending a song with the same name -- due to Audiogalaxy's [[checksum]] [[hash function|hashing]], the correct file was always sent despite the dummy.
* Even though Audiogalaxy claimed that they were trying to cooperate with the [[music industry]] and block [[copyright]]ed songs from their network, they continued to offer illegal MP3s and were sued by [[RIAA]], on [[May 24]], [[2002]]. On this day, Audiogalaxy blocked sending of all blocked songs.
* On [[June 17]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy reached an [[out-of-court settlement]] with the RIAA. The settlement reached would allow Audiogalaxy to operate a "filter-in" system, which required that for any music available, the songwriter, music publisher, and/or recording company must first consent to the use and sharing of the work.
* On [[September 8]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy licensed and re-branded a for-pay streaming service called ''[[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody]]'' from [[Listen.com]] and discontinued its famous web-based P2P service.
* On [[December 25]], [[2002]], Martin Rieder wrote a preliminary form of a database-backed backwards-compatible Audiogalaxy server, dubbed OpenAG Server.
Audiogalaxy's stated mission was to facilitate sharing of music, though much more appears to have grown from its legacy. It was notable for its strong community due to such features as chat-enabled groups and per-artist [[internet forum]]s. Although music is no longer shared, some message boards are still moderately active. Some of the more active forums include the Radiohead, Rush, and General Discussion boards.
Files of any type could easily be shared via Audiogalaxy by renaming a file in a certain way. For example, cdrwin37.zip would be shared by renaming it to cdrwin37<space>zip<space>.mp3
In August 2005, an imitation Audiogalaxy site was set up for discussion boards:
http://www.agelesscommunity.com
== External links ==
*[http://www.riaa.com/PR_story.cfm?id=522 RIAA, NMPA Reach Settlement With Audiogalaxy.com]
*[http://www.audiogalaxy.com/getRhapsody Audiogalaxy's Rhapsody service:]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041128094621/http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/6/21/171321/675 R.I.P Audiogalaxy] - Kennon Ballou's story of Audiogalaxy (an Audiogalaxy programmer) - Now on web.archive.org
[[Category:File sharing networks]]
[[Category:File sharing programs]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]
[[de:Audiogalaxy]]
[[es:Audiogalaxy]]
[[fr:Audiogalaxy]]
[[pt:Audiogalaxy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic orbitals</title>
<id>1205</id>
<revision>
<id>15899701</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-18T04:35:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smack</username>
<id>10888</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
ing something. Often very disorienting and distracting, presque vu rarely leads to an actual breakthrough. Frequently, one experiencing presque vu will say that they have something "on the tip of their tongue". Presque vu is often cited by people who suffer from epilepsy or other seizure-related brain conditions, such as [[temporal lobe lability]].
* ''Déjà éprouvé'': "already attempted or tried"
==Popular references==
In the [[1999]] [[motion picture]] ''[[The Matrix]]'', the character of Neo experiences déjà vu (though the experience somewhat differs: Neo sees a black cat go past two times consecutively). Trinity explains to Neo that "the déjà vu is usually a glitch in the Matrix. It happens when [the Matrix's agents] change something."
''Déjà vu'' is the name of a Giant Inverted Boomerang ("Super Invertigo") [[roller coaster]] by [[Vekoma]] that is operating at [[Six Flags Great America]], [[Six Flags Magic Mountain]] and [[Six Flags Over Georgia]].
Comedian [[George Carlin]] invented an alternate phenomenon he called ''vujà dé'', or "the feeling that somehow, none of this ''has ever happened before!''"
Deja Vu is the name of a popular string of exotic strip clubs headquartered out of Lansing, Michigan USA.
Deja vu is the name of a [[Silver Age of Comic Books|Silver Age]] [[Batman]] villain.
[[United States|American]] [[singer]]/[[songwriter]] [[John Fogerty]] wrote a song called (somewhat redundantly) "Déjá Vu (All Over Again)."
==See also==
*[[Psychology]]
*[[Phenomenon]]
==References and notes==
* {{cite web
| title = Neppe Déjà Vu Research and Theory
| work = Pacific Neuropsychiatric Institute
| url = http://www.pni.org/books/deja_vu_info.html
| accessdate = November 29
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note|dickens}} {{cite book
| last = Dickens
| first = Charles
| title = Personal History of David Copperfield
| publisher = Time Warner Libraries
| year = 1991
| id = ISBN 1879329018
}}
* {{Citepaper
| Author = Funkhouser, Arthur
| Title = Three types of deja vu
| PublishYear = 1996
| URL = http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=264&cn=0
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = J. H. Jackson
| authorlink = J. Hughlinks-Jackson
| title = A particular variety of epilepsy "intellectual aura", one case with symptoms of organic brain disease
| journal = Brain
| year = 1888
| volume = 11
| pages = 179-207
| url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/2/179
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hawthorne
| first = Nathaniel
| title = Our Old Home
| publisher = Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co.
| year = 1863
| id = ISBN 1404374248
}}
* {{Citepaper
| Author = Jung, C. G.
| Title = On synchronicity
| PublishYear = 1966
| URL = http://www.heureka.clara.net/books/synchronicity.htm
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Scott
| first = Sir Walter
| title = Guy Mannering or The Astrologer
| publisher = Edinburgh: J. Ballantyne & Co.
| year = 1815
| id = ISBN 0766170713
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=2c4f7afd-5a3a-4e52-a2fb-bc729692bfb4&k=48785 "When deja vu is more than just an odd feeling" ''The Ottawa Citizen'', February 20 2006]
* [http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i46/46a01201.htm "The Tease of Memory" ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', July 23 2004]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/14/science/14deja.html?ex=1252900800&en=331d6db9dff26282&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland "Déjà Vu: If It All Seems Familiar, There May Be a Reason" ''New York Times'', September 14, 2004]
* [http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro98/202s98-paper2/Johnson2.html "UGH! I Just Got the Creepiest Feeling That I Have Been Here Before: Déjà vu and the Brain, Consciousness and Self", Neurobiology and Behavior, 1998]
* [http://skepdic.com/dejavu.html The Skeptic's Dictionary]
[[Category:French phrases]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[cs:Déjà vu]]
[[da:Deja-vu]]
[[de:Déjà-vu]]
[[el:Προμνησία]]
[[es:Déjà vu]]
[[fi:Déjà vu]]
[[fr:Déjà vu]]
[[he:דז'ה וו]]
[[is:Déjà vu]]
[[it:Déjà vu]]
[[ja:既視感]]
[[nl:Déjà vu]]
[[no:Déjà vu]]
[[pl:Déjà vu]]
[[pt:Déjà vu]]
[[ru:Дежавю]]
[[sv:Déjà vu]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dionysius Thrax</title>
<id>8892</id>
<revision>
<id>41930198</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:22:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pasky</username>
<id>215748</id>
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<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dionysius Thrax''' ({{Polytonic|Διονύσιος Θρᾷξ}}) ([[170 BC]]&#8209;[[90 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] era [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[grammarian]] who lived and is thought by some to have worked in [[Alexandria]] and later at [[Rhodes]].
He wrote the first extant grammar of Greek, '''"Art of Grammar"''' (''Tékhnē grammatiké''). It concerns itself primarily with a [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] description of Greek, lacking any treatment of [[syntax]]. The work was translated into [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Syriac]] in the early [[Christian]] era.
Thrax defines grammar at the beginning of the ''Tékhnē'' as "the practical knowledge of the general usages of [[poet]]s and [[prose]] writers." Thus Thrax, like contemporary Alexandrian scholars who edited [[Attic Greek]] and [[Homer|Homeric texts]], was concerned with facilitating the teaching of classic Greek literature to an audience who spoke [[Koine]] Greek.
==References==
* Dionysios Thrax, [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tec0.html Art of Grammar]
*Robins, R. H. ''A Short History of Linguistics'' (Indiana UP, 1967). (ISBN 025335210X)
[[Category:Ancient Greeks|Thrax, Dionysius]]
[[Category:Greek linguists|Thrax, Dionysius]]
{{Greece-bio-stub}}
[[de:Dionysios Thrax]]
[[hu:Dionüsziosz Thrax]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>December 29</title>
<id>8893</id>
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<id>42014784</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:46:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable - added link to Herrere (needs an article)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 29]]''' is the 363rd day of the year (364th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 2 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1170]] - [[Thomas Becket]] is slain in his own cathedral by knights eager to please [[Henry II of England]].
*[[1813]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[United Kingdom|British]] soldiers burn [[Buffalo, New York]].
*[[1835]] - The [[Treaty of New Echota]] is signed, ceding all the lands of the [[Cherokee]] east of the [[Mississippi River]] to the [[United States]].
*[[1845]] - [[Republic of Texas]] and [[United States]] agree to [[annexation]] of [[Texas]]. [[Texas]] is admitted as the 28th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1851]] - The first American-based [[YMCA]] opens in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[1860]] - The first [[United Kingdom|British]] seagoing [[iron-clad warship]], the [[HMS Warrior (1860)|HMS ''Warrior'']] is launched.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Chickasaw Bayou]] ends.
*[[1876]] - The [[Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster|Ashtabula River Railroad bridge disaster]], 64 injured, 92 dead at [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].
*[[1890]] - [[Wounded Knee Massacre]]: The [[United States]] soldiers massacre over 400 men, women and children of the [[Great Sioux Nation]] at [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]].
*[[1891]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the [[radio]].
*[[1911]] - [[Sun Yat-sen]] becomes the first President of the [[Republic of China]].
*[[1913]] - [[Seligs Polyscope Company]] releases ''[[The Unwelcome Throne]]'', the first serial [[motion picture]].
*[[1921]] - [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
*[[1934]] - The first college [[basketball]] game at [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]] is played between the [[University of Notre Dame]] and [[New York University]].
*1934 - [[Japan]] renounces the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]] and the [[London Naval Treaty]] of [[1930]].
*[[1937]] - The [[Irish Free State]] is replaced by a new state called [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] with the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Ireland|constitution]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: In [[The Second Great Fire of London]], the [[Luftwaffe]] firebombs [[City of London]], killing almost 200 civilians.
*[[1949]] - [[KC2XAK]] of [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]] becomes the first [[Ultra high frequency]] (UHF) [[television]] station to operate a daily schedule.
*[[1963]] - 22 people perish in the [[Hotel Roosevelt fire]], the worst fire to occur in [[Jacksonville, Florida]] since the [[Great Fire of 1901]].
*[[1972]] - An [[Eastern Airlines]] [[Lockheed]] "[[Tristar]]" crashed on approach to [[Miami International Airport]], [[Florida]], killing 101.
*[[1975]] - A bomb explodes at [[New York City]]'s [[LaGuardia Airport]] killing 11.
*[[1987]] - [[Yuri Romanenko]] of [[USSR]] returns to [[Earth]] after 326 days in [[space]].
*[[1989]] - [[Václav Havel]] becomes [[President]] of [[Czechoslovakia]].
*1989 - Riots break-out after [[Hong Kong]] decides to forcibly repatriate [[Vietnam]]ese [[refugee]]s.
*1989 - On the final day of trading for the year and decade, the [[Japan]]ese [[Nikkei 225]] Average closes at an all-time high of 38,915.87.
*[[1992]] - [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], president of [[Brazil]], resigned.
*[[1993]] - Construction of the [[Tian Tan Buddha]], the world's tallest outdoor [[bronze]] [[statue]] of the seated [[Buddha]], is completed.
*[[1996]] - [[Guatemala]] and leaders of [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union]] sign a peace accord ending a 36 year [[civil war]].
*[[1997]] - [[Hong Kong]] begins to kill all th |
ation]] (WMO) and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) to assess the "risk of human-induced [[climate change]]". The Panel is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.
IPCC reports are widely cited [http://books.nap.edu/html/climatechange/summary.html] [http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/climatechangeresearch_2003.html] in almost any debate related to climate change [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=1630] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/displaypagedoc.asp?id=11509]. The reports have been influential in forming national and international responses to climate change. A small but vocal minority (less than 1.5%) of the scientists involved with the report have accused the IPCC of bias.
==Aims==
The principles of the IPCC operation [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf] are assigned by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UN [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process.
:"The role of the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to policy, although they may need to deal objectively with scientific, technical and socio-economic factors relevant to the application of particular policies.
:Review is an essential part of the IPCC process. Since the IPCC is an intergovernmental body, review of IPCC documents should involve both peer review by experts and review by governments" [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].
<!-- The template generating the following text has been listed for deletion. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_deletion#Template:Editnote for discussion and voting -->
<!-- Editors Note: The "human-induced" phrase has been challenged several times. It is in the IPCC "About" page and the IPCC Principles, and indeed in the quote just above. -->
The stated aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:
# human-induced climate change,
# the impacts of human-induced climate change,
# options for adaptation and mitigation.
The history of the IPCC is described [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/anniversarybrochure.pdf here].
==Operations==
The current Chair of the IPCC is [[Rajendra K. Pachauri]], elected in May 2002; previously [[Robert Watson (scientist)|Robert Watson]] headed the IPCC.
The IPCC Panel is composed of representatives appointed by governments and organizations. Participation of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged. Plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC [[Working group|Working Groups]] are held at the level of government representatives. Non Governmental and Intergovernmental Organisations may be allowed to attend as observers. Sessions of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are by invitation only [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/meet.htm]. Attendance at the [[2003]] meeting was 350 government officials and climate change experts. After the opening ceremonies, plenary sessions are closed meetings [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/pr14022003.html]. The meeting report [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/session20/finalreport20.pdf] states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions and with about seven-eighths of participants being from governmental organizations [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/drepipcc20att-a.pdf].
The IPCC is led by government scientists, but also involves several hundred academic scientists and researchers. It synthesises the available information about [[climate change]] and [[global warming]], has published four major reports reviewing the latest climate science, as well as more specialized reports.
The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor climate related data or other relevant parameters. It bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm].
There are several major groups:
* IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about once a year and controls the organization's structure and procedures. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.
* Chair: Elected by the Panel.
* Secretariat: Oversees and manages all activities. Supported by [[UNEP]] and [[WMO]].
* Bureau: Elected by the Panel. Chaired by the Chair. 30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups and Task Force.
* Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, and a technical support unit.
** Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
** Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
** Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change.
* Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
The IPCC receives funding from UNEP, WMO, and its own Trust Fund for which it solicits contributions from governments.
== Activities ==
The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted to it by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].
The IPCC is currently (April 2006) in the process of preparing the ''[[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]'' or AR4 [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/ar.htm#ar4]; reports of the workshops held so far are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/workshops.htm].
* Working Group I [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]:
** Report is due to be finalised during the first quarter of [[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 3 AR4 meetings, with only public information being meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles.
* Working Group II [http://www.gtp89.dial.pipex.com/index.htm]:
** Report is due to be finalised in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released.
** One shared meeting with WG III has taken place, with a published summary.
* Working Group III [http://www.rivm.nl/mnp/ieweb/ipcc/index.html]:
** Report is due to be finalized in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there has been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released.
If it is decided to prepare one the AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) would be finalised during the last quarter of 2007. Documentation on the scoping meetings for the AR4 are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/ar4scope.htm] as are the outlines for the WG I report [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1outlines.pdf] and a provisional author list [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1authors.pdf].
While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre [http://ipcc-ddc.cru.uea.ac.uk/] and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme [http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/], required under the [[UNFCCC]]. This involves publishing default [[emission factor]]s, which are factors used to derive emissions estimates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial production and so on.
The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UNFCCC '''Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)'''.
== Publications ==
The IPCC reports are a compendium of [[peer review]]ed and published science. Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report and also notes areas where further research is required.
Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, and participating organisations and the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts as appropriate, known through their publications and works ([http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf], 4.2.1,2). The composition of the group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is intended to reflect the need to aim for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation (ensuring appropriate representation of experts from developing and developed countries and countries with economies in transition).
There are generally three stages in the review process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* Expert review (6-8 weeks)
* Government/expert review
* Government review of:
** Summaries for Policymakers
** Overview Chapters
** Synthesis Report
Review comments are in an open archive for at least five years.
There are several types of endorsement which documents receive [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* '''approval''': Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''approved'' by their Working Groups.
** Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is ''approved'' by Panel.
* '''adoption''': Endorsed section by section (and not line by line).
** Panel ''adopts'' Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
** Panel ''adopts'' IPCC Synthesis Report.
* '''acceptance''': Not been subject to line by line discussion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, objective, and balanced view of the subject matter.
** Working Groups ''accepts'' their reports.
** Task Force Reports are ''accepted'' by the Panel.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''accepted'' by the Panel after group ''approval''.
The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards. The Panel's ''approval'' process has been criticized for changing the product of the experts who create |
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The '''Apple I''' was an early [[personal computer]], and the first to combine a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] with a [[microprocessor]] and a connection to a [[computer display|monitor]].
The Apple I was designed by [[Steve Wozniak]] originally for personal use. Wozniak's friend [[Steve Jobs]] had the idea of selling the computer. It was sold as Apple's first product, beginning in April 1976. Its retail price was US$666.66. About 200 units were produced. Unlike other hobbyist computers of its day, which were sold as kits, the Apple I was a fully-assembled circuit board containing about 30 chips. However, to make a working computer, users still had to add a case, power supply, keyboard, and display. An optional board providing a cassette interface for storage was later released at a cost of $75.
The Apple I is sometimes credited as the first personal computer to be sold in fully assembled form; however, some argue that the honour rightfully belongs to other machines, such as the [[Datapoint 2200]].
The Apple I's use of a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer display|monitor]] was distinctive. Competing machines such as the [[Altair 8800]] generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to keyboards and monitors. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day, despite its lack of graphics or sound capabilities. It was discontinued in March 1977, when it was replaced with the [[Apple II]].
As of the [[as of 2005|turn of the millennium]], an estimated 30 to 50 Apple Is are still known to exist, making it a [[collector's item]]. An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 at auction in 1999; however, a more typical price for an Apple I is in the $14,000&ndash;$16,000 range. A software-compatible clone of the Apple I ([[Replica I]]) produced using modern components, was released in 2003 at a price of around $200.
==References==
* Owad, Tom (2005). ''[http://www.applefritter.com/replica Apple I Replica Creation: Back to the Garage.]'' Rockland, MA: Syngress Publishing. Copyright © 2005. ISBN 1-931836-40-X.
==External links==
* [http://www.applefritter.com/apple1 Apple I Owners Club]
* [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/05/0509.html Macintosh Prehistory: The Apple I]
* [http://www.brielcomputers.com The Replica-1]
[[Category:Early microcomputers]]
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<page>
<title>Apache webserver</title>
<id>1345</id>
<revision>
<id>15899834</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-02T03:20:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wapcaplet</username>
<id>6264</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apache HTTP Server]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Apatosaurus</title>
<id>1346</id>
<revision>
<id>40384795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T04:53:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Denniss</username>
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<comment>/* Classification and history */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Apatosaurus''
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Apatosaurus.gif
| image_width=240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = [[Dinosaur|Dinosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Sauropodomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Sauropoda]]
| familia = [[Diplodocidae]]
| genus = '''''Apatosaurus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1877
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
''Apatosaurus ajax''<br/>
''Apatosaurus excelsus''<br/>
''Apatosaurus louisae''<br/>
}}
'''''Apatosaurus''''' (ah-PAT-o-sawr-us) meaning "deceptive lizard", because its [[Chevron (anatomy)|chevron bones]] were like those of ''[[Mosasaurus]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''apatelos'' = deceptive + ''sauros'' = lizard), often refered to as ''[[Brontosaurus]]'', is a [[genus]] of [[sauropod]] [[dinosaur]]s that lived about 140 [[million years ago]], during the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]]. They were some of the largest land [[animal]]s that ever existed, about 4.5 [[metre]]s (15 [[feet]]) tall at the hips, with a length of up to 25m (80 feet) and a mass up to 35 [[metric tonne]]s (40 [[short ton|ton]]s).
The cervical vertebra and the bones in the legs were bigger and heavier than that of [[Diplodocus]], but they both had the long neck and tail. The skull was first identified in [[1975]], a century after it got its name. ''Apatosaurus'' had a large claw on its first digit (thumb). The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion.
==Environment==
Early on, it was believed that ''Apatosaurus'' was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative ''[[Diplodocus]]'', ''Apatosaurus'' was a [[grazing]] animal with a very long neck, and a long tail that served as a counterweight. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, ''Apatosaurus'' may have swallowed gizzard stones ([[gastrolith]]s) the same way many birds do today &mdash; its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers.
''Apatosaurus'' perhaps lumbered along in flocks on riverbanks with trees, eating off the top leaves. Scientists believe that these sauropods could not raise their neck to an angle of 90 degrees, as doing so would slow blood flow to the brain excessively; blood starting at the body proper would take two or more minutes to reach the brain. Furthermore, studies of the structure of the neck vertebrae have revealed that the neck was not as flexible as previously thought. No one knows how Apatosaurs ate enough food to satisfy their enormous bodies. They probably ate constantly, pausing only to cool off, drink or to remove parasites. They must have slept standing upright. If attacked by a predator, one could defend itself by swinging its tail from side to side, or stomping on the meat-eater.
==Classification and history==
[[Image:Apatosaurus2.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Apatosaurus' correct head]]
In 1877, [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] published notes on his discovery of ''Apatosaurus ajax'', and then in 1879 described another, more complete dinosaur species, which he speculated to represent a new genus and named ''Brontosaurus excelsus''. In 1903, it was discovered that ''Brontosaurus excelsus'' was in fact an adult ''Apatosaurus'', and the name ''Apatosaurus'', having been published first, was deemed to have priority as the official name; ''Brontosaurus'' was relegated to being a synonym. In the 1970s, it was proven that the traditional "Brontosaurus" image known to all was, in fact, an ''Apatosaurus excelsus'' with a ''[[Camarasaurus]]'' head mistakenly placed on its body.
Fossils of this animal have been found in Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in [[Wyoming]], and at sites in [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]].
===Species===
* ''A. ajax'' is the [[type species]] of the genera, and was named by the [[paleontologist]] [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] in 1877 after [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], the [[hero]] from [[Greek mythology]]. It is the [[holotype]] for the genera, and two partial skeletons have been found including part of a [[skull]].
* ''A. excelsus'' (originally ''Brontosaurus'') was named by Marsh in 1879. It is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the [[United States]], in [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], and [[Wyoming]].
* ''A. louisae'' was named by [[William Holland]], in 1915. It is known from one partial skeleton, which was found in [[Colorado]], in the United States.
[[Robert T. Bakker]] made ''A. yahnahpin'' the [[holotype|type]] species of a new genus, ''Eobrontosaurus'' in 1998, so it is now properly ''Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin''. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming.
==See also==
*[[Brontosaurus]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allosaurus</title>
<id>1347</id>
<revision>
<id>41553136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:48:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.170.119.237</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--
Proposed Edit by 67.182.251.180
Allosaurus was a huge carnivore. Allosaurus probably ate herbivore dinosaurs, like stegosaurs and iguanadons. It could kill medium-sized sauropods, and sick or injured large saurpods like apatosaurs and others of its kind. Allosaurus may have been a scavenger. Allosaurus probably had competition with Ceratosaurus, though Allosaurus was much larger.
Bones of big sauropods, like Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, and Apatosaurus have Allosaurus tooth marks. A huge sauropod was most likely to big for even one Allosaurus to kill, so scientists think Allosuarus probably hunted in packs to kill such big Plant-eaters. But maybe Allosaurus could’ve only gone after injured or sick dinosaurs, not risking being killed by a st |
é]], [[Olof Höjer]], [[Claude Coppens]] (live recording), [[Aldo Ciccolini]], [[Daniel Varsano]], [[Philippe Entremont]], [[João Paulo Santos]], [[Michel LeGrand]], [[Jacques Loussier]], etc.
;Arrangements
Various composers and performers have made arrangements of Satie's piano pieces for chamber ensembles and orchestras, including Debussy.
In 2000, ex-[[Genesis_(band)|Genesis]] guitarist [[Steve Hackett]] released the album, "[[Sketches of Satie]]", performing Satie's works on acoustic guitar, with conributions by his brother [[John Hackett_(musician)|John]] on [[flute]]. [[Frank Zappa]] was also a devoted fan of Satie, incorporating many elements into both his rock and orchestral works.
;Other
* A recording of historical importance is probably ''Erik Satie, Les inspirations insolites'', re-issued by EMI as a 2-CD set, containing among other pieces: ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'' (in a version before Contamine's text had been recovered), ''Le piège de Méduse'', ''Messe des pauvres'', etc.
*Many other recordings exist: ''Parade/Relâche'' (Michel Plasson/Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse), ''Satie: Socrate [etc.]'' (Jean-Paul Fouchécourt/Ensemble), and recordings of songs, e.g., by Anne-Sophie Schmidt.
[[Category:1866 births|Satie, Erik]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earth Liberation Front</title>
<id>9959</id>
<revision>
<id>42164167</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dumpster</username>
<id>861388</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vail_fire.jpg|thumb|right||ELF Poster which features the Two Elk Lodge on fire in Vail, Colorado]]
The '''Earth Liberation Front''' ('''ELF''') is a name for anonymous and [[autonomous]] cells that occording to the [[Earth Liberation Front Press Office]] (ELFPO) "uses [[direct action]] in the form of economic sabotage to stop the exploitation and destruction of the natural environment." ELF cells have been active in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Greece]], and the [[United Kingdom]] were ELF was founded. ELF sympathizers, the ELF is an [[eco-defense]] group that is dedicated to taking the profit motive out of environmental destruction by targeting and causing economic damage to businesses through the use of [[direct action]]. The ELF has committed more than 1,200 direct actions in the U.S. causing more $200 million in damage. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0130/p20s01-sten.html]
The ELF was classified as the number 1 domestic [[terrorism|terrorist]] group by the [[FBI]] in March 2001. [http://prfamerica.org/EarthLiberationFrontNo1onFBIList.html] Supporters and sympathizers of the ELF often deny that they are a terrorist group because no one has been injured by any action claimed by the ELF. The ELF's guidelines require that individuals or groups acting on behalf of the front "take all necessary precautions against harming any animal - human and nonhuman."
Their techniques involve [[sabotage|destruction of property]] that they believe is being used to injure animals, people or the [[natural environment|environment]]. This [[vandalism]] and [[arson]] has been labeled ''[[ecotage]]'' and there are marked differences between the actions in the United States and in United Kingdom. The Earth Liberation Front has no formal leadership, membership or official spokesperson, instead it consists of individuals or small groups who choose to use the term. However, the [[FBI]] identifies activist [[Rod Coronado]] as "a national leader" of the ELF in the USA, while Coronado describes himself as an "unofficial ELF spokesman" [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10370129]. [[Craig Rosebraugh]] served as an unofficial spokesperson for the ELF from 1997 to early September 2001 [http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2006/02/334091.shtml].
== History ==
The Earth Liberation Front was founded in [[1992]] in [[Brighton, England]] by members of the [[Earth First|"Earth First!"]] environmental movement. The name was derived from the [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF). [http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html#] In the September-October 1993 issue of the [[Earth First!]] Journal, an anonymous article announced the creation of the ELF in England. It said the ELF "is a movement of independently operating eco-sabateurs" that split from the "British EF! movement, which has focused directly on public direct actions."
== Guidelines ==
Any [[direct action]] taken to halt ecological destruction while keeping to the following guidelines could, if claimed as such, be considered an ELF action. [http://www.eco-action.org/dod/no10/flames.htm]
#To inflict maximum economic damage on those profiting from the destruction and exploitation of the natural environment.
#To reveal and educate the public about the atrocities committed against the earth and all species that populate it.
#To take all necessary precautions against harming any animal - human and nonhuman. [http://www.satyamag.com/mar04/elf.html]
== Targets ==
ELF has carried out attacks against facilities and companies involved in logging, genetic engineering, home building, automobile sales, energy production and distribution, and a wide variety of other activities, all charged by ELF with exploiting the environment.
== Funding ==
Individuals work in [[autonomous]] [[affinity groups]] and are self-funded.[http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=41]
== Actions and police responses ==
:''See [[Timeline of Earth Liberation Front actions]]''
In late 2005 and early 2006, as part of ''[[Operation Backfire]]'', US [[grand juries]] indicted a total of 18 activists on a range of charges related to "violent acts in the name of animal rights and environmental causes" [http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/speeches/mueller012006.htm]. According to the FBI, many of these acts were carried out on behalf of the ELF [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006.htm]. Although some of those arrested deny any affliation with the ELF [http://www.indymedia.org/en/2006/01/831928.shtml], others, including Rod Coronado, have established ties to the group [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10370129].
== Criticism of ELF ==
Opponents, consider it luck, more than anything, that no one has been killed by the ELF's arson. [http://www.stopecoviolence.com/pdfs/2_12_02.pdf] Some mainstream environmental groups and advocates condemn the ELF for using violence, (against property), and claim that their approach does more harm than good to their cause [http://home.earthlink.net/~elfblog/].
== In popular culture ==
Folk musician [[David Rovics]] performs a song dedicated to the ELF called "Song for the Earth Liberation Front" [http://members.aol.com/drovics/elfl.htm] as well as a song about accused ELF activist, [[Jeffrey Luers]] titled "Free", after Luers' nickname. [http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2004/12/306830.shtml]
[[Edward Abbey]] published ''[[The Monkey Wrench Gang]]'' in 1975. The book is thought to be the inspiration for the formation of [[Earth First!]] but it came to more closely resemble the ELF. In 1989 he published a sequel ''[[Hayduke Lives]]''.
In the 2004 novel by [[Michael Crichton]], ''[[State of Fear]]'', ELF is cited as the main villain. *Note: In the book the ELF stands for Environmental Liberation Front.
== Earth Liberation Front in the UK ==
Two years after the [[Earth First!]] (UK) started the first national gathering was held, in 1992. Central to the meeting was a debate on tactics in particular whether actions involving [[criminal damage]] should be undertaken. The meeting decided that EF!(UK) would not undertake such actions and would neither condone or condemn them. Some members decided to adopt the ELF name for actions involving criminal damage or [[ecotage]].[http://www.spiritoffreedom.org.uk/about/history.html] Such actions were undertaken under the ELF banner and were often attributed to the [[elves]] and [[pixie]]s, a pun on the initials. ELF(UK) has never had a formal orginisation, actions have been reported in EF!(UK) publications such as ''Action Update'' and ''Do or Die!''.
The actions of the Earth Liberation Front in the United Kingdom have have mainly focused
around small unreported [[covert]] [[ecotage]], and have fallen short of eco-terrorism or major arson. Many of these happened on ''Earth Night'' or around protest camps connected with road-building, airports, or quarrying. Since 1996 virtually no actions have been claimed by the UK ELF, although covert ecotage does continue.
: Plows, Wall, Doherty, ''Covert Repertoires: ecotage in the UK'', Social Movement Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, October 2004 [http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/cplan/teaching/cpt637/background/article1.pdf].
An anonymous article in the September-October 1993 issue of the [[Earth First!]] Journal, that announced the creation of the ELF in England said that the ELF split from the "British EF! movement, which has focused directly on public direct ac |
g Centre
** [http://www.curling.ca/learn_to_curl/about_curling/4-rock_free_guard_zone_strategy.asp Strategy guide on the Four-Rock Free Guard Zone]
*[http://www.worldcurling.org/ World Curling Federation]
*[http://www.curlingzone.com/forums/ The Curling Zone]
*[http://www.tsn.ca/curling/ Curling on TSN]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/sports/curling/ Curling on CBC]
*[http://www.curlingbasics.com/ Curling Basics]
[[Category:Curling| ]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Craven Cottage</title>
<id>6645</id>
<revision>
<id>42089840</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:33:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ed g2s</username>
<id>19009</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Stadium |
stadium_name = Craven Cottage|
nickname = The Cottage|
image = |
location = Stevenage Road, [[London]], [[England]], SW6 6HH|
broke_ground = [[1896]] |
opened = [[1896]] (As a stadium) |
closed = Open|
demolished = N/A|
owner = [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham F.C.]] |
operator = Fulham F.C. |
surface = [[Grass]] |
architect = [[Archibald Leitch]] |
tenants = '''Fulham F.C.''' ([[FA Premier League]]) ([[1896]]-present)
'''[[Harlequins Rugby League|Fulham Rugby League]]''' ([[Rugby League Championship]]) ([[1980]]-[[1984]]) |
seating_capacity = 22,230 ([[Football (soccer)|Football]]) |
record = 49,335, October [[1938]]
}}
'''Craven Cottage''' is the name of a sports [[stadium]] in the [[London]] Borough of [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham|Hammersmith and Fulham]] that has been the home ground of the [[football (soccer)|football]] team [[Fulham F.C.]] since [[1896]]. Its capacity is reported to be 22,230, but 22,480 fans were present for a match against [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] on [[October 22nd]], [[2005]].
==History==
===Pre-Fulham===
The original 'Cottage' was built in [[1780]], by [[William Craven, 6th Baron Craven|William Craven]], the sixth [[Baron Craven]]. At the time, the surrounding areas were woods which made up part of [[Anne Boleyn]]'s hunting grounds.
It was lived in by [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton|Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] and other somewhat notable (and moneyed) persons until it was destroyed by fire in May [[1888]]. Following that, the site was abandoned.
===Under construction: 1894-1905===
When representatives of Fulham first came across the land, in [[1894]], it was so overgrown that it took two years to be made suitable for football to be played on it. A deal had been done that meant this work was done by the owners of the ground, who then would receive a proportion of the gate receipts.
The first event at which there were any gate receipts was when Fulham played against Minerva in the Middlesex Senior Cup, on [[October 10]]th, [[1886]]. The ground's first stand was built shortly after. Described as looking like an "orange box", it consisted of four wooden structures each holding some 250 seats, and later was affectionately nicknamed the "Rabbit [[Hutch (animal cage)|hutch]]".
Before the ground could become too well established, the now defunct [[London County Council]] became concerned with the level of safety at the ground, and tried to get it closed. A court case followed in January [[1905]], as a result of which [[Archibald Leitch]], a Scottish [[architect]] who had rose to prominence after his building of [[Ibrox stadium|Ibrox]] a few years prior, was hired to work on the stadium. In a scheme costing 15,000 [[Great British pounds|pounds]], he had a new pavilion (the modern Cottage itself) and a stand built, in his characteristic [[red brick]] style.
The stand on Stevenage Road and Cottage are both celebrating their centenary in the 2005-2006 season and following the tragic death of Fulham FC's favourite son, former England captain [[Johnny Haynes]], in a car accident in October 2005 the Stevenage Road Stand was renamed the [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand after the club sought the opinions of Fulham supporters.
Both the [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand and Cottage remain the finest examples of [[Archibald Leitch]] football architecture to remain in existence and this has been recognised with both being designated as Grade II listed buildings.
===Establishing itself as a stadium===
An [[England national football team|England]] v [[Wales national football team|Wales]] match was played at the ground in [[1911]], followed by a [[rugby league]] international between [[England national rugby league team|England]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]].
One of the club's directors [[Henry Norris]], and his friend William Hill, took over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in the early [[1910s]], the plan being to merge them with Fulham, to form a "London superclub" at Craven Cottage. This move was largely motivated by Fulham's failure thus far to gain promotion to the top division of English football.
The ground again suffered a scare in [[1933]], when there were plans to demolish it and start again from scratch with a new ground. These plans never materialised.
On [[October 8]]th, [[1938]], Craven Cottage held host to 49,335 fans during a game against [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]].
===Post [[World War Two|war]]===
It wasn't until Fulham first reached the top division, in [[1962]], that further improvements were made to the stadium. The first was that the next year they became the final side in the division to erect floodlights. The Hammersmith end had a roof put over it, and an electronic scoreboard was put up.
After Fulham were relegated, the development continued. The Riverside terracing, infamous for the fact that fans occupying it would turn their heads annually to watch [[The Boat Race]] pass, was replaced by what was officially named the 'Eric Miller stand', Eric Miller being a director of the club at the time. The stand, which costed 334,000 pounds and held 4,200 seats, was opened with a friendly game against [[SL Benfica|Benfica]] in February [[1972]]. Miller committed suicide five years later after a political and financial scandal that he was involved in boiled over. The stand is now better known as the Riverside Stand.
Between [[1980]] and [[1984]], '''Fulham [[Rugby League]]''' played their home games at the Cottage. They have since evolved into the '''London Crusaders''', the '''London Broncos''', and then into [[Harlequins Rugby League]]. Craven Cottage held the team's largest ever crowd at any ground was 15,013, at a game against [[Wakefield Trinity Wildcats|Wakefield]] on [[February 15]]th, [[1981]].
===Post-[[Hillsborough disaster|Hillsborough]]===
When the Hillsborough tragedy occurred, Fulham were in the second bottom rung of the [[Football league]], but following the [[Taylor report]] Fulham's ambitious chairman [[Jimmy Hill]] tabled plans for an all-seater stadium. These plans never came to fruition, partly due to local residents' pressure groups, and by the time Fulham reached the [[Premiership]], they still had standing areas in the ground, something virtually unheard of at the time. They were given a year to do something about this, but by the time the last league game was played there, against [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] on [[April 27]] [[2002]], no building plans had been made. Two more [[Intertoto Cup]] games were played there later that year (against [[Egaleo FC]] of Greece and [[FC Haka]] of Finland), and the eventual solution was to decamp to [[Loftus Road]], home of local rivals [[QPR]].
After one and a half seasons there, no work had been done on the Cottage. Suddenly, a plan to partially redevelop the stadium sprung up, and the club were able to return to their home for the start of the [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05 season]]. The ground was opened with a poorly-attended pre-season friendly against [[Watford F.C.|Watford]] (the game was actually officially abandoned at half-time, due to excessive substitutions!).
[[Image:Australia vs New Zealand.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Australia national football team|Australia]] (yellow) vs [[New Zealand national soccer team|New Zealand]] (white) friendly match at ''Craven Cottage'' [[9 June]] [[2005]]. The stand along the left is the historic Stevenage Road Stand, at the back is the Putney End, with the Cottage in between the two stands.]]
The current stadium is not the 30,000 state of the art ground Fulham fans would like to see; in fact it is the [[FA Premier League|Premiership's]] second smallest ground (after [[Fratton Park]]), but it at least lets Fulham play at their "spiritual" home. Much admired for its fine architecture, the stadium has recently hosted a few international games, all including [[Australia national football team|Australia]]. This venue is suitable because most of Australia's top players are based in Europe, and West London has a significant Aussie community.
The Fulham [[Fulham L.F.C.|Fulham Ladies]] and Reserve team occasionally play home matches at the Cottage. Other than this, they generally play at the club's training ground at [[Motspur Park]] or at [[Kingstonian]] and [[AFC Wimbledon|AFC Wimbledon's]] stadium, [[The Fans' Stadium, Kingsmeadow|Kingsmeadow]].
===Future plans===
Craven Cottage is where most Fulham fans would like to be, although the club might prefer a more lucrative situation - a larger ground enabling greater ticket rev |
tness landscape]] determined by a program's ability to perform a given computational task. The first experiments with GP were reported by [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~sfs/ Stephen F. Smith] (1980) and [http://www.sover.net/~nichael/ Nichael L. Cramer] (1985), as described in the famous book ''Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection'' by [[John Koza]] (1992).
Computer programs in GP can be written in a variety of [[programming_language|programming languages]]. In the early (and traditional) implementations of GP, program instructions and data values were organized in [[tree_structure|tree-structures]], thus favoring the use of languages that naturally embody such a structure (an important example pioneered by Koza is [[Lisp_programming_language|Lisp]]). Other forms of GP have been suggested and successfully implemented, such as the simpler [[linear_genetic_programming|linear representation]] which suits the more traditional [[imperative languages]] [see, for example, Banzhaf ''et al.'' (1998)]. The commercial GP software [http://www.aimlearning.com Discipulus], for example, uses [[linear genetic programming]] combined with [[machine code]] language to achieve better performance. Differently, the [http://www.cad.polito.it/research/microgp.html MicroGP] uses an internal representation similar to [[linear genetic programming]] to generate programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given assembly language.
GP is very computationally intensive and so in the 1990s it was mainly used to solve relatively simple problems. However, more recently, thanks to various improvements in GP technology and to the well known [[Moore's_law|exponential growth in CPU power]], GP has started delivering a number of outstanding results. At the time of writing, nearly 40 [http://www.genetic-programming.com/humancompetitive.html human-competitive] results have been gathered, in areas such as [[quantum computing]], electronic design, game playing, sorting, searching and many more. These results include the replication or infringement of several post-year-2000 inventions, and the production of two patentable new inventions.
Developing a theory for GP has been very difficult and so in the 1990s genetic programming was considered a sort of pariah amongst the various techniques of search. However, after a series of breakthroughs in the early 2000s, the theory of GP has had a formidable and rapid development. So much so that it has been possible to build exact probabilistic models of GP (schema theories and [[Markov chain]] models) and to show that GP is more general than, and in fact includes, [[genetic algorithm]]s.
Genetic Programming techniques have now been applied to [[evolvable hardware]] as well as computer programs.
'''Meta-Genetic Programming''' is the technique of evolving a genetic programming system using genetic programming itself. Critics have argued that it is theoretically impossible, but more research is needed.
== See also ==
[[Genetic_representation|Genetic representation]]
== Bibliography ==
*Banzhaf, W., Nordin, P., Keller, R.E., Francone, F.D. (1998), ''Genetic Programming: An Introduction: On the Automatic Evolution of Computer Programs and Its Applications'', Morgan Kaufmann
*Cramer, Nichael Lynn (1985), "[http://www.sover.net/~nichael/nlc-publications/icga85/index.html A representation for the Adaptive Generation of Simple Sequential Programs]" in ''Proceedings of an International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and the Applications'', Grefenstette, John J. (ed.), Carnegie Mellon University
*Koza, J.R. (1990), ''Genetic Programming: A Paradigm for Genetically Breeding Populations of Computer Programs to Solve Problems'', Stanford University Computer Science Department technical report [http://www.genetic-programming.com/jkpdf/tr1314.pdf STAN-CS-90-1314]. A thorough report, possibly used as a draft to his 1992 book.
*Koza, J.R. (1992), ''Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection'', MIT Press
*Koza, J.R. (1994), ''Genetic Programming II: Automatic Discovery of Reusable Programs'', MIT Press
*Koza, J.R., Bennett, F.H., Andre, D., and Keane, M.A. (1999), ''Genetic Programming III: Darwinian Invention and Problem Solving'', Morgan Kaufmann
*Koza, J.R., Keane, M.A., Streeter, M.J., Mydlowec, W., Yu, J., Lanza, G. (2003), ''Genetic Programming IV: Routine Human-Competitive Machine Intelligence'', Kluwer Academic Publishers
*Langdon, W. B., Poli, R. (2002), ''Foundations of Genetic Programming'', Springer-Verlag
*Smith, S.F. (1980), ''A Learning System Based on Genetic Adaptive Algorithms'', PhD dissertation (University of Pittsburgh)
== External links ==
*[http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/research/genprog/gp2faq/gp2faq.html Genetic Programming FAQ]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/ai-faq/genetic/part1/preamble.html The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to Evolutionary Computation]
*[http://www.genetic-programming.com John Koza's Genetic Programming Site]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/gp.html Juergen Schmidhuber's GP Site, with pre-Koza GP papers (1987)]
*[http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~wbl/biblio/README.html Bill Langdon's GP bibliography]
*[http://www.helpmefigurethisout.com Meta-Genetic Programming Site]
[[Category:Evolutionary algorithms]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gustav Klimt</title>
<id>12425</id>
<revision>
<id>41721302</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T07:42:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewulp</username>
<id>998182</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added: "Klimt's primary subject...greatest legacy" and moved portrait image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gustav Klimt''' ([[July 14]], [[1862]] - [[February 6]], [[1918]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Symbolist painters|Symbolist painter]] and one of the most prominent members of the [[Vienna]] [[Art Nouveau]] ([[Vienna Secession]]) movement. His major works include paintings, [[murals]], [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] and other art objects, many of which are on display in the [[Vienna Secession gallery]]. Klimt's primary subject is the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism. His pencil drawings, which are very numerous, have been regarded by many as his greatest legacy.
[[Image:GustavKlimt.jpg|frame|left|Gustav Klimt]]
==Life and art==
Gustav Klimt was born in [[Baumgarten]], near Vienna, Austria, the second of seven childen. His father (Ernst Klimt) was an engraver and was married to Anna Klimt (nee Finster).
He was educated at the Vienna Kunstgewerbe Art School in the years 1879-1883. Klimt was also an honorary member of the Universities of [[University of Munich|Munich]] and [[University of Vienna|Vienna]].
[[Image:Gustav Klimt 016.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustav Klimt. ''The Kiss.'' [[1907]]-[[1908]]. Oil on canvas. [[Österreichische Galerie Belvedere]].]]
[[Image:Gustav Klimt 050.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustav Klimt. ''Eugenia (Mäda) Primavesi''. [[1912]]. Oil on canvas. 150 × 110 cm. Private collection.]]
His work is distinguished by an elegant use of gold backgrounds and mosaic patterns. This can be seen in ''Judith I'' (1901), and in ''The Kiss'' (1907). Art historians note an eclectic range of influences contributing to Klimt's distinct style, including [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], [[Ancient Greece|Classical Greek]], and [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] inspirations. Klimt was also inspired by engravings of [[Albrecht Dürer]], late medieval European painting, and [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese Ukiyo-e]].
Klimt was one of the founding members of the ''Wiener Sezession'' ([[Vienna Secession]]) and of the periodical ''[[Ver Sacrum]]''. He left the movement in [[1908]].
Klimt took annual summer holidays on the shores of [[Attersee (lake)|Attersee]] and painted some of the lanscapes he saw there.
He died in Vienna on February 6,1918 of a stroke and was interred at the [[Hietzing]] Cemetery, Vienna. Numerous paintings were left unfinished.
==Legacy==
* Klimt's work had a clear influence on the paintings of [[Egon Schiele]].
* In November of 2003, Klimt's ''Landhaus am Attersee'' sold for [[United States dollar|$]]29,128,000.
* [[Raoul Ruiz]] directed a [[biopic]], ''[[Klimt (film)|Klimt]]'', starring [[John Malkovich]] in the title role. The movie got its world premiere at the [[International Film Festival Rotterdam]] on saturday [[2006-01-28]].
* Modifications of his work featuring main characters appear in the anime series [[Elfen Lied]].
* [[National Public Radio]] reported on [[January 17]],[[2006]] that "The Austrian National Gallery is being compelled by a national arbitration board to return five paintings by Gustav Klimt to a [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] woman, the heir of a [[Jew|Jewish]] family that had its art stolen by the [[Nazi]]s. The paintings are estimated to be worth at least [[United States dollar|$]]150 million."{{ref|NPR01}}
==Selected works==
[[Image:Klimpt01.JPG|right|frame|''Judith I'', painted in 1901]]
* [[University of Vienna]] Festsaal ceiling paintings
* [[Palais Stoclet]] mosaic in [[Brussels]]
* Fable (1883)
* The Theatre in Taormina (1886-1888)
* Auditorium in the Old Burgtheater, Vienna (1888)
* Portrait of Joseph Pembauer, the Pianist and Piano Teacher (1890)
* Ancient Greece II (Girl from Tanagra) (1890 - 1891)
* Portrait of a Lady (Frau Heymann?) (1894)
* Music I (1895)
* Sculpture (1896)
* Tragedy (1897)
* Music II (1898)
* Pallas Athene (1898)
* Portrait of Sonja Kipps (1898)
* Fish Blood (1898)
* Moving Water (1898)
* Schubert at the Piano (1899)
* After the Rain (Garden with Chickens in St Agatha) (1899)
* Nymphs (Sliver Fish) (1899)
* Philosophy (1899 - 1907)
* Nuda Veritas (1899)
* Portrait of Serena Lederer (1899)
* Medicine (1900 - 1907)
* Music |
s just purposes. This does not mean that God supports war, simply that he works with humans as they are. These commentators emphasise what they see as the depraved nature of Canaanite society, pointing to archaelogical evidence of practices such as child sacrifice (burning the infant victims alive). For instance, Hallam, who takes this view, lists a number of pieces of archaeological evidence to support this thesis: "Just a few steps from this temple was a cemetery, where many jars were found, containing remains of infants who had been sacrificed in this temple . . . Prophets of Baal and Ashtoreth were official murderers of little children." "Another horrible practice was [what] they called `foundation sacrifices.' When a house was to be built, a child would be sacrificed, and its body built into the wall. . . . The worship of Baal, Ashtoreth, and other Canaanite gods consisted in the most extravagant orgies; their temples were centers of vice. . . . Canaanites worshiped, by immoral indulgence, . . . and then, by murdering their first-born children, as a sacrifice to these same gods." However, some of this evidence is disputed, with others arguing that it may have been invented at a later date in order to justify the act of extermination.
# Christian theologians have tended to emphasise what they see as the progressive nature of revelation in the bible. As the bible progresses, God is seen to reveal himself in ways that are fuller, clearer and more accurate, culminating in the ultimate revelation of God in Jesus Christ. God's command through Joshua to take possession of the land by force of arms is viewed in the context of God's command through the second Joshua, Jesus Christ, to bring about his kingdom through the peaceful application of his teaching.
== Archaeological evidence ==
The [[Amarna letters]], that date from the middle of the [[14th century BCE]], consist of official communications from [[Amorite]], [[Hittite]], [[Hurrian]], [[Phoenicia]]n, and [[Philistine]] chiefs to the kings of [[Egypt]], and provide an independent glimpse into the actual condition of Canaan at the time of this work. The testimony of this archive, however, presents many difficulties of its own, including the mysterious, yet clearly warlike ''[[Habiru]]'' who are the subject of many letters.
In addition, we also have a letter from a military officer, "master of the captains of Egypt," which dates from near the end of the reign of [[Ramesses II]]. Its curious account of a journey, probably official, that the officer undertook through [[Canaan]] as far north as [[Aleppo]], provides more information.
Among the things brought to light by this letter and the Amarna letters is the state of confusion and decay that had fallen upon Egypt. The Egyptian garrisons that had held possession of Canaan from the time of [[Thutmose III]], some two hundred years before, had now disappeared. The way was thus opened for the Hebrews. In the history of the conquest there is no mention of Joshua having encountered any Egyptian force. The tablets contain many appeals to the king of Egypt for help against the inroads of the Hebrews, but no help seems ever to have been sent.
Excavations of several Canaanite cities have provided contradictory evidence for establishing the historicity of the Book of Joshua. The Tells of [[Lachish]] and [[Hazor]] were both Canaanite cities in the Late Bronze Age. Around the year 1200 BCE, both cities were destroyed and the following layers of occupational debris contain Israelite artifacts. The archaeological records of these cities show that a destructive invasion by the Israelites occurred at the end of the Late Bronze Age. The excavation of [[Ai]] yielded evidence that disagreed with Ai's destruction in the Book of Joshua. Ai appears to have been abandoned in the Early Bronze Age and not reoccupied until after the Israelite invasion. It has been suggested that the destruction of Ai was added to the Book of Joshua as an etiological myth, explaining the visible ruins of the Early Bronze Age city.
== References ==
* Morton, William H. ''Joshua. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 2.'' Ed. Clifton J. Allen, et al. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.
* Halley, Henry H. ''Halley's Bible Handbook.'' Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1927, 1965.
* Mazar, Amihai. ''The Archaelogy of the land of the Bible.'' New York: Doubleday, 1990.
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Book of Joshua]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0601.htm &#1497;&#1456;&#1492;&#1493;&#1465;&#1513;&#1473;&#1467;&#1506;&#1463; ''Yehoshua'' - Joshua] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0601.htm Joshua at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15749 Yehoshua - Joshua (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/06_joshua.htm Joshua at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Joshua}}
** [http://EN.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Joshua Joshua at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=545&letter=J&search=Joshua Book of Joshua article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
----
{{eastons}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
[[Category:Nevi'im|Joshua, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Joshua]]
[[ast:Xosué]]
[[bg:Книга на Исус Навиев]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iok-su-a-kì]]
[[ca:Llibre de Josuè]]
[[da:Josvabogen]]
[[de:Buch Josua]]
[[es:Josué]]
[[fr:Livre de Josué]]
[[ko:여호수아 (성경)]]
[[id:Yosua]]
[[it:Giosuè]]
[[he:ספר יהושע]]
[[jv:Yosua]]
[[nl:Jozua (Hebreeuwse Bijbel)]]
[[ja:ヨシュア記]]
[[no:Josvas bok]]
[[pl:Księga Jozuego]]
[[pt:Josué]]
[[ru:Книга Иисуса Навина]]
[[scn:Giosuè (libbru)]]
[[fi:Joosuan kirja]]
[[sv:Josua]]
[[zh:約書亞記]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Ezra</title>
<id>4332</id>
<revision>
<id>41843692</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:37:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.106.143.223</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Ezra''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[Old Testament]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Tanakh]]. This book is the record of events occurring at the close of the [[Babylonian captivity]]. At one time, it included the [[book of Nehemiah]], the [[Jew]]s regarding them as one volume. The two are still distinguished in the [[Vulgate]] version as I and II Esdras. It consists of two principal divisions:
#The history of the first return of exiles, in the first year of [[Cyrus the Great]] ([[536 BC]]), till the completion and dedication of the new [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]], in the sixth year of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius Hystapes]] ([[515 BC]]), ch. 1-6. From the close of the sixth to the opening of the seventh chapter there is a blank in the history of about sixty years.
#The history of the second return under [[Ezra]], in the seventh year of [[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes Longimanus]], and of the events that took place at [[Jerusalem]] after Ezra's arrival there (7-10).
The book thus contains memorabilia connected with the Jews, from the decree of Cyrus to the reformation by Ezra ([[456 BC]]), extending over a period of about eighty years. Several [[Aramaic]] letters are quoted in their original language, while the rest of the book is written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].
There is no quotation from this book in the [[New Testament]].
In the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Bible]], Ezra 7:21 contains every letter of the alphabet except J.
Ezra was probably the author of this book, at least of the greater part of it (comp. 7:27, 28; 8:1, etc.), as he was also of the [[Books of Chronicles]], the close of which forms the opening passage of ''Ezra''. Some authors think that the historical order of events in both Ezra and Nehemiah has become jumbled, from which they conclude that at least the final arrangement and revision of their text must have occurred at a later period.
There are two more books going by the name "Book of Ezra", or "Book of Esdras". These are found in the [[Apocrypha]] of the Bible; see there for details on their varying and complex numbering scheme.
----
--[[User:71.106.143.223|71.106.143.223]] 02:37, 2 March 2006 (UTC)<nowiki><math>[[Media:[[Media:[[Image:
== [[[''[[[
== [[Media:'''''''''==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15774 Ezra (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/15_ezra.htm ''Ezra'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Ezra}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Ezra
-----
{{eastons}}'''Bold text'''
[[Category:Ketuvim|Ezra, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Ezra]]
[[de:Buch Esra]]
[[fr:Livre d'Esdras]]
[[ko:에즈라]]
[[it:Ezra]]
[[nl:Ezra]]
[[ja:エズラ記]]
[[pt:Esdras]]
[[fi:Esran kirja]]
[[sv:Esra]]
[[zh:以斯拉記]]''''''''']] ==]]]'']]] ==]]]]]]</math></nowiki></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Daniel</title>
<id>4333</id>
<revision>
<id>41806341</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:49:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
<id>247981</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>'is comprised of' is correct, or 'comprises', but not 'comprises of'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Biblical book. For the n |
te opponents of Chamberlain, but instead he maintained a low profile, avoiding confrontation though he opposed the [[Munich Agreement]]. As a result Eden's position declined heavily amongst politicians, though he remained popular in the country at large.
In September [[1939]], on the outbreak of war, Eden returned to Chamberlain's government as [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]], but was not in the [[War Cabinet]]. As a result he was not considered a candidate for the Premiership when Chamberlain resigned after Germany invaded [[France]] in May [[1940]] and Churchill became Prime Minister. He appointed Eden [[Secretary of State for War]]. Later in [[1940]] he returned to the Foreign Office, and in this role became a member of the executive committee of the [[Political Warfare Executive]] in [[1941]]. Although he was one of Churchill's closest confidents, his role in wartime was restricted because Churchill conducted the most important negotiations, with [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]], himself, but Eden served loyally as Churchill's lieutenant. Nevertheless he was in charge of handling much of the relations between Britain and [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] during the last years of the war. In [[1942]] he was given the additional job of [[Leader of the House of Commons]].
After the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won the [[1945]] elections, Eden went into opposition as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party. Many felt that Churchill should have retired and allowed Eden to become party leader, but Churchill refused to consider this and Eden was too loyal to press him. He was in any case depressed during this period by the break-up of his first marriage and the death of his eldest son, Simon Eden, in the last days of the war.
In [[1951]], the Conservatives returned to office and Eden became Foreign Secretary for a third time. Churchill was largely a figurehead in this government and Eden had effective control of British foreign policy for the first time, as the [[Cold War]] grew more intense. He dealt effectively with the various crises of the period, although Britain was no longer the world power it had been before the war. In [[1950]] he and Beatrice Eden were finally divorced and in [[1952]] he married Churchill's niece, Lady Clarissa Spencer-Churchill (b. 1920) -- a nominal Roman Catholic who was fiercely criticized by Catholic writer [[Evelyn Waugh]] for marrying a divorced man -- a marriage much more successful than his first had been. In [[1953]] Eden underwent a series of operations at Boston's Lahey Clinic to correct a minor gall bladder complaint. Unfortunately Eden's health never fully recovered; this was to undermine his subsequent career. In [[1954]] he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]].
==Prime Minister==
[[Image:Anthony-Eden-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Anthony Eden]]
In April [[1955]] Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eden was a very popular figure, as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm. On taking office he immediately called a [[United Kingdom general election, 1955|general election]], at which the Conservatives were returned with an increased majority. But Sir Anthony had never held a domestic portfolio and had little experience in economic matters. He left these areas to his lieutenants such as [[Rab Butler]], and concentrated largely on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with U.S. President [[Dwight Eisenhower]]. His famous words "Peace comes first, always" added to his already substantial popularity.
This alliance proved illusory, however, when in [[1956]] Sir Anthony, in conjunction with France, tried to prevent [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], President of [[Egypt]], nationalising the [[Suez Canal]], which had been owned since the 19th century by British and French shareholders in the Suez Canal Company. Sir Anthony, drawing on his experience in the 1930s, saw Nasser as another [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]. Sir Anthony considered the two men aggressive nationalist socialists determined to invade other countries. Others believed that Nasser was acting from legitimate patriotic concerns.
In October [[1956]], after months of negotiation and attempts at mediation had failed to dissuade Nasser, Britain and France, in conjunction with [[Israel]], invaded Egypt and occupied the Suez Canal Zone. But Eisenhower immediately and strongly opposed the invasion. The U.S. President was an advocate of [[decolonization|decolonisation]], because it would liberate colonies, strengthen U.S. interests, and presumably make other Arab and African leaders more sympathetic to the United States. Eden had ignored Britain's financial dependence on the U.S. in the wake of World War II, and was forced to bow to American pressure to withdraw. The [[Suez Crisis]] is widely taken as marking the end of Britain (along with France) as a World power.
The Suez fiasco ruined Sir Anthony's reputation for [[statesmanship]] and led to a breakdown in his [[health]]. His Chancellor, [[Harold Macmillan]], despite having been one of the architects of Suez, manoeuvred Eden into resignation and succeeded him as Prime Minister in January [[1957]]. Eden retained his personal popularity and was made '''Earl of Avon''' in [[1961]].
==Retirement==
In retirement he lived quietly in Wiltshire with his second wife, and published a highly acclaimed personal memoir, ''Another World'', as well as several volumes of political memoirs. On a trip to the United States in [[1977]] his health rapidly deteriorated. At his request, [[James Callaghan]] sent the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] to fly him home to die. The Earl of Avon died from [[liver cancer]] in [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]] in [[1977]] at the age of 79.
From [[1945]]-[[1973]], Eden was [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Birmingham]], [[England]]. He was recently voted the least effective British Prime Minister of the twentieth century by a BBC poll, which was topped by rival [[Clement Attlee]].
Eden's surviving son, [[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] ([[1930]]-[[1985]]), known as Viscount Eden until [[1977]], was also a politician and was a minister in the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] government until his premature death from [[AIDS]] at the age of 54.
The Papers of Eden are housed at the [[University of Birmingham]] Special Collections.
==The Eden Government==
*Anthony Eden: Prime Minister
*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]: [[Lord President of the Council]]
*[[Harry Crookshank, 1st Viscount Crookshank|Harry Crookshank]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Harold Macmillan]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[Gwilym Lloyd George, 1st Viscount Tenby|Gwilym Lloyd George]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Alan Lennox-Boyd]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton|Lord Woolton]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
*Sir [[David Eccles]]: Minister of Education
*[[James Stuart, 1st Viscount Stuart of Findhorn|James Stuart]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Derick Heathcoat Amory,1st Viscount Amory|Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: Minister of Agriculture
*Sir [[Walter Turner Monckton]]: Minister of Labour and National Service
*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: Minister of Defence
*[[Duncan Sandys]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government
*[[Osbert Peake, 1st Viscount Ingleby|Osbert Peake]]: Minister of Pensions and National Insurance
'''Changes'''<br/>
*December [[1955]] - [[Rab Butler]] succeeds Harry Crookshank as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Commons. Harold Macmillan succeeds Butler as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Selwyn Lloyd succeeds Macmillan as Foreign Secretary. Sir Walter Monckton succeeds Lloyd as Minister of Defence. [[Iain Macleod]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Labour and National Service. [[George Douglas-Hamilton, 10th Earl of Selkirk|Lord Selkirk]] succeeds Lord Woolton as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The Minister of Public Works, [[Patrick Buchan-Hepburn]], enters the Cabinet. The Minister of Pensions and National Insurance leaves the Cabinet upon Peake's retirement.
*October [[1956]]: Sir Walter Monckton becomes Paymaster-General. [[Anthony Henry Head]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Defence.
==The Grey-Eden connection==
[[Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey]] = Elizabeth Grey
|
------------------------------------------
| |
[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]] William Grey
Prime Minister = Maria Shireff
|
Georgina Plowden = Sir William Grey
|
Sir William Eden = Sybil Grey
|
'''Anthony Eden'''
Prime Minister
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[Stanley Baldwin]] | after=[[Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry|The Marquess of Londonderry]] | years=1934&ndash;1935}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]] | after=[[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Viscount Halifax]] | years=1935&ndash;19 |
--
|-
|1962 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1963 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1964 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1965 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1965|NFL Championship]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1967 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFL Century|| Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1967|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1968 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL Century || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1968|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1969 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL Century || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1969|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1970 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1971 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1971-72|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1973 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1974 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1976 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1981 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 8th AFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1985-86|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1986 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1986-87|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1987 || 10 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1988 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1988-89|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]])
|-
|1989 || 9 || 6 || 1 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1989-90|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1990 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1991 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1994 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1995 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || -
|-
|1996 || colspan="5" rowspan="3" valign="middle" align="center" | '''''Did Not Play'''''
|-
|1997
|-
|1998
|-
|1999 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2004 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2005 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Browns All-Time record is 473-364-13 (including AAFC & NFL playoffs)
==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Template:Cleveland Browns roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
[[Image:DSCN4569 clevelandbrownsstadiumramp e2.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Entrance ramp of Cleveland Browns Stadium]]
*[[Jim Brown]]
*[[Paul Brown]]
*[[Joe DeLamielleure]]
*[[Len Ford]]
*[[Frank Gatski]]
*[[Otto Graham]]
*[[Lou Groza]]
*[[Leroy Kelly]]
*[[Dante Lavelli]]
*[[Mike McCormack]]
*[[Bobby Mitchell]]
*[[Marion Motley]]
*[[Ozzie Newsome]]
*[[Paul Warfield]]
*[[Bill Willis]]
===Retired numbers===
*14 [[Otto Graham]]
*32 [[Jim Brown]]
*45 [[Ernie Davis]]
*46 [[Don Fleming]]
*76 [[Lou Groza]]
===Not to be forgotten===
{|
|- valign="top"
|
*[[Tony Adamle]]
*[[Chip Banks]]
*[[Courtney Brown (football) | Courtney Brown]]
*[[Earnest Byner]]
*[[Don Cockroft]]
*[[Gary Collins]]
*[[Tim Couch]]
*[[André Davis]]
*[[Hanford Dixon]]
*[[Chris Gardocki]]
*[[Bob Golic]]
*[[Robert Griffith]]
*[[Gene Hickerson]]
|
*[[Calvin Hill]]
*[[Leroy Hoard]]
*[[Kelly Holcomb]]
*[[Jim Houston]]
*[[Walter Johnson (football player)|Walter Johnson]]
*[[Bernie Kosar]]
*[[Reggie Langhorne]]
*[[Kevin Mack]]
*[[Clay Matthews]]
*[[Eric Metcalf]]
*[[Frank Minnifield]]
*[[Quincy Morgan]]
|
*[[Bill Nelson]]
*[[Michael Dean Perry]]
*[[Milt Plum]]
*[[Greg Pruitt]]
*[[Mike Pruitt]]
*[[Andre Rison]]
*[[Frank Ryan (football player)|Frank Ryan]]
*[[Brian Sipe]]
*[[Webster Slaughter]]
*[[Vinny Testaverde]]
*[[Eric Turner]]
|}
==Coaches==
===Head coaches===
*[[Paul Brown]] 1946-1962
*[[Blanton Collier]] 1963-1970
*[[Nick Skorich]] 1971-1974
*[[Forrest Gregg]] 1975-1977
*[[Dick Modzelewski]] 1977 (Interim)
*[[Sam Rutigliano]] 1978-1984
*[[Marty Schottenheimer]] 1984-1988
*[[Bud Carson]] 1989-1990
*[[Jim Shofner]] 1990 (Interim)
*[[Bill Belichick]] 1991-1995
*[[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]] 1999-2000
*[[Butch Davis]] 2001-2004
*[[Terry Robiskie]] 2004 (Interim)
*[[Romeo Crennel]] 2005 - present
===Current staff===
*General Manager - [[Phil Savage]]
*Head Coach - [[Romeo Crennel]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Maurice Carthon]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Todd Grantham]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Jerry Rosburg]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Rip Scherer]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Dave Atkins]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Terry Robiskie]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Ben Coates]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Jeff Davidson]]
*Offensive Quality Control - [[Marwan Maalouf]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Randy Melvin]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Mike Haluchak]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Mel Tucker]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Bob Trott]]
*Defensive Quality Control - [[Cory Undlin]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[John Lott (football coach)| John Lott]]
==See also==
*[[Dawg Pound]]
==References==
#{{note|baltsun}} Morgan, Jon. [http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-modell020996,1,1050941.story Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore], ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', [[February 9]], [[1996]].
#{{note|Modellorg}} Scocca, Tom. [http://www.citypaper.com/columns/story.asp?id=8519 Welcome to the Big Time], ''Baltimore City Paper'' [[September 23]], [[1998]].
==External links==
*[http://www.clevelandbrowns.com/ Cleveland Browns official web site]
*[http://browns.scout.com/ The Orange and Brown Report (The OBR)]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/clev/browns.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Cleveland Browns| ]]
[[Category:1946 establishments]]
[[Category:All-America Football Conference]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[de:Cleveland Browns]]
[[fr:Browns de Cleveland]]
[[it:Cleveland Browns]]
[[pt:Cleveland Browns]]
[[sv:Cleveland Browns]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbine</title>
<id>6579</id>
<revision>
<id>40509944</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T02:23:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.181.229.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Post-World War II */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'' This article is about the term "carbine" in relation to firearms. For information on the racehorse with the same name, see [[Carbine (horse)]]''
A '''carbine''' is a [[firearm]] similar to, but generally shorter and less powerful than a [[rifle]] or [[musket]] of a given period. There have been many carbines developed from rifles, being essentially shorter rifles firing the same [[ammunition]], although usually at a lower [[velocity]] and there have also been many where the carbine and rifle adopted by a particular nation were not technically related, such as using completely different ammunition or internal operating systems (though the carbine still being weaker, or of smaller size). Which is more common depends on the time period.
In the 1800s, carbines were generally smaller firearms for troops that rode on horses. The foot soldiers would have a longer, more powerful firearm and cavalry a shorter, lighter firearm. The relatively shorter length and lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle in close-quarter combat situations (such as urban or jungle warfare), or when deploying from vehicles. The disadvantages of carbines, when compared with their longer counterparts, are generally poorer long-range accuracy and shorter effective range.
[[Image:M-4carbine2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[M4 carbine]], a compact version of the [[M16A2]] [[assault rifle]] with a collapsible stock and shorter barrel.]]
== History ==
=== Early history of the carbine: 1800s and earlier ===
The carbine was originally a lighter, shorter weapon developed for [[cavalry]] soldiers, for whom a full-length musket or rifle was too heavy and awkward to fire from horseback. Carbines were usually less accurate and powerful than the longer rifles of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets fired from the shortened barrel. With the advent of fast-burning [[smokeless powder]], the velocity disadvantages of the shorter barrels became less of an issue (see [[internal ballistics]]). Eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline, but carbines continued to be issued and used by many who preferred a lighter, more compact weapon even at the cost of reduced long-range accuracy and power. A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding on horses, but it was also more convenient when riding in a truck, [[armored personnel carrier]], [[helicopter]] or aircraft, and also when engaged in close-range combat.
During the nineteenth century, carbines were often developed separately from the infantry rifl |
w he's right" with the line "In your guts, you know he's nuts." Johnson himself did not mention Goldwater in his own acceptance speech at the [[1964 Democratic National Convention]], nor did he [[U.S. presidential election debates|debate]] against Goldwater.
Goldwater's provocative advocacy of aggressive tactics to prevent the spread of Communism in [[Asia]] led to effective counter-attacks from [[Lyndon Johnson]] and his supporters, who feared that Goldwater's militancy would have dire consequences, possibly even including nuclear war. The Johnson campaign ran a famous [[television commercial]] showing a young girl pulling petals off a daisy while a countdown is heard in the background; "Three&mdash;Two&mdash;One...." Her frolicking is interrupted by the [[mushroom cloud]] of a nuclear explosion. Dubbed ''[[Daisy (television commercial)|Daisy]]'', it warned that Goldwater might start a [[nuclear war]] if elected. The commercial, which featured only a few spoken words of narrative and relied on imagery for its emotional impact, was one of the most provocative moments in American campaign history and is credited by many as being the birth of the modern style of negative television advertising. The ad ran only twice, and only in small local markets, but gained national attention through news coverage. (Goldwater's own rhetoric on nuclear war was viewed by many as quite uncompromising, a view buttressed by off-hand comments such as, "Let's lob one into the men's room at the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]].") [http://scoop.agonist.org/story/2004/9/5/13652/16915]
Goldwater did his best to counter the Johnson attacks, criticizing the Johnson administration for its perceived ethical lapses, and stating in a commercial that "...we, as a nation, are not far from the kind of moral decay that has brought on the fall of other nations and people...I say it is time to put conscience back in government. And by good example, put it back in all walks of American life." Goldwater campaign commercials included statements of support by actor [[Raymond Massey]] and moderate Republican senator [[Margaret Chase Smith]].
In the end, Goldwater received only 38.4% of the [[popular vote]], and carried only five of the [[U.S. Southern states|Southern states]] ([[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]] and [[South Carolina]]) plus (barely) his home state of [[Arizona]]. Johnson won 486 electoral votes to Goldwater's 52 and almost carried Goldwater's Arizona, which gave Goldwater 242,536 votes (50.4%) to Johnson's 237,765 (49.5%). Goldwater, with his customary bluntness, remarked: "We would have lost even if [[Abraham Lincoln]] had come back and campaigned with us."
Goldwater maintained later in life that he would have won the election if the country had not been in a state of extended grief, and that it was simply not ready for its third president in fourteen months. It has frequently been argued that Goldwater's strong performance in Southern states previously regarded as Democratic strongholds foreshadowed a larger shift in electoral trends in the coming decades that would make the South a Republican bastion&mdash;first in presidential politics, and eventually at the congressional and state level as well.
==Goldwater and the revival of American conservatism==
Current Arizona Senator [[John McCain]] summed up Goldwater's impact in this way: "[he] transformed the Republican Party from an Eastern elitist organization to the breeding ground for the election of Ronald Reagan." Historian [[Rick Perlstein]], in his book ''Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus'', explained Goldwater's impact on the American political scene by way of analogy:
:"Think of a senator winning the Democratic nomination in the year 2000 whose positions included halving the military budget, socializing the medical system, reregulating the communications and electrical industries, establishing a guaranteed minimum income for all Americans, and equalizing funding for all schools regardless of property valuations&mdash;and who promised to fire [[Alan Greenspan]], counseled withdrawal from the [[World Trade Organization]], and, for good measure, spoke warmly of adolescent sexual experimentation. He would lose in a landslide. He would be relegated to the ash heap of history. But if the precedent of 1964 were repeated, two years later the country would begin electing dozens of men and women just like him. And not many decades later, Republicans would have to proclaim softer versions of those positions to get taken seriously for their party's nomination."
The Republican Party recovered from the 1964 election debacle, picking up 47 seats in the [[House of Representatives]] in the [[U.S. House election, 1966|mid-term election of 1966]]. Further Republican successes ensued, including Goldwater's return to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] in 1968, although he played little part in the election of [[Richard Nixon]]. Throughout the [[1970s]], as the conservative wing gained influence in the party, Goldwater remained one of its standard-bearers. The columnist [[George Will]] remarked after the [[United States presidential election, 1980|1980 Presidential election]] that "it took 16 years to count the votes [of the 1964 election], and Goldwater won", demonstrating the extent to which Goldwater was seen as leading the wing.
However, by the [[1980s]], with [[Ronald Reagan]] as president and the growing involvement of the [[religious right]] in conservative politics, Goldwater increasingly showed a [[libertarianism|libertarian]] streak that put him at odds with the [[Reagan Administration]] and religious conservatives. Goldwater viewed [[abortion]] as a matter of personal choice, not intended for government intervention. As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties. In his 1980 [[United States Senate|Senate]] re-election campaign, Goldwater won support from religious conservatives but in his final term voted consistently to uphold legalized abortion. Notwithstanding his prior differences with [[Dwight Eisenhower]], Goldwater in a 1986 interview rated him the best of the seven Presidents with whom he had served.
After his retirement, in 1987, Goldwater described the conservative Arizona Governor [[Evan Mecham]] as "hardheaded" and called on him to resign, and two years later stated the Republican Party had been taken over by a "bunch of kooks", ''i.e.'', supporters of [[televangelist]] [[Pat Robertson]] and Mecham. In an 1994 interview with the ''Washington Post'' the retired Senator said, "When you say 'radical right' today, I think of these moneymaking ventures by fellows like [[Pat Robertson]] and others who are trying to take the Republican Party and make a religious organization out of it. If that ever happens, kiss politics goodbye."
In the [[1990s]] he became more controversial because of statements that aggravated many social conservatives. He endorsed Democrat [[Karan English]] in an Arizona congressional race, urged Republicans to lay off [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] over the [[Whitewater scandal]], and criticized the military's ban on [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]: "Everyone knows that gays have served honorably in the military since at least the time of [[Julius Caesar]]." He also said, "You don't have to be straight to be in the military; you just have to be able to shoot straight." He acknowledged, however, that in 37 years of military and reserve service he had not personally known any openly homosexual service members. In 1996 he told [[Bob Dole]], who mounted his presidential campaign with luke-warm support from hard-line conservatives, "We're the new liberals of the Republican Party. Can you imagine that?"
He became known for the occasional, humorous off-color remark; he once told talk-show host [[Jay Leno]] and guest [[Roseanne Barr]] that he planned to get a [[tattoo]] of a lipstick pucker "right on my ass."
==Photography==
Goldwater also was an accomplished amateur [[photographer]] and at his death left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions.
For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to ''[[Arizona Highways (magazine)|Arizona Highways]]'' and was best known for his Western landscapes and pictures of [[native Americans in the United States]]. Three books with his photographs are ''People and Places'', from 1967; ''Barry Goldwater and the Southwest'', from 1976; and ''Delightful Journey'', first published in 1940 and reprinted in 1970. [[Ansel Adams]] wrote a foreword to the 1976 book. (''Arizona Republic'', [[May 31]], [[1998]])
==Goldwater and UFOs==
Goldwater was one of the more prominent American politicans to openly show an interest in [[UFO]]s.
He replied to several letters from his constituents, regarding UFO-related questions, dating to at least as early as 1974. In an official letter printed on U.S. Senate letterhead, dated [[March 28]], [[1975]], Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: "The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time. About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request. It is still classified above [[Top Secret]]." Goldwater further wrote that there were rumors the evidence would be released, and that he was "just as anxious to see this material as you are, and I hope we will not have to wait much longer."[http://www.anomalies.net/archive/Text-Archive/txt1/469.ufo]
The [[April 25]], [[1988]] issue of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' carried an |
spoke out against increasing immigration, during a concert in [[Birmingham]]. Clapton said that England had "become overcrowded", and implored the crowd to vote for [[Enoch Powell]] to stop Britain becoming "a black colony". These comments (along with equally ill-advised remarks by [[David Bowie]]) led to the creation of the [[Rock Against Racism]] movement in the UK.
Despite his controversial stance, Clapton has not made any notable effort to distance himself from the remarks and has denied there was any contradiction between his political views and his career based on an essentially black musical form. At about this time, his name appeared on albums distributed in Japan as ''Eric Crapton''[http://www.engrish.com/detail.php?imagename=CDCover.jpg&category=Music&date=2002-02-18], though this is most probably a case of [[Engrish]] rather than sabotage.
The late [[1970s]] saw Clapton struggle to come to terms with the changes in popular music, and a relapse into [[alcoholism]] that eventually saw him hospitalised and then spending a period of convalescence in [[Antigua]], where he would later support the creation of a drugs and alcohol [[Substance-abuse rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] centre, [[The Crossroads Centre]].
As Clapton came back from his addictions, his album output continued in the [[1980s]], including two produced with [[Phil Collins]], 1985's ''[[Behind the Sun (Eric Clapton album)|Behind the Sun]]'' and 1986's ''[[August (album)|August]]''. The latter, a polished, pop-oriented album suffused with Collins's trademark drum/horn sound, became his biggest seller in the UK to date and matched his highest chart position, number 3. The album's first track, the hit "''It's In The Way That You Use It''", was also featured in the [[Tom Cruise]]-[[Paul Newman]] movie ''[[The Color of Money]]'' The horn-peppered "''Run''" echoed "''Sussudio''" and the producer's Genesis/solo output, while "''Tearing Us Apart''" (with [[Tina Turner]]) and the bitter "''Miss You''" echoed Slowhand at his angry best.
The period kicked off Clapton's extensive two-year period of touring with Collins and their ''August'' collaborates, bassist Nathan East and keyboard player/songwriter Greg Phillinganes. Despite his own earlier battles with the bottle, Clapton also remade "''After Midnight''" as a single and a promotional track for the [[Michelob]] beer brand produced by [[Anheuser-Busch]], which had also marketed earlier songs by Collins and [[Steve Winwood]].
Clapton won more plaudits and a [[British Academy Television Award]] for his collaboration with [[Michael Kamen]] on the score for the critically-acclaimed [[1985]] [[BBC]] television thriller serial ''[[Edge of Darkness]]''.
In [[1989 in music|1989]], Clapton's commercial and artistic resurgence finally came full circle with '[['Journeyman (album)|Journeyman]]'', which featured songs in a wide range of styles from blues to jazz, soul and pop and collaborators including George Harrison and [[Robert Cray]].
=== Tragedy again ===
In [[1985]] Clapton, while still married to Pattie Boyd-Harrison, had started a relationship with [[Yvonne Khan Kelly]]; they had a daughter, Ruth, in the same year. Clapton did not publicly acknowledge his daughter's existence for several years (she eventually made a spoken-word appearance on his 1998 album ''[[Pilgrim (1998 album)|Pilgrim]]'' and in 2001 was pictured in the ''Reptile'' album artwork). Clapton and Boyd-Harrison [[divorce|divorced]] in [[1988]] following his affair with [[Italy|Italian]] [[Model (person)|model]] [[Lory Del Santo]], who gave birth to his son Conor in August 1986 (the month of his birth prompting the title of the album released that year).
The early [[1990s]] saw tragedy enter Clapton's life again on two occasions. On [[August 27]], [[1990]] guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], who was touring with Clapton, and two members of their road crew were killed in a helicopter crash between concerts. Then, on [[March 20]] [[1991]] at 11:00AM, Conor, who was four and a half, died when he fell from a 53rd-story window in his parents' [[New York City]] apartment, landing on the roof of an adjacent four-story building. A fraction of Clapton's grief was heard on the song "[[Tears in Heaven|''Tears in Heaven'']]" (on the soundtrack to the [[1991 in film|1991]] movie ''[[Rush (1991 film)|Rush]]''), co-written with [[Will Jennings]], which, like the ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' album that followed it, won a [[Grammy]] award.[[Image:eclapton_cardiff.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Eric Clapton at the Tsunami Relief Concert at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]], [[Wales]], [[UK]] on [[22 January]] [[2005]]]]
It should be noted that Clapton's ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' [[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|album]] included a former member of the [[Allman Brothers Band]]: keyboardist [[Chuck Leavell]] (thus making ''[[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|Unplugged]]'' Clapton's second critically acclaimed offering to feature a member of the Allmans.
=== Slowhand Re-Emerging ===
Like ''Unplugged'', his [[1994 in music|1994]] album ''[[From The Cradle]]'' featured a number of versions of old blues standards, and highlighted his economical [[acoustic guitar]] style.
Clapton finished the [[twentieth century]] with critically-acclaimed collaborations with [[Carlos Santana]] and [[B. B. King]]. Clapton's [[1996]] recording of the [[Wayne Kirkpatrick]]/ [[Gordon Kennedy]]/[[Tommy Sims]] tune "''Change the World''" won a [[Grammy]] award for song of the year in [[1997]], the same year he recorded ''Retail Therapy'', an album of [[electronic music]] with [[Simon Climie]] under the pseudonym TDF.
In [[1999]] Clapton, then 54, met 25 year old [[graphic artist]] [[Melia McEnery]] in [[Los Angeles]] while working on an album with B.B. King. They married in [[2002]] at St Mary Magdalen church in Clapton's birthplace, Ripley, and as of 2005 have three daughters, Julia Rose ([[2001]]), Ella May ([[2003]]), and Sophie ([[2005]]).
In November 2002 Clapton masterminded [[Concert for George|The Concert for George]], a star-studded tribute to George Harrison at the Royal Albert Hall, featuring [[Sir Paul McCartney]], [[Ringo Starr]], [[Jeff Lynne]] and [[Tom Petty]], amongst others.
The rights to Clapton's official memoirs, to be written by [[Christopher Simon Sykes]] and published in 2007, were [http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1597895,00.html reportedly] sold at the
2005 [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] for [[USD]] $4 million.
In [[2006]] it was announced that [[Derek Trucks]] would join Clapton's band for his [[2006]] and [[2007]] tour. Trucks is the third member of the [[Allman Brothers Band]] to support Clapton.
== Eric's Axes ==
[[Image:Claptonstrat.jpg|thumb|left|164px|The Eric Clapton signature [[Stratocaster]], made by [[Fender]]]]
Clapton's choice of electric guitars have been as notable as the man himself, and alongside [[Hank Marvin]], [[The Beatles]] and [[Jimi Hendrix]], Clapton has exerted a crucial and widespread influence in popularising particular models of the [[electric guitar]].
Early on in his career, Clapton used a late 1950s [[Gibson Les Paul]], and was partially responsible for Gibson's reintroduction of the original Les Paul body style after is was replaced by the [[Gibson SG]].
During his stint in Cream, Clapton continued to use Gibson guitars, including the Les Paul (which was later stolen) and a [[Gibson ES-335]], but his most famous guitar in this period was a 1964 [[Gibson SG]]. The guitar was noted both for its distinctive singing tone - which Clapton called the "woman tone" - and for its remarkable appearance. In early 1967, just before their first US promotional tour, Clapton's SG, Bruce's [[Fender VI]] and Baker's drum head were repainted in eye-popping psychedelic designs created by the visual art collective known as ''[[The Fool (design collective)|The Fool]]''.
It is not clear whether Clapton played the SG or a Les Paul on "''While My Guitar Gently Weeps''". (''Guitar World'' magazine - March 1999, page 117 - says it was a Les Paul, as do most other references). He later loaned the SG to singer [[Jackie Lomax]], who subsequently sold it to musician [[Todd Rundgren]] for [[US dollar|US]] 500 in 1972. Rundgren restored the guitar and nicknamed it "Sunny", after "Sunshine Of Your Love", on which it featured. He played the guitar extensively on record and in concert in the mid-1970s, eventually retiring it in 1977. He retained it until 2000, when he sold it at an [[auction]] for US$150,000.
During Clapton's heroin addiction from 1971 to 1973 following the dissolution of [[Derek and the Dominos]], Clapton began to sell his collection of guitars to pay for his drug habit. Seeing Clapton selling his most treasured possessions was one of the reasons [[Pete Townshend]] was prompted to assist him get over his addiction.
Another moment involving Clapton's guitars and Pete Townshend resulted in [[Hard Rock Cafe]]'s unique and gigantic collection of memorabilia. In 1971, Clapton, a regular at the original Hard Rock Cafe in [[Hyde Park]], [[London]], gave a signed guitar to the cafe to designate his favorite bar stool. Pete Townshend, in turn, donated one of his own guitars, with a note attached: "Mine's as good as his! Love, Pete." From there, the collection of memorabilia grew, resulting in Hard Rock Cafe's atmosphere.
Later (and probably due to Hendrix's influence), Clapton began using [[Fender]] [[Stratocaster|Stratocasters]]. Most famous of all Clapton's guitars was "''[[Blackie]]''" (a concoction of Clapton's favorite parts from several other Strats) which he used until the late [[1980s]] when it literally wore out.
In [[1988]] Clapton, along with fellow Strat player [[Yngwie Malmsteen]], was honored by Fender with the introduction of his signature [[Eric Clap |
t). He resigned the captaincy after a loss and a draw in the first two Tests of the [[1981]] [[Ashes series]]; he was dismissed for a "pair" in the Second Test at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. He returned to an embarrassed silence in the pavilion and after the previous year's events at the centenary Test, this possibly was the final straw. For the rest of his cricketing career, Botham always refused to acknowledge the pavilion members when he played at Lord's. The Australian team was rated as second only to the great West Indies team of the time containing a formidable pace attack in the form of [[Dennis Lillee]], [[Geoff Lawson (cricketer)|Geoff Lawson]] and [[Terry Alderman]].
[[Mike Brearley]], the captain Botham had replaced, took over the reins for the Third Test scheduled for [[16 July|16]] to [[21 July]], at [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]]. Australia won the toss and elected to bat. They batted all day Thursday and most of Friday, declaring after tea at 401 for 9, [[John Dyson]] having made 102 and Botham having taken 6 for 96. The England openers [[Graham Gooch]] and [[Geoff Boycott]] survived the remaining few overs, and England finished the day on 7 for no wicket.
The next day, Saturday, was a disaster for England: Gooch was out in the first over of the day, and although Boycott and Brearley then attempted to dig in, they were both out before lunch. None of the other batsmen got going at all with the exception of Botham who top scored with 50 &mdash; his first half century since his first Test as captain 13 matches earlier. England were all out in the third session for 174. Australia enforced the follow on and piled on the pressure, Gooch was out for 0 on the third ball of the first over caught by Terry Alderman off the bowling of Dennis Lillee. By the close, England had struggled to just 6 for 1, still 221 behind Australia.
Sunday [[19 July]] was a rest day and the papers roasted the lamentable England team. Morale was not improved by the news that [[Ladbrokes]] were offering 500-1 against England winning the match. (Controversially, the Australian wicket keeper [[Rod Marsh]] and opening bowler Dennis Lillee both placed bets on England to win, claiming that 500-1 were silly odds on any two-horse race.)
On Monday morning the odds began to look generous, as first Brearley, then [[David Gower]] and [[Mike Gatting]] all fell cheaply to reduce England to 41 for 4. Boycott was still anchored at the other end however and he and [[Peter Willey]] added 50 runs before lunch. In the afternoon however, Willey was out for 33 and England were in deep trouble at 105 for 5 as Botham walked out to bat. Matters did not improve as first Geoff Boycott and then [[Robert Taylor|Bob Taylor]] were soon dismissed. At 135 for 7 an innings defeat looked almost certain.
By all accounts, both teams' players thought Australia would win the match. When [[Graham Dilley]] joined him at the crease, Botham reportedly said, "Right then, let's have a bit of fun...". With able support from Dilley (56) and [[Chris Old]] (29), Botham hit out and by the close of play was 145 not out with [[Bob Willis]] hanging on at the other end on 1 not out. England's lead was just 124 but there was hope. On the final day's play there was time for just four more runs from Botham before Willis was out and Botham was left on 149 not out.
Willis's real contribution was with the ball however, after Botham took the first wicket Willis skittled Australia out for just 111, finishing with figures of 8 for 43. England had won by just 18 runs, it was only the second time in history that a team following on had won a Test match.
The next Test match, at Edgbaston, looked almost as hopeless for England. In a low scoring match (no-one made a score over 48), Australia needed 151 to win. At 5-105, things looked a little worrying for them, but an Australian win was still the most likely result. Botham then took 5 wickets for 1 run in 28 balls to give England the win by 29 runs. (Later, Brearley said that Botham hadn't wanted to bowl and had to be persuaded.)
The [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] Test was less of a turnaround and more of a team performance than the previous two Tests, but Botham again was England's hero, scoring 118 in what Lillee claimed was a better innings than his Headingley heroics. His sixes in this innings have themselves become a part of cricketing folklore; three of the five were from Lillee's bowling, two of them in the same over. Remarkably, even though he seemed to take his eye off the ball while hooking some fearsome Lillee bouncers, his sheer power and strength carried the ball over the boundary ropes. England won the match, then drew the last match at [[The Oval]] (Botham took 6 wickets in the first innings) to take the series 3-1.
Unsurprisingly, Botham was named man of the series, scoring 399 runs and taking 34 wickets. He was made [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] in [[1981]]. He is one of only four cricketers to receive the honour, the others being [[Jim Laker]] in [[1956]], [[David Steele]] in [[1975]] and [[Andrew Flintoff]] in 2005.
The turnaround at Headingley was ranked 5th in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]] in 2002.
==Off the field==
A colourful character, Botham was suspended briefly in 1986 for smoking [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], and his private life has occasionally made dramatic appearances in Britain's tabloid newspapers. He is married with three children. His son [[Liam Botham]] was a professional [[Rugby League]] player, playing for [[Wigan Warriors]] until his retirement in 2005 due to injury.
After retiring as a player, he became an authoritative [[television]] [[commentator]] and has participated in a number of long-distance fund-raising walks for charities. He has raised more than five million pounds, with [[Leukaemia Research]] (charity) amongst the causes which have benefited.
Botham was appointed an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] in [[1992]] for services to cricket and for his charity work. For several years, he was a resident team captain on the [[BBC]] [[quiz]] show "[[A Question Of Sport]]", and he has also taken up offers of appearing in [[pantomime]]s during the [[Christmas]] period. In 2004, he won the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award]]. In 2003 he was made the first ever President of Leukaemia Research, the UK's leading blood cancer charity.
==Family history==
Ian Botham's father came from [[East Riding of Yorkshire|East Yorkshire]]. When Ian was young, his father was stationed with the [[Fleet Air Arm]] in Northern Ireland, before he moved to [[Yeovil]], where he worked at [[Westland Helicopters]]. Botham went to Milford Junior School, where he discovered a liking for sport, especially cricket, and played for Somerset Under-15s. He left Buckler's Mead Comprehensive School at 15, being only interested in playing cricket for Somerset, although he also had an offer to join [[Crystal Palace F.C.]]. From an early age, he always wanted his own way in a devoutly, almost religious, single-minded fashion. When informed that Ian wanted to be a sportsman, the careers master at his school said to him 'Fine, everyone wants to play sport, but what are you really going to do?'.
==External links==
* {{cricinfo|ref=ci/content/player/9163.html}}
* [http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive]
{{5WI 25 times}}
{{English Test match double}}
{{All-rounders}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Mike Brearley]]|
title=[[England Cricket|English national cricket captain]]|
years=1980-1981|
after=[[Mike Brearley]]
}}
{{succession box|title=[[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]]|before=[[Robin Cousins]] |after=[[Daley Thompson]]|years=1981}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1955 births|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:British sports broadcasters|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Cricket commentators|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Durham cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English ODI cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English Test cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English all-rounders|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English batsmen|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English bowlers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English footballers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Queensland cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. players|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Worcestershire cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Cheshire|Botham, Ian]]
[[fr:Ian Botham]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Id Software</title>
<id>15526</id>
<revision>
<id>38679425</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T22:55:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>192.246.40.8</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Both Hall and Romero were let go from id, they didn't quit. I changed the entry to be more correct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=id Software}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = id Software |
company_logo = [[Image:idlogo.jpg|180px|]] |
company_type = [[Private company|Private]] |
company_slogan = N/A |
foundation = [[Mesquite, TX]] ([[February 1]] [[1991]]) |
location = [[Mesquite, TX]] |
key_people = [[John Carmack]], Lead Programmer<br />[[John Romero]], Former Game Designer<br />[[Tom Hall]], Former Game Designer<br />[[Adrian Carmack]], Former Artist |
num_employees = 26 |
industry = [[Computer game]]s|
products = [[Wolfenstein 3D]]<br />[[HeXen]]<br />[[HeXen II]]<br />[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]<br />[[Doom]]<br />[[Doom II]]<br />[[Doom 3 |
ons in the world. The federal government can initiate national policies that the provinces can opt out of, but this rarely happens in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.
All provinces have unicameral, elected legislatures headed by a [[premier (Canada)|Premier]] selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a [[Lieutenant-Governor]] representing the Queen, analogous to the Governor General of Canada, appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years. The provinces and territories are:
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="margin-left:30px; border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center; font-size:80%; line-height:normal"
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
!Flag
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
!Capital city
!Entered<br>Confederation
!Standard<br>[[Time Zone]]<br>([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])
![[List of regions of Canada|Region]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of British Columbia.svg|50px]]||[[British Columbia]]||[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]||1871|| -8 ([[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]),<br>-7 (Mountain)||[[Western Canada|Western]], Pacific
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Alberta.svg|50px]]||[[Alberta]]||[[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]]||1905||-7 ([[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]])
|rowspan=3|Western, [[Canadian Prairies|Prairies]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Saskatchewan.svg|50px]]||[[Saskatchewan]]||[[Regina, Saskatchewan|Regina]]||1905||-7 (Mountain),<br>-6 (Central)
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Manitoba.svg|50px]]||[[Manitoba]]||[[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]||1870||-6 ([[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]])
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Ontario.svg|50px]]||[[Ontario]]||[[Toronto]]||1867||-6 (Central),<br> -5 ([[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]])
|rowspan=2|[[Central Canada|Central]], [[Eastern Canada|Eastern]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Quebec.svg|50px]]||[[Quebec]]||[[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]]||1867||-5 (Eastern)<br>-4 ([[Atlantic Standard Time Zone|Atlantic]])
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of New Brunswick.svg|50px]]||[[New Brunswick]]||[[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]]||1867
|rowspan=3|-4 (Atlantic)
|rowspan=3|[[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]], [[Maritimes]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Nova Scotia.svg|50px]]||[[Nova Scotia]]||[[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]]||1867
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Prince Edward Island.svg|50px]]||[[Prince Edward Island]]||[[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]]||1873
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Newfoundland and Labrador.svg|50px]]||[[Newfoundland and Labrador]]||[[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]]||1949||-4 (Atlantic),<br>-3.5 ([[Newfoundland Standard Time Zone|Newfoundland]])||[[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]]
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
!Flag
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory]]
!Capital city
!Entered<br>Confederation
!Standard<br>Time Zone<br>(UTC)
!Region
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Yukon.svg|50px]]||[[Yukon]]||[[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]]||1898||-8
|rowspan=3|[[Northern Canada|Northern]], [[Arctic]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of the Northwest Territories.svg|50px]]||[[Northwest Territories]]||[[Yellowknife, Northwest Territories|Yellowknife]]||1870||-7
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Nunavut.svg|50px]]||[[Nunavut]]||[[Iqaluit, Nunavut|Iqaluit]]||1999||-7, -6, -5,
|}
==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|right|335px|A satellite composite image of Canada. [[Boreal]] forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in the [[Arctic]] and through the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], and the relatively flat [[Prairies]] facilitate agriculture. The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]
{{main|Geography of Canada}}
Canada occupies the northern portion of [[North America]]. It shares land borders with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and with [[Alaska]] to the northwest and stretches from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west. To the north lies the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141° W [[longitude]] ([http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1]); this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert]] on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – latitude 82.5° N – just 834 kilometres (450 nautical miles) from the North Pole. Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area, after [[Russia]].
The population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1/[[square mile|mi²]]) is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City-Windsor Corridor]] in the east. To the north of this region is the broad [[Canadian Shield]], an area of rock scoured clean by the [[Wisconsin glaciation|last ice age]], thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers—over 60% of the world's lakes are in Canada.
[[Newfoundland]] is at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]], the world's largest [[estuary]]. The [[Canadian Maritimes]] protrude eastward from the southern coasts of Quebec. [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] are divided by the [[Bay of Fundy]], which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. West of Ontario, the broad, flat [[Canadian Prairies]] spread toward the [[Rocky Mountains]], which separate them from [[British Columbia]].
[[Image:MountLogan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Mount Logan]] in [[Yukon]]; at 5,959 metres (19,551 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]
Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from [[coniferous]] forests to [[tundra]] and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast [[Canadian Arctic islands|archipelago]] containing some of the world's largest islands.
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location.
Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the [[Canadian prairies|Prairie Provinces]] where daily average temperatures are near -15 °[[Celsius|C]] (5 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) Coastal British Columbia is an exception and it enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter.
Average summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location. On the east and west coast average high temperatures are in the low 20s °C (68-74°F), while in between the coasts the average summer high temperature range between 25°C to 30°C (78-86°F). For a more complete description of climate across Canada [http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html| Environment Canada's Website].<br clear="right">
==Economy==
[[Image:Canadian_bills.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Five denominations of [[Canadian dollar|Canadian]] [[banknotes]], depicting (from top to bottom) [[Wilfrid Laurier]], [[John A. Macdonald]], [[Queen Elizabeth II]], [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and [[Robert Borden]].]]
:''Main articles: [[Economy of Canada]], [[Economic history of Canada]]
An affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. In the last century, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. Canada has vast deposits of natural gas on the east coast and in the west, and a plethora of other natural resources contributing to self-sufficiency in energy. The 1989 [[Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) and 1994 [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the U.S. Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the [[G8]].
==Demographics==
:''Main articles: [[Demographics of Canada]], [[List of Canadians by ethnicity]]
The [[Canada 2001 Census|2001 national census]] recorded 30,007,094 people; as of January 2006, the population is estimated by [[Statistics Canada]] to be 32.4 million people[http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm], an increase of some 2.4 million people accomplished largely by [[immigration]] and (to a lesser extent) natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population live within 150 km of the U.S. border. A similar proportion live in [[Urban Area|urban areas]] concentrated in the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor (notably the [[Toronto]]-[[Hamilton]], [[Montréal]], and [[National Capital Region (Canada)|Ottawa]] [[metropolitan area]]s), the BC [[Lower Mainland]], and the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.
Canada is a very ethnically diverse nation. According to the 2001 census by [[Statcan]] it has 34 ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, and numerous others represented in smaller amounts. A majority of Canadians descend from [[white]] [[Europe]]an immigrants who arrived in increasing numbers until WWI. This majority--86.9% in 2001, is growing slower than the rest of the population. The most frequently stated [[white]] [[European]] ancestries are [[England|English]] (20%), [[France|French]] (15.7%), [[Scottish people|Scottish]] (14%), [[Irish]] (12.9%), [[German people|German]] (9.2%) and [[Italian]] (4.3%)[http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo26a.htm].
Throughout and since the [[wo |
as born in [[Eschersheim]] near [[Frankfurt am Main]]. In 1823 Wöhler finished his study of [[medicine]] in [[Heidelberg]] at the laboratory of [[Leopold Gmelin]], who arranged for him to work under [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in [[Stockholm]]. He taught chemistry from [[1825]] to [[1831]] at the Polytechnic School in [[Berlin]]; then till [[1836]] he was stationed at the [[Higher Polytechnic School]] at [[Cassel]], and then he became Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the [[University of Göttingen]], where he remained till his death.
==Contributions to chemistry==
Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in [[organic chemistry]] as a result of his (accidental) synthesizing [[urea]] in the [[Wöhler synthesis]] in [[1828]]. Until 1828, it was believed that organic substances could only be formed under the influence of the vital force in the bodies of animals and plants. Wöhler proved by the artificial preparation of urea from inorganic materials that this view was false. Urea synthesis was integral for [[biochemistry]] because it showed that a compound known to be produced only by biological [[organism]]s could be produced in a [[laboratory]], under controlled conditions, from inanimate matter. This [[in vitro]] synthesis of organic matter disproved the common theory ([[vitalism]]) about the ''[[vis vitalis]]'', a [[transcendent]] "life force" needed for producing organic compounds. By showing that [[cyanates|ammonium cyanate]] can become urea by an internal arrangement of its atoms, without gaining or losing in weight, Wöhler furnished one of the first and best examples of [[isomerism]], demolishing the old view that equality of composition could not coexist in two bodies, A and B, with differences in their respective physical and chemical properties. In the year of his urea synthesis, Wöhler became professor at the age of 28. Two years later, in 1830, Wöhler published, jointly with [[Justus von Liebig]], the results of a research on [[cyanic acid]] and [[cyanuric acid]] and on [[urea]]. Berzelius, in his report to the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], called it the most important of all researches in physics, chemistry, and mineralogy published in that year. The results were quite unexpected, and furnished additional evidence in favour of [[isomerism]].
==Major works, discoveries and research==
[[image:friedrich woehler.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Wöhler circa [[1850s]].]]
Wöhler was also a co-discoverer of [[beryllium]] and [[silicon]], as well as the synthesis of [[calcium carbide]], among others. In 1834, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They proved by
their experiments that a group of [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] [[atom]]s can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in [[chemical compound]]s. Thus the foundation was laid of the doctrine of compound radicals, a doctrine which had a profound influence on the development of chemistry.
Since the discovery of [[potassium]] by [[Humphry Davy]], it had been assumed that [[alumina]], the basis of [[clay]], contained a metal in combination with oxygen. Davy, Oerstedt, and Berzelius attempted the extraction of this metal, but failed. Wöhler then worked on the same subject, and discovered the metal [[aluminium]]. To him also is due the isolation of the elements [[yttrium]], [[beryllium]], and [[titanium]], the observation that silicium can be obtained in crystals, and that some meteoric stones contain organic matter. He analyzed a number of [[meteorite]]s, and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the ''[[Jahresbericht der Chemie]]''; he possessed the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons existing. Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville discovered the crystalline form of boron, and Wöhler and Buff the hydrogen compounds of silicium and a lower oxide of the same element.
==Final days and legacy==
Wöhler's discoveries had great influence on the theory of chemistry. The journals of every year from [[1820]] to [[1881]] contain contributions from him. It was remarked that "for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming. Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now."
While sojourning at Cassel, Wöhler made, among other chemical discoveries, one for obtaining the metal [[nickel]] in a state of purity, and with two friends he founded a factory there for the preparation of the metal.
== Works ==
* ''Lehrbuch der Chemie'', Dresden, 1825, 4 vols.
* ''Grundriss der Anorganischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1830
* ''Grundriss der Organischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1840
* ''Praktischen Uebringen der Chemischen Analyse'', Berlin, 1854
{{commons|Friedrich Wöhler}}
[[Category:1800 births|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:1882 deaths|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German chemists|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German scientists|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[bg:Фридрих Вьолер]]
[[cs:Friedrich Woehler]]
[[de:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[es:Friedrich Woehler]]
[[fr:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[it:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[nl:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴェーラー]]
[[pl:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[pt:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[ro:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[sk:Friedrich Woehler]]
[[sl:Friedrich Wöhler]]
[[zh:弗里德里希·维勒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Funk</title>
<id>10778</id>
<revision>
<id>41979604</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:39:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.9.170.142|68.9.170.142]] ([[User talk:68.9.170.142|Talk]]) to last version by Sasuke Sarutobi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Funk}}
{{Funk}}
'''Funk''' is a distinct style of [[music]] originated by [[African-American]]s, e.g., [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and his band members (especially [[Maceo Parker|Maceo]] and [[Melvin Parker]]), and groups like [[The Meters]].
Funk best can be recognized by its syncopated three against four rhythms; thick bass line (often based on an "on the one" beat); razor-sharp rhythm guitars; chanted or hollered vocals (as that of [[Marva Whitney]] or the [[Bar-Kays]]); strong, rhythm-oriented [[horn section]]s; prominent [[Percussion instrument|percussion]]; an upbeat attitude; African tones; danceability; and strong jazz influences (e.g., as in the music of [[Miles Davis]], [[Herbie Hancock]], [[George Duke]], [[Eddie Harris]], and others).
===Characteristics===
Compared to funk's predecessor, the [[soul music]] of 1960s, funk typically uses more complex [[rhythm]]s, while song structures are usually simpler. Often, the structure of a funk song consists of just one or two [[riffs]]. Sometimes the point at which one riff changes to another becomes the highlight of a song. The soul [[dance]] music of its day, the basic idea of funk was to create as intense a groove as possible.
One of the most distinctive features of funk music is the role played by [[bass guitar]]. Before soul music, bass was rarely prominent in [[popular music]]. Players like the legendary [[Motown]] bassist [[James Jamerson]] brought bass to the forefront, and funk built on that foundation, with melodic basslines often being the centerpiece of songs. Notable funk bassists include [[Bootsy Collins]] and [[Larry Graham]] of [[Sly & the Family Stone]]. Graham is often credited with inventing the percussive "[[Slapping|slap bass technique]]," which was further developed by later bassists and became a distictive element of funk.
Some of the best known and most skillful soloists in funk have [[jazz]] backgrounds. Trombonist [[Fred Wesley]] and saxophonist [[Maceo Parker]] are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre, both having worked with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]]. Jazz was, in turn, strongly influenced by funk in the [[1970]]s, beginning with [[Miles Davis]], the founder of the [[jazz fusion]] movement.
In funk bands, guitarists typically play in a percussive style. "Dead" or muted notes often are used in riffs to strengthen percussive elements. [[Jimi Hendrix]] was the pioneer of funk rock and his improvised other-worldly solos influenced Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic. [[Eddie Hazel]], who later worked with George Clinton is one of the most notable guitar soloists in funk. [[Jimmy Nolen]] and [[Phelps Collins]] are famous funk rhythm guitarists who both worked with James Brown.
==History==
===Origin of funk===
{{wiktionarypar|funk}}
The word "funk", once defined in dictionaries as body odor or the smell of sexual intercourse, commonly has been regarded as coarse or indecent. African-American musicians originally applied "funk" to music with a slow, mellow groove, then later with a hard-driving, insistent rhythm because of the word's association with sexual intercourse. This early form of the music set the pattern for later musicians. The music was slow, sexy, loose, [[riff]]-oriented and danceable. ''Funky'' typically described these qualities. In jam sessions, musicians would encourage one another to "get down" by telling one another, "Now, put some ''stank'' ('stink'/funk) on it!" At least as early as the 1930s, [[jazz]] songs carried titles such as [[Buddy Bolden]]'s ''Funky Butt.'' As late as the 1950s and early 1960s, when "funk" and "funky" were used increasingly in the context of soul music, the terms still were considered indelicate and inappropriate for use in polite company.
The distinctive characteristics of African-American musical expression are rooted in [[West Africa|West African]] musical traditions, and f |
have invited Americans (still subject to Prohibition) to "Come to Cuba and bathe in Bacardi rum." A new product was introduced: [[Hatuey]] [[beer]].
The [[1930s]] brought a new bottling plant in [[Mexico City]] and a new distillery in [[Puerto Rico]] under the leadership of Ron Bacardi. Several trademark disputes went to court during this time regarding use of the Bacardi name on rum produced outside of Cuba. The company's leadership then fell to Henri Schueg, who managed to keep the family name on the bottles coming from Puerto Rico. Another case was won by Bacardi which allowed that "…a Bacardi Cocktail is only a Bacardi Cocktail when made with Bacardi rum."
During the [[World War II]] years the company was led by Henri's son-in-law [[Jose Bosch|Jose Pepin Bosch]]. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and was named Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in [[1949]].
After the [[Cuban Revolution]], with [[Fidel Castro]] and other M-26-7 members coming to power in [[1959]], the Bacardi company fled Cuba for the [[Bahamas]]. Castro then seized all remaining Bacardi assets in Cuba. It is claimed by Hernando Calvo Ospina that Bacardi financed anti-Castro groups after the revolution, later helped found the [[Cuban American National Foundation]] (CANF) in [[1981]], and supported the [[Helms-Burton Act]] of [[1996]].
[[Ernest Hemingway]] mentions Hatuey beer in two of his works: ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' and ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''. In [[1956]], Bacardi held a festival in honor of Hemingway's winning the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].
In 1992 Bacardi acquired Martini & Rossi S.p.A. the famous italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines.
In 2004 Bacardi purchased the label [[Grey Goose]], a French made [[vodka]], from Sidney Frank for $2 billion.
On [[December 19]], [[2005]], Sergio Danguillecourt, a member of the board of directors of Bacardi and a great-great grandson of the company's founder [[Don Facundo Bacardi Masso]] was killed in a [[Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101| vintage seaplane crash]] off [[Miami Beach]], together with his wife, Jacqueline Kriz Danguillecourt.
==External links==
* [http://www.bacardi.com/ Bacardi], official website
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/58/58530.html Bacardi Limited], Yahoo! company profile
[[Category:Rums]]
[[de:Bacardi]]
[[fr:Bacardi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black and Tans</title>
<id>4922</id>
<revision>
<id>42045178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:27:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Dab. catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Blacktans.jpg|300px|thumb|Black and Tans]]
The '''Black and Tans''', more properly known as the '''Royal Irish Constabulary Reserve Force''', was one of two [[paramilitary]] forces employed by the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] from [[1920]] to [[1921]], to suppress revolution in [[Ireland]] by targeting the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and [[Sinn Féin]].
Following the [[Easter Rising]] in [[Dublin]] in [[1916]], when armed [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]] occupied buildings around the city in protest against British rule of [[Ireland]], the execution of the leaders, and the threat of [[conscription]], the [[Sinn Féin]] party won a majority in Ireland at the [[1918]] general election. [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] in [[Ulster]] had obtained a concession from the British, that six of Ulster's counties would remain apart from any home rule settlement. In [[1919]], the [[Irish Volunteers]], now known as the [[Irish Republican Army]], or IRA, began the [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], and Sinn Féin proclaimed an independent [[Ireland]].
In January [[1920]], the [[British government]] started advertising in [[Britain|British]] cities for men willing to "face a rough and dangerous task", helping to boost the ranks of the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] (RIC) in policing an increasingly anti-British Ireland. There was no shortage of recruits, many of them [[World War I]] army veterans, and by [[November]] [[1921]] around 9,500 men had joined. This sudden influx of men led to a shortage of RIC uniforms, and the new recruits were issued with [[khaki]] army uniforms (usually only trousers) and dark green RIC or blue British police surplus tunics, caps and belts. This mixture gave rise to their nickname, the ''Black and Tans'' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''na Dúchrónaigh''), from the name of a famous pack of [[foxhound]]s from [[County Limerick|Limerick]]. The name stuck even after the men received full RIC uniforms.
The new recruits received three months hurried and sub-standard training, and were rapidly posted to RIC barracks, mostly in [[Dublin]], [[Munster]] and western [[Connacht]]. The first men arrived on [[25 March]] [[1920]]. The government also raised another unit, the [[Auxiliary Division]] of the Constabulary, known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies. This group was made up of ex-army officers. The Black and Tans acted with the Auxiliaries in the government's attempts to break the IRA.
Members of the Black and Tans were paid the relatively good wage of ten [[shilling]]s a day plus full board and lodging. With minimal police training, their main role was to strengthen the military might of [[police]] posts, where they functioned as sentries, guards, escorts for government agents, reinforcement to the regular police, and crowd control, and mounted a determined [[counter-insurgency]] campaign. Because of these duties they were viewed by [[Irish republicanism|Republicans]] as an army of occupation. They soon gained a reputation for brutality, as the RIC campaign against the IRA and Sinn Féin members was stepped up and police reprisals for IRA attacks were condoned by the government. Many of the atrocities attributed to the Black and Tans were probably actually committed by the far more brutal Auxiliaries, but most Republicans did not make a distinction, and "Black and Tans" was often used as a catch-all term for both groups. Over one-third of the Black and Tans died or left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions. The Black and Tans and the Auxies became known as ''Tudor's Toughs'' after the police commander, Major-General Sir [[Henry Hugh Tudor]].
Alexander Will, from [[Forfar]] in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict, during an attack on the RIC barracks in [[Rathmore]], [[County Kerry]], on [[11 July]] [[1920]]. In November, the Tans arrested a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest, Fr. Michael Griffin, in [[Galway]]. His body was found in a bog in [[Barna]].
In January of 1920, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland, highly critical of the government's security policy. It states that, in forming the Black and Tans, the government had "liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate."
The Black and Tans sacked [[Cork]] city, the centre of which was burned out, and [[Balbriggan]]. [[Terence MacSwiney]], the [[Lord Mayor of Cork]], died after a 78-day hunger strike in [[Brixton Prison]], [[London]]. The Black and Tans' campaign was little more than [[state terrorism|state-sponsored terrorism]], with very little pretence being made at promoting law and order and great emphasis on crushing Irish separatism, whether violent or peaceful. On the other hand, some British politicians and the King made no secret of their horror at the behaviour of Crown forces which made international headlines, damaging British credibility. There is no doubt as to the ferocity of the fighting and that atrocities were committed, and feelings continue to run high regarding their actions. "Black and Tan" or "Tan" remains a pejorative term for Englishmen in Ireland. One of the most famous Irish Republican songs is Dominic Behan's [[Come Out Ye Black And Tans]]. The [[Anglo-Irish War]] is often referred to by modern Irish republicans as the "Tan War".
==See also==
* [[Royal Irish Constabulary]]
* [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]]
* [[Ulster Special Constabulary]]
* [[Auxiliary Division]]
* [[Counties of Ireland]]
==External links==
*http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/events/northern_ireland/history/newsid_64000/64204.stm
*http://www.guardian.co.uk/Northern_Ireland/Story/0,2763,209091,00.html
*http://www.psni.police.uk/museum/text/rictoruc.htm
*http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/northern_ireland/newsid_784000/784872.stm
*http://www.kcs.cambs.sch.uk/depts/history/detailed/ireland.htm
*http://www.cant.ac.uk/depts/acad/history/coursebooks/edge-ofthe-union.DOC
*http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00000009/01/Ainsworth_Black_conf.PDF
*http://homepage.tinet.ie/~abbeydorney/book/burning.html
*[http://webpages.dcu.ie/~foxs/irhist Chronology of Irish History 1919 - 1923]
[[de:Black and Tans]]
[[eo:Black and Tans]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in Ireland]]
[[Category:Paramilitary organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boomeroid</title>
<id>4923</id>
<revision>
<id>22449355</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-03T04:43:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nifboy</username>
<id>40342</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm link to webcomic, +stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[anime]] [[Bubblegum Crisis]], any person who has had more than seventy percent of their body replaced with mechanical parts is classified as a '''boomeroid''' and is treated as such by the law. As part of the [[Boomer]] Law, boomeroids are to be handled (often fatally) by the [[AD Police]], as opposed to the normal law enforcement officers of Megatokyo.
See also: [[Boomer]], [[AD Police]], [[cyborg]]
{{anime-stub}}</ |
DS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children.
The epidemic is not homogeneous within regions with some countries more afflicted than others (Figure 6). Even at the country level there are wide variations in infection levels between different areas, sexes and socioeconomic situation. The number of people living with HIV continues to rise, but in several countries it is declining. Evidence points out that changes in sexual behaviour, such as increased use of condoms, fewer sexual partners and delay of sexual experience, played key parts in these declines. The steepest increases have occurred in in Eastern
Europe and Central Asia (25% increase to 1.6 million) and East Asia <ref name=UNAIDS>
{{cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28}}</ref>.
{{see details|AIDS pandemic}}
==Other viewpoints==
A small minority of scientists, such as [[Peter Duesberg]] and [[1993]] [[chemistry]] [[nobel]] prize winner [[Kary Mullis]], express doubts over the HIV-AIDS link, and others, such as [[Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos]], a medical [[physicist]] based at [[Royal Perth Hospital]] in [[Australia]], deny the existence of HIV altogether. However, these claims have been refuted by the scientific community for almost 20 years now.
{{see details|AIDS reappraisal}}
==References==
<references/>
{{AIDS}}
==External links==
* [http://www.HIVMedicine.com HIV Medicine 2005], a medical textbook, >700 pages
* [http://www.structure.org/content/article/fulltext?uid=PIIS0969212605003898 The Mechanism of HIV-1 Core Assembly: Insights from Three-Dimensional Reconstructions of Authentic Virions]
* [http://www.aids.org AIDS.ORG: Educating - Raising HIV Awareness - Building Community]
*[http://www.aidsvaccine.org/ Capital Area Vaccine Effort]
* [http://www.aegis.org AEGiS.org: AIDS Education Global Information System- Patient/clinician information & Historical news and treatment database]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hiv.htm AIDS/HIV Education]
* [http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/anisamples/microbiology/hiv.html Watch an animated tutorial on the life cycle of HIV]
* [http://www.cmeonhiv.com Continuing medical education about HIV for healthcare providers]
* [http://fightaidsathome.scripps.edu/ FightAIDS@Home]
* [http://3dscience.com/advancedsearch.asp?stS=hiv&cboMatch=Any&selectcategory=0&txtMinPrice=&txtMaxPrice= Free HIV Images]
* [http://www.hivatis.org HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/hiv.html HIV/AIDS Education in Teacher Preparation Programs]
* [http://hivinsite.org/InSite HIV InSite]
* [http://health.howstuffworks.com/aids.htm How Aids Works] (with animation)
*[http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news/hiv-aids/index.cfm Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders HIV/AIDS Pages]
* [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/ NIH/NIAD/DAIDS]
* [http://aidshistory.nih.gov/ History of AIDS research at the NIH]
* [http://www.mcld.co.uk/hiv/ &quot;The Molecules of HIV&quot; information resource]
* [http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/release080103.html Unsafe Health Care and the HIV/AIDS Pandemic] 2003
* [http://www.globalizationandhealth.com/content/1/1/13 HIV/AIDS: global trends, global funds and delivery bottlenecks]
*[http://www.unaids.org/NetTools/Misc/DocInfo.aspx?LANG=en&href=http%3a%2f%2fgva-doc-owl%2fWEBcontent%2fDocuments%2fpub%2fPublications%2fIRC-pub06%2fAIDS-scenarios-2025_report_en%26%2346%3bhtm UNAIDS document regarding three scenarios for HIV/AIDS in Africa for the year 2025 (Large PDF file)]
*[http://www.unaids.org UNAIDS - Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS webpage]
*[http://www.knowhivaids.org KNOW - HIV leads to AIDS]
*[http://www.csa54.info/ CSA54 - AIDS Cure News]
==AIDS News==
* Nov 2005 - Progress in HIV vaccine research -[http://www.isracast.com/transcripts/011205a_trans.htm Recorded interview with Prof. Robert Gallo (HIV researcher)]
* Jan 2006 - 3D structure of HIV is revealed - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4642940.stm 3D map of AIDS causing virus revealed]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]]
[[Category:Retroviruses]]
[[als:HIV]]
[[ca:VIH]]
[[cs:HIV]]
[[da:HIV]]
[[de:HIV]]
[[eo:HIV]]
[[es:VIH]]
[[fa:اچ آی وی]]
[[fi:HIV]]
[[fr:Virus de l'immunodéficience humaine]]
[[hu:HIV]]
[[id:HIV]]
[[ilo:HIV]]
[[it:HIV]]
[[ja:ヒト免疫不全ウイルス]]
[[nl:Hiv]]
[[no:Humant immunsviktvirus]]
[[pl:Wirus nabytego niedoboru odporności]]
[[pt:Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana]]
[[ro:HIV]]
[[ru:ВИЧ]]
[[simple:HIV]]
[[sr:ХИВ]]
[[sv:HIV]]
[[tr:HIV]]
[[zh:人類免疫缺陷病毒]]
[[zh-min-nan:HIV]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterodimer</title>
<id>14171</id>
<revision>
<id>15911744</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-05T06:36:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting - this was just a dictionary entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dimer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homodimer</title>
<id>14172</id>
<revision>
<id>15911745</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-05T06:35:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting - this was just a dictionary entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[dimer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HOL</title>
<id>14173</id>
<revision>
<id>25119577</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-09T07:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bart l</username>
<id>400832</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ch link IOC</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HOL''' can refer to any of the following:
* '''HOL''' is an abbreviation for [[higher-order logic]], a branch of [[symbolic logic]] in which statements can be quantified over objects, predicates, predicates of predicates etc.
* There is a [[theorem prover]] called HOL; see [[HOL theorem prover]].
* '''[[Hol]]''' is a municipality in the county of [[Buskerud]], [[Norway]].
* The '''Hall of Light''', an Amiga games database [http://hol.abime.net/].
* The former [[List of IOC country codes|IOC]] [[country-code]] for the [[Netherlands]].
''See also:'' [[List of people by name: Hol]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hostile witness</title>
<id>14174</id>
<revision>
<id>32313819</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T02:32:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>in a [[trial (law)|trial]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:EvidenceLaw}}
In United States law, a '''hostile witness''' is a [[witness]] in a [[trial (law)|trial]] who [[testimony|testifies]] for the opposing party or a witness who offers adverse testimony to the calling party during [[direct examination]]. A witness called by the opposing party is presumed hostile. A witness called by the direct examiner can be declared hostile by a [[judge]], at the request of the examiner, when the witness' testimony is openly antagonistic or clearly prejudiced to the opposing party. A party examining a hostile witness may question the witness as if in [[cross-examination]], thus permitting the use of [[leading question]]s. A hostile witness is sometimes known as an adverse witness.
Though the practice of declaring a witness hostile is very prevalent in [[television]] and in [[movies]], it is far rarer in reality.
== External links ==
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rules.htm Federal Rules of Evidence ] - Rule 611: Mode and Order of Interrogation and Presentation
{{Law-stub}}
[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry I of England</title>
<id>14179</id>
<revision>
<id>40621085</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:01:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mksmith</username>
<id>21209</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */ Fixed several errors & omissions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry I
| title= By the Grace of God, King of the English<br>and Duke of the Normans
| image=[[Image:Henry1.jpg|200px]]
| reign= [[August 3]] [[1100]]&ndash;[[December 1]] [[1135]]
| date1= [[August 3]] [[1100]]
| date2= [[December 1]] [[1135]]
| coronation= [[August 5]] [[1100]]
| queen= [[Edith of Scotland]] (c. [[1080]]&ndash;[[1118]])<br>[[Adeliza of Louvain]] ([[1103]]&ndash;[[1151]])
| royal house= [[Norman dynasty|Norman]]
| father= [[William I of England|William I]] (c. [[1028]]&ndash;[[1087]])
| mother= [[Matilda of Flanders]] ([[1031]]&ndash;[[1083]])
| issue= [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]]<br>(illeg., c. [[1090]]&ndash;[[1147]])<br>[[Empress Matilda]] (c. [[1102]]&ndash;[[1167]])
| date of birth= c. [[1068]]
| place of birth= [[Selby]], [[Yorkshire]]
| date of death= [[1 December]] [[1135]]
| place of death= [[St. Denis le Fermont]], [[Normandy]]
| place of burial= [[Winchester Cathedral]]
}}
'''Henry I of England''' (c.[[1068]] &ndash; [[1 December]] [[1135]]), called '''Henry Beauclerc''' because of his scholarly interests, was the fourth son of [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]]. He reigned as [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] from [[1100]] to [[1135]], succeeding his brother, [[William II of England|William II Rufus]]. Henry also was known by the nickname "Lion of Justice", due to the refinements which he brought about in the rudimentary administrative and legislative machinery of the time.
He seized power after the death of William II, which occurred (co |
racters was revised, and these became refered to as the "[[greater seal script]]" or ''dazhuan''.
==History==
Most linguists classify all of the variations of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan [[language family]] and believe that there was an original language, called [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]], analogous to [[Indo-European languages|Proto-Indo-European]], from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relations between Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages are an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is very good documentation that allows us to reconstruct the ancient sounds of Chinese, there is no written documentation of the division between proto-Sino-Tibetan and Chinese. In addition, many of the languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly documented or understood.
Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] linguist [[Bernhard Karlgren]] in the early [[1900s]]. The system was much revised, but always heavily relying on Karlgren's insights and methods.
[[Old Chinese]] ({{zh-tsps|t=上古漢語|s=上古汉语|p=Shànggǔ Hànyǔ}}), sometimes known as 'Archaic Chinese', was the language common during the early and middle [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou Dynasty]] ([[1122 BC]] - [[256 BC]]), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the ''[[Shijing]]'', the history of the ''[[Shujing]]'', and portions of the ''[[Yijing]]'' (''I Ching''). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters also provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with [[Qing dynasty]] philologists.
[[Middle Chinese]] ({{zh-tsps|s=中古汉语|t=中古漢語|p=Zhōnggǔ Hànyǔ}}) was the language used during the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties ([[7th century|7th]] through [[10th century|10th]] centuries AD). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the 切韻 '[[Qieyun]]' [[rime book|rhyme table]] ([[601]] AD), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the 廣韻 '[[Guangyun]]' [[rime book|rhyme table]]. Linguists are confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, "rhyming tables" constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; for example, scholars have shown that trying to reconstruct modern Cantonese from the rhymes of modern [[Cantopop]] would give a very inaccurate picture of the language.
The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most northern Chinese people, in [[Sichuan]] and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their [[home language]]. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China promoted linguistic diversity. The presence of Mandarin in Sichuan is largely due to a plague in the [[12th century]]. This plague, which may have been related to the [[Black Death]], depopulated the area, leading to later settlement from north China.
Until the mid-[[20th century]], most southern Chinese did not speak any Mandarin. However, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various Chinese dialects, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least during <!-- i.e., circa? --> the officially [[Manchu]]-speaking [[Qing Empire]]. Since the [[17th century]], the Empire had set up [[orthoepy]] academies ({{zh-tsps|t=正音書院|s=正音书院|p=Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn}}) to make pronunciation conform to the Qing capital Beijing's standard, but had little success. During the Qing's last 50 years in the late 19th century, the Beijing Mandarin finally replaced Nanjing Mandarin in the imperial court. For the general population, although variations of Mandarin were already widely spoken in China then, a single standard of Mandarin did not exist. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their regionalects for every aspect of life. The new Beijing Mandarin court standard was thus fairly limited.
This situation changed with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC) of an elementary school education system committed to teaching Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken fluently by a majority of people in [[mainland China]] and on [[Taiwan]]. In [[Hong Kong]], the language of education and formal speech remains [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential.
==Influence on other languages==
Throughout history [[Chinese culture]] and [[political history of China|politics]] has had a great influence on unrelated languages such as [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Korean and Japanese both have writing systems employing [[Chinese character]]s (Hanzi), which are called [[Hanja]] and [[Kanji]], respectively.
The Vietnamese term for Chinese writing is [[Han Tu]]. It was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the [[14th century]], used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese elites. From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with [[Chu Nom]], a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. This is now completely replaced by a modified Latin script that incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. The Vietnamese language exhibits multiple elements similar to Cantonese in regard to the specific intonations and sharp consonant endings. There is also a slight influence from Mandarin, including the sharper vowels and "kh" sound missing from other Asiatic languages.
In [[South Korea]], the [[Hangul]] alphabet is generally used, but [[Hanja]] is used as a sort of boldface. (In [[North Korea]], [[Hanja]] has been discontinued.) Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there has been debate about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient.
Languages within the influence of Chinese culture also have a very large number of [[loanword]]s from Chinese. 50% or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin and the influence on Japanese and Vietnamese has been considerable. 10% of Philippine language vocabularies are of Chinese origin. Chinese also shares a great many grammatical features with these and neighboring languages, notably the lack of [[grammatical gender|gender]] and the use of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]s. The Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages seem to retain sounds of Classical Chinese that are otherwise only found in southern China.
==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
:''For more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each [[Chinese spoken language|spoken variety]].'' <!--I think this is about as specific we can get without making a looong and dull list of links-->
The [[phonology|phonological]] structure of each syllable consists of a [[syllable nucleus|nucleus]] consisting of a [[vowel]] (which can be a [[monophthong]], [[diphthong]], or even a [[triphthong]] in certain varieties) with an optional [[syllable onset|onset]] or [[syllable coda|coda]] [[consonant]] as well as a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], where the [[nasal consonant|nasal]] [[sonorant]] consonants {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/&#331;/}} can stand alone as their own syllable.
Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to [[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|/m/}}]], [[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|/n/}}]], [[velar nasal|{{IPA|/ŋ/}}]], [[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|/p/}}]], [[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|/t/}}]], [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|/k/}}]], or [[glottal stop|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}]]. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], are limited to only two, namely {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/&#331;/}}. [[Consonant cluster]]s do not generally occur in either the onset or coda. The onset may be an [[affricate consonant|affricate]] or a consonant followed by a [[semivowel]], but these are not generally considered consonant clusters.
The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from [[Middle Chinese]]. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation.
All varieties of spoken Chinese use [[tone (linguistics)|tones]]. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is [[Shanghainese]] which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned [[pitch acc |
ibes such as the [[Cherokee]]s and the [[Shawnee]]s split into factions. [[Lenape|Delaware]]s under [[White Eyes]] signed the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)|first American Indian treaty]] with the United States, but other Delawares joined the British.
The British supplied their Indian allies from forts along the Great Lakes, and tribesmen staged raids on Revolutionary settlements in New York, [[Kentucky]], Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the [[Wyoming Valley Massacre|Wyoming Valley]] and at [[Cherry Valley Massacre|Cherry Valley]] in 1778 helped provoke the [[scorched earth]] [[Sullivan Expedition]] into western New York during the summer of 1779. On the western front, every man, woman, and child—regardless of race—was a potential casualty.
In the [[Ohio Country]], the [[Virginia]] [[frontier|frontiersman]] [[George Rogers Clark]] attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] and [[Battle of Vincennes|Vincennes]] in the summer of 1778. When General [[Henry Hamilton]], the British commander at [[Detroit]], retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February 1779 and captured Hamilton himself.
However, a decisive victory in the West eluded the United States even as their fortunes had risen in the East. The low point on the frontier came in 1782 with the [[Gnadenhutten massacre]], when Pennsylvania militiamen—unable to track down enemy warriors—executed nearly 100 [[Christian]] Delaware [[noncombatant]]s, mostly women and children. Later that year, in the last major encounter of the war, a party of Kentuckians was [[Battle of Blue Licks|soundly defeated]] by a superior force of British regulars and Native Americans.
== War in the South ==
During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the North. One notable exception was in June 1776, when General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]] sailed south to attack [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. This ended in humiliating defeat for the British, and the Patriots remained in control of the southern states for the next three years. Starting in 1778, the British once again turned their attention to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[South Carolina]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Virginia]], where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists.
On [[December 29]], [[1778]], an expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from Clinton's army in New York captured [[Savannah, Georgia]]. An attempt by French and Revolutionary forces to [[Siege of Savannah|retake Savannah]] failed on [[October 9]], [[1779]]. In this assault, Count [[Casimir Pulaski]], the [[Poland|Polish]] commander of American Revolutionary [[cavalry]], was mortally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776.
=== Carolinas, 1780 to 1781 ===
[[Image:General_Sir_Banastre_Tarleton_by_Sir_Joshua_Reynolds.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The young and dashing [[Banastre Tarleton]] was perhaps the best cavalry commander in the war—and the most hated man in the South. This portrait was painted by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] in 1782.]]
Clinton finally moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March, and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. Inside the city, General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British [[Colonel]] [[Banastre Tarleton]] cut off the city's supply lines in victories at [[Monck's Corner]] in April and [[Lenud's Ferry]] in early May, Charleston was surrounded.
On [[May 12]], [[1780]], General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the [[American Civil War]]. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war, and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the South.
The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw to [[North Carolina]], but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the [[Waxhaw Massacre|Battle of Waxhaws]] on [[May 29]], [[1780]]. Among the Americans , a story spread that Tarleton had massacred many Americans after they had surrendered (the truth of this charge is still debated). “Bloody Tarleton” became a hated name, and “Tarleton’s quarter”—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or “quarter”)—soon became a rallying cry.
With these events, organized American military activity in the South had collapsed. The states however carried on their functions, and the war was carried on by partisans such as [[Francis Marion]]. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched General [[Horatio Gates]], to the rescue with a new army. But Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the [[Battle of Camden]] on [[August 16]], [[1780]], setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina.
The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. One wing of his army was utterly defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] on [[October 7]], [[1780]], delaying his move into North Carolina. Kings Mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between British redcoats and colonial troops: it was a battle between American Loyalists and American Patriots. The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed; not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at risk once the British army moved on. Only in Georgia did the Crown manage to create a counter-revolutionary civil government.
Gates was replaced by George Washington's most dependable subordinate, General [[Nathanael Greene]]. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General [[Daniel Morgan]], a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] on [[January 17]], [[1781]]. Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of battles ([[Battle of Guilford Court House|Guilford Court House]], [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill|Hobkirk's Hill]], [[Battle of Ninety Six|Ninety Six]], and [[Battle of Eutaw Springs|Eutaw Springs]]), each of them tactically a victory for the British, but giving no strategic advantage to the victors. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." Unable to capture or destroy Greene's army, Cornwallis moved north to to Virginia.
=== Virginia, 1775 to 1781 ===
Virginia had been under revolutionary control since Loyalist forces (including runaway slaves) under [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Governor Dunmore]] had been defeated at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] on [[December 9]], [[1775]]. After the defeat, Dunmore and his troops took refuge on British ships off of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], which Dunmore bombarded and burned on [[January 1]], [[1776]]. He was driven from an island in [[Chesapeake Bay]] that summer, never to return.
British forces raided Virginia sporadically during the war. In January 1781, the rebel capital of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] was put to the torch by none other than Benedict Arnold, now a turncoat, who had sold his services to the other side and was now a British general.
In March 1781, General Washington dispatched [[Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state, now reinforced and commanded by Cornwallis, totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. "The boy cannot escape me," Cornwallis is supposed to have said. However, Cornwallis was unable to trap Lafayette, and so he moved his forces to [[Yorktown, Virginia]] in July in order to link up with the British navy.
== War at sea ==
''Main article: [[Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War]]''
Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active. In July [[Comte de Rochambeau|Count Rochambeau]] arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the close of 1779. An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in 1778 by the Revolutionaries assisted by the French admiral [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|d'Estaing]] and a French corps.
*[[First Battle of Ushant]] - [[July 27]], [[1778]]
*[[John Paul Jones]]
*[[Continental Navy]]
*[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)]]
*[[Second Battle of Ushant]] - [[December 12]], [[1781]]
===Gulf Coast===
After Spain declared war against Great Britain in June of 1779, Count [[Bernardo de Gálvez]], the Spanish governor of [[Louisiana]], seized three British [[Mississippi River]] outposts: [[Battle of Fort Bute|Manchac]], [[Battle of Baton Rouge|Baton Rouge]], and [[Natchez, Mississippi|Natchez]]. Gálvez then captured [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] on [[March 14]], [[1780]], and, in May of 1781, [[Battle of Pensacola (1781)|forced the surrender]] of the British outpost at [[Pensacola, Florida]]. On [[May 8]], [[1782]], Gálvez captured the British naval base at New Providence in the Bahamas. Galvez also supplied soldiers to George Rogers Clark and had been supplying substantial quantities of war supplies to the American rebels from as early as 1777.
===Caribbean===
The [[Battle of the Saintes]] took place in 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] fleet under Admiral Sir [[George Rodney]] over a [[France|French]] fleet under the [[Comte de Grasse]]. The defeat dashed the hopes of France and Spain to take [[Jamaica]] and other colonies from the British.
===India===
The Franco-British war spilled over into [[India]] in 1780, in the form of the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]]. The two chief combatants were [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] and a key French all |
nne her'' ||{{audio|Da-denne-her.ogg|DEN-neh haer}}
|-
|how much? ||''hvor meget?'' ||{{audio|Da-hvor-meget.ogg|vo MY-it}}
|-
|English ||''engelsk'' ||{{audio|Da-engelsk.ogg|ENG-uhlsk}}
|-
|yes ||''ja'' ||{{audio|Da-ja.ogg|ya}}
|-
|no ||''nej'' ||{{audio|Da-nej.ogg|nigh}}
|-
|may I take your (''sg'') picture? ||''Må jeg tage et billede af dig?''||{{audio|Da-billede-sg.ogg|Mo yigh tay-eh it bill-eth-e a die}}
|-
|may I take your (''pl'') picture? ||''Må jeg tage et billede af jer?''||{{audio|Da-billede-pl.ogg|Mo yigh tay-eh it bill-eth-e a yer}}
|-
|where is the bathroom? ||''Hvor er toilettet?''||{{audio|Da-hvor-er-toilettet.ogg|vo er toilettet}}||IPA: {{IPA|/toiˈlet/}}
|-
|where do you come from? ||''Hvor kommer du fra?''||{{audio|Da-kommer-fra.ogg|voor comma doo fra}}
|-
|do you speak English? ||''Taler du engelsk?''||{{audio|Da-taler-du-engelsk.ogg|tahler doo eng-elsk}}
|-
|generic toast ||''skål''||{{audio|Da-skål.ogg|skol}}
|-
|I don't understand ||''Jeg forstår ikke''||{{audio|Da-jeg-forstår-ikke.ogg|yigh for-stoh ik-eh}}
|-
|sorry ||''Undskyld''||{{audio|Da-undskyld.ogg|Listen}}
|-
|excuse me ||''Undskyld mig''||{{audio|Da-undskyld-mig.ogg|Listen}}
|}
===Usage Notes===
# No word directly corresponds to the word "please". Danish and Finnish express the concept of politeness in a request in various ways.) One way is to smile while asking for something, another is to add tak (thank you) to the end of the question: "kan jeg få noget mere at drikke, tak", although this is more of an anglicised form of Danish.
== [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | pronunciation
|-
|Dutch || ''Nederlands'' ||{{IPA|/'neːdərlɑns/}} || (NAY-der-lahnds)
|-
|hello || ''hallo'' ||{{IPA|/hɑ'loː/}} || (hah-LO)
|-
|good-bye || ''tot ziens'' ||{{IPA|/tɔt 'ziːns/}} || (tott-ZEENS)
|-
|please || ''alstublieft'' ||{{IPA|/ɑlsty'blift/}} || (AHL-stu-BLEEFT)
|-
|thank you || ''dank u wel'' ||{{IPA|/dɑŋky'ʋɛl/}} || (DAHNK-u-WELL)
|-
|I don't understand || ''ik begrijp het niet'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk bə'χrɛip ət nit/}} || (Ick beyGRAYP hett neat)
|-
|that one || ''die'' ||{{IPA|/diː/}} || (dee)
|-
|how much? || ''hoeveel?'' ||{{IPA|/huː'veːl/}} || (who-VEIL)
|-
|English || ''Engels'' ||{{IPA|/'ɛŋəls/}} || (ENGels)
|-
|do you speak English? || ''spreek je Engels?'' ||{{IPA|/sprek jə 'ɛŋəls/}}|| (Spray-k ya ENGels)
|-
|yes || ''ja'' ||{{IPA|/jaː/}} || (ya)
|-
|no || ''nee'' ||{{IPA|/neː/}} || (nei)
|-
|I don't know || ''ik weet het niet'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk ʋet ət nit/}} || (Ick WAY-T hett neat)
|-
|generic toast || ''proost'' ||{{IPA|/proːst/}} || (proh-st)
|}
== [[Old English language|Old English]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Comments
|-
|English || ''Englisc'' || {{IPA|/'ɛŋglɪʃ/}}
|-
|hello || ''wes hāl''<br>''wesaþ hāl'' || {{IPA|/wɛz haːl/}}<br>{{IPA|/'wɛzaθ haːl/}}; ||to one person<br>to more than one
|-
|good-bye || ''God þē mid sīe'' || {{IPA|/gɔd ðeː mɪd 'siə/}} || Literal: God be with you
|-
|please || ''iċ bidde'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ 'bɪdːə/}} || or understood; see usage note.
|-
|thank you || ''iċ þancie þē'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ 'θaŋkiə ðeː/}}
|-
|that one || ''geon'' || {{IPA|/jɔn/}}
|-
|how much? || ''hū fela?'' || {{IPA|/huː 'fela/}}
|-
|yes || ''gēse'' || {{IPA|/'jeːsə/}}
|-
|no || ''nō'' || {{IPA|/noː/}}
|-
|Where is the bathroom? || ''Hwǣr is þæt gangsetl?'' || {{IPA|/ʍær ɪz ðæt 'gaŋsetl/}}
|-
|where do you come from? || ''Hwanon cymst þu?'' (?) || {{IPA|/'ʍanon cymst ðuː/}}
|-
|do you speak English? || ''Spricst þu Englisce?'' || {{IPA|/sprɪʧ<sup>ə</sup>st ðuː 'ɛŋglɪʃə/}}
|-
|I don't understand || ''Iċ ne understande'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ ne ʊndɛr'standə/}}
|}
===Usage Note===
No word directly corresponds to the word "please". Old English expressed the concept of politeness in a request in various ways.
== [[Esperanto|Esperanto]] ([[international auxiliary language]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
|hello || ''saluton'' || {{IPA|/sa'luton/}}
|| (I give you) a greeting
|-
|good-bye || ''ĝis revido'' || {{IPA|/ʤis re'vido/}}
|| until an again-seeing
|-
|please || ''bonvolu'' || {{IPA|/bon 'volu/}}
|| be well willing
|-
|thank you || ''dankon'' || {{IPA|/'dankon/}}
|| (I give you) thanks
|-
|you are welcome || ''nedankinde'' || {{IPA|/nedan 'kinde/}}
|| not-worth-thanking-ly
|-
|that one || ''tiu'' || {{IPA|/'tiu/}}
|-
|how much? || ''kiom'' || {{IPA|/'kiom/}}
|-
|English || ''angla'' || {{IPA|/'angla/}}
|-
|yes || ''jes'' || {{IPA|/jes/}}
|-
|no || ''ne'' || {{IPA|/ne/}}
|-
|I am sorry || ''mi bedaŭras'' ||
|| I regret
|-
|I do not understand || ''mi ne komprenas'' || {{IPA|/mi ne kom'prenas/}}
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''kie estas la necesejo?'' || {{IPA|/'kie 'estas la neʦe'sejo/}}
|| where is the necessity-place?
|-
|generic toast || ''Je via sano'' || {{IPA|/je 'via 'sano/}}
|| to your health
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Ĉu vi parolas la anglan?'' || {{IPA|/ʧu vi pa'rolas la 'anglan/}}
|| do you speak the English (language)?
|-
|Excuse me, I do not speak Esperanto well || ''Pardonu min, mi ne bone parolas Esperanton'' || {{IPA|/par'donu min mi ne 'bone pa'rolas espe'ranton/}}
|-
|I do not know || ''Mi ne scias'' || {{IPA|/mi ne 'sʦias/}}
|}
== [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Comments
|-
|Estonian || ''eesti keel'' || {{IPA|/e:s.ti ke:l/}} || Stress is usually on 1st syllable.
|-
|hello || ''tere'' ||{{IPA|/te.re/}}
|-
|good-bye || ''head aega'' || {{IPA|/head.ae.ga/}}
|-
|please || ''palun'' || {{IPA|/pa.lun/}}''
|-
|thank you || ''aitäh'' <br> ''tänan'' || {{IPA|/ai.tæx/}} <br> {{IPA|/tæ.nan/}} || h- is strong like ch in "Loch", <br> (more formal term, it literally means "I thank you".)
|-
|you're welcome || ''palun'' || {{IPA|/pa.lun/}}
|-
|that one || ''see'' || {{IPA|/se:/}}
|-
|how much? || ''kui palju?'' || {{IPA|/kui pal.ju/}} || "j" is pronounced like "y"
|-
|English || ''inglise keel'' ||{{IPA|/ing.li.se.ke:l/}}
|-
|yes ||''jah'' ||{{IPA|/jax/}}
|-
|no || ''ei''
|-
|sorry || ''vabandage'' <br> ''vabandust'' || {{IPA|/va.ban.da.ge/}} <br> {{IPA|/va.ban.dust/}}
|-
|I don't understand || ''Ma ei saa aru'' || {{IPA|/ma ei sa: a.ru/}}''
|-
|generic toast (literally "into health" or "for health") || ''terviseks'' || {{IPA|/ter.vi.seks/}}
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Kas te räägite inglise keelt?'' || {{IPA|/kas te ræ:.gi.te ing.li.se ke:lt/}}
|-
|Where is the bathroom/toilet? || ''Kus on tualett/ WC?'' || {{IPA|/kus on tua.lett/ ve:ts/ve:tse:/}}
|-
|Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year! || ''Häid jõule ja õnnelikku uut aastat!'' || {{IPA|/hæid jøu.le ja øn.ne.lik.ku uut aas.tat/}}
|-
|}
== [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|-
| Finnish
| '''''suomi'''''
| {{IPA|/'suo mi/}}
| <small>(SUE-o-mi)</small>
| ([[Media:suomi.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| rowspan="2" | hello
| '''''hyvää päivää'''''
| {{IPA|/'hyvæ&#720; 'pæjvæ&#720;/}}
| <small> (hoo-vah pay-vaah) </small>
| ([[Media:hyvää päivää.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| '''''päivää'''''
| {{IPA|/'pæjvæ&#720;/}}
| <small> (pay-vaah) </small>
| ([[Media:päivää.ogg|listen]])
|-
| good-bye
| '''''näkemiin'''''
| {{IPA|/'nækemi&#720;n/}}
| <small>(NACK-eh-MEAN)</small>
| ([[Media:näkemiin.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| rowspan="2" | please
| '''''ole hyvä'''''
| {{IPA|/'ole 'hyvæ/}}
| <small>(ole hoo-vah)</small>
| ([[Media:ole hyvä.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| '''''kiitos'''''
| {{IPA|/'ki&#720;tos/}}
| <small> (key-tose) </small>
| ([[Media:kiitos.ogg|listen]])
|-
| thank you
| '''''kiitos'''''
| {{IPA|/'ki&#720;tos/}}
| <small> (key-tose) </small>
| ([[Media:kiitos.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| that one
| '''''tuo'''''
| {{IPA|/'tuo/}}
| <small> (to-oh) </small>
| ([[Media:tuo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| how much?
| '''''kuinka paljon'''''
| {{IPA|/'kui&#331;ka 'paljon/}}
| <small> (queen-ka pal-yone) </small>
| ([[Media:kuinka paljon.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| English
| '''''englanti'''''
| {{IPA|/'&#603;&#331;lanti/}}
| <small> (ENG-lan-TEH) </small>
| ([[Media:englanti.ogg|listen]])
|-
| rowspan="2" | yes
| '''''kyllä'''''
| {{IPA|/'kyl&#720;æ/}}
| <small>(kul-lah)</small>
| ([[Media:kyllä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| '''''joo''''' (informal)
| {{IPA|/'jo&#720;/}}
| <small>(yo)</small>
| ([[Media:joo.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| no
| '''''ei'''''
| {{IPA|/ei/}}
| <small>(ey)</small>
| ([[Media:suomi ei.ogg|listen]])
|-
| sorry
| '''''anteeksi'''''
| {{IPA|/'ante&#720;ksi/}}
| <small>(on-take-see)</small>
| ([[Media:anteeksi.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't understand
| '''''en ymmärrä'''''
| {{IPA|/&#603;n 'ym&#720;ær&#720;æ/}}
| <small>(en oom-mar-ra)</small>
| ([[Media:en ymmärrä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where is the toilet?
| '''''missä on vessa?'''''
| {{IPA|/'mis&#720;æ on 'ves |
thodoxy". Both place great weight on [[apostolic succession]], and historically both are descended from the early church. Each contends that it more correctly maintains the tradition of the early church and that the other has deviated. Roman Catholic Christians often prefer to refer to themselves simply as "Catholic" which means "universal", and maintain that they are also orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Christians often prefer to refer to themselves simply as "orthodox", which means "right worship", and also call themselves Catholic. Initially, the schism was primarily between East and West, but today both have congregations all over the world. They are still often referred to in those terms for historical reasons.
=== The later Middle Ages ===
*the [[Crusades]]
*the Conciliar Movement
*Christian Humanism
*end of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 1453
=== Early America ===
*[[Conquistador]]s
*[[Santería]], a fusion of Catholicism with traditional west African religious traditions originally among slaves
== The Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation ==
The [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[Catholic Reformation|Catholic Counter-Reformation]] are related in the following:
*the role of [[Johann Gutenberg]]'s printing press in the spread of religious dissent
*[[Martin Luther]]
*[[John Calvin]] and [[Calvinism]]
*[[King James Version]]
*[[Council of Trent]]
*[[Thirty Years' War]]
*[[Inquisition]]
*[[Radical Reformation]] and the [[Anabaptist|Anabaptists]]
**[[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]]
===Protestantism and the Rise of Denominationalism===
:''Discusses the rise of [[Protestantism]] and the major [[Denominationalism|denominations]] after the Reformation, and the challenges faced by Catholicism.''
:''Lots missing here.''
*The earliest controversies resurface in new forms
*[[Baptist|Baptist Churches]]
*[[Presbyterian Church]]
*[[Anglican Church]]
*[[John Wesley]] and the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]]
**[[Francis Asbury]], [[Thomas Coke (Methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[United Methodist Church|American Methodism]]
*[[First Great Awakening]]
*[[Pentecostal]]
*[[Lutheran Church]]
*[[Brethren]]
*The [[Puritan]]s
*The [[Quaker history|Religious Society of Friends]], or Quakers
*[[Nonconformists]]
*The [[English Civil War]]
*Congress of Religions, 1893
*[[Welsh Methodist revival]]
== 19th century ==
*Catholic Resurgence in Romantic Europe
*Anglo-Catholic or [[Oxford Movement]] in the Church of England
*Missionaries and Colonialism
*[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] and [[Liberal Christianity]]
==== Second Great Awakening and Restorationism ====
*[[Second Great Awakening]]
*[[Restorationism]]
*[[Charles Grandison Finney]] and [[Revivalism]]
*[[Holiness movement]] in the U. S. and [[Higher Life movement]] in Britain
*[[Restoration Movement|Campbellites or Stone-Campbell Churches]]
**The [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]
**The [[Church of Christ]] Movement in [[Britain]] and the [[United States|US]]
*[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[[Millerites]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
=== Anti-clericalism and atheistic communism ===
In many revolutionary movements the church was associated with the established repressive regimes. Thus, for example, after the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Mexican Revolution]] there was a distinct [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] tone in those countries that exists to this day. On a more extreme level, [[Karl Marx]] condemned religion as the "[[opium of the people]]" [http://www.baylor.edu/~Scott_Moore/texts/Marx_Opium.html] and the [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] governments of the twentieth century were generally atheistic; of these, only [[Albania]] officially declared itself to be an atheistic state. All of these Marxist governments repressed the exercise of religion in varying degrees.
== 20th century ==
Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by accelerating fragmentation. The century saw the rise of both liberal and conservative splinter groups, as well as a general secularization of Western society. The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize. Missionaries also made inroads in the [[Far East]], establishing further followings in [[China]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Japan]]. At the same time, persecution in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought many Eastern Orthodox Christians to Western Europe and the United States, leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity. In addition, [[Christian ecumenism]] grew in importance, beginning at the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] in 1910.
===Catholic reforms===
* [[Second Vatican Council]]
* [[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenical initiatives]]
** Anathemas (excommunications) from the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] mutually revoked by the [[Pope]] and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
** [[Pope John Paul II]]
===Protestant developments===
Another movement which has grown up over the 20th century has been [[Christian anarchism]] which rejects the church, state or any power other than God. They also believe in absolute [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s book ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] published in 1894 is believed to be the catalyst for this movement.
The 1950's saw a boom in the Evangelical church in America. The post World War II prosperity experienced in the U.S. also had its effects on the church. Although simplistically referred to as "morphological fundamentalism", the phrase nonetheless does accurately describe the physical developments experienced. Church buildings were erected in large numbers, and the Evangelical church's activities grew along with this expansive physical growth.
====Pentecostal movement====
Another noteworthy development in 20th century Christianity was the rise of the modern [[Pentecostal]] movement. Although its roots pre-date the year 1900, its actual birth is commonly attributed to the 20th century. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of the meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history of Christianity- such as seen in the two Great Awakenings that started in the United States. However, Azusa Street is widely accepted as the fount of the modern Pentecostal movement. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the [[Charismatic|Charismatic movement]] within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in western Christianity.
==== Modernism and the fundamentalist reaction ====
{{main articles|[[Liberal Christianity]] and [[Christian fundamentalism]]}}
As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] began to be felt in the Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century, [[Liberal Christianity]] sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that Modernism represented. In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious.
In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretaton of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label ''Fundamentalist'' following one branch, while ''Evangelical'' has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals are now elsewhere.
==== Evangelicalism ====
In the U.S. and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] wing of [[Protestant]] denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post-World War I era, [[Liberal Christianity|Liberalism]] was the faster growing sector of the American church. Liberal wings of denominations were on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post-World war II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. Those entering seminaries and other post-graduate theologically related programs have shown more conservative leanings than their average predecessors.
The [[Neo-evangelicalism|neo-Evangelical]] push of the 1940's and 1950's produced a movement that continues to have wide influence. In the southern U.S., the more moderate neo-Evangelicals, represented by leaders such as [[Billy Graham]], have experienced a notable surge displacing the caricature of the pulpit pounding country preachers of fundamentalism. The stereotypes have gradually shifted. Some, such as Jerry Falwell, have managed to maintain credibility in the eyes of many fundamentalists, as well as to gain stature as a more moderate Evangelical.
Evangelicalism is not a single, monolithic entity. The Evangelical churches and their adherents cannot be easily stereotyped. Most are not Fundamentalist, in the narrow sense tha |
le of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist.
It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the [[Parthenon]], in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Pheidias.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[de:Alkamenes]]
[[gl:Alcamenes]]
[[pt:Alcâmenes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcmene</title>
<id>1579</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-05T15:04:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vervin</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''[[82 Alkmene]]''' is an [[asteroid]].''
In [[Greek mythology]] '''Alcmene''', or '''Alkmênê''' ("might of the moon") , the daughter of [[Electryon]], king of [[Mycenae]] and a son of [[Perseus]], was the wife of [[Amphitryon]] in his exile, though he had accidentally killed her father. Some mythographers identified her mother as [[Eurydice]] (Graves, 110.c).
With Amphitryon she fled to [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], where [[Creon]] purified her husband of his blood-guilt. However, Alcmene's eight brothers had been killed in a cattle raid, and she would not lie with Amphitryon until they had been avenged.
Thus at Thebes she was the mother of [[Heracles]] by [[Zeus]], who assumed the likeness of her husband during his absence to lie with her and stayed [[Helios]], to make one night into three; and she was the mother of [[Iphicles]] by Amphitryon, when he returned, giving birth to Heracles' twin, younger by a day. In this way Alcmene is one among several mothers of mythic twins of whom the sire of one is mortal, of the other a god, the most famous of them being the [[Dioscuri]], two from the double set of such twins of [[Leda]]. Theseus combined in his person a double fatherhood, a human father and a divine: see [[Theseus]]. In this case Alcmene's son Iphicles was mortal, while Heracles became immortal.
While Alcmene was pregnant with [[Heracles]] ("glory of Hera"), [[Hera]] herself tried to prevent her from giving birth to the [[hero]] who would help establish the new Olympian order. She was foiled by [[Galanthis]], Alcmene's servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera turned her into a [[weasel]].
Through Heracles, Alcmene was regarded as the ancestress of the [[Heracleidae]], and venerated at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Athens]].
After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married the Cretan [[Rhadamanthus]], who was exiled in [[Boeotia]]. Their "tombs" were shown to travellers in classical times at Haliartus (Graves, 88.i); such "tombs" were generally sites for propitiatory ancestor [[Cult (religion)|cults]] (compare Burkert 1985).
==External links==
*[http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALCMENE.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] "Alcmene"
==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion: "Clan and Family Mysteries'' pp 278ff.
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'' (revised edition)
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[ca:Alcmena]]
[[da:Alkmene]]
[[de:Alkmene]]
[[et:Alkmene]]
[[es:Alcmena]]
[[fr:Alcmène]]
[[gl:Alcmena]]
[[it:Alcmena]]
[[lt:Alkmenė]]
[[nl:Alkmene]]
[[pl:Alkmena]]
[[pt:Alcmena]]
[[ru:Алкмена]]
[[sv:Alkmena]]
[[uk:Алкмена]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcidamas</title>
<id>1580</id>
<revision>
<id>28049542</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T19:34:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcidamas''', of Elaea, in [[Aeolis]], [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[sophist]] and [[rhetoric]]ian, flourished in the [[4th century BC]].
He was the pupil and successor of [[Gorgias]] and taught at [[Athens]] at the same time as [[Isocrates]], whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two declamations under his name: ''Peri Sofiston'', directed against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over written speeches (a more recently discovered fragment of another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); ''Odusseus'', in which [[Odysseus]] accuses [[Palamedes]] of treachery during the siege of [[Troy]] (this is generally considered spurious).
According to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speaking ''extempore'' on every conceivable subject. [[Aristotle]] (''Rhet.'' iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors.
Of other works only fragments and the titles have survived: ''Messeniakos'', advocating the freedom of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that "all are by nature free"; a ''Eulogy of Death'', in consideration of the wide extent of human sufferings; a ''Techne'' or instruction-book in the art
of rhetoric; and a ''Fusikos lolos''. Lastly, his ''Mouseion'' (a word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the contest between [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]], two fragments of which are found in the ''Agon Omerou kai Esiodou'', the work of a grammarian in the time of [[Hadrian]]. A [[3rd century]] [[papyrus]] ([[William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]], ''Papyri'', ed. [[John Pentland Mahaffy|Mahaffy]], 1891, pl. xxv.) probably contains the actual remains of a description by Alcidamas.
Lit.: Aristoteles, Rhetorik III 3; - Vahlen, J., Der Rhetor Alkidamas, in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad., XLIII, 507 ff,1864; - F. Blaß, Die attische Beredsamkeit, 1887-1893; - F. Blaß, Antiphontis orationes ... adiunctis ... Alcidamatis declamationibus (1881) 18922; - Auer, Hubertus, De Alcidamantis declamatione que inscribitur, Münster, Diss., 1913; - Milne, M.J.A., A study in Alcidamas and his Relation to Contemporary Sophistic. Bryn Mawr, Diss, 1924; - Walberer, G., Isokrates und Alkidamas, Hamburg, Diss., 1938; - Dupréel, E., Les sophists, 1948; - Webster, T.B.L., Greek theories of art and literature down to 400 B.C., CQ 33 (1939) 166 -79; - Kurz, D., AKPIBEIA, Das Ideal der Exaktheit bei den Griechen bis Aristoteles, 1970; - Finley, Moses I., Die Sklaverei in der Antike: Geschichte und Probleme, 1981; - Dreher, M., Sophistik und Polisentwicklung, 1983; - Heinz, Schulz-Falkenthal, Sklaverei in der griechisch-roemischen Antike: eine Bibliographie wissenschaftlicher Literatur vom ausgehenden 15. Jh., 1985; - Du&scaron;anic, Slobodan, Alcidamas of Elaea in Plato's Phaedrus, CQ 42, (1992) 347-357: 1997; - O'Sullivan, Neil, Alcidamas, Aristophanes and the beginnings of Greek stylistic Theory, 1992; - Taureck, Bernhard H. F., Die Sophisten zur Einführung, 1995; - Rossner, Christian, Recht und Moral bei den griechischen Sophisten (Rechtswissenschaftliche Forschung und Entwicklung; 595), 1998, zgl.: München, Univ., Diss., 1998; -Schumacher, Leonhard, Sklaverei in der Antike: Schicksal und Alltag der Unfreien (Beck's archaeologische Bibliothek), 2001; - Mariss, Ruth, Alkidamas: Über diejenigen, die schriftliche Reden schreiben, oder über die Sophisten: eine Sophistenrede aus dem 4. Jh. v. Chr., eingeleitet und kommentiert (orbis antiquus; 36), 2002, zugl.: Münster (Westfalen, Univ., Diss, 1998).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[gl:Alcidamas]]
[[hu:Alkidamasz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aldine Press</title>
<id>1581</id>
<revision>
<id>39713758</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T09:05:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Aldine editions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aldine Press''' was the [[printing]] office started by [[Aldus Manutius]] in [[1494]] in [[Venice]], from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. The Aldine Press is famous in the history of [[typography]], among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was continued after Aldus death in [[1515]] by his wife and her father until his son Paolo ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) took over. His grandson Aldo then ran the firm until his death in [[1597]].
==Initial Innovations==
The press was started by Aldus based on his love of classics, and at first printed new copies of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek and Latin classics. He also printed dictionaries and grammars to help people interpret the books. Since most bibliophiles and book collectors come from academic and classical backgrounds, his first editions are collectors items. His contributions are also respected in the development of a smaller type than others in use. His contemporaries called it ''Aldine Type''; today we call it ''italics''.
The goal of the press was to create plentiful, affordable books so that everyone could have access to literature. When the press expanded to current titles, they wrote some books themselves and employed other writers, including [[Erasmus]]. As this expansion into current languages (mainly Italian and French) and current topics continued, the press took on another role and made perhaps even more important contributions. Their logo of the anchor and dolphin is represented today in the symbols and names used by some modern publishers.
==The Literacy Revolution==
[[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] gets credit for inventing the printing press with some justification, but [[Aldus Manutius|Aldus]] and his sons created the revolution. Gutenberg produced some beautiful volumes. They were priced so that a man of moderate wealth could buy a book. They were still large, heavy voumes and expensive. A church that had a Bible would typically chain it to a reading stand. Aldus created smaller books (called ''octavo'') tha |
dles will be lit on Saturday night after dark and the end of Shabbat. Three candles will be lit after dark on Sunday, and so on for the rest of the week, except for the following Friday, December 22, when the last 8 candles are lit, again shortly before sunset. The holiday will end after sundown on December 23.
===Hanukkah's dates in the Gregorian calendar===
Hanukkah begins at sundown on the evening before the date shown.
{|
|-
|
*[[December 3]], [[1980]]
*[[December 21]], [[1981]]
*[[December 11]], [[1982]]
*[[December 1]], [[1983]]
*[[December 19]], [[1984]]
*[[December 8]], [[1985]]
*[[December 27]], [[1986]]
*[[December 16]], [[1987]]
*[[December 4]], [[1988]]
*[[December 23]], [[1989]]
||
*[[December 12]], [[1990]]
*[[December 2]], [[1991]]
*[[December 20]], [[1992]]
*[[December 9]], [[1993]]
*[[November 28]], [[1994]]
*[[December 18]], [[1995]]
*[[December 6]], [[1996]]
*[[December 24]], [[1997]]
*[[December 14]], [[1998]]
*[[December 4]], [[1999]]
||
*[[December 22]], [[2000]]
*[[December 10]], [[2001]]
*[[November 30]], [[2002]]
*[[December 20]], [[2003]]
*[[December 8]], [[2004]]
*'''[[December 26]], [[2005]]'''
*[[December 16]], [[2006]]
*[[December 5]], [[2007]]
*[[December 22]], [[2008]]
*[[December 12]], [[2009]]
||
*[[December 2]], [[2010]]
*[[December 21]], [[2011]]
*[[December 9]], [[2012]]
*[[November 28]], [[2013]]
*[[December 17]], [[2014]]
*[[December 7]], [[2015]]
*[[December 25]], [[2016]]
*[[December 13]], [[2017]]
*[[December 3]], [[2018]]
*[[December 23]], [[2019]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Hasmonean]]
*[[Maccabees]]
*[[Jewish holiday]]s
*[[Temple in Jerusalem]]
*[[County of Allegheny v. ACLU]] on the constitutionality of Hanukkah displays on public property in the U.S.
*[[Hanukkah Harry]]
*[[Hanukkah Bush]]
==References==
# {{note|shabbat21b}} The [[Gemara]], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/t01/t0110.htm tractate ''Shabbat 21b'']. The discussion focuses on [[Shabbat]] candles and moves to Hanukkah candles.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Hanukkah}}
* [http://liturgy.exc.com/Songsheets/Hanukah.cgi Hanukkah songsheets]
* [http://www.aish.com/holidays/chanukah/ Chanukah - Aish.com - how to light, stories, children's activities]
* [http://www.torah.org/learning/yomtov/chanukah/5755/vol1no59.html Hannuka - A Spiritual Holiday - Torah.org]
* [http://www.jewfaq.org/holiday7.htm Chanukkah - Judaism 101 with links to tunes, recipes, and a virtual ''dreidel'' game for two]
* [http://www.tikkun.org/rabbi_lerner/chanukah Another Miracle of Chanukah] Chanukah and Idealistic Non-Conformity on *[http://www.tikkun.org Tikkun]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/default.asp Virtual Hanukkah - chabad.org]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article.asp?AID=102819 Chanukah recipes - chabad.org]
* [http://www.613.org/chanuka.html Chanuka classes and songs of 613.org Torah audio]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1673570,00.html A short interactive guide]
* [http://www.midrash.org/halakha/hanukkah.html Midrash Hanukkah with Sepharidic traditions and history]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04673b.htm Feast of Dedication] - Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.geocities.com/justdreidels/index.html Just Dreidels a site centered around the dreidel]
{{jewishHolidays}}
[[Category:Religious festivals]]
[[Category:Jewish holy days]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples]]
[[Category:Winter holidays]]
[[de:Chanukka]]
[[eo:Ĥanuka]]
[[es:Jánuca]]
[[fr:Hanoucca]]
[[he:חנוכה]]
[[hu:Hanuka]]
[[it:Chanukah]]
[[ja:ハヌカー]]
[[la:Encaenia]]
[[nl:Chanoeka]]
[[nn:Hanukká]]
[[pl:Chanuka]]
[[pt:Chanucá]]
[[sv:Chanukka]]
[[yi:חנוכה]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanukkah rituals</title>
<id>7389</id>
<revision>
<id>30221424</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T13:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
<id>84951</id>
</contributor>
<comment>restore redirect. Everything that was here is now in the main article [[Hanukkah]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanukkah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian view of marriage</title>
<id>7390</id>
<revision>
<id>41981591</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:54:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christian view of [[marriage]]''', until recently, according to a nearly universal consensus, has regarded marriage as ordained by God for the lifelong union of a man and a woman. Since the rise of the [[sexual revolution]], such views have gained ground among Christians. Marriage between two persons of the same gender, or divorce through mutual consent are both new views brought on by the sexual revolution. These views, though now popular in the modern day, are conflicting and contradicting to orthodox Christian beliefs.
Proponents of the traditional view principally support it with the second chapter of the book of [[Genesis]]. The [[Gospel of Matthew]], for example, cites Genesis 2:24, for example:
:''"...For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh. So then, they are no longer two but one flesh. Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate."'' '''Matthew 19: 5-6'''
Virtually all Christian denominations frown on [[divorce]], although some more harshly than others.
Christian marriage is seen by [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] (especially [[Ephesians]] chapter 5) as paralleling the relationship between Christ and the Church, a theological view which is a development of the [[Old Testament]] view that saw a parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and Israel.
All major Christian groups take marriage to be a good thing. In 1 Timothy, Chapter 4, St. Paul talks of heretics who, among other things, "forbid marriage" and he describes their views as "doctrines of demons". At the same time, even though marriage is believed to be a good thing, [[Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] traditionally see an even greater value in celibacy when that celibacy is undertaken for the sake of a more singleminded devotion to God, but do not believe that everyone is called by God to this.
== View of Roman Catholic Christians ==
In Roman [[Catholicism]], marriage is one of the seven [[Catholic sacraments|sacraments]]. According to the [[Catholic Catechism|Catechism of the Catholic Church]],
Second Edition, Paragraph 1623, "the spouses as ministers of Christ's grace mutually confer upon each other the sacrament of Matrimony by expressing their consent before the Church". An argument for the institution of the sacrament of Matrimony by Christ himself, and its occasion, is advanced by Bernard Orchard in his article ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'' [http://uk.geocities.com/ducatumevangelii@btinternet.com/Maryandjoseph1a.htm]. In the [[Eastern Rite]] (i.e. non-[[Latin rite]] churches in full communion with Rome), "the priests (bishops or presbyters) are witnesses to the mutual consent given by the spouses, but for the validity of the sacrament their blessing is also necessary".
Marriage forms the foundation of the [[family]], the fundamental unit of the referring community (ordinarily the [[parish]]). The ideal references are found in the [[Holy Family]] ([[Mary, the mother of Jesus]], and [[Saint Joseph]], his father). See related articles of Canon law: [http://www.mercaba.org/Codigo/1917_1012-1160.htm] ([[Latin]]).
The primary purpose of marriage is to fulfill a vocation in the nature of man and woman, for the procreation and education of children, and to stand as a symbol of the mystical union between Christ and his Church. [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/matri.html#MATRIMONY] The secondary aim is the mutual reciprocal help and it is also a "remedy to concupiscence". Fecundity is a good, a gift and an end of marriage. By giving life, spouses participate in God's fatherhood. Carnal union is morally legitimate only when a definitive community of life between a man and woman has been established. Human love does not tolerate "trial marriages". It demands a total and definitive gift of persons to one another.
If the couple cohabit, the marriage is presumed ''consummatum'', unless a proof of the contrary is produced.
Traditionally, sexual intercourse was termed the marriage debt. This refers to the idea that marriage is a contract where each party assumes total control of the other's body. At almost any time, within reason, a partner's asking for the fulfilment of that debt had to be satisfied. Like any repayment of a debt, when done with the right intention and circumstances sexual intercourse is a meritorious act, gaining graces for the participants. In modern times, however, the church has taught a far less severe view of obligatory fulfillment, where it is understood that both spouses intend, by accepting the sacrament of marriage, to fulfill the reproductive moral mandate at some point in their marriage, but not on the demand or whim of one spouse, nor under any circumstance should a spouse ever be forced to comply against their will (rape), even if failure to do so led to never having children/lack of fulfillment.
=== Other issues ===
One issue is marriages with one of spouses belonging to a non-Christian religion (called the impediment "disparity of cult" - Catechism of the Catholic Church 1633): these marriages are not sacraments, since the letter of Canon law expressly defines the marriage as a "covenant" between baptized spouses. Still, a marriage between non-baptized spouses is called ''legitimum'' when validly celebrated, but it is really not encou |
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