text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
n is contrastive even at the ends of words:
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2|Final aspiration in E. Armenian
|-
|{{IPA|bard͡z}}||''pillow''
|-
|{{IPA|bart͡s⁼}}||''difficult''
|-
|{{IPA|bart͡sʰ}}||''high''
|}
[[English language|English]] [[voiceless]] [[stop consonant]]s are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a [[stressed syllable]], as in ''pen'', ''ten'', ''Ken'', but this is not distinctive. That is, these consonants have unaspirated variants in other positions, such as word-finally or in an initial cluster with [s], as in ''spun'', ''stun'', ''skunk''. In many languages, such as [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], [[Hindi]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], [[Thai language|Thai]], and [[Ancient Greek]], {{IPA|[p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]}} ''etc.'' and {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}} ''etc.'' are different [[phoneme]]s altogether.
[[Alemannic German|Alemannic German dialects]] have unaspirated {{IPA|[p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]}} as well as aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}}; the latter series are usually viewed as [[consonant cluster]]s. In [[Danish language|Danish]] and most southern varieties of [[German language|German]], the "[[Fortis and lenis|lenis]]" consonants transcribed for historical reasons as {{IPA|<b d g>}} are distinguished them from their "[[Fortis and lenis|fortis]]" counterparts {{IPA|<p t k>}} mainly in their lack of aspiration.
[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] has '''pre-aspirated''' {{IPA|[ʰp ʰt ʰk]}}; some scholars interpret these as consonant clusters as well.
There are degrees of aspiration. Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, as well as unaspirated stops like Spanish. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops, as well as strongly aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See [[voice onset time]].) An old IPA symbol for light aspiration was {{IPA|[ ʻ ]}} (that is, like a rotated ejective symbol), but this is no longer commonly used. There is no specific symbol for strong aspiration, but {{IPA|[ʰ]}} can be iconically doubled for, say, Korean *{{IPA|[kʻ ]}} vs. *{{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}. Note however that Korean is nearly universally transcribed as {{IPA|[k]}} vs. {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, with the details of voice onset time given numerically.
Aspiration also varies with [[place of articulation]]. Spanish /p t k/, for example, have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, whereas English /p t k/ have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for /p t k/ and 90, 95, and 125 for {{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}.
The word 'aspiration' and the aspiration symbol is sometimes used with voiced stops, such as {{IPA|[dʰ]}}. However, such "voiced aspiration", also known as [[breathy voice|''breathy voice'' or ''murmur'']], is less ambiguously transcribed with dedicated diacritics, either {{IPA|[d̤]}} or {{IPA|[dʱ]}}. (Some linguists restrict the subscript diacritic {{IPA|[  ̤]}} to [[sonorant]]s, such as [[vowel]]s and [[nasal consonant]]s, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript {{IPA|[ʱ]}} for the murmured release of obstruents.) When it is included as aspiration, voiceless aspiration is called just that to avoid ambiguity.
==Reference==
*Taehong Cho and Peter Ladefoged, "Variations and universals in VOT". In ''Fieldwork Studies of Targeted Languages V: UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' vol. 95. 1997.
==See also==
*[[Voice onset time]]
*[[List of phonetic topics]]
*[[Phonation]]
[[Category:phonetics]]
[[da:Aspiration (sang)]]
[[de:Aspiration (Phonetik)]]
[[he:מנושפות העיצורים]]
[[id:Aspirasi]]
[[ja:有気音]]
[[ko:격음]]
[[nl:Spiritus (taalkunde)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arteriovenous malformation</title>
<id>3135</id>
<revision>
<id>37160531</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T02:59:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<comment>uh, not to forget vHL, ROW etc</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arteriovenous malformation''' or '''AVM''' is a [[congenital disorder]] of the veins and arteries that make up the [[blood vessels | vascular system ]] . The cause of this disorder is unknown, but is not generally thought to be [[hereditary]], unless in the context of a specific hereditary syndrome.
Arteries and veins are part of the [[ Circulatory system | human cardiovascular system]]. Normally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood at a relatively high pressure. Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed. Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products from the surrounding cells. Capillaries successively join together, one upon the other, to form the veins that carry blood away at a relatively low pressure. The heart acts to pump blood from the low pressure veins to the high pressure arteries.
If the capillary bed is thought of as a sponge, then an AVM is the rough equivalent of jamming a tangle of flexible soda straws from artery to vein through that sponge. On arteriorgram films AVM formation often resemble a tangle of spaghetti noodles. This tangle of blood vessels forms a relatively direct connection between high pressure arteries and low pressure veins.
The result is a collection of blood vessels with abnormal connections and without [[capillaries]]. This collection, often called a <I>nidus</I>, can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding. AVMs can occur in various parts of the body including the [[human brain|brain]] (see [[cerebral arteriovenous malformation]]), [[spleen]], [[lung]], [[kidney]] and [[liver]]. AVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (e.g. [[von Hippel-Lindau disease]] or [[Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome]]).
This bleeding can be devasting, particularly in the brain. They can cause severe and often fatal [[stroke]]s. If detected before the stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off, ensuring the safety of the patient.
==Fiction==
This condition affected the character of Nate in the US TV series [[Six Feet Under]].
==External links==
* [http://www.seattlechildrens.org/our_services/clinical_services/vascular_anomalies/art_malform.asp Information about Arteriovenous Malformations] from Children's Hospital, Seattle.
[[Category:Anatomical pathology]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abstract concept</title>
<id>3136</id>
<revision>
<id>15901500</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Concept]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlanta, Georgia</title>
<id>3138</id>
<revision>
<id>42002536</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:49:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anonymous editor</username>
<id>283160</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.12.116.138|64.12.116.138]] ([[User talk:64.12.116.138|talk]]) to last version by BDAbramson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atlanta}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Atlanta, Georgia
|nickname = The Horizon City, Hotlanta, The Big Peach
|website = http://www.atlantaga.gov/
|image_skyline = Atl skyline.JPG
|image_flag = Us-gaat2.png
|image_seal = Atlanta city seal.png
|image_map = Atlanta Fulton.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton]] and [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb]] counties in the state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br> [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br> [[List of counties in Georgia|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]<br>[[Fulton County, Georgia]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Shirley Franklin]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 132.4 mi² - 343.0
|area_land = 131.8 mi² - 341.2
|area_water = 0.7 mi² - 1.8
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 425,000
|population_metro = 4,708,297
|population_density = 1,221
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 33
|latm = 45
|lats = 18
|latNS = N
|longd = 84
|longm = 23
|longs = 24
|longEW = W
|elevation = 320
|footnotes =
}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Atl Skyline.jpg|thumb|250px| Downtown Atlanta Skyline)]] -->
'''Atlanta''' is the capital of and largest city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. It is the [[county seat]] of [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County]], although a portion of the city (the 1909 [[annex]]) is located in [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb County]]. According to the latest [[U.S. Census|census]] estimates (as of December, 2004), the city has a [[Population of Atlanta|population]] of 425,000 and the [[Atlanta metropolitan area]] totaled 4,708,297, making it the ninth-largest metropolitan area in the [[United States]] and the 41st-largest city proper. Atlanta is arguably a poster-child for cities worldwide experiencing rapid urban [[sprawl]], population growth, and commercial development. As a result, Atlanta is a common case study for college students who study Urban Geography around the globe.
The Atlanta area was originally inhabited by Cherokee and Cr |
law itself requires the elders who are aware of the incident to report the case to the local authorities. In states where this is not required, it is left to the offended parties to do so without any congregational sanctions of any kind against them. Those who are found guilty of child/sexual abuse are not allowed to teach in or ever again hold a position of authority in the congregation.
==== Apostasy ====
Those who have left the religion for whatever reason, by force or by choice, and make their disagreements with the religion very vocal, according to the Jehovah's Witnesses, are believed to be [[apostates]].
== Islam ==
{{main|Takfir}}
In [[Islam]], takfir is a declaration deeming an individual
or group [[kafir]], meaning non-believers.
== Judaism ==
[[Cherem]] is the highest ecclesiastical censure in [[Judaism]]. It is the total exclusion of a person from the [[Jew]]ish community. Except in rare cases in the Ultra-Orthodox community, cherem stopped existing after [[The Enlightenment]], when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the greater gentile nations which they lived in. A fuller discussion of this subject is available in the [[cherem]] article.
== Hinduism ==
Hinduism, being too diverse to be seen as a monolithic religion, and with a conspicuous absence of any listed dogma or ecclesia (organised church), has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion. However, some of the modern organized sects within Hinduism (this might be true for a few of the modern Buddhist sects, too) may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect. In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in India, excommunication from one's ''[[caste]]'' (''jati'' or ''varna'') used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the [[untouchability|untouchables]]. After excommmunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentence (ritual or otherwise) or not.
== External links ==
*[http://www.gameo.org/index.asp?content=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/E948.html ''Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance'' (from Mennonite reference)]
*[http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~ls_nassehi/ls1/religion_0405_statements/Lee_meaninglessness_of_religion_.pdf ''Ritual and the Social Meaning and Meaninglessness of Religion'' (social science study of Old Order Mennonite methods of baptism, discipline, etc.)]
* [http://www.bepress.com/context/gruterclassics/article/1035/viewcontent/ Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights (Amish)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05678a.htm Catholic Encycopedia on excommunication]
* [http://www.spirithome.com/excommunication.html The two sides of excommunication (Christian source)]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Religious law]]
[[Category:Canon law]]
==Academic articles and reference books==
* Esau, Alvin, J, and Esau, Alvin, A J, ''The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes'', Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004.
* Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, ''Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenom, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights'', Gruter Institute, 1984.
==Sources==
* Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', HarperSanFrancisco, 2003.
*Hostetler, John A. (1993), ''Amish Society'', The John Hopkins University Pres: Baltimore.
*MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), ''Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683-1790'', Herald Press: Kitchener & Scottdale.
*Scott, Stephen (1996), ''An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups'', Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania.
*Juhnke, James, ''Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890-1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald, Pp 393, 1989.
[[cs:Exkomunikace]]
[[de:Exkommunikation]]
[[et:Ekskommunikatsioon]]
[[es:Excomunión]]
[[eo:Ekskomuniko]]
[[fr:Excommunication]]
[[ia:Excommunication]]
[[id:Ekskomunikasi]]
[[it:Scomunica]]
[[lt:Ekskomunija]]
[[nl:Excommunicatie]]
[[ja:破門]]
[[no:Ekskommunikasjon]]
[[pl:Ekskomunika]]
[[pt:Excomunhão]]
[[fi:Ekskommunikaatio]]
[[sv:Bannlysning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electrochemical cell</title>
<id>10339</id>
<revision>
<id>34348918</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T09:14:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Physchim62</username>
<id>254243</id>
</contributor>
<comment>mergefrom [[Electrolytic cell]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Galvanic cell}}
{{mergefrom|Electrolytic cell}}
An '''electrochemical cell''' is a setup used for creating an [[electromotive force]] (voltage) in a conductor separating two reactions. The current is caused by the reactions releasing and accepting [[electron]]s in to the different ends of the conductor. The most common example of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt '''[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]'''.
In each ''half-cell'' is a chemical undergoing either [[oxidation]] or [[reduction]]. In a full electrochemical cell, one side must be losing electrons (oxidation) in to its [[electrode]] while the other half-cell gains electrons (reduction). If the atoms/ions involved in the reaction are [[metal]], the same metal is used for each electrode. If the [[atom]]s/[[ion]]s involved in the reaction at each half-cell are not metal, obviously no electrode can be constructed out of it. Nonreactive metals such as [[platinum]] are used as a substitute. Finally, a ''salt bridge'' is necessary to provide electrical contact between the cells&mdash;but without the solutions mixing. This can simply be a strip of [[filter paper]] soaked in saturated potassium nitrate (V) solution.
Different choices of substances for each half-cell results in varying potential differences. Each reaction is undergoing an [[equilibrium]] reaction between different oxidation states of the ions&mdash;when equilibrium is reached the cell cannot provide further voltage. In the half-cell which is undergoing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will provide. Similarly, in the reduction reaction, the further the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more ''negative'' oxidation state the higher the potential.
This potential can be predicted quantitatively through the use of [[electrode potential]]s (the voltage measured when the substance is connected to [[hydrogen]]). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured.
See also: [[galvanic cell]]
See also: [[electrochemical potential]]
[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[es:Célula electrolítica]]
[[fr:Pile électrique]]
[[pt:Célula electroquímica]]
[[sv:Elektrokemisk cell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecdysis</title>
<id>10340</id>
<revision>
<id>37878144</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T19:02:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DropDeadGorgias</username>
<id>8903</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+dablink, +cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the molting of certain arthropods. A [[2005 in music|2005]] album by the same name was released by '''[[Miho Hatori]]'''.}}
'''Ecdysis''' is the [[molt]]ing of the [[cuticula]] in [[arthropod]]s and related groups ([[Ecdysozoa]]). Since the cuticula of these animals is also the skeletal support of the body and is inelastic, it is shed during growth and a new covering of larger dimensions is formed. In preparation for ecdysis the arthropod will become inactive for a period of time. During this time, the arthropod will undergo [[apolysis]]. Then, by crawling movements, it pushes forward in the old [[Integumentary system|integument]], which splits down the back allowing the animal to emerge. Often times this initial crack within the integumentary shell will be caused by an increase in blood pressure within the body (in combination with movement), forcing an expansion across its exoskeleton, leading to an eventual crack that allows for certain organisms such as [[spider]]s to extricate themselves from. For most organisms, the resting period is used as a stage of preparation in the secretion of fluid from the molting glands of the cellular layer and the loosening of the underpart of the cuticula occurs. Following the shedding of the old cuticula, a new layer is secreted during a second period of inactivity. All cuticular structures are shed at ecdysis, including the terminal linings of the [[alimentary tract]] and of the [[trachea]]e if they are present.
The molting of [[reptile]]s is sometimes called ecdysis.
Related to the word ''ecdysis'' is ''ecdysiast,'' a [[euphemism]] for a [[striptease]] dancer.
[[de:Häutung]]
[[nl:Vervelling]]
[[ja:脱皮]]
[[pt:Ecdise]]
[[Category:Developmental biology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expendable launch systems</title>
<id>10341</id>
<revision>
<id>15908159</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-14T00:40:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[Expendable launch system]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Expendable launch system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eider Duck</title>
<id>10342</id>
<revision>
<id>28601893</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-17T16:44:23Z</timestamp |
. [[Greek language|Greek]] is predominantly spoken in the south, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots, and [[English language|English]] is widely used. [[Cyprus]] has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education. The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, Turkish, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]]. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities.
The Greek Cypriot community adheres to the Autocephalous Greek Orthodox [[Church of Cyprus]] and the Turkish Cypriot community adheres to Islam. The religious groups of Armenians, Maronites and Latins, in accordance with [[1960]] constitution, opted to belong to the Greek Cypriot community.
'''Map of ethnic distribution (2002)'''
http://mondediplo.com/maps/cyprusmdv49
(External link to the English version of [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr Le Monde Diplomatique])
'''Population:'''
818,200 (End of 2003 - including estimates for Turkish Cypriots)
'''Population in the Government controlled Area:'''
730,400 (End of [[2003]])
'''Age structure ([[2002]] - 2003):'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
20.9% (male 76,600; female 72,600)
<br>''15-64 years:''
67.3% (male 236,600; female 245,200)
<br>''65 years and over:''
11.8% (male 37,700; female 84,400)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.6% (2003)
'''Birth rate:'''
11.2 births/1,000 population (2003)
'''Death rate:'''
7.2 deaths/1,000 population (2003)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0.44 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.77 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
4.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2003)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total:''
79.2 years
<br>''male:''
77.0 years
<br>''female:''
81.4 years ([[2000]] est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.5 (2003)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Cypriot(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Cypriot
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greek 78% (99.5% of the Greeks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.5% of the Greeks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), Turkish 18% (1.3% of the Turks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 98.7% of the Turks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), other 4% (99.2% of the other ethnic groups live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.8% of the other ethnic groups live in the Turkish Cypriot area)
'''Religions:'''
[[Greek Orthodox]] 78%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 18%, [[Maronite]] (an [[Eastern Catholic Church]] in full union with the [[Pope]]), [[Armenian Apostolic]], [[Latin Rite|Latin Catholic]] and other 4%
'''Languages:'''
Greek, Turkish, English
'''Literacy (2003):'''
<br>''definition:''
Has completed primary education (population 15+)
<br>''total population:''
89.4%
<br>''male:''
93.1%
<br>''female:''
86%
== ''References'' ==
[http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_en/populationcondition_en?OpenDocument Statistical Service of Cyprus: Population and Social Statistics]
:''See also :'' [[Cyprus]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cyrpus]]
[[Category:Cypriot society]]
[[es:Demografía de Chipre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Cyprus</title>
<id>5597</id>
<revision>
<id>39374474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cyprus}}
:''This entry is about '''politics of Cyprus''', especially the island of Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus. For information on politics of Northern Cyprus, see the [[Politics of Northern Cyprus]].''
[[Cyprus]] is a divided island. Since [[1974]], the Greek Cypriot-led government (The [[Republic of Cyprus]]) has controlled the south two thirds, and the [[seperatist]] [[TRNC|Turkish Cypriot authorities]] the northern one-third. The Government of the [[Republic of Cyprus]] has continued as the sole internationally-recognized authority on the island, though in practice its power extends only to the Greek Cypriot-controlled area.
==United Cyprus==
The [[1960]] Cypriot [[Constitution]] provided for a [[presidential system]] of government with [[separation of powers|independent]] [[executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the [[Turkish Cypriots]]. The executive, for example, was headed by a [[Greek Cypriot]] president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of [[legislation]] and executive decisions.
The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls, but since [[1974]], the Turkish Cypriot community's seats in the House have been vacant. Originally, there were two Communal Chambers, but the Greek Cypriot Chamber was abolished in the [[1960s]] and most of its functions transferred to the Greek Cypriot Ministry of Education.
==The secession of Northern Cyprus==
In [[1974]], following a coup sponsored by the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]] and executed by the [[Cypriot National Guard]] (with the intention of [[Foreign relations of Greece#Terms#Enosis|annexing Cyprus]] to [[Greece]]) and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|invasion of troops from Turkey]] (citing its authority as one of the three guarantor powers established by the Constitution), the Turkish Cypriots formally set up their own institutions with a popularly-elected [[seperatist]] president and a Prime Minister, responsible to the National Assembly, exercising joint executive powers. In [[1983]], the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), which has never been [[non-recognized nations|recognized by any country]] except [[Turkey]]. In [[1985]], they adopted a constitution and held elections--an arrangement recognized only by Turkey. For information petaining to this, see '''[[Politics of Northern Cyprus]]'''.
== Political conditions ==
The division of Cyprus has remained an intractable political problem plaguing relations between [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]], and drawing in [[NATO]], of which both Greece and Turkey are members, and latterly the [[European Union]], which has admitted Greece and Cyprus and which Turkey has been seeking to join for over twenty years.
The most recent developments on the island have included the reopening of the [[Green Line (Cyprus)|border]] between the two sides, and the failure of an attempt to reunify the island under the terms of a [[Annan Plan|United Nations-sponsored initiative]] guided by the UN [[Secretary-General]], [[Kofi Annan]].
None of the Greek Cypriot parties has been able to elect a president by itself or dominate the 56-seat House of Representatives. The 165,000 Greek Cypriot [[refugees]] are also a potent political force, along with the independent [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus]], which has some influence in temporal as well as ecclesiastical matters.
The working of the Cypriot state was fraught with difficulty from the very early days after independence in [[1960]], and intercommunal tension and occasionally violence was, regrettably, a feature of the first decade of Cypriot independence. In 1963, the Cypriot president, [[Makarios III|Makarios]], proposed 13 amendments to the Constitution in order to solve intractable difficulties in filling government posts. Whether this was an attempt to foster increasing unity by dissolving legal boundaries between communities, or to effect domination of the Turkish Cypriots by the majority Greek Cypriots, remains controversial. Whatever Makarios's intentions, violence erupted between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in December 1963 and by the following year the [[United Nations]] agreed to undertake peacekeeping operations ([[UNFICYP]]).
[[UN]]-sponsored negotiations to develop institutional arrangements acceptable to the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities began in [[1968]]; several sets of negotiations and other initiatives followed.
After the [[1974]] [[Turkish invansion in Cyprus|invasion]] following a Greek [[junta]]-based [[coup d'etat|coup]] attempt, Makarios secured international recognition of his Greek Cypriot government as the sole legal authority on Cyprus, which has proved to be a very significant strategic advantage for the Greek Cypriots in the decades since. Negotiations continued in the years after 1974 with varying degrees of regularity and success, but none resulted in a full reunification.
On [[15 November]] [[1983]] the Turkish Cypriot North declared independence and the formation of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC), which has been [[non-recognized nations|recognized]] only by [[Turkey]]. Both sides publicly call for the resolution of intercommunal differences and creation of a new [[federation|federal system]] (Greek Cypriot position) or [[confederation|confederate system]] (Turkish Cypriot position) of government.
Following the [[1998]] presidential election, [[Glafkos Klerides|Klerides]] tried to form a government of national unity, by including six ministers from Clerides' [[Democratic Rally]] party, two ministers from the [[Movement for Social Democracy|EDEK]] ([[socialist party|socialist]]) party, three from the [[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|Democratic Party]] (who broke ranks with p |
nts may on occasion be called "alchemy" for rhetorical reasons.
In 1919, [[Ernest Rutherford]] used [[artificial disintegration]] to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern [[particle accelerators]], in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, [[Glenn Seaborg]] transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit.
In 1964, [[George Ohsawa]] and [[Michio Kushi]], based on the claims of [[Louis Kervran]], reportedly successfully transmutated [[sodium]] into [[potassium]], by use of an electric arc, and later of [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] into [[iron]]. In 1994, [[R. Sundaresan]] and [[J. Bockris]] reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly discredited.
As of 2006, a universal panacea remains elusive, though [[futurist]]s such as [[Ray Kurzweil]] believe sufficiently advanced [[nanotechnology]] may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by [[In vitro fertilization|IVF]] and the [[cloning]] of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch.
The aim of [[artificial intelligence]] research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper ''Alchemy and AI''.
==Alchemy in art and entertainment ==
References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list. Here we give only a few indicative samples. More titles can be found in the [[philosopher's stone]] article.
===Novels and plays===
Many [[literature|writers]] lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of [[satire|satirical]] attacks. Two early and well-known examples are
*[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale|Canon's Yeoman's Tale]]'' (ca. 1380). The main character, an alchemist on the way to [[Canterbury]], claims that he will "pave it all of silver and of gold".
*[[Ben Jonson]], ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'' (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people.
[[Image:Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|An Alchemical Laboratory, from ''The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry'']]
In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between alchemy, magic, and witchcraft:
*[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]], ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create [[Frankenstein's monster]].
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], ''[[Faust, Part 2]]'' (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy to create a [[homunculus]].
*[[Gabriel García Márquez]], ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' (1967). An alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere.
*[[Paulo Coelho]], ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' (1988).
*[[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' (1997). Features [[Nicholas Flamel]] as a character.
*[[Neal Stephenson]], ''[[The Baroque Cycle]]'' (2003–2004). Features real and imaginary alchemists such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]], and [[Enoch Root]].
*[[Martin Booth]], ''[[Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son]]'' (2003).
*[[Margaret Mahy]], ''[[Alchemy (Margaret Mahy book)|Alchemy]]'' (2004).
*[[John Fasman]], ''[[The Geographer's Library]]''<!--DATE??-->, whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts.
*[[Gregory Keyes]], ''[[Age of Unreason]]''<!--DATE??-->. Features [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]].
*[[Cornelia Funke]], ''[[Dragon Rider]]'' (2004). Twigleg the [[homonculus]] was created by an alchemist.
===Comics, manga, and video games===
*[[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' comics (ca. 1962–). Villain [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]] is an alchemist.
*[[Darklands]] PC game (1992). Alchemy features prominently throughout the game.
*[[Mike Mignola]]'s ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics (1993–). The character [[Roger the Homunculus]] was created by alchemy.
*[[Nintendo]]'s [[Golden Sun]] video game (2001). Alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world.
*[[Hiromu Arakawa]], ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' (2002–). 'Alchemists' can transform anything within the principle of [[Equivalent Exchange]].
*[[Nobuhiro Watsuki]], ''[[Buso Renkin|Weapon Alchemist]]'' manga (2003?–).
*[[Kazuki Takahashi]], ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! GX]]'' anime (2004–). The character [[Lyman Banner|Daitokuji]] is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a homunculus.
*Nintendo's [[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]] video game (2003). Has a playable class called Alchemist.
*[[Bethesda Softworks]]' [[The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind]] prominently features alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the player.
*[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]] computer game (2003). A large portion of the game is centered around a castle in Prague formerly owned by an alchemist king.
*[[World of Warcraft]] computer game (2004). Alchemy is one of the [[Professions_(World_of_Warcraft)#Alchemy|professions]] the player can learn.
<!--Please provide dates -->
===Music===
*[[Tool (band)]], album ''[[Lateralus]]'' (2001).
==References==
* {{note_label|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} {{cite book | author=Augustine | title=The Confessions | publisher=New York: Mentor Books | year=1963 | id= }} Trans. Rex Warner.
* {{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} {{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. | publisher=Baltimore:Penguin | year=1967 | id= }} Trans. William Stoddart.
* Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books
* {{note_label|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} {{cite book | author=Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | publisher=Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} {{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | publisher=New York: Stein and Day | year=1977 | id= }}
* {{cite book | author=Gettgins, Fred | title=Encyclopedia of the Occult | publisher=London: Rider | year=1986 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} {{cite book | author=Hitchcock, Ethan Allen | title=Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists | publisher=Boston: Crosby, Nichols | year=1857 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} {{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | publisher=Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0075571412 }} 6th ed.
* {{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} {{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | publisher=London: Muller. | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0389010065 }}
* {{cite book | author=Marius | title=On the Elements | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0520028562 }} Trans. Richard Dales.
* {{note_label|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} {{cite book | author=Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) | title=Ordinal of Alchemy | publisher=London: Early English Text Society | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0197222749 }}
* {{note_label|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} {{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | publisher=London: John Murray | year=1959 | id= }}
* {{cite book | author=Weaver, Jefferson Hane | title=The World of Physics | publisher=New York: Simon & Schuster | year=1987 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} {{cite book | author=Wilson, Colin | title=The Occult: A History | publisher=New York: Random House | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0394465555 }}
* {{cite book | author=Zumdahl, Steven S. | title=Chemistry | publisher=Lexington, Maryland: D. C. Heath and Co. | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0669167088 }} 2nd ed.
* {{cite book | author=Greenberg, Adele Droblas | title=Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science | publisher=Wiley-Interscience | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0471354082 }}
==See also==
===Other alchemical pages===
{{commons|Alchemy}}
*[[Vulcan of the alchemists]]
*[[Philosopher's stone]]
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Astrology and alchemy]]
*[[Transmutation]]
*[[Duality]]
*[[The four humours]]
*[[Alkahest]], [[arcanum]], [[berith]], [[elixir]], [[quintessence]]
*[[Alembic]]
*[[Alchemical symbol]]<!--
*[[Circle with a point at its centre]]
-->
*[[Goldwasser|Gold water]]
===Related and alternative philosophies===
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
*[[Astrology]]
* |
t as "a passion that was undeclared and unrequited." McKellen made his stage début in [[Coventry]] in [[1961]] and his [[West End]] début in [[1964]]. He was already a major name in the theatre before establishing himself as a television and film actor.
He and his first serious partner, Brian Taylor, began their relationship in [[1964]]. It was a relationship that was to last for eight years, ending in [[1972]]. They lived in [[London]], where McKellen continued to pursue his career as an actor. For over a decade he has lived in a five-story Victorian conversion in [[Narrow Street]], [[Limehouse]], [[London]].
==First major stage roles==
The role that made McKellen famous was his [[1969]] portrayal of King [[Edward II of England]] in the [[Prospect Theatre Company]]'s touring production of [[Marlowe]]'s ''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]''. The production was controversial for its explicit torture scenes and implicit homosexuality. He later reprised the role for the [[BBC]]. In [[1972]], he founded the [[Actors' Company]] with his friend [[Edward Petherbridge]], and this was the beginning of his reputation as a spokesman for actors and the British theatre in general. Between [[1974]] and [[1978]], he enhanced his reputation with leading roles in [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] productions such as ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (in which he played opposite [[Francesca Annis]]) and ''[[Macbeth]]'' (opposite [[Judi Dench]]).
In [[1978]] he met his second lover, [[Sean Mathias]], at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. According to Mathias, the love affair was tempestuous, with conflicts over McKellen's success in acting versus Mathias' somewhat less-successful career. Mathias said that "in those days, the world was far more [[homophobia|homophobic]], and me being the young, pretty boy &mdash; people wouldn't take me seriously as an actor, being Ian's boyfriend." Mathias was 22 when they met; McKellen 39. However, Mathias also says McKellen "did nothing but help me" in his career.
==Award-winning successes==
McKellen starred on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in ''[[Bent (play)|Bent]]'', a play about gay men in [[Nazi]] [[extermination camp|death camps]], starting in 1979. Despite his role in this ground-breaking play, which brought to public view for the first time in a widespread way the persecution of [[homosexuality|gay]] people in [[Nazi Germany]], McKellen was not yet out publicly. At first, he was unsure whether he dared to take the role. "As impressed as I was by it, I thought 'My God! Do I dare be in this?' And Sean read it and said, 'Well you have to do it'," he said.
''Bent'' proved to be of great significance to McKellen. Since starring in the original Broadway production of ''Bent'', he has been involved in two other productions of the play. In [[1990]] he starred in the revival at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] in London directed by Mathias, and also made a supporting appearance in the movie version, also directed by Mathias, which was released in [[1997 in film|1997]].
McKellen's talents won him successively more important and visible parts, until eventually in 1980 he won the role of [[Salieri]] in the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production of ''[[Amadeus]]''. He was awarded the [[Tony Award]] for his performance, the most prestigious award given to actors in live theatre in the [[United States]]. His appearance as ''Walter'', a mentally-retarded adult, in a [[1982 in television|1982]] television play, won him a new following; but he was still a relative unknown to much of the U.S. public.
In the 1990s, McKellen began to branch into major American film and television roles. In [[1993 in film|1993]], McKellen had a supporting role as a South African tycoon in the [[sleeper hit]] ''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', in which he starred with [[Stockard Channing]], [[Donald Sutherland]], and [[Will Smith]]. In the same year, he was also exposed to North American audiences in minor roles in the television [[miniseries]] ''[[Tales of the City]]'' (based on the novel by his friend [[Armistead Maupin]]) and the movie ''[[Last Action Hero]]'', in which he played [[Death]]. Also in 1993, McKellen played a large role in the TV movie ''[[And the Band Played On]],'' about the discovery of the [[AIDS]] virus. In [[1995 in film|1995]], he played the title role in ''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]''. The performance was critically acclaimed, and he was nominated for [[Golden Globe]] and [[BAFTA]] awards, and won the [[European Film Awards|European Film Award]] for best actor.
His breakthrough role for mainstream American audiences came with the modestly-acclaimed ''[[Apt Pupil]],'' based on a story by [[Stephen King]]. McKellen portrayed an old Nazi officer, living under a [[Pseudonym|false name]] in the U.S., who was befriended by a curious teenager ([[Brad Renfro]]) who threatened to expose him unless he told his story in detail.
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] appointed him a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in 1979 and knighted him in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre, becoming Sir Ian McKellen.
In 1994 McKellen put together a one man show, ''[[A Knight Out]]''. The show was very successful and he still performs it today. He considers it a perpetual "work in progress".
[[Image:GandalfPoster.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir Ian McKellen played the [[wizard]] [[Gandalf]] in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', for which he earned an [[Academy Award]] nomination.]]
He was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for his role in the 1998 film ''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', where he played [[James Whale]], gay director of ''[[Show Boat]]'' (1936) and ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]''.
More recently, McKellen has become a major global star by playing leading roles in blockbuster films. First he played [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]] in ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' and its sequel ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]''. He followed that performance with the role of [[Gandalf]] in the three films that comprise the screen adaptation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' (''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'', and ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]''). For ''The Fellowship of the Ring'' he was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]. He will reprise the role of Magneto in the upcoming [[As of 2006|2006]] sequel ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand]]''.
In April and May 2005, he played the role of Mel Hutchwright in [[Granada Television]]'s long running soap opera, [[Coronation Street]].
==Work for gay rights==
While McKellen was always out to his co-actors, his public persona was another matter. It was not until [[1988]] that he came out to the general public. A controversial amendment was under consideration in the [[United Kingdom]] [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]: [[Section 28]] of the Local Government Bill proposed to prohibit local authorities from promoting homosexuality 'as a kind of pretended family relationship'. The drafting was open to several interpretations and the actual impact of the amendment was uncertain. McKellen became active in fighting the proposed law, and declared himself gay in a debate with the conservative journalist [[Peregrine Worsthorne]] which was aired by the [[BBC]]. "My own participating in that campaign was a focus for people [to] take comfort that if Ian McKellen was on board for this, perhaps it would be all right for other people to be as well, gay and straight," he said. Section 28 was, however, enacted and remained on the statute books until 2003. McKellen continued to fight for its repeal and criticised [[British Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for failing to concern himself with the issue.
[[Image:Section28.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir Ian McKellen with [[Michael Cashman]] at the Gay Rights March on Manchester in protest of [[Section 28]] in 1988.]]
By the time he came out, McKellen's ten-year relationship with Mathias had also ended. He has stated that being free of the additional concern of what effect his coming out would have on his partner's career made the choice easier, as did the advice and support of his friends, among them noted gay author [[Armistead Maupin]].
In 1994, he made a bit of a splash at the closing ceremony of the [[Gay Games]], where he stood before a crowd of gay athletes and their supporters and fans to say, "I'm Sir Ian McKellen, but you can call me Serena." (This nickname had been circulating within the gay community since McKellen's knighthood was conferred).
McKellen has continued up to the present to be very active in [[gay rights movement|gay rights]] efforts. He is a co-founder of [[Stonewall (UK)|Stonewall]], a gay rights lobby group in the United Kingdom. The group is named after the [[Stonewall riots]].
==Selected stage and screen credits==
===Theatre===
*''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'', [[Royal National Theatre]], [[Old Vic]], London, 1965
*''[[Trelawney of the "Wells"]]'', National Theatre, London & [[Chichester Festival Theatre|Chichester Festival]], 1965
*''[[The Promise]]'', [[West End theatre|West End]]; [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], 1967
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (in title role), [[Edinburgh Festival]] & West End, 1969
*''[[Hamlet]]'' (title role), UK/European Tour, 1971
*''[[Tis Pity She's a Whore|'Tis Pity She's a Whore]]'', UK Tour, 1972
*''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus|Dr Faustus]]'' (title role), [[Royal Shakespeare Company]], Edinburgh Festival & Aldwych Theatre (London), 1974
*''[[King John]]'', RSC, 1975
*''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (as Romeo), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & Lon |
*} M</math>
The pullback is naturally defined as the dual (or transpose) of the [[pushforward]]. Unraveling the definition, this means the following:
:<math>(f^{*}\theta)(X_p) = \theta(f_{*}^{}X_p)</math>
where &theta; &isin; ''T''<sub>''f''(''p'')</sub><sup>*</sup>''N'' and ''X''<sub>''p''</sub> &isin; ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M''. Note carefully where everything lives.
If we define tangent covectors in terms of equivalence classes of smooth maps vanishing at a point then the definition of the pullback is even more straightforward. Let ''g'' be a smooth function on ''N'' vanishing at ''f''(''p''). Then the pullback of the covector determined by ''g'' (denoted ''dg'') is given by
:<math>f^{*}dg = d(g \circ f)</math>
That is, it is the equivalence class of functions on ''M'' vanishing at ''p'' determined by ''g'' o ''f''.
==Exterior powers==
The ''k''<sup>th</sup> [[exterior power]] of the cotangent space, denoted &Lambda;<sup>''k''</sup>(''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M''), is another important object in differential geometry. Vectors in the ''k''<sup>th</sup> exterior power are called [[differential form|differential ''k''-forms]]. They can be thought of as alternating, [[multilinear map]]s on ''k'' tangent vectors.
For this reason, tangent covectors are frequently called ''[[one-form]]s''.
==References==
* John M.Lee, ''Introduction to Smooth Manifolds'', (2003) Springer Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.
* Jurgen Jost, ''Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis'', (2002) Springer-Verlag, Berlin ISBN 3-540-4267-2.
* [[Ralph Abraham]] and Jerrold E. Marsden, ''Foundations of Mechanics'', (1978) Benjamin-Cummings, London ISBN 0-8053-0102-X.
* Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, ''Gravitation'', (1970) W.H. Freeman, New York; ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.
[[Category:Differential topology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cnidaria</title>
<id>6621</id>
<revision>
<id>42133894</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:16:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.7.204.143</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Classification */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{context}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cnidaria
| image = Sea nettles.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Sea nettle]]s, ''Chrysaora quinquecirrha''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = '''Cnidaria'''
| phylum_authority = [[Berthold Hatschek|Hatschek]], 1888
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision =
[[Coral|Anthozoa]] - [[Coral]]s&nbsp;and [[sea anemone]]s<br/>
[[Cubozoa]] - Sea wasps or box jellyfish<br/>
[[Hydrozoa]] - [[Hydroid]]s, [[hydra (genus)|hydra]]-like animals<br/>
[[Scyphozoa]] - Jellyfish
}}
'''Cnidaria''' (silent c - from [[New Latin]] ''cnida'' [[nematocyst]], fr. [[Greek language|Gk]] ''knide'' "nettle") is a [[Phylum (biology)|phylum]] containing some 10,000 [[species]] of relatively simple [[animal]]s found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine, environments. Cnidarians get their name from [[cnidocyte]]s, which are specialized cells that carry stinging [[organelle]]s. The [[coral|corals]], which are important [[reef]]-builders, belong here, as do the familiar [[sea anemone]]s, [[jellyfish]], [[sea pen]]s, [[sea pansies]] and [[sea wasp]]s. The names '''Coelenterata''' and '''Coelentera''' were formerly applied to the group, but as those names included the [[Ctenophore]]s (comb jellies), they have been abandoned. Cnidarians are highly evident in the [[fossil]] records, having first appeared in the [[Precambrian]] era.
The basic body shape of a cnidarian consists of a sac with a [[gastrovascular cavity]], with a single opening that functions as both [[mouth]] and [[anus]]. It has [[symmetry (biology)#Radial symmetry|radial symmetry]], meaning that whichever way it is cut along its central axis, the resulting halves would always be mirror images of each other. The cnidarian is composed of two layers of tissue, known as the ''ectoderm'' and ''endoderm'' (or ''gastroderm''), with a gelatinous ''mesoglea'' in between them containing only scattered cells. Thus the organisms are considered to be [[diploblastic]], though the mesoglea may be homologous with the [[germ layer#Mesoderm|mesoderm]] in other animals.
Although Cnidarians are classified to be organized on the tissue level, they actually contain [[gonads]] as their only [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]]. Their movement is coordinated by a decentralized [[nerve]] net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess rhopalia, complex sensory structures that can include image-forming eyes with lenses and retinas [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/images/CuboEye.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoamm.html&h=81&w=90&sz=7&tbnid=MPto74v3bc69LM:&tbnh=66&tbnw=74&hl=en&start=4&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcnidaria%2Beyes%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG], and a gravity-sensing statolith comparable in function to the otolith of the vertebrate inner ear. [[Respiration (physiology)|Respiration]] takes place by diffusion of [[oxygen]] directly through their tissues without specialized structures like [[gill]]s, [[trachea]]e or [[lung]]a. This is made possible by their small or flattened bodies. Tentacles surrounding the mouth contain nematocysts, specialized stinging cells. The ability to [[sting (biology)|sting]] is what gives cnidarians their name (Greek ''cnidos'', "nettle").
Cnidarians employ these stinging cnidocysts to immobilize, kill, or entangle their prey. The nematocysts are the cnidarians' main form of offence or defense and function by a chemical or physical trigger that causes the specialized cell to eject a barbed and poisoned hook that can stick into, ensnare, or entangle prey. Dead or paralyzed prey are pushed into the cnidarian's oral opening by the tentacles. Digestion occurs in the [[gastrovascular cavity]], and all undigested food, waste material, or other secretions must exit the cnidarian through the oral opening.
There are four main classes of Cnidaria:
* Class [[Coral|Anthozoa]] (anemones, corals, etc.)
* Class [[Hydrozoa]] ([[Portuguese Man o' War]], [[Obelia]], etc.)
* Class [[Scyphozoa]] (jellyfish)
* Class [[Cubozoa]] (box jellies)
Traditionally the hydrozoans were considered to be the most primitive, but evidence now suggests the anthozoans were actually the earliest to diverge. Sea anemones, sea fans and corals are in this class. The non-anthozoan classes may be grouped into the subphylum '''Medusozoa'''.
Theoretically, members of Cnidaria have life-cycles that alternate between asexual [[polyp]]s and sexual, free-swimming forms called ''[[medusa (biology)|medusae]]''. In reality however there is a vast variation within the life-cycles of cnidarians. Within group [[Coral|Anthozoa]], the medusal stage is virtually non-existent; the [[larva]], once fusing with the substratum and developing into the polyp stage, grows [[benthic]] or sessile, meaning it no longer metamorphosises into the medusal stage. Among the [[Scyphozoa]] and [[Cubozoa]], the medusae are the dominant form in the life-cycle, while the polyps are in turn reduced or absent. Medusae are extremely varied and range in size from a few millimeters to over 30 metres (with tentacles). The [[Hydrozoa]] are intermediate, with significant medusoid and polyp forms.
The [[Siphonophora]] deserve special mention. These hydrozoans form colonies that show varying degrees of specialization, so that in extreme cases individuals function essentially as organs of the whole.
A small group of microscopic [[parasite]]s, the [[Myxozoa]], have been considered to be extremely reduced cnidarians. These attach themselves to their hosts by polar filaments similar to the stinging threads of cnidocysts. Their exact placement within the phylum is uncertain, however, and new studies suggest they may have developed from some other group of animals. Usually they are placed in their own phylum.
Finally, the extinct [[Conulariida]] may or may not be members of the Cnidaria.
Obsolete names for groups of cnidarians include '''Acalephae''' (Hydrozoa plus Scyphozoa, based on the shared character of stinging cells; however this character is no longer thought to be primitive)
== Classification ==
*Superdomain: [[Biota]]
**Domain: [[Eucytota]] ([[Eukarya]])
***Subdomain: [[Opistokonta]]
****Kingdom: [[Metazoa]] ([[Animalia]])
*****Subkingdom: [[Eumetazoa]]
******Branch: [[Radiata]]
*******Infrakingdom: [[Coelenterata]]
********'''Phylum: Cnidaria'''
**********Class: Cyclozoa †
*********'''Subphylum: [[Anthozoa]]'''
**********Class: [[Anthozoa]]
***********Subclass: [[Zoantharia]]
************Order: Kilbuchophyllida †
************Order: Antipatharia
************Order: Ceriantharia
************Order: Zoanthidea
************Order: Ptychodactiaria
************Order: Actiniaria
************Order: Cothoniida †
************Order: Tabulata †
************Order: Heliolitida †
************Order: Rugosa †
************Order: Heterocorallida †
************Order: Scleractinia
************Order: Corallimorpharia
************Order: Scleractinia
***********Subclass: [[Alcionaria]]
************Order: Helioporacea
************Order: Stolonifera
************Order: Alcyonacea
************Order: Gorgonacea
************Order: Pennatulacea
*********'''Subphylum: [[Medusozoa]]'''
**********Class: [[Polypodiozoa]]
**********Class: [[Hydrozoa]]
************Order: Anthoathecatae
************Order: Siphonophora
************Order: Leptothecatae
************Order: Limnomedusae
************Order: Trachylina
**********Class: [[Scyphozoa]]
************Order: Conchopeltida †
***********Subclass: Corumbellata |
ples are '''The Shady Hill School''', '''[[Buckingham Browne & Nichols]]''' (a.k.a. BB&N) and '''[[German International School Boston]]''' (a.k.a. GISBOS).
==Transportation==
===Road===
Cambridge has an irregular street network due to the fact that many of the roads date from the colonial era. Contrary to popular belief, the road system did not evolve from longstanding cow-paths. Roads connected various village settlements with each other and nearby towns, and were shaped by geographic features, most notably streams, hills, and swampy areas. Several major roads lead to Cambridge, including the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] (Exit 18), [[Massachusetts State Highway 2|Route 2]], [[Massachusetts State Highway 16|Route 16]] and the [[Massachusetts State Highway 28|McGrath Highway (Route 28)]]. [[Massachusetts Avenue]] runs the length of the city. The Charles River forms the southern border of Cambridge and is crossed by 11 bridges, 8 of which are open to motorized road traffic. (Part of the new I-93 bridges might also cut across a corner of Cambridge without providing any access.)
It can be hard to find a place to park in Cambridge. Main streets have metered parking. Parking on most other streets is restricted to residents with a sticker, even in areas without a parking shortage. Nonresidents cannot park in these spaces for any length of time, except on Sundays, or with a visitor permit lent by a resident. Streets are cleaned once a month (over two days, one day per side of the street), except January through March. If you park on the wrong side of street on that street's cleaning day your car ''will'' be towed. City policy discourages public off-street parking, in favor of reserved parking for residential and commercial tenants, so paid off-street parking is very expensive, and is nonexistent in many areas.
===Mass Transit===
Cambridge has one stop on the [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] and five stops on the [[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]]. [[Alewife Station (MBTA)|Alewife Station]], with its large parking garage ($5 per day as of November 2005), is an ideal place for visitors coming from the area to the northwest to leave their cars if their destination is near a T station, although like many other Boston-area commuter lots, it tends to fill on workday mornings, and there can be major delays driving out of the garage during the evening rush. There are also several bus routes, with major local bus terminals at Alewife, Harvard Square, Central Square, and Lechmere Square, and four [[trolleybus]] routes that originate at Harvard Square.
===Cycling===
Cambridge has several [[bike path| bike paths]], including one along the Charles River [http://www.mass.gov/dcr/parks/metroboston/maps/bikepaths_dudley.gif], the [[Minuteman Bikeway]] and a linear park connecting Alewife and the [[Somerville Community Path]]. Bike parking is common and there are bike lanes on many streets, although concerns have been expressed regarding the suitability of many of the lanes. From time to time, police target their traffic enforcement efforts towards bicyclists who do not follow the Rules of the Road for vehicles, especially going through red lights, failure to stop for pedestrians at unsignalized crosswalks, riding on the wrong side of the street or the wrong way on a one-way street, and riding without a headlight at night. Cambridge has an active, official bicycle committee.
===Intercity===
Intercity buses and [[Amtrak]] stop at [[South Station]], which is a short ride on the Red Line from Cambridge. [[Logan International Airport]] is easy to get to by car or taxi. It can also be reached via mass transit by transferring to the [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] SL1 bus at South Station.
{{seealso|Boston transportation}}
== Points of interest ==
* [[Charles River]]
* [[Cooper-Frost-Austin House]]
* [[Elmwood (house)|Elmwood]]
* [[Asa Gray House]]
* [[Harvard University]]
* [[Hooper-Lee-Nichols House]]
* [[Longfellow National Historic Site]]
* [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
* [[Fresh Pond, Cambridge, Massachusetts|Fresh Pond]]
* [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]
* [[Cambridge Common]]
== Famous people associated with Cambridge ==
[[Image:Cambridge Public Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Cambridge Public Library, funded by [[Frederick Hastings Rindge]] in 1887.]]
[[Image:Longfellow National Historic Site, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Longfellow National Historic Site, also known as the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.]]
*[[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], King of Thailand
*[[Ben Affleck]]
*[[Louis Agassiz]]
*[[Julia Child]]
*[[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Matt Damon]]
*[[Doc Edgerton]]
*[[Charles Eliot]]
*[[Charles William Eliot]]
*[[Patrick Ewing]]
*[[Richard P. Feynman]]
*[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[Louise Glück]]
*[[Juliana Hatfield]]
*[[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]
*[[Henry James]]
*[[William James]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]]
*[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]
*[[James Russell Lowell]]
*[[Yo-Yo Ma]]
*[[Charles Eliot Norton]]
*[[Tip O'Neill]]
*[[Robert Reich]]
*[[Frederick Hastings Rindge]]
*[[Rumeal Robinson]]
*[[Patrick Stewart]]
*[[Sam Waterston]]
*[[Norbert Wiener]]
*[[Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth]]
*[[E. E. Cummings]]
:''For more, see [http://www.mass.info/cambridge.ma/famous_people.htm Famous People from Cambridge] on the Mass.info page''
==Sister Cities==
{{SisterCities|Cambridge|eight}}
*{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Cambridge]], [[England]], UK
*{{flagicon|PRT}} [[Coimbra]], Portugal
*{{flagicon|CUB}} [[Cienfuegos]], Cuba
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gaeta]], Italy
*{{flagicon|IRL}} [[Galway]], Ireland
*{{flagicon|SLV}} [[San Jose Las Flores]], El Salvador
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tsukuba, Ibaraki|Tsukuba Science City]], Japan
*{{flagicon|ARM}} [[Yerevan]], Armenia
== Sources ==
Surveys of Architectural History in Cambridge:
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Mid Cambridge, 1967
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Cambridgeport, 1971 ISBN 0262530139
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Old Cambridge, 1973
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Northwest Cambridge, 1977 ISBN 0262530325
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: East Cambridge, 1988 (revised) ISBN 0262530783
== External links ==
{{Commons|Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge}}
*[http://www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/ Official City Page]
*[http://www.cambridgema.gov/Historic/cambridgehistory.html A Brief History of Cambridge]
*[http://www.cambridgechamber.org/ Cambridge Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/~CPL/ Cambridge Public Library]
*[http://www.cpsd.us/ Cambridge Public Schools Homepage]
*[http://www.cpsd.us/CRLS Cambridge Rindge and Latin Homepage]
*[http://rwinters.com/ Cambridge Civic Journal by Robert Winters]
*[http://www2.townonline.com/cambridge/ ''Cambridge Chronicle'' Online]
*[http://harvardfilmarchive.org/ Harvard Film Archive]
*[http://www.brattlefilm.org/ The Brattle Theater]
*[http://www.ccae.org/ Cambridge Center For Adult Education]
*[http://www.cambridgerotary.org Rotary Club of Cambridge]
*[http://www.cambridgema.gov/GIS/FindMapAtlas.cfm Cambridge Maps]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.373746|-71.110554}}
{{Massachusetts}}
[[Category:Cities in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Middlesex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[de:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[es:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
[[eo:Cambridge (Masaĉuseco)]]
[[fr:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[ko:케임브리지 (매사추세츠 주)]]
[[nl:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[pl:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[pt:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[ru:Кембридж (Массачусетс)]]
[[sv:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
[[th:เคมบริดจ์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cambridge (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5686</id>
<revision>
<id>40228001</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:29:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.60.70.18</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are many places called '''Cambridge''':
Perhaps the most famous 'Cambridge', and historically the first is located in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[United Kingdom]], where the [[University of Cambridge]] is based. The majority of the city lies within the [[Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)|parliamentary constituency of Cambridge]].
In the general parlance of the [[United States]], 'Cambridge' usually refers to [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], a renowned intellectual center near [[Boston]], where [[Harvard University]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] are located.
Other places called Cambridge include the following:
* In [[Canada]]
** [[Cambridge, Ontario]]
** [[Cambridge (electoral district)]], a [[List of Canadian federal electoral districts|federal electoral district]]
** [[Cambridge, Hants County, Nova Scotia]]
** [[Cambridge, Kings County, Nova Scotia]]
*In the [[United States|United States of America]]
**[[Cambridge, Idaho]]
**[[Cambridge, Illinois]]
**[[Cambridge, Iowa]]
**[[Cambridge, Kansas]]
**[[Cambridge, Kentucky]]
**[[Cambridge, Maine]]
**[[Cambridge, Maryland]]
**[[Cambridge, Minnesota]]
**[[Cambridge, Nebraska]]
**[[Cambridge (village), New York]]
**[[Cambridge (town), New York]]
**[[Cambridge, Ohio]]
**[[Cambridge, Vermont]]
**[[Cambridge, Wisconsin]]
* Elsewhere
** [[Cambridge, New Zealand|Cambridge]], [[New Zealand]]
** [[Cambridge, Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
** [[Cambridge, Tasmania|Cambridge]], [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]]
** [[Cambridge, Western Australia|Cambridge]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australia]]
There are also [[Cambridge City, Indiana]] and [[Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania]], USA
{{geodis}}
[[bg:Кеймбридж (пояснение)]]
[[da:Cambridge (flertydig)]]
[[de:Cambridge]]
[[es:Cambridge (desambiguación)]]
[[fr:Cambridge (homonymie)]]
[[ko:케임브리지 (동음이의)]]
[[la:Camulodunum]]
[[nl:Cambridge]]
[[ja:ケンブリッジ]]
[[no:Cambridge (andre betydninger)]]
[[pl:Cambridge]]
[[sv:Cambridge (olika |
of Theoretical Logic]]'' from 1928.
About a year later, he attended a banquet, and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, [[Bernhard Rust]]. Rust asked, "How is mathematics in Göttingen now that it has been freed of the Jewish influence?" Hilbert replied, "Mathematics in Göttingen? There is really none any more".{{rf|2|Reid.205}}
By the time Hilbert died in [[1943]], the Nazis had nearly completely restructured the university, many of the former faculty being either Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics.{{rf|3|Reid.213}}
On his tombstone, at Göttingen, one can read his epitaph:
:''Wir müssen wissen, wir werden wissen'' - We must know, we will know.
Ironically, the day before Hilbert pronounced this phrase, Kurt Gödel had presented his thesis, containing the famous incompleteness theorem: there are things which we know to be true, but which we cannot prove to be so.
==See also==
*[[Einstein-Hilbert action]]
*[[Hilbert's Nullstellensatz]]
*[[Hilbert's basis theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's syzygy theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's Theorem 90]]
*[[Hilbert space]]
*[[Hilbert-Speiser theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's irreducibility theorem]]
*[[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]
*[[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]]
*[[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel|Hilbert's Hotel]]
==Bibliography==
Primary literature in English translation:
*Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. ''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press.
**1918. "Axiomatic thought," 1115-14.
**1922. "The new grounding of mathematics: First report," 1115-33.
**1923. "The logical foundations of mathematics," 1134-47.
**1930. "Logic and the knowledge of nature," 1157-65.
**1931. "The grounding of elementary number theory," 1148-56.
*[[Jean van Heijenoort]], 1967. ''From Frege to Godel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. Harvard Univ. Press.
**1904. "On the foundations of logic and arithmetic," 129-38.
**1925. "On the infinite," 367-92.
**1927. "The foundations of mathematics," with comment by [[Weyl]] and Appendix by [[Bernays]], 464-89.
Secondary:
*Bottazini, Umberto, 2003. ''Il flauto di Hilbert. Storia della matematica''. [[UTET]], ISBN 8877508523
* Corry, L., Renn, J., and Stachel, J., 1997, "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute," ''Science 278'': nn-nn.
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press.
*Gray, Jeremy, 2000. ''The Hilbert Challenge'', ISBN 0198506511
*[[Piergiorgio Odifreddi]], 2003. ''Divertimento Geometrico - Da Euclide ad Hilbert''. [[Bollati Boringhieri]], ISBN 8833957144. A clear exposition of the "errors" of Euclid and of the solutions presented in the ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'', with reference to [[non-Euclidean geometry]].
*Reid, Constance, 1996. ''Hilbert'', [[Springer Science and Business Media|Springer]]. ''The'' biography in English.
*[[Kip Thorne|Thorne, Kip]], 1995. ''[[Black Holes and Time Warps|Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]]'', W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition. ISBN 0393312763.
==Notes==
{{ent|1|Reid}} Reid p. 141
{{ent|2|Reid.205}} Reid p. 205.
{{ent|3|Reid.205}} Reid p. 213.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Hilbert}}
*{{MathGenealogy|id=7298}}
*[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/hilbert/problems.html Hilbert's 23 Problems Address]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hilbert-program/ Hilbert's Program]
*{{gutenberg author| id=David+Hilbert | name=David Hilbert}}
[[Category:1862 births|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:Contributors to general relativity|Hilbert, David]]
{{Link FA|it}}
[[ar:ديفيد هيلبرت]]
[[bn:ডেভিড হিলবার্ট]]
[[ca:David Hilbert]]
[[de:David Hilbert]]
[[es:David Hilbert]]
[[fr:David Hilbert]]
[[ko:다비드 힐베르트]]
[[it:David Hilbert]]
[[he:דויד הילברט]]
[[ka:ჰილბერტი, დავიდ]]
[[hu:David Hilbert]]
[[nl:David Hilbert]]
[[ja:ダフィット・ヒルベルト]]
[[no:David Hilbert]]
[[pl:David Hilbert]]
[[pt:David Hilbert]]
[[ru:Гильберт, Давид]]
[[sa:डेविड हिल्बर्ट]]
[[sco:David Hilbert]]
[[sk:David Hilbert]]
[[sl:David Hilbert]]
[[sr:Давид Хилберт]]
[[fi:David Hilbert]]
[[sv:David Hilbert]]
[[th:ดาฟิด ฮิลแบร์ท]]
[[tr:David Hilbert]]
[[uk:Давид Гільберт]]
[[zh:大卫·希尔伯特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Down syndrome</title>
<id>8303</id>
<revision>
<id>42082285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:30:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew Norman</username>
<id>137672</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.5.77.151|208.5.77.151]] ([[User talk:208.5.77.151|talk]]) to last version by Andrew Norman</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Down syndrome |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}} |
ICDO = |
Image = Drill.jpg |
Caption = Child with Down syndrome |
OMIM = 190685 |
OMIM_mult = |
MedlinePlus = 000997 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 615 |
DiseasesDB = 3898 |
}}
'''Down syndrome''' (US, Canada and other countries) or '''Down's syndrome''' (UK and other countries) encompasses a number of chromosomal abnormalities, of which [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]] (an [[aneuploidy|aneuploid]]) is the most common, causing highly variable degrees of [[learning difficulties]] as well as [[disability|physical disabilities]]. It is named for [[John Langdon Down]], the British doctor who first described it in [[1866]].
== Overview ==
The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 births, making it the most common human [[aneuploidy]]. [[Maternal age effect|Maternal age]] influences the chance of conceiving a baby with the syndrome. At age 20 to 24, it is 1/1490, while at age 40 it is 1/106, and at age 49 is 1/11. (Hook EB., 1981). Although the chance increases with maternal age, most children with Down syndrome (80%) are born to women under the age of 35. This reflects the overall fertility of that age group. Many standard screens of pregnancies indicate Down syndrome, although they are not very accurate. [[Genetic counseling]] along with [[genetic testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]] or [[chorionic villus sampling]], are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome.
While most children with Down syndrome have a lower than average cognitive function, some have earned college degrees with accommodations, and nearly all will learn to read, write and do simple mathematics. The common clinical features of Down syndrome include any of a number of features that also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include a [[simian crease]] (a single crease across one or both palms), almond shaped eyes, shorter limbs, heart and/or gastroesophageal defects, speech impairment, and perhaps a higher than average risk of incidence of [[Hirschsprung's disease]]. Young children with Down syndrome are also more prone to recurrent [[ear infections]] and [[obstructive sleep apnea]].
Early educational intervention, screening for common problems, such as [[thyroid]] functioning, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, vocational training, ''etc''., can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. On the one hand, Down syndrome shows that some genetic limitations cannot be overcome; on the other, it shows that education can produce excellent progress whatever the starting point. The commitment of parents, teachers, and therapists to individual children has produced previously unexpected positive results.
== History ==
[[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome in 1862 (widely published in 1866). Because of his perception that Down syndrome children share physical similarities ([[Epicanthal fold|epicanthal folds]]) with Mongolians, he used the terms '''mongolism''' or '''mongolian idiocy'''. At the time, the vast majority of people with Down syndrome were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]]. The reference to racial characeristics was typical of the day and the growing [[eugenics]] movement. Into the 20<sup>th</sup> Century, individuals with Down syndrome (and other disabilities) were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]] and often forcibly sterilized (33 of the, then, 48 United States had forced sterilization laws). The [[Germany|German]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|"Aktion T-4"]] ([[1940]]) was a [[euthanasia]] program aimed at various disabilities, including Down syndrome. These programs have since been discredited and forced institutionalization is atypical in Western countries.
In 1959, [[Jerome Lejeune|Professor Jérome Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome is a chromosomal irregularity [http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp]. The chromosomal irregularity was identified as '''[[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]'''. The human [[karyotype]] is numbered from largest to smallest (excluding the X and Y), and Lejeune ascribed the trisomy to chromosome 21, the second smallest. This is incorrect. The chromosome that causes Down syndrome should have been designated 22, the smallest. By the time the mistake was discovered, it was too late to change the karyotype order.
In 1961 a group of geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that the name be changed. They gave him several choices, and he chose ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |
e issue of the [[stolen generation]]. Labor is also more likely to support additional rights for gay and lesbian people and it is a stronger supporter of equal opportunity legislation than the Coalition. Labor MPs are more likely to support [[pro-choice]] positions on [[abortion]] and [[euthanasia]], but the party almost always provides MPs with a [[conscience vote]] on these matters. Many MPs use this option to take a [[pro-life]] position, and the ALP has traditionally had a "Catholic Right" element (since Roman Catholics in Australia were traditionally working-class and thus inclined to support Labor) which continues to defend socially conservative positions on the family, abortion, euthanasia and homosexuality; however, its influence has declined somewhat. Many of the more socially liberal positions which often characterise the party today reflect the transformation of the ALP begun in the late 1960s and early 1970s under [[Gough Whitlam]] from a party dominated by the socially conservative working class to a party drawing a large slab of support from the new socially liberal middle class.
Internationally, Labor generally believes in [[multilateralism]], but is often more critical of Australia's relationship with large international powers like the [[United States]] and historically the [[United Kingdom]] than the Liberal Party. However, many members of the Labor Party, especially those affiliated with right-wing factions, are strong supporters of the alliance with the United States. This support is also official party policy. However, Labor opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] (though it did support the [[2001 invasion of Afghanistan]]). In his welcome speech to [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]], former leader [[Simon Crean]] said:
:''The Australian perspective is bound to differ, from time to time, with the perspective of the United States. Of course, on occasions, friends disagree, as we on this side did with you on the war in Iraq. But, such is the strength of our shared values, interests and principles, those differences can enrich rather than diminish, strengthen rather than weaken, our partnership. Our commitment to the Alliance remains unshakeable, as does our commitment to the [[War on Terror]], but friends must be honest with each other.''[http://www.australianpolitics.com/news/2003/10/03-10-23b.shtml]
Labor also supports a greater level of Australian integration with Asia than the Liberal Party, but this distinction is starting to narrow with increasing Liberal Party support for stronger Asian relationships, especially with [[Indonesia]].
==Structure==
The Australian Labor Party is a democratic and federal party, which consists of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office. The great majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party, and their affiliation fees, based on the size of their memberships, makes up a large part of the party's income. The party consists of six state and two territory branches, each of which consists of local branches which any Australian citizen or permanent resident can join, plus affiliated trade unions. Individual members pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. Members are expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year. In practice only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members only become active during election campaigns. The party has about 50,000 individual members, although this figure tends to fluctuate along with the party's electoral fortunes.
[[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|300px|Hon Kim Beazley, Leader of the Australian Labor Party 1996-2001 and since 2005]]
The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches.
The party holds a National Conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the National Conference). The National Conference approves the party's Platform and policies, elects the [[Australian Labor Party National Executive|National Executive]], and appoints office-bearers such as the National Secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current National Secretary is [[Tim Gartrell]]. The next National Conference will be held in January [[2007]].
The national Leader of the Labor Party is elected by the Labor members of the national Parliament (the [[Caucus]]), not by the conference. Until recently the national conference elected the party's National President, a largely honorary position, but since [[2003]] the position has rotated among people directly elected by the party's individual members. The current National President is [[Warren Mundine]], who assumed the past in January 2006. The two Vice-Presidents are [[Barry Jones (Australian politician)|Barry Jones]], a veteran party figure who was a minister in the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] government, and Dr [[Carmen Lawrence]], a former Premier of Western Australia and minister in the [[Paul Keating|Keating]] government.
The Labor Party contests national, state and territory elections. In some states it also contests local government elections: in others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing Labor candidates is called '''pre-selection'''. Candidates are pre-selected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two. Labor candidates are required to sign a pledge that if elected they will always vote in Parliament in accordance with decisions made by a vote of the Caucus. They are also sometimes required to donate a portion of their salary to the party, although this practice has declined with the introduction of public funding for political parties.
The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing, but since the 1970s it has been organised into formal factions, to which many party members belong and often pay an additional membership fee. The two largest factions are [[Labor Unity]] (on the right) and the [[Socialist Left|National Left]]. Labor Unity generally supports free-market policies and the U.S. Alliance. The National Left, although it seldom openly espouses [[socialism]], favours more state intervention in the economy and is generally opposed to the U.S. Alliance. The factions are themselves divided into sub-factions, and there is a constantly changing pattern of factional and sub-factional alliances around particular policy issues or around particular pre-selection disputes. Frequently these alliances and disputes reflect power struggles between or within trade unions.
The trade unions are also factionally aligned. The largest unions supporting the right are the [[Australian Workers Union]] (AWU), the [[National Union of Workers]] (NUW), the [[Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees' Association]] (SDA). Important unions supporting the left include the [[Australian Manufacturing Workers Union]] (AMWU), the [[Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Union]] (LHMU), the [[Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union]] (CFMEU), the [[Australian Services Union]] (ASU) and the [[Maritime Union of Australia]] (MUA). But these affiliations are seldom unconditional or permanent. The AWU and the NUW, for example, are bitter rivals and the NUW sometimes aligns itself with the left to further its conflict with the AWU. On some issues, such as opposition to the Howard government's industrial relations policy, all the unions are in agreement and work as a block within the party.
Pre-selections are usually conducted along factional lines, although sometimes a non-factional candidate will be given preferential treatment (this happened with [[Cheryl Kernot]] in [[1998]] and again with [[Peter Garrett]] in [[2004]]). Deals between the factions to divide up the safe seats between them are also common. Pre-selections, particularly for safe Labor seats, are often bitterly contested, and have frequently involved practices such as '''[[branch stacking]]''' (signing up large numbers of nominal party members to vote in pre-selection ballots), [[personation]], multiple voting and even fraudulent electoral enrolment. Trade unions were in the past accused of giving inflated membership figures to increase their influence over pre-selections, but party rules changes have stamped out this practice. Pre-selection results are frequently challenged, and the National Executive is sometimes called on to arbitrate these disputes.
==History==
No exact date can be given for the founding of the Australian Labor Party, originating as it did from the various colonial labour movements. Labour Leagues and similar electoral organisations existed in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] from about [[1890]]. Party mythology says the first Labour branch was founded at a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a tree (the "Tree of Knowledge") in [[Barcaldine, |
ready a capable leader and a capable warrior is reasonable but unknowable.
Following [[negotiation]] of peace terms in [[418]], the young Attila, at the age of 12, was sent as a child [[hostage]] to the Roman [[Royal court|court]] of Emperor [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]. In return, the Huns received [[Flavius Aetius]], in a child hostage exchange arranged by the Romans.
Most likely the empire schooled Attila in its courts, customs and traditions and in its luxurious [[lifestyle]], in the hope that he would carry an appreciation of these things back to his own nation, thus serving to extend Roman influence. The Huns would probably have hoped that Attila would enhance [[espionage]] capabilities by the exchange.
Attila attempted escape during his stay in Rome but failed. He turned his attention to an intense study of the empire while outwardly ceasing to struggle against his hostage status. He studied the internal and [[Foreign policy|foreign policies]] of the Romans. He often secretly observed them in [[Diplomacy|diplomatic]] conference with [[foreign minister]]s. He learned about [[leadership]], [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]] and other essentials suited to future rulers and diplomats.
==Shared kingship==
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The Hunnish empire stretched from the [[steppe]]s of Central Asia into modern [[Germany]], and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]]
By [[432]], the Huns were united under [[Ruga]]. In [[434]] Ruga died, leaving his [[nephew]]s Attila and [[Bleda]], the sons of his brother [[Mundjuk]], in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were [[bargain]]ing with [[Theodosius II]]'s envoys over the return of several [[renegade]] tribes who had taken refuge within the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day [[Pozarevac|Požarevac]]) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful [[treaty]]: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the [[Vandals]]), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight ''[[solidus (coin)|solidi]]'' for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and departed into the interior of the [[continent]], perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the [[walls of Constantinople]], building the city's first [[sea wall]], and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.
The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next five years. During this time, they were conducting an [[invasion]] of the [[Persian Empire]]. However, in [[Armenia]], a Persian counterattack resulted in a defeat for Attila and Bleda, and they ceased their efforts to conquer Persia. In [[440]], they reappeared on the borders of the empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been arranged for by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfil their treaty obligations and that the [[bishop]] of Margus (not far from modern [[Belgrade]]) had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They crossed the Danube and laid waste to [[Illyria]]n cities and forts on the river, among them, according to [[Priscus]], [[Viminacium]], which was a city of the [[Moesian]]s in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the barbarians and betrayed the city to them.
Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in response to the Vandal [[Geiseric]]'s capture of [[Carthage]] in [[440]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] [[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II]]'s invasion of [[Armenia]] in [[441]]. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Sigindunum (modern [[Belgrade]]) and [[Sirmium]] before halting its operations. A lull followed during [[442]], when Theodosius recalled his troops from [[North Africa]] and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands.
Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their [[Military campaign|campaign]] in [[443]]. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of [[Ratiara]] and successfully besieged Naissus (modern [[Niš]]) with [[battering ram]]s and rolling towers&mdash;military sophistication that was new in the Hun repertory&mdash;then pushing along the [[Nisava]] they took Serdica ([[Sofia]]), Philippopolis ([[Plovdiv]]), and [[Arcadiopolis]]. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by their lack of [[siege|siege equipment]] capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official [[Anatolius]] to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 1,963 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 ''solidi''.
Their desires contented for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to [[Jordanes]] (following [[Priscus]]), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around [[445]]), Bleda died (killed by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself. Now undisputed lord of the Huns, he again turned towards the eastern Empire.
*[http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm Priscus of Panium: fragments from the Embassy to Attila]
==Sole ruler==
Constantinople suffered major [[natural disaster|natural]] (and man-made) disasters in the years following the Huns' departure: bloody [[riot]]s between the [[Chariot racing#Byzantine chariot racing|racing factions]] of the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]]; [[Pandemic|plague]]s in [[445]] and [[446]], the second following a [[famine]]; and a four-month series of [[earthquake]]s which levelled much of the [[defensive wall|city wall]] and killed thousands, causing another [[epidemic]]. This last struck in [[447]], just as Attila, having consolidated his power, again rode south into the empire through [[Moesia]]. The [[Roman military history|Roman army]], under the [[Goths|Gothic]] ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Arnegisclus]], met him on the river [[Vid]] and was defeated&mdash;though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as [[Thermopylae]]; Constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect [[Flavius Constantinus]], who organized the citizenry to reconstruct the earthquake-damaged walls, and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. An account of this invasion survives:
: ''The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in [[Thrace]], became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the [[churches]] and [[monasteries]] and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.''
::&mdash; Callinicus, in his ''Life of Saint Hypatius''
[[Image:MorThanFeastofAttila.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Mór Than]]'s painting ''The Feast of Attila'', based on a fragment of [[Priscus]] (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):<br> <small>"When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears&mdash;those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest." </small>]]
Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying [[tribute]] in gold&mdash;and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from Sigindunum ([[Belgrade]]) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued between Roman and Hun for approximately three years. The [[historian]] [[Priscus]] was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in [[448]], and the fragments of his reports preserved by Jordanes offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his [[Scythia]]n fool, and his [[Moors|Moor]]ish [[dwarf]], impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers:
:''A luxurious meal, served on [[silver]] plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.''
"The floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on," Priscus noted.
During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the "Sword of Mars":
:''The historian Priscus says it was discovered |
Lapageria rosea'', Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.
[[Image:Chile_COA.jpg|thumb|left|Chile's Coat of Arms]]
The [[coat of arms]] depicts the two national animals: the [[condor]] (''Vultur gryphus'', a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the [[huemul]] (''Hippocamelus bisulcus,'' an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend ''Por la razón o la fuerza'' (''By right or might'' or ''By reason or by force'').
<br clear=all />
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Chile]]
* [[Elections in Chile]]
* [[Foreign relations of Chile]]
* [[Holidays in Chile]]
* [[List of Chilean companies]]
* [[List of Chileans]]
* [[List of Chilean television channels]]
* [[Transportation in Chile]]
* [[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
* [[Chilean pharmaceutical policy]]
* [[Chilean Spanish]]
* [[Chilean wine]]
== International rankings ==
===Overall===
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 31 out of 111 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[UNDP]]: [[Human Development Index]] [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ 2005], ranked 37 out of 177 countries (second in Latin America after Argentina)
===Economy===
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2006] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 14 (free) out of 157 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 19 out of 60 economies (countries and regions) (first in Latin America)
* [[Fraser Institute]]: [[Economic Freedom of the World Index|Economic Freedom of the World]]: [http://www.freetheworld.com/ 2005 Annual Report], ranked 20 out of 127 countries (tied with Belgium, Costa Rica and Hungary) (first in Latin America)
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006 - Growth Competitiveness Index], ranked 23 out of 117 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[World Bank]]: [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20643669~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html Where is the Wealth of Nations? (2005) - Total wealth per capita], ranked 32 out of 118 countries (fourth in Latin America after Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil)
===Other===
*[[Freedom House]]: [http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/survey2005.htm Freedom in the World 2005], average score: 1 (Free) (Costa Rica and Uruguay are the only two other Latin American countries with the highest score)
* [[Brown University]]: [http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-024.html Fifth Annual Global E-Government Study (2005)], ranked 13 out of 198 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], ranked 17 out of 110 countries (tied with Argentina) (third in Latin America after Costa Rica and Cuba)
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://ww1.transparency.org/cpi/2005/cpi2005_infocus.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2005], ranked 21 out of 159 countries (tied with Japan) (first in Latin America)
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 34 out of 62 countries (second in Latin America after Panama)
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Information+Technology+Report Global Information Technology Report 2004-2005 - Networked Readiness Index], ranked 35 out of 104 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[Yale University]]/[[Columbia University]]: [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index], ranked 42 out of 146 countries (ninth in Latin America after Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Colombia and Panama)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Worldwide press freedom index 2005], ranked 50 out of 167 countries (fifth in Latin America after El Salvador, Costa Rica, Bolivia and Uruguay)
==References==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs], [[United States Department of State]], April 2005
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html Library of Congress country profile]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ci.html The (CIA) World Factbook: Chile]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Chile}}
=== Official resources ===
* [http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/ Gobierno] - Government ([http://www.chileangovernment.cl/ English version])
** [http://www.presidencia.cl/ Presidencia] - Presidency ([http://www.presidencyofchile.cl/ English version])
** [http://www.interior.cl/ Ministerio del Interior] - Interior Ministry
** [http://www.minrel.cl/ Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs
* [http://www.congreso.cl/ Congreso Nacional] - National Congress
** [http://www.senado.cl/ Senado] - Senate
** [http://www.camara.cl/ Cámara de Diputados] - Chamber of Deputies
** [http://www.bcn.cl/ Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional] - Library of National Congress
* [http://www.poderjudicial.cl/ Poder Judicial] - Judiciary
Economy
* [http://www.hacienda.gov.cl/ Ministry of Finance] - Ministry of Finance
* [http://www.bcentral.cl/ Central Bank] - Banco Central de Chile
=== General information ===
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Chile Open Directory Project - ''Chile''] directory category
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/chile Chile Business Reports and Links, Latin Business Chronicle]
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.chilebosque.cl Native flora species]
* [http://www.chilephoto.cl/cgi-bin/chilephoto/chilephoto.cgi Pictures]
{{South_America}}
[[Category:Chile| ]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[af:Chili]]
[[ar:شيلي]]
[[ast:Chile]]
[[bg:Чили]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chile]]
[[be:Чылі]]
[[ca:Xile]]
[[cs:Chile]]
[[cy:Chile]]
[[da:Chile]]
[[de:Chile]]
[[et:Tšiili]]
[[el:Χιλή]]
[[es:Chile]]
[[eo:Ĉilio]]
[[fr:Chili]]
[[gl:Chile]]
[[ko:칠레]]
[[ht:Chili]]
[[hi:चिली]]
[[hr:Čile]]
[[io:Chili]]
[[id:Chili]]
[[ia:Chile]]
[[is:Chile]]
[[it:Cile]]
[[he:צ'ילה]]
[[ka:ჩილე]]
[[ks:Cilē]]
[[lad:Chile]]
[[la:Chilia]]
[[lv:Čīle]]
[[lt:Čilė]]
[[hu:Chile]]
[[mk:Чиле]]
[[ms:Chile]]
[[na:Chile]]
[[nl:Chili]]
[[nds:Chile]]
[[ja:チリ]]
[[no:Chile]]
[[nn:Chile]]
[[pl:Chile]]
[[pt:Chile]]
[[ro:Chile]]
[[qu:Chili]]
[[ru:Чили]]
[[sa:चिले]]
[[sq:Kili]]
[[scn:Cili]]
[[simple:Chile]]
[[sk:Čile]]
[[sl:Čile]]
[[sr:Чиле]]
[[fi:Chile]]
[[sv:Chile]]
[[tl:Chile]]
[[th:ประเทศชิลี]]
[[tr:Şili]]
[[uk:Чилі]]
[[yi:טשילע]]
[[zh:智利]]
[[fiu-vro:Tsiili]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Chile</title>
<id>5490</id>
<revision>
<id>42135760</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:32:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.161.186.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+sv, gl, it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''history of [[Chile]]'''. See also the [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].
==Early history==
Chilean territory was among the last to be populated in the Americas.
Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different indigenous peoples. Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify them into three major cultural groups: The northern peoples, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by [[Cultural periods of Peru|pre-Incan cultures]]; the [[Mapuche]] culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of [[Chiloé]], and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting.
As the [[Inca Empire]] expanded it was only able to integrate the northern part of Chile. Incan attempts to colonize Central Chile were unsuccessful, having met fierce resistance by [[Mapuche]] warriors. The [[Lircay]] river subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands.
The first European to sight Chilean territory was [[Ferdinand Magellan]] who crossed the [[Strait of Magellan]] on [[November 1]], [[1521]]. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to [[Diego de Almagro]]. De Almagro was [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire ('''Nueva Toledo'''). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in [[1537]], but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War.
[[Image:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumb|right|217px|Pedro de Valdivia]]
After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, [[Pedro de Valdivia]], captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now [[Santiago de Chile]], in 1542.
Although de Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first [[encomienda]]s. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the [[Mapuche]] culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is traditionally labelled as the [[Arauco War]].
Valdivia died in the [[Battle of Tucapel]], defeated by [ |
Stansted Airport|Stansted Airport]] and several smaller aerodromes that have evolved from bomber or fighter bases constructed during [[World War II]].
The port of [[Tilbury]] is one of Britain's three major ports, while the port of [[Harwich]] links the county to the [[Hoek van Holland|Hook of Holland]]. Despite the [[Dartford Crossing|road crossing]] to [[Dartford]] in [[Kent]] across the [[River Thames]], a pedestrian ferry to [[Gravesend, Kent]] still operates from Tilbury during limited hours.
Industry is largely limited to the south of the county, with the majority of the land elsewhere being given over to [[agriculture]]. Harlow is a centre for electronics, science and [[Pharmacology|pharmaceutical]] companies, while Chelmsford is the home of Marconi and Brentwood home to the Ford Motor Company's European HQ. Chelmsford has been an important location for [[electronics]] companies since the industry was born, and is also the location for a number of insurance and financial services organisations, and is the home of the soft drinks producer [[Britvic]]. Other businesses in the county are dominated by [[light engineering]] and the [[service sector]].
== Towns and villages ==
''See the [[List of places in Essex]]
==Places of Interest==
* [[Abberton Reservoir]]
* [[Colchester Castle]], [[Colne Valley Railway]]
* [[East Anglian Railway Museum]]
* [[Epping Forest]]
* [[Harlow|Harlow New Town]]
* [[Hedingham Castle]]
* [[Mangapps Railway Museum]] ([[Burnham-on-Crouch]]), [[Mistley towers]]
* [[St Peter-on-the-Wall]]
* [[University of Essex]] (Wivenhoe Park, Colchester)
* [[Waltham Abbey]]
==See also==
*[[Earl of Essex]]
*[[GHQ Line]] - World War II fortification
==External links==
*[http://www.essexcc.gov.uk/ Essex County Council]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/essex/ BBC Essex]
*[http://www.thisisessex.co.uk/echo Evening Echo] (for south of county)
*[http://www.thisisessex.co.uk/evening-gazette Evening Gazette] (for north of county)
{{England ceremonial counties}}
<br />
{{England traditional counties}}
[[Category:Essex| ]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[da:Essex]]
[[de:Essex]]
[[es:Essex]]
[[eo:Essex]]
[[fr:Comté d'Essex (Angleterre)]]
[[it:Essex]]
[[nl:Essex]]
[[no:Essex]]
[[pl:Essex]]
[[ru:Эссекс]]
[[simple:Essex]]
[[sk:Essex (grófstvo)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endomorphism</title>
<id>9569</id>
<revision>
<id>38363308</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T21:24:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tosha</username>
<id>37304</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''endomorphism''' is a [[morphism]] (or [[homomorphism]]) from a mathematical object to itself. So, for example, an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] ''V'' is a [[linear map]] ''f'' : ''V'' &rarr; ''V'' and an endomorphism of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is a [[group homomorphism]] ''f'' : ''G'' &rarr; ''G'', etc. In general, we can talk about endomorphisms in any [[category theory|category]].
Given an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' and two endomorphisms ''f'' and ''g'' of ''X'', the [[functional composition|composite]] ''f'' <small>O</small> ''g'' is also an endomorphism of ''X''. Since the [[identity map]] on ''X'' is also an endomorphism of ''X'', we see that the [[set]] of ''all'' endomorphisms of ''X'' forms a [[monoid]], denoted End<sub>''C''</sub>(''X'') or just End(''X'') if the category is understood.
In many but not all situations it is possible to add endomorphisms, and the endomorphisms of a given object then form a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], called the [[endomorphism ring]] of the object. This is true, for example, in the categories of [[abelian group]]s, [[module (mathematics)|module]]s, and [[vector space]]s. In general it is true in all [[preadditive category|preadditive categories]].
An endomorphism that is also an [[isomorphism]] is termed an [[automorphism]]. In the following diagram, the arrows denote implication.
{| border="0"
|-
| align="center" width="42%" | [[automorphism]]
| align="center" width="16%" | <math>\to</math>
| align="center" width="42%" | [[isomorphism]]
|-
| align="center" | <math>\downarrow</math>
|
| align="center" | <math>\downarrow</math>
|-
| align="center" | endomorphism
| align="center" | <math>\to</math>
| align="center" | [[homomorphism|(homo)morphism]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Category theory]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mathematics21.org/pseudomorphisms-category.xml Category of Endomorphisms and Pseudomorphisms]. [http://www.mathematics21.org/ Victor Porton]. 2005. - ''Endomorphisms'' of a [[category theory|category]] (particularly of a category with [[partial order|partially ordered]] [[category theory|morphisms]]) are also [[category theory|objects]] of certain categories.
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]
[[de:Endomorphismus]]
[[fr:Endomorphisme]]
[[nl:Endomorfisme]]
[[pl:Endomorfizm]]
[[ru:Эндоморфизм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electric Levantine</title>
<id>9570</id>
<revision>
<id>15907446</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-18T01:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lexor</username>
<id>5364</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to last self-version, redirects to [[Murat Ses]]. One artist does not a style make.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Murat Ses]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eulers number</title>
<id>9572</id>
<revision>
<id>15907447</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-24T00:10:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oliver Pereira</username>
<id>5333</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[e (mathematical constant)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[e (mathematical constant)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eric Hoffer</title>
<id>9574</id>
<revision>
<id>38046613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T20:40:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JJstroker</username>
<id>682273</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Erichoffer2.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Eric Hoffer''' ([[July 25]] [[1902]] &ndash; [[May 21]] [[1983]]) was an American social [[writer]]. He produced ten books and won the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in February 1983 from [[Ronald Reagan]]. His first book, ''[[The True Believer]]'', published in 1951, was widely recognized as a classic. This book, which he considered his best, established his reputation, and he remained a successful writer for most of his remaining years.
Hoffer was born in [[New York City]], the son of [[Germany|German]] immigrants. By the age of five, he could read in both German and English. At age seven, and for unknown reasons, Hoffer went blind. His eyesight inexplicably returned when he was fifteen. Fearing he would again go blind, he seized upon the opportunity to read as much as he could for as long as he could. His eyesight remained, but Hoffer never abandoned his habit of voracious reading.
Both his parents died while he was still a young man. Seeking opportunity, and an occupation that would allow him to read constantly, Hoffer made his way across the country to [[California]]. A rumour is that he enlisted in the Armed forces, because he was fervently anti-Nazi, but was rejected for medical reasons. Fighting this setback he went to San Francisco to work at the [[San Francisco Naval Shipyard|Naval Shipyard]] and support the war effort in what way he could. There he began to do manual labor while educating himself on the side. He had library cards for borrowing at libraries up and down the train line near his home in [[San Francisco]]. He was to continue at odd jobs throughout his life, such as migrant farm laborer, [[gold]] prospector, and [[stevedore|longshoreman]]. Despite daily work, often strenuous, he managed to read more books than many academics. He was stirred to writing after felicitously encountering the ''Essays'' of [[Michel de Montaigne]] in a secondhand bookshop.
==Hoffer and the roots of mass movements==
Hoffer was among the first to recognize the central importance of [[self-esteem]] to psychological well-being. While most recent writers focus on the benefits of a positive self-esteem, Hoffer focused on the consequences of a lack of self-esteem. Concerned about the rise of totalitarian governments, especially those of [[Hitler]] and [[Stalin]], he tried to find the roots of these "madhouses" in human psychology. He discovered that [[fanaticism]] and self-righteousness are rooted in self-hatred, self-doubt, and insecurity. As he describes in ''The True Believer'', a passionate obsession with the outside world or with the private lives of other people is merely a craven attempt to compensate for a lack of meaning in one's own life. Extensively researched, this slim volume contains more ideas per page than some entire books.
His work was not only original, it was completely out of step with dominant academic trends. In particular, it was completely non-[[Freudian]], at a time when almost all American psychology was confined to the Freudian paradigm. In avoiding the academic [[mainstream]], Hoffer managed to avoid the straitjacket of established thought. Many argue that it is because of his lack of a University education that his book has remained a classic and insightful (ie non-[[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]]). Hoffer appeared on Public Television in 1964 and then in two one-hour conversations on [[CBS]] with [[Eric Sevareid]] in the late 1960s. Both times he drew wide response |
|thumb|240px| '''Fig. 3:''' Structure of DNA with two B-Z DNA junctions: It encompasses 1. breakage of a hydrogen-bond, where a Guanine rotates around its glycosyl-bond and the sugar thereby transforms into its syn-conformation. 2. Rotation of the corresponding second base (Cytosine) involving rotation of the sugar around the sugar-phosphate-bond. 3. At the B-Z junction hydrogen-bonds remain broken and bases are extruded.]]
===Junction between B- and Z-DNA===
Chromatin regions near the transcription start site frequently contain DNA sequence motifs favourable for forming Z-DNA. Likewise, formation of Z-DNA near the promoter region stimulates transcription. Z-DNA is stabilized by binding specific proteins. Formation of Z-DNA fom B-DNA is a dynamic process where B-DNA is the relaxed state. When a Z-DNA segment is formed two B-Z junctions form (Fig.3). The crystal structure of such junctions is known. At each junction the hydrogen bonds between a Watson/Crick base-pair is broken and the bases are extruded. Extrusion of a base from the helix is a well-known reaction performed by enzymes (i.e. DNA glycosylase) that edit or repair DNA during Base Excision Repair (BER). Crystal structures of extruded bases co-crystallized with Hha1 methyltransferase, human DNA repair protein AGT(O(6)-alkylguanine-DNAalkyltransferase), or bacteriophage T4 endonuclease V are similar to the extruded bases at B-Z junctions. Z-DNA may also provide a sink to absorb torsional strain following an RNA polymerase or a transient nucleosome. Also Z-DNA may represent a signal for the recruitment of RNA-editing enzymes. It is possible that chromatin encompassing Z-DNA segments also affect replication.
=== The Nucleosome===
The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome. The nucleosome consists of a central protein complex, the histone octamer, and 1.7 turns of DNA, about 146 base pairs, which are wrapped around the histone octamer complex. There are four different types of core histone proteins which form the octamer containing two copies each of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Further, there is a linker histone, H1, which contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome together with histone H1 is called a [[chromatosome]].
===''Beads-On-A-String'' [[Chromatosome]] Array===
[[Chromatosome]]s, connected by about 20 to 60 base pairs of a continuous linker DNA strand, form a 10 nm "''beads-on-a-string''" array (Fig. 1-2).
===Higher order Chromatin Structure===
The higher order structure of the chromatin fiber in the cell is not known in detail. EM studies have demonstrated a fiber with a diameter of 30 nm which is highly dynamic such that it seems to unfold into a 10 nm fiber when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription.
===Territorial Organization of Chromatin in the Cell Nucleus===
[[Image:Nucleus & Chromatin Territorial Structure.jpg|thumb|280px|left| '''Fig. X:''' Hypothetical Model of the Territorial Organization of Chromatin in the Cell Nucleus]]
The diagram (Fig. X) represents a model of a cell (gray oval) with a nucleus (dark gray oval). Two chromosomes are shown as chromatin fibers (yellow and red lines). Proteins are represented as small ovals.
Note the association of the chromatin components with the nuclear membrane. Chromosomes are territorially interlinked by chromatin protein complexes (scaffold proteins see above).
== Non-Histone Chromosomal Proteins ==
The proteins that are found associated with isolated chromatin fall into several functional categories:
* chromatin-bound enzymes
* high mobility group (HMG) proteins
* transcription factors
* scaffold proteins
Enzymes associated with chromatin are those involved in DNA replication and repair, in transcription, and in post-translational modification of histones. Examples are various types of nucleases and proteases. Scaffold proteins encompass chromatin proteins such as ''insulators'', domain ''boundary factors'' and ''cellular memory modules'' (CMMs).
== Chromatin: Alternative Definitions ==
#'''Simple & Concise Definition:''' Chromatin is DNA plus the proteins (and RNA) that package DNA within the cell nucleus.
#'''A Biochemists’ Operational Definition:''' Chromatin is the DNA/protein/RNA complex extracted from eukaryotic lysed interphase nuclei. Just which of the multitudinous substances present in a nucleus will constitute a part of the extracted material will depend in part on the technique each researcher uses. Furthermore, the composition and properties of chromatin vary from one cell type to the another, during development of a specific cell type, and at different stages in the cell cycle.
#'''The DNA plus Histone – Equals – Chromatin - Definition:''' The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The structural entity of chromatin is the nucleosome.
== History ==
In 1882 [[Walther Flemming]] used the term '''''Chromatin''''' for the first time. Flemming assumed that within the nucleus there was some kind of a ''nuclear-scaffold''. Further there were ''nucleoli'', the ''nuclear plasm'' and the ''nuclear membranes''. He wrote (transl. from German): “The scaffold owes its capability of refraction, the way how it behaves, and in particular its colorability to a substance which, with regard to its latter attribute, I have termed Chromatin. It is possible that this substance is really identical with the Nuclein-bodies. .... I’ll retain the name Chromatin as long as Chemistry has decided about it, and I empirically refer to it as that substance in the cell's nucleus which takes up the dye upon staining the nucleus ("Kerntinktionen").
== Nobel Prizes Related to Chromatin ==
[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1910/index.html '''Albrecht Kossel'''] (University of Heidelberg) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910 "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances".
[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1933/index.html '''Thomas Hunt Morgan'''] (California Institute of Technology) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933 "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity".
[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/ '''Francis Crick, James Watson, Maurice Wilkins'''] (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Harvard University, London University) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material".
[http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1982/index.html '''Aaron Klug'''] (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982 "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes".
== See also ==
*[[Chromosome]]
*[[Chromatid]]
*[[Genetics]]
== References==
*Corces, V. G. 1995. Chromatin insulators. Keeping enhancers under control. Nature 376:462-463.
*Cremer, T. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell- und Vererbungsforschung, Veröffentlichungen aus der Forschungsstelle für Theoretische Pathologie der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Springer-Vlg., Berlin, Heidelberg.
*Elgin, S. C. R. (ed.). 1995. Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression, vol. 9. IRL Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1996. Boundary and insulator elements in chromosomes. Current Op. Genet. and Dev. 6:185-192.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1998. Polycomb and Trithorax group proteins mediate the function of a chromatin insulator. Cell 92:511-521.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 2001. CHROMATIN INSULATORS AND BOUNDARIES: Effects on Transcription and Nuclear Organization. Annu Rev Genet 35:193-208.
*Gerasimova, T. I., K. Byrd, and V. G. Corces. 2000. A chromatin insulator determines the nuclear localization of DNA [In Process Citation]. Mol Cell 6:1025-35.
*Ha, S. C., K. Lowenhaupt, A. Rich, Y. G. Kim, and K. K. Kim. 2005. Crystal structure of a junction between B-DNA and Z-DNA reveals two extruded bases. Nature 437:1183-6.
*Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders.
*Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
*Sinden, R. R. 2005. Molecular biology: DNA twists and flips. Nature 437:1097-8.
*Van Holde KE. [[1989]]. Chromatin. [[New York]]: [[Springer-Verlag]]. ISBN 0387966943.
*Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.
== External links ==
*[http://www.chromatin.co.uk Recent chromatin publications and news]
* [http://www.epigenome-noe.net/index.php Epigenome Network of Excellence (NoE)]
[[image:Epigenome NoE tag1.gif]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[bg:Хроматин]]
[[de:Chromatin]]
[[es:Cromatina]]
[[fi:Kromatiini]]
[[fr:Chromatine]]
[[he:כרומטין]]
[[hu:Kromatin]]
[[it:cromatina]]
[[ja:クロマチン]]
[[mk:Хроматин]]
[[nl:Chromatine]]
[[pl:Chromatyna]]
[[pt:Cromatina]]
[[sl:Kromatin]]
[[sr:хроматин]]
[[sv:Kromatin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Condition number</title>
<id>6934</id>
<revision>
<id>42055990</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:24:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.183.58.196</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[numerical analysis]], the '''condition |
lywood movies, since the [[Government of Pakistan]] has banned their sale, distribution and telecast). Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by countless small cable TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia. Small convenience stores run by members of the Indian diaspora in the U.S. and the U.K. regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance, while consumer copying adds to the problem. The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to the piracy problem.
Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making huge inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market. In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now fewer tend to do so. Balanced against this are the increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]], where Bollywood is slowly getting noticed. As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films. 'Foreign' audiences&#8212;in Asian and Western countries&#8212;are also growing, if more slowly.
For an interesting comparison of Hollywood and Bollywood financial figures, see this chart: [http://www.businessweek.com//magazine/content/02_48/art02_48/a48tab37.gif]. It shows tickets sold in 2002 and total revenue estimates. Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had total revenues (theater tickets, DVDs, television etc) of [[US$]]1.3 billion ([[USD]]), whereas Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets and generated total revenues (again from all formats) of US$51 billion.
== Advertising ==
[[Image:Delhicinema (92).JPG|thumb|right|250px|A cinema hall in [[Delhi]].]]
Many Indian artists used to make a living hand-painting movie billboards and posters. Human labor was cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material. Now, the majority of the huge and ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are created with computer-printed vinyl. The old hand-painted posters, once regarded as ephemera, are becoming increasingly collectible as [[folk art]].
==Controversies==
===Accusations of plagiarism===
Constrained by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some Bollywood writers and musicians have been known to resort to plagiarism. They copy ideas, plot lines, tunes or [[Riff|riffs]] from sources close at hand ([http://www.hindu.com/2001/05/22/stories/03220004.htm][[Tamil language|Tamil]] films and songs) or far away ([[Hollywood]] and other Western movies, Western pop hits).
In past times, this could be done with impunity. Copyright enforcement was lax in South Asia. As for the Western sources, the Bollywood film industry was largely unknown to Westerners, who would not even be aware that their material was being copied. Audiences also may not have been aware of the plagiarism, since many in the Indian audience were unfamiliar with Western films and tunes.
While copyright enforcement in South Asia is still hit or miss, Bollywood and Hollywood are much more aware of each other now, and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign movies and music. Blatant plagiarism ''may'' have diminished -- however, there is no general agreement that it has.
===Sex scandals===
In 2005, the [[India's Most Wanted]] show on [[India TV]] ran an [[exposé]] that accused several Bollywood figures (including [[Shakti Kapoor]] and [[Aman Verma]]) of seeking sexual favors from young actresses. This ploy would not be, of course, unique to Bollywood moguls; film industry figures worldwide have long been rumored to subject actresses to the [[casting couch]]. Those accused by the show vehemently denied these accusations, and most of the Bollywood establishment have supported them. Surprisingly, the exposé resulted in insignificant public outrage.
==Bollywood awards==
The Indian screen magazine [[Filmfare]] started the first [[Filmfare Award]]s in 1953. Modeled after the poll-based merit format of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], individuals may submit their votes in seperate categories; The awards are presented at a glamorous, star-studded ceremony. However, unlike the [[Oscars]], voting is not restricted to members of a specific club or academy, but is open to all people. Like the [[Oscars]], they are frequently accused of bias towards commercial success, rather than artistic merit.
Lately, other companies, such as Stardust Magazine, [[Zee TV]], etc have joined the movie award bandwagon. Some of the other popular awards are:
* [[Zee Cine Awards]]
* [[Star Screen Awards]]
* [[Stardust Awards]]
* [[Awards of the International Indian Film Academy|IIFA Awards]]
* [[Apsara Awards]]
Most of these award ceremonies are lavishly staged spectacles, featuring singing, dancing, and lots of stars and starlets.
Since 1973, the Indian government has sponsored the [[National Film Awards]], awarded by the government run Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF). The DFF screens not only Bollywood films, but films from all the other regional movie industries and independent/art films. These awards are handed out at an annual ceremony presided over by the [[President of India]].
==History==
{{main|History of Indian cinema}}
Cinema first came to India in 1896, when the [[Lumière Brothers]]’ [[Cinematographe]] showed six short films in the [[Watson Hotel]]. Three years later, [[Harishchandra Bhatvadekar]] shot and exhibited two short films. Following this, there were several attempts to film staged plays and imported films were shown in the first decade of the 20th century. The first indigenous silent feature film was ''[[Raja Harishchandra]]'', released in 1913 and directed by ''Dadasaheb'' [[Dadasaheb Phalke|Dhundiraj Govind Phalke]], who is considered the father of Indian cinema. The movie industry was well established by 1920, producing an average of 27 films every year.
By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per annum. The first Indian sound film, [[Ardeshir Irani]]'s ''[[Alam Ara]]'' (1931), was a super hit. There was clearly a huge market for talkies and musicals; Bollywood and all the regional film industries quickly switched to sound filming.
The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: India was buffeted by the [[Great Depression]], [[World War II]], the [[Indian independence movement]], and the violence of the [[Partition of India|Partition]]. Most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, but there were also a number of filmmakers who tackled tough social issues, or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their plots.
In the late 1950s, Bollywood films moved from black-and-white to color. Lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were the staple fare at the cinema. In the 1970s and 1980s, romantic confections made way for gritty, violent, films about gangsters and bandits. [[Amitabh Bachchan]], the star known for his "angry young man" roles, rode the crest of this trend. In the early 1990s, the pendulum swung back towards family-centric romantic musicals with the success of such films as ''[[Hum Aapke Hain Koun]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'' (1995).
The Indian film industry has preferred films that appeal to all segments of the audience (see [[Bollywood#References|below]]), and has resisted making films that target narrow audiences. It was believed that aiming for a broad spectrum would maximize box office receipts. However, filmmakers may be moving towards accepting some box-office segmentation, between films that appeal to rural Indians, and films that appeal to urban and overseas audiences.
==In recent time==
As the new millenium approached, there has been a slow but steady change in the type of films produced by Bollywood. This change is largely attributed to the twin successes of [[Lagaan]] and [[Dil Chahta Hai]]. These films were extremely original and provided a bold new vision, the likes of which audiences rarely see. Lagaan in particular recieved international recognition and became the third film from India to be nominated in the Best Foreign Language Film category while Dil Chahta Hai provided a fresh soulful look into modern India. Since then Bollywood producers have experimented with different kinds of films to varying degress of successes. The successes of Murder also allowed producers to break taboos regarding potrayal of sex in Indian cinema, a highly controversial subject in and off itself.
However, some critics allege that these so-called changes are merely cosmetic in nature and further point out that many of these so-called 'different' films are merely rip-offs from Hollywood films or films from other countries.
==List of popular movies==
Foreigners interested in sampling Indian cinema may wish to consult this [[List of popular Bollywood films]]. These are not necessarily the best films produced by Bollywood; even attempting to make a list of the 'best' would be controversial. Popularity is less open to debate. For lists of the best, consult the various web sites devoted to Bollywood, where critics list their choices or readers vote for their favorites.
== See also ==
* [[Tollywood]]
* [[Kollywood]]
* [[Cinema of India]]
* [[History of Indian cinema]]
* [[Indian film directors]]
* [[Indian film music directors]]
* [[Indian playback singers]]
* [[Indian movie actors]]
* [[Indian movie actresses]]
* [[Bollywood and the portrayal of the economy of India]]
* [[History and Influence of Music within Indian Cinema]]
== References ==
* Ganti, Tejaswini. ''Bollywood'', Routledge, New York and London, 2004.
* Kabir, Nasreen Munni. ''Bollywood'', Channel 4 Books, 2001.
* Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul. ''Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema'', Oxford University Press, revised and expanded, 1999.
* An article on ''Bollywood'', National Geographic issue: February 2005.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Indian actors}}
;General guides
* [http://www.upperstall.com/home.html Upperstall - Film history and reviews]
* [htt |
inese-tools.com/tools/chinese-spanish-dictionary.html Chinese - Spanish Dictionary] - [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/dictionary.html Chinese - English Dictionary]
#* [http://iyoway.jp/iso_comdic_top001.htm Basic Computer dictionary (English, Chinese, Japanese, Trilingual dictionary)] Downloadable GIF pages by iyoway.jp
# Downloadable Dictionaries
#* [http://www.dicts.info/uddl.php Universal dictionary download] - Hundreds of downloadable free dictionaries.
#* [http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~ralph/OPTED/index.html Online Plain Text English Dictionary] &ndash; based on the Gutenberg Webster's Abridged Dictionary
#* [http://www.gutenberg.net/cgi-bin/search/t9.cgi?author=&title=webster%27s+abridged&subject=&ntes=&whole=yes&language=&filetype=&class_lc= The Gutenberg Webster's Abridged Dictionary] &ndash; In parts. First 200 pages available without copyrights, rest available.
#* [http://wordweb.info/free/ WordWeb] Free international English dictionary for Windows (Pro version also available)
#* [http://www.ifinger.com/shop/productpresentation.asp?pID=44 iFinger: FREE Merriam-Webster Concise Dictionary] Free registration is required after clicking on <small>DOWNLOAD</small>
#* [http://www.ego4u.com/en/lingo4u-dictionary Lingo4u Dictionary] - English-German Dictionary for Windows ([[Freeware]])
The [[DICT]] protocol is a client/server model for dictionaries. Many free dictionaries are appearing in the dict format.
==List of collaborative dictionaries==
An [[open content]] dictionary project is the [[Collaborative International Dictionary of English]], using ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary]]'' (1913) and [[WordNet]] as its sources. The [[GNU]] version of it, [[GCIDE]], is being developed collaboratively under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]].
Other collaborative dictionary projects:
* Papillon Multilingual Dictionary with a Pivot Structure [http://www.papillon-dictionary.org]
* [[EDICT]] Digital Japanese-English dictionary. [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/edict.html]
* [[Everything2]] Contains, among other things, an entire ''Webster 1913'' dictionary
* [[freedict]] Bilingual dictionaries, released under the [[GPL]]
* [[PseudoDictionary]] New coinages and unusual words, mostly slang
* [http://akira.arts.kuleuven.ac.be/waran/tools_e.html Reading Tutor] - Digital multilingual dictionary: Japanese-Japanese, Japanese-English, Japanese-German, Japanese-Dutch
* [http://www.1st-dictionary.com Free Online Dictionary] Easy to use dictionary, containing over 170,000 terms and definitions, and also a large thesaurus with related words for each term
* [[Urban Dictionary]] Slang dictionary
* [[Wiktionary]] A sister project of the well-known collaborative encyclopedia [[Wikipædia]]
== See also ==
* [[Thesaurus]]
* [[Rhyming dictionary]]
* [[Pronouncing dictionary]]
* [[Monolingual learners' dictionaries]]
* [[Encyclopedic dictionary]]
* [[Corpus linguistics]]
* [[COBUILD]], a large [[corpus]] of English text
* [[Pronunciation (simple guide to markup, American)]]
* [[DICT]], the dictionary server protocol
* [[Lexicographic error]]
* [[Centre for Lexicography]]
* [[Lexigraf]]
==References==
{{Wiktionary}}
*''Manual of Specialised Lexicography'', Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.), Benjamins Publishing, 1995
*''Diction and Stylistics of the 21st century'', Darwin, Charles Schickelgruber Maxis (ed.), Jackson Publishing, 2001
*''The Bilingual LSP Dictionary'', Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994
*''Dictionaries, The Art and Craft of Lexicography'', Sidney I. Landau, Simon & Schuster, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0684180960
*''The Professor and the Madman, A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary'', Simon Winchester, HarperPerennial, New York, 1998, trade paperback, ISBN 0-06-017596-6. (published in the UK as ''The Surgeon of Crowthorne'')
[[Category:Dictionaries]]
[[Category:Technical communication tools]]
[[af:Woordeboek]]
[[be:Слоўнік]]
[[br:Geriadur]]
[[ca:Diccionari]]
[[cs:Slovník]]
[[cv:Словарь]]
[[da:Ordbog]]
[[de:Wörterbuch]]
[[el:Λεξικό]]
[[es:Diccionario]]
[[eo:Vortaro]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire]]
[[gl:Dicionario]]
[[ko:사전]]
[[hi:शब्दकोष]]
[[io:Vorto-libro]]
[[id:Kamus]]
[[he:מילון]]
[[csb:Słowôrz]]
[[la:Dictionarium]]
[[lt:Žodynas]]
[[ms:Kamus]]
[[nah:Tlahtolamoxme]]
[[nl:Woordenboek]]
[[ja:辞典]]
[[no:Ordbok]]
[[nn:Ordbok]]
[[pl:Słownik]]
[[pt:Dicionário]]
[[ru:Словарь]]
[[simple:Dictionary]]
[[sk:Slovník]]
[[sl:Slovar]]
[[fi:Sanakirja]]
[[sv:Ordbok]]
[[th:พจนานุกรม]]
[[tr:Sözlük]]
[[wa:Motî]]
[[zh:字典]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daubentoniidae</title>
<id>7932</id>
<revision>
<id>42047220</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:52:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aye-aye]] {{R from scientific name}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daffodil</title>
<id>7933</id>
<revision>
<id>42123797</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:52:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.188.117.7</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article discusses daffodil flowers. See [[Daffodil (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Daffodils
| image = Traditionaldaffodils.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Traditional daffodils
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Liliales]]
| familia = [[Amaryllidaceae]]
| genus = [[Narcissus (flower)|Narcissus]]
| species = [[Narcissus jonquilla|jonquilla]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
i think that josh lister should not have to do this science report.
many, depending on the botanist<br />
}}
'''Daffodils''' form a group of large-[[flower]]ed members of the genus ''[[Narcissus (flower)|Narcissus]]''. Most daffodils look yellow, but yellow-and-white, yellow-and-orange, white-and-orange, pink, and lime-green [[cultivar]]s also exist. Daffodils grow [[perennial plant | perennially]] from [[bulb]]s. In temperate climates they flower among the earliest blooms in [[spring (season) | spring]]: to this extent daffodils both represent and herald spring. They often grow in large clusters, covering lawns and even entire hillsides with yellow.
All daffodils have a central trumpet-shaped [[corona (disambiguation) | corona]] surrounded by a ring of [[petal]]s. The traditional daffodil has a golden yellow color all over, but the corona may often feature a contrasting color. Breeders have developed some daffodils with a double or triple row of petals, making them resemble a small golden ball. Other cultivars have frilled petals, or an elongated or compressed central corona.
{| align=left
|-
|[[image:paledaffodils.jpg|thumb|left|Pale daffodils]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 6.jpg|thumb|left|A multicolor daffodil variety]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 7.jpg|thumb|left|An all-white daffodil]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 8.jpg|thumb|left|Double and triple varieties have more petals]]
|}
All daffodils belong to the genus ''Narcissus''. Daffodil is the common English name for them all, and Narcissus is the Latin, botanical name for them all. Some people refer to daffodils as "[[jonquil]]s", from the Spanish name for the flower, although properly this name belongs only to hybrids of ''[[Narcissus jonquilla]]''.
The daffodil serves the national flower of [[Wales]]. One species, ''[[Narcissus obvallaris]]'', grows only in a small area around [[Tenby]]. In [[Wales]] it is traditional to wear a daffodil on [[Saint David's Day]] ([[1 March]]).
In the [[language of flowers]], daffodils signify [[chivalry]] and/or [[respect]].
The name of the flower is derived from an earlier "affodell", a variant of [[asphodel]]. The reason for the introduction of the initial "d" is not known, though from at least the sixteenth century "Daffadown Dilly" or "daffadowndilly" has appeared as a playful synonym of the name.
[[William Wordsworth]]'s short poem "I wandered lonely as a cloud" has often become linked in the popular mind with the daffodils which form its main image.
[[cy:Cenhinen Bedr]]
[[de:Narzissen]]
[[fa:&#1606;&#1585;&#1711;&#1587; (&#1711;&#1604;)]]
[[he:&#1504;&#1512;&#1511;&#1497;&#1505;]]
[[zh:&#27700;&#20185;]]
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Liliales]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Welsh culture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DavidFriedman</title>
<id>7934</id>
<revision>
<id>15905967</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David Friedman]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Friedman</title>
<id>7935</id>
<revision>
<id>41302301</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:31:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.173.209.148</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:American_anarchists</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{libertarianism}}
:''This is an article about the David D. Friedman, a [[U.S.]] [[writer]] and noted [[libertarian]]. For the children's entertainer David Friedman whose family was involved with allegations of child abuse, see [[Capturing the Friedmans]].'' ''For the exploitation filmmaker, see [[David F. Friedman]].''
'''David D. Friedman''' (b. [[1945]]), is a [[libertarian]] writer who became a leading figure in the [[anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalist]] community with the publication of his book ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]'' ([[1971]]). He has also |
long Platonic lines for [[public education|public schooling]] in [[Virginia]].
Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the twentieth century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as [[health]], [[wealth]] and [[well-being]]. For example, in [[Kerala]], India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In [[Iran]], increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information.
== School choice ==
[[Libertarian]] theorists such as [[Milton Friedman]] advocate [[School choice]] to eliminate any need for formal accountability. Public educational vouchers would permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds. The theory is that children's guardians will shop for the best schools.
=== Charter schools ===
[[Charter schools]] also attempt to free administrators from regulations and local political entanglements to improve their administration. The [http://www.edreform.com/_upload/charter_school_laws.pdf Center for Educational Reform] says that charter schools with "weak laws" have more problems, because more established legal requirements for public schools are applied to them.
== Alternatives to public education ==
[[Homeschooling|Home education]] is favored by some parents who directly take responsibility for their children's education, eliminating accountability by public officials. For more information, see [[Homeschooling|home education]].
[[Montessori]] Pre- and Primary school programs employ alternative methods of guided exploration, embracing children's natural curiosity rather than scolding it for falling out of rank.
== Notable reforms ==
Some of the methods and reforms have gained permanent advocates, and are widely utilized.
Many educators now believe that anything that more precisely meets the needs of the child will work better. This was initiated by M. Montessori and is still utilized in Montessori schools.
The teaching method must be teachable! This is a lesson from both Montessori and Dewey. This view now has very wide currency, and is used to select much of the curricula of teachers' colleges.
Conservative programs are often based on [[classical education]], which is seen by conservatives to reliably teach valuable skills in a developmentally appropriate order to the majority of [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|Myers-Briggs]] temperaments, by teaching facts.
Programs that test individual learning, and teach to mastery of a subject have been proven by the state of Kentucky to be far more effective than group instruction with compromise schedules, or even class-size reduction (see reference to KERA, below)
Schools with limited resources, such as most public schools and most third-world and missionary schools, use a grammar-school approach. The evidence of Lancaster schools suggests using students as teachers. If the culture supports it, perhaps the economic discipline of the Lancaster school can reduce costs even further. However, much of the success of Lancaster's "school economy" was that the children were natives of an intensely mercantile culture.
In order to be effective, classroom instruction needs to change subjects at times near a typical student's attention span, which can be as frequently as every two minutes for young children. This is an important part of [[Marva Collins]]' method.
The Myers-Briggs temperaments fall into four broad categories, each sufficiently different to justify completely different educational theories. Many developmental psychologists say that it might be socially profitable to test for and target temperaments with special curricula.
Some of the Myers-Briggs temperaments are known to despise educational material that lacks theory. Therefore, effective curricula need to raise and answer "which" and "why" questions, to teach students with "intuitive" (Myers-Briggs) modalities.
Philosophers identify independent, [[logic|logical reasoning]] as a precondition to most western science, engineering, economic and political theory. Therefore, every educational program that desires to improve students' outcomes in political, health and economic behavior should include a Socratically-taught set of classes to teach logic and critical thinking.
Substantial resources and time can be saved by permitting students to test out of classes. This also increases motivation, directs individual study, and reduces boredom and disciplinary problems.
To support inexpensive continuing adult education a community needs a free public library. It can start modestly as shelves in an attended shop or government building, with donated books. Attendants are essential to protect the books from vandalism. Adult education repays itself many times over by providing direct opportunity to adults. Free libraries are also powerful resources for schools and businesses.
New programs based on modern [[learning theory (education)|learning theories]] should be quantitatively investigated for effectiveness, as was done by KERA (see reference, below).
A notable reform of the education system of [http://www.libraryreference.org/edreform.html Massachusetts] occurred in 1997.
The current '''[[student voice]]''' effort echoes past school reform initiatives focusing on [[parent involvement]], community involvement, and other forms of participation in schools. However, it is finding a significant amount of success in schools because of the inherent differences: [[student voice]] is central to the daily schooling experience because students spend all day there. Many educators today strive for meaningful student involvement in their classrooms, while school administrators, school board members, and elected officials each lurch to hear what students have to say.
See also [[educational philosophies]] and [[Sudbury Valley School]].
== Internationally ==
=== Taiwan ===
In other parts of the world, educational reform has had a number of different meanings. In [[Taiwan]] in the 1990s and 2000s a movement tried to prioritize reasoning over mere facts, reduce the emphasis on central control and standardized testing. There was consensus on the problems. Efforts were limited because there was little consensus on the goals of educational reforms, and therefore on how to fix the problems. By 2003, the push for education reform had declined.
== See also ==
{{Alternative education}}
== Further reading ==
"Marva Collins' Way" by [[Marva Collins]]
See Laurie James, "Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools," New York, 1994.
== References ==
* Kliebard, Herbert. ''The Struggle for the American Curriculum''. New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987
* Tyack, David, and Cuban, Larry. ''Tinkering Toward Utopia: a century of public school reform''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995
== External links ==
* [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/education/index.htm Education Issues Page]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/reform.htm A Practical Look at Comprehensive School Reform for Rural Schools. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/reform.html Implementing Whole-School Reform. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/reform.htm Systemic Education Reform. ERIC Digest]
* [[KERA]] The Kentucky Education Reform Act
* [http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SumItUp/SumItUp.PDF Sum It Up] U.S. Govt. Case Studies of Non-U.S. Schools
[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Education issues]]
[[Category:Education reform]]
[[de:Bildungsreform]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ellensburg, Washington</title>
<id>9621</id>
<revision>
<id>41048139</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:45:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nv8200p</username>
<id>17790</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm no source image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ellensburg''' is a city located in [[Kittitas County, Washington]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 15,414. Ellensburg is located just east of the [[Cascade Range]] on [[Interstate 90|I-90]]. Ellensburg is the home of [[Central Washington University]] (CWU). The surrounding Kittitas Valley is internationally known for the [[Timothy-grass|timothy]] [[hay]] that it produces. There are several local hay brokering and processing operations that ship to Pacific Rim countries. The old part of the town is fairly historic, with old brick buildings from the late [[19th century]]. [[Eastern Washington]] has a much drier climate and some Seattle-area residents visit the area to spend a weekend without rain after the sometimes dreary winters on the rainy western side of the Cascade Range; many former Puget Sounds residents have moved to the city and commute over Snoqualmie Pass on I-90 to jobs located in the Puget Sound region.
Ellensburg is the [[county seat]] of [[Kittitas County, Washington|Kittitas County]]{{GR|6}}.
A college town, Ellensburg is home to [[Central Washington University]]. Ellensburg is also a stop on the PRCA professional [[rodeo]] circuit.
==History==
Ellensburg was officially incorporated on [[November 26]], [[1883]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:WAMap-doton-Ellensburg.png|right|Location of Ellensburg, Washington]]Ellensburg is located at 46&de |
lbf/ft&sup2; (2.9 kPa), but it is now fairly certain that these high values are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the anemometer.
The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connection, and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart.
A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lbf/ft&sup2; (1.5 kPa) has not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lbf/ft&sup2; (1 kPa) are extremely rare.
Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft (about 10 m) of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results.
===Tube anemometers===
[[Image:Anemometers.png|thumb|Anemometers]]
Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1) utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of registration.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.
==Notes on wind measurements==
The connection between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on engineering give the relation <math> P = 0.005 v^2</math> when ''P'' is the pressure in pounds force per square foot and ''v'' the velocity in miles per hour (equivalent to <math> P = 0.048 v^2</math> for ''P'' in [[pascal]]s and ''v'' in m/s). The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the 18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the 0.005 should be replaced by 0.003, for many independent authorities using different methods have found values very close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a square foot up to two or three square feet (3 m&sup2; to 32 m&sup2;), are round or square, and for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation <math> P = 0.003 v^2 </math> (or <math> P = 0.029 v^2 </math> for pascals and m/s) is fairly correct.
In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately 1½% should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) that it stands above sea-level.
Anemometers, such as the one shown below, at Deconism Gallery, are often used in conjunction with windmills, so that the wind speed and power generated by the turbine (windmill) can be logged together in a [[data logger]].
Other types of anemometers include:
*hot wire or hot plate sensors, which measure the cooling of a heated element immersed in the wind
*ultrasonic sensors, which measure the [[Doppler shift]] of sound waves travelling across the moving air.
==See also==
*[[Anemoscope]], ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather
*[[Windsock]] a device for measuring wind speed and direction
*[[Weather vane]] a device for indicating wind direction
{{Met_inst}}
==References==
* Dines, William Henry. Anemometer. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
==External links==
{{Commons|Anemometer}}
*[http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=anemometer Glossary Definition: Anemometer] - AMS Glossary of Meteorology
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Measuring instruments]]
[[Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment]]
[[bg:Анемометър]]
[[cs:Anemometr]]
[[da:Anemometer]]
[[de:Anemometer]]
[[es:Anemómetro]]
[[fr:Anémomètre]]
[[gl:Anemómetro]]
[[he:מד מהירות רוח]]
[[it:Anemometro]]
[[nl:Anemometer]]
[[pl:Anemometr]]
[[ru:Анемометр]]
[[sv:Anemometer]]
[[vi:Máy đo gió]]
[[uk:Анемометр]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archaeopteryx</title>
<id>2995</id>
<revision>
<id>42116867</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dinoguy2</username>
<id>140946</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revised opening, see talk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Archaeopteryx''
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Archaeopteryx-model.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A model of ''Archaeopteryx lithographica''<br/> on display at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History|Oxford University Museum]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Archaeopterygiformes]]
| familia = [[Archaeopterygidae]]
| genus = ''Archaeopteryx''
| species = '''''A. lithographica'''''
| binomial = ''Archaeopteryx lithographica''
| binomial_authority = [[Hermann von Meyer|Meyer]], 1861
}}
'''''Archaeopteryx''''' (ahr-kee-OP-ter-ix) meaning "ancient wing" ([[Greek language|Greek]] archaio = ancient + pteryx = wing), from the [[Late Jurassic]] of Germany, is the earliest and most primitive known [[bird]]. The discovery of the first intact specimen, ''Archaeopteryx lithographica'', in 1861, two years after [[Charles Darwin]] published [[The Origin of Species]], set off a firestorm of debate about [[evolution]] and the role of [[transitional fossil]]s that endures to this day.
Over the years, ten specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' have been found. "All ten fossils were found in a limestone deposit near [[Solnhofen]], Germany." [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx.html] The fine-grained limestone, which preserves detailed casts of features not often fossilized, is used by artists and printers for [[lithography|lithographic plates]], hence the name ''lithographica''.
In the 1990s, the discovery of a number of well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] solidified the link between dinosaurs and birds.
== Primitive bird ==
''Archaeopteryx'' was similar in size and shape to a [[magpie]], with short, broad [[wing]]s and a long [[tail]]. The [[feathers |
username>
<id>36023</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Decimal writers */ chrono</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''decimal''' ('''base ten''' or occasionally '''denary''') [[numeral system]] has [[10 (number)|ten]] as its [[Base (mathematics)|base]]. It is the most widely used numeral system, probably because humans commonly have a total of ten digits on their [[hand]]s.
{{numeral_systems}}
== Decimal notation ==
Decimal notation is the writing of [[number]]s in the base-ten [[numeral system]], which uses various symbols (called [[numerical digit|digits]]) for ten distinct values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) to represent numbers. These digits are often used with a [[decimal separator]] which indicates the start of a fractional part, and with one of the sign symbols + (plus) or &minus; (minus) to indicate sign.
The [[algorism|decimal system]] is a [[positional notation|positional numeral system]]; it has positions for units, tens, hundreds, ''etc.'' The position of each digit conveys the multiplier (a power of ten) to be used with that digit&mdash;each position has a value ten times that of the position to its right.
[[10 (number)|Ten]] is the number which is the count of fingers and thumbs on both hands (or toes on the feet). In many languages the word [[digit]] or its translation is also the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes. In English, decimal (decimus < [[Latin|Lat.]]) means ''tenth'', decimate means ''reduce by a tenth'', and denary (denarius < Lat.) means ''the [[unit]] of ten''.
The symbols for the digits in common use around the [[globe]] today are called [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] by Europeans and [[Indian numerals]] by Arabs, the two groups' terms both referring to the culture from which they learned the system. However, the symbols used in different areas are not identical; for instance, Western Arabic numerals (from which the European numerals are derived) differ from the forms used by other Arab cultures.
=== Alternative notations ===
Some cultures do, or used to, use other numeral systems, including the [[Tzotzil]], who use a [[vigesimal]] system (using all twenty fingers and [[toe]]s), some [[Nigeria]]ns who use several [[duodecimal]] systems, the [[Babylonia]]ns, who used [[sexagesimal]], and the [[Yuki tribe|Yuki]], who reportedly used [[octal]].
[[Computer]] hardware and software systems commonly use a [[binary system|binary repesentation]], internally. For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related [[octal]] or [[hexadecimal]] systems.
For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to the equivalent decimal values for presentation to and manipulation by humans.
Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using [[binary-coded decimal]], but there are other decimal representations in use (see [[IEEE 754r]]), especially in database implementations. Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results can be computed exactly, which is not possible using a binary fractional representation.
This is often important for financial and other calculations [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decifaq.html].
=== Decimal fractions ===
A '''decimal fraction''' is a [[vulgar fraction|fraction]] where the [[denominator]] is a [[exponentiation|power]] of ten.
Decimal fractions are commonly expressed without a denominator, the [[decimal separator]] being inserted into the numerator (with [[leading zero]]s added if needed), at the position from the right corresponding to the power of ten of the denominator. e.g., 8/10, 833/100, 83/1000, 8/10000 and 80/10000 are expressed as: 0.8, 8.33, 0.083, 0.0008 and 0.008.
Numbers which can be expressed exactly in this way are called '''decimal numbers''' or '''regular numbers'''.
The [[integer]] and [[fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]al parts of a decimal number are separated by a [[decimal separator]]. In this article, as in most of the English speaking world, a dot <!-- sigh this needs to be at 0.5 x up --> (<sup>'''.'''</sup>) or period ('''.''') is used as the separator. It is usual for a decimal number which is less than one to have a leading zero.
Trailing zeros after the decimal point are not necessary, although in science, engineering and [[statistics]] they can be retained to indicate a required precision or to show a level of confidence in the accuracy of the number: Whereas 0.080 and 0.08 are numerically equal, in engineering 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 part in two thousand (&plusmn;0.0005), while 0.08 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 in a two hundred (see ''[[Significant figures]]'').
=== Other rational numbers ===
Any [[rational number]] which cannot be expressed as a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion ending with [[recurring decimal]]s.
Ten is the product of the first and third [[prime number]]s, is one greater than the square of the second prime number, and is one less than the fifth prime number. This leads to plenty of simple decimal fractions:
:1/2 = 0.5
:1/3 = 0.333333… (with 3 recurring)
:1/4 = 0.25
:1/5 = 0.2
:1/6 = 0.166666… (with 6 recurring)
:1/8 = 0.125
:1/9 = 0.111111… (with 1 recurring)
:1/10 = 0.1
:1/11 = 0.090909… (with 09 recurring)
:1/12 = 0.083333… (with 3 recurring)
:1/81 = 0.012345679012… (with 012345679 recurring)
Other prime factors in the denominator will give longer recurring [[sequence]]s, see for instance [[7 (number)|7]], [[13 (number)|13]].
That a rational must produce a [[finite]] or recurring decimal expansion can be seen to be a consequence of the [[long division]] [[algorithm]], in that there are only (q-1) possible nonzero [[remainder]]s on division by q, so that the recurring pattern will have a period less than q-1. For instance to find 3/7 by long division:
<u> .4 2 8 5 7 1 4 ..</u>.
7 ) 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
<u> 2 8 </u> 30/7 = 4 r 2
2 0
<u> 1 4 </u> 20/7 = 2 r 6
6 0
<u> 5 6 </u> 60/7 = 8 r 4
4 0
<u> 3 5 </u> 40/7 = 5 r 5
5 0
<u> 4 9 </u> 50/7 = 7 r 1
1 0
<u> 7 </u> 10/7 = 1 r 3
3 0
<u> 2 8 </u> 30/7 = 4 r 2 (again)
2 0
etc
The converse to this observation is that every [[recurring decimal]] represents a rational number ''p''/''q''. This is a consequence of the fact the recurring part of a decimal representation is, in fact, an infinite [[geometric series]] which will sum to a rational number. For instance,
:<math>0.0123123123\cdots = \frac{123}{10000} \sum_{k=0}^\infty 0.001^k = \frac{123}{10000}\ \frac{1}{1-0.001} = \frac{123}{9990} = \frac{41}{3330}</math>
=== Real numbers ===
Every [[real number]] has a (possibly infinite) decimal representation, i.e., it can be written as
:<math> x = \mathop{\rm sign}(x) \sum_{i\in\mathbb Z} a_i\,10^i</math>
where
* sign() is the [[sign function]],
* ''a<sub>i</sub>'' &isin; { 0,1,…,9 } for all ''i'' &isin; '''Z''', are its '''decimal digits''', equal to zero for all ''i'' greater than some number (the [[common logarithm]] of |x|).
Such a sum converges, even if there is an infinite number of ''a<sub>i</sub>'' (with negative indices), which is the case for all reals which are not decimal numbers, according to what precedes.
<!-- OK enough for today .. but this is messy here 'a real which is not a decimal number' is very odd .. reals don't have a base (I hope), so can neither be decimal nor non-decimal -->
The representation is unique, if one excludes representations that end in a recurring 9.
Indeed, consider those [[rational number]]s that can be written as p/(2<sup>a</sup>5<sup>b</sup>) (i.e. the only [[prime factor]]s in denominator are 2 and 5). In this case there is a terminating decimal representation. For instance 1/1=1, &minus;1/2=&minus;0.5, 3/5=0.6, 3/25=0.12 and 1306/1250=1.0448. Such numbers are the only real numbers which don't have a unique decimal representation, as they can also be written as a representation that has a recurring 9, for instance 1=0.99999…, &minus;1/2=&minus;0.499999…, etc.
Rational numbers p/q with prime factors in the denominator other than 2 and 5 (when reduced to simplest terms) have a unique [[recurring decimal]] representation.
This leaves the [[irrational number]]s. They also have unique infinite decimal representation, and can be characterised as the numbers whose decimal representations neither terminate nor recur.
Naturally, the same [[trichotomy]] holds for other base-n [[Positional notation|positional numeral system]]s:
* Terminating representation: rational where the denominator divides some n<sup>k</sup>
* Recurring representation: other rational
* Non-terminating, non-recurring representation: irrational
and a version of this even holds for irrational-base numeration systems, such as [[golden mean base]] representation.
==History==
===Decimal writers===
* ''c.'' 3500 - 2500 BC [[Elamite Empire|Elamites]] of [[Iran]] possibly use early forms of decimal system. [http://www.chn.ir/english/eshownews.asp?no=1622] [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P183.PDF]
* ''c.'' 2900 BC [[Egypt]]ian hieroglyphs show counting in powers of 10 (1 million + 400,000 goats, ''etc.'').
* ''c.'' 2600 BC [[Indus Valley Civilization]], |
h remains a common and popular unit of measurement in the United States, the United Kingdom and in Canada, along with the mile, pound and others, despite official attempts to eradicate it. In the US and the UK, [[Human height|personal heights]] are expressed in feet and inches by people of all ages.
The international inch is defined in terms of the metric system of units to be exactly 25.4 [[millimetre|mm]]. This definition was agreed upon by the U.S. and countries of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] in [[1958]]. Prior to that, the U.S. and Canada each had their own, slightly different, definition of the inch in terms of metric units, while the UK and other Commonwealth countries defined the inch in terms of the [[Imperial Standard Yard]]. The definition adopted was the Canadian definition. A metric inch was also used in some [[Soviet computing|Soviet clones]] of Western computers. The clones were a slightly scaled-down copy, and hence Soviet parts did not match exactly with Western ones.
Even in generally metric countries, the inch is used for various purposes, such as the sizes of bicycle tyres or television and computer screens.
==The thou==
The '''thou''' or '''mil''' is a unit sometimes used in engineering equivalent to one-thousandth of an international inch, and thus defined to be 25.4 µm. Use of the thou is now generally deprecated in favour of the use of [[SI]] units. When "thou" is the measurement, its "th" is pronounced as in "thousand" &mdash; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&#952;a&#650;/}} &mdash; and not as in "that" or the pronoun "thou" &mdash; IPA {{IPA|/ða&#650;/}}.
==Notation==
The international standard symbol for inch is '''in''' (see [[ISO 31-1]], Annex A). In some areas, the unit inch is also denoted by a [[prime (mark)|double prime]] (ex. 30&#x2033; = 30&nbsp;in), often approximated by a [[quotation mark]]. Similarly, [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] can be denoted by a prime (often approximated by an [[apostrophe (mark)|apostrophe]]), and then 6&prime;2&#x2033; means 6 feet plus 2 inches. However, since the prime and double prime are the international standard symbols for [[arcminute]]s and [[arcsecond]]s, this can, in certain contexts, cause confusion.
== Sweden ==
In the [[19th century]], [[Sweden]] devised a way into the metric world. First, in 1855–1863 the existing "working inch" was changed into a "decimal inch" which was 1/10<sup>th</sup> foot or approximately 0.03 metres. Proponents argued that a decimal system simplifies calculations, but having two different inch measures turned out to be so complicated that in 1878–1889 it was agreed to introduce the metric units. However, the decimal inch survived in some building construction trades, and decimal fractions (tenths, hundredths, thousandths) of the foot are still used in [[land surveying]].
==See also==
*[[English units]]
*[[Imperial units]]
*[[U.S. customary units]]
*[[Gry]]
*[[Sacred Jewish inch]]
==External links==
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/length.html Length Converter]
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/length-ex.html?unit=inch&value=1 Inch Conversion table]
*[http://www.onlineconversion.com/length_common.htm Conversion of length: Inches and feet to centimetres and metres]
[[Category:Units of length]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[Category:Human-based units of measure]]
[[bg:Инч]]
[[ca:Polzada]]
[[da:Tomme]]
[[de:Zoll (Einheit)]]
[[et:Toll (pikkusühik)]]
[[es:Pulgada]]
[[eo:Colo]]
[[fa:اینچ]]
[[fr:Pouce (unité)]]
[[hu:H%C3%BCvelyk_%28m%C3%A9rt%C3%A9kegys%C3%A9g%29]]
[[la:uncia]]
[[ms:Inci]]
[[nl:Inch]]
[[no:Tomme]]
[[ja:インチ]]
[[pl:Cal (jednostka)]]
[[pt:Polegada]]
[[ru:Дюйм]]
[[simple:Inch]]
[[sl:Palec]]
[[sv:Tum]]
[[uk:Дюйм]]
[[zh:英寸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inn</title>
<id>14776</id>
<revision>
<id>41778272</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.217.52.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ m: add coaching inn</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the river named '''Inn''', see [[Inn River]]''.
'''Inns''' are [[establishment]]s where [[traveller]]s can procure [[food]], [[drink]], and [[lodging]]. Found in [[Europe]], they first sprang up when the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] built their famous system of [[highway]]s two [[millennia]] ago. Some inns in Europe are [[century|centuries]] old. In addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as [[community]] gathering places.
In today's [[automobile]]-ridden [[world]], real inns are fast dying out. The few that are left function primarily as [[pub]]s. In [[North America]], inns are usually [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]-serving [[restaurant]]s that have never provided lodging or serviced the needs of travellers. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now differentiates inns from [[tavern]]s, [[alehouse]]s and [[pubs]]. These later tended only to supply alcohol (although in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] the conditions of their licence sometimes required them to have a nominal supply of food and soft drinks). Inns tend to be grander and more long-lived establishments. Famous London examples include [[the George]] and [[the Tabard]]. There is however no formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment, and many pubs will use the name "inn", either simply because they are long established, or to summon up a particular kind of image.
The original functions of an inn are now usually split among separate establishments, such as [[hotel]]s, [[lodge]]s, [[motel]]s, [[pub]]s, [[restaurant]]s, and [[tavern]]s. In North America, the lodging aspect of the word "inn" lives on in hotel [[brand]] names like [[Holiday Inn]], and in some state laws that refer to lodging operators as innkeepers.
The German words for "inn", "innkeeper", and "inkeeping" illustrate the historical importance of inns. An innkeeper is '''Wirt''' (a [[host]]), the inn itself is a '''Wirtshaus''' (a host's house), and innkeeping is '''Wirtschaft'''. The last word literally means hosting or [[hospitality]], but is also used to mean [[economics|economy]] and [[business]] in general. In the [[Greek language]], the word for economy (''oikos'' "house" + ''nomos'' "law") is actually identical to [[housekeeping]].
The [[Inns of Court]] were originally ordinary inns where [[lawyer]]s met to do business, but have become institutions of the legal profession in [[London]].
==See also==
*[[Public house]]
*[[Coaching inn]]
*[[Caravanserai]]
*[[List of lodging types]]
*''[[The White Horse Inn]]''
==External links==
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-312.htm A Brief History of the British Pub]
[[Category:Drinking establishments]]
[[Category:Hotel types]]
[[de:Gaststätte]]
[[es:Posada]]
[[ja:&#23487;&#27850;&#26045;&#35373;]]
[[nl:herberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Olympiad in Informatics</title>
<id>14777</id>
<revision>
<id>37262344</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T21:41:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Algorithmus ua</username>
<id>855449</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI)''' is an annual [[Computer science|informatics]] [[international science olympiad|competition]] for secondary school students. The first IOI was held in [[1989]].
The contest consists of two days computer programming, solving problems of an [[algorithm|algorithmic]] nature. Students compete on an individual basis, with up to four students competing from each participating country (with around 81 countries in 2004). Students are selected through national computing contests. For example, in Britain, students compete in the [[British Informatics Olympiad|BIO]] for a place in the national team.
== Structure of the competition ==
On each of the two competition days, the students are typically given three problems which they have to solve in five hours. Each student works on his/her own, with only a computer and no other help allowed, specifically no communication with other contestants, books etc. Usually to solve a task the contestant has to write a computer program (in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]) and submit it before the five hour competition time ends. Later on, the program is graded by being run with secret test data, consisting of multiple (typically 10 or 20) test cases. The contestant is awarded points for each test case that his program solves correctly, and within the given time and memory limit. In some cases, the contestant's program has to interact with a secret computer library, which allows problems where the input is not fixed, but depends on the program's actions - for example in game problems. Another new type of problems has known inputs which are publicly available already during the five hours of the contest. For these, the contestants have to submit the according output file instead of a program, and it is up to them whether they obain the output files by writing a program (possibly exploiting special characteristics of the input), or by hand, or by a combination of these means.
The scores from the two competition days and all problems are summed up separately for each contestant. At the awarding ceremony, contestants are awarded medals depending on their relative total score. The top 50% of the contestants (i.e. two per country, on average) are awarded medals, such that the relative number of gold : silver : bronze : no medal is approximately 1:2:3:6 (thus 1/12 contestants get a gold medal) |
he CPSU]] article for the timeline of name changes.)
The word "Bolshevik" is sometimes used as a synonym of [[Communist]]. It was often used by right-wingers outside the Soviet Union as a derogatory term for left-wingers, not all of whom were necessarily Communists. The Bolshevik political platform has often been referred to as ''Bolshevism''.
[[Leon Trotsky]] frequently used the terms "Bolshevism" and "Bolshevist" after his exile from the [[Soviet Union]] to differentiate between what he saw as true [[Leninism]] and the regime within the state and the party which arose under [[Stalin]]. However, "Bolshevism" today is commonly associated with the ruthless regime which existed in the Soviet Union, and the millions of deaths for which it was responsible.
Anti-communists, and particularly fascists, often used the term "Jewish Bolshevism", alluding to the fact that some of the Bolshevik leaders were of Jewish ethnicity, such as [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]], [[Kamenev]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Lazar Kaganovich|Kaganovich]], [[Yakov Sverdlov|Sverdlov]], and [[Karl Radek|Radek]].
==Origins==
[[Image:Bolshevik-meeting.jpg|framed|Bolshevik Party Meeting.]]
At the [[2nd Congress of the RSDLP]], held in [[Brussels]] and [[London]] in August [[1903]], Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a small core of professional revolutionaries, leaving sympathizers outside the party, and instituting a system of centralized control known as the [[democratic centralism|democratic centralist]] model. [[Julius Martov]], until then a close friend and colleague of Lenin's, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other [[fellow traveller]]s. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as April-May 1903, but it wasn't until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party {{ref|1903}}. Although at first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts, i.e. Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''[[Iskra]]'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, the split quickly grew and became irreconcilable.
The two factions were originally known as "hard" (Lenin's supporters) and "soft" (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to "Bolsheviks" and "Mensheviks", from the Russian "bolshinstvo" (majority) and "menshenstvo" (minority), based on the fact that Lenin's supporters narrowly defeated Martov's supporters on the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.
From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term "Maximalist" for "Bolshevik" and "Minimalist" for "Menshevik", which proved confusing since there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian [[Socialist-Revolutionary Party]] in 1904-1906 and then again after 1917.
The two factions of the RSDLP attempted to reunify in [[1907]], and maintained the fiction that they were one party for several more years. The factions permanently broke off relations after the Bolsheviks failed in an attempt to take over the RSDLP in [[1912]]. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party though they retained the name RSDLP (Bolshevik).
[[Image:BolshevikCentralCommittee.jpg|framed|The [[Central Committee of the CPSU|Central Committee]].]]
The Bolsheviks believed in organizing the party in a strongly centralized hierarchy that sought to overthrow the [[Tsar]] and achieve power. Although the Bolsheviks were not completely monolithic, they were characterized by a rigid adherence to the leadership of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|central committee]], based on the notion of [[democratic centralism]]. The Mensheviks favored open party membership and espoused cooperation with the other socialist and some non-socialist groups in Russia. Bolsheviks generally refused to co-operate with [[Liberalism|liberal]] or radical parties (which they labeled "[[bourgeois]]") or even eventually other [[socialist]] organizations, although Lenin sometimes made tactical alliances.
[[Leon Trotsky]] was initially a Menshevik in [[1903]] but soon became an independent and was not a member of either faction until 1917. In that year he lined up behind Lenin and became a Bolshevik after the [[February Revolution]], as he came to believe that events were confirming Lenin's analysis.
[[Image:1919-Trotsky Lenin Kamenev-Party-Congress.gif|framed|Left to right: [[Trotsky]], [[Lenin]], and [[Kamenev]] at the 1919 [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]].]]
The Bolsheviks played a minor role in the [[Russian Revolution of 1905|1905 revolution]], and were a minority in the [[St. Petersburg Soviet|St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies]] led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow [[soviet (council)|soviet]], however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for the [[soviet (council)|soviets]] that were formed in [[1917]].
During the [[World War I|First World War]], the Bolsheviks took an [[internationalist]] stance that emphasized [[solidarity]] between the workers of Russia, [[Germany]], and the rest of the world, and broke with the [[Second International (politics)|Second International]] when its leading parties ended up supporting their own nations in the conflict.
==February Revolution==
Before the revolution of February, 1917, main Bolsheviks (Zinoviev, Trotsky, Lenin) lived and worked in Western Europe, receiving financial support from the European social democrats.
The [[February Revolution|February 1917 revolution]] came about when [[Tsar Nicholas II]] attempted to dissolve the [[Duma]] only to have the body reject the action and declare a provisional government. The Tsar abdicated leaving the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] in control.
While the Mensheviks and other moderate socialists believed that an industrially backwards country such as Russia could not hope to achieve socialism and that the task of the revolution was therefore to complete the country's transformation to liberal capitalism, the Bolsheviks believed that Russia could be the spark that would lead Europe to a socialist transformation of society and did not attempt to moderate their program.
In the winter of 1917, German authorities had helped Bolshevik leaders to move to Russia in sealed trains and offered large financial support, on the premise that strengthening the revolutionary movement would cripple Russia and sabotage the war effort.
The Petrograd Bolshevik Party had been under the control of [[Stalin]] who supported co-operation with the provisional government. Lenin opposed this line in his April Theses and the Bolsheviks became opponents of the government with [[propaganda]] slogans of "All Power to Soviets" and "Bread, Peace and Land" which attempted to appeal to the urban working class, soldiers, and to Russia's huge, primarily uneducated peasant population. The 'Land' part of the slogan appealed primarily to uneducated peasants and hte poor working class, as distribution of land is a clear violation of one of the key tenets of [[Marxism]] and [[Communism]] in general; anyone with a strong education or literary background would know this. Some radical Mensheviks, such as Trotsky, joined the Bolsheviks at this point. Stalin then changed his position and decided to support Lenin's line.
==July Days==
In early July widespread discontent in Petrograd led to militant demonstrations calling for the overthrow of the Provisional Government. The Bolshevik leadership opposed this as premature but ended up leading the demonstrations, hoping to prevent any bloodshed. They felt compelled to do this to win the trust of the workers and also in recognition of the fact that many of the Bolshevik rank and file were already organising and supporting the demonstrations. Troops loyal to the Provisional Government suppressed the demonstrations violently. The following crackdown resulted in the Kerensky government ordering the arrest of the Bolshevik leadership on [[July 19th]]. Lenin escaped capture, went into hiding, and wrote ''State and Revolution'', which outlined his ideas for a socialist government.
The repression against the Bolsheviks ceased when the Kerensky government was threatened by a [[Kornilov Affair|rebellion]] led by [[Lavr Georgevich Kornilov|General Kornilov]] and offered arms to those who would defend Petrograd against Kornilov. The Bolsheviks enlisted a 25,000 strong [[militia]] to defend Petrograd from attack and reached out to Kornilov's troops, urging them not to attack. They stood down and the rebellion fizzled with Kornilov being taken into custody. However, the Bolsheviks did not return their arms and Kerensky succeeded only in strengthening the Bolshevik position.
During this period a situation of [[dual power]] developed. While the legislature and provisional government were controlled by Kerensky in coalition with the Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionary Party, the workers' and soldiers' soviets were increasingly under the control of the Bolsheviks.ú
==October Revolution==
On [[October 10]], the Bolshevik Central Committee established a smaller Politburo to run party affairs due to the increased demands on the party for day-to-day direction. [[Andrey Bubnov|Bubnov]], [[Zinoviev]], [[Kamenev]], Lenin, [[Sokolnikov]], [[Stalin]] and [[Trotsky]] were elected to the body which operated for two weeks and diss |
ological communities with an internationally accepted set of values of the fundamental [[physical constant]]s and closely related [[conversion factor]]s for use worldwide. The first such CODATA set was published in 1973, the second in 1986, the third in 1998, and the fourth in 2002.
The CODATA recommended values of fundamental physical constants are published at the NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.
==See also==
*[[SI]]
==References==
*{{cite journal | author= Peter J. Mohr and Barry N. Taylor | title=CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002 | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=January 2005 | volume=77 | pages=1&ndash;107}} An in-depth discussion of how the CODATA constants were selected and determined.
== External links ==
* [http://www.codata.org/ CODATA]
* [http://www.icsu.org/5_abouticsu/STRUCT.html ICSU (International Council for Science)]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html CODATA Internationally recommended values of the Fundamental Physical Constants]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu The NIST References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Simple table ] of the 2002 values
[[Category:International standards]]
[[category:Metrology]]
[[hu:CODATA]]
[[ja:科学技術データ委員会]]
[[pl:CODATA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck Jones</title>
<id>7672</id>
<revision>
<id>41448473</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:09:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notable Animated Films directed by Chuck Jones */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Martin "Chuck" Jones''' ([[September 21]], [[1912]]&ndash;[[February 22]], [[2002]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[animator]], [[cartoon artist]], [[screenwriter]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[film director|director]] of [[animation|animated]] films, most memorably of ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' shorts for the [[Warner Brothers]] [[Termite Terrace|cartoon studio]]. He directed many of the classic short [[animated cartoon]]s starring [[Bugs Bunny]], [[Daffy Duck]], the [[Road Runner]] & [[Wile E. Coyote]], [[Pepé Le Pew]] and the other Warners characters, including the memorable ''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' ([[1957]]) and ''[[Duck Amuck]]'' ([[1952]]) (both later inducted into the [[National Film Registry]]), establishing himself as an important innovator and storyteller.
==Biography==
===Early life===
Jones was born in [[Spokane, Washington]], and later moved with his parents and three siblings to the [[Los Angeles, California]] area. In his autobiography, ''Chuck Amuck'', Jones credits his artistic bent to circumstances surrounding his father, who was an unsuccessful businessman in California in the [[1920s]]. His father, Jones recounts, would start every new business venture by purchasing new stationery and new pencils with the company name on them. When the business failed, his father would turn the useless stationery and pencils over to his children. Armed with an endless supply of high-quality paper and pencils, the children drew constantly. Jones and several of his siblings went on to artistic careers. After graduating from [[Chouinard Art Institute]], Jones held a number of low-ranking jobs in the animation industry, including washing cels at the [[Ub Iwerks]] studio and assistant animating at the [[Walter Lantz]] studio. While at Iwerks, he met a cel painter named Dorothy Webster, who would later become his wife.
===Warner Bros.===
Jones joined [[Leon Schlesinger | Leon Schlesinger Productions]], the independent studio that produced ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' for [[Warner Bros.]], in [[1933]] as an assistant animator. During the late 1930s, he worked under directors [[Tex Avery]] and [[Bob Clampett]], becoming a director (or "supervisor", the original title for an animation director in the studio) himself in [[1938]] when [[Frank Tashlin]] left the studio. Jones' first cartoon was ''[[The Night Watchman]]'', which featured a cute kitten who would later evolve into [[Sniffles]] the mouse.
Many of Jones' cartoons of the [[1930s]] and early [[1940s]] were lavishly animated, but audiences and fellow [[Termite Terrace]] staff members found them lacking in genuine humor. Often slow-moving and overbearing with "cuteness", Jones' early cartoons were an attempt to follow in the footsteps of [[Walt Disney]]'s shorts (especially with such cartoons as ''[[Tom Thumb in Trouble]]'' and the [[Sniffles]] cartoons). Jones finally broke away from both his traditional cuteness, and traditional animation conventions as well, with the cartoon ''[[The Dover Boys]]'' in [[1942]]. Jones credits this cartoon as the film where he "learned how to be funny." ''The Dover Boys'' is also one of the first uses of [[limited animation|Stylized animation]] in American film, breaking away from the more realistic animation styles influenced by the [[Walt Disney Studio|Disney Studio]]. This was also the period where Jones created many of his lesser-known characters, including [[Charlie Dog]], [[Hubie and Bertie]], and [[The Three Bears (Looney Tunes)|The Three Bears]]. Despite their relative obscurity today, the shorts starring these characters represent some of Jones' earliest work that was strictly intended to be ''funny''.
During the [[World War II]] years, Jones worked closely with [[Theodore Geisel]] (a.k.a. [[Dr. Seuss]]) to create the ''[[Private Snafu]]'' series of Army educational cartoons. Private Snafu comically educated soldiers on topics like spies and laziness in a more risque way than general audiences would have been used to at the time. Jones would later collaborate with Seuss on a number of adaptations of Seuss' books to animated form, most importantly ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' in [[1966]].
[[Image:Whats Opera Doc still.png|thumb|A still from ''What's Opera, Doc?''.]]
Jones hit his stride in the late 1940s, and continued to make his best-regarded works through the 1950s. Jones-created characters from this period includes [[Claude Cat]], [[Marc Antony and Pussyfoot]], [[Charlie Dog]], [[Michigan J. Frog]] and his three most popular creations, [[Pepe LePew]], the [[Road Runner]] and [[Wile E. Coyote]]. The Road Runner cartoons, in addition to the cartoons that are considered his masterpieces (all written and conceived by [[Michael Maltese]]), ''[[Duck Amuck]]'', ''[[One Froggy Evening]]'', and ''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' are today hailed by critics as some of the best cartoons ever made.
The staff of the Jones unit was as important to the success of these cartoons as Jones himself. Key members included writer [[Michael Maltese]], layout artist/background designer/co-director [[Maurice Noble]], animator and co-director [[Abe Levitow]], and animator [[Ken Harris]].
Jones remained at Warners throughout the [[1950s]], except for a brief period in [[1953]] when Warners closed the animation studio. During this interim, Jones found employment at the [[Walt Disney studio]], where he did four months of uncredited work on ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'' ([[1959]]).
In the early [[1960s]], Jones and his wife Dorothy wrote the [[screenplay]] for the animated feature ''[[Gay Purr-ee]]''. the finished film would feature the voices of [[Judy Garland]], [[Robert Goulet]] and [[Red Buttons]] as [[cat]]s in [[Paris, France]]. The feature was produced by [[UPA]], and Jones moonlit to work on the film, since he had an exclusive contract with Warner Bros. [[UPA]] completed the film and made it available for distribution in [[1962]]; it was picked up by [[Warner Bros]], who found out Jones had violated his contract and fired him from the company.
===Jones on his own===
With business partner [[Les Goldman]], Jones started an independent animation studio, Sib Tower 12 Productions, bringing on most of his unit from Warner Bros, including [[Maurice Noble]] and [[Michael Maltese]]. In [[1963]], [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] contracted with Sib Tower 12 to have Jones and his staff produce new ''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM) | Tom and Jerry]]'' cartoons. His animated short film ''[[The Dot and the Line|The Dot and the Line: A Romance in Higher Mathematics]]'' won the [[1965]] [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for Best Animated Short.
As the ''Tom and Jerry'' series wound down (it would be discontinued in [[1967]]), Jones moved on to television. In [[1966]], produced and directed the TV special ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'', featuring the voice (and facial features) of [[Boris Karloff]]. In [[1967]], Sib Tower 12 was absorbed by MGM and was renamed MGM Animation Visual Arts. Jones continued to work on TV specials such as ''[[Horton Hears A Who!]]'' ([[1970]]), but his main focus during this time was the feature film ''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]]'', which did lukewarm business when [[MGM]] released it in [[1970]].
In the [[1970s]], Jones left MGM started a new production company, Chuck Jones Productions. His most notable work during this period was three animated TV adaptations of short stories from [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s [[The Jungle Book]]: ''[[Mowgli]]'s Brothers'', ''The White Seal'' and ''[[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]]''.
===Later years===
Like many modern cartoon legends, Chuck Jones never retired: he was an active artist and cartoonist up until his last weeks. Through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] (and until 2002) Jones was painting cartoon and parody art, sold through animation galleries by his daughter's company, Linda Jones Enterprises. He was also creating new cartoons for the [[Internet]] based on his new character, "Thomas Timberwolf". Jones also directed the animated sequence seen at the start of the [[1993]] [[film]] ''[[Mrs. Doubtfire]]''. Jones was not a fan of much |
<comment>/* Comic book awards */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Usculture}}
A '''comic book''' is a [[magazine]] or [[book]] containing [[sequential art]] in the form of a [[narrative]]. Comic books are often called '''[[comics]]''' for short. Although the term implies otherwise, the subject matter in comic books is not necessarily humorous, and in fact its dramatic seriousness varies widely. The term "comics" in this context does not refer to [[comic strip]]s (such as ''[[Peanuts]]'' or ''[[Dilbert]]''). <!--"the single term ''comicbook'' has been used to differentiate certain forms in the genre" -- confusing; HOW does it differentiate? example?--> In the last quarter of the 20th century, greater acceptance of the comics form among the general reading populace coincided with a greater usage of the term [[graphic novel]], often meant to differentiate a book of comics with a spine from its stapled, pamphlet form, but the difference between the terms seems fuzzy at best as comics become more widespread in libraries, mainstream bookstores, and other places.
The earliest comic books were simply collections of comic strips that had originally been printed in [[newspaper]]s. The commercial success of these collections led to work being created specifically for the comic-book form, which fostered specific conventions such as [[Comics vocabulary|splash page]]s. Long-form comic books, generally with hardcover or trade-paper binding came to be known as [[graphic novel]]s, but as noted above, the term's definition is especially fluid. Like [[jazz]] and a handful of other cultural artifacts, comic books are a rare indigenous American art form, [http://www.comicon.com/cgi-bin/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=get_topic;f=36;t=004133] [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/comicbook.htm] though prototypical examples of the form exist.
[[American comic book]]s have become closely associated with the [[superhero]] [[sub-genre]]. In the U.K., the term '''comic book''' is used to refer to American comic books by their readers and collectors, while the general populace would mainly consider a comic book a hardcover book collecting comics stories. The analogous term in the United Kingdom is a '''[[British comic|comic]]''', short for '''comic paper''' or '''comic magazine'''.
==The comic book in the United States of America==
{{main|American comic book}}
Since the invention of the [[comic book]] format in the 1930s, the [[United States]] has been the leading producer, with only the [[British comic]] (during the inter-war period through the 1970s) and Japanese [[manga]] as close competitors in terms of quantity of titles (although, Japan outweighs America currently in overall sales by a vast margin). The majority of all comic books in the U.S. are marketed at younger teenagers, though the market also produces work for general as well as more mature audiences.
The history of the comic book in the United States is split into several ''ages'' or [[List of time periods|historical eras]]: The Platinum Age, [[Golden Age of comic books|The Golden Age]], [[Silver age of comic books|The Silver Age]], The Bronze Age, and [[Modern Age of Comic Books|The Modern Age]]. The exact boundaries of these eras, the terms for which originated in [[fandom]] [[publishing|press]], is a debatable point among comic book historians. The Golden Age is generally thought as lasting from 1938's introduction of [[Superman]] until the early 1950s, during which comic books enjoyed a surge of popularity, the archetype of the superhero was invented and defined, and many of comic books' most popular superheroes debuted. The Platinum Age refers to any material produced prior to this. While [[comics]] as an artform could arguably extend as far back as sequential cave paintings from thousands of years ago, comic ''books'' are dependent on printing, and the starting point for them in book form is generally considered to be the tabloid-sized ''The Funnies'' begun in 1929, or the more traditional sized ''Funnies on Parade'' from 1933. Both of these were simply reprints of newspaper strips.
The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the dormant superhero form — the debut of the Barry Allen [[Flash (comics)|Flash]] in ''[[Showcase (comics)|Showcase]]'' #4 (Sept.-Oct. 1956) — and last through the early 1970s, during which time [[Marvel Comics]] revolutionized the medium with such [[naturalistic]] superheroes as the [[Fantastic Four]] and [[Spider-Man]]. The beginings of the Bronze and Modern ages are far more disputable. Indeed, some suggest that we are still in the Bronze Age. Starting points that have been suggested for the Bronze Age of comics are [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] #1 (Oct. 1970), [[Green Lantern]]/[[Green Arrow]] #76 (Apr. 1970) or [[Amazing Spider-Man]] #96 (May 1971) (the non-[[Comics Code]] issue). The start of the Modern Age (occasionally referred to as the Copper Age) has even more potential starting points, but is most likely the publication of [[Alan Moore]]'s [[Watchmen]] in 1986.
Comics published after [[World War II]] in 1945 are sometimes referred to being from the Atomic Age (referring to the dropping of the [[atomic bomb]]), and books published after Nov. 1961 are sometimes referred to as being from the Marvel Age (referring to the advent of [[Marvel Comics]]). However, these eras are referred to far less frequently than the traditional metallic eras.
Notable events in the history of the American comic book include the psychiatrist [[Frederic Wertham]]'s criticisms of the medium in his book ''[[Seduction of the Innocent]]'', which saw the [[Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency]] investigate comic books. In response to this attention from government and the media, the U.S. comic book industry created the [[Comics Code Authority]] in 1954 and drafted the [[Comics Code]], a move which saw the particularly targeted [[Entertaining Comics|EC]] change its satirical comic book ''[[Mad Magazine|Mad]]'' from comic book to [[magazine]] format in order to circumvent the Code.
===Underground comics===
{{main|Underground comics}}
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of [[underground comics]] occurred. These comics were published and distributed independently of the established mainstream, and most reflected the youth [[counterculture]] and [[drug culture]] of the time. Many were notable for their uninhibited, irreverent style; their frankness in graphic sex, nudity, language and overt politics hadn't been seen in comics outside of their precursors, the pornographic and even more underground "[[Tijuana bibles]]". Underground comics were virtually never sold on newsstands but in such youth-oriented outlets as [[head shops]] and record stores, and by [[mail order]].
The underground-comics movement is often considered to have started with ''[[Zap Comix]]'' #1 (1968) by [[cartoonist]] [[Robert Crumb]], a former Cleveland greeting-card artist living in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Crumb later created the popular characters [[Fritz the Cat]] and [[Mr. Natural]], and published [[Gilbert Shelton]]'s ''[[Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers|The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]]''.
===Independent and alternative comics===
{{main|Alternative comics}}
The rise of comic-book specialty stores in the late 1970s created a dedicated market for "independent" or "[[alternative comics]]"; two of the first were the anthology series ''[[Star Reach]]'', published by comic-book writer [[Mike Friedrich]] from 1974-1979, and [[Harvey Pekar]]'s ''[[American Splendor]]'', published from the 1970s through the present day. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics, though were generally less overtly graphic, and others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned ventures or by a single artists. A few (notably ''[[RAW (magazine)|RAW]]'') were experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the world of [[fine art]].
The "small press" scene continued to grow and diversify. By the 1980s, several such independent publishers as [[Eclipse Comics]], [[First Comics]], and [[Fantagraphics]] were releasing a wide range of styles and formats from color [[superhero]], [[detective]] and [[science fiction]] comic books to black-and-white [[magazine]]-format stories of [[Latin American]] [[magical realism]].
A number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "[[minicomic]]s" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press.
===Decline of serial comic-book format===
In the early 2000s, sales of standard monthly comic books declined while [[graphic novels]] made increasing headway at retail bookstores. Along with the shift toward graphic novels among comics publishers, traditional book publishers such as Pantheon have released several dozen graphic novels, including works originally released by comics publishers with much less publicity.
==The comics of Europe==
===Franco-Belgian comics===
{{main|Franco-Belgian comics}}
Belgium and France are two countries that have a long tradition in comics and comic books, where they are called '''''BD'''s'' (from ''Bande Dessinée'') in [[French language|French]]. Belgian comic books originally written in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] are influenced by the francophone "Franco-Belgian" comics, but have a different feel.
''La bande dessinée'' is derived from the original description of the artform as "drawn strips". It is not insignificant that the French term contains no indication of subject matter, unlike the American terms "co |
pin your opponent for less than 25 seconds you get points depending on how long, with the minimum being 10 seconds. This also flows from the theory that you will be striking a pinned opponent, and after 10 seconds will have possibly weakened him somewhat with strikes, at least enough to merit giving some points.
However, if the person you are holding down has wrapped his legs around any part of your lower body or your trunk, he is pinning you as much as you are pinning him since you cannot get up and flee unless he lets go. What if, for example, his friends who are nearby happen to drop in to 'pay you a little visit'? You won't be able to get away. Also, to make things even worse for you, there are various attacking techniques he can launch against you from this position, which is called '[[Dojime]]' (body squeeze) in Japanese and '[[Guard (grappling)|The Guard]]' in English. Clearly you do not have control of him in this position even though you are 'on top', so it is not considered a pin. It is your job to break through his 'guard' and pin or submit him, and it is his job to submit you from where he is, to roll you over and get on top of you or to simply break out and get back up to his feet and fight from there if that is what he wants to do.
'''Joint Locks'''
Elbow locks are considered safe-enough to do at nearly full-force to induce a submission. In times past, Judo allowed many other joints to be attacked too such as the knees, spine and others. Over the years it was discovered that attacking those other joints would not only result in many injuries to the athletes, but also would gradually wear the joints down over time. Even so, some Judoka still enjoy learning and fighting each other informally using these banned techniques. Joint locks are effective combat techniques since they enable you to control your opponent through pain-compliance. Also, some joints, such the elbows, can be broken, maiming your adversary so he cannot any longer attack you effectively or put up a defence. For these reasons Judo considers joint locks to be important techniques.
'''Chokes/Strangulations'''
Chokes/strangulations are Judo's deadliest techniques. They enable the one applying the choke to force the adversary into unconsciousness and even death. In competition the judoka wins the round if the opponent gives in to submission and/or fail to get out of the hold for 25 seconds.
'''Fighting'''
Judo emphasizes fighting ([[randori]]) as its main form of training. Half the combat time is spent fighting on the ground, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'' and the other half standing up, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|tachi-waza]]''. Actual fighting, albeit within safety rules, is considered to be much more effective than only practicing techniques, since fighting full-strength develops the muscles and [[cardio-vascular]] system on the physical side of things, and it develops strategy and reaction time on the mental side of things.
'''Judo's Balanced Approach to Fighting'''
Judo's balance between both the standing and ground phases of combat gives judoka the ability to take down opponents who are standing up and then pin and submit them on the ground. This balanced theory of combat has made Judo a popular choice for many.
== Uniform ==
[[Image:Judo orange belt.JPG|thumb|200px|The [[judogi]] is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling]]
'''Judoka''' (Judo practitioners) wear white cotton uniforms called '''[[Judogi]]''' (which means Judo uniform in Japanese) for practicing Judo. Sometimes the word is seen shortened simply to "gi" (uniform). This judogi was created at the [[Kodokan]] and similar uniforms were later adopted by many other martial arts. The judogi consists of white cotton drawstring pants and a white quilted cotton jacket fastened by a colored belt indicative of kyu or dan rank. The jacket is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling, and is as a result much thicker than that of a karategi. Before competition, a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators. In Japan, the traditional red sash (based on the flag's colors) is affixed to one judoka's belt, however in Europe and North America, a colored sash is typically used for convienence in local competitions, while a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka at the regional, national, or Olympic levels where the visibility, particularly to television cameras is more important than tradition or convienence. It should be noted that Japanese practitioners and purists tend to look down on the use of blue judogis.
==Techniques==
[[Image:Judo_-_Ippon_Seoinage.gif|thumb|One of the first throws learned in judo - the Ippon Seoi Nage]]
While Judo includes a variety of rolls, falls, throws, pins, [[chokehold|chokes]], [[joint-lock]]s, and methods of percussion, the primary focus is on throwing (''nage-waza'', 投げ技), and groundwork (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'',寝技). Nage-waza is divided in two groups of techniques, standing techniques (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'', 立技) and sacrifice techniques (''sutemi-waza'', 捨身技). Standing techniques are divided in hand techniques (''te-waza'', 手技), hip techniques (''koshi-waza'', 腰技) and foot/leg techniques (''ashi-waza'', 足技). Sacrifice techniques are divided into those in which the thrower falls directly backwards (''ma-sutemi-waza'', 真捨身技) and those in which he falls onto his side (''yoko-sutemi-waza'', 橫捨身技).
The groundwork techniques are divided into: attacks against the joints or [[joint lock]]s (''kansetsu-waza'', 関節技), strangleholds or [[chokehold]]s (''shime-waza'', 絞技), and holding or pinning techniques (''osaekomi-waza'', 押込技).
A kind of sparring is practiced in judo, known as ''[[randori]]'' (乱取り), meaning "free practice". In randori, players (known as ''judoka'') may attack each other with any judo throw or grappling technique. Striking techniques (called ''atemi-waza'') such as kicking and punching, along with knife and sword techniques are retained in the ''kata''s taught to higher ranking judoka (for instance, in the [[kime-no-kata]]), but are forbidden in contest (and usually prohibited in randori), for reasons of safety. Also for reasons of safety, chokeholds, jointlocking - and the sacrifice (sutemi) techniques, which can be very spectacular, are often subject to age and/or rank restrictions; in the United States, one must be 13 or older to use chokeholds, and 17 or older, or hold the rank of Shodan (first grade black belt) or higher to use [[armlock]]s.
In ''randori'' and ''shiai'' (tournament) practice, when an opponent successfully executes a chokehold or joint lock, one "taps out" by tapping the mat or one's opponent at least twice in a manner that clearly indicates the submission. When this occurs, the match is over, and the tapping player has lost, but the chokehold or joint lock ceases. Because this allows a merciful exit to the match, injuries related to these holds are quite rare.
==Gradings==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+Typical European judo belt colours
|-
| width="100" align="center"|White || width="200" style="background:white;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Yellow || style="background:yellow;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Orange || style="background:orange;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Green || style="background:green;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Blue || style="background:blue;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Brown || style="background:brown;" | &nbsp;
|-
|align="center"|Black || style="background:black;" | &nbsp;
|}
Judoka are ranked according to skill and knowledge of judo, that grade being reflected in the colour of his belt: There are two divisions of grades, the student grades (''kyu'', 級), and the master grades (''dan'', 段). In some countries, the nine colours run from grey through white, light blue, blue, yellow, orange, green, purple, and brown. In the UK and most of Europe the belt grading colours run like this: White, Yellow, Orange, Green, Blue, Brown and then Black. Some European countries additionally use a red belt to signify a complete beginner. In Japan, all adult kyu grades wear either white or brown belts. All ''dan'' grades may wear the ''[[Black belt (martial arts)|black belt]]''; sixth- through eighth- ''dan''s may alternately wear a red-and-white belt, while those ranked ninth- ''dan'' and above may wear a solid red belt. Historically, a woman's belt had a white stripe at its centre in some countries, while in most of them this custom has been discontinued. Jigoro Kano was the inventor of the ''kyu'' - ''dan'' grading system, that soon got adapted by other martial arts such as [[karate]].
In competition one judoka wears a blue suit while the other wears white. In some competitions the older system whereby one competitor wears a white sash and the other a blue sash remains in place. In both cases this does not indicate their rank, but is to enable the judges and spectators to tell the opponents apart during a fight. Points are also awarded to white or blue. Corner judges on the corners of the mat also have a white and blue flag to indicate to which competitor a point should go when it is unclear whom it should be awarded to.
In most Western countries, Judokas have to pass an exam which is normally assesed by the Sensei (Teacher) within the '''Dojo'''. Judokas also have to compete in a grading competition against people of a similar grade. Once both parts have been completed it is possible for a Judoka to be promoted. The ''dan'' (black belt) ranks are awarded after doing an exam supervised by independent judges of the national judo association. However, some ha |
oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has been virtually unchanged for hundreds of years.
The shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a [[cylinder]], although [[timpani]] for example use [[bowl]]-shaped shells. Other shapes include truncated cones ([[bongo drums]]) and joined truncated cones ([[talking drum]]).
Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as in the [[timbales]]) or, more commonly in the Western tradition, they can have another drum head. Sometimes they have a solid shell with no holes in at all though this is rare. It is usual for a drum to have some sort of hole in to let air move through the drum when it is struck. This gives a louder and longer ring to the notes of the drum, so drums with two heads covering both ends of a tubular shell often have a small hole halfway between the 2 drumheads. The membrane is struck, either with the hand or with a [[drumstick]], and the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. The [[sound of a drum]] depends on several variables including shell shape, size, thickness of shell, materials of the shell, type of drumhead, tension of the drumhead, position of the drum, location, and how it is struck.
In lots of [[popular music]] and [[jazz]], ''drums'' usually refers to a [[drum kit]] or set of drums, and ''[[drummer]]'' to the band member or person who plays them. Drums are also played by percussionists whose skills can be called for in all areas of music from Classical to Heavy Rock & all areas in between.
In the past, drums were used as a means of [[communication]] and not just for their musical qualities. - see [[drum (communication)]].
==See also==
* [[double drumming]]
* [[drum and bass]]
* [[drum kit]]
* [[drum machine]]
* [[musical instrument]]
* [[Percussive Arts Society]]
* [[hearing the shape of a drum]]
* [[drum beat]]
* [[drum replacement]]
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Drum.ogg|2005-04-13}}
* [http://www.drumtechniques.com Dum Lesson Videos] - Downloadable instructional drum video
lessons.
* [http://www.drum-forum.com Drum Forum]
* [http://www.drummeressentials.com DrummerEssentials.com]- Free 45+ Page Drum eBook
* [http://www.drumming.com Drumming.com]- Over 2000 free drum lessons, tips, tabs, and links.
* [http://www.drumsdatabase.com Drums Database]: A large database with numerous drum lessons and drumtabs.
* [http://www.drumtopia.com/ Drumtopia Drum News] has drumming news, drum tab search and a directory of drum resources.
* [http://www.drummerworld.com/ Drummer World]: A large collection of online drum clinics as well as drum videos.
[[Category:Drums|*]]
[[da:Tromme]]
[[de:Trommel]]
[[eo:Tamburo]]
[[es:Tambor]]
[[fi:Rumpu]]
[[fr:Tambour (musique)]]
[[he:תוף]]
[[is:Trommur]]
[[it:Tamburo]]
[[ja:太鼓]]
[[nl:Trommel]]
[[nn:Tromme]]
[[no:Tromme]]
[[pl:Bęben]]
[[pt:Tambor]]
[[sl:Boben]]
[[sv:Trumma]]
[[zh:鼓]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delphi</title>
<id>7951</id>
<revision>
<id>42068175</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ollj</username>
<id>733710</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Oracle */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Delphi amphitheater from above dsc06297.jpg|250px|thumb|The theatre, seen from above]]
'''Delphi''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] Δελφοί — ''Delphoi''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) is an archaeological site and a modern town in [[Greece]]. In ancient times it was the site of the [[Delphic Sibyl]], dedicated to the god [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]. Delphi was revered throughout the Greek world as the site of the ''ομφαλός ([[omphalos]])'' stone, the centre of the universe. In the inner ''εστία ([[hestia]])'', or hearth, of the Temple of [[Apollo|Delphic Apollo]] (''Απόλλων Δελφίνιος — Apollon Delphinios''), an άσβεστος φλόγα ([[eternal flame]]) burned. After the [[battle of Plataea]], the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi (Burkert, 1985, pp. 61, 84).
==Location==
Delphi is located in a plateau on the side of [[Parnassus|Mt. Parnassus]]. This semicircular spur is known as [[Phaedriades]]; it overlooks the [[Pleistos Valley]]. Southwest of Delphi, about 15 km away, is the harbor-city of [[Kirrha]] on the [[Corinthian Gulf]].
==[[Apollo]]==
[[Image:Temple of Apollo at Delphi from below with ivy.JPG|250px|right|thumb|The Temple of Apollo, seen from below]]
[[Image:Ancient athletics stadium at Delphi.JPG|250px|thumb|View of the stadium of the Delphi sanctuary, used for the [[Pythian Games]]. The stone steps on the right were added under the Romans.]]
The name ''Delphoi'' is connected with δελφός ''delphus'' "womb" and may indicate archaic veneration of an [[Earth Goddess]] at the site. Apollo is connected with the site by his [[epithet]] Δελφίνιος ''Delphinios'', "the Delphinian", i.e. either "the one of Delphi", or "the one of the womb". The epithet is connected with [[dolphins]] (the "womb-fish") in the [[Homeric hymns|Homeric ''Hymn to Apollo'']] Εις Απόλλωνα Πύθιον, 400), telling how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying [[Crete|Cretan]] priests on his back.
Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at [[Tempe]], a city in [[Thessaly]] to pick laurel, a plant sacred to him. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the [[Pythian Games]] received a laurel wreath picked in Tempe.
Delphi was the site of a major temple to [[Phoebus Apollo]], as well as the [[Pythian Games]] and a famous [[oracle]]. Even in Roman times hundreds of votive statues remained, described by [[Pliny the Younger]] and seen by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]].
When young, [[Apollo]] killed the chthonic [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape [[Leto]] while she was pregnant with Apollo and [[Artemis]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. The shrine dedicated to Apollo was probably originally dedicated to Gaia and then [[Poseidon]].
[[Erwin Rohde]] wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the Omphalos, and that it is a case of one god setting up his temple on the grave of another. {{rf|1|Rohde1}}
The oracle at that time predicted the future based on the lapping water and leaves rustling in the trees.
[[Image:Delphi charioteer front DSC06255.JPG|right|150px|thumb|The Pythian Games comprised a [[chariot]] race, thus this magnificent statue, the ''[[Charioteer of Delphi]]''.]]
==Oracle==
{{Main|Delphic Sibyl}}
The biggest religious phenomenon during this era, which made the biggest impact on traditions, was undoubtedly the oracle at the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi on the southern slopes of Mount Parnassos in Central Greece. In the last quarter of the [[8th Century BC]] we see a steady increase of artifacts found at the settlement site in Delphi. Pottery and bronze work and tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in comparison to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for worshippers of a wide range, but the strong representation of high value goods are found in no other mainland sanctuary, certainly encourages that view.
The first [[oracle]] at Delphi was commonly known as [[Delphic Sibyl|Sibyl]] or Pythia, though her name was [[Herophile]]. She sang her predictions, which she received from Gaia. Later, "[[Sibyl]]" became a title given to whichever priestess manned the oracle at the time. The Sibyl sat on the [[Sibylline Rock]], breathing in vapors from the ground {{rf|2|note2}} and gaining her often puzzling predictions from that. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] claimed that the Sibyl was "born between man and goddess, daughter of sea monsters and an immortal nymph". Others said she was sister or daughter to Apollo. Still others claimed the Sibyl received her powers from Gaia originally, who passed the oracle to [[Themis]], who passed it to [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]].
This oracle exerted considerable influence across the country, and was consulted before all major undertakings: wars, the founding of colonies, and so forth. She also was respected by the semi-Hellenic countries around the Greek world, such as [[Lydia]], [[Caria]], and even [[Egypt]]. [[Croesus]] of Lydia consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to [[Herodotus]] received the answer "if you do, you will destroy a great empire." Croesus found the response favorable and attacked, and was utterly overthrown (resulting, of course, in the destruction of his own empire).
The oracle is also said to have proclaimed [[Socrates]] the wisest man in Greece, to which Socrates said that if so, this was because he alone was aware of his own ignorance. This claim is related to one of the most famous mottos of Delphi, which Socrates said he learned there, ''[[Know thyself|Gnothi Seauton]]'' (Γνώθι Σεαυτόν): "know thyself". Another famous motto of Delphi is ''Meden Agan'' (Μηδέν Άγαν): "nothing in excess".
In the [[3rd century]] A.D., the oracle (perhaps bribed) declared that the god would no longer speak there.
The temple to Apollo at Delphi was built by [[Trophonius]] and [[Agamedes]].
[[Ima |
khout. She described the fungus in her doctoral thesis, at the University of Utrecht in 1923. Over the years the classification of the genera and species has evolved. Obsolete names for this genus include ''Mycotorula'' and ''Torulopsis''. The species has also been known in the past as ''Monial albicans'' and Oidium albicans. The current classification is nomen conservandum, which means the name is authorized for use by the [http://www.bgbm.org/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm International Botanical Congress (IBC)].
The full current classification is available at ''[[Candida albicans]]''.
The genius ''Candida'' includes about 150 different species. However only about, six are considered as causing human infections. ''Candida albicans'' is the most significant species. Other species responsable for human disease include ''Candida tropicalis'', ''Candida glabrata'', ''Candida krusei'', ''Candida parapsilosis'', and ''Candida lusitaniae''.
==Pseudoscience==
Alternative medicine proponents also frequently diagnose people with "systemic candidiasis" using methods not deemed valid by [[medicine]]. This belief originated from a book published by Dr. William Crook which hypothesized that a variety of common symptoms such as fatigue, [[PMS]], [[sexual dysfunction]], [[asthma]], [[psoriasis]], digestive and urinary problems, [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[Myalgia|muscle pain]], were caused by subclinical infections by ''Candida albicans''; see [http://www.candida-yeast.com/information.asp]. This is then treated with a variety of remedies ranging from dietary modification to colonic irrigation. These are felt by the medical estabishment to be pseudoscience, as they have not met the rigors of scientific analysis; see also [http://www.drweil.com/u/QA/QA125503/], [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/candida.html]. However, [[nutritionist|nutritionists]] have also proposed that these symptoms may be due to intestinal wall damage, known as [[leaky gut syndrome]], due to candida overgrowth or other effects.
== External links ==
* [http://safe-baby.net/articles/oral_thrush.php Article on Oral Thrush in Newborns]
* [http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/9339/31092.html#treat InteliHealth page on candidiasis] Presented by InteliHealth reviewed by [[Harvard Medical School]]
* [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/stdvag.htm National Institute of Allergies and Infections fact sheet on vaginitis/vaginal infections]
* [http://www.msu.edu/user/eisthen/yeast/ The yeast infection homepage]
* [http://www.nutritionhelp.com/ Nutritionhelp]
* [http://www.TheVzone.net/ The Vzone, an informational site on female intimate health-written by women, for women.]
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/yeastinfection.html Links to pictures of Yeast Infection (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)]
[[Category:Parasitic diseases]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]
[[bg:Кандидоза]]
[[de:Kandidose]]
[[es:Candidiasis]]
[[fr:Candidose]]
[[nl:Candidose]]
[[pl:Drożdżyca]]
[[pt:Candidíase]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Control theory</title>
<id>7039</id>
<revision>
<id>41713909</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:12:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.74.65.170</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Controllability and observability */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the sociological theory of deviant behavior, see [[control theory (sociology)]].}}
{{dablink|For the application to living systems, see [[perceptual control theory]].}}
In [[engineering]] and [[mathematics]], '''control theory''' deals with the behavior of [[dynamical system]]s over time. The desired output of a system is called the ''reference variable''. When one or more output variables of a system need to show a certain behaviour over time, a [[Controller (control theory)|controller]] manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the desired effect on the output of the system.
== An example ==
As an example, consider [[cruise control]]. In this case, the system is a car. The goal of cruise control is to keep the car at a constant speed. Here, the output variable of the system is the speed of the car. The primary means to control the speed of the car is the air-fuel mixture being fed into the engine.
A simple way to implement cruise control is to lock the position of the throttle the moment the driver engages cruise control. There is an add-on device available for [[motorcycle]]s that uses a thumb switch to lock the twist-grip throttle in place. This is fine if the vehicle is driving on perfectly flat terrain. On hilly terrain, the vehicle will slow down when going uphill and accelerate when going downhill; something its driver may find highly undesirable.
This type of controller is called an [[open-loop controller]] because there is no direct connection between the output of the system and its input. One of the main disadvantages of this type of controller is the lack of sensitivity to the dynamics of the system under control.
The actual way that cruise control is implemented involves [[Feedback controller|feedback control]], whereby the speed is monitored and the amount of throttle is increased if the car is driving slower than the intended speed and decreased if the car is driving faster. This feedback makes the car less sensitive to disturbances to the system, such as changes in slope of the ground or wind speed. This type of controller is called a [[closed-loop]] controller.
== History ==
Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the [[centrifugal governor]], conducted by the famous physicist [[James_Clerk_Maxwell|J.C. Maxwell]] in [[1868]] entitled "On Governors." This described and analyzed the phenomenon of "hunting" in which lags in the system can lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior. This caused a flurry of interest in the topic, which was followed up by Maxwell's classmate, [[Edward_John_Routh|E.J. Routh]], who generalized the results of Maxwell for the general class of linear systems. This result is called the [[Routh-Hurwitz_theorem|Routh-Hurwitz Criterion]].
A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight. The [[Wright Brothers]] made their first successful test flights in [[December 17]], [[1903]] and by [[1904]] [[Wright Flyer III|Flyer III]] and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods (more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known). Control of the airplane was necessary for its safe, economical, and economically successful use.
By [[World War II]], control theory was an important part of [[fire-control system|fire control]], [[guidance]], and [[cybernetics]]. The [[Space Race]] to the [[Moon]] depended on accurate control of the spacecraft. But [[control theory]] is not only useful in technological applications, and is meeting an increasing use in field such [[economics]] and [[sociology]].
== Classical control theory ==
To avoid the problems of the open-loop controller, control theory introduces [[feedback]]. The output of the system <math>y(t)</math> is fed back to the reference value <math>r(t)</math>, through the measurement performed by a sensor. The controller ''C'' then takes the difference between the reference and the output, the error ''e'', to change the inputs ''u'' to the system under control ''P''. This is shown in the figure. This kind of controller is a [[closed-loop]] controller or [[feedback controller]].
This is a so-called single-input-single-output (''SISO'') control system: example where one or more variables can contain more than a value (''MIMO'', i.e. Multi-Input-Multi-Output - for example when outputs to be controlled are two or more) are frequent. In such cases variables are represented through [[coordinate vector|vector]]s instead of simple [[scalar]] values. For some [[distributed parameter systems]] the vectors may be [[infinite-dimensional]] (typically functions).
<center>[[Image:simple_feedback_control_loop.png]]<br>
''A simple feedback control loop''</center>
If we assume the controller ''C'' and the plant ''P'' are [[linear]] and time-invariant (i.e.: elements of their [[Transfer Function|transfer function]] <math>C(s)</math> and <math>P(s)</math> do not depend on time), we can analyze the system above by using the [[Laplace transform]] on the variables. This gives us the following relations:
: <math>Y(s) = P(s) U(s)\,\!</math>
: <math>U(s) = C(s) E(s)\,\!</math>
: <math>E(s) = R(s) - Y(s)\,\!</math>
[[Control theory#Appendix A|Solving for ''Y''(''s'')]] in terms of ''R''(''s''), we obtain:
: <math>Y(s) = \left( \frac{P(s)C(s)}{1 + P(s)C(s)} \right) R(s)</math>
The term <math>\frac{P(s)C(s)}{1 + P(s)C(s)}</math> is referred to as the [[transfer function]] of the system. If we can ensure <math>P(s)C(s) >> 1</math>, i.e. it has very great [[norm]] with each value of <math>s</math>, then <math>Y(s)</math> is approximately equal to <math>R(s)</math>. This means we control the output by simply setting the reference.
== Stability ==
'''Stability''' (in control theory) often means that for any bounded input over any amount of time, the output will also be bounded.
This is known as [[BIBO stability]] (see also [[Lyapunov stability]]).
If a system is BIBO stable then the output cannot "blow up" if the input remains finite.
Mathematically, this means that for a linear continuous-time system to be stable all of the [[Pole (complex analysis)|poles]] of its [[transfer function]] must
* lie in the closed left half of the [[complex plane]] if the [[Laplace |
w sailing frigates were able to fight with all their guns when the seas were so rough that comparable two-deckers had to close the gun-ports on their lower decks. Like the larger 74 which was developed at the same time, the new frigates sailed very well and were good fighting vessels due to a combination of long hulls and low upperworks compared to vessels of comparable size and firepower.
The [[Royal Navy]] captured a handful of the new [[France|French]] frigates during the early stages of the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756&#8211;1763) and were duly impressed by them, particularly for their inshore handling capabilities. They soon built copies and started to adapt the type to their own needs, setting the standard for other frigates as a superpower.
Early frigates were armed with 9-pounder (4 kg) guns, development soon led to 12- and 18-pounder (5 and 8 kg) armed frigates, and at the turn of the century the biggest ones even carried 24 pounder (11 kg) main batteries.
Royal Navy frigates of the late 18th century were based on the 1780-vintage ''Perseverance'' class, which displaced around 900 tons and carried 36 guns; this successful class was followed by the ''Tribune'' class batch of fifteen ships starting in 1801 that displaced over 1,000 tons and carried 38 guns.
===The Age of Sail===
[[Image:Dumont-d'Urville.web.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Astrolabe_frigate|L'Astrolabe]]'', of [[Jules Dumont d'Urville|Dumont d'Urville]]]]
[[Image:20000_Abraham_Lincoln.jpg|right|thumb|The fictitious ironclad frigate ''USS Abraham Lincoln'', based on late 19th Century vessels, from the novel ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'']]
A frigate was a medium-sized sailing warship with one gun deck, plus guns on the spar deck. It was faster than the larger [[ship of the line]] and larger than a [[sloop-of-war]]. British sailing frigates during the period 1640-1860 were rated [[fourth-rate]], [[fifth-rate]] and [[sixth-rate]] according to the [[rating system of the Royal Navy]].
Frigates were perhaps the hardest-worked of warship types during the [[age of sail]]. They scouted for the fleet, went on commerce-raiding missions and patrols, conveyed messages and dignitaries, and filled in places in the [[line of battle]] if there was a shortage of [[battleship]]s (from the term "line of battle" ship, but more commonly referred to as "[[ships of the line]]" or referred to by the number of guns they carried (for example, "74s"). Usually frigates would fight in small numbers or singly against other frigates. Unlike larger ships that were placed in ordinary, frigates were kept in service in peacetime both as a cost-saving measure and to provide quality experience to frigate captains and officers which would be useful in wartime. Frigates may also carry marines or naval infantry for land-based and ship-boarding operations.
In the 17th century, frigates were masterpieces of engineering and design; the British added more sails and weapons, the Dutch made frigates with a shallow draft and the French added bow and stern weapons and [[Baroque]] designs. Frigate armament ranged from 22 guns on one deck to up to even 70+ guns on two decks. Common armament was 32 to 44 long guns, from 8 to 24 pounders (3.6 to 11 kg), plus a few [[carronade]]s (large bore short range guns), which weren't counted in the rating of the ship. In the early steam age (1840-60) steam frigates were the fastest ships around, finally evolving into the cruisers of the 20th century.
The oldest commissioned warship in the US Navy is [[USS Constitution| USS ''Constitution'']], better known as "Old Ironsides", a frigate launched [[21 October]] [[1797]]. It is the oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world; [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], although older, is maintained in drydock. The US Navy's 44-gun frigates (or "super-frigates"), which usually actually carried 56-60 guns, were very powerful and tough. These ships were so well-respected that they were often seen as equal to 4th-rate ships of the line, and RN fighting instructions ordered British frigates (usually 32-guns or less) to never engage American frigates at any less than a 2:1 advantage.
In the late [[1800s]], the term &quot;frigate&quot; fell out of naval fashion; ships that had been designated frigates were redesignated &quot;cruising-ships&quot; and from there to [[cruiser]]s. The term &quot;frigate&quot; would lie mostly unused until after the Second World War, when it would be reappropriated to describe ships that during that war had been called [[destroyer escort|destoryer escorts]].
===Modern frigates===
{| align=right
|[[Image:Uss vandergif.jpg|thumb|USS ''Vandegrift'', an [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class]] frigate]]
|-
|[[Image:HMAS Anzac F-150.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Australian Navy]] frigate, [[HMAS Anzac (FFH 150)|HMAS ''Anzac'']]]]
|-
|[[Image:HMCS Regina.jpg|thumb|[[HMCS Regina (FFH 334)|HMCS ''Regina'']], a [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class]] frigate]]
|-
|[[Image:FS_Surcouf.jpg|thumb|[[La Fayette class frigate|''La Fayette''-class]] stealth frigate [[FS Surcouf|''Surcouf'']]]]
|-
|[[Image:Fregatte Mecklenburg-Vorpommern F218.jpg||thumb|[[Brandenburg class frigate|''Brandenburg''-class]] frigate ''Mecklenburg-Vorpommern'']]
|-
|<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:15aa.jpg|thumb|[[Indian Navy|INS]] [[INS Trishul (F43)|''Trishul'']], a [[Talwar Class Frigates|''Talwar''-class frigate]]]] -->
|-
|}
Modern frigates are only related to earlier frigates by name. The term "frigate" passed out of use in the mid-19th Century and was readopted during [[World War II]] by the British to describe an anti-submarine escort vessel larger than a [[corvette]] but smaller than a [[destroyer]]. Such vessels possessed somewhat less firepower than a [[destroyer]], had a smaller fuel capacity and a lower top speed due to inferior propulsion systems. To cross even the Atlantic ocean, such a vessel needs to be refueled en route. These limitations were not much hardship for a WWII anti-submarine vessel but would seriously hinder a battle fleet in which destroyers were replaced by such frigates.
In the 1960s and 1970s, "guided missile frigates" have brought an anti-air warfare (AAW) capability to the frigate mission, but they have some limitations. Designed as cost-efficient surface combatants, they lack the multi-mission capability necessary for modern surface combatants faced with multiple, high-technology threats and offer limited capacity for growth. Until 1975 in the US Navy, these vessels were called &quot;[[Ocean escort|Ocean Escort]]s&quot; and designated &quot;DE&quot; or &quot;DEG&quot; (a holdover from the Second World War, when they were called &quot;[[Destroyer escort|Destroyer Escort]]s&quot;). Other navies called them "frigates" from the end of World War II on.
[[Image:Frigate Class Ships.jpg|left|Modern Frigates]]
From the 1950s to the 1970s, guided missile "frigates" were commissioned in the United States Navy, which were actually AAW [[cruisers]] built on [[destroyer]]-style hulls; some of them (the American ''Bainbridge''-, ''Truxtun''-, ''California''- and ''Virginia''-classes) were nuclear powered. These were far larger than any other frigates ever seen (though the use of these "frigates" in comparison to the larger "cruisers" was analogous to the relationship between age of sail frigates and [[ships of the line]]), and all were properly reclassified as "guided missile cruisers" in 1975 (except for the smaller [[Farragut class destroyer (1958)|''Farragut''-class]] class ships, which were reclassified as [[guided missile destroyer]]s) and struck from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] in the [[1990s]]. With the improvement of the anti-air and anti-missile missiles (like the [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]]), such frigates are increasingly used as a fleet defense platform.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, some frigates are specialised in [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW). They bear improved [[sonar]] equipment, [[torpedo]]es, and even missile-carried anti-submarine torpedoes like [[ASROC]]. They retain minimal anti-surface capabilites with anti-ship missiles (like the [[Exocet]]), but carry weapons against air threats only for self-defense.
Especially for ASW, most modern frigates have [[Helipad|landing decks]] aft and [[hangar]]s to carry [[helicopter]]s: Without the need of closing distance to detected unknown subsurface contacts and thus risking to be attacked a frigate utilizes its helicopters equipped with sensors such as [[sonobuoy]]s, wire-mounted dipping sonar and [[magnetic anomaly detector]]s to identify possible threats and combat confirmed targets with [[torpedo]]es or [[depth-charge]]s carried by the helicopter. With their onboard radar helicopters can also be used to reconnoiter for targets over the horizon and if equipped with [[anti-ship missile]]s such as [[Penguin missile|''Penguin'']] for anti-surface warfare as well. They are invaluable for [[search and rescue]] operation and largely replaced the use of [[dinghy|dinghies]] or the manouvre of bringing ships alongside for duties such as ferrying personell, mail and cargo between ships or ship-to-shore. With helicopters theses tasks can be accomplished faster and less dangerously and also allows the frigate to keep course.
Modern times have seen the arrival of [[Stealth technology|stealth]] frigates fitted with anti-missile capabilities. Their shapes, designed to offer a minimal radar signature, also give them a good air penetration; the manoeuverability of these frigates has been compared to those of sailing ships. A good example is the French [[La Fayette class frigate|''La Fayette''-class]] with the [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]] missile.
Some new classes of frigates are optimized for high-speed deploym |
aleks, were also created based on the designs for the new series. These were unexpectedly popular and were sold out in many stores in the UK. A remote controlled Dalek based on the white-and-gold Imperial Dalek design was also released.
===Computer games===
[[Image:Dalek_quake.png|thumb|200px|Daleks featured in a ''Quake'' conversion by Conrad Feinson.]]
The Daleks have featured in computer games since the 1980s, beginning with an unlicensed modification of the ''[[Robots (computer game)|Robots]]'' game called ''[[Daleks (video game)|Daleks]]''. However, the game uses Daleks only as generic monsters, with no Dalek-specific features. Licensed ''Doctor Who'' games featuring Daleks include 1984's ''The Key to Time'', a text adventure game for the [[ZX Spectrum]]. Daleks also appeared in minor roles or as thinly disguised versions in other, minor games throughout the 80s, but did not feature as central adversaries in a licensed game until 1992, when Admiral Software published ''[[Dalek Attack]]''. The game allowed the player to play various Doctors or [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companions]], running them through several environments to defeat the Daleks. In 1997 the BBC released a [[Personal computer|PC]] game entitled ''[[Destiny of the Doctors]]'' which also featured the Daleks, among other adversaries, who also seemed to be able to follow the player character up the stairs. In 1998 the BBC released a ''Doctor Who'' [[screensaver]] done in [[Macromedia Shockwave]] which had a built-in minigame, where the player controlled [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] battling the Daleks through seven increasingly difficult levels.
At present, there are a few unauthorised Dalek games that can be played online, such as the [[Java programming language|Java applet]] game ''Daleks!'' a [[Macromedia Flash]] game, ''[http://www.pixel-pie.com/ Daleks — Dissolution Earth]'', a [[DHTML]]/[[JavaScript]] arcade game ''[http://www.def-logic.com/dalek/dalek.html Dalek]'', and a [[Mod (computer gaming)|modification]] for ''[[Half-Life]]'', ''[http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/unbidden Dalek Unbidden]''. In 1998 ''QWho'', a modification for ''Quake'', featured the Daleks as adversaries. This also formed the basis of ''[http://www.otranto.demon.co.uk/timequake/ TimeQuake]'', a [[total conversion]] written in 2000 which included other ''Doctor Who'' monsters such as [[Sontaran]]s.
One of the robots in the game ''[[Paradroid]]'' looks like a Dalek and its background info mentions that its appearance frightens humans. Another unauthorised game is ''[http://www.dalektron.org DalekTron]'', a Windows-only game based on [[Robotron: 2084]] and written in the [[Smalltalk]] programming language to coincide with the 2005 series.
Conversely, an authorised online game is ''The Last Dalek'', a Flash game created by New Media Collective for the BBC. It is based on the 2005 episode and can be played at the official BBC ''Doctor Who'' [http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/games/lastdalek/index.htm website].
==Major appearances==
===Television===
*''[[The Daleks]]'': [[December 21]], [[1963]]&ndash;[[February 1]], [[1964]]
*''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'': [[November 21]]&ndash;[[December 26]], [[1964]]
*''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'': [[May 22]]&ndash;[[June 26]], [[1965]]
*''[[Mission to the Unknown]]'': [[October 9]], [[1965]]
*''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'': [[November 13]], [[1965]]&ndash;[[January 29]], [[1966]]
*''[[The Power of the Daleks]]'': [[November 5]]&ndash;[[December 10]], 1966
*''[[The Evil of the Daleks]]'': [[May 20]]&ndash;[[July 1]], [[1967]]
*''[[Day of the Daleks]]'': [[January 1]]&ndash;[[January 22]],[[1972]]
*''[[Frontier in Space]]'': [[February 24]]&ndash;[[March 31]], [[1973]]
*''[[Planet of the Daleks]]'': [[April 7]]&ndash;[[May 10]], [[1973]]
*''[[Death to the Daleks]]'': [[February 23]]&ndash;[[March 16]], [[1974]]
*''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'': [[March 8]]&ndash;[[April 12]], [[1975]]
*''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'': [[September 1]]&ndash;[[September 22]], [[1979]]
*''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'': [[February 8]]&ndash;[[February 15]], [[1984]]
*''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'': [[March 23]]&ndash;[[March 30]], [[1985]]
*''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'': [[October 5]]&ndash;[[October 26]], [[1988]]
*''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'': [[April 30]], [[2005]]
*''[[Bad Wolf]]'': [[June 11]], [[2005]]
*''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'': [[June 18]], [[2005]]
====Comic Relief special====
*''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'': [[March 12]], [[1999]] (''[[Comic Relief]]'' charity special)
===Stage plays===
* ''[[The Curse of the Daleks]]'': [[Wyndham's Theatre]], [[London]] (premiere [[December 21]] [[1965]])
* ''[[Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday]]'': [[Adelphi Theatre]], London (premiere [[December 16]] [[1974]])
* ''[[Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure]]'': [[Wimbledon Theatre]], London (premiere [[March 23]] [[1989]])
===Original novels===
*''War of the Daleks'' by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]] (''[[Eighth Doctor Adventures]]'')
*''Legacy of the Daleks'' by John Peel (''Eighth Doctor Adventures'')
*''The Dalek Factor'' by [[Simon Clark]] (''[[Telos Doctor Who novellas]]'')
*''I am a Dalek'' by [[Gareth Roberts]] (''[[Tenth Doctor Adventures]]'', to be published [[11 May]] [[2006]])
===Audio plays===
====Doctor Who====
*''[[The Genocide Machine]]''
*''[[The Apocalypse Element]]''
*''[[The Mutant Phase]]''
*''[[The Time of the Daleks]]''
*''[[Jubilee (Doctor Who audio)|Jubilee]]''
*''[[The Juggernauts]]''
*''[[Terror Firma]]''
====[[Bernice Summerfield|Professor Bernice Summerfield]]====
*''Death and the Daleks''
====Dalek Empire====
*''Invasion of the Daleks''
*''The Human Factor''
*''Death to the Daleks!''
*''Project Infinity''
====Dalek Empire II: Dalek War====
*''Chapter One''
*''Chapter Two''
*''Chapter Three''
*''Chapter Four''
====Dalek Empire III====
*''The Exterminators''
*''The Healers''
*''The Survivors''
*''The Demons''
*''The Warriors''
*''The Future''
==See also==
*[[Dalek Empire]]
*[[Dalek variants]]
*[[Abslom Daak]], Dalek Killer
*[[wikiquote:Doctor_Who#Daleks|Dalek-related Quotes at Wikiquote]]
==References==
*Howe, David J & Walker, Stephen James (2003). ''The Television Companion: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to DOCTOR WHO'' (2nd ed.) Surrey, UK: Telos Publishing, ISBN 1-903389051-0.
*[[Peter Haining|Haining, Peter]], (1988) "Doctor Who and the Merchandisers", ''Doctor Who: 25 Glorious Years'' London, UK: W.H. Allen, ISBN 0-31837661-X.
*Davies, Kevin (director) (1993). ''More than 30 Years in the TARDIS'' London, UK: BBC Video.
*Howe, David J & Walker, Stephen James (1994). ''The First Doctor Handbook'' London, UK: Virgin Publishing, ISBN 0-426-2-430-1.
*Finklestone, Peter (producer) (2003). "Talking Daleks" featurette, ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' London, UK: BBC Video.
*Seaborne, Gilliane (director) (2005). "Dalek", ''[[Doctor Who Confidential]]'' BBC Wales.
*Nation, Terry (ed.) (1979). ''Terry Nation's Dalek Special'', Target Books
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|2005-10-21|en-Dalek-part 1.ogg|en-Dalek-part 2.ogg|en-Dalek-part 3.ogg}}
*[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/1647 Science fiction citations]: Oxford English Dictionary citation of "dalek"
*[http://www.daleklinks.co.uk/ Dalek Links]: the Web's most comprehensive listing of Dalek Web sites
*[http://www.projectdalek.co.uk/ Project Dalek]: build your own Dalek
*[http://www.dalekcity.co.uk Dalek City]: Dalek Building guides
*[http://www.dalekplanet.com Dalek Planet]: 3D models of every major variation of Dalek including comprehensive painting guide.
*[http://www.dalek6388.co.uk/ Dalek 6388]: about the various Dalek props built for the series
*[http://homepages.bw.edu/~jcurtis/Z1R0_2.htm Doctor Who Collectibles: An Annotated Bibliography]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/games/lastdalek/index.htm The Last Dalek]: Flash game by New Media Collective, on the BBC website
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/halloffame/arts/bill_roberts.shtml How the Daleks were built]: BBC Wales interview with engineer Bill Roberts
====Dalek humour====
*[http://artistic-insanity.net/song/daleksong.html The Dalek Song]: a parody based on "[[The Llama Song]]" by Burton Earny
*[http://www.regdeveloper.co.uk/2005/12/01/dalek_thespian/ Candid Dalek shares thesp titbits]: off-camera conversation between a Dalek and [[Billie Piper]], by [[Verity Stob]]
*[http://www.thesurrealist.co.uk/dalek The Surrealist Dalek]: A Surrealist Dalek Phrase Generator, By [[The Surrealist]]
{{Dalek Stories}}
[[Category:Daleks]]
[[Category:Fictional cyborgs]]
[[Category:Fictional mutants]]
[[Category:Villain races]]
{{featured article}}
[[de:Daleks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Davy Jones</title>
<id>9141</id>
<revision>
<id>39037721</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:22:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Barrettmagic</username>
<id>270786</id>
</contributor>
<comment>updated image reference.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the actor and singer. For the evil spirit of the sea, see [[Davy Jones' Locker]]. For the American baseball player, see [[Davy Jones (baseball)]]. Additionally, there is also actor/singer named David Robert Jones who uses the stage name [[David Bowie]].
[[Image:Dj3.jpg|frame|right|Davy Jones, 1967]]
'''Davy Jones''', an actor and singer, was born David Thomas Jones on [[December 30]], [[1945]] in [[Manchester]], [[England]]. His father had hopes for him as a jockey, but Jones was more interested in being in show business, and as a teenager he appeared on British soap operas, including ''[[Coronation Street]]''. He appeared to great acclaim in the musical ''[[Oliver!]]'' as [[The Artful Dodger|the Artful Dodger]], playing the role both in [[London]] and on [[B |
list
* [[Iva Majoli]] (Croatia) - 1997 '''French Open champion'''; 1996 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1997 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Katerina Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1990 and 1991 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1990 French Open quarter-finalist; 1990 and 1992 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1988 and 1993 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Magdalena Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1992 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Manuela Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1992 and 1993 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Sanda Mamic]] (Croatia)
* '''[[Hana Mandlíková]]''' (Czechoslovakia/Australia)
* [[Petra Mandula]] (Hungary) - 2001 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Mélanie Marois]] (Canada)
* [[Marta Marrero]] (Spain) - 2000 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Conchita Martinez]] (Spain) - 1994 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1998 Australian Open finalist; 1995 and 1996 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2000 French Open finalist;
* [[Helga Masthoff]] (Germany)
* '''[[Amélie Mauresmo]]''' (France) - 2006 '''Australian Open champion''', 1999 finalist; 2003 and 2004 French Open quarter-finalist; 2002, 2004 and 2005 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2005 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 2003 finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 5 weeks
* [[Kelly McCain]] (USA)
* [[Lisa Mcshea]] (Australia)
* [[Anabel Medina Garrigues]] (Spain)
* [[Silke Meier]] (Germany)
* [[Kerry Melville]] (Australia)
* [[Sania Mirza]] ([[India]])
* [[Nana Miyagi]] (Japan)
* [[Alicia Molik]] (Australia) - 2005 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Dominique Monami]] (Belgium) - 1997 and 1999 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* '''[[Helen Wills Moody]]''' (USA)
* [[Corina Morariu]] (USA)
* [[Akiko Morigami]] (Japan)
* [[Olga Morozova]] (Russia) - 1974 French Open finalist; 1974 Wimbledon finalist
* [[Angela Mortimer]] (Britain)
* [[Anastasia Myskina]] (Russia) - 2004 '''French Open champion'''; 2003 and 2004 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[ Jenna Langhorst]] (USA) On a path to winning multiple Grand Slam titles
==N-O==
* [[Betsy Nagelsen]] (USA)
* [[Henrieta Nagyová]] (Slovakia)
* [[Aiko Nakamura]] (Japan)
* '''[[Martina Navrátilová]]''' (Czechoslovakia/USA) - winner of 18 singles major tournaments; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 331 weeks
* [[Jana Novotná]] (Czechoslovakia [Czech]) - 1998 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1991 Australian Open finalist; 1990 and 1996 French Open semi-finalist; 1994 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Saori Obata]] (Japan)
* [[Tzipora Obziler]] (Israel)
* [[Zuzana Ondrášková]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Miriam Oremans]] (Netherlands)
* [[Lilia Osterloh]] (USA)
==P==
* [[Tatiana Panova]] (Russia)
* [[Arantxa Parra Santonja]] (Spain)
* [[Michaela Paštiková]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Barbara Paulus]] (Austria)
* [[Shahar Peer]] (Israel)
* [[Marie-Eve Pelletier]] (Canada)
* [[Shuai Peng]] (China)
* [[Flavia Pennetta]] (Italy)
* [[Tatiana Perebiynis]] (Ukraine)
* [[Shenay Perry]] (USA)
* [[Kveta Peschke]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Nadia Petrova]] (Russia) - 2003 and 2005 French Open semi-finalist; 2004 and 2005 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Eva Pfaff]] (Germany) - 1982 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* '''[[Mary Pierce]]''' (France) - 1995 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2000 '''French Open champion''', 2005 finalist; 2005 U.S. Open finalist; 1996 and 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1997 and 2005 WTA Tour Championships finalist
* [[Camille Pin]] (France)
* [[Tina Pisnik]] (Slovenia)
* [[Claudia Porwick]] (Germany)
* [[Barbara Potter]] (USA) - 1981 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1982, 1983 and 1985 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1984 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Nicole Pratt]] (Australia)
==R==
* [[Dally Randriantefy]] (Madagascar)
* [[Lisa Raymond]] (USA) - 2000 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2004 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Virginie Razzano]] (France)
* '''[[Nancy Richey|Nancy Richey-Gunter]]''' (USA) - 1967 '''Australian Championships champion'''; 1968 '''French Open champion'''
* [[Kathy Rinaldi]] (USA) - 1985 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1981 and 1986 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Capucine Rousseau]] (France)
* [[Virginia Ruano Pascual]] (Spain) - 1995 French Open quarter-finalist; 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Chanda Rubin]] (USA) - 1996 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1995, 2000 and 2003 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Virginia Ruzici]] (Romania) - 1978 '''French Open champion'''; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
==S==
* [[Gabriela Sabatini]] (Argentina) - 1990 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1991 Wimbledon finalist; 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992 and 1993 French Open semi-finalist; 1989, 1992, 1993 and 1994 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1988 and 1994 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 1987 and 1990 finalist
* [[Lucie Šafářová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Dinara Safina]] (Russia)
* [[Maria Emilia Salerni]] (Argentina)
* [[Maria Sanchez Lorenzo]] (Spain)
* '''[[Arantxa Sánchez Vicario]]''' (Spain) - 1989, 1994 and 1998 '''French Open champion'''; 1994 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1994 and 1995 Australian Open finalist; 1995 and 1996 Wimbledon finalist ranked '''World No. 1'''
* [[Mara Santangelo]] (Italy)
* [[Kazuko Sawamatsu]] (Japan)
* [[Naoko Sawamatsu]] (Japan)
* [[Claudine Schaul]] (Luxembourg)
* [[Barbara Schett]] (Austria) - 1999 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 7 in 1999
* [[Francesca Schiavone]] (Italy) - 2001 French Open quarter-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 15 in 2004
* [[Patty Schnyder]] (Switzerland) - 2004 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1998 French Open quarter-finalist; 1998 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 8 in 1999
* [[Julia Schruff]] (Germany)
* [[Brenda Schultz-McCarthy]] (Netherlands) - 1995 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1995 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* '''[[Monica Seles]]''' (Yugoslavia/USA) - 1991, 1992, 1993 and 1996 '''Australian Open champion'''; 1990, 1991 and 1992 '''French Open champion'''; 1991 and 1992 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1992 Wimbledon finalist; 1990, 1991 and 1992''' WTA Tour Championships champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1'''
* [[Milagros Sequera]] (Venezuela)
* [[Magui Serna]] (Spain) - 2000 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Adriana Serra Zanetti]] (Italy) - 2002 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Antonella Serra Zanetti]] (Italy)
* [[Selima Sfar]] (Tunisia)
* '''[[Maria Sharapova]]''' (Russia) - 2004 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2005 semi-finalist; 2005 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2004 and 2005 French Open quarter-finalist; 2004 '''WTA Tour Championships champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 7 weeks
* [[Meghann Shaughnessy]] (USA) - 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Pam Shriver]] (USA) - 1981, 1982 and 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1981, 1987 and 1988 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1982 and 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1988 WTA Tour Championships finalist
* [[Anna Smashnova]] (Israel)
* [[Abigail Spears]] (USA)
* '''[[Hilde Sperling]]''' (Germany) - 1935, 1936, 1937 '''French Championships champion'''
* [[Irina Spirlea]] (Romania)
* [[Karolina Sprem]] (Croatia) - 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Katarina Srebotnik]] (Slovenia)
* [[Alexandra Stevenson]] (USA) - 1999 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Samantha Stosur]] (Australia)
* [[Betty Stove]] (Netherlands) - 1977 Wimbledon finalist
* [[Barbora Strýcová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Rennae Stubbs]] (Australia)
* [[Paola Suarez]] (Argentina) - 2004 French Open semi-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Martina Sucha]] (Slovakia)
* [[Ai Sugiyama]] (Japan) - 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Helena Suková]] (Czechoslovakia) - 1984 and 1989 Australian Open finalist; 1986 and 1993 U.S. Open finalist; 1986 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 and 1993 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Věra Suková]] (Czechoslovakia)
* [[Tiantian Sun]] (China)
* [[May Sutton]] (USA)
==T-Z==
* [[Silvija Talaja]] (Croatia)
* [[Tamarine Tanasugarn]] (Thailand)
* [[Catherine Tanvier]] (France)
* [[Nathalie Tauziat]] (France) - 1998 Wimbledon finalist; 1991 French Open quarter-finalist; 2000 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Judy Tegart]] (Australia)
* [[Andrea Temesvari]] (Hungary)
* [[Sandrine Testud]] (France)
* [[Valérie Tétreault]] (Canada)
* [[Christine Truman|Christine Truman-Janes]] (Britain) -
* [[Wendy Turnbull]] (Australia) - 1981 and 1984 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1984 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Nicole Vaidišová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Julia Vakulenko]] (Ukraine)
* [[Dominique van Roost]] (Belgium)
* [[Maria Vento-Kabchi]] (Venezuela)
* [[Roberta Vinci]] (Italy)
* '''[[Virginia Wade]]''' (England) - 1968 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1977 '''Wimbledon champion'''
* [[Mashona Washington]] (USA)
* [[Marlene Weingartner]] (Germany)
* [[Stephanie Wetmore]] (Canada)
* '''[[Serena Williams]]''' (USA) - 1999 and 2002 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2002 '''French Open champion'''; 2002 and 2003 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2004 finalist; 2003 and 2005 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2001 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 2002 and 2004 finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 52 weeks
* '''[[Venus Williams]]''' (USA) - 2000, 2001 and 2005 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2002 and 2003 finalist; 2000 and 2001 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1997 finalist; 2002 French Open finalist; 2003 Australian Open finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 11 weeks
* [[Yan Zi (tennis player)|Zi Yan]] (China) - 2005 '''Australian Open Women's double champion'''
* [[Jie Zheng]] (China) - 2005 '''Australian Open Women's double champion'''
* [[Fabiola Zuluaga]] (Colombia) - 2004 Australian Open semi-finalist
* [[Natasha Zvereva]] (Belarus) - 1988 French Open finalist; 1998 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1993 U.S. Open quarter-finalist 1995 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Vera Zvonareva]] (Russia) - 2003 French Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 9 in 2004
'''See also:''' [[List of male tennis players]], [[List of tennis players]], [[List of sportsmen]]
|
], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Joanna Senyszyn]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Jan Sieńko]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Robert Strak|Robert Strąk]], [[Liga Polskich Rodzin|LPR]]
* [[Jolanta Szczypinska|Jolanta Szczypińska]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwosc|PiS]]
* [[Wladyslaw Szkop|Władysław Szkop]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Donald Tusk]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Wieslaw Walendziak|Wiesław Walendziak]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwosc|PiS]]
* [[Lech Zielonka]], [[Samoobrona]]
<!-- === Municipal politics ===
to be written -->
== Sights and tourist attractions ==
Gdynia is a relatively modern city and one will not find many historical buildings. The oldest building in Gdynia is [[13th century]] St. Michael Archangel's Church in [[Oksywie]]. There is also a [[17th century]] [[neo-Gothic]] [[manor house]] located in the Folwarczna Street in [[Orlowo|Orłowo]].
However, what most tourists look for Gdynia deals with its recent past. In the harbour there two [[museum ship]]s are anchored, the ''[[ORP Blyskawica]]'' [[destroyer]] and the ''[[Dar Pomorza]]'' [[Tall ship|Tall Ship]] [[frigate]]. Gdynia is also famous for its numerous examples of early [[20th century]] architecture, especially [[monumentalism]] and early [[functionalism]]. Recently reconstructed Świętojańska street and Kościuszki square are also worth mentioning.
The surrounding hills and the coastline attract many nature lovers. Leisure [[pier]] and cliff-like coastline in [[Redlowo|Kępa Redłowska]] as well as the surrounding Reservation Park are also popular. 1.5 kilometres long [[promenade]] leads from the [[marina]] in the city centre to the beach in [[Redlowo|Redłowo]]. Most of Gdynia can be seen from Kamienna Góra (54 metres [[Above mean sea level|asl]]) or a newly built observation point near Chwaszczyno.
You can also take [[hydrofoil]] or ship trip to [[Westerplatte|Gdansk Westerplatte]], [[Hel, Poland|Hel]] or just see port.
== Modern division into neighbourhoods ==
[[Image:retro_gdynia_koscierzyna.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Steam train "Costerina" Gdynia - [[Koscierzyna|Kościerzyna]]]]
* Babie Doły
* Chwarzno Wiczlino
* Chylonia
* Cisowa
* Działki Leśne
* Dąbrowa
* Grabówek
* Kamienna Góra
* Karwiny
* Leszczynki
* Mały Kack
* Obłuże
* Oksywie
* Orłowo
* Pogórze
* Port
* Pustki Cisowskie-Demptowo
* Redłowo
* Śródmieście
* Wielki Kack
* Witomino Leśniczówka
* Witomino Radiostacja
* Wzgórze Św. Maksymiliana
== Population and area ==
[[Image:Gdynia-orlowo.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Coastline in Gdynia Orlowo]]
1870: 1200 inhabitants
<br> 1920: 1300 inhabitants
<br> 1926: 12,000 inhabitants, 6 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1939: 127,000 inhabitants, 66 km<sup>2</sup><!-- <br> 1950: ? inhabitants -->
<br> 1960: 150,200 inhabitants, 73 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1970: 191,500 inhabitants, 75 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1975: 221,100 inhabitants, 134 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1980: 236,400 inhabitants, 134 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1990: 251,500 inhabitants, 136 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1994: 252,000 inhabitants, 136 km<sup>2</sup><br> 1995: 251,400 inhabitants, 136 km<sup>2</sup><br> 2000: 255,420 inhabitants, 135.49 km<sup>2</sup> (after [[Glowny Urzad Statystyczny|GUS]] - Central Statistical Office in Warsaw)
<br> 2003: 251,000 inhabitants, 136 km<sup>2</sup>
==See also:==
* [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]
* [[Tricity]]
* [[Trolleybus]]
* [[Hydrofoil]]
{{Poland}}
== Further reading ==
* (ed.) R. Wapiński, ''Dzieje Gdyni'', Gdańsk 1980
* (ed.). S. Gierszewski, ''Gdynia'', Gdańsk 1968
* ''Gdynia'', in: Pomorze Gdańskie, nr 5, Gdańsk 1968
* J. Borowik, ''Gdynia, port Rzeczypospolitej'', Toruń 1934
* B. Kasprowicz, ''Problemy ekonomiczne budowy i eksploatacji portu w Gdyni w latach 1920-1939'', Zapiski Historyczne, nr 1-3/1956
* M. Widernik, ''Główne problemy gospodarczo-społeczne miasta Gdyni w latach 1926-1939.'', Gdańsk 1970
* (ed.) A. Bukowski, ''Gdynia. Sylwetki ludzi, oświata i nauka, literatura i kultura'', Gdańsk 1979
* ''Gminy województwa gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1995
* H. Górnowicz, Z. Brocki, ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Wrocław 1978
* Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza'', vol. I-IV, Poznań 1969-2003
* (ed.) W. Odyniec, ''Dzieje Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego od VII wieku do 1945 roku'', Gdańsk 1978
* L. Bądkowski, ''Pomorska myśl polityczna'', Gdańsk 1990
* L. Bądkowski, W. Samp, ''Poczet książąt Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1974
* B. Śliwiński, ''Poczet książąt gdańskich'', Gdańsk 1997
* Józef Spors, ''Podziały administracyjne Pomorza Gdańskiego i Sławieńsko-Słupskiego od XII do początków XIV w'', Słupsk 1983
* M. Latoszek, ''Pomorze. Zagadnienia etniczno-regionalne'', Gdańsk 1996
* B. Bojarska, ''Eksterminacja inteligencji polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim (wrzesień-grudzień 1939)'', Poznań 1972
* K. Ciechanowski, ''Ruch oporu na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1939-1945.'', Warszawa 1972
== External links ==
{{Commons|Gdynia}}
*[http://www.gdynia.pl/index.php?lang=en Gdynia city website]
*[http://www.trojmiasto.pl Regional portal, guide to Tricity including map]
*[http://www.gdansk-life.com/guide/Gdynia/tour.php Gdynia Travel Guide and Map]
*[http://www.gosir.gdynia.pl/marina/index.php Marina in Gdynia]
*[http://www.wsm.gdynia.pl/hist-e.html Maritime School]
*[http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/oir/Gdynia.htm Seattle sister city of Gdynia]
*[http://www.gotenhafen.one.pl More than 200 postcards from Gotenhafen]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Poland/Voivodships/Pomerania-Kashubia/Gdynia/ Open Directory Project - Gdynia]
*[http://chefmoz.org/Poland/PM/Gdynia/ ChefMoz Dining Guide - Gdynia]
[[Category:Gdynia| ]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Poland]]
<!---->
[[bg:Гдиня]]
[[da:Gdynia]]
[[de:Gdynia]]
[[et:Gdynia]]
[[eo:Gdynia]]
[[fr:Gdynia]]
[[gl:Gdynia]]
[[it:Gdynia]]
[[csb:Gdiniô]]
[[la:Civitas Gdinensis]]
[[lv:Gdiņa]]
[[lt:Gdynia]]
[[hu:Gdynia]]
[[na:Gdynia]]
[[nl:Gdynia]]
[[nds:Gdynia]]
[[ja:グディニャ]]
[[no:Gdynia]]
[[pl:Gdynia]]
[[pt:Gdynia]]
[[ro:Gdynia]]
[[ru:Гдыня]]
[[sv:Gdynia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gluon</title>
<id>12666</id>
<revision>
<id>41993980</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:32:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.97.27.126</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>"a significantly" -> "significant;y"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], '''gluons''' are [[vector field|vector]] [[gauge field|gauge]] [[gauge boson|bosons]] that mediate [[strong interaction|strong]] [[color charge]] interactions of [[quark]]s in [[quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD). Unlike the neutral [[photon]] of [[quantum electrodynamics]] (QED), gluons themselves participate in strong interactions. The gluon has the ability to do this as it itself carries the colour charge and so interacts with itself, making QCD significantly harder to analyse than QED.
== Properties ==
The gluon is a vector boson like the [[photon]]; it has [[spin (physics)|spin]] 1. Usually vector particles have three spin states, but [[gauge invariance]] reduces the number of spin states of a gluon to two. It has negative intrinsic [[parity (physics)|parity]] and has zero [[isospin]]. In [[quantum field theory]], unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass (experiment limits the gluon's mass to less than a few MeV). The gluon is its own antiparticle.
== Numerology of gluons ==
Unlike the single [[photon]] of QED or the three [[W and Z bosons]] of the [[weak interaction]], there are eight independent types of gluon in QCD.
This may be difficult to understand intuitively. [[Quark]]s may carry three types of [[color charge]]; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor. Gluons may be thought of as carrying both color and anticolor or as describing how quark color changes during interactions.
Technically, QCD is a [[gauge theory]] with [[SU(3)]] gauge symmetry. Quarks are introduced as [[spinor|spinor fields]] in N<sub>f</sub> [[flavour (particle physics)|flavour]]s, each in the [[fundamental representation]] (triplet, denoted '''3''') of the colour gauge group, SU(3). The gluons are vector fields in the [[adjoint representation]] (octets, denoted '''8''') of colour SU(3). For a general [[lie group|gauge group]], the number of force-carriers (like photons or gluons) is always equal to the dimension of the adjoint representation. For the simple case of SU(N), the dimension of this representation is N<sup>2</sup>&minus;1.
== Confinement ==
{{main|confinement}}
Since gluons themselves carry color charge (again, unlike the [[photon]] which is electrically neutral), they participate in strong interactions. These gluon-gluon interactions constrain color fields to string-like objects called "flux tubes", which exert constant force when stretched. Due to this force, [[quark]]s are [[confinement|confined]] within [[composite particle]]s called [[hadron]]s. This effectively limits the range of the strong interaction to 10{{sup|-15}} [[meter]]s, roughly the size of an [[atomic nucleus]].
Gluons also share this property of being confined within hadrons. One consequence is that gluons are not directly involved in the [[nuclear force]]s. The force mediators for these are other hadrons called [[meson]]s.
Although in the [[normal phase of QCD]] single gluons may not travel freely, it is predicted that there exist [[hadron]]s which are formed entirely of gluons &mdash; called '''[[glueball]]s'''. There are also conjectures about other '''[[exotic (hadron)|exotic hadrons]]''' in which real gluons (as opposed to [[virtual particle|virtual]] ones found in ordinary hadrons) would be primary constituents. Beyond the normal phase of QCD (at extreme temperatures and pressures), [[quark gluon plasma]] forms. I |
rained on punching bags (called a korykos). Keeping their fingers free, fighters then wore leather straps (called himantes) on their hands, wrists, and sometimes lower arms, to protect them from injury.
In [[Ancient Rome]], fighters were usually criminals and slaves. They hoped to become champions and gain their freedom. However, free men also fought. Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even aristocrats started fighting, but that was banned by the ruler [[Augustus]]. In 500 A.D., the sport was banned by [[Theodoric the Great]].
=== London Prize Ring rules (1839) ===
[[Image:Blow2.jpg|thumb|left|170px|The beginnings of the modern right cross demonstrated in Edmund Price's ''The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867]]
Records of boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the "London Protestant Mercury," and the first English bare-knuckle champion was [[James Figg]] in 1719. This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used.
Early bare-knuckle fighting was crude with no written rules. There were no weight divisions, round limits and no referee. Modern rules banning gouging, grappling, biting, headbutting, fish-hooking and blows below the belt were absent.
The first boxing rules were introduced by heavyweight champion [[Jack Broughton]] in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented "mufflers" (padded gloves), which were used in training and exhibitions.
In 1839, the [[London Prize Ring rules]] were introduced which superceded Jack Broughton's rules. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:
* Fights occur in a 24-foot-square ring surrounded by ropes.
* If a fighter was knocked down, he must rise within 30 seconds of his own power to be allowed to continue.
* Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls.
=== Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) ===
In [[1867]], the [[Marquess of Queensberry rules]] were drafted by [[John Graham Chambers|John Chambers]] for amateur championships held at [[Lillie Bridge]] in [[London]] for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry|Marquess of Queensberry]], whose name has always been associated with them.
There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned.
The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Gloves protected the [[knuckles|hands]] of both fighters but their considerable size and weight made knock-out victories more difficult to achieve. Resultantly, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling.
The English case of ''[[R v. Coney]]'' in [[1882]] found that a [[bare-knuckle]] fight was an [[assault]] occasioning [[actual bodily harm]], depite the [[consensual crime|consent]] of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.
The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was [[James J. Corbett|"Gentleman Jim" Corbett]], who defeated [[John L. Sullivan]] in [[1892]] at the Pelican Athletic Club in [[New Orleans]].
With the gradual acceptance of formalised rules, two distinct branches of boxing emerged; Professional and Amateur. The boxing rules enforced by governing bodies worldwide today at the local, national and international level are all derived in some way from the Marquis of Queensberry Rules.
==Amateur boxing==
In amateur boxing (the version of the sport found at the [[Olympic Games]] and [[Commonwealth Games]]) the primary emphasis is on landing scoring punches rather than concern with doing physical damage to one's opponent. Competitors wear protective headgear and box for three to five rounds of two or three minutes each. Gloves in amateur boxing have a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands on the head or torso is awarded a point. A [[referee (boxing)|referee]] monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing "low blows" is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized, or ultimately, disqualified).
Also, in amateur boxing, referees will readily step in and stop the contest even if the competitor is only relatively lightly injured. As a result, the risk of grievous injury is considerably reduced in amateur boxing versus professional boxing.
===Amateur boxing history===
The Queensberry Amateur Championships continued from [[1867]] to [[1885]], and so, unlike their professional counterparts, amateur boxers did not deviate from using gloves once the Queensberry Rules had been published. In the United Kingdom, the [[Amateur Boxing Association]] (A.B.A.) was formed in [[1880]] when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year. Four weight classes were contested, Featherweight (9 stone), Lightweight (10 stone), Middleweight (11 stone, 4 pounds) and Heavyweight (no limit). (A stone is equal to 14 pounds). By [[1902]], American boxers were contesting the titles in the A.B.A. Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By [[1924]], the A.B.A. had 105 clubs in affiliation.
Boxing first appeared at the [[Olympic Games]] in [[1904]] and, apart from the Games of [[1912]], has always been part of them. From 1972 through 2004, Cuba and the United States have won the most Gold Medals, 29 for Cuba and 21 for the U.S. Internationally, amateur boxing spread steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century, but when the first international body, the Federation Internationale de Boxe Amateur (International Amateur Boxing Federation) was formed in [[Paris]] in 1920, there were only five member nations. In [[1946]], however, when the International Amateur Boxing Association (A.I.B.A.) was formed in London, twenty-four nations from five continents were represented, and the A.I.B.A. has continued to be the official world federation of amateur boxing ever since. The first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in [[1974]].
In the late 19th and early 20th century, amateur boxing was encouraged in schools, universities and in the armed forces, but the champions usually came from among the urban poor.
Women's boxing first appeared in the Olympic Games at a demonstration bout in 1904. For most of the 20th century, however, it was banned in most nations. Its revival was pioneered by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association, which sanctioned events for women in [[1988]]. The British Amateur Boxing Association sanctioned its first boxing competition for women in [[1997]]. The first event was to be between two thirteen-year-olds, but one of the boxers withdrew because of hostile media attention. Four weeks later, an event was held between two sixteen-year-olds.
The A.I.B.A. accepted new rules for Women's Boxing at the end of the 20th century and approved the first European Cup for Women in [[1999]] and the first World Championship for women in [[2001]]. Women's boxing will be an exhibition sport at the [[2008]] Olympics, but it won't become an official Olympic sport until the [[2012]] Olympics.
.
A new scoring system was invented for amateur boxing: using a computer, judges must press a button every time they think a boxer landed a punch. When three or more of the five judges press the button within a second of each other, the punch counts as a "point" for the fighter that landed it. Punches to the head or face of an opponent usually score the most points for a competitor. At any point of the fight in which a fighter is leading by twenty points (or sometimes more), the referee is indicated and the fight is stopped, the leading fighter winning by "mercy", and credited with a knockout.
==Professional boxing==
Professional bouts are far longer than amateur bouts (ranging from four to twelve rounds), headgear is not permitted, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant can not or should not continue to box. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win, which appears on the boxer's record as a knockout win (or loss). A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory.
If a knockout or disqualification does not occur, the fight must go to the ''scorecards''. Profess |
the Younger]], a prophet and "chief judge" of the Nephites.
==Historical Outline==
The Book of Alma is the longest of all the books of the Book of Mormon, consisting of 63 chapters. The book records the first 39 years of what the [[Nephite]]s termed "the reign of the judges", a period in which the Nephite nation adopted a constitutional theocratic government in which the judicial and executive branches of the government were combined.
The history of the book is outlined as follows:
===Challenges to the Beginning of the Republic===
The first four chapters, describe the rebellions of followers of [[Nehor]] and [[Amlici]]. Contrary to the dominant lay ministry that existed in the Nephite culture, Nehor established a church in which priests were given a separate social status and were paid for their ministry. After killing a religious leader during a theological argument, Nehor was tried and executed for his crimes. The followers of Amlici resented the dominant political and religious parties and sought to reestablish the monarchy that the reign of the judges replaced. [[Alma the Younger|Alma]], the chief judge and governor as well as the high priest over the people of Nephi, lead an army against Amlici and his followers and drove the rebellion out of the land.
===The Ministry of Alma Among the Nephites===
Towards the end of chapter four, Alma realizes that the affairs of the Church require his entire concentration. He resigns from his political office and appoints [[Nephihah]] as chief judge and governor of the land. Chapters 5-16 record sermons and missionary travels of Alma between 83 and 78 B.C.
===The Ministry of the Sons of Mosiah Among the Lamanites===
Chapters 17 to 27 describe the missionary labors of the sons of [[Mosiah]] who was the last king over the people of Nephi prior to the peaceful transition of the nation from a monarchy to a republican form of government. The [[sons of Mosiah]], named Ammon, Aaron, Omner and Himni, chose to devote themselves to missionary labors preaching to the people of the [[Lamanite]] nation, which periodically went to war against the Nephite nation. They lived and taught among the Lamanites between the years 91 and 77 B.C.
===The Ministry of Alma Among the Zoramites===
Chapters 28 to 35 relate the account of a rebellion of a subgroup of the Nephite nation who called themselves [[Zoramites]]. The Zoramites believed in a form of predestination and taught that all others except their people would be damned. Their apostasy from the Church was conjoined with plans to rebel against the Nephite government. Alma and his sons preached among the Zoramites in an attempt to push back the rebellion from both the Church and the state. Alma and his children had some success among the poor class of Zoramites who were then exiled from the Zoramite community by the governing rich class of Zoramites. Those remaining in the Zoramite capital city of [[Ammonihah]] were subsequently slaugthered during a Lamanite invasion.
===The Commandments of Alma to his Children===
Chapters 36 to 42 record the teachings of Alma to his sons, [[Helaman]], [[Shiblon]], and [[Corianton]]. These teachings discuss the ministry of [[Jesus]], the need for repentance, and the resurrection and judgment of all people.
===A Period of War===
Chapters 43 to 62 record the struggles of the Nephite people during a war against the attacking Lamanite nation between the years of 74 and 57 B.C. The Chief Captain (senior military commander) of the Nephites during this time was [[Captain Moroni]]. The Nephites were ultimately successful in their defense against the Lamanites.
===Conclusion===
Chapter 63 includes concluding historical notes covering the years 56 to 53 B.C. This is largely a period of post-war reconstruction and exploration in the Nephite nation.
==External links==
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/contents Book of Alma text] on the LDS Church web site
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/summary Book of Alma summary]
[[Category:Books of the Book of Mormon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act</title>
<id>3276</id>
<revision>
<id>15901634</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.253.64.xxx</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to correct title</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antioxidant</title>
<id>3277</id>
<revision>
<id>42118299</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KimvdLinde</username>
<id>110333</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
An '''antioxidant''' is a [[chemical compound|chemical]] that halts the [[oxidation]] of other chemicals. These compounds, despite their name, do not simply prevent oxidation. Instead, they oxidize ''first'', keeping the oxidizing agent from oxidizing compounds that are more important to proper functioning of a system, as in a [[Cell (biology)|cell]].
==Antioxidants in biology==
In biological systems, the normal processes of oxidation (plus contributions from [[ionizing radiation]] and pro-oxidant chemicals) produce highly reactive [[Free radical|free radicals]]. These can readily react with and damage other molecules, including [[deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]] in cell nuclei or mitochondria. In some cases the body uses free radicals to destroy foreign or unwanted objects, such as in an infection or cancer. However, in the wrong place, the body's own [[cell (biology)|cells]] may become damaged. Should the damage occur to DNA, the result could increase the possibility of cancer. Antioxidants decrease the damage done to cells by [[Redox|reducing]] oxidants before they can damage the cell. Antioxidants may be further classified by the products they form on oxidation (these can be antioxidants themselves, inert, or pro-oxidant), by what happens to the oxidation products (the antioxidant may be regenerated by different antioxidants or its oxidised form may be broken down by the organism, sometimes called sacrificial antioxidants) and how effective the antioxidant is against specific antioxidant species.
Virtually all studies of mammals have concluded that a [[caloric restriction|restricted calorie diet]] extends the lifespan of mammals by as much as 100%. This remarkable finding makes it clear that an excess of food dramatically reduces life expectancy. As food produces free radicals (oxidants) when metabolized, antioxidant-rich diets are thought to stave off the effects of aging significantly better than diets lacking in antioxidants. The reduced levels of free radicals, resulting from a reduction in their production by metabolism, is thought to be a major cause of the success of caloric restriction in increasing life span.
Free radical damage in the [[mitochondria]] of living cells is a byproduct of [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. [[Superoxide]] radicals are generated, which can damage mitochodrial and mitochondrial membranes. Unlike DNA in the [[cell nucleus]], mitochondrial DNA has only a few DNA-repair enzymes and the DNA is not protected by [[histone|histones]].
Many antioxidants, however (including vitamin C and vitamin E) <!-- or may be vitamin E can get there, but don't stay there long enough --> can't get into mitochondria for various reasons (e.g. because they are too hydrophilic to cross mitochondrial membranes or too hydrophobic to cross the [[cytoplasm]]). [[Melatonin]] is an important natural antioxidant that has been demonstrated to strongly protect mitochondria from damage [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00293.x], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?filters=&orig_db=PubMed&cmd=Search&term=J+Pineal+Res%5Bjour%5D+AND+31%5Bvolume%5D+AND+167%5Bpage%5D]. In addition, a group of scientists in Russia (led by V. Skulachev) have created a custom antioxidant (a [[Skulachev ion]] forms the point of the molecule and penetrates the mitochondrial membrane; the antioxidising part is attached behind it) that can enter the mitochondria and stays there due to the [[membrane potential]] gradient; preventing damage to DNA.
Although there is little doubt that antioxidants are a necessary component for good health, there is considerable doubt as to the most beneficial antioxidant(s) and as to the optimal amount for results. One study of lung cancer patients found that those given beta-carotene supplements had worse prognoses. This is believed to be due to antioxidant interference with the body's normal use of localised free radicals e.g. [[Nitric oxide]] for cell signalling. Due to the complex nature of the interactions of antioxidants with the body, it is difficult to interpret the results of many experiments designed to test such things. In vitro testing (outside the body) has shown many natural antioxidants, in specific concentration, can halt the growth of or even kill cancerous cells. There have been clinical studies showing specific antioxidants have a beneficial effect against certain cancers.
Recent laboratory studies are suggesting that at levels much higher than occur through normal diets, antioxidant vitamins such as A, E and C can have pro-oxidant effects, increasing the formation of free radicals. Natural antioxidants are always ingested together with a wide variety of [[flavonoids]] and other [[phytochemicals]] also likely plays a part. Many supplement manufacturers supply products containing antioxidants in combination with these other natural chemicals. Another significant factor is that the mechanisms by which different antioxidants regenerate each other require balanced levels to work optimally. |
g he period of Hyksos rule, the victory under the supreme god Amun, was seen as his championing of the [[underdog]]. Consequently, Amun was viewed as upholding the rights to justice of the poor, being titled ''[[Vizier]] of the poor'', and aiding those who travelled in his name,as the ''Protector of the road''. Since he upheld [[Ma'at]], those who prayed to Amun were required first to demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins.
==Fertility God==
[[image:Chem.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Amun-Min]]
When, subsequently, Egypt conquered [[Kush]], they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as Amun. This deity was depicted as [[Ram]] headed, specifically a [[wool]]ly Ram with curved [[horn (anatomy)|horns]], and so Amun started becoming associated with the Ram. Indeed, due to the aged appearance of it, they came to believe that this had been the original form of Amun, and that Kush was where he had been born.
However, since rams, due to their [[rutting]], were considered a symbol of [[virility]], Amun became thought of as a fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of [[Min (god)|Min]], becoming ''Amun-Min''. This association with virility lead to ''Amun-Min'' gaining the [[epithet]] ''Kamutef'', meaning ''Bull of his mother'', in which form he was often found depicted on the walls of [[Karnak]], [[ithyphallic]], and with a [[scourge]].
==Sun God==
{{Hiero|Amun-Ra|<hiero>i-mn:n-ra:Z1-C1</hiero>|align=left|era=egypt}}
As Amun's cult grew bigger, Amun rapidly became identified with the chief God that was worshipped in other areas, ''Ra-Herakhty'', the merged identities of [[Ra]], and [[Horus]]. This identification led to a merger of identities, with Amun becoming ''Amun-Ra''. As [[Ra]] had been the father of [[Shu]], and [[Tefnut]], and the remainder of the [[Ennead]], so Amun-Ra was likewise identified as their father.
Ra-Herakhty had been a [[solar deity|sun god]], and so this became true of Amun-Ra as well, Amun becoming considered the ''hidden'' aspect of the sun (e.g. during the night), in contrast to Ra-Herakhty as the ''visible'' aspect, since Amun clearly meant ''the one who is hidden''. This complexity over the sun led to a gradual movement towards the support of a more pure form of deity. Thus the pharaoh, [[Akhenaten|Amenhotep IV]] introduced the worship of [[Aten]], the sun's [[disc]] itself, identifying it as Amun-Ra.
Although [[Atenism]], the worship of Aten, had started out as standard [[henotheism]], it very quickly became, for reasons that are not very clear, entirely [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. Indeed, it is even possible that this is the first instance of monotheism in the world. Subsequently, Amenhotep IV started persecuting the worship of Amun, and erased the name from monuments, even changing his own name to [[Akhenaten]] in favour of Aten.
However, this abrupt change was unpopular, particularly with the previous [[priesthood]]s, who had now suddenly found themselves without power. Consequently, when Akhenaten died, his name was struck out, and all his changes undone, almost as if they had not occurred. The correct form of mentioning about Akhenaten were figures akin to 'crazy one from Akhetaten'. Worship of Aten was replaced, and that of Amun-Ra restored. The priests persuaded the new underage pharaoh [[Tutankhaten]] (most likely Akhenaten's son), the "live image of Aten", to change his name to [[Tutankhamun]], the "live image of Amun".
==Decline==
After the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth dynasty]] moved the centre of power back to Thebes, the powerbase of Amun's cult had been renewed, and the authority of Amun began to stack. Under the [[Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first dynasty]] the secondary line of priest kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their power, and the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second]] favoured Thebes.
As the sovereignty weakened the division between Upper and Lower Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of [[Nubia]] towards Amun, whose worship had long prevailed in their country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they honoured Amun greatly, although their wealth and culture were not sufficient to affect much.
However, in the rest of Egypt, his cult was rapidly overtaken, in popularity, by the less divisive cult of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]], which had not been associated with Akhenaten's actions. And so there, his identity became first subsumed into Ra (''Ra-Herakhty''), who still remained an identifiable figure in the [[Osiris]] cult, but ultimately, became merely an aspect of [[Horus]].
In areas outside of Egypt, where the Egyptians had previously brought the worship of Amun, Amun's fate was not as bad. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced '''Amane''', he remained the national god, with his priesthoods at [[Meroe]] and [[Nobatia]], via an [[oracle]], regulating the whole government of the country, choosing the king, and directing his military expeditions. According to [[Diodorus Siculus]], they were even able to compel kings to commit suicide, although this behaviour stopped when [[Arkamane]], in the [[3rd century BC]], [[slaughter|slew]] them.
Likewise, in [[Libya]], there remained an oracle of Amun in [[Libyan Desert|the desert]], at the [[oasis]] of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. Such was its reputation among the Greeks that [[Alexander the Great]] journeyed there, after the [[battle of Issus]], and during his occupation of Egypt, in order to be acknowledged the son of the god. Even during this occupation, Amun, identified as a form of [[Zeus]], continued to be the great god of Thebes, in its decay.
----
{{1911}}
==Derived Terms==
Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form Ammon: [[ammonia]] and [[ammonite]]. Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the [[foraminifera]]. Both these foraminiferans (shelled [[Protozoa]]) and ammonites (extinct shelled [[cephalopod]]s) have/had spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns. Ammonia the chemical derives its name in a more round-about way &ndash; see end of article [[ammonia]]. The regions of the [[hippocampus]] in the [[brain]] are called the ''[[cornu ammonis]]'' &ndash; literally "Amun's Horns", due to the horned appearance of the dark and light bands of [[cell (biology) | cellular]] layers.
==References==
*[[Adolf Erman]], ''Handbook of Egyptian Religion'' (London, 1907)
*[[Ed. Meyer]], article "Ammon" in [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie''
*[[Pietschmann]], articles "Ammon" and "Ammoneion" in [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie.''
==External links==
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Ammon Wiki Classical Dictionary: Ammon]
*[http://www.maat.sofiatopia.org/amun.htm Leiden Hymns to Amun]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[ar:أمون]]
[[bg:Амон]]
[[ca:Ammon]]
[[da:Amon]]
[[de:Amun (Ägyptische Mythologie)]]
[[et:Amon]]
[[es:Amón (mitología)]]
[[eu:Amon]]
[[fr:Amon]]
[[ko:아문]]
[[it:Amon]]
[[lt:Amonas]]
[[nl:Amon (mythologie)]]
[[ja:アメン]]
[[pl:Amon]]
[[pt:Amon]]
[[ro:Ammon]]
[[ru:Амон]]
[[sk:Amón]]
[[fi:Amon]]
[[sv:Amon]]
[[tr:Amun]]
[[uk:Амон]]
[[zh:阿蒙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammon</title>
<id>1722</id>
<revision>
<id>39998943</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T11:25:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Meegs</username>
<id>406581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypassed [[Providence]] disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammon''' or '''Ammonites''' ('''&#1506;&#1463;&#1502;&#1468;&#1493;&#1465;&#1503;''' "People", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#699;Ammon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#699;Ammôn'''), also referred to in the [[Bible]] as the "children of Ammon," were a people living east of the [[Jordan river]], who along with the [[Moabites]] traced their origin to [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]], the nephew of the patriarch [[Abraham]], and who were regarded as close relatives of the [[Israelites]] and [[Edomites]].
==Territory==
The borders of the Ammonite territory are not clearly defined in the Bible. In [[Book of Judges|Judges]] xi. 13, the claim of the king of Ammon, who demands of the Israelites the restoration of the land "from [[Arnon]] even unto [[Jabbok]] and unto [[Jordan River|Jordan]]," is mentioned only as an unjust claim (xi. 15), inasmuch as the Israelite part of this tract had been conquered from the [[Amorite]] king [[Sihon]] who had, in turn, displaced the Moabites; in Judges xi. 22 it is stated that the Israelites had possession "from the wilderness even unto Jordan," and that they laid a claim to territory beyond this, so as to leave no room for Ammon. The [[Book of Numbers]] xxi. 24 describes the Hebrew conquest (compare Judges, xi. 19) as having reached "even unto the children of Ammon, for the border of the children of Ammon was [[Jazer]]" (read the last word, with [[Septuagint]], as "Jazer," instead of "'az," strong, A. V.; compare Judges, xi. 32). Josh. xiii. 25, defines the frontier of the tribe of Gad as being "Jazer ... and half the land of the children of Ammon." The latter statement can be reconciled with Num. xxi. 24 (Deut. ii. 19, 37) only by assuming that the northern part of Sihon's Amorite kingdom had formerly been Ammonite. This explains, in part, the claim mentioned above (Judges, xi. 13). According to Deut. ii. 37, the region along the river Jabbok and the cities of the hill-country formed the border-line of Israel. On the authority of Deut. ii. 20, their territory had formerly been in the possession of a mysterious nation, the Zamzummim (also called Zuzim), and the war of [[Chedorlaomer]] (Gen. xiv. 5) with this nation may be connected with |
lent breakup happened in [[Yugoslavia]], in the Balkans. Four ([[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. The remaining two republics formed a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, under the direction of [[Slobodan Milošević]]. Milošević presided over the [[Kosovo War]], and was overthrown after his government was weakened by NATO airstrikes against Yugoslavia. Following the ouster of Milošević, the country changed its name to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] as a move to placate the frictions between the two federal units and claimed to be instituting a Western-style democracy.
In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the [[Warsaw Pact]].
[[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|200px|The Treaty of Rome signing ceremony.]]
==Early 21st century: the European Union==
{{main|History of the European Union}}
Continuing debate over the process of [[European integration]] continues to this day. Whereas the [[European Union]] started out as a loose economic alliance among European nations, the European Union took further steps to more closely integrate the member states, and make the EU into a more [[supranational]] organisation.
At the turn of the century, nations within the European Union had created a [[free trade zone]] and eliminated most travel barriers across their borders. A new common currency for many European nations, the [[euro]], was established electronically in 1999, officially tying all of the currencies of each participating nation to each other. The new currency was put into circulation in 2002 and most of the old currencies were phased out. However, not all [[European Union member states|EU member states]] have decided to join the euro project, including the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]].
As of 2005, the European Union is in the process of ratifying a new [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|constitution]], inducting additional member states (most of them in [[central Europe]]) and to consolidate various treaties. However, the creation of the constitution has been controversial, it is seen by many [[eurosceptic]]s as an undesirable step towards a single EU state. There has been disagreement as member states wrangle over how much voting power each will have in the EU, taxes, and the standards to which new member states must be held before they are admitted. Rejection of the constitution by referendums in two EU founding states ([[France]] and [[the Netherlands]]) has left the future of the constitution in much doubt.
== Histories of present-day territories ==
<table cellspacing=4 cellpading=4><tr valign=top><td>
* [[History of Albania]]
* [[History of Andorra]]
* [[History of Armenia]] <font size="-2">(1)</font>
* [[History of Austria]]
* [[History of Belarus]]
* [[History of Belgium]]
* [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[History of Bulgaria]]
* [[History of Croatia]]
* [[History of the Czechs]]
* [[History of Cyprus]] <font size="-2">(1)</font>
* [[History of Denmark]]
* [[History of Estonia]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[History of France]]
* [[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]] <font size="-2">(1)</font>
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[History of Greece]]
* [[History of Greenland]] <font size="-2">(2)</font>
* [[History of Hungary]]
* [[History of Iceland]] <font size="-2">(3)</font>
* [[History of Ireland]]
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of Latvia]]
<td>
* [[History of Liechtenstein]]
* [[History of Lithuania]]
* [[History of Luxembourg]]
* [[History of Malta]]
* [[History of the Republic of Macedonia]]
* [[History of Moldova]]
* [[History of Monaco]]
* [[History of the Netherlands]]
* [[History of Norway]]
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[History of Portugal]]
* [[History of Romania]]
* [[History of Russia]] <font size="-2">(4)</font>
* [[History of Slovakia]]
* [[History of San Marino]]
* [[History of Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[History of Slovenia]]
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[History of Sweden]]
* [[History of Switzerland]]
* [[History of Turkey]] <font size="-2">(5)</font>
* [[History of Ukraine]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]
* [[History of the Vatican City]]
</table>
# ''Armenia, Cyprus and Georgia are countries ethnically associated with Europe but are geographically in Asia: the first and last mentioned are in the continentally Asian portion of the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]''
# ''Greenland is politically European (i.e., belonging to Denmark), but is peopled mostly by [[Inuit]] and geographically is part of [[North America]]. Greenland left the [[EEC]] in 1982.''
# ''Iceland is culturally and politically European, but geographically isolated on the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] junction of the North American and Eurasian [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. Iceland is member of the [[EFTA]], and [[European Economic Area|EEA]], not of the EU.''
# ''Russia's western lands are in Europe, whereas its vast eastern lands are in Asia (see [[Siberia]])''
# ''Turkey straddles Asia and Europe, with a small portion of its territory -- Thrace -- and [[Istanbul]] being situated in Europe, and the remainder geographically part of Asia. Turkey is currently in [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|talks to join the EU]].''
==See also==
* [[The European miracle]]
* [[List of Europe-related topics]]
* [[List of conflicts in Europe]]
* [[Maritime history of Europe]]
* [[Politics of Europe]]
* [[Historic list of cities of Europe]] - populations of cities in 1700 and 1800
* [[Historical regions of Central Europe]]
* [[Historical regions of the Balkan Peninsula]]
* [[History of West Eurasia]]
== Sources ==
*James B. Collins and Karen L. Taylor (Ed.): ''Early modern Europe. Issues and interpretations,'' Malden, MA : Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 0-631-22892-6
== Notes ==
#John Hale, ''The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance,'' (London 1993)
== Recommended reading ==
* Norman Davies, ''Europe: A History,'' Pimlico, ISBN 0712666338
* R. R. Palmer, Joel Colton & Lloyd Kramer, ''A History of the Modern World,'' McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-112147-1
== External links==
* [http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=1 A History of East Central Europe]
* [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php/board,8.0.html European History] related discussions on [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/ Shadowed Realm - Medieval Content and Discussion]
{{Europefooter}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{Europe in topic|History of}}
{{History by continent footer}}
[[Category:History of Europe|Europe]]
[[ar:تاريخ أوروبا]]
[[ast:Historia d'Europa]]
[[ca:Història d'Europa]]
[[cs:Dějiny Evropy]]
[[da:Europas historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Europas]]
[[es:Historia de Europa]]
[[eo:Historio de Eŭropo]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Europe]]
[[fy:Skiednis fan Jeropa]]
[[ko:유럽의 역사]]
[[it:Storia d'Europa]]
[[la:Historia Europae]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Europa]]
[[ja:ヨーロッパ史]]
[[no:Europeisk historie]]
[[pl:Historia Europy]]
[[pt:História da Europa]]
[[ro:Istoria Europei]]
[[sv:Europas historia]]
[[zh:欧洲历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of UnitedStates</title>
<id>13213</id>
<revision>
<id>15910838</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T21:42:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>United States history</title>
<id>13214</id>
<revision>
<id>15910839</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-04T03:36:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reverting accidental deletion of redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hollywood</title>
<id>13215</id>
<revision>
<id>37801432</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T05:23:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.149.53.170|202.149.53.170]] ([[User talk:202.149.53.170|talk]]) to last version by 131.111.8.101</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hold come what may</title>
<id>13216</id>
<revision>
<id>15910841</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-07T10:16:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YUL89YYZ</username>
<id>85042</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Sort the stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hold come what may''' is a phrase popularized by the late Harvard [[philosophy]] professor, [[W. V. Quine]]. [[Belief]]s that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented. Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may&mdash;in other words, that all beliefs are [[rationality|rationally]] revisable. Many philosophers argue to the contrary, believing that, for example, the [[laws of thought]] cannot be revised and may be "held come what may".
See also [[Hold more stubbornly at least]].
{{philo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haiku</title>
<id>13217</id>
|
s from the radar source. Each successive wave has to travel further to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move further, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's velocity.
The [[Proximity fuze]] which was developed during [[World War II]] also relies on Doppler radar.
===Medical imaging===
An [[echocardiogram]] can within certain limits produce accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the [[ultrasound]] beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allows assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, any abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the [[cardiac output]]. [[Contrast enhanced ultrasound]] using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements.
However, "Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging. But in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (''when'' the received signal arrives).
Velocity measurements of blood flow is also used in other fields of [[medical ultrasonography]], such as [[obstetric ultrasonography]] and [[neurology]].
===Flow measurement===
Instruments such as the [[laser Doppler velocimetry|laser Doppler velocimeter]] (LDV), and [[Acoustics|Acoustic]] Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure [[velocity|velocities]] in a fluid flow. The LDV and ADV emit a light or acoustic beam, and measure the doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow. This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency.
==See also==
* [[Relativistic Doppler effect]]
* [[Doppler broadening]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Doppler effect}}
*http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html
*[http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-doppler.html Java simulation of Doppler effect]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[Category:Doppler effects]]
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[bg:Доплеров ефект]]
[[ca:Efecte Doppler]]
[[cs:Dopplerův jev]]
[[da:Dopplereffekt]]{{Link FA|da}}
[[de:Doppler-Effekt]]
[[et:Doppleri efekt]]
[[es:Efecto Doppler]]
[[fr:Effet Doppler-Fizeau]]
[[hr:Dopplerov efekt]]
[[id:Efek Doppler]]
[[it:Effetto Doppler]]
[[he:אפקט דופלר]]
[[hu:Doppler-effektus]]
[[nl:Dopplereffect]]
[[ja:ドップラー効果]]
[[no:Dopplereffekten]]
[[nn:Dopplereffekten]]
[[pl:Efekt Dopplera]]
[[pt:Efeito Doppler]]
[[ro:Efectul Doppler]]
[[ru:Эффект Доплера]]
[[sk:Dopplerov jav]]
[[sr:Доплеров ефекат]]
[[sv:Dopplereffekt]]
[[vi:Hiệu ứng Doppler]]
[[zh:多普勒效应]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desmodromic</title>
<id>8725</id>
<revision>
<id>15906684</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-10T15:43:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Desmodromic valve]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delta T</title>
<id>8727</id>
<revision>
<id>33786077</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T00:31:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.122.1.142</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Delta T''', '''delta-T''', '''deltaT''', '''ΔT''', or '''DT''' is the time difference obtained by subtracting [[Universal Time]] from [[Terrestrial Time]].
Universal Time (UT) is a time scale based on the rotation of the [[Earth]], which is somewhat irregular over the short term (less than a century), thus any time based on it cannot have an accuracy better than 1 : 10<sup>8</sup>. But the principal effect is over the long term. Over many centuries [[tidal friction]] inexorably slows Earth's rate of rotation by 2.3 ms/day/cy. However, the melting of continental ice sheets at the end of the last [[ice age]] removed their tremendous weight, allowing the land under them to begin to isostatically rebound upward in the polar regions, which continues to this day, causing Earth's rate of rotation to speed up by 0.6 ms/day/cy. The net [[tidal acceleration]] or the change in the length of the mean solar day (LOD) is +1.7 ms/cy.
Terrestrial Time (TT) is a uniform time scale based on [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI), but corrected to equal the former [[Ephemeris Time]] (ET) by adding 32.184 s (TT = TAI + 32.184 s). ET is the independent variable of time in [[Simon Newcomb]]'s ''Tables of the Sun'', which formed the basis of all astronomical ephemerides from [[1900]] through [[1983]]. ET, in turn, was actually the average mean solar time between 1750 and 1890 (centered on 1820), because that was the period during which the observations on which those tables were based were performed. TAI and hence TT is strictly uniform (every second is the same as every other second), with an accuracy of about 1 : 10<sup>14</sup>.
Earth's rate of rotation must be integrated to obtain time, which is Earth's angular position (specifically, the orientation of the meridian of Greenwich relative to the fictitious [[mean sun]]). Integrating +1.7 ms/d/cy and centering the resulting parabola on the year 1820 yields (to a first approximation) 31×((Year − 1820)/100)² seconds for ΔT. Smoothed historical measurements of ΔT using total [[solar eclipse]]s are about +16800 s at the year −500, +10600 s at 0, +5700 s at 500, +1600 s at 1000, and +180 s at 1500. <!-- Do not wikilink these years — they assume a year 0, contrary to the Wikipedia Manual of Style, nor are they historical years. --> During the telescopic era, measurements were made by observing occultations of stars by the [[Moon]]. ΔT continued to decrease until it reached a plateau of +11±6 s between 1680 and 1866. For about three decades immediately before 1902 it was negative, reaching −6.64 s. Then it increased to +63.83 s at 2000. It will continue to increase at an ever increasing parabolic rate in the future. This will require the addition of an ever greater number of [[leap second]]s to [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] as long as UTC is kept within one second of UT1. Physically, the meridian of Greenwich in Universal Time is almost always to the east of the meridian in Terrestrial Time, both in the past and in the future. +16800 s or 4 <sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub> h corresponds to 70°E. This means that at −500 Earth's faster rotation would cause a total solar eclipse to occur 70° to the east of its location calculated using the uniform TT.
All values of ΔT before 1955 depend on observations of the Moon, either via eclipses or occultations. Conservation of angular momentum in the Earth-Moon system requires that the angular momentum lost by the Earth due to tidal friction be transferred to the Moon, increasing its angular momentum, which means that its moment arm (its distance from the Earth) is increased, which via [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] causes the Moon to revolve around the Earth at a slower rate. The cited values of ΔT assume that the lunar acceleration due to this affect is Γ = −26"/cy². This is close to the best estimate for Γ as of 2002 of −25.858±0.003"/cy² so ΔT need not be recalculated given the uncertainties and smoothing applied to its current values. Nowadays, UT is the observed orientation of the Earth relative to an inertial reference frame formed by extra-galactic radio sources, modified by an adopted ratio between [[sidereal time]] and solar time. Its measurement is performed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS).
== References ==
* [[F.R. Stephenson]], L.V. Morrison. "Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990". ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]]'', Series A '''351''' (1995) 165-202. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0962-8428%2819950415%29351%3A1695%3C165%3ALFITER%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 JSTOR link].
* F.R. Stephenson. ''Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation''. Cambridge University Press, 1997. [[ISBN]] 0-521-46194-4
*[http://www.ras.org.uk/pdfs/Stephenson.pdf Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation by F. Richard Stephenson] 242KB PDF file
== External links ==
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astro/deltatime.htm Delta T by Robert van Gent]
*[http://user.online.be/felixverbelen/dt.htm Delta T by Felix Verbelen]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/meeus1.htm Delta T by Jean Meeus]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/chcal/delta_t.htm Delta T by Peter Meyer]
*[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/rotation.html Eclipse Predictions and Earth's Rotation by Fred Espenak]
[[Category:Timekeeping]]
[[es:Delta T]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 22</title>
<id>8728</id>
<revision>
<id>42012178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:18:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ removed excessive bio</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 22]]''' is the 356th day of the year (357th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 9 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
* [[1603]] - [[Mehmed III]] [[Ottoman dynasty| Sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] dies and is succeeded by his son [[Ahmed I]].
* [[1790]] - Storm and capture Russian armies And. Century of [[Suvorov]] of a |
urvives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which still have to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history, but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated in it.
===Apologetic and dogmatic works===
To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong:
:(1) the ''[[Apology for Origen]]'', the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by [[Rufinus]];
:(2) a treatise against [[Hierocles]] (a Roman governor and [[Neo-Platonism|Neoplatonic]] philosopher), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of [[Apollonius of Tyana]] in a work entitled "[[A Truth-loving Discourse]]" (Greek, ''Philalethes logos'');
:(3) ''Praeparatio evangelica'' ('[[Preparation for the Gospel]]'), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The ''Praeparatio'' consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many fascinating and lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the [[Phoenicia]]n priest [[Sanchuniathon]] of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the [[Ugaritic]] tables, here alone is the account from [[Diodorus Siculus]]'s sixth book of [[Euhemerus]]' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the [[neo-Platonist]] philosopher Atticus along with so much else.
:(4) ''Demonstratio evangelica'' ('[[Proof of the Gospel]]') is closely connected to the ''Praeparatio'' and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311;
:(5) another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled "[[Prophetic Extracts]]" (''Eklogai prophetikai''). It discusses in four books the [[Messiah|Messianic]] texts of Scripture. The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6-9) of the ''General elementary introduction'' to the Christian faith, now lost.
:(6) the treatise "[[On Divine Manifestation]]" (''Peri theophaneias''), dating from a much later time. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine [[Logos]], and its contents are in many cases identical with the ''Demonstratio evangelica. '' Only fragments are preserved;
:(7) the polemical treatise "[[Against Marcellus]]," dating from about 337;
:(8) a supplement to the last-named work, entitled "[[On the Theology of the Church]]," in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius.
A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost.
===Exegetical and miscellaneous works===
Of the exegetical works of Eusebius nothing has been preserved in its original form. The so-called commentaries are based upon late manuscripts copied from fragments of ''catenae''. A more comprehensive work of an exegetical nature, preserved only in fragments, is entitled "On the Differences of the Gospels" and was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists. It was also for exegetical purposes that Eusebius wrote his treatises on Biblical archeology:
:(1) a work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns;
:(2) a description of old Judea with an account of the lots of the ten tribes;
:(3) a plan of Jerusalem and the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple of Solomon]].
These three treatises have been lost. A work entitled "On the Names of Places in the Holy Scriptures," an alphabetical list of place names, is still in existence. Further mention is to be made of addresses and sermons some of which have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre, and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Of the letters of Eusebius only a few fragments are extant.
==Estimate of Eusebius==
===His doctrine===
From a [[dogma]]tic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of [[Origen]]. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (''monarchia'') of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. He is the highest God to whom Christ is subject as the second God. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Christ is the only really good creature, he possesses the image of God and is a ray of the eternal light; but the figure of the ray is so limited by Eusebius that he expressly emphasizes the self-existence of Jesus.
Eusebius was intent upon emphasizing the difference of the persona of the Trinity and maintaining the subordination of Jesus to God (he never calls him ''theos'') because in all contrary attempts he suspected polytheism or Sabellianism. Jesus is a creature of God whose generation, for Eusebius, took place before time. Jesus is in his activity the organ of God, the creator of life, the principle of every revelation of God, who in his absoluteness is enthroned above all the world. This divine Logos assumed a human body without being altered thereby in any way in his being. The relation of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity Eusebius explained similarly to that of the Son to the Father. No point of this doctrine is original with Eusebius, all is traceable to his teacher Origen. The lack of originality in his thinking shows itself in the fact that he never presented his thoughts in a system.
===His limitations===
The limitations of Eusebius could be said to flow from his position as the first court appointed Christian theologian in the service of the Constantine Roman Empire. Notwithstanding the great influence of his works on others, Eusebius was not himself a great historian. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033282] His treatment of heresy, for example, is inadequate, and he knew very little about the Western church. His historical works are really apologetics. In his Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 8, chapter 2, he points out, "We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity."
In his ''[[Preparation for the Gospel|Praeparatio evangelica]]'' (xii, 31), Eusebius has a section on the use of fictions (''pseudos'') as a "medicine", which may be "lawful and fitting" to use [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/pe_data.htm]. With that in mind, it is still difficult to assess Eusebius' conclusions and veracity by confronting him with his predecessors and contemporaries, for texts of previous chroniclers, notably [[Papias]], whom he denigrated, and [[Hegesippus]], on whom he relied, have disappeared; they survive largely in the form of the quotes of their work that Eusebius selected and thus they are to be seen only through the lens of Eusebius.
These and other issues have invited controversy. For example, [[Jacob Burckhardt]] has dismissed Eusebus as "the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity". Burckhardt is not alone in holding such a view. However, Professor Michael J. Hollerich thinks such criticisms go too far. Writing in "Church History" (Vol. 59, 1990), he says that ever since Burckhardt, "Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment." He concludes that "the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar".
While many have shared Burckhartdt's assessment, others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works.
==See also==
*[[Rechabites]]
==External links==
===Online works===
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.i.html?bcb=0 ''Historia Ecclesiastica''] at the [http://www.ccel.org CCEL] (English translation for the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]])
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.i.html?bcb=0 ''Vita Constantini''] at the [http://www.ccel.org CCEL] (English translation for the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_against_hierocles_preface.htm ''Contra Hieroclem''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_de_00_epreface.htm ''Demonstr |
of the Once-ler himself. In [[1989]], an effort was made by [[lumber]]ing interests in [[Laytonville, California]] to have the book banned from local school libraries, on the grounds that it was unfair to the lumber industry.
*''[[The Sneetches]]'' (1961) is commonly seen as a satirization of physical discrimination.
*''[[The Butter Battle Book]]'' (1984) written in Seuss's old age, is both a parody and denunciation of the [[nuclear arms race]].
*''[[Yertle the Turtle]]'' (1958) is often interpreted as an allegory of [[Adolf Hitler]]
*Shortly before the end of the [[Watergate scandal]], Geisel also converted one of his famous children's books into a polemic. "[[Richard M. Nixon, Will You Please Go Now!]]" was published in major newspapers through the [[newspaper column|column]] of his friend [[Art Buchwald]]. Nine days later, Nixon went.
*Seuss's personal values also are apparent in the much earlier ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' (1957), which can be taken (partly) as a polemic against [[materialism]]. The Grinch thinks he can steal [[Christmas]] from the Whos by stealing all the Christmas gifts and decorations, and attains a kind of enlightenment when the Whos prove him wrong.
==Adaptations of Seuss's work==
For most of his career, Dr. Seuss was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books. However, he did allow a few animated cartoons, an art form in which he himself had gained experience during the Second World War.
In [[1966]], Seuss authorized the eminent cartoon artist [[Chuck Jones]], his friend and former colleague from the war, to make a cartoon version of ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]''. This cartoon was very faithful to the original book. It is considered a classic by many to this day, and is in the large catalog of annual [[Christmas television special]]s. In [[1971]], a cartoon version of ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'' was made as well, but it was considered less successful.
Toward the end of his life, Seuss seems to have relaxed his policy, and several other cartoons and toys were made featuring his characters, usually the Cat in the Hat and the Grinch. When Seuss died of cancer at the age of 87 in [[1991]], his widow Audrey Geisel was placed in charge of all licensing matters. Since then, Audrey Geisel has become a controversial figure among many of Seuss's fans, seen as being far more liberal in permitting commercialization of her husband's characters and stories. She approved a live-action film version of "the Grinch" starring [[Jim Carrey]], as well as a Seuss-themed Broadway musical called ''[[Seussical]]'' (both released in [[2000]]). A live-action [[The Cat in the Hat|film]] based on ''The Cat in the Hat'' was released in [[2003]], featuring [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] as the title character. Dr. Seuss' books and characters also now appear in an amusement park: the [[Universal_Orlando_Resort#Seuss_Landing|Seuss Landing]] 'island' at the [[Universal_Orlando_Resort#Islands of Adventure|Islands of Adventure]] [[theme park]] in [[Orlando, Florida]]. Product tie-ins (cereal boxes, and so on) have also been implemented.
In November [[2004]], an edition of [[MAD Magazine]] ([http://www.collectmad.com/madcoversite/index-covers.html Mad #447]) featured a cover story in which lines from Seuss' books were compared with supposedly similar lines from speeches made by [[George W. Bush]]. It was titled "The Strange Similarities Between the Bush Administration and the World of Dr. Seuss." The cover drawing was of a Cat in the Hat that resembled Bush.
==Trivia==
*On the season premiere of [[Saturday Night Live]] following Dr. Seuss' death, the Reverend [[Jesse Jackson]] was a special guest during the News segment. He declared that "rather than reading from First or Second Samuel, I will read from 'Sam I Am'," whereupon he read ''Green Eggs and Ham'' in the style of a preacher giving an impassioned sermon.
*On December 1, 1995 The University Library Building at the [[University of California, San Diego]] was renamed Geisel Library in honor of Audrey and Theodor Geisel for the generous contributions they have made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy. The Geisels were long-time residents of La Jolla, where U. C. San Diego is located.
*'''Dr Seuss''' was frequently confused, by the US Postal Service among others, with '''Dr Suess''' (cf [[Hans Suess]]) his contemporary living in the same locality, [[La Jolla]]. Ironically, both names have been posthumously linked together: The personal papers of [[Hans Suess]] are housed in the ''Geisel Library'' at [[UCSD]] [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0199a.html].
==List of books by Dr. Seuss==
* ''[[And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street]]'' New York: Vanguard Press, 1937
* ''[[The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins]]'' New York: Vanguard Press, 1938
* ''[[The King's Stilts]]'' New York: Random House, 1939
* ''[[The Seven Lady Godivas]]'' New York: Random House, 1939
* ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'' New York: Random House, 1940
* ''[[McElligot's Pool]]'' New York: Random House, 1947. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose]]'' New York: Random House, 1948
* ''[[Bartholomew and the Oobleck]]'' New York: Random House, 1949. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[If I Ran the Zoo]]'' New York: Random House, 1950. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[Scrambled Eggs Super!]]'' New York: Random House, 1953
* ''[[Horton Hears a Who!]]'' New York: Random House, 1954
* ''[[On Beyond Zebra!]]'' New York: Random House, 1955
* ''[[If I Ran the Circus]]'' New York: Random House, 1956
* ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' New York: Random House, 1957
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1957
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat|The Cat in the Hat Comes Back]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1958
* ''[[Yertle the Turtle|Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1958
* ''[[Happy Birthday to You!]]'' New York: Random House, 1959
* ''[[One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1960
* ''[[Green Eggs and Ham]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1960
* ''[[The Sneetches and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1961
* ''[[Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1962
* ''[[Dr. Seuss's ABC]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1963
* ''[[Hop on Pop]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1963
* ''[[Fox in Socks]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1965
* ''[[I Had Trouble in Getting to Solla Sollew]]'' New York: Random House, 1965
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat Song Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1967
* ''[[The Foot Book : Dr. Seuss's Wacky Book of Opposites]]'' New York: Bright & Early Books, Random House, 1968
* ''[[I Can Lick 30 Tigers Today! and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1969
* ''[[I Can Draw It Myself]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1970
* ''[[Mr. Brown Can Moo! Can You?]]'' New York: Bright & Early Books, Random House, 1970
* ''[[The Lorax]]'' New York: Random House, 1971. National Council for the Social Studies Notable Children's Trade Book / Social Studies
* ''[[Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!]]'' New York: Bright & Early Books, Random House, 1972
* ''[[Did I Ever Tell You How Lucky You Are?]]'' New York: Random House 1973
* ''[[The Shape of Me and Other Stuff]]'' New York: Bright & Early Books, Random House, 1973
* ''[[There's a Wocket in My Pocket!]]'' New York: Bright & Early Books, Random House, 1974
* ''[[Oh, the Thinks You Can Think!]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1975
* ''[[The Cat's Quizzer]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1976
* ''[[I Can Read with My Eyes Shut!]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1978
* ''[[Oh Say Can You Say?]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1979
* ''[[Hunches in Bunches]]'' New York: Random House, 1982
* ''[[The Butter Battle Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1984
* ''[[You're Only Old Once! : A Book for Obsolete Children]]'' New York: Random House, 1986.
* ''[[Oh, the Places You'll Go!]]'' New York: Random House, 1990
* ''[[Daisy - Head Mayzie]]'' New York: Random House, 1995
* ''[[Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!]]'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. By Dr. Seuss with some help from Jack Prelutsky & Lane Smith (posthumous)
* ''[[My Many Colored Days]]'' New York : Alfred A. Knopf: Distributed by Random House, 1998. by Dr. Seuss, paintings by Steve Johnson with Lou Fancher
* ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' New York: Random House, 2000 (posthumous)
==Omnibus Volumes==
*''A Hatful of Seuss: Five Favorite Dr. Seuss Stories''
**''Bartholomew and the Oobleck'' (1949), ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950), ''Horton Hears a Who!'' (1954), ''The Sneetches and Other Stories'' (1961), and ''Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book'' (1962)
*''Your Favorite Seuss : A Baker's Dozen by the One and Only Dr. Seuss'' Molly Leach (Designer)
** ''And To Think That I Saw It On Mulberry Street'', ''Horton Hears a Who!'', ''McElligot's Pool'', ''If I Ran the Zoo'', ''Happy Birthday to You!'', ''Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book'', ''Yertle the Turtle'', ''The Cat in the Hat'', ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!'', ''Green Eggs and Ham'', ''The Lorax'', ''The Sneetches'', and ''Oh, the Places You'll Go!''
*''Six By Seuss: A Treasury of Dr. Seuss Classics''
**''And To Think That I Saw It On Mulberry Street'', ''The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins'', ''Horton Hatches the Egg'', ''Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories'', ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'', and ''The Lorax''
===Writing as Theo. LeSieg===
LeSieg is Geisel spelled backwards.
*''[[Ten Apples Up On Top!]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie. c1961
*''[[In A People House]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie. 1972
*''[[Wacky Wednesday]]'' Illustrated by George Booth. c1974
*''[[Would You Rather Be a Bullfrog?]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie. 1975
*''[[Hooper Humperdink ... ? Not Him!]]'' Illustr |
ra)|Lulu]]
*[[Lyric Suite]]
*[[Seven Early Songs (Berg)|Seven Early Songs]]
*[[Violin Concerto (Berg)|Violin Concerto]]
==Bibliography==
===Analytical writings===
*Adorno, Theodor W. ''Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link''. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
*Schmalfeldt, Janet. “Berg’s Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1.” ''Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives''. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pgg. 79-110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
*Lauder, Robert Neil. ''Two Early Piano Works of Alban Berg: A Stylistic and Structural Analysis''. Thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986.
*Bruhn, Siglind, ed. ''Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music''. New York: Garland Publishing, 1998.
*Schweizer, Klaus. ''Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs''. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970.
*Wilkey, Jay Weldon. ''Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg''. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965.
*Perle, George. ''The operas of Alban Berg''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu''. Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu''. Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Sketches''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978).
*Jarman, Dougas. ''The Music of Alban Berg''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?''. Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu''. In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure''. Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu'''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982).
===Biographical writings===
*Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. ''The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters''. New York: Norton, 1987.
*Grun, Bernard, ed. ''Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife''. London: Faber and Faber, 1971.
*Redlich, H.F. ''Alban Berg, the Man and His Music''. London: John Calder, 1957.
*Reich, Willi. ''The life and work of Alban Berg''. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982.
*Monson, Karen. ''Alban Berg: a biography''. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1979.
*Carner, Mosco. ''Alban Berg: the man and the work''. London: Duckworth, 1975.
*Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. ''Alban Berg, the man and his music''. London: J. Calder, 1957.
*Leibowitz, René. ''Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music''. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949.
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[List of Austrians in music]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
[[Category:1885 births|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:1935 deaths|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Expressionism|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Berg, Alban]]
[[da:Alban Berg]]
[[de:Alban Berg]]
[[es:Alban Berg]]
[[eo:Alban BERG]]
[[fr:Alban Berg]]
[[he:אלבן ברג]]
[[hr:Alban Berg]]
[[it:Alban Berg]]
[[nl:Alban Berg]]
[[ja:アルバン・ベルク]]
[[no:Alban Berg]]
[[pl:Alban Berg]]
[[sl:Alban Berg]]
[[fi:Alban Berg]]
[[sv:Alban Berg]]
[[tr:Alban Berg]]
[[zh:阿尔班·贝尔格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analytical chemistry</title>
<id>2408</id>
<revision>
<id>42163834</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:10:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.227.158.149</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Types */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Analytical chemistry''' is the [[:wikt:analysis|analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]].
==Types==
Analytical chemistry can be split into two main types, qualitative and quantitative:
#[[Qualitative inorganic analysis]] seeks to establish the presence of a given [[chemical element|element]] or [[inorganic compound]] in a sample.
#Qualitative organic analysis seeks to establish the presence of a given [[functional group]] or [[organic compound]] in a sample.
#[[Quantitative analysis]] seeks to establish the amount of a given element or compound in a sample.
Most modern analytical chemistry is quantitative. Quantitative analysis can be further split into different areas of study. The material can be analyzed for the amount of an element or for the amount of an element in a specific chemical species. The latter is of particular interest in biological systems; the molecules of life contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others, in many complex
==Techniques==
There are a bewildering array of techniques available to separate, detect and measure chemical compounds.
*[[Separation of chemicals]] in order to measure the weight or volume of a final product. This is an older process and can be quite painstaking, but is an essential first step when dealing with certain mixtures of substances, like extracts from organisms. Modern separation techniques such as [[HPLC]] often seek to separate and determine amount or identity in a single automated analysis by integrating a detector.
*[[Titration]] is a technique used to determine amounts present in solution or a physical characteristic of a molecule such as an [[equilibrium]] constant.
*Analysis of substances with devices using [[spectroscopy]]. By measuring the absorption or emission of light, or other types of [[electromagnetic_spectrum|radiation]], by a substance we can calculate the amounts of species or characterize the chemical species, often without separation. Methods include [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] (AAS), [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[neutron activation analysis]] (NAA).
*[[Mass spectrometry]] is used to determine the [[molecular mass]], the elemental composition, structure and sometimes amount of chemical species in a sample by [[ionize|ionizing]] the analyte molecules and observing their behavior in electric and magnetic fields.
*Many techniques combine two or more analytical methods (sometimes called "hyphenated" or "hybrid" methods). Examples of this include [[ICP-MS]](Inductively-Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry), where [[volatilisation]] of a sample occurs in the first step, and measuring of the concentration occurs in the second. The first step may also involve a separation technique, such as [[chromatography]], and the second a detection / measuring device.
*Techniques that involve volatilisation aim to produce free atoms of the elements making up the sample, which can then be measured in concentration by the degree to which they absorb or emit at a characteristic spectral frequency. These methods have the disadvantage of completely destroying the sample, and any species contained within it. These techniques include [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] and [[ICP-MS]] / [[ICP-AES]]. These techniques can still be used to study speciation, however by the incorporation of a separation stage before volatilisation.
*Another example of a hybrid technique is Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry [GC/MS], which is primarily used for non-ionic, volatilizable organic compounds. The compounds are separated on a chromatographic column, and introduced directly, or via a specialized interface, to an ionization chamber in a mass spectrometer. The compounds are then ionized (typically by electron impact, or chemical ionization) and accelerated through a carefully controlled electromagnetic field. The time of flight, or the voltage applied at the exact moment of impact is unique for compounds of the same mass. In this manner, the retention time and mass are measured for each compound.
== Methods ==
Analytical methods rely on scrupulous attention to cleanliness, sample preparation, [[accuracy and precision]].
Many practitioners will keep all their glassware in acid to prevent contamination, samples will be re-run many times over, and equipment will be washed in specially pure solvents.
A standard method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a [[calibration curve]].
If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added, and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample.
== Trends==
Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, selectivity, robustness, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space).
A lot of effort is put in shrinking the analysis techniques to [[chip]] size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. ([[Total Analysis System]] or lab on a chip)
Much effort is also put into analyzing biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are:
*Proteomics - the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stresssors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body.
*Metabolomics - similar to proteomics, but dealing with metabolites.
*Metalomics - similar to proteomics and metabolomics, but dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to prote |
erals such as [[goethite]] and [[limonite]] have been used as low grade ''brown'' iron [[ore]] The [[aluminium]] ore rock, [[bauxite]], is composed largely of aluminium hydroxides.
[[Arrhenius Base]] refers to a substance that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in [[aqueous solution]]. This means hydroxide ions are also heavily involved in the acid-base area as well as the special double displacement reaction called [[neutralization]].
==See also==
*[[Hydronium]]
*[[Oxide]]
{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Hydroxides| ]]
[[Category:Bases]]
[[ca:Grup hidroxil]]
[[da:Hydroxid]]
[[de:Hydroxylgruppe]]
[[es:Grupo hidroxilo]]
[[eo:Hidroksila grupo]]
[[fr:Groupement hydroxyle]]
[[is:Hýdroxýl]]
[[he:הידרוקסיל]]
[[lt:Hidroksidas]]
[[mk:Хидроксид]]
[[nl:Hydroxylgroep]]
[[ja:ヒドロキシル基]]
[[pl:Grupa hydroksylowa]]
[[pt:Hidroxila]]
[[ru:Гидроксиды]]
[[sk:Hydroxid]]
[[sr:Хидроксид]]
[[sv:Hydroxidjon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H R Geiger</title>
<id>13712</id>
<revision>
<id>15911305</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H. R. Giger]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H. R. Giger</title>
<id>13713</id>
<revision>
<id>42053196</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:57:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgQueen</username>
<id>382591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.223.81.75|194.223.81.75]] ([[User talk:194.223.81.75|talk]]) to last version by Valtiels Requiem</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Birth_machine.jpg|thumbnail|Birth machine]]
'''Hans Ruedi Giger''' (pronounced: GEE-ger) (born at [[Chur]], [[Grisons]] canton, [[February 5]], [[1940]]) is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] painter best known for his design work on the film ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''.
==Work==
Giger's [[Xenomorph|Alien]] design, inspired by his painting "Necronom V", earned him an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in 1980. His fourth published book of paintings, titled ''[[Necronomicon (H. R. Giger)|Necronomicon]]'' (followed by ''[[Necronomicon II]]'' in [[1985]]), continued his rise to international prominence, as did the frequent appearance of his art in the magazine ''[[Omni (magazine)|Omni]]''. Giger is also well known for artwork on a number of popular records, including [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]]'s ''[[Brain Salad Surgery]]'' and [[Debbie Harry]]'s ''[[Koo Koo]]''.
==Style==
For most of his career, Giger has worked predominantly in [[airbrush]], creating strange monochromatic canvasses depicting [[surrealism|surreal]], nightmarish landscapes. His most distinctive stylistic innovation is that of a representation of human bodies and machines in a cold, interconnected relationship. His paintings often display [[fetishistic]] sexual imagery and are considered disturbing by some. Some of his paintings also feature [[Satanism|Satanic]] imagery, though Giger himself is not known to be a [[Satanist]]. He is largely inspired by [[Salvador Dalí]] and was a personal friend of [[Timothy Leary]]. Giger is perhaps the best known sufferer of [[night terrors]] and his paintings are all to some extent inspired by his experiences with that particular [[sleep disorder]]. As a matter of fact, he was originally educated as an [[architect]] and made his first paintings as a way of [[self therapy]].
==Obscenity lawsuit ==
Giger's artwork for the [[Dead Kennedys]]' album ''[[Frankenchrist]]'', [[work 219: Landscape XX|Landscape XX]] (nicknamed [[Penis Landscape]]), was at the center of an [[obscenity]] lawsuit against [[Jello Biafra]].
==Other works==
Giger has also created furniture designs, particularly the [[Harkonnen Capo Chair]] for an unproduced movie version of the novel ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' that was originally slated to be directed by [[Alejandro Jodorowski]] (many years later [[David Lynch]] directed the film, using none of Giger's designs). Giger has also applied his biomechanical style to interior design, and several "Giger Bars" sprung up in [[Tokyo]], [[New York City|New York]], and his native Switzerland, although the foreign bars have since closed. His art has greatly influenced [[tattoo]]ists and [[sexual fetish|fetishists]] worldwide. [[Ibanez]] guitars has released an H.R. Giger signature series. The [[Ibanez]] ICHRG2, an [[Ibanez]] [[Iceman]], features the work, "NY City VI", and the [[Ibanez]] RGTHRG1, has the work "NY City XIX" printed on it.
==Pop culture==
===Movies===
* ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]''
* ''[[Species (movie)|Species]]''
===Work for recording artists===
* [[Celtic Frost]]
* [[Magma (band)|Magma]]
* [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]]
* [[Deborah Harry]] (from [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]])
* [[Hide (musician)|hide]]
* [[Danzig (band)|Danzig]]
* [[Atrocity (band)|Atrocity]]
* [[Black Sun Productions]]
* [[Korn|KoЯn]]'s [[Jonathan Davis]] commissioned Giger to sculpt his microphone stand
* [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]] used ''Life Support 1993'' for the cover of their 1994 album, [[Heartwork]].
* Designed the stage for [[Mylene Farmer]]'s 1999 "Mylenium" tour.
* Designed the Cloudbuster for [[Kate Bush]]'s 1985 video Cloudbusting.
===Interior decoration===
* [[Giger Bar]]s in Switzerland's [[Chur]] and [[Gruyères]]
* [[Museum H. R. Giger]] in [[Gruyères]]
===Computer games===
* ''[[Dark Seed (game)|Dark Seed]]'' and its sequel, ''[[Dark Seed (game)|Dark Seed II]]'', both [[adventure game]]s for the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] published by [[Cyberdreams]]. They were also released for the [[PlayStation]] in [[Japan]].
Giger is often referenced in pop culture and especially in works of the [[science fiction]] and [[cyberpunk]] genres. Novelist [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] (who wrote the original script for ''[[Alien³]]'') seems particularly fascinated, presenting in ''[[Virtual Light]]'' a minor character, Lowell, with ''New York XXIV'' tattooed across his back. As well, Yamazaki, a secondary character in ''[[Idoru]]'' specifically describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque. The cartoonist and cult icon [[Jhonen Vasquez]] has said he is a fan of Giger's work in Alien.
== External links ==
* [http://www.hrgiger.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.giger.com/ Official [[United States|U.S.]] site.]
* [http://www.morpheusgallery.com Surreal Gallery featuring Giger]
* [http://www.hrgigermuseum.com/ MUSEUM HR GIGER]
* [http://www.hrgiger.com/music/korn.htm Giger's article on being commissioned to sculpt [[Jonathan Davis]]' microphone stand.]
[[Category:Swiss painters|Giger, H. R.]]
[[Category:Transgressive artists|Giger, H. R.]]
[[Category:1940 births|Giger, H. R.]][[Category:Living people|Giger, H. R.]]
[[de:Hans Ruedi Giger]]
[[fr:Hans Rudi Giger]]
[[it:Hans Ruedi Giger]]
[[ja:H&#12539;R&#12539;&#12462;&#12540;&#12460;&#12540;]]
[[nl:Hans Rüdi Giger]]
[[ru:Гигер, Ганс Рудольф]]
[[fi:H. R. Giger]]
[[sv:H.R. Giger]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hispaniola</title>
<id>13714</id>
<revision>
<id>40364288</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:15thcenturyhispaniola.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Early map of Hispaniola]]
The island of '''Hispaniola''' (from [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''La Española'') is the second-largest [[island]] of the [[Antilles]], lying east of [[Cuba]]. [[Christopher Columbus]] arrived there on [[December 5]], [[1492]], and on his second voyage in [[1493]] founded the first [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colony]] in the [[New World]] on it.
[[Haiti]] occupies the western third of the island; the eastern two-thirds are the [[Dominican Republic]].
The [[Taíno]] called the island ''Quisqueya'' (or ''Kiskeya''), a name still in use in both countries. It poetically refers to the Dominican Republic in that country's [[national anthem]], ''[[Quisqueyanos valientes]]''. The Spanish rechristened the island ''Santo Domingo'', and the corresponding term ''[[Saint-Domingue]]'' was taken up by the French. Another indigenous name, ''Ayiti'' or variants thereof, was reintroduced in [[1804]] as the name for independent Haiti. The name Haiti was originally intended to mean the entire island, not just the western part, and in fact the present-day Dominican Republic was known briefly as [[Spanish Haiti]]. ''Bohio'' is yet a third indigenous name for the island.
[[Image:hispaniola_lrg.jpg|thumb|340px|Topography map of Hispaniola]]
{|
|- valign=top bgcolor="#FFD700"
! country
! [[population]]<br>(2002-07-01 est.)
! [[area]]<br>(km&sup2;)
! [[population density|density]]<br>(per km&sup2;)
|-
||[[Haiti]]
| align=right|7,063,722
| align=right|27,750
| align=right|255
|-
||[[Dominican Republic]]
| align=right|8,721,594
| align=right|48,730
| align=right|179
|-
!
! align=right|15,785,316
! align=right|[[1 E10 m²|76,480]]
! align=right|206
|}
After the French gained control of the western part of Hispaniola through the [[Treaty of Ryswick]], the western part quickly came to overshadow the east in both wealth and population. Indeed, the population of the Dominican Republic did not overtake that of Haiti until about [[1970]]. Haitians conquered the eastern part of the island on several occasions: in the [[1790s]] under [[Toussaint Louverture]] and in [[1821]]-[[1822]] under [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]].
<!-- what about Dessalines and Soulouqe, now? -->
==Geography==
Hispaniola is the second-largest island in the [[Caribbean]] (after [[Cuba]]), with an area of 76,480 km |
zed and covered with blood and mud" who had been inside a women's restroom at a [[restaurant]] near the crime scene. However vagrants were frequently reported fighting in back for discarded food {{fact}}. The following day when the victims were found, an attention seeking restaurant manager named Marty King --thinking there was a possible connection between the bloody, disoriented man and the killings--twice called police. Only after the second telephone call did police gather evidence from the restroom. This apparent neglect of an important lead was especially criticized after a hair identified as belonging to an African-American was recovered from one of the victims' clothes - although in this area there are more black people than white {{fact}}.
==Investigation==
A [[juvenile court|juvenile probation]] officer and many others including volunteer search and rescue workers with no affiliations to law enforcement were present when the bodies were discovered, hardly surprising in light of their role in the search. When police speculated about the assailant, the probation officer speculated that Echols was "capable" of committing the murders. The officer noted that Echols appearance had much in common with students at Marion High School who were often referred to as the "Trench Coat Mafia", because they wore long black rain coats even during warm and dry weather.
The [[West Memphis]] area was one of many communities then-swept with keen interest in [[satanic ritual abuse]], the widely-criticized belief that vast networks of satanic [[cult]]s were engaged in widespread crimes, including [[child abuse]], [[rape]] and [[human sacrifice]]. Supporters of the West Memphis Three allege that police reached hasty conclusions based on speculation or hysteria.
Police interviewed Echols on two days after the bodies were discovered. He denied any involvement, but when he subsequently took a polygraph he stopped answering questions when asked "Do you know who commited the murders?" When asked the reason for his silence, he said he did not want to be executed in the electric chair (Arkansas uses lethal injection). After a month had passed, with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him twice more as they had many other suspects.
On [[June 3]], police questioned Misskelley. He had been named as a person who might be able to provide useful information about Damien Echols by Vicky Hutcheson. Hutcheson's testimony would prove pivotal, but years later after serving a lengthy sentence for possession of a controlled substance she retracted her statements, saying police coerced and intimidated her. She also alleges a widespread conspiracy to keep her quiet {{fact}}. Ms. Hutcheson was under investigation by Detective Don Bray of Marion PD for allegedly writing bad checks, an offense for which she was never charged. Misskelley's parents were not present, which in light of his age (17 years old) is not unusual {{fact}}. Only 46 minutes of his confession was recorded, which again is not unusual {{fact}} since he confessed after less than four hours and twenty-seven minutes. During Jessie's trial, Dr. Richard Ofshe, a Pulitzer Prize winning expert on false confessions and police coercion, and Professor of Social Psychology at Berkeley, testified that the brief recording was a "classic example" of police coercion. Professor Ofshe has described Misskelly's statement as "the stupidest fucking confession I've ever seen" [http://www.wm3.org/display/quotes.php?id=42]. There is no evidence that Misskelly denied his role in the crime and subsequent to his conviction he confessed a second and third time, the latter of which with both of his attorneys present and the entire matter on tape. [http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/jmpc.html] [http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/jmfeb.html]
Misskelley is mildly [[mental retardation|mentally challenged]] (his IQ is 72), and was a [[minor]] when he was questioned, and though informed of his [[Miranda warning|Miranda]] rights, later claimed he did not fully understand them; these facts have led to widespread condemnation of his confession as coerced and unreliable. The Arkansas Supreme Court determined, in their lengthy review, that his confession was in fact voluntary and that he did, in fact, understand the warning and it's consequences. Misskelley specifically said he was "scared of Damien", during his first confession. Portions of Jessie's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on the front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal newspaper before any of the trials began.
Shortly after Misskelley's original confession, police arrested Echols and his close friend Baldwin.
Misskelley's attorney, Dan Stidham, who was later elected to municipal judge, has written a detailed critique of what he asserts are major police errors and misconceptions during their investigation.[http://www.wm3.org/live/caseintroduction/synopsis_dan.php]
==Suspects' background==
Baldwin and Misskelley had minor criminal records (for vandalism and [[shoplifting]], respectively) and Misskelley had a reputation for being hot tempered and engaging in frequent fistfights, but Echols had a more troubled past.
His family was very poor, had frequent visits from [[social work]]ers, and Echols rarely attended school. He had a tumultuous relationship with an on-again-off-again girlfriend, culminating when the pair ran off together. After breaking into a trailer during a rain storm, the pair was arrested, though only Echols was charged with [[burglary]].
Police heard rumors that the young lovers had planned to have a child and sacrifice the infant, and based on this story, had Echols insitutionalized for psychiatric evaluation. He was diagnosed as [[clinical depression|depressed]] and [[suicide|suicidal]], and prescribed [[imipramine]]. Testing demonstrated poor math skills, but also showed that Echols ranked above average in reading and verbal skills.
He had spent several months in mental institution in both Arkansas and his mental problems were severe enough to gain him "full disability" status from the Social Security Administration. During Echols' trial, Dr. George W. Woods would testify (for the defense) that Echols suffered from a "serious mental illness characterized by grandiose and persecutory delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, disordered thought processes, substantial lack of insight, and chronic, incapacitating mood swings."
==Trials==
Echols and Baldwin were tried together; Misskelley was tried separately.
On May 10, 1993, four days after the bodies were found, the police had not solved the cases. When Detective Bryn Ridge questioned Echols, he asked him how he thought the three victims died. Ridge's description of Echols's answer is abstracted as follows: "He stated that the boys probably died of mutilation, some guy had cut the bodies up, heard that they were in the water, they may have drowned. He said at least one was cut up more than the others. Purpose of the killing may have been to scare someone. He believed that it was only one person for fear of squealing by another involved." At the time Echols made the statement, there was no public knowledge that one of the children had been mutilated more severely than the others.
Miskelley's confession was also given to the jury. He stated that in the early morning hours of May 5, 1993, he received a phone call from Jason Baldwin. Baldwin asked Miskelley to accompany him and Damien Echols to the Robin Hood area. Miskelley agreed to go. They went to the area, which has a creek, and were in the creek when the victims rode up on their bicycles. Baldwin and Echols called to the boys, who came to the creek. The boys were severely beaten by Baldwin and Echols. At least two of the boys were raped and forced to perform oral sex on Baldwin and Echols. According to Miskelley, he was merely an observer.
While these events were taking place, Michael Moore tried to escape and began running. Miskelley chased him down and returned him to Baldwin and Echols. Miskelley also stated that Baldwin had used a knife to cut the boys in the facial area and that the Byers boy was cut on his penis. Echols used a large stick to hit one of the boys. All three boys had their clothes taken off and were tied up.
According to Miskelley, he ran away from the scene at some point after the boys were tied up. He did observe that the Byers boy was dead when he left. Sometime after Miskelley arrived home, Baldwin called saying, "we done it" and "what are we going to do if somebody saw us." Echols could be heard in the background. Miskelley was asked about his involvement in a cult. He said he had been involved for about three months. The participants would typically meet in the woods. They engaged in orgies and, as an initiation rite, killing and eating dogs. He noted that at one cult meeting, he saw a picture that Echols had taken of the three boys. He stated that Echols had been watching the boys.
Miskelley then went into further detail about the sexual molestation of the victims. At least one of the boys had been held by the head and ears while being accosted. Both the Byers boy and the Branch boy had been raped. All the boys, he said, were tied up with brown rope.
Anthony and Narlene Hollingsworth were well acquainted with Echols and testified that they saw Echols and his girlfriend, Domini Teer, walking after 9:30 on the night of the murders near the Blue Beacon Truck Stop, which is near Robin Hood woods where the bodies were found. The witnesses testified that Echols had on a dark-colored shirt and that his clothes were dirty. This evidence placed Echols in dirty clothes near the scene at a time close to the murders. Although not material to this point, other evidence established that Domini Teer mi |
on</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet ccTLDs</title>
<id>15419</id>
<revision>
<id>15912893</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-23T23:11:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joseph Dwayne</username>
<id>52361</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IRQ</title>
<id>15420</id>
<revision>
<id>30438521</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-07T05:26:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jsmethers</username>
<id>614213</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interrupt request]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of Internet top-level domains</title>
<id>15422</id>
<revision>
<id>41352558</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:15:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.209.228.19</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following is a '''list of currently existing Internet Top-level domains''' '''(TLDs'''). See [[Top-level domain]] for further information, including notes on TLDs which are not based on [[ISO 3166-1]].
{| border="1px" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
!iTLD!!Entity!!Notes
|-
| [[.arpa]] || Address and Routing Parameter Area || This is an internet infrastructure tld.
|-
| [[.root]] || unknown || This is in root for unknown purpose, with only one entry (a TXT record).
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
![[gTLD]]!!Entity!!Notes
|-
| [[.aero]] || air-transport industry || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.biz]] || business || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.cat]] || Catalan || This is a TLD for websites in the [[Catalan language]] or related to Catalan culture.
|-
| [[.com]] || commercial || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.coop]] || cooperatives || The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the [[Rochdale Principles]].
|-
| [[.edu]] || educational || The .edu TLD is limited to institutions of learning (mostly U.S.), such as 2 and 4-year colleges and universities.
|-
| [[.gov]] || U.S. government || The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. government entities and agencies
|-
| [[.info]] || information || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.int]] || international organizations || The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations.
|-
| [[.jobs]] || companies || The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a "company.jobs" domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers.
|-
| [[.mil]] || [[Military of the United States|United States Military]] || The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military
|-
| [[.mobi]] || mobile devices || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.museum]] || museums || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.name]] || individuals, by name || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.net]] || network || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.org]] || organization || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.pro]] || professions || Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed doctors, attorneys, and certified public accountants only. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials.
|-
| [[.travel]] || travel and travel-agency related sites || &nbsp;
|-
<!--
|-
| [[.xxx]] || Adult-oriented websites ([[Pornography]]) || &nbsp;
ICANN has approved this TLD in principle, but it has not been added to the root yet.
-->
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
![[ccTLD]]!!Country/dependency/region!!Notes
|-
| [[.ac]] || [[Ascension Island]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ad]] || [[Andorra]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ae]] || [[United Arab Emirates]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.af]] || [[Afghanistan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ag]] || [[Antigua and Barbuda]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ai]] || [[Anguilla]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.al]] || [[Albania]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.am]] || [[Armenia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.an]] || [[Netherlands Antilles]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ao]] || [[Angola]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.aq]] || [[Antarctica]] || Defined as per the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] as everything south of latitude 60°S
|-
| [[.ar]] || [[Argentina]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.as]] || [[American Samoa]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.at]] || [[Austria]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.au]] || [[Australia]] || Includes [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] and [[Coral Sea Islands]]
|-
| [[.aw]] || [[Aruba]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.az]] || [[Azerbaijan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ba]] || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bb]] || [[Barbados]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bd]] || [[Bangladesh]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.be]] || [[Belgium]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bf]] || [[Burkina Faso]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bg]] || [[Bulgaria]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bh]] || [[Bahrain]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bi]] || [[Burundi]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bj]] || [[Benin]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bm]] || [[Bermuda]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bn]] || [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bo]] || [[Bolivia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.br]] || [[Brazil]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bs]] || [[Bahamas]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bt]] || [[Bhutan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bv]] || [[Bouvet Island]] || Not in use
|-
| [[.bw]] || [[Botswana]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.by]] || [[Belarus]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.bz]] || [[Belize]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ca]] || [[Canada]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cc]] || [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cd]] || [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] || Formerly [[Zaire]]
|-
| [[.cf]] || [[Central African Republic]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cg]] || [[Republic of the Congo]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ch]] || [[Switzerland]] (Confoederatio Helvetica) || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ci]] || [[Côte d'Ivoire]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ck]] || [[Cook Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cl]] || [[Chile]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cm]] || [[Cameroon]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cn]] || [[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China|mainland]] only) || The [[special administrative region]]s of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] use separate Internet top-level domains. For the islands under the administration of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]], please refer to ".tw" .
|-
| [[.co]] || [[Colombia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cr]] || [[Costa Rica]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cu]] || [[Cuba]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cv]] || [[Cape Verde]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cx]] || [[Christmas Island]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cy]] || [[Cyprus]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.cz]] || [[Czech Republic]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.de]] || [[Germany]] (Deutschland) || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.dj]] || [[Djibouti]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.dk]] || [[Denmark]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.dm]] || [[Dominica]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.do]] || [[Dominican Republic]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.dz]] || [[Algeria]] || Not available for private use
|-
| [[.ec]] || [[Ecuador]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ee]] || [[Estonia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.eg]] || [[Egypt]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.er]] || [[Eritrea]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.es]] || [[Spain]] (España) || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.et]] || [[Ethiopia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.eu]] || [[European Union]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fi]] || [[Finland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fj]] || [[Fiji]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fk]] || [[Falkland Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fm]] || [[Federated States of Micronesia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fo]] || [[Faroe Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.fr]] || [[France]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ga]] || [[Gabon]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gb]] || [[United Kingdom]] || Seldom used; the primary ccTLD is [[.uk]]
|-
| [[.gd]] || [[Grenada]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ge]] || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gf]] || [[French Guiana]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gg]] || [[Guernsey]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gh]] || [[Ghana]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gi]] || [[Gibraltar]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gl]] || [[Greenland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gm]] || [[The Gambia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gn]] || [[Guinea]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gp]] || [[Guadeloupe]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gq]] || [[Equatorial Guinea]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gr]] || [[Greece]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gs]] || [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gt]] || [[Guatemala]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gu]] || [[Guam]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gw]] || [[Guinea-Bissau]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.gy]] || [[Guyana]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.hk]] || [[Hong Kong]] || Hong Kong is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.hm]] || [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.hn]] || [[Honduras]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.hr]] || [[Croatia]] (Hrvatska) || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ht]] || [[Haiti]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.hu]] || [[Hungary]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.id]] || [[Indonesia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ie]] || [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.il]] || [[Israel]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.im]] || [[Isle of Man]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.in]] || [[India]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.io]] || [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.iq]] || [[Iraq]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ir]] || [[Iran]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.is]] || [[Iceland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.it]] || [[Italy]] || Restricted to companies and individuals in the [[European Union]]
|-
| [[.je]] || [ |
ly over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a point.
It is extensively distributed in the tropical parts of [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers, and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant.
Its food consists mainly of [[termite]]s, which it obtains by opening their nests with its powerful sharp anterior (front) claws. As the insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly moving tongue covered with sticky saliva.
The Giant Anteater lives above ground, not burrowing underground like [[armadillo]]s. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female produces one offspring per birth.
The two tamandua anteaters, as typified by ''Tamandua'' (or ''Uroleptes'') ''tetradactyla'', are much smaller than the Giant Anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.
The little or two-toed or Silky Anteater (''Cyclopes'' or ''Cyclotorus didactylus'') is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about the size of a [[rat]], of a general yellowish color, and exclusively arboreal in its habits.
==Family order==
* '''ORDER XENARTHRA'''
** '''Family Myrmecophagidae'''
*** Silky Anteater, ''[[Cyclopes didactylus]]''
*** Giant Anteater, ''[[Myrmecophaga tridactyla]]''
*** Northern Tamandua, ''[[Tamandua mexicana]]''
*** Southern Tamandua, ''[[Tamandua tetradactyla]]''
** Family [[Megalonychidae]]: two toed sloths
** Family [[Bradypodidae]]: three toed sloths
** Family [[Dasypodidae]]: armadillos
=== Similar animals ===
* [[Pangolin]]s are also called ''scaly anteaters''.
* The [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus''), a [[marsupial]], formerly called the ''Banded Anteater''.
* [[Echidna]]s, a family of [[monotreme]]s, are still sometimes called ''spiny anteaters''.
* [[Aardvark]]s are African animals with similar habits.
== Anteaters as Mascots ==
The Anteater is the mascot of the [[University of California, Irvine]].
== References ==
* {{1911}}
{{Commons|Tamandua}}
[[Category:Mammals]]
[[Category:Xenarthrans]]
[[Category:Argentine fauna]]
==External links==
*[http://www.maiaw.com/anteater The Online Anteater: information, images, fun facts, and other stuff about the giant anteater]
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/anteater.shtml Giant anteater photo and natural history]
*[http://animals.mongabay.com/featured/Giant_Anteater.html Giant Anteater - links]
[[de:Ameisenbären]]
[[es:Oso hormiguero]]
[[eo:Formikomanĝuloj]]
[[fr:Myrmecophagidae]]
[[it:Myrmecophagidae]]
[[he:דובי נמלים]]
[[lt:Skruzdėdiniai]]
[[nl:Echte miereneters]]
[[no:Maurslukere]]
[[pl:Mrówkojady]]
[[pt:Tamanduá]]
[[ru:Муравьеды]]
[[simple:Anteater]]
[[sv:Myrslokar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 3</title>
<id>2279</id>
<revision>
<id>42114454</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:39:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angr</username>
<id>157842</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Births */ remove link to deleted article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=3}}
|}
'''April 3''' is the 93rd day of the year (94th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 272 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[33]] - [[Crucifixion]] of [[Jesus]] (traditional date)
*[[1077]] - Creation of the first [[Parliament]] of [[Friuli]]
*[[1559]] - The treaty, [[Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis]], is signed, ending the [[Italian Wars]].
*[[1860]] - The first successful [[Pony Express]] run from [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]] to [[Sacramento, California]] begins, and is completed on [[April 13]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States|Union]] forces capture [[Richmond, Virginia]], the capital of the break-away [[Confederate States of America]].
*[[1882]] - [[American Old West]] outlaw [[Jesse James 1847|Jesse James]] is shot in the back and killed in [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]] by Robert Ford for a $5,000 reward.
*[[1885]] - [[Gottlieb Daimler]] is granted a [[Germany|German]] [[patent]] for his [[engine]] design.
*[[1895]] - The [[libel]] trial instigated by [[Oscar Wilde]] against the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry|Marquess of Queensbury]] begins, eventually resulting in Wilde's arrest, trial and imprisonment on charges of [[homosexuality]].
*[[1896]] - The first publication of ''[[La Gazzetta dello Sport]]'' [[newspaper]] in [[Italy]].
*[[1917]] - [[Vladimir Lenin]] arrives at Petrograd Station in Russia from exile, marking the beginning of Bolshevik leadership in the Russian Revolution.
*[[1922]] - [[Joseph Stalin]] succeeds [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]] as leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1936]] - [[Richard Bruno Hauptmann]] is executed for the kidnapping and death of [[Lindbergh kidnapping|Charles Augustus Lindbergh III]], the baby son of Anne and world-famous pilot [[Charles Lindbergh]].
*[[1941]] - [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Germany|German]] troops march into [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Japan]]ese forces begin an all-out assault on the [[United States]] and [[Philippines | Filipino]] troops on the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. Bataan falls on [[April 9]] and the [[Bataan Death March]] began.
*[[1946]] - [[Japan]]ese Lt. General [[Masaharu Homma]] is executed outside [[Manila]] in the [[Philippines]] for leading the [[Bataan Death March]].
*[[1948]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry Truman]] signs the [[Marshall Plan]] which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countries.
*1948 - In [[Jeju]], [[South Korea]], locals simultaneously raid the island's police stations, marking the start of a civil-war-like period of violence and [[human rights abuses]] known as the [[Jeju massacre]].
*[[1953]] - ''[[TV Guide]]'' debuts.
*[[1955]] - The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] announces it will defend [[Allen Ginsberg]]'s book ''[[Howl]]'' against [[obscenity]] charges.
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] sings "[[Heartbreak Hotel]]" on the ''Milton Berle Show'', with an estimated 25% of the [[United States]] population viewing.
*[[1968]] - [[Simon and Garfunkel]] release the critically acclaimed album ''[[Bookends]]''.
*1968 - [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] delivers his "mountaintop" speech.
*[[1969]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnamization]] - U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Melvin Laird]] announces that the [[United States]] will start to "Vietnamize" the war effort.
*[[1971]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Séverine (singer)|Séverine]] wins the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Monaco]] singing "Un banc, un arbre, une rue" (A bench, a tree, a street).
*[[1972]] - The first ever [[mobile phone]] call is placed in [[New York City]]
*[[1974]] - [[The Super Outbreak]] occurs, with 148 tornadoes affecting 13 states and 1 Canadian province in 18 hours, the biggest tornado outbreak in recorded history. The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.
*1974 - An [[F4]] class tornado rips through [[Monticello, Indiana]], killing 8 and causing $100 million in damage (the cornerstone of the city hall is later found in rural Maine), while another tornado strikes [[Brandenburg, Kentucky]], killing over 30 individuals.
*[[1975]] - [[Bobby Fischer]] refuses to play in a [[chess]] match against [[Anatoly Karpov]], giving Karpov the title.
*[[1976]] - In [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], [[Brotherhood of Man]] wins the twenty-first [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing "Save Your Kisses For Me".
*[[1986]] - [[International Business Machines|IBM]] unveils the [[PC Convertible]], their first [[laptop computer]].
*[[1996]] - Suspected "Unabomber" [[Theodore Kaczynski]] is arrested at his [[Montana]] cabin.
*1996 - An [[Air Force]] 737 carrying [[United States Secretary of Commerce]] [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]] crashes in [[Croatia]], killing all 35 on-board, including Brown.
*[[1997]] - [[Thalit massacre]] begins in [[Algeria]]; all but 1 of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.
*[[2000]] - [[United States v. Microsoft]]: [[Microsoft]] is ruled to have violated [[United States]] [[antitrust]] laws by keeping "an oppressive thumb" on its competitors.
*[[2004]] - [[Islamist]] [[terrorists]] involved in the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]] are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves with explosives.
==Births==
*[[1151]] - [[Igor Svyatoslavich]], Russian prince (d. [[1202]])
*[[1245]] - King [[Philip III of France]] (d. [[1285]])
*[[1367]] - King [[Henry IV of England]] (d. [[1413]])
*[[1529]] - [[Michael Neander]], German mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1581]])
*[[1593]] - [[George Herbert]], English poet and orator (d. [[1633]])
*[[1643]] - [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], general of the Holy Roman Empire (d. [[1690]])
*[[1683]] - [[Mark Catesby]], English naturalist (d. [[1749]])
*[[1693]] - [[George Edwards]], English naturalist (d. [[1773]])
*[[1715]] - [[John Hanson]], American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1783]])
*1715 - [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]], English physician and scientist (d. [[1787]])
*[[1764]] - [[John Abernethy (surgeon)|John Abernathy]], English surgeon (d. [[1831]])
*[[1769]] - [[Christian Gunther von Bernstorff]], Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomat (d. [[1835]])
*[[1781]] - [[Swaminarayan]], The Supreme God (d. [[1830]])
*[[1783]] - [[W |
e town Arizonac as Arizona. As the maps were republished and circulated in [[Europe]], the name Arizona became attached to the whole northern part of [[New Spain]].
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] words "árida zona" ("arid zone") This would be grammatically incorrect however, since in Spanish, the noun precedes the adjective.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Arizona]]''
Beyond its original [[Native Americans in the United States|native]] inhabitants, [[Marcos de Niza]], a [[Franciscan]], explored the area in [[1539]]. [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado|Coronado]]'s expedition entered the area in [[1540]]&ndash;[[1542|42]] during its search for [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cíbola]]. Father Kino developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians [[Christianity]] in [[Pimería Alta]] (now southern Arizona and northern [[Sonora]]) in the [[1690s]] and early [[1700s]]. [[Spain]] founded fortified towns (presidios) at Tubac in [[1752]] and Tucson in [[1775]]. All of what is now Arizona became part of Mexico's northwest frontier upon the Mexican assertion of independence from Spain in [[1810]]. The United States took possession of most of Arizona at the end of the [[Mexican War]] in [[1848]]. In [[1853]] the land below the [[Gila River]] was acquired from Mexico in the [[Gadsden Purchase]]. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until it was organized into a separate territory on [[February 24]], [[1863]].
[[Brigham Young]] sent [[Mormon]]s to Arizona in the mid to late [[1800s]]. They founded [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Snowflake, Arizona|Snowflake]], [[Heber-Overgaard, Arizona|Heber]], [[Safford, Arizona|Safford]] and other towns. They also settled in the [[Phoenix Valley]] (or "Valley of the Sun"), [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]], among other areas.
Arizona was the site of a [[Germany|German]] and [[Italy|Italian]] prisoner of war camp during [[World War II|WWII]]. The site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family, and is currently utilized as the [[Phoenix Zoo]]. A [[Japan|Japanese]] internment camp was located on [[Mount Lemmon]], just outside of the state's southeastern city of Tucson.
Arizona became a U.S. state on [[February 14]], [[1912]].
==Law and government==
''See: [[United_States_Congress/Arizona|List of Congressmen]]''
[[Image:AZ_capitol.jpg|thumb|left|Arizona State Capitol, Phoenix]]
The state capitol of Arizona is in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]. The original capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900), when the area was still a territory, and became the official state capitol with Arizona's admission to the union in 1912.
Separate legislative buildings for the [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original capitol building was converted into a museum.
The capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped [[Wesley Bolin Memorial Park]], named after [[Wesley Bolin]], a governor who died in office in the 1970's. Numerous monuments and memorials are on the site, including the anchor and signal mast from the [[USS Arizona]] (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor); a granite version of the [[Ten Commandments]]; and the [[Arizona Vietnam Veterans' Memorial]].
Arizona's legislature is [[bicameral]] (like the legislature of every other state except [[Nebraska]]) and consists of a thirty-member [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] and a 60-member [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Legislators are elected for two-year terms.
Each Legislature covers a two-year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns sine die (i.e., terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter the session can only be extended by a majority vote of members present of each house.
The majority party is the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]], which has held power since [[1950]]. The [[2002]] budget of the Arizona state legislature was $14.3 billion, while the executive budget was $13.8 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, money has also been allocated for tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and health insurance for government employees. The executive budget has allocated money to previously passed legislation. Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two year terms and there are no terms limits. However, no more than four terms may be served consecutively.
Arizona's [[executive branch]] is headed by a governor elected for a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. The current Governor of Arizona is [[Janet Napolitano]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]. She has been governor since [[2003]].
''See:[[List of Arizona Governors]]''
The two U.S. Senators from Arizona are Senator [[John McCain]] (Republican) and Senator [[Jon Kyl]] (Republican).
Arizona's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are [[Rick Renzi]] (R-1), [[Trent Franks]] (R-2), [[John Shadegg]] (R-3), [[Ed Pastor]] (D-4), [[J.D. Hayworth]] (R-5), [[Jeff Flake]] (R-6), [[Raul Grijalva]] (D-7), and [[Jim Kolbe]] (R-8). Arizona gained two seats in the House of Representatives due to [[redistricting]] based on [[United_States_2000_census|Census 2000]].
While the Republican Party has dominated Arizona politics since the [[1950s]], the state did support one Democratic presidential candidate in that time, [[Bill Clinton]] in [[1996]]. In [[2004]], [[George W. Bush]] won the state's ten [[electoral vote|electoral votes]] by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.9 percent of the vote. The state's concentration of Democrats is strongest in the City of Tucson (excluding Tucson's historically Republican-dominated suburbs), Yuma, and [[Santa Cruz County, Arizona|Santa Cruz]] and [[Apache County, Arizona|Apache]] counties.
==Geography==
[[Image:Noaa topo az.jpg|thumb|200px|State Topography Image: Arizona]]
{|
|-
| ''See:'' || ''[[List of Arizona counties]]''
| ''[[List of Arizona rivers]]'' || ''[[List of Arizona lakes]]''
|-
| &nbsp;
| ''[[List of Arizona state parks|Arizona state parks]]''
| ''[[List of U.S. National Forests]]''
|}
Like other states of the Southwest, Arizona has an abundance of topographical characteristics in addition to its [[desert]] climes. More than half of the state features [[mountains]] and [[plateaus]] and contains the largest stand of Ponderosa pine in the [[United States]]. The [[Mogollon Rim]], a 600&nbsp;meter (2000-foot) [[escarpment]], cuts across the central section of the state and marks the southwestern edge of the [[Colorado Plateau]], where the state experienced its [[Rodeo-Chediski fire|worst forest fire ever]] in [[2002]]. Arizona belongs firmly within the [[Basin and Range Province]] of North America. The region was shaped by prehistoric [[volcanism]], followed by a cooling-off and related subsidence. The entire region is slowly sinking.
[[Image:Colorado River from Desert View-1000px.jpeg|thumb|left|The Grand Canyon.]]
The [[Grand Canyon]] is a colorful, steep-sided [[gorge]], carved by the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], in northern Arizona. The canyon is one of the [[seven natural wonders of the world]] and is largely contained in the [[Grand Canyon National Park]]&mdash;one of the first [[national parks]] in the [[United States]]. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was a major proponent of the Grand Canyon area, visiting on numerous occasions to hunt [[mountain lion]] and enjoy the breathtaking scenery.
The Canyon, created by the [[Colorado River]] cutting a channel over millions of years, is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 4 to 18 miles (6 to 29 kilometers) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly 2 billion years of the [[Earth]]'s history has been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of [[sediment]] as the [[Colorado Plateau]]s have uplifted.
Arizona does not observe [[Daylight saving time|DST]], except in the [[Navajo Nation]] located in the northeastern region of the state.
:Statistics
:*''Largest City:'' [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]
:*''Highest Point:'' [[Humphreys Peak]] - 12,633 ft. (3851 m) near Flagstaff
:*''Lowest Point:'' [[Colorado River]] - 70 ft. (21 m)
==Art==
Arizona has featured a continuous string of dancing and performing groups of many ethnicities. The state is a recognized center of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] art, with a number of galleries such as the [[Heard Museum]] showcasing historical and contemporary works. [[Sedona]] and [[Tubac]] are known as budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities.
Many tourist souvenirs produced in Arizona or by its residents display characteristic images, such as sunsets, coyotes, and desert plants. Several major Hollywood films, such as ''[[U-Turn]]'', ''[[Waiting to Exhale]]'', ''[[Just One of the Guys]]'', ''[[Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', and ''[[Raising Arizona]]'' have been made there (as indeed have many [[Westerns]]).
==Climate==
Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of climates. In the lower elevations, the climate is pri |
e the planet of Muad'dib and Alia. The book opens with a meeting of the [[High Council|high council]] of the Imperial house. Those present - [[Alia Atreides|Alia]], [[Duncan Idaho]], [[Irulan]] (who since the death of Paul, has taken the role of caregiver to the Atreides children) and [[Stilgar]] - lament the fact that they have lost the initiative in the political arena. Paul Atreides had been powerless to control the Jihad and had left only the shadow of his religious mantle. Now Alia and her council are even less capable of controlling it. They are finding themselves tightening their grip on politics and ritual, yet only losing more control.
The two young children of Paul, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]] and [[Ghanima]], are not normal nine year old children. Like Alia, they were forced into consciousness before birth and remember the lives and memories of all their ancestors. The children are very troubled because they have come to the conclusion that Alia has become possessed by one of her ancestors (become an 'Abomination'), and fear that a similar fate awaits them. They also realized that the quickening transformation of Dune will kill all the sandtrout and bring to an end the [[Sandworm (Dune)|Giant Worms]], and inevitably to the spice, a fact that only they and Alia know.
Leto has an additional fear as well: he has started to have dreams which he is coming to believe are prophetic, like his father had when he was a similar age. He fears being locked into an early prescient vision as he suspects happened to his father before him. He also has the added pressure that Alia is pushing him to enter into the spice trance, in order to unlock the door to prophetic visions, because she feels the need for such visions, in order to rule the empire, yet struggles to achieve them at all for herself.
Things have reached a heightened note of tension because [[Jessica Atreides]] is coming to Arrakis to visit her grandchildren from her self-imposed retreat on [[Caladan]]. Alia fears this utterly because she has indeed become possessed by the [[Vladimir Harkonnen|Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]], and is sure that her mother will notice, despite her erroneous belief that no-one has yet recognised the change in her. The Baron is leading her far away from the Atreides way of doing things, she has even taken a lover behind Duncan's back, a priest called [[Javid]].
Out in the desert, a new religious figure has arisen among the Fremen, who preaches against the injustices of the religious government and the changes among the Fremen. He is called 'The Preacher', and some even believe he is actually Paul Atreides.
Meanwhile on [[Salusa Secundus]] the [[House Corrino|Corrino]]s are plotting again for power. [[Wensicia]], younger sister of Irulan, rules in the name of her son, [[Farad'n]]. She has plans of Empire for her son, and has hatched a plot to assassinate the twins.
Jessica arrives on the planet already wary. She has been approached by the Bene Gesserit, and forced to recognise that she has been ignoring important duties. She makes her peace with the sisterhood, and is apparently welcomed back. With the warnings of the Sisterhood, she arrives back on Arrakis fearing that Alia and her grandchildren have fallen into abomination. At the landing field she meets Alia, and recognises straight away that for Alia, at least, this is true. Alia is actually relieved by this - the time of concealment is over.
A situation develops where everyone but Stilgar and Duncan Idaho have plans for the twins, but what no-one realizes is that the twins are pawns of no-one, and have plans of their own.
Jessica arranges a meeting with Ghanima. She sees no signs of abomination on either of the twins, but Leto shows signs of concealing something so she excludes him from the meeting. Jessica and Ghanima meet truly as grandmother and granddaughter, and do not hide the love between them, straight away finding a common cause. Jessica learns the twins are aware Alia has fallen into abomination, and their speculation that undergoing the spice trance was Alia's fatal mistake. She quickly confirms that Ghanima is not possessed but still worries about Leto. Ghanima calms her fears on that score, but Ghanima admits she worries for him.
Jessica next talks to Leto. Their meeting is far more confrontational. Leto controls the path of the conversation. Firstly he reveals to her his understanding of how she had been manipulated by the Bene Gesserit into coming to Arrakis through the conditioning of her training. Leto orders her to let herself be kidnapped.
Leto talks to Stilgar and shakes up his universe. First he shakes up Stilgar's presumptions about him, Leto, by pointing out his memories and experiences go back far further than Stilgar, and that he is most suited to be Emperor. He lets Stilgar know that he is starting to have dreams of prophecy. He tells Stilgar that in one future, he is killed at the spot they are talking. He orders Stilgar to flee with Ghanima into the desert if that happens. He also undermines Stilgar's support for Alia, pointing out the flaws in her thinking, the destructive place it will take the Empire and the Fremen, and the fact she is no longer his friend. He makes Stilgar realize that change is coming and that traditional thinking was not the absolute guide Stilgar had thought it was.
At Jessica's first reception with Alia, an assassination attempt is made on Jessica's life by minions of Alia/The Baron. Only with the help of old fedaykin companions of Paul is Jessica able to escape into the desert. A rebellion breaks out among the Fremen inspired by this latest injustice, a rebellion made all the more dangerous and legitimate because the mother of Muad'dib supports it and so counterweighs Alia's own religious mantle. Jessica presses for Alia to be tested for possession.
At this time the twins choose to go out into the desert during the night. They do this even though they are aware that an attack will be made on their lives, prewarned by a vision of Leto's. The twins are attacked by two Laza Tigers, but they manage to kill the tigers, despite an injury to Ghanima. They then institute their own plan; Ghanima uses a hypnotic technique to convince herself that her brother was killed by the tigers, and goes back to Sietch Tabr grief stricken. Ironically, as a beneficial side effect of this hypnotic technique she finds that it gives immunity from the voices within.
Meanwhile Farad'n has been told about the assassination attempt on Leto and Ghanima. He is shocked, not so much at the attempt, but at the clumsiness of it. But now he realizes the stakes involved.
Duncan meanwhile is aware that Alia is cuckolding him with Javid, which he naturally enough finds heartbreaking, but he is utterly distraught with the realization that Alia is suffering from possession. He comes to realize that Alia is possessed when she suggests to him to get rid of Jessica. He realizes that on top of the fact that it is not the sort of behaviour an Atreides indulges in, that if she was in contact with her mother within her mind she would not even consider this, so obviously she is prevented from this. He concludes that she is possessed. Alia implies to Duncan she would like her mother to disappear. Duncan offers to make it happen, and Alia 'reluctantly' agrees.
Duncan does make Jessica disappear but not as Alia expects. Duncan 'kidnaps' Jessica and takes her to Salusa Secundus, where she is to meet an interesting pupil. Jessica, unsure of Duncan's motives, asks who he serves. He says the Preacher. She asks if it is her son. He answers 'I wish I knew.'
Duncan and Jessica arrive on Salusa. Farad'n informs Jessica with some compassion that her grandson has been killed, though her granddaughter survived. The Bene Gesserit have formally protested to CHOAM concerning the Corrino assassination attempt. Farad'n uses the situation to force his formal confirmation of power from his mother in front of witnesses. Jessica and Farad'n make a bargain. Jessica will announce that she has come to Salusa of her own free will. Farad'n will send his mother off into exile. Jessica will train Farad'n in the ways of the Bene Gesserit. The Bene Gesserit promise Farad'n the throne with Ghanima as his mate. Duncan attempts to commit suicide when he hears that Alia has offered herself as wife to Farad'n, an offer Farad'n was not foolish enough to accept.
Alia dresses as a commoner and goes to witness a speech by the Preacher in order to determine whether or not he is in fact Paul, her brother. Partway through the speech, the Preacher directs himself at Alia, seeing through her disguise, and eventually whispers in her ear that she is his sister. Alia is momentarily paralyzed by the revelation while the crowd disperses.
Duncan and Jessica talk. Duncan Idaho formally withdraws from Atreides service. He insults Jessica and advises Farad'n that he should send Jessica back to the Bene Gesserit.
Meanwhile Leto went off seeking his father.
Leto knew that in past centuries there was once a renegade tribe of Fremen called the Iduali or "Water Insects" who lived at a place called Jacurutu, also Fondak. Also he discovered there was a village, or sietch, close to the site of old Jacurutu called Shuloch, which was inhabited by the same Iduali tribe. The Iduali in the remote past had killed other Fremen to take their water. In retaliation for this, the other Fremen of Dune massacred the Iduali and declared their sietch taboo, but the surviving Iduali still secretly lived there. Jacurutu/Fondak/Shuloch was in most people's minds just a legend, and it was thus an ideal hiding place.
Leto went to Jacurutu to seek asylum.
Leto finds Jacurutu, but as he tries to infiltrate the camp he is captured. When he wakes up, he discovers that he has been captured by [[Gurney Halleck]] and a certain Namri. They tell him he has come to school. He is forcibly injected with Spi |
at the time. The Seychelles also launched a sovereignty claim on several of the Islands.
The [[Ilois]], who now reside in Mauritius and the Seychelles have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia, winning an important legal victory in [[High Court of Justice]] in 2000. However, this judgement was overturned by [[order-in-council]] in June 2004, ending any chance of legal redress from British courts. The Ilois and their supporters are currently appealing this decision to the European Court of Human Rights.
==Politics and law==
{{main|Government of British Indian Ocean Territory}}
As a territory of the [[United Kingdom]], the head of state is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. There is no Governor appointed to represent the Queen on the territory, as there are no native inhabitants. The head of government is the [[Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Commissioner]], currently Tony Crombie (since January [[2004]], replacing David Ross MacLennan) and Administrator Tony Humphries (since February [[2005]], replacing Charles A. Hamilton), all of whom reside in the UK.
The laws of the territory are based on the constitution, set out in the British Indian Ocean Territory ( Constitution) Order 2004. Applicable treaties between the United Kingdom and the United States govern the use of the military base. The United States are required to ask permission of the United Kingdom if they are using the base for offensive military action.
The UK has an agreement with Mauritius to return the territory in the event that they are not longer required for defence purposes.
== Geography and communications ==
{{main|Geography of British Indian Ocean Territory}}
[[Image:Biot-map.png|thumb|300px|Map of the British Indian Ocean Territory since 1976]]
[[Image:SeychellesBIOT1970.jpg|250px|thumb|BIOT prior to Seychelles independence in 1976. (Desroches is not shown, but is a part of the [[Amirante Islands]]).]]
The territory is an archipelago of 2,300 islands, the largest being Diego Garcia. The total area of the territory is 60 sq km. The terrain is flat and low, with a typical elevantion of 4 metres. The climate is tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds.
Most of the islands in the territory have no [[road]]s of any sort; Diego Garcia has a short stretch of paved road between the port and airfield; most [[transport]] is by [[bicycle]]. Diego Garcia includes a major naval [[harbor|port]] but no other island has a port or harbour. The only [[airport]] is the military base on Diego Garcia, which has numerous paved runways, some over 3000 metres long.
== Economy ==
All economic activity is concentrated on [[Diego Garcia]], where joint UK-US defence facilities are located. Approximately 2,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or [[Ilois]], were forcibly removed to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in [[1995]], there were approximately 1700 UK and US military personnel and 1500 civilian contractors living on the island. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, [[Mauritius]], the [[Philippines]], and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
The licensing of [[Fishing industry|commercial fishing]] provides an annual income of about one million dollars for the Territory. [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040621/text/40621w13.htm#40621w13.html_sbhd2].
Separate telephone facilities for military and public needs are available, providing all standard commercial telephone services, including connection to the Internet. International telephone service is carried by satellite. The Territory has three radio broadcast stations, one AM and two FM, and one television broadcast station. Its Internet [[Country codes|country code]] (top-level domain) is IO. Postage stamps have been issued for British Indian Ocean Territory since [[17 January]] [[1968]].
{{Africa}}
{{British dependencies}}
==External links==
* [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1018952687077 UK Foreign Office- profile]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/io.html CIA World Factbook Entry]
{{commons|British Indian Ocean Territory}}
{{Wiktionary|British Indian Ocean Territory}}
[[Category:British Indian Ocean Territory|*]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[af:Britse Indiese Oseaan Gebied]]
[[ca:Territori Britànic de l'Oceà Índic]]
[[cs:Britské indickooceánské území]]
[[de:Britisches Territorium im Indischen Ozean]]
[[es:Territorio Británico en el Océano Índico]]
[[eo:Brita Hindoceana Teritorio]]
[[fr:Territoire britannique de l'océan Indien]]
[[gl:Territorio Británico do Océano Índico]]
[[ko:영국령 인도양 지역]]
[[id:Teritorial Britania di Samudra Hindia]]
[[is:Bresku Indlandshafseyjar]]
[[he:הטריטוריה הבריטית באוקיינוס ההודי]]
[[nl:Brits Territorium in de Indische Oceaan]]
[[ja:イギリス領インド洋地域]]
[[no:Det britiske territoriet i Indiahavet]]
[[pl:Brytyjskie Terytorium Oceanu Indyjskiego]]
[[pt:Território Britânico do Oceano Índico]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen Intian valtameren alue]]
[[sv:Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen]]
[[uk:Британські території в Індійському океані]]
[[zh:英屬印度洋領地]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3469</id>
<revision>
<id>42087902</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:19:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.60.59.17|216.60.59.17]] to last version by Kuru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;"
|+
<big>'''British Virgin Islands'''</big>
|-
|style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2|
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-
|align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the British Virgin Islands]]
|align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Coat of arms of British Virgin Islands.png|100px|Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands]]
|-
|align="center" width="140px"|(<small>[[Flag of the British Virgin Islands|Flag]]</small>)
|align="center" width="140px"|(<small>[[Coat of Arms of the British Virgin Islands|Coat of Arms]]</small>)
|}
|-
|align="center" colspan=2 |<font size="-1">''National [[motto]]: <br/> The Land, The People, The Light''</font>
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[Image:LocationBritishVirginIslands.png]]
|-
|width="115px"|[[Official language]]
|[[English language|English]]
|-
|[[Political status]]
|Non-[[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|-
|[[Capital]]
|[[Road Town]]
|-
|[[Governor of the British Virgin Islands|Governor]]
|[[Tom Macan]]
|-
|[[Heads of Government of the British Virgin Islands|Chief minister]]
|[[Orlando Smith]]
|-
|[[Area]] <br/> &nbsp;- Total <br/> &nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 176th]] <br/> [[1 E8 m²|153 km&sup2;]] <br/> 1.6%
|-
|[[Population]] <br/> &nbsp;- Total ([[2002]]) <br/> &nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 175th]] <br/> 21,730 <br/> 260/km&sup2;
|-
|[[Currency]]
|[[US dollar]]
|-
|[[Time zone]]
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4
|-
|[[National anthem]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
|[[.vg]]
|-
|[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
|[[Area code 284|1-284]]
|}
The '''British Virgin Islands''' is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It consists of over 50 islands and cays located in the [[Caribbean]], to the east of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]. Originally part of the [[Dutch Empire]], the Islands were acquired by [[England]] in [[1672]].
The Islands were named by [[Christopher Columbus]] after [[Saint Ursula]], who by legend had a following of 11,000 [[virgin]] maids.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the British Virgin Islands]]''
The Islands were first settled by [[Arawak Indians]] from [[South America]] in around [[100 BC]]. They settled the Islands until the [[15th century]] when they were removed by the more aggressive [[Caribs]], a tribe from the [[Lesser Antilles]] islands, after whom the [[Caribbean Sea]] is named.
In [[1493]], The Islands were sighted and named by [[Christopher Columbus]] on his second voyage to the Americas. The [[Spanish Empire]] acquired the Islands in the early [[16th century]], mining [[copper]] on [[Virgin Gorda]]. The Dutch established a permanent settlement on [[Tortola]] in [[1648]]. In [[1672]], the English arrived in the region, and annexed the Islands, removing the Dutch populations from Tortola in 1672, and from Anegada and Virgin Gorda in 1680. The English introduced [[sugar cane]] to the Islands, which was to become the main crop, and source of foreign trade. Slaves were brought from [[Africa]] to work on the sugar cane plantations. The Islands prospered economically until the growth in the [[sugar beet]] crop in Europe and the United States significantly reduced sugar cane production.
I |
t;
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,483</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,433</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,013</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Europe n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,772</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,205</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,858</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,251</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,579</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,314</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,546</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,403</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">275,665</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">237,950</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">191,484</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,248</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">113,383</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,630</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,135</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Armenia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,166</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,628</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;China 1/</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46,129</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43,560</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56,756</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106,688</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,468</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,042</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">758</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;India</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,850</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,901</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,664</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,031</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,143</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">586</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Japan</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70,993</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81,502</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67,744</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24,788</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,292</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">401</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Palestine</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,137</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,203</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Syria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,227</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,901</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkey in Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46,654</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,019</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,729</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&am |
DESCRIPTION=Sea explorer
|DATE OF BIRTH=Spring [[1480]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Sabrosa]], [[Portugal]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 27]], [[1521]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Mactan Island]], [[Cebu]], [[Philippines]]
}}
[[Category:1480 births|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:1521 deaths|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:History of the Philippines|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Age of Discovery|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[ar:ماجلان]]
[[bg:Фернандо Магелан]]
[[bs:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[br:Fernan Magalhaes]]
[[ca:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[cs:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[da:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[de:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[es:Fernando de Magallanes]]
[[eo:Fernão de MAGALHÃES]]
[[eu:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[fa:فردیناند ماژلان]]
[[fr:Fernand de Magellan]]
[[fy:Ferdinand Magellaan]]
[[gl:Fernán de Magalláns]]
[[ko:페르디난드 마젤란]]
[[hr:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[io:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[id:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[is:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[it:Ferdinando Magellano]]
[[he:פרדיננד מגלן]]
[[jv:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[la:Ferdinandus Magellanus]]
[[lt:Ferdinandas Magelanas]]
[[mk:Фердинанд Магелан]]
[[ms:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[nl:Ferdinand Magellaan]]
[[ja:フェルディナンド・マゼラン]]
[[no:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[nn:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[pl:Ferdynand Magellan]]
[[pt:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[ro:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[ru:Магеллан, Фернан]]
[[sco:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[simple:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[sk:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[sl:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[sr:Фердинанд Магелан]]
[[fi:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[sv:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[tl:Fernando de Magallanes]]
[[vi:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[tr:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[uk:Маґеллан Фердинанд]]
[[zh:斐迪南·麥哲倫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freedom of speech</title>
<id>11765</id>
<revision>
<id>42104244</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petros471</username>
<id>390927</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverting testing, patent nonsense and/or vandalism to revision ID 42090256 using [[WP:POPUP|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Globalize}}
{{dablink|This article is about freedom of speech as a general concept. For freedom of speech in specific jurisdictions see [[Freedom of speech (international)]].}}
[[Image:GroenLinks demonstration 20041002 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A public [[demonstration]]]]
'''Freedom of speech''' is often regarded as an integral concept in modern [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], where it is understood to outlaw [[censorship]]. The right to freedom of speech is guaranteed under international law through numerous human rights instruments, notably under Article 19 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and Article 10 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], although implementation remains lacking in many countries. The synonymous term '''freedom of expression''' is sometimes preferred, since the right is not confined to verbal speech but is understood to protect any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.
The right to freedom of expression is not absolute; governments may still prohibit certain damaging types of expressions. Under international law, restrictions on free speech are required to comport with a strict three part test: they must be provided by law, pursue an aim recognized as legitimate, and be necessary (i.e., proportionate) for the accomplishment of that aim. Amongst the aims considered legitimate are protection of the rights and reputations of others (prevention of [[slander and libel|defamation]]), and the protection of [[national security]] and public order, health and morals. It is generally recognised that restrictions should be the exception and free expression the rule; nevertheless, compliance with this principle is often lacking.
== History==
The modern legistlation concerning freedom of speech and public access to information was first instituted in the Realm of Sweden in 1766. This is mainly thanks to the efforts of the Finnish philosopher and classical liberal [[Anders Chydenius]] (1729&ndash;1803). He was a [[classical liberal]], who argued for free trade and freedom of information to ensure the correct [[feedback]] to legistlative processes and decisions of resource allocation:
:''No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organisation of the state, as without it, the [[Riksdag of the Estates|estates]] would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of the rights of government, and their own responsibilities. Education and good conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years.'' &mdash; Chydenius' memo concerning the law for freedom of information
The philosopher [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] (1805&ndash;1859) observed that people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government retribution but because of social pressures. When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions. While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the ambit of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a [[civil liberty]], or freedom from government action.
== Theories of free speech ==
===Overview===
It is important to understand the various theoretical rationales for freedom of speech if we are to form views about the concept's true nature and its rational limits. In part, the justification for free speech is a general [[liberal]] or [[libertarian]] presumption against coercing individuals from living how they please and doing what they want. However, a number of more specific justifications are commonly proposed for freedom of speech.
For example, [[Beverley McLachlin|Justice McLachlan]] of the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Canadian Supreme Court]] identified the following in ''[[R v. Keegstra]]'', a 1990 case on hate speech: (1) free speech promotes "the free flow of ideas essential to political democracy and democratic institutions" and limits the ability of the state to subvert other rights and freedoms; (2) it promotes a marketplace of ideas, which includes, but is not limited to, the search for truth; (3) it is intrinsically valuable as part of the [[self-actualisation]] of speakers and listeners; and (4) it is justified by the dangers for good government of allowing its suppression.
Such reasons perhaps overlap. Together, they provide a widely accepted rationale for the recognition of freedom of speech as a basic political or civil liberty.
Each of these justifications can be elaborated in a variety of ways and some may need to be qualified. The first and fourth can be bracketed together as democratic justifications, or a justification relating to self-governance. They relate to aspects of free speech's political role in a democratic society. The second is related to the discovery of truth. The third relates most closely to general libertarian values but stresses the particular importance of language, symbolism and representation for our lives and [[self-governance|autonomy]].
This analysis suggests a number of conclusions. First, there are powerful overlapping arguments for free speech as a basic political principle in any liberal democracy. Second, however, free speech is not a simple and absolute concept but a liberty that is justified by even deeper values. Third, the values implicit in the various justifications for free speech may not apply equally strongly to all kinds of speech in all circumstances.
===Self-governance===
Freedom of speech is crucial in any democracy, because open discussions of candidates are essential for voters to make informed decisions during elections. It is through speech that people can influence their government's choice of policies. Also, public officials are held accountable through criticisms that can pave the way for their replacement. The [[United States|US]] Supreme Court has spoken of the ability to criticize government and government officials as "the central meaning of the First Amendment." ''[[New York Times v. Sullivan]]''. But "guarantees for speech and press are not the preserve of political expression or comment upon public affairs, essential as those are to healthy government." ''[[Time, Inc. v. Hill]]''
Some suggest that when citizens refrain from voicing their discontent because they fear retribution, the government can no longer be responsive to them, thus it is less accountable for its actions. Defenders of free speech often allege that this is the main reason why governments suppress free speech--to avoid accountability.
However, it may be argued that ''some'' restrictions on freedom of speech may be compatible with democracy or even necessary to protect it. For example, such arguments are used to justify restrictions on the support of [[Nazi]] ideas in post-war [[Germany]].
=== Discovering truth===
A classic argument for protecting freedom of speech as a fundamental right is that it is essential for the discovery of truth. This argument is particularly associated with the British philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]]. Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] wrote that "the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out." In ''[[Abrams v. United States]]'' Ju |
erica was over 60,000, though these were spread from [[Canada]] to [[Florida]].{{ref|British}}
[[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Spain]] entered the war against Great Britain in an attempt to dilute Britain's emerging [[superpower]] status. Early on, all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the American rebels. [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France officially entered the war]] in 1778 and soon sent troops, ships, and military equipment to fight against the British for the remainder of the war. Spain entered the war in 1779, officially as an ally of France but not the United States&mdash;Spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in [[Spanish Empire|her own empire]]. The Netherlands entered the war late in 1780, but was soon overwhelmed by the British.
===Blacks and Native Americans===
[[African-Americans]], [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] and [[free black]]s, served on both sides during the war. Black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South, where slaveowners feared arming slaves. [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], the Royal Governor of [[Virginia]], issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British; [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] issued a similar edict in New York in 1779. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms. Many of the rest served as orderlies, mechanics, laborers, servants, scouts and guides, although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the British forces, and a number were driven out of the British lines when food ran low. Despite Dunmore's promises, the majority were not given their freedom.{{ref|black_loyalists}}
In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in [[Rhode Island]] and [[Massachusetts]]; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters. Another all-black unit came from [[Haiti]] with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Patriot cause.{{ref|black_patriots}}
Most [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] communities east of the [[Mississippi River]] were affected by the war, many divided over the question of which side to support. Most Native Americans who joined the fight fought against the United States, since native lands were threatened by expanding American settlement. An estimated 13,000 warriors fought on the British side; the largest group, the [[Iroquois Confederacy]], fielded about 1,500 warriors against the Americans.{{ref|warriors}}
== War in the North ==
=== Massachusetts, 1774 to 1776 ===
[[Image:American Revolution Campaigns 1775 to 1781.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War]]
In 1774, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] effectively [[Massachusetts Government Act|abolished the provincial government]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[Lieutenant General]] [[Thomas Gage]], already the [[commander-in-chief]] of British troops in North America, was also appointed governor of Massachusetts and was instructed by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George's]] government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony. However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Gage commanded four [[regiment]]s of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries.
On the night of [[April 18]] [[1775]], General Gage sent 900 men to seize [[munition]]s stored by the colonial militia at [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. Several riders—including [[Paul Revere]]—alerted the countryside, and when the British troops entered [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] on the morning of April 19, they found 75 [[Minutemen (militia)|minutemen]] formed up on the village common. Shots were exchanged, and the British moved on to Concord, where there was more fighting. By the time the "redcoats" (as the British soldiers were called) began the return march, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fight ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily. With the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]]—the "[[shot heard 'round the world]]"—the war had begun.
Afterwards, thousands of militiamen converged on Boston, [[siege of Boston|bottling up the British]] in the city. Late in May, Gage received by sea about 4,500 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war: [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], [[John Burgoyne]], and [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]. They formulated a plan to break out of the city.
On [[June 17]], [[1775]], British forces under General Howe seized the Charleston peninsula at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]]. The battle was technically a British victory, but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. Thus the [[siege]] was not broken, and General Gage was soon replaced by General Howe as the British commander-in-chief.
In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy [[cannon]]s that had been [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1775)|captured by the Revolutionaries]] at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] were moved to Boston, a difficult feat engineered by [[Henry Knox]]. When the guns were placed on [[Dorchester Heights]], overlooking the British positions, Howe's situation became untenable. The British [[Evacuation Day|evacuated]] the city on [[March 17]], [[1776]] and sailed for temporary refuge in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. The local militia dispersed and, in April, Washington took most of the Continental Army to fortify [[New York City]].
=== Canada, 1775 to 1776 ===
During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited [[French-Canadian]]s to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, an [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|invasion of Canada]] was authorized in an attempt to drive the British from the primarily [[francophone]] colony of Quebec (comprising present-day [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]]). Two expeditions were undertaken. On [[September 16]], [[1775]], Brigadier General [[Richard Montgomery]] marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing [[Montreal]] on November 13. General [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], the governor of Canada, escaped to [[Quebec City|Quebec City]].
[[Arnold Expedition|The second expedition]], led by Colonel [[Benedict Arnold]], set out from [[Fort Western]] (present day [[Maine]]) on September 25. The expedition was a logistical nightmare, and many men succumbed to [[smallpox]]. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Nevertheless, Arnold demanded the surrender of the city, to no avail. Montgomery joined Arnold, and they [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|attacked Quebec City]] on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner. The Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew.
Another attempt was made by the Revolutionaries to push back towards Quebec, but failed at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on [[June 8]], [[1776]]. Carleton then launched his own invasion, and defeated Arnold in the [[Battle of Valcour Island]] in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the Revolutionaries, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain delayed the fateful British counter thrust (the [[Saratoga Campaign]]) until 1777.
=== New York and New Jersey, 1776 to 1777 ===
Having withdrawn from Boston, the British now focused on [[New York Campaign|capturing New York City]]. General Howe, with the services of his brother, [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Admiral Lord Howe]], began amassing troops on [[Staten Island]] in July 1776. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 20,000 men, unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare, and divided his troops about equally between [[Long Island]] and [[Manhattan]], thus allowing the Howes to engage only one half of the Continental Army at a time.
In late August, the Howes transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 "Hessians") to Long Island. In the [[Battle of Long Island]] on [[August 27]], [[1776]], the British expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver, driving the Revolutionaries back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then laid siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to Manhattan.
Having taken Long Island, the Howes moved to seize Manhattan. On September 15, General Howe [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed about 12,000 men]] on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Revolutionaries withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they [[Battle of Harlem Heights|skirmished the next day]], but held their ground.
When Howe moved to [[encirclement|encircle]] Washington's army in October, the Revolutionaries again fell back, and a [[Battle of White Plains|battle at White Plains]] was fought on [[October 28]], [[1776]]. Once more Washington retreated, but Howe, instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal, returned to Manhattan and captured [[Fort Washington]] in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners. Four da |
ot
required.<br>
The down side of this method is the fact that it is difficult to achieve
as good results of [[glycemic control]] as with intensive insulinotherapy.
You can further explore related entries by following these :
* [[diabetes mellitus]]
* [[diabetes mellitus type 1]]
* [[diabetes mellitus type 2]]
* [[insulin]]
* [[intensive insulinotherapy]]
* [[Endocrinology]]
{{treatment-stub}}
[[Category:Diabetes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CBS inequality</title>
<id>6106</id>
<revision>
<id>15904268</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to usual name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cauchy-Schwarz_inequality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CPL</title>
<id>6108</id>
<revision>
<id>35994470</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T19:54:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SigPig</username>
<id>310592</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CPL''' or '''Cpl''' may stand for:
* The [[Cyberathlete Professional League]]: a professional [[e-sports]] league.
* The [[Combined Programming Language]]: a computer [[programming language]] developed jointly between the Mathematical Laboratory at the [[University of Cambridge]] and the [[University of London]] Computer Unit during the [[1960s]].
* The [[Common Public License]]: an open source license from [[IBM]].
* The [http://www.cypherspace.org/CPL/ Cypherpunks anti-License]
* A [[Commercial Pilot License]]
* In computer science, [[Current privilege level]]
* The [[Chicago Public Library|Chicago Public Library System]] which has 79 branches in the city of Chicago.
* Coombs, Phillips and Lisansky, the founders of CPL Business Consultants
* [[Corporal]] (Cpl), a [[military rank]]
* [[Complementary Pass-transistor Logic]], one of many [[logic families]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CPL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cream (food)</title>
<id>6109</id>
<revision>
<id>41947159</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:37:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Banes</username>
<id>321824</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] ([[User talk:24.86.1.17|talk]]) to last version by Eloy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Cream}}
'''Cream''' is a [[dairy product]] that is composed of the higher-[[fat]] layer skimmed from the top of raw [[milk]] before [[homogenization]]. In the raw milk, over time, the lighter fat rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream this process is accelerated by using [[centrifuge]]s called "separators". In many countries cream is sold in several grades depending on total fat content. Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets.
Cream produced by [[cattle]] (particularly [[Jersey cattle]]) grazing on natural [[pasture]] often contains some natural [[carotenoid]] pigments derived from the [[plant]]s they eat; this gives the cream a slight yellow tone, whence the name of the yellowish-white colour [[cream (colour)|cream]]. Cream from cows fed indoors, on grain or grain-based pellets, is white.
==Types of cream==
In the US, cream is usually sold as:
* Half-and-half (10.5-18% fat)
* Light, coffee, or table cream (18-30% fat)
* Medium cream (25% fat)
* Whipping or light whipping cream (30-36% fat)
* Heavy or heavy whipping cream (36+%)
* Extra-heavy or manufacturer's cream (38-40+%), generally not available at retail
Not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. The above figures are based on the [[Code of Federal Regulations]], Title 21, Part 131 [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=131][http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_05/21cfr131_05.html] and a small sample of state regulations.
[[Image:Hot chocolate mug with whipped cream.jpg|thumb|225px|Whipped Cream served atop [[hot chocolate]].]]
In the UK, cream is usually sold as:
* Half cream (12%)
* Single cream or Light cream (18%)
* Whipping cream (35%)
* Double cream (48%)
==Other cream products==
[[Sour cream]] in the [[United States]] is cream (18+% milkfat) that has been subjected to a [[bacterium|bacteria]]l culture that produces [[lactic acid]] (0.5%+), which sours and thickens it.
[[Crème fraîche]] is a heavy cream slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as American sour cream. Mexican '''crema''' (or '''cream espesa''') is similar to crème fraîche.
In the UK, '''clotted cream''' is a very high fat (55%) product processed with heat.
[[Butter]] is made by [[Churning (butter)|churning]] cream.
==Whipped cream==
Cream with 30% or more of fat can be turned into '''whipped cream''' by mixing it with air. This roughly doubles the cream's volume as air bubbles are captured in a network of fat droplets. (Whipped cream is said to have been invented in 1671 by [[François Vatel]] for a banquet in honor of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], though it's likely that it was actually known long before this.) If the whipping is continued, the fat droplets stick together and form [[butter]]; the remaining liquid is [[buttermilk]].
'''Chantilly cream''' ([[French language|French]]: crème Chantilly) is whipped cream with sugar and vanilla.
==Cream as an ingredient==
Cream is used as an ingredient in many foods, including [[ice cream]], many [[sauce]]s, [[soup]]s, and some [[custard]] bases.
Cream (usually light cream or half-and-half) is often added to [[coffee]].
==Other foods called 'cream'==
Some foods or even [[cosmetics]] may be labelled ''cream'' but not because they are made with cream, but because they make claim to the consistency or richness of cream. In some locations labelling restrictions prevent the use of ''cream'' so variations such as ''creme'', ''kreme'', ''creame'', or ''whipped topping'' may be found.
*[[Butter cream]], a cake icing
*''[[Crème anglaise]]'', a light pouring custard
== See also ==
* [[Sour cream]]
* [[Kajmak]]
* [[Cool Whip]], a brand of imitation whipped cream.
==References==
*[[Larousse gastronomique]]
[[Category:Dairy products]]
[[da:Fløde]]
[[de:Sahne]]
[[eo:Laktokremo]]
[[es:Crema de leche]]
[[fr:Crème fouettée]]
[[io:Kremo]]
[[it:Panna]]
[[ja:クリーム]]
[[nl:Slagroom]]
[[pt:Nata]]
[[fi:Kerma]]
[[sv:Grädde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Lévi-Strauss</title>
<id>6110</id>
<revision>
<id>40903952</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:11:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>145.222.138.134</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Born in Belgium, but a citizen of France</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[anthropologist]]. For the clothing manufacturer, see [[Levi Strauss]].''
[[Image:ClaudeLévi-Strauss.JPG|thumb|250px|Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
'''Claude Lévi-Strauss''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] |{{IPA|/klod levi st&#641;os/}}) born [[November 28]], [[1908]], is a [[France|French]] [[anthropologist]] who became one of the twentieth century's greatest intellectuals by developing [[structuralism]] as a method of understanding human [[society]] and [[culture]].
==Biography==
Claude Lévi-Strauss is an anthropologist best known for his development of [[structural anthropology]]. He was born in [[Brussels]] and studied [[law]] and [[philosophy]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in [[Paris]]. He did not pursue his study of law, but [[agrégation|agrégated]] in philosophy in 1931. After a few years of teaching secondary school, in 1935 he took up a last-minute offer to be part of a French cultural mission to [[Brazil]] in which he would serve as a visiting professor at the [[University of São Paulo]].
Lévi-Strauss lived in Brazil from [[1935]] to [[1939]]. It was during this time that he carried out his first ethnographic fieldwork, conducting periodic research forays into the [[Mato Grosso]] and the [[Amazon Rainforest]]. He studied first the [[Guaycuru]] and [[Bororo people|Bororo]] [[Indigenous people of Brazil|Indian tribes]], actually living among them for a while. Several years later, he came back again in a second, year-long expedition to study the [[Nambikwara]] and [[Tupi-Kawahib]] societies. It was this experience that cemented Lévi-Strauss's professional identity as an anthropologist.
He returned to France in [[1939]] to take part in the war effort, but after French capitulation to the Germans, Lévi-Strauss, a Jew, fled Paris. Lévi-Strauss was offered a position in New York and granted admission to the United States, but still had to escape France. After a series of attempts to obtain passage, Lévi-Strauss found a captain he had known on previous voyages and secured a space on a ship voyaging to South America. A series of voyages eventually brought Lévi-Strauss to Puerto Rico where he had to undergo one final investigation by the FBI after customs agents grew suspicious of German letters in his luggage. After satisfying suspicious government agents, Lévi-Strauss spent most of the war in [[New York City]]. Like many other intellectual emigrés, he taught at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Along with [[Jacques Maritain]], [[Henri Focillon]] and [[Roman Jakobson]], he was a founding member of the [[École Libre des Hautes Études]], a sort of university-in-exile for French academics.
The war years in New York were formative for Lévi-Strauss in several ways. His relationship with Jakobson helped shape his theoretical outlook (Jakobson and Lévi-Strauss are considered to be two of the central figures on which [[structuralism| structuralist]] thought is based). In addition, Lévi-Strauss was also exposed to the American [[anthropolo |
The [[Rolling Stones]] attempted to duplicate ''Sgt. Pepper'' with more explicitly drug and occult-inspired overtones with ''[[Their Satanic Majesties Request]]'', but it proved to be a commercial and artistic failure, one that the Stones quickly learned from and moved on. The album made no attempt to fashion a concept around the disparate songs on the album. The unifying nature of the album (such as it was) came primarily from the musical atmosphere and the subject matter of the lyrics. And the psychedelic cover art. The Stones themselves never identified the album as a concept album.
The album ''[[S.F. Sorrow]]'' (released in December 1968) by British group [[The Pretty Things]] is generally considered to be among the first creatively successful rock concept albums - in that each song is part of an overarching unified concept -- the life story of the main character, Sebastian Sorrow. Despite its effective production qualities and strong material, and although it received almost unanimously glowing reviews on release, the album was not a major commercial success. However, the fact that the album format had now been effectively used to present a threaded storyline was noted by other artists such as [[Pete Townshend]] of [[The Who]] and [[Ray Davies]] of [[The Kinks]] - both of whom were already working on their own projects in this genre. In this respect, the Pretty Things album did have an impact on some influential artists and on rock culture itself. Prior to this release - the band had been considered an R&B ([[rhythm and blues]]) band - but their venture into producing a concept album did at least result in the band being re-cast in general perception as a [[progressive rock]] band - an important and valuable transition at that time.
Released just five months later in April 1969, was the "[[rock opera]]" ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy]]'' composed by [[Pete Townshend]] and performed by [[The Who]]. This acclaimed work was presented over two discs (still unusual in those days) and it took the idea of thematically based albums to a much higher appreciation by both critics and the public. It was also the first ''story-based'' concept album of the rock era (as distinct from the ''song-cycle'' style album) to enjoy commercial success. The Who went on to further explorations of the concept album format with their follow-up project ''[[Lifehouse (album)|Lifehouse]]'' - which was abandoned before completion and with their 1973 rock opera ''[[Quadrophenia]]''.
Five months after the release of ''Tommy'' [[The Kinks]] released their own rock opera ''[[Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire)]]'' (September 1969) written by [[Ray Davies]] - the first of several concept albums released by the band through the first few years of the 1970s. These were: ''[[Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One]]'' (1970), ''[[Preservation Act 1]]'' (1973), ''[[Preservation Act 2]]'' (1974), ''[[Soap Opera (album)|Soap Opera]]'' (1975) and ''[[Schoolboys in Disgrace]]'' (1976)
Two albums released in the autumn of 1967 were also concept albums - though they did not get the same media attention later accorded to [[The Who]]'s ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy]]''.
''[[Days of Future Passed]]'' (1967) by the [[Moody Blues]], alternated songs by the group with orchestral interludes to document a typical "everyman's day". Though music critics did not accord the album or the band the same respect given to bands deemed to have more ''street credibility'' such as [[The Who]] and [[The Kinks]] - the album was very successful commercially.
''[[The Story of Simon Simopath]]'' by [[Nirvana (UK band)|Nirvana]] produced by Island Records' founder [[Chris Blackwell]] was issued in October 1967 in a "gatefold cover" (most unusual packaging for a debut album) which presented a text giving the storyline of the album - described as a "science fiction pantomime". The album attracted positive critical attention but did not enjoy big sales in the UK.
Concept albums are especially common in the [[progressive rock]] genre of the 1970s, although rarely did that equal a lasting commercial or critical legacy for the band or artist involved. Most notably, [[Pink Floyd]] recast itself from its 1960s guise as a quirky, intermittently successful psychedelic band into a cash-generating monster with its classic series of concept albums, beginning with ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'' from 1973. Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull wrote a number of successful concept albums, notably "Thick as A Brick" which was long song about 40 minutes in length and which included material intended to "spoof" the concept album genre. But in the mid to late 1970's, concept albums grew to be plagued by the suffocating nature of ever more pretentious, self-conscious themes. These themes tended to drive the songwriters, and the quality of the individual songs suffered. A prime example of this was [[Styx]]' overblown and unintentionally humorous 1983 album ''[[Kilroy Was Here (album)|Kilroy Was Here]]'', a late and poorly received entry into the genre that effectively marked the end of the 1970's-style theatrical rock operas. (although [[Queensrÿche]]'s ''[[Operation: Mindcrime]]'' was able to find critical and commercial success.)
Within the [[progressive metal]] genre, [[Dream Theater]] ended the 20th Century with ''Metropolis Part 2: [[Scenes from a Memory]]'' in 1999. This concept album was a sequel to their original song from their 1992 album [[Images and Words]], about a present day man's nightmares of his death in his previous life in 1928.
In the intervening decades, concept albums have often been out of vogue, but [[Radiohead]] duplicated that kind of acceptance both from the critics and in the marketplace with ''[[OK Computer]]'' from 1997, and the related ''[[Kid A]]'' and ''[[Amnesiac]]'' albums of 2000 and 2001. [[The Mars Volta]] have created two highly complex concept albums. The first of which, ''[[De-Loused in the Comatorium]]'', chronicles the morphine-induced coma of the character Cerpin Taxt.
Since the 1980s, concept albums have been frequent in the [[power metal]] and [[epic metal]] genres. One of the most notable power metal bands to use the concept ablum is Kamelot. Kamelot's last two releases, Epica and The Black Halo, are two parts of a tale following the protagonist Ariel and his interations with the many different forms and experiences with the evil Mephisto. The two album story is based on Goethe's Faust.
Except for [[George Clinton]]'s [[P-Funk]] albums from the 1970's, the first recent [[R&B]] concept album is ''TP.3 Reloaded'', by [[R. Kelly]] released in 2005, which features 5 chapters of the "Trapped... in the Closet" soap opera. The album received a great deal of press for being ground breaking in the R&B genre. Kelly subsequently released a ''Trapped... in the Closet'' DVD of music videos containing chapters 1-12, completing the rambling tale of unfaithful lovers.
An example for a [[Techno]] concept album is Metropolis by [[Jeff Mills]] (2001), yet another alternative score for the [[Metropolis (1927 film)|movie]] of the same name.
An emerging subset is the [[historical album]], which is more closely tied with specific historically accurate references to persons or places.
An ambitious extension of the concept album idea could be realized in a series of albums which all contribute to a single effect or unified story. Contemporary examples include [[Coheed and Cambria]]'s in-progress tetralogy of records and [[mind.in.a.box]]'s ''[[Lost Alone]]'' and ''[[Dreamweb (album)|Dreamweb]]'' albums which describe an on-going sci-fi themed story in a ''[[The Matrix|Matrix]]''-like universe. [[Brave Saint Saturn]] has planned a trilogy to tell the story of mankinds first mission to the planet [[Saturn]]. Arguably the most ambitious of these is [[Sufjan Stevens]]' Fifty-States project, in which he plans to write a series of albums encompassing the concept of the entire [[United States of America]], one for each state, totalling fifty records.
The concept album genre overlaps with [[rock opera]], of which the most famous early example is [[The Who]]'s aforementioned ''[[Tommy (album)|Tommy]]'' (1969). Like ''Sgt. Pepper'', ''[[Tommy (album)|Tommy]]'' greatly boosted the visibility of the concept album idea, and the genre also overlaps to a lesser extent with [[rock musical]], of which the most famous early example is ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' (1967).
This style of album has made its way into the rap genre, namely [[Cage Kennylz]] & [[Camu Tao]]'s [[2001]] release of ''[[Are The Nighthawks (album)]]'' and [[Cage Kennylz]] & [[Tame One]]'s [[2004]] release of ''[[Waterworld (album)]]''. The Nighthawk's album was a trip into the darkside of being a cop, while Waterworld was a blast of [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] induced rhymes, being refered to as a ''drug related themepark''. Rapper [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] had also planned for his third release in 1998 to be a double-album entitled ''[[I Am...]]'' that would detail the birth, death, and resurrection of a Jesus-like character known as [[Nastradamus]], but heavy bootlegging forced him to change plans and release two separate albums with many new songs, abandoning the concept he had earlier. Many of the songs that did not appear on either album were subsequently released on 2002's ''[[The Lost Tapes]]''.
==See also==
* [[List of concept albums]]
* [[Program music]] – the classical music analogue
==References==
* [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=cache:mNQ_tZvEQOIJ:home.uchicago.edu/~travieso/Docs/ConceptAlbum.pdf+%22concept+album%22 University of Chicago Concept Album course notes]
* [http://www.musicweb-international.com/encyclopaedia/c/C211.HTM Musicweb article on concept album]
[[Category:Albums]]
[[be:Канцэпт-альбом]]
[[de:Konzeptalbum]]
[[fr |
]
**[[Angiotensinogen]]
**[[Thrombopoietin]]
*'''[[Islets of Langerhans]] in the [[pancreas]]'''
**[[Insulin]]
**[[Glucagon]]
**[[Somatostatin]]
*'''[[Adrenal gland]]s'''
**'''[[Adrenal cortex]]'''
***[[Glucocorticoid]]s - [[cortisol]]
***[[Mineralocorticoid]]s - [[aldosterone]]
***[[Androgen]]s (including [[testosterone]])
**'''[[Adrenal medulla]]'''
***Adrenaline ([[epinephrine]])
***Noradrenaline ([[norepinephrine]])
*'''[[Kidney]]'''
**[[Renin]]
**[[Erythropoietin]] ([[EPO]])
**[[Calcitriol]]
*'''[[Skin]]'''
**Calciferol ([[vitamin D]]<sub>3</sub>)
*'''[[Adipose tissue]]'''
**[[Leptin]]
=== In males only ===
*'''[[Testes]]'''
**[[Androgen]]s ([[testosterone]])
=== In females only ===
*'''[[Ovarian follicle]]'''
**[[Oestrogens]]
**[[Testosterone]]
*'''[[Corpus luteum]]'''
**[[Progesterone]]
*'''[[Placenta]]''' (when [[pregnant]])
**[[Progesterone]]
**[[Human chorionic gonadotrophin]] (HCG)
**[[Human placental lactogen]] (HPL)
==Role in disease==
Diseases of the endocrine system are common, such as [[diabetes mellitus]] and [[thyroid]] disease.
Endocrineopathies can occur with any of these. Hypofunction can occur as result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, [[agenesis]], atrophy, destruction, etc. Hyperfunction can occur as result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, tumor, [[hyperplasia]], etc.
Endocrineopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
Primary is target organ dysfunction and is normally associated with increased or decreased secretory hormones. Secondary is a dysfunction that originates elsewhere like the pituitary gland and is normally associated with increased or decreased production of trophic factors. Tertiary is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.
==Diffuse Endocrine System==
Organs aren't the sole way for hormones to be sent into the body; there are a host of specific cells which secrete hormones independently. These are called the "diffuse" endocrine system, and include [[myocytes]] in the heart (atria) and [[epithelial cell]]s in the stomach and small intestines. In fact, if one were to classify ''any'' chemical excretions in the term "hormone," every cell in the human body could be considered a part of the endocrine system.
==See also==
* [[receptor (proteomics)|Receptors]]
* [[Releasing hormone]]s
* [[Nervous system]]
* [[Endocrine disruptor]]
* [[Neuroendocrinology]]
* [[Endocrinology]]
* [[Hormones]]
{{endocrine_system}}
{{organ_systems}}
[[Category:Endocrine system]]
[[ca:Sistema endocrí]]
[[cs:Soustava žláz s vnitřní sekrecí]]
[[da:Endokrine system]]
[[de:Endokrines System]]
[[es:Sistema endocrino]]
[[fr:Endocrinologie]]
[[it:Sistema endocrino]]
[[lt:Endokrininė sistema]]
[[mk:Ендокрин систем]]
[[nl:Endocrien systeem]]
[[ja:内分泌器]]
[[pt:Sistema endócrino]]
[[ru:Эндокринная система]]
[[sk:Endokrinná sústava]]
[[sl:Endokrini sistem]]
[[sr:Ендокрини систем]]
[[es:Glándulas de secreción interna]]
[[fr:Glande endocrine]]
[[lt:Endokrininė liauka]]
[[pt:Glândula endócrina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expander graph</title>
<id>9313</id>
<revision>
<id>38015045</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T16:41:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tromer</username>
<id>46026</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[combinatorics]], an '''expander [[graph theory|graph]]''' refers to a [[sparse graph]] which has high [[connectivity (graph theory)|connectivity]] properties, quantified using [[vertex]] or [[edge (graph_theory)|edge]] expansion as described below. Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to [[computer science]], and in particular to [[theoretical computer science]], design of robust [[computer network]]s and the theory of [[error-correcting code]]s.
==Definitions==
There are several different ways to measure the expansion properties of a finite, undirected [[multigraph]] <math>G</math>.
===Edge expansion===
The edge expansion <math>h(G)</math> of a graph <math>G</math> is defined as
:<math>h(G) = \min_{1 \le |S|\le \frac{n}{2} } \frac{|\partial(S)|}{|S|}</math>
where the minimum is over all nonempty sets <math>S</math> of at most <math>n/2</math> vertices, and <math>\partial(S)</math> stands for the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in <math>S</math>.
===Vertex expansion===
The <math>\alpha</math>-vertex expansion <math>g_\alpha(G)</math> of a graph <math>G</math> is defined as
:<math>g_\alpha(G) = \min_{1 \le |S|\le \alpha{n}} \frac{|\Gamma(S)|}{|S|}</math>
where <math>\Gamma(S)</math> stands for the set of vertices with at least one neighbor in <math>S</math>. In a variant of this definition (called ''unique neighbor expansion'')
<math>\Gamma(S)</math> stands for the set of vertices in <math>V</math> with ''exactly'' one neighbor in <math>S</math>.
===Spectral expansion===
When <math>G</math> is [[regular graph|regular]], a [[linear algebra]]ic definition of expansion is possible based on the [[Eigenvalue#Eigenvalues_of_matrices|eigenvalues]] of the [[adjacency matrix]] <math>A=A(G)</math> of <math>G</math> (where <math>A_{ii}</math> is the number of loops at the <math>i</math>th vertex). Because <math>A</math> is [[symmetric matrix|symmetric]], the [[Spectral theorem]] implies that <math>A</math> has <math>n</math> real-valued eigenvalues <math>\lambda_0 \ge \lambda_1 \ge \ldots \ge \lambda_{n-1}</math>. Because <math>G</math> is regular, <math>\lambda_0=d</math> where <math>d</math> is the [[degree (graph theory)|degree]] of regularity of <math>G</math>. In some contexts, the [[spectral gap]] of <math>G</math> is defined to be <math>d-\lambda_1</math>. In other contexts, the spectral gap refers to <math>d-\lambda</math>, where <math>\lambda=\max\{|\lambda_1|,\ldots, |\lambda_{n-1}|\}</math>.
===Expander families===
A family <math>\mathcal{G} = \{G_1, G_2, \ldots \}</math> of <math>d</math>-regular graphs is an edge expander family if there is a constant <math>c > 0</math> such that <math>h(G) \ge c</math> for each <math>G \in \mathcal{G}</math>. Similarly, <math>\mathcal{G}</math> is a vertex expander family if there is a constant <math>c > 1</math> such that <math>g_{1/2}(G) \ge c</math> for each <math>G \in \mathcal{G}</math>, and <math>\mathcal{G}</math> is a spectral expander family if some positive constant is a lower bound for the spectral gap of each <math>G \in \mathcal{G}</math>.
These definitions can be extended to the case of [[directed graph]]s. A directed graph can also be interpreted as a ''balanced'' [[bipartite graph]] (with all edges going from one copy of <math>V</math> to another copy). The definition of bipartite expanders can further be generalized to the case of ''unbalanced'' bipartite graphs.
==Relationship between the different definitions==
The expansion parameters defined above are related to each other. In particular, for any graph <math>G</math>, <math>h(G) \ge g_{1/2}(G) - 1</math>. Consequently, every vertex expander family is also an edge expander family.
Similarly, when <math>G</math> is <math>d</math>-regular, there is a relationship between <math>h(G)</math> and the spectral gap <math>d - \lambda_1</math> of <math>G</math>. An inequality due to "Cheeger and Buser in the continuous case and Tanner, Alon, and Milman in the discrete case" [http://www.math.ias.edu/~boaz/ExpanderCourse/lecture02.ps] states that
: <math>\frac{1}{2}(d - \lambda_1) \le h(G) \le \sqrt{2d(d - \lambda_1)}</math>
As a result, a family <math>\mathcal{G}</math> of graphs is an edge expander family if and only if <math>\mathcal{G}</math> is a spectral expander family.
==Examples of expanders==
A [[random]] <math>d</math>-regular graph has good expansion, with high probability. [[Ramanujan graph]]s are a family of <math>d</math>-regular expander graphs, with explicit constructions, that have essentially the largest possible spectral gap. [[Abstract algebra|Algebraic]] constructions based on [[Cayley graph]]s are known for various variants of expander graphs. Combinatorial constructions using [[graph product]]s are also known.
===Applications===
Expander graphs have found extensive applications in [[computer science]], in designing [[algorithm]]s, [[error correcting code]]s, [[extractor]]s, [[pseudorandomness generator]]s, [[sorting network]]s and robust [[computer network]]s. They have also been used in proving many important results in [[computational complexity theory]], such as [[SL (complexity)|SL]]=[[L (complexity)|L]] and the [[PCP Theorem]]. In [[Cryptography]] too, expander graphs are used to construct [[hash]] functions.
== External links ==
* [http://www.qinfo.org/people/nielsen/blog/archive/notes/expander_graphs.pdf Introductory paper by Michael Nielsen]
* [http://www.math.ias.edu/~boaz/ExpanderCourse/ Lecture notes from a course on expanders]
{{Combin-stub}}
[[Category:Graphs]]
[[Category:Theoretical computer science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England</title>
<id>9316</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42089953</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:34:41Z</timestamp |
gész számok]]
[[nl:Geheel getal]]
[[ja:整数]]
[[no:Heltall]]
[[pl:Liczby całkowite]]
[[pt:Número inteiro]]
[[ro:Număr întreg]]
[[ru:Целое число]]
[[scn:Nùmmuru rilativu]]
[[simple:Integer]]
[[sk:Celé číslo]]
[[sl:Celo število]]
[[sr:Цео број]]
[[su:Integer]]
[[fi:Kokonaisluku]]
[[sv:Hela tal]]
[[th:จำนวนเต็ม]]
[[tr:Tam sayılar]]
[[zh:整数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>InterCal</title>
<id>14564</id>
<revision>
<id>29334687</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T01:10:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cleared as filed</username>
<id>318771</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect per move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[INTERCAL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Wikipedia</title>
<id>14565</id>
<revision>
<id>15912110</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-21T04:19:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.88.26.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>revert -- avoiding self-reference does not apply here, since it is redirecting to the wikipedia namespace</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Impressionist music</title>
<id>14566</id>
<revision>
<id>41398484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:45:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Friendlymat</username>
<id>965158</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
The '''Impressionist movement in music''' is a movement in [[music]] loosely set between the late [[nineteenth century]], up to the middle of the [[twentieth century]]. Like its precursor in the [[visual arts]], musical [[impressionism]] was based in [[France]], and the French composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel]] are generally considered to be the two "great" impressionists (although Debussy renounced the term, and Ravel composed many other pieces that can't possibly be identified as "Impressionist"). A notable [[United States|American]] impressionist [[composer]] was [[Charles Tomlinson Griffes]].
Philosophically, impressionism aimed to convey the atmospheric impact of an event, place, or thing, rather than an accurate portrayal of the subject itself. For instance, Debussy's setting of the ''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun|Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]'' is not a literal portrayal of the events of the already vague poem, but a depiction of the feeling of the poem.
Technically, the impressionists invented or began using a great number of new [[compositional technique]]s: multi-modality, planing (the use of voices moving in parallel motion; Debussy's prelude ''[[Preludes (Debussy)|La cathédrale engloutie]]'' provides an example), extended tertian [[harmony|harmonies]], and intentionally ambiguous [[musical forms]].
Impressionist composers also made extensive use of [[whole tone scale|whole tone scales]] to create a dreamy, "hazy" effect in their works, much like the blurred paintings of [[Renoir]] and [[Monet]]. They deliberately abandoned the major-minor scales which had been in use since the seventeenth century. Also, a sharp focus on [[tone color]] led to many new possibilities.
See also [[List of impressionistic pieces]].
[[Category:Musical movements]][[Category:Impressionism]]
[[he:מוזיקה אימפרסיוניסטית]]
[[pl:Impresjonizm (styl muzyczny)]]
[[sl:Glasbeni impresionizem]]
----
A Bartlleby Article[http://www.bartleby.com/65/im/impress-mus.html]<p>
A Yahoo Ecyclopedia Article[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/impress-mus--]<p>
[[User:Friendlymat|Friendlymat]] 01:42, 27 February 2006 (UTC)]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International trade</title>
<id>14567</id>
<revision>
<id>41791145</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:54:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bkwillwm</username>
<id>174808</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ links to data</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''International trade''' is the exchange of goods and services across international boundaries or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see [[Silk Road]], [[Amber Road]]), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. [[Industrialization]], advanced [[transport|transportation]], [[globalization]], [[multinational corporation]]s, and [[outsourcing]] are all having a major impact. Increasing international trade is the usually primary meaning of "[[globalization]]".
{{trading blocs}}
International trade is also a branch of [[economics]], which, together with [[international finance]], forms the larger branch of [[international economics]].
==International trade theory==
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
===Ricardian model===
The [[Ricardian model]] focuses on [[comparative advantage]] and is perhaps the most important concept in international [[trade]] [[theory]]. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
===Heckscher-Ohlin model===
The [[Heckscher-Ohlin model]] was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its more complex and accurate predictive power, it also had an [[ideological]] mission: the elimination of the labor theory of value and the incorporation of the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory. The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in [[factor]] [[endowments]]. It predicts that countries will [[export]] those [[good (economics)|goods]] that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will [[import]] goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce.
===Specific Factors===
{{sectstub}}
===Gravity model===
The [[Gravity model of trade]] presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian [[law of gravity]] which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through [[econometric]] analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded verisions of the model.
==Regulation of international trade==
Traditionally trade was regulated through [[bilateral]] treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in [[Mercantilism]] most nations had high [[tariff]]s and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], a belief in [[free trade]] became paramount and this view has dominated thinking among western nations for most of the time since then. In the years since the [[Second World War]] [[multilateral]] treaties like the [[GATT]] and [[World Trade Organization]] have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure.
[[Communist]] and [[socialist]] nations often believe in [[autarky]], a complete lack of international trade. [[Fascist]] and other authoritarian governments have also placed great emphasis on [[self-sufficiency]]. No nation can meet all of its people's needs, however, and every state engages in at least some trade.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nation in the world. The [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were both strong advocates of free trade when they were on top, today the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Japan]] are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries - including several rapidly developing nations such as India, China and Russia - are also becoming advocates of free trade.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During [[recession]]s there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the [[Great Depression]] leading to a collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 25 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), which would have provided common standards for almost all countries in the American continent, failed.
== Risks in international trade ==
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups:
==== Economic risks ====
*Risk of insolvency of the buyer,
*Risk of protracted default - the failure of the b |
he earned the respect of the opposition (in particular of the [[Italian Communist Party]]) because he appeared as the only member of the government who took responsibility for the tragic conclusion of the events. This led to his election in [[1985]] as President of the Republic (Head of State), in which for the first time ever a candidate won at the first ballot (where a majority of over 2/3 is necessary, which would subsequently decrease in later ballots). The only other president to be elected at the first ballot has been current president [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]].
==The Cossiga Presidency==
Cossiga's presidency was unremarkable for its first six years (of seven), as most presidents until then refrained entering the political debate in order to remain figures of reference for the whole nation. However, in his last year, Cossiga began to express opinions, at times virulent, against various political figures.
These declarations, soon dubbed "esternazioni", or "[[mattock]] blows" (''picconate''), were considered by many inappropriate for a President. Many politicians suggested he was somewhat mentally unstable. He attacked personal enemies as party fellow [[Giulio Andreotti]], and was supported by the secretary of the [[Italian Socialist Party]], [[Bettino Craxi]]. Cossiga declared he was just "taking pleasure in removing some sand from my shoes". However, when he mentioned his involvement in [[Gladio]], a [[Stay behind]] organization that could have staged a [[coup d'état]] in case the Communists had entered the government, the Communist party started a procedure for [[impeachment]] (Presidents of Italy can be impeached only for [[high treason]] against the State or [[Attempt]] against the [[Constitution of Italy|Constitution]]).
Cossiga resigned shortly before the end of his term. He was voted again for president by the [[Fascism|fascist]] [[Italian Social Movement]], that had supported him in his campaigns.
==Lifetime senator==
After his resignation from [[Quirinale]] (the Roman hill in which is the office of the Head of State), he is a lifetime senator since [[1992]].
He has remained a vocal commentator of Italian politics, and has acquired a reputation for rapidly shifting positions, possibly because as a lifetime senator he does not need to be loyal to any party to be re-elected. He does no longer play a major political role.
Italian magazine [[Panorama]] revealed that he had sent a letter to prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] after having reviewed the content of interviews between [[RAI]] journalist [[Ennio Remondino]] and former [[CIA]] agents [[Richard Brenneke]] and [[Ibrahim Razin]], concerning links between the CIA and [[P2]] freemasonry lodge, as well as the circumstances of Swedish prime minister [[Olof Palme]]'s murder in [[1986]]. President Cossiga was concerned by the statements, and said: "If the government were to think that the information had any basis, I think that it should inform the judiciary authority and the Parliamentary Commission on Massacres and, at the level of the bilateral relations, the relevant authorities in the U.S.A. and in Sweden." Otherwise, the journalists who published the information without previously thoroughly checking its validity, should be punished [http://www.skepticfiles.org/socialis/cossiga.htm].
==References==
*[http://www.skepticfiles.org/socialis/cossiga.htm Letter to Giulio Andreotti concerning P2, CIA and Olof Palme]
*{{Citenews | title=Le confessioni di Cossiga: 'Io, Gelli e la massoneria' | org=La Repubblica | date=October 11, 2003 | url=http://www.repubblica.it/2003/i/sezioni/politica/gelli/cossiga/cossiga.html}} (on links between Cossiga, [[Licio Gelli]] and [[Propaganda Due]] masonic lodge; [[Emilio Eduardo Massera|Massera]], part of [[Jorge Rafael Videla|Videla]]'s junta in Argentina, is also named)
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Aldo Moro]]|after=[[Giulio Andreotti]]|years=1976–1978}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|before=[[Giulio Andreotti]]|after=[[Arnaldo Forlani]]|years=1979&ndash;1980}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]|before=[[Sandro Pertini]]|after=[[Oscar Luigi Scalfaro]]|years=1985&ndash;1992}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1928 births|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Living people|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Italian Ministers of the Interior|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Natives of Sassari|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Italian Republic|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Italian Life Senators|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[de:Francesco Cossiga]]
[[es:Francesco Cossiga]]
[[fr:Francesco Cossiga]]
[[it:Francesco Cossiga]]
[[ja:フランチェスコ・コッシガ]]
[[sv:Francesco Cossiga]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-35 Joint Strike Fighter</title>
<id>11812</id>
<revision>
<id>42146850</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:12:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.100.52.183</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>update of IOC dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JSF logo.jpg|right|220px|]]
The '''F-35 Joint Strike Fighter''' ('''JSF''') is a [[military]] [[fighter aircraft]] designed by the [[USA]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. It is intended to replace the current generation of strike fighters, particularly the [[VSTOL|vertical take off and landing]] Harrier jump jets : the [[AV-8 Harrier II]] (US), [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR7/9]] (UK), and the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (UK), along with the conventional [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]. It is set to be a multi-role [[strike fighter]] (a plane with a strong emphasis on [[close air support]] and tactical bombing as well as being capable of air-to-air combat), currently in production with [[Lockheed Martin]], along with partners [[Northrop Grumman]] and [[BAE Systems]].
Three variants are envisioned: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A for the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] (USAF) and the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]; the Advanced Short Take-Off Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) F-35B for the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] (USMC) and the [[Royal Navy]] (RN); and the [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-based (CV) F-35C for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] (USN). The USAF is considering the F-35B, and the Royal Navy is considering ordering the F-35C variant for its large [[Royal Navy CVF programme|CVF]] Future Carrier programme.
The F-35, expected to be ready for service in [[2011]], is scheduled to begin replacing Marine Corps AV-8B Harrier and F/A-18s in [[2009]], and the USAF [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]] and F-16 in [[2011]].
==International participation==
[[Image:F-l3 lift fan.jpg|right|250px|thumb|F-35 lift fan; the [[VTOL]] propulsion system is designed and manufactured by [[Rolls-Royce plc]].]]
The primary customers are the armed forces of the United States (USAF, USN, and USMC) and the United Kingdom (RAF and RN). There are three levels of international participation for the eight countries contributing to the program. The United Kingdom is the sole level I partner, contributing a little over $2 billion. Level II partners are [[Italy]] and the [[Netherlands]], contributing $1 billion and $800 million respectively. At level III are [[Turkey]] ($175 million), [[Australia]] ($144 million), [[Norway]] ($122 million), [[Denmark]] ($110 million), and [[Canada]] ($100 million). The levels generally indicate the financial stake in the program, the level of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the general order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. [[Israel]] and [[Singapore]] have also joined as Security Cooperative Participants. <ref>Katherine V. Schnasi [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04554.pdf Joint Strike Fighter Acquisition: Observations on the Supplier Base] ''US Accounts Office''. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>
The biggest international partner, the United Kingdom, has invested two billion in development funding for the project. Britain has also worked for five years for an [[ITAR]] waiver to allow greater technology transfer associated with the project. The effort, backed by the Bush administration, has been repeatedly blocked by U.S. Congressman [[Henry Hyde]] because of his concern about potential technology transfer to third countries. <ref>Spiegel, Peter, MSNBC [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:E7c2TgkVc2YJ:www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10164422/ UK denied waiver on US arms technology]. ''Financial Times'' (MSNBC reprint). Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>
The CEO of [[BAE Systems]], the British contractor on the plane, has complained that the U.S. has not given the UK (and his company) access to the crucial [[source code]] of the plane's software, thus making it impossible for the UK to maintain and modify the JSF independently. At a news conference at the Paris Air Show, he has even suggested that the UK may withdraw from the program unless additional access is granted, though analysts consider this unlikely <ref>Fletcher, Matthew; Katz, Alan ([[June 16]] [[2005]]). [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10001062&sid=a_DiEG3P6thw&refer=movers_by_index U.K. May Miss Out on Technology From U.S. Fighter]. ''Bloomberg.com''. Retrieved Feb. 08 , 2006.</ref>. On [[21 December]] [[2005]] an article was published in the ''[[Glasgow Herald]]'' saying that MPs viewed as "unacceptable" the U.S. refusal to grant access to the source code. The article quotes the chairman of the Commons Defence Select Committee as saying that unless the UK receives assurances of access to the software information, "the UK might have to consider whether |
e also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant [[pop culture]] of the modern West, for example television and rock music: "...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits...by TV stupor and by intolerable music."
== Return to Russia ==
Since returning to Russia in 1994 Solzhenitsyn has published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative "miniatures" or prose poems, a literary memoir on his years in the West (''The Grain Between the Millstones'') and a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (''Two Hundred Years Together'' 2001, 2002). The latter has been received as philo-semitic by some and anti-semitic by others. In it, Solzhenitsyn emphatically repudiates the idea that the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917 were the work of a "Jewish conspiracy" (see chapters 9, 14, and 15 of that work). At the same time, he calls on both Russians and Jews to come to terms with the members of their peoples who acted in complicity with the Communist regime. The reception of this work confirms that Solzhenitsyn remains a polarizing figure both at home and abroad.
In his recent political writings, such as ''Rebuilding Russia'' (1990) and ''Russia in Collapse'' (1998) Solzhenitsyn has criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian 'democracy' while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet communism. He has defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to extreme nationalism), argued for the indispensability of local self-government to a free Russia, and expressed concerns for the fate of 25 million ethnic Russians in the "near abroad" of the former Soviet Union.
One of his sons, [[Ignat Solzhenitsyn]], has achieved acclaim as a [[pianist]] and [[conductor (music)|conductor]] in the United States.
== Published works ==
{{main|Alexandr Solzhenitsyn bibliography}}
*''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' ([[1962]])
*''For the Good of the Cause'' ([[1964]])
*''[[The First Circle]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Cancer Ward]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Love-Girl and the Innocent]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[August 1914]]'' ([[1971]]). The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR in an [[historical novel]]. The novel centers on the disastrous loss in the [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]] in [[August]], [[1914]]. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story.
*''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' (three volumes) ([[1973]]-[[1978|78]]), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a [[police state]] in the Soviet Union.
*''[[Prussian Nights]]'' ([[1974]])
* Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn, ''A Letter to the Soviet leaders'', Collins: Harvill Press (1974), ISBN 0060139137
*''The Oak and the Calf'' ([[1975]])
*''Lenin in Zurich'' ([[1976]])
*''The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America'' ([[1980]])
*''[[November 1916]]'' ([[1983]])
*''Victory Celebration'' ([[1983]])
*''Prisoners'' ([[1983]])
*''Rebuilding Russia'' ([[1990]])
*''March 1917''
*''April 1917''
*''The Russian Question'' ([[1995]])
*''Invisible Allies'' ([[1997]])
*''Two Hundred Years Together'' on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response. ([http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7033-1.cfm], [http://www.jewishsf.com/bk010831/ip29a.shtml], [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm])
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.almaz.com/nobel/literature/Solzhenitsyn.html The Nobel Prize Internet Archive's page on Solzhenitsyn]
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/solzhenitsyn/harvard1978.html A World Split Apart]: Solzhenitsyn's 1978 Commencement Address to the graduating class at Harvard University
[[Category:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|*]]
[[Category:1918 births|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Living people|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian novelists|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian writers|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Soviet expellees|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Sharashka inmates|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Don Cossacks|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[bg:Александър Солженицин]]
[[cs:Alexandr Isajevič Solženicyn]]
[[da:Aleksandr Isajevitj Solsjenitsyn]]
[[de:Alexander Issajewitsch Solschenizyn]]
[[es:Alexander Solzhenitsyn]]
[[fr:Alexandre Soljenitsyne]]
[[hr:Aleksandar Solženjicin]]
[[io:Alexandr Soljenicyn]]
[[it:Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn]]
[[he:אלכסנדר סולז'ניצין]]
[[nl:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・ソルジェニーツィン]]
[[no:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]]
[[pl:Aleksander Sołżenicyn]]
[[ro:Alexandr Soljeniţîn]]
[[ru:Солженицын, Александр Исаевич]]
[[fi:Aleksandr Solženitsyn]]
[[sv:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]]
[[tr:Aleksandr Soljenitsin]]
[[zh:亚历山大·索尔仁尼琴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn</title>
<id>1626</id>
<revision>
<id>15900093</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdeen</title>
<id>1627</id>
<revision>
<id>41776833</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:52:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kierant</username>
<id>16754</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Parks and open spaces */ grammar (following a proper noun)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Scottish city. For other uses see [[Aberdeen (disambiguation)]]''
{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|City of Aberdeen
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:ScotlandAberdeen.png]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Geography
|-
|width="45%"|Status:||Unitary, City (1996)
|-
|[[Regions of Britain|Region]]:||[[Scotland]]
|-
|Ceremonial County:||[[Aberdeenshire]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:<br>- Total||[[Ranked 25th]]<br>[[1 E8 m²|186]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
|-
|Admin. HQ:||Aberdeen
|-
|| [[British national grid reference system|Grid Ref.]]: || NJ925065
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00QA
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:<br>- Total (2003 est.)<br>- [[Density]]||[[Ranked 7th]]<br>212,125<br>1,140 / km&sup2;
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Aberdeen-coa.png]]<br>Aberdeen City Council<br>http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/
|-
|[[Local_government_in_Scotland#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader & Cabinet
|-
|Executive:|| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] +<br>[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]]
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MPs]]:|| <ul><li>[[Anne Begg]]<li>[[Malcolm Bruce]]<li>[[Frank Doran]]</ul>
|-
|[[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSPs]]|| <ul><li>[[Lewis Macdonald]]<li>[[Brian Adam]]<li>[[Nicol Stephen]]</ul>
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Post Office and Telephone
|-
|Post town:||ABERDEEN</ul>
|-
|Postal district:||AB10-AB12; AB13 (part); AB15-AB25</ul>
|-
|width="45%"|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||01224
|-
|}
[[Image:Aberdeen (location).png|thumb|235px|Aberdeen's location in Scotland]]
'''Aberdeen''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Obar Dheathain'', 'confluence of the [River] Don'), often called '''The Granite City''', is [[Scotland]]'s third largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]], with a population of 212,125, and the greatest part of the [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council area]] named the [[City of Aberdeen]], which is surrounded by, but not within, the [[Aberdeenshire]] council area. Aberdeen is the chief commercial centre and [[port|seaport]] in the north-east of Scotland.
It boasts the title of '''Oil Capital of Europe''' thanks to the plentiful supply of [[crude oil]] in the [[North Sea]], and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of the rivers [[River Don, Aberdeenshire|Don]] and [[River Dee, Aberdeenshire|Dee]]. The city is currently run by a coalition of 20 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Scottish Liberal Democrat]] and 3 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] councillors.
==Coat of Arms and Motto==
The [[coat of arms]] shows a red shield bearing three triple towered castles within the double royal tressure. It is widely accepted that these represent the fortifications which from earliest times stood on the three hills where the city sprang up, namely Castle Hill, the Port or Windmill Hill (Gallowgate) and St Catherine's Hill (Adelphi). The Arms are supported by two leopards - one either side - and above, the scroll with the words 'Bon Accord'.
Legend has it that during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], when the Castle of Aberdeen was stormed and the English troops 'were killed all in one night', the watchword to initiate the campaign was 'Bon Accord', and it is from this massacre that the Coat of Arms and the motto originated.
==History==
Aberdeen grew up as two separate burghs - [[Old Aberdeen]] at the mouth of the Don and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement where the Denburn entered the Dee estuary. The earliest charter was granted by King [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]] about 1179, confirming the corporate rights granted by David I. The cit |
Broadcast stations''': AM 21, FM 6, shortwave 7 (2000)
:'''Radios''': 630,000 (1997)
==Television==
:'''Broadcast stations''': 6 (2000)
:'''Televisions''': 150,000 (1997)
==Internet==
:'''Internet hosts''': 17 (2003)
:'''Internet users''': 200,000 (2002)
:'''[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country code]]''': AO
==Reference==
*[[CIA World Factbook]] 2004
{{Africa-stub}}
[[Category:Communications in Angola| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Angola</title>
<id>708</id>
<revision>
<id>36634605</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T12:33:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tabletop</username>
<id>173687</id>
</contributor>
<comment>under construction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Angola''' comprises:
== Railways ==
* ''total:'' 2,761 km
* ''narrow gauge:'' 2,638 km 1.067-m gauge; 123 km 0.600-m gauge (2002)
* there are three separate lines which do not link up. A fourth system linked [[Gunza]] and [[Gabela]].
* railways in Angola have suffered a lot of damage in the civil war, and a $4b project is proposed to restore the lines, and even to extend the system. A link to Namibia is partly under construction.
=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
The major railway in [[Angola]] is the [[Benguela railway]], severely damaged during the civil war after independence.
* [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] - no - [[Lobito]] - [[Lubumbashi]] restoration link proposed.
* [[Transportation in Namibia|Namibia]] - no - same gauge - links proposed and partially under construction in [[2005]].
* [[Transportation in Zambia|Zambia]] - no
== Highways ==
* ''total:'' 76,626 km
* ''paved:'' 19,156 km
* ''unpaved:'' 57,470 km (1997 est.)
== Waterways == 1,295 km navigable
== Pipelines ==
* crude oil 179 km
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* from North to South
* [[Ambriz]]
* [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]
* [[Luanda]] - [[railhead]] for [[Malanje]]
* [[Lobito]] - [[railhead]] for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]
* [[Malongo]]
* [[Namibe]] - [[railhead]] for [[Menongue]]
* [[Porto Amboim]]
* [[Soyo]]
== Merchant marine ==
* ''total:'' 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 30,311 GRT/48,924 DWT
* ''ships by type:'' cargo 7, petroleum tanker 1 (2002 est.)
== Airports == 243 (2002)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
* ''total:'' 32
* ''over 3,047 m:'' 4
* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8
* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 14
* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 5
* ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2002 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
* ''total:'' 211 (2002)
* ''over 3,047 m:'' 2
* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 4
* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 30
* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 95
* ''under 914 m:'' 80 (2002 est.)
=== National Airline ===
* [[TAAG Air Angola]]
== Reference ==
''This article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.''
== See also ==
* [[Angola]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Angola| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Angola</title>
<id>709</id>
<revision>
<id>42091342</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#CC3300
| age=17 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years plus time for training (2001)
| availability=2,423,221 (2005 est.)
| service=1,174,548 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=121,254 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount=$183.58 million (2004)
| percent GDP=10.6% (2004)
}}
[[Angola]]'s military is called the FAA, the Portuguese acronym for [[Angolan Armed Forces]], headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions--the '''Army''', Navy ('''Marinha de Guerra''', MdG), and '''Air and Air Defense Forces''' (FANA). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville).
==References==
*''[[CIA World Factbook]]'', 2005
*''U.S. Department of State Background Notes'', 2003
[[Category:Military of Angola]]
[[Category:Militaries|Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Angola</title>
<id>710</id>
<revision>
<id>39812262</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T00:55:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.3.230.131</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Angola}}
Froom 1975 to 1989, [[Angola]] was aligned with the [[Eastern bloc]], in particular the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]]. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with [[Western world|Western countries]], cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in [[Central Africa]] through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the [[United States]]. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]] joined Angola in its military intervention in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where Angolan troops remain in support of the [[Joseph Kabila]] government. It also has intervened in the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country.
Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the [[UN Security Council]] to impose and carry out sanctions on [[UNITA]]. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil in particular.
'''Disputes - international:''' [[Angola]] gives shelter to thousands of refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo while thousands of Angolan refugees still remain in neighboring states as a consequence of the protracted civil wars in both states
'''Illicit drugs:''' [[Angola]] is used as a transshipment point for cocaine destined for [[Western Europe]] and other African states
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of Angola| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Sidney Johnston</title>
<id>711</id>
<revision>
<id>41210266</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:31:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.232.248.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Texas Army */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ASJohnston.jpeg|thumb|Albert Sidney Johnston]]
'''Albert Sidney Johnston''' ([[February 2]], [[1803]] &ndash; [[April 6]], [[1862]]) was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and a [[Confederate States Army | Confederate]] [[general]] during the [[American Civil War]]. Considered by [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]] to be the finest general in the Confederacy, he was killed early in the war at the [[Battle of Shiloh]].
==Early life==
Johnston was born in [[Washington, Kentucky | Washington]], [[Kentucky]], the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Harris Johnston. His father was a native of [[Salisbury, Connecticut]]. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in [[Texas]], which he considered his home. He was educated at [[Transylvania University]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky | Lexington]] and later secured an appointment to [[United States Military Academy|West Point]]. In [[1826]] he graduated eighth in his class from the [[United States Military Academy]] with a commission as a [[second lieutenant]] in the 2nd U.S. [[Infantry]]. He was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]] and served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in [[1832]] as chief of staff to General Henry Atlinson. In [[1829]] he married Henrietta Preston. He resigned his commission in [[1834]] to return to Kentucky to care for his dying wife. They had one son, William Preston Johnston.
==Texas Army==
In April 1834, Johnston took up farming in [[Texas]], but enlisted as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in the Texas Army during the [[Texas War of Independence]] against the Republic of [[Mexico]] in [[1836]]. One month later, Johnston was promoted to [[major]] and the position of [[aide-de-camp]] to General [[Sam Houston]]. He was named [[Adjutant General]] as a [[colonel]] in the [[Republic of Texas]] Army on [[August 5]], [[1836]]. On [[January 31]], [[1837]], he became Senior Brigadier General in command of the Texas Army.
On [[February 7]], [[1837]], he fought in a [[duel]] with Texas Brig. Gen. [[Felix Huston]], challenging each other for the command of the Texas Army; Johnston refused to fire on Huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis. The second president of the [[Republic of Texas]], [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], appointed him Secretary of War on [[December 22]], [[1838]]. Johnston was to provide the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky, where he married [[Eliza Griffin]] in [[1843]]. They settled on a large [[plantation]] he named China Grove in [[Brazoria County, T |
rafie]]
[[ca:Criptografia]]
[[cs:Kryptografie]]
[[da:Kryptografi]]
[[de:Kryptografie]]
[[et:Krüptograafia]]
[[el:Κρυπτογραφία]]
[[es:Criptografía]]
[[fa:رمزنگاری]]
[[fr:Cryptographie]]
[[ko:암호학]]
[[id:Kriptografi]]
[[it:Crittografia]]
[[he:קריפטוגרפיה]]
[[hu:Kriptográfia]]
[[nl:Cryptografie]]
[[ja:暗号]]
[[pl:Kryptografia]]
[[pt:Criptografia]]
[[ru:Криптография]]
[[fi:Salaus]]
[[sv:Kryptografi]]
[[th:วิทยาการเข้ารหัสลับ]]
[[vi:Mật mã học]]
[[tr:Kriptografi]]
[[zh:密码学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CryptographY/Keys</title>
<id>5145</id>
<revision>
<id>15903375</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-18T13:54:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matt Crypto</username>
<id>50457</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Key (cryptography)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Key (cryptography)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CryptographY/Hashfunctions</title>
<id>5146</id>
<revision>
<id>15903376</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:35:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common sense</title>
<id>5147</id>
<revision>
<id>40660988</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:20:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Supspirit</username>
<id>343156</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ got rid of custom link (disambiguation) and replaced with [[Norm_(sociology)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
:''For the American independence advocacy pamphlet by Thomas Paine, see [[Common Sense (pamphlet)]]''
:''For the American hip-hop artist, see [[Common (rapper)|Common]]''
One meaning of the term '''common sense''' (or as an [[adjective]], ''commonsense'') on a strict construction of the term, is what people in common would agree; that which they "sense" in common as their common natural understanding. Some use the phrase to refer to [[belief]]s or [[proposition]]s that in their opinion they consider would in most people's experience be [[prudence|prudent]] and of sound [[judgment]], without dependence upon [[esoteric knowledge]] or study or research, but based upon what is believed to be knowledge held by people "in common". The knowledge and experience most people have, or are believed to have by the person using the term.
Whatever definition is considered apt, identifying particular items of knowledge that are "common sense" is more difficult. [[Philosopher]]s may choose to avoid using the phrase where precise language is required. Common sense is a perennial topic in [[epistemology]] and widely used or referred to by many philosophers. Some related concepts include [[philosophical intuition|intuition]]s, [[pre-theoretic belief]], [[ordinary language philosophy|ordinary language]], the [[frame problem]], [[foundational belief]]s, ''[[endoxa]],'' and [[axiom]]s.
Commonsense ideas tend to relate to events within human experience, and thus commensurate with [[human scale]]. Thus there is no commonsense intuition of, for example, the behavior of the universe at subatomic distances or speeds approaching that of light.
== Philosophy and common sense ==
There are two general meanings to the term "common sense" in philosophy. One is a sense that is common to the others, and the other meaning is a sense of things that is common to humanity.
The first meaning was proposed by [[John Locke]] in his ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]],''. This interpretation is based on [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] experience. Each of the senses gives input, and then these must be integrated into a single impression. This is the common sense, the sense of things in common between disparate impressions. It is therefore allied with "fancy", and it is opposed to "judgment", or the capacity to divide like things into separates. Each of the [[Empiricism|empiricist]] philosophers approach the problem of the unification of sense data in one's own way, giving various names to the operation. However, all believe that there is a sense in the human understanding that sees commonality and does the combining. This is the "common sense".
Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the other meaning of "common sense", the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: [[Thomas Reid]], [[G. E. Moore]].
The Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of [[David Hume|Hume]] and the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]], devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense. While he never gives a definition, ''per se'', he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as
*principles of common sense are believed universally (with the apparent exceptions of some philosophers and the insane);
*it is appropriate to ridicule the denial of common sense;
*the denial of principles of common sense leads to contradictions.
Of course, each of these is stated and explained by Reid much more carefully than is done here.
The British philosopher [[G. E. Moore]], who did important work in [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense". This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy. In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body.", "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings.", and many other such platitudes. He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim of [[A. N. Whitehead]]'s).
Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute [[skepticism]].
Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called [[epistemological particularism]] (The appellation comes from Roderick Chisholm.), which orientation is contrasted with [[epistemological methodism]]. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic methodists. Methodist methodology tends toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about.
An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed. For instance, it seems impossible to do [[logic]], [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]] without beginning with some assumptions of common sense. However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation. Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy of language]] called "[[meta-philosophy]]". Various questions might be raised in a meta-philosophical discussion of common sense: What is common sense? Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy? Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not? Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense? Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy? If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as "[[intuition]]" play such a role? In general, are there "[[philosophical starting point]]s", and if so, how might we characterize them? Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to [[hold come what may]], are there some we ought to [[hold more stubbornly at least]]?
==Other uses==
Common sense is sometimes regarded as an impediment to abstract and even logical thinking. This is especially the case in [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], where human intuition often conflicts with provably correct or experimentally verified results. A definition attributed to [[Albert Einstein]] states: "Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen."
Common sens |
international tournaments the match can go to extra time and then to a penalty stroke competition.
==Equipment==
Each player carries a "stick", normally a little over 3 feet (90 centimetres) long and traditionally made of wood but now often made with [[fibreglass]], [[kevlar]] and [[carbon fibre]] [[composite material|composites]], with a rounded handle flattening out on one side and with a hook at the bottom. New rules (2006) limit the curve of the stick so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked. The stick is only allowed to have a bow smaller than 25mm otherwise this is deemed to be illegal. The flat side of the hook is used to push, dribble, or hit a hard plastic ball. This ball is often covered with dimples to reduce [[Hydroplaning (road vehicle)|hydroplaning]] that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces. Each field player normally wears a mouth guard and shin guards. Although the only equipment required for Goalkeepers is a helmet and a stick, invariably they wear extensive protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, leg guards, and foot guards (called "kickers"). [[Image:Keep.jpg|thumb|right|A Goalkeeper in full outfit.]]
[[Image:Fieldhockeygirl1.jpg|thumb|right|A women's field hockey outfit]]
==Tactics==
The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are: the "dribble", where the player controls the ball with the stick and runs with the ball, pushing the ball along as they run; The "push", where the player uses their wrists to push at the ball; the "flick" or "scoop", similar to the push but with an additional wrist action to force the stick through at an angle and lift the ball off the ground; and the "hit", where a backlift is taken and contact with the ball is made quite forcefully. In order to produce a much stronger hit, usually for travel over long distances, the stick is raised higher and swung at the ball, known as a "drive".
Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit, or attempt to maneuver or "pull" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.
When passing and maneuvering between players, certain commands are used to ensure understanding of movements and plays among teammates. Although these vary depending on which country the game is in, there are a few standard calls. By calling "through" or "straight" the ball is passed straight ahead to another player. "Flat" or "square" signifies a pass made to the right or left of the player with the ball at a 90 degree angle. Passes made backward are ocassionally signified by a call of "drop". A hit made forward at an angle is recognized as "up".
In recent years, the [[penalty corner (field hockey)|penalty corner]] has gained importance as a vital part of the game as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the advent and popularisation of the [[drag flick (field hockey)|drag flick]], PC's are highly saught after awards. Some tactics or set plays used involve the aforementioned drag flick, the straight hit, [[deflections (field hockey)|deflections]] towards goal, and various, more complex plays, using passes before shots at goal.
At the highest level, hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. While physically tackling and otherwise obstructing players is not permitted, collisions are common, and the speed at which the ball travels along the ground (and sometimes through the air, which is legal if it is not judged dangerous by the [[umpire]]) requires the use of padded shin guards to prevent injury. Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater speed - the best players maneuver and score almost quicker than the eye can see.
==Major Tournaments==
The biggest two field hockey tournaments are undoubtedly the [[Hockey at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] tournament, and the [[World Hockey Cup|Hockey World Cup]], which is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the [[Champions Trophy (field hockey)|Champions Trophy]] Cup held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Amongst the men, India has won 8 Olympic golds and Pakistan have lifted the World Cup 4 times. Amongst the women, Australia has 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 5 times.
==External links==
*[http://www.fihockey.org The FIH] - the game's international governing body
*[http://www.fihockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-170505-187723-97418-0-file,00.pdf FIH Rules of Hockey 2006] (pdf file)
*[http://www.planetfieldhockey.com/ Planet Field hockey] - Field hockey resource on the web (rules, news,forums...)
{{Team_Sport}}
[[category:team sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Field hockey|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[bn:হকি]]
[[ca:Hoquei sobre herba]]
[[de:Feldhockey]]
[[et:Maahoki]]
[[eo:Hokeo]]
[[eu:Belar hockey]]
[[fr:Hockey sur gazon]]
[[ko:필드하키]]
[[hi:फील्ड हाकी]]
[[it:Hockey su prato]]
[[nl:Hockey]]
[[ja:ホッケー]]
[[pt:Hóquei em campo]]
[[ru:Хоккей]]
[[sr:Хокеј на трави]]
[[fi:Maahockey]]
[[sv:Landhockey]]
[[zh:曲棍球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finagle's law</title>
<id>10887</id>
<revision>
<id>36512577</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T16:18:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Laurascudder</username>
<id>93622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving see also to the section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Finagle's Law of Dynamic Negatives''' is usually rendered:
:''Anything that can go wrong, will.''
One variant (known as O'Toole's Corollary of Finagle's Law) favored among [[hacker]]s is
:''The perversity of the Universe tends towards a maximum.''
The term "Finagle's Law" was first used by [[John W. Campbell, Jr.]], the influential editor of ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'' (later ''Analog''). He used it frequently in his editorials for many years in the 1940s to 1960s but it never came into general usage the way [[Murphy's Law]] has.
Eventually the term "Finagle's law" was popularized by [[science fiction]] author [[Larry Niven]] in several stories depicting a frontier culture of asteroid miners; this "Belter" culture professed a religion and/or [[Running gag|running joke]] involving the worship of the dread god Finagle and his mad prophet Murphy.
[[Hanlon's Razor]] (or Hanlon's Law) is a [[corollary]] of Finagle's law. Hanlon's Razor says "Never attribute to [[malice]] that which can be adequately explained by [[stupidity]]."
== See also ==
*[[Hanlon's Razor]]
*[[Sturgeon's law]]
*[[Murphy's law]]
*[[Second law of thermodynamics]]
*[[Adages named after people]]
[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finagles law</title>
<id>10888</id>
<revision>
<id>15908678</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-23T06:42:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect ==&gt; REDIRECT</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finagle's law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental interaction</title>
<id>10890</id>
<revision>
<id>41342937</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:52:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xerxes314</username>
<id>43566</id>
</contributor>
<comment>"force" to "interaction"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fundamental interaction''' is a mechanism by which particles interact with each other, and which cannot be explained by another more fundamental interaction. ''Every'' observed [[physics|physical]] phenomenon, from [[galaxy|galaxies]] colliding with each other to [[quark]]s jiggling around inside a [[proton]], can thus be explained by these interactions. Because of their fundamental importance, understanding of these interactions has occupied the attention of [[physicist]]s for over half a century and continues to do so.
Traditionally, modern [[physicist]]s have counted four interactions: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak interaction]], and the [[strong interaction]]. Their magnitude and behavior vary greatly, as can be seen in the table below. Yet, it is strongly believed that three of these interactions are manifestations of a single, more fundamental, interaction, just as electricity and magnetism are now understood as two aspects of the electromagnetic interaction. Electromagnetism and the weak nuclear forces have been shown to be two aspects of a single [[electroweak interaction]]. Somewhat more speculatively, the electroweak force and the strong nuclear interaction have been combined using [[grand unified theory|grand unified theories]]. How to combine the fourth interaction, gravity, with the other three is still a topic of research into [[quantum gravity]].
{| align="center" style="margin-left: 1em;" border="1"
|-
! Theory !! Interaction !! mediator !! Relative Magnitude !! Behavior !! Range
|-
| [[Chromodynamics]] || [[Strong interaction]] || [[gluon]] || 10<sup>38</sup> || 1/''r''<sup>7</sup> || 1.4 x 10<sup>-15</sup> m
|-
| [[Electrodynamics]] || [[Electromagnetic interaction]] || [[photon]] || 10<sup>36</sup> || 1/''r''<sup>2</ |
omputer file|files]] on a [[data storage device]], most commonly a [[disk drive]], which might be directly or indirectly connected to the computer. Examples of disk file systems include [[File Allocation Table|FAT]], [[NTFS]], [[Hierarchical_File_System|HFS]], [[ext2]], [[ISO 9660]], [[Files-11|ODS-5]], and [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]].
Some disk file systems are also [[journaling file system]]s or [[versioning file system]]s.
=== Database file systems ===
New concepts for file management are database-based file systems. Instead of hierarchical structured management, files are identified by their characteristics, like type of file, topic, author, or similar [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]. Therefore a file search can be formulated in [[SQL]] or in natural speech. Examples include [[GNOME VFS|Gnome VFS]], [[Be File System|BFS]], and [[WinFS]].
<br style="clear:both;"/>
=== Transactional file systems ===
This is a special kind of file system in that it logs events or transactions to files.
Each operation that you do may involve changes to a number of different files and disk structures. In many cases, these changes are related, meaning that it is important that they all be executed at the same time.
Take for example a bank sending another bank some money electronically. The bank's computer will "send" the transfer instruction to the other bank and also update its own records to indicate the transfer has occurred. If for some reason the computer crashes before it has had a chance to update its own records, then on reset, there will be no record of the transfer but the bank will be missing some money. A transactional system can rebuild the actions by resynchronizing the "transactions" on both ends to correct the failure. All transactions can be saved, as well, providing a complete record of what was done and where. This type of file system is designed and intended to be fault tolerant and necessarily, incurs a high degree of overhead.
=== Special purpose file systems ===
A special purpose file system is basically any file system that is not a disk file system or network file system. This includes systems where the [[computer file|files]] are arranged dynamically by [[software]], intended for such purposes as communication between [[computer process]]es or temporary file space.
Special purpose file systems are most commonly used by file-centric operating systems such as Unix. Examples include the '/proc' filesystem used by some Unix variants, which grants access to information about [[process (computing)|process]]es and other operating system features.
Deep space science exploration craft, like [[Voyager I]] & [[Voyager II|II]] used digital tape based special file systems. Most modern space exploration craft like [[Cassini-Huygens]] used [[Real-time operating system]] file systems or RTOS influenced file systems. The [[Mars Rover]]s are one such example of an RTOS file system, important in this case because they are implemented in flash memory.
== File systems and operating systems==
Most [[operating system]]s provide a file system, as a file system is an integral part of any modern operating system. Early [[microcomputer]] operating systems' only real task was file management - a fact reflected in their names (see [[DOS]] and [[QDOS]]). Some early operating systems had a separate component for handling file systems which was called a [[disk operating system]]. On some microcomputers, the disk operating system was loaded separately from the rest of the operating system. On early operating systems, there was usually support for only one, native, unnamed file system; for example, [[CP/M]] supports only its own file system, which might be called "CP/M file system" if needed, but which didn't bear any official name at all.
Because of this, there needs to be an interface provided by the operating system software between the user and the file system. This interface can be textual (such as provided by a [[command line interface]], such as the [[Unix shell]], or [[DIGITAL_Command_Language|OpenVMS DCL]]) or graphical (such as provided by a [[graphical user interface]], such as [[file browser]]s). If graphical, the metaphor of the ''[[folder]]'', containing documents, other files, and nested folders is often used (see also: [[directory]] and [[folder]]).
===File systems under Unix===
Unix and Unix-like operating systems assign a device name to each device, but this is not how the files on that device are accessed. Instead, Unix creates a virtual file system, which makes all the files on all the devices appear to exist under one hierarchy. This means, in Unix, there is one [[root directory]], and every file existing on the system is located under it somewhere. Furthermore, the Unix root directory does not have to be in any physical place. It might not be on your first hard drive - it might not even be on your computer. Unix can use a network shared resource as its root directory.
To gain access to files on another device, you must first inform the operating system where in the directory tree you would like those files to appear. This process is called [[mount]]ing a file system. For example, to access the files on a [[CD-ROM]], informally, one must tell the operating system "Take the file system from this CD-ROM and make it appear under the directory /mnt". The directory given to the operating system is called the ''mount point'' - in this case it is <tt>/mnt</tt>. The /mnt directory exists on all Unix systems (as specified in the [[Filesystem Hierarchy Standard]]) and is intended specifically for use as a mount point for temporary media like floppy disks or [[Compact disc|CD]]s. It may be empty, or it may contain subdirectories for mounting individual devices. Generally, only the [[System administrator|administrator]] (i.e. [[root user]]) may authorize the mounting of file systems.
[[Unix-like]] operating systems often include software and tools that assist in the mounting process and provide it new functionality. Some of these strategies have been coined "auto-mounting" as a reflection of their purpose.
#In many situations, filesystems other than the root need to be available as soon as the operating system has [[booting|booted]]. All Unix-like systems therefore provide a facility for mounting filesystems at boot time. System [[System administrator|administrator]]s define these filesystems in the configuration file [[fstab]], which also indicates options and [[mount point]]s.
#In some situations, there is no need to mount certain filesystems at [[booting|boot time]], although their use may be desired thereafter. There are some utilities for Unix-like systems that allow the mounting of predefined filesystems upon demand.
#Removable media have become very common with [[microcomputer]] platforms. They allow programs and data to be transferred between machines without a physical connection. Two common examples include [[CD-ROM]]s and [[DVD]]s. Utilities have therefore been developed to detect the presence and availability of a medium and then mount that medium without any user intervention.
<!-- supermount definition may be inaccurate -->
#Progressive Unix-like systems have also introduced a concept called [[supermount]]ing. For example, a floppy disk that has been supermounted can be physically removed from the system. Under normal circumstances, the disk should have been synchronised and then unmounted before its removal. Provided synchronisation has occurred, a different disk can be inserted into the drive. The system automatically notices that the disk has changed and updates the [[mount point]] contents to reflect the new medium.
<!-- there may be some concepts I {forgot, omitted, did not know, am not creative enough to invent} -->
===File systems under Mac OS X===
[[Mac OS X]] uses a file system that it inherited from [[Mac OS]] called [[HFS Plus]]. HFS Plus is a [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]-rich and [[case preservation|case preserving]] but [[case sensitivity|case insensitive]] file system. Due to the Unix roots of Mac OS X, Unix permissions were added to HFS Plus. Later versions of HFS Plus added a [[Journaling file system|journal]] to prevent corruption of the file system structure and introduced a number of optimizations to the allocation algorithms in an attempt to defragment files automatically without requiring an external defragmenter.
Filenames can be up to 255 characters. HFS Plus uses [[Unicode]] to store filenames. On Mac OS X, the [[file format|filetype]] can come from the [[Type code]] stored in file's metadata or the filename.
HFS Plus has three kinds of links: [[Hard link]]s, [[Symbolic link]]s and [[Alias (Mac OS)|Aliases]]. Aliases are designed to maintain a link to their original file even if they are moved or renamed.
===File systems under Plan 9===
[[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] was originally designed to extend some of Unix's good points, and to introduce some new ideas of its own. With respect to file systems, the Unix system of treating things as files was continued, but in Plan 9, ''everything'' is treated as a file, and accessed as a file would be. Secondly, the underlying [[9P]] protocol was used to ensure that the difference between a file existing on a remote system and a file existing on a local system was basically nil (apart from a possible difference in [[latency]]). This had the advantage that a device or devices, represented by files, on a remote computer, could be used as though it were the local computer's own device(s). This means that under [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]], multiple file servers provide access to devices, classing them as special file systems.
Everything on a Plan 9 system has, then, an abstraction as a file. For example, [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] connections are not handled by a dedicated program, but instea |
PhD in a related discipline. Many universities offer Master of Science degrees in Ergonomics, while some offer Master of Ergonomics or Master of Human Factors degrees.
==Applications==
The more than twenty technical subgroups within the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, HFES, indicate the range of applications for ergonomics. Human factors engineering continues to be successfully applied in the fields of [[aerospace]], aging, health care, [[Information technology|IT]], product design, transportation, training, nuclear and virtual environments, among others. Kim Vicente, a University of Toronto Professor of Ergonomics, argues that the nuclear disaster in [[Chernobyl]] is attributable to plant designers not paying enough attention to human factors. "The operators were trained but the complexity of the reactor and the control panels nevertheless outstripped their ability to grasp what they were seeing [during the prelude to the disaster]."
Human factors issues arise in simple systems and consumer products as well. Some examples include cellular telephones and other handheld devices that continue to shrink yet grow more complex (a phenomenon referred to as "creeping featurism"), millions of VCRs blinking "12:00" across the world because very few people can figure out how to program them, or alarm clocks that allow sleepy users to inadvertently turn off the alarm when they mean to hit 'snooze'. A [[user-centered design]] (UCD), also known as a systems approach or the usability engineering lifecycle aims to improve the user-system fit.
==Resources==
'''Books'''<br>
''Ergonomics for Beginners'' - Jan Dul and Bernard Weerdmeester - A classic introduction on ergonomics - Original title: Vademecum Ergonomie (Dutch) -published and updated since 1960's.<br>
''Bodyspace'' - Stephen Pheasant - A classic exploration of ergonomics.<br>
''The Human Factor'' - Kim Vicente - Full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between existing technology and the human mind, with suggestions to narrow it.<br>
''The Design of Everyday Things'' - Donald Norman - An entertaining user-centered critique of nearly every gadget out there (at the time it was published).<br>
''Evaluation of Human Work'' - Wilson & Corlett - A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning: very technical and not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics.<br>
''Engineering Psychology and Human Performance'' - Wickens and Hollands - Discusses memory, attention, decision making, stress and human error, among other topics.<br>
''The Measure of Man & Woman'' - Henry Dreyfuss Associates - A human factors design manual that has controversial elements.<br>
'''Peer-Reviewed Publications'''<br>
(between brackets mean ISI impact factor 2001-2003)
''Ergonomics'' (0.747)<br>
''Applied Ergonomics'' (0.738)<br>
''Human Factors'' (0.723) <br>
''International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics'' (0.395)<br>
''Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing'' (0.311)<br>
''Travail Humain (0.260)<br>
''Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science'' (-)<br>
''International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics'' (-)<br>
'''Other Publications'''
* [http://www.ergoweb.com/news Ergonomics Today&#8482;] - Ergoweb regularly updates ergonomics-related news and information (free).
* [http://www.ergoweb.com/ergobuyer Ergobuyer&#174;] - ErgoWeb Buyer's Guide to ergonomics-related products and services (free).
* [http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/categories/categories_products.asp?parent_id=1164 CRC / Taylor and Francis books about ergonomics and human factors]
'''Organizations'''
* [http://www.iea.cc/ IEA] International Ergonomics Association
* [http://www.bcpe.org Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics] (BCPE) - Established in 1990 as an independent nonprofit organization, the BCPE is the certifying body for individuals whose education and experience indicate broad expertise in the practice of human factors/ergonomics.
* [http://www.ace-ergocanada.ca/ ACE] Association of Canadian Ergonomists
* [http://www.hfes.org/ HFES] Human Factors and Ergonomics Society - USA
'''Websites'''
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/recc-ergonomics.htm Ergonomics research: Anthropometrics, ergonomic tools, product design, workplace ergonomics, injury data]
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/ergonomics.htm More about ergonomics and its history; workplace safety; guidelines &amp; standards]
*[http://www.usernomics.com/user-interface-design.html Usernomics] &mdash; Resources and consulting for user interface design and usability testing
==See also==
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human computer interaction]]
*[[Systems engineering]]
[[Category:Ergonomics]]
[[cs:Ergonomie]]
[[da:Ergonomi]]
[[de:Ergonomie]]
[[es:Ergonomía]]
[[it:Ergonomía]]
[[fr:Ergonomie]]
[[nl:Ergonomie]]
[[ja:人間工学]]
[[pl:Ergonomia]]
[[ru:Эргономика]]
[[sv:Ergonomi]]
[[zh:工效学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnectic radiation</title>
<id>9607</id>
<revision>
<id>15907481</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electromagnetic radiation]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Escathology</title>
<id>9608</id>
<revision>
<id>15907482</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eschatology]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic commerce</title>
<id>9611</id>
<revision>
<id>41991185</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:08:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heyjohngreen</username>
<id>746925</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Entities using electronic commerce */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''see also: [[Electronic business]]''' (to be merged?)''
'''Electronic commerce''', '''e-commerce''' or '''ecommerce''' consists primarily of the distributing, buying, selling, [[marketing]], and servicing of [[product (business)|products]] or [[service]]s over electronic systems such as the Internet and other [[computer network]]s. The [[information technology]] industry might see it as an [[electronic business]] application aimed at commercial transactions. It can involve electronic funds transfer, [[supply chain management]], [[e-marketing]], [[online marketing]], online transaction processing, [[EDI | electronic data interchange]], automated inventory management systems, and automated data-collection systems. It typically uses electronic communications technology such as the [[Internet]], [[extranet]]s, e-mail, Ebooks, databases, and mobile phones.
According to [[Forrester Research]] (as cited in Kessler, 2003), electronic commerce generated sales worth [[U.S. dollar| US $]]12.2 billion in [[as of 2003 | 2003]].
==Historical development==
The meaning of the term "electronic commerce" has changed over time. Originally, "electronic commerce" meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, usually using technology like [[Electronic Data Interchange]] (EDI, introduced in the late 1970s) to send commercial documents like [[purchase order]]s or [[invoice]]s electronically.
Later it came to include activities more precisely termed "Web commerce" -- the purchase of goods and services over the [[World Wide Web]] via secure servers (note [[HTTPS]], a special server [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] which [[encryption|encrypts]] confidential ordering data for customer protection) with e-[[shopping cart]]s and with electronic pay services, like [[credit card]] payment authorizations.
When the Web first became well-known among the general public in 1994, many journalists and pundits forecast that e-commerce would soon become a major economic sector. However, it took about four years for security protocols (like HTTPS) to become sufficiently developed and widely deployed (during the [[browser wars]] of this period). Subsequently, between 1998 and 2000, a substantial number of businesses in the United States and Western Europe developed rudimentary Web sites.
Although a large number of "pure e-commerce" companies disappeared during the [[dot-com]] collapse in 2000 and 2001, many "brick-and-mortar" retailers recognized that such companies had identified valuable niche markets and began to add e-commerce capabilities to their Web sites. For example, after the collapse of online grocer [[Webvan]], two traditional supermarket chains, [[Albertsons]] and [[Safeway]], both started e-commerce subsidiaries through which consumers could order groceries online.
As of [[2005]], e-commerce has become well-established in major cities across much of North America, Western Europe, and certain East Asian countries like South Korea. However, e-commerce is still emerging slowly in some industrialized countries, and is practically nonexistent in many [[Third World]] countries.
Electronic commerce has unlimited potential for both developed and developing nations, offering lucrative profits in a highly unregulated environment.
==Success factors in e-commerce==
===Technical & Organizational===
In many cases, an e-commerce company will survive not only based on its product, but by having a well-organized business structure and a secure, well-designed website. Such factors include:
#Providing an easy and secure way for customers to order. [[Credit cards]] are the most popular means of sending payments on the internet, accounting for 90% of online purchases. Card numbers are transferr |
*1946 - [[John Geils, Jr.]], American guitarist ([[J. Geils Band]])
*[[1947]] - [[Peter Osgood]], English footballer
*1947 - [[Peter Strauss]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Jennifer O'Neill]], Brazilian-born actress
*[[1949]] - [[Ivana Trump]], Czech skier, model and socialite
*[[1950]] - [[Ken Shimura]], Japanese television performer and actor
*1950 - [[Walter Becker]], American jazz-rock guitarist ([[Steely Dan]])
*[[1951]] - [[Edward Albert]], American actor
*1951 - [[Gordon Brown]], British politician
*1951 - [[Randy California]], guitarist ([[Spirit (band)|Spirit]]) (d. [[1997]])
*[[1954]] - [[Anthony Stewart Head]], English actor
*1954 - [[Patty Hearst]], American socialite and kidnapping victim
*1954 - [[Jon Brant]], American musician ([[Cheap Trick]])
*[[1960]] - [[Joel Hodgson]], American comedian, creator of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''
*[[1963]] - [[Charles Barkley]], American basketball player
*1963 - [[Ian Brown]], British singer ([[Stone Roses]])
*[[1966]] - [[Cindy Crawford]], American model
*[[1967]] - [[Kurt Cobain]], American musician ([[Nirvana]]) (d. [[1994]])
*[[1967]] - [[Lili Taylor]], American actress
*[[1971]] - [[Jari Litmanen]], Finnish footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Brian Littrell]], American musician ([[Backstreet Boys]])
*[[1976]] - [[Ed Graham]], British drummer ([[The Darkness]])
*[[1977]] - [[Stephon Marbury]], American basketball player
*1977 - [[T.J. Slaughter]], American football player
*[[1978]] - [[Julia Jentsch]], German actress
*[[1980]] - [[Imanol Harinordoquy]], French rugby player
*[[1981]] - [[Tony Hibbert]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Chris Thile]], musician
*[[1985]] - [[Yulia Volkova]], Russian musician ([[t.A.T.u.]])
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[702]] - [[Chan Bahlum II]], king of the Maya state of Palenque (b. [[635]])
*[[1154]] - Saint [[Wulfric]] of [[Haselbury Plucknett]]
*[[1171]] - [[Conan IV, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1138]])
*[[1194]] - King [[Tancred of Sicily]]
*[[1258]] - [[Al-Musta'sim]], last Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad
*[[1408]] - [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]], English statesman (b. [[1342]])
*[[1431]] - [[Pope Martin V]] (b. [[1368]])
*[[1513]] - King [[Christian II of Denmark]] (b. [[1455]])
*[[1524]] - [[Tecún Umán]], last leader of the [[Quiché]]-Maya in the northern highlands of Guatemala.
*[[1579]] - [[Nicholas Bacon]], English politician (b. [[1509]])
*[[1618]] - [[Philip William, Prince of Orange]] (b. [[1554]])
*[[1626]] - [[John Dowland]], English composer and lutenist (b. [[1563]])
*[[1762]] - [[Tobias Mayer]], German astronomer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1771]] - [[Jean Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]], French geophysicist (b. [[1678]])
*[[1773]] - King [[Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia]] (b. [[1701]])
*[[1778]] - [[Laura Bassi]], Italian scholar (b. [[1711]])
*[[1790]] - [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1741]])
*[[1803]] - [[Marie Dumesnil]], French actress (b. [[1713]])
*[[1806]] - [[Lachlan McIntosh]], Scottish-born American military and political leader (b. [[1725]])
*[[1810]] - [[Andreas Hofer]], Tyrolean national hero (executed) (b. [[1767]])
*[[1871]] - [[Paul Kane]], Irish-born painter (b. [[1810]])
*[[1893]] - [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], American Confederate general (b. [[1818]])
*[[1895]] - [[Frederick Douglass]], American abolitionist writer (b. [[1818]])
*[[1907]] - [[Henri Moissan]], French chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1852]])
*[[1916]] - [[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]], Swedish writer and pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1844]])
*[[1920]] - [[Robert Peary]], American explorer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1961]] - [[Percy Grainger]], Australian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1966]] - [[Chester Nimitz]], American admiral (b. [[1885]])
*[[1968]] - [[Anthony Asquith]], British film director and writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1969]] - [[Ernest Ansermet]], Swiss conductor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sophie Treadwell]], American playwright and journalist (b. [[1885]])
*[[1972]] - [[Maria Goeppert-Mayer]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]])
*1972 - [[Walter Winchell]], American journalist (b. [[1897]])
*[[1975]] - [[Robert Schwarz Strauss|Robert Strauss]], American politician and diplomat (b. [[1918]])
*[[1976]] - [[René Cassin]], French judge, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1887]])
*[[1980]] - [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J.B. Rhine]], American parapsychologist (b. [[1895]])
*[[1981]] - Baron [[Nicolas de Gunzburg]], magazine editor, socialite (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Clarence Nash]], American voice actor (b. [[1904]])
*[[1992]] - [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]], Salvadoran politician (b. [[1944]])
*1992 - [[Dick York]], American actor (b. [[1928]])
*[[1993]] - [[Ferruccio Lamborghini]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1996]] - [[Solomon Asch]], American psychologist (b. [[1907]])
*1996 - [[Tōru Takemitsu]], Japanese composer (b. [[1930]])
*[[1999]] - [[Sarah Kane]], English playwright (b. [[1971]])
*1999 - [[Gene Siskel]], American film critic (b. [[1946]])
*[[2000]] - [[Anatoly Sobchak]], Russian politician (b. [[1937]])
*[[2001]] - [[Rosemary DeCamp]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[2003]] - [[Maurice Blanchot]], French author (b. [[1907]])
*2003 - [[Orville Freeman]], American politician (b. [[1918]])
*2003 - [[Harry Jacunski]], American football player
*2003 - [[Ty Longley]], American guitarist ([[Great White|Great White (band)]])
*[[2005]] - [[Sandra Dee]], American actress (b. [[1944]])
*2005 - [[John Raitt]], American actor (b. [[1917]])
*2005 - [[Hunter S. Thompson]], American journalist and author (b. [[1937]])
*2006 - [[Curt Gowdy]], American sportscaster (b. [[1919]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/2006020.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=20 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 19]] - [[February 21]] - [[January 20]] - [[March 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:20 Februarie]]
[[ar:20 فبراير]]
[[an:20 de frebero]]
[[ast:20 de febreru]]
[[bg:20 февруари]]
[[be:20 лютага]]
[[bs:20. februar]]
[[ca:20 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 20]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 20]]
[[co:20 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:20. únor]]
[[cy:20 Chwefror]]
[[da:20. februar]]
[[de:20. Februar]]
[[et:20. veebruar]]
[[el:20 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:20 de febrero]]
[[eo:20-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 20]]
[[fo:20. februar]]
[[fr:20 février]]
[[fy:20 febrewaris]]
[[ga:20 Feabhra]]
[[gl:20 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 20일]]
[[hr:20. veljače]]
[[io:20 di februaro]]
[[id:20 Februari]]
[[ia:20 de februario]]
[[is:20. febrúar]]
[[it:20 febbraio]]
[[he:20 בפברואר]]
[[jv:20 Februari]]
[[ka:20 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:20 gromicznika]]
[[ku:20'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 20]]
[[lb:20. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 20]]
[[mk:20 февруари]]
[[ms:20 Februari]]
[[nap:20 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:20 februari]]
[[ja:2月20日]]
[[no:20. februar]]
[[nn:20. februar]]
[[oc:20 de febrièr]]
[[os:20 февралы]]
[[pl:20 lutego]]
[[pt:20 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:20 februarie]]
[[ru:20 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 20.]]
[[sco:20 Februar]]
[[sq:20 Shkurt]]
[[scn:20 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 20]]
[[sk:20. február]]
[[sl:20. februar]]
[[sr:20. фебруар]]
[[fi:20. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:20 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 20]]
[[tt:20. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 20]]
[[th:20 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:20 tháng 2]]
[[tr:20 Şubat]]
[[uk:20 лютого]]
[[wa:20 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 20]]
[[zh:2月20日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 20]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of programmers</title>
<id>11026</id>
<revision>
<id>41726527</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:56:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Herostratus</username>
<id>450380</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert vanity entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[programmer]]s''' notable for their contributions to software, either as original author or architect, or for later additions.
''See also:'' [[Game programmer]], [[List of computer scientists]], [[Free Software authors]]
'''[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D - F|D - F]] - [[#G - H|G - H]] - [[#I - J|I - J]] - [[#K - L|K - L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N - R|N - R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T - V|T - V]] - [[#W - Z|W - Z]]'''
__NOTOC__
==A==
*[[Clifford Adams]] - author of the [[UseModWiki]] [[wiki software]]
*[[Leonard Adleman]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''A'' in the name stands for Adleman), coined the term ''computer virus''
*[[Alfred Aho]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''A'' in the name stands for Aho)
*[[Paul Allen]] - [[Altair BASIC]], [[Applesoft|Applesoft II BASIC]], co-founded [[Microsoft]]
*[[Eric Allman]] - [[sendmail]], [[syslog]]
*[[Marc Andreessen]] - co-creator of [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], co-founder of [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]
*[[Bill Atkinson]] - [[QuickDraw]], [[HyperCard]]
==B==
*[[Kailash Balnac]] - Metatag
*[[Richard Bartle]] - [[MUD]], with [[Roy Trubshaw]], the father of MUDs
*[[Donald Becker]] - [[Linux]] [[Ethernet]] drivers, [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] clustering
*[[Doug Bell]] - [[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]] series of [[computer game]]s
*[[Tim Berners-Lee|Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] - inventor of the [[World Wide Web]]
*[[Brian Behlendorf]] - [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]]
*[[Daniel J. Bernstein]] - [[djbdns]], [[qmail]]
*[[Eric Bina]] - co-creator of [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser]]
*[[Deane Blazie]] founder of Blazie Engineering (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]), created technology for blind people who use [[braille]]
*[[Bert Bos]] - author of [[Argo (web browser)|Argo]] web browser, co-author of [[Cascading Style Sheet |
ention adoption under the ''1993 Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoptions'' effected on or after [[1 June]] [[2003]] and the adopters are habitually resident in the United Kingdom on that date.
In both cases, at least one adoptive parent must be a British citizen on the date of the adoption.
In all other cases, an application for registration of the child as a British citizen must be made before the child is age 18. Usually this will be granted provided the Secretary of State accepts the adoption is ''bona fide'' and the child would have been a British citizen if the natural child of the adopters. Usually the adoption must have taken place under the law of a 'designated country' (most developed nations along with some others are 'designated' for this purpose) and be recognised in the UK. This is the standard method for children adopted by British citizens permanently resident overseas to acquire British citizenship.
The cancellation or annulment of an adoption order does not cause loss of British citizenship acquired by that adoption.
British children adopted by non-British nationals do not lose British nationality, even if they acquire a foreign nationality as a result of the adoption.
=== Requirements for naturalisation as a British citizen ===
The requirements for naturalisation as a British citizen depend on whether one is married to a British citizen or not.
For those married to a British citizen the applicant must:
* hold indefinite leave to remain in the UK (or an equivalent such as Right of Abode or Irish citizenship)
* have lived legally in the UK for three years
* show sufficient knowledge of life in the UK, either by passing the [[Life in the United Kingdom test]] or by attending combined English language and citizenship classes. Proof of this must be supplied with one's application for naturalisation. Exemption for this and the language requirement (see below) is normally granted for those aged 65 or over, and may be granted to those aged between 60 and 65.
* meet specified [[English language|English]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language]] competence standards. Those who pass the ''Life in the UK test'' are deemed to meet English language requirements.
For those not married to a British citizen the requirements are
* five years legal residence in the UK
* indefinite leave to remain or equivalent must have been held for 12 months
* the applicant must intend to continue to live in the UK or work overseas for the UK government or a British corporation or association.
* the same language and knowledge of life in the UK standards apply as for those married to British citizens
All applicants for naturalisation must be of "good character". Naturalisation is at the discretion of the relevant authority but is normally granted if the requirements are met.
Those applying for British citizenship in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man (where the application is mainly based on residence in the Crown Dependencies rather than the UK itself) will not have to sit the Life in the UK Test where application is made before [[1 May]] [[2006]]. The provisions for proving knowledge of English, Welsh or Scottish Gaelic remain unchanged until that date for applicants in the Crown Dependencies. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/policy_instructions/nis/chapter_18/annex_e.html Details]
=== Citizens of EEA States and Switzerland ===
Since [[2 October]] [[2000]], the [[Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations]] have provided that with only a few exceptions, citizens of EU and [[European Economic Area]] states are not generally considered to be "settled" in the UK unless they apply for and obtain [[Indefinite Leave to Remain]]. This is relevant in terms of eligibility to apply for naturalisation or obtaining British citizenship for UK born children (born on or after [[2 October]] [[2000]]).
Irish citizens, because of the [[Common Travel Area]] provisions beween the UK and Republic of Ireland, are exempt from these restrictions.
From [[1 June]] [[2002]], citizens of [[Switzerland]] are accorded EEA rights in the United Kingdom.
Children born in the UK to EU/EEA/Swiss parents who are not British citizens automatically may be registered as British citizens under the concessions provided in the law for UK born children. Most notably, the facility to be registered as British if a parent ''subsequently'' acquires ''settled status'' (or British citizenship), or if the child lives in the UK until age 10.
=== Registration as a British citizen ===
Registration is a simpler method of acquiring citizenship than naturalisation, but only certain people are eligible for it.
British nationals (other than British citizens) who have indefinite leave to remain in the UK or right of abode, are eligible for British citizenship by registration after five years' residence in the United Kingdom. This is an entitlement under s4 of the 1981 Act (''section 4 registration'').
Other cases where persons may be entitled to registration (either as a matter of law or policy) include:
* children born in the UK where a parent obtains British citizenship or indefinite leave to remain after the child is born
* children born in the UK who live in the UK until age 10.
* children born to a British father who is not married to the mother
* British Overseas citizens, British subjects and British protected persons who have no other nationality
* certain British nationals from Hong Kong who meet the requirements of the Hong Kong (War Wives and Widows) Act 1996 or the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1997
* persons born outside the UK to a British born or naturalised mother between 1961 and 1982
* certain children born outside the UK to a British citizen ''by descent''
* certain children born in the UK who are ''stateless''
* persons who acquire ''British overseas territories citizenship'' after [[21 May]] [[2002]] (except those connected solely with the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus)
* children under 18 who are adopted outside the United Kingdom by British citizens
* former British citizens who renounced British citizenship
==Acquisition of British Overseas Territories citizenship==
The British Nationality Act 1981 contains provisions for acquisition and loss of ''British Overseas Territories citizenship'' (BOTC) on a broadly similar basis to those for British citizenship. See [[British Overseas Territories citizen]]
The Home Secretary has delegated his powers to grant BOTC to the Governors of the Overseas Territories. Only in exceptional cases will a person be registered or naturalised as a BOTC by the Home Office in the United Kingdom.
On [[21 May]] [[2002]] any BOTC who did not hold British citizenship (except those from the Sovereign Base Areas) automatically acquired it under the ''British Overseas Territories Act 2002''. Those acquring BOTC after that date are entitled to register as British citizens under s4A of the 1981 Act. [[History of British nationality law]]
==Acquisition of other categories of British nationality==
It is unusual for a person to be able to acquire British Overseas citizenship, British subject or British protected person status. They are not generally transmissable by descent, and nor are they open to acquisition by registration, except for certain instances to prevent ''statelessness''
There is no provision to acquire British National (Overseas) although stateless children born to such persons may be entitled to British Overseas citizenship.
Any person who holds British Overseas citizenship, British subject status, or British protected person status, may register as a British citizen if they have no other nationality and have not lost or renounced any other nationality since [[4 July]] [[2002]].
=== Persons connected with former British colonies ===
British Overseas citizenship is generally held by persons connected with former British colonies. The largest group are connected with Penang and Malacca (now part of Malaysia) before [[31 August]] [[1957]]. See [[British Overseas citizen]]
=== Persons born in the Republic of Ireland ===
Approximately 800,000 persons born before 1949 and connected with the Republic of Ireland remain entitled to claim British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act. See also [[British nationality and the Republic of Ireland]]
=== Descendants of the Electress Sophia of Hanover ===
Eligible descendants from the [[Electress Sophia of Hanover]] may hold British Overseas citizenship based on their status as British subjects before 1949. Where such a person acquired a right of abode in the UK before 1983, it is possible for British citizenship to have been acquired. See also [[History of British nationality law]] and [[Sophia Naturalisation Act]]
==Loss of British nationality==
=== Renunciation and resumption of British nationality ===
All categories of British nationality can be renounced by a declaration made to the [[Home Secretary|Secretary of State for the Home Department]]. A person ceases to be a British national on the date that the declaration of renunciation is registered by the Home Secretary. If a declaration is registered in the expectation of acquiring another citizenship, but one is not acquired within six months of the registration, it does not take effect and you are considered to have remained a British national.
Renunciations made to other authorities are invalid: e.g., a general renunciation made upon taking up U.S. citizenship.
There are provisions for the resumption of British citizenship or British overseas territories citizenship renounced for the purpose of gaining or retaining another citizenship. This can generally only be done once as a matter of entitlement. Further opportunities to resume British citizenship are discretionary.
British subjects, British Overseas citizens and British Nationals (Overseas) cannot under any circumst |
ily recreational. In winter, the nearby [[Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park]] and the more remote [[Katannilik Territorial Park]] are only accessible by snowmobile, dog sled or foot. In the summer, both are accessible by boat.
[[Image:CanadaDayIqaluit19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|Canada Day celebrations in Iqaluit, 1999.]]
==Architecture and Attractions==
Much of Iqaluit's architecture is functional - designed to minimise material costs, while retaining heat and withstanding the climate. Early architecture runs from the [[1950s]] military barracks of the original DEW line installation, through the [[1970s]] white hyper-modernist [[fibreglass]] block of the Nakasuk elementary school, to the lines of the steel-reinforced concrete high-rise complex on the hill above it. The newer buildings are more colourful and diverse, and closer to the norms of southern architecture, but largely unremarkable.
The two principal exceptions are '''[[St. Jude's Cathedral (Iqaluit)|St. Jude's Anglican Cathedral]]''' and the '''Nunavut Legislative Assembly Building'''. St. Jude's Cathedral is a white building shaped like an [[igloo]]. Originally built by the parishioners, the altar is shaped like a traditional Inuit sled, and the cross is composed of two crossed [[narwhal]] tusks. The interior of the cathedral was destroyed by fire on [[5 November]] [[2005]].
The Legislative complex is remarkable for its colourful interior, adorned with some of the very best in Inuit art.
The city is also the location of the '''Nunatta Sunakkutaangit Museum''', which houses a large collection of Inuit and arctic objects.
Just west of Iqaluit is the '''Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve'''. This park is characterized by the valley of the Sylvia Grinnell River. A small visitor's center with viewing platform is located on top of a hill overlooking scenic falls in the river.
Nearby on an island near the Peterhead inlet, is the '''Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park'''. It is a site with a long Inuit history and numerous artifacts have been recovered, including the remains of 11 semi-buried sod houses.
A little farther, across Frobisher Bay, are the '''Katannilik Territorial Park''' and the '''Soper Heritage River Park'''.
==External links==
* [http://www.city.iqaluit.nu.ca The Official City of Iqaluit Website]
* [http://www.city.iqaluit.nu.ca/pdf/resident.pdf Official Relocation Guide (PDF) Gives a good intro to lifestyle and services]
* [http://www.arcticcircle.ca/Baffin/Iqaluit/index.htm Personal travel log with many photos]
* [http://www.copanational.org/PlacesToFly/airport_view.php?pr_id=13&ap_id=189 Information on the Iqaluit Airport in the Canadian Owners and Pilots Association ''Places to Fly'' directory]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/north/webcams/iqaluit.html Iqaluit webcam] via [http://www.cbc.ca/north/ CBC North]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tubaism/8005287/ A photo of St. Jude's Cathedral] (with concrete block apartment complex in the background)
* [http://charles1.ca/iqaluit.htm Charles 1 - Destination Iqaluit, Nunavut] - Photos of the city, text in French.
* [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/11/07/iqaluit-church051107.html] - CBC news account of cathedral fire.
{{Canada capitals}}
[[Category:Cities in Nunavut]]
[[Category:Coastal towns in Canada]]
[[Category:Communities in Nunavut]]
[[de:Iqaluit]]
[[es:Iqaluit]]
[[fr:Iqaluit]]
[[ko:이칼루이트]]
[[iu:ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ]]
[[ja:イカルイト]]
[[nl:Iqaluit]]
[[pt:Iqaluit]]
[[fi:Iqaluit]]
[[sv:Iqaluit, Nunavut]]
[[zh:伊魁特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inuit</title>
<id>14584</id>
<revision>
<id>42139498</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:05:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lucky number 49</username>
<id>346440</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Analysis */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the moons of Saturn, see [[Saturn's Inuit group of satellites]]''
{{ethnic group|
|group=Inuit
|image=[[Image:Inuit_women_1907.jpg|200px]]<br>Inuit woman
|poptime=150,000
|popplace=[[Greenland]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Russia]]
|rels=[[Christianity]], [[Shamanism]]
|langs=[[Inuit languages]]
|related=[[Aleut|Aleuts]], [[Yupik|Yupiks]]
}}
'''Inuit''' ([[Inuktitut syllabics]]: &#5123;&#5316;&#5123;&#5222;, singular '''''Inuk''''' or '''''Inuq''''' / &#5123;&#5316;&#5251;) is a general term for a group of culturally similar [[indigenous people]]s inhabiting the [[Arctic]] coasts of [[Siberia]], [[Alaska]], the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], [[Québec]], [[Labrador]] and [[Greenland]]. Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, sea mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, tools, and shelter. Their language is [[Inuktitut]].
The [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] defines its constituency to include [[Canada]]'s Inuit and [[Inuvialuit]], [[Greenland]]'s [[Kalaallit]] people, [[Alaska]]'s [[Inupiaq]] and [[Yupik]] people, and [[Russia]]'s [[Yupik]]. However, the Yupik are not Inuit in the sense of being descended from the [[Thule people|Thule]] and prefer to be called ''Yupik'' or ''Eskimo''.
Canadian Inuit live primarily in [[Nunavut]] (a territory in Canada), [[Nunavik]] (the northern part of [[Quebec]]) and in [[Nunatsiavut]] (the Inuit settlement region in [[Labrador]]). The [[Inuvialuit]] live primarily in the [[Mackenzie River]] delta, on [[Banks Island]] and part of [[Victoria Island]] in the [[Northwest Territories]]. There have been Inuit settlements in [[Yukon]], especially at [[Herschel Island]], but there are none at present. Alaskan [[Inupiaq]] live on the [[North Slope]] of Alaska, while the Yupik live in western Alaska and a part of [[Chukotka]] Autonomous Area in [[Russia]].
The [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]] is a national organization in Canada which represents over 40,000 Canadian Inuit.
==Inuit and First Nations==
The Inuit living in [[North America]] have in the past been grouped together with other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], but they are now thought to have arrived in the Americas entirely separately from other indigenous Americans, long after the disappearance of the [[Bering land bridge]]. Accordingly, in Canada the Inuit do not consider themselves and are not usually considered by others as one of the [[First Nations]]. However, they, the Native Americans, and the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] are collectively recognized by the Canadian [[Constitution Act, 1982|constitution]] as [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]. Other synonyms include "First Peoples" and "Native Peoples".
==Eskimo==
''See main article for more information on the term: [[Eskimo]]''
In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people". The [[English language|English]] word "Eskimo" is a Native American word which is widely believed to mean "eater of raw meat" (although this meaning is disputed). Many Inuit consider the word ''Eskimo'' offensive, but it is still in general usage to refer to all Eskimo peoples, though it has fallen into disuse throughout Canada, where Canadians use the term ''Inuit''. This is in part a result of the 1977 meeting of Inuit from Greenland, Canada and Alaska representing a circumpolar population of 150,000 who chose to use the name Inuit in forming the Inuit Circumpolar Conference.
==Anthropological Analysis==
Though anthropologists no longer believe that race is a viable biological classification, they formerly classed the Inuit as members of the [[Mongoloid]] race, along with various [[Siberia|Siberian]] tribes such as the [[Yakut]], as well as the [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Korean people|Korean]], and [[Japanese people|Japanese]]. Their physical appearance is closer to what is generally associated with [[Asia]]n peoples than to other Native Americans, which are also members of the [[Mongoloid]] race.
Inuit have some specific characteristics which were thought to differentiate them from the [[Mongoloid]] race: [[dolichocephalic]] heads, stout bodies and dark skin are some of the specific traits which formerly placed them in a "subrace" of Mongoloids.
[[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.png|thumb|right|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.]]
==Life and traditions of the Inuit people==
The Inuit were traditionally hunters and fishermen, living off of Arctic animal life. They hunted by preference [[whale]]s, [[walrus]]es, [[caribou]] and [[seal (mammal)|seals]], although [[polar bears]], [[musk ox]]en, birds and any other edible animal might be turned to during lean years. The Arctic has very little edible vegetation, although Inuit did supplement their diet with [[seaweed]].
Sea animals were hunted from single-passenger, covered seal-skin boats called ''qajait'' (singular ''qajaq'') which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily be righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned. Because of this property, the Inuit design was copied - along with the Inuit word - by Europeans who still make and use them under the name ''[[kayak]]''. Inuit also made ''[[Umiak|umiaq]]'' - larger, open boats made out of skins and bones for transporting people, goods and dogs. In the winter, Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by finding, or sometimes making, the ''aglu'' (a breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals and walruses to use them when they needed air. According to Inuit tradition, they learned to do this by observing the [[polar bear]], who hunts by seeking out holes in the ice and waiting nearby.
On land, the Inuit used [[dog sled]]s (in Inuktitut, ''qamutiit'', singular ''qamutiq'') for transportation. The ''[[Sled dog|husky]]'' dog breed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs for transportation. A team of d |
Misleading America]
*[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html Gore Speaks On The Build Up To War With Iraq and The War On Terror]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~action/2004/gore/gore100202sp.html Gore Speaks On Matching our Nation's Economic Course to Our Current Realities]
===Al Gore's Current===
*[http://www.current.tv Official website of the television station Current]
===Al Gore and the Internet===
* [http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/EOP/OVP/other/superhig.html Remarks as Delivered by Vice President Al Gore to The Superhighway Summit, UCLA (1994)] &amp; [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011194-remarks-by-the-vp-on-television.htm Another URL with the speech]
* [http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_10/wiggins Al Gore and the Creation of the Internet]
* [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp Snopes analyzes Gore's statement about his role in "creation" of the Internet]
* [http://www.politechbot.com/p-01394.html Full Text of Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn's Email on Gore and the Internet]
===Al Gore myths and media bias===
* [http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/goretruth.html Gore Myths Page]
* [http://www.eriposte.com/media/bias/media_bias_gore.htm Media Bias Against Al Gore Exposed]
===Al Gore's early career in journalism===
* [http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/1/gore.asp Columbia Journalism Review on Gore's journalistic past]
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 4|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee's 4th District]]
| before=[[Joe L. Evins]]
| after=[[Jim Cooper]]
| years=1977 &ndash; 1985}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state= Tennessee
| class= 2
| before=[[Howard H. Baker, Jr.|Howard H. Baker Jr.]]
| after=[[Harlan Mathews]]
| alongside=[[James R. Sasser]]
| years=1985 &ndash; 1993}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party vice presidential candidate]]
| before=[[Lloyd Bentsen]]
| after=[[Joe Lieberman]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Vice President of the United States]]
| before=[[Dan Quayle]]
| after=[[Dick Cheney]]
| years=[[January 20]], [[1993]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[2001]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential candidate]]
| before=[[Bill Clinton]]
| after=[[John Kerry]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]] (lost)}}
{{end box}}
{{USDemVicePresNominees}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
{{Apple}}
[[Category:1948 births|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Al Gore|Al Gore]]
[[Category:Anti-Iraq war Veterans|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Apple employees|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Baptists|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Gore, Al]]
[[Category:Futurama actors|Gore, Al]]
[[Category:Harvard alumni|Gore, Al]]
[[Category:Living people|Gore, Al]]
[[Category:Nashvillians|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Politics and technology|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Gore, Al]]
[[Category:U.S. Democratic Party vice presidential nominees|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Vietnam War veterans|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[cs:Al Gore]]
[[da:Al Gore]]
[[de:Al Gore]]
[[es:Al Gore]]
[[fr:Al Gore]]
[[hr:Al Gore]]
[[id:Al Gore]]
[[it:Al Gore]]
[[he:אל גור]]
[[nl:Al Gore]]
[[ja:アル・ゴア]]
[[pl:Al Gore]]
[[pt:Al Gore]]
[[simple:Al Gore]]
[[sk:Al Gore]]
[[fi:Al Gore]]
[[sv:Al Gore]]
[[zh:艾伯特·戈尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Animal Farm</title>
<id>620</id>
<revision>
<id>42124943</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:01:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atreyu1075</username>
<id>997080</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cultural references */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:animalfarm2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Animal Farm'' book cover]]
'''Animal Farm''' is a [[satire|satirical]] [[novel]] (which can also be understood as a modern [[fable]] or [[allegory]]) by [[George Orwell]], ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the [[farm]] they live on and run it themselves, only to have it corrupted into a brutal tyranny on its own. It was written during [[World War II]] and published in 1945, although it was not widely successful until the late [[1950s]].
''Animal Farm'' is a thinly veiled critique and satire of Soviet [[totalitarianism]]. Many events in the book are based on events from the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Stalin]] era. Orwell, though a leftist — he was for many years a member of the [[Independent Labour Party]] — was a critic of Stalin, and suspicious of Moscow-directed communism after his experiences in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
When the farm's prize-winning pig, [[Old Major]], calls a meeting of all the animals of Manor Farm, he tells them that he has had a dream in which mankind is gone, and animals are free to live in peace and harmony. He compares the humans to parasites, and then proceeds to teach the animals a [[revolution]]ary song, "[[Beasts of England]]". The other animals begin to hope and dream for the revolution of such a day. When Old Major dies, a mere three days later, three pigs -- [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] (who teaches the animals to read), [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], and [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] -- assume command, and turn his dream into a full-fledged philosophy. One night, the starved animals suddenly revolt and drive the farmer [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]], his wife, and his pet raven off the farm and take control. The farm is renamed "Animal Farm" as the animals work towards a future [[utopia]]. The [[Seven Commandments]] of the new philosophy of [[Animalism]] are written on the wall of a barn for all to read, the seventh and most important of which is that "all animals are equal". All animals work, but the [[horse|workhorse]] [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] does more than his fair share and adopts a [[Maxim (saying)|maxim]] of his own — "I will work harder."
Animal Farm is off to a great start. Snowball teaches the other animals to [[reading (activity)|read]] and write (though few animals besides the pigs learn to read well), food is plentiful due to a good harvest, and the entire Farm is organized and running smoothly. Even when Mr. Jones tries his last-ditch effort to retake control of the farm, the animals easily defeat him at what they later call the "[[Battle of the Cowshed]]". Soon, however, things begin to unravel as Napoleon and Snowball begin an epic power struggle over the farm. When Snowball announces his idea for a [[windmill]], Napoleon quickly opposes it. A meeting is held, and when Snowball makes his passionate and articulate speech in favour of the windmill, Napoleon only makes a brief retort and then makes a strange noise to call in nine attack dogs. They burst in and chase Snowball off of the farm. In his absence, Napoleon declares himself the leader of the farm and makes instant changes. He announces that meetings will no longer be held as before, and a committee of pigs alone will decide what happens with the farm.
Napoleon changes his mind about the windmill, claiming (through Squealer) that Snowball stole the idea from him, and the animals begin to work. After a violent [[storm]], the animals wake to find the fruit of their months of labour utterly annihilated. Though neighbouring [[farmer]]s scoff at the thin walls, Napoleon and Squealer convince everyone that Snowball destroyed it. Napoleon begins to purge the farm, killing many animals he accuses of consorting with Snowball. In the meantime, Boxer takes a second [[mantra]], "Napoleon is always right."
Napoleon begins to abuse his powers even more and life on the farm becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals. The pigs impose more and more controls on them while reserving [[privilege]]s for themselves. History is rewritten to villainise Snowball and glorify Napoleon even further. Each step of this development is justified by the pig, Squealer, who on several occasions alters the Seven Commandments on the barn in the dead of night. The song "Beasts of England" is banned as inappropriate now that the dream of Animal Farm has been realised, and is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon who begins to live more and more like a human. The animals, though cold, starving, and overworked, remain convinced that they are still better off than when they were ruled by a man named Jones.
[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]], one of the two neighbouring farmers, swindles Napoleon by paying with forged banknotes, and then attacks the farm and uses [[dynamite]] to blow up the recently restored windmill. Though the animals of Animal Farm eventually win the battle, they do so at a great cost, as many of the animals, including Boxer, are wounded. However, Boxer continues to work harder and harder, until he finally collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to come and take Boxer to the veterinarian, but as Boxer is loaded up and the van drives away, the animals read what is written on the side of the van: "Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler." Squealer quickly reports that the van with the old writing has been purchased by the hospital, and later that Boxer has died in the hospital, in spite of the best medical care.
Many years pass, and the pigs learn to walk upright, |
gt;
{{otheruses}}
A '''cross''' is a geometrical figure consisting of two lines or bars intersecting each other at a 90° angle, dividing one or two of the lines in half. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally; if they run diagonally, the design is technically termed a [[saltire]].
The cross is one of the most ancient human symbols, and is used by many religions, most notably [[Christianity]]. It is frequently a representation of the division of the world into [[classical element|four elements]] (or [[cardinal directions|cardinal points]]), or alternately as the union of the concepts of [[divinity]], the vertical line, and the [[world]], the horizontal line (Koch, 1955).
==History==
It is not known when the first cross image was made; after circles, crosses are one of the first symbols drawn by children of all cultures. There are many cross-shaped [[Petroglyph|incisions]] in European cult caves, dating back to the earliest stages of human cultural development in the [[stoneage]]. Like other symbols from this period, their use continued in the [[Celt|Celtic]] cultures in Europe. Other early images of crosses were found in the [[Central Asia]]n steppes, and some were found in [[Altay]]. The cross in the old [[Altaic people|Altaic]] religion called [[Turkic people|Tengriism]] symbolizes the god [[Tengri]]; it wasn't an elongated "dagger" cross, instead resembling a [[plus]] sign (+).
The first Christian books from [[Armenia]] and [[Syria]] contained evidence that the cross originated with horsemen from the east, possibly referring to the first Turkic people{{fact}}. In old Armenian temples, some stylistic Turkic influences are found in cross symbols{{fact}}. Named ''animal'', the symbol was found in the plans of temples, with the pillars from above looking like an additional cross.
== As markings ==
Written crosses are used for many different purposes, particularly in mathematics.
* The [[Roman numeral]] for [[10 (number)|ten]] is [[X]].
* In the [[Latin alphabet]], the letter [[X]] and the miniscule form of [[t]] are crosses.
* The Chinese character for ten is &#21313; (see [[Chinese numerals]]).
* The [[dagger (typography)|dagger]] or ''obelus'' (&dagger;)
* The [[addition]] (or ''plus'') sign (+) and the [[multiplication]] (or ''times'') sign (&times;).
*If ''n''&ge;1 is an [[integer]], the numbers [[coprime]] to ''n'', taken [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'', form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] with multiplication as operation; it is written as ('''Z'''/''n'''''Z''')<sup>&times;</sup> or '''Z'''<sub>n</sub><sup>*</sup>.
A cross is often used as a check mark because it can be clearer, easier to create with an ordinary pen or pencil, and less obscuring of the text or image that is already present than a large dot. It also allows marking a position more accurately than a large dot.
A large cross through a text often means that it is wrong or should be considered deleted.
== As emblems and symbols ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Cross Name !! Description !! Picture
|-
| | '''[[Ankh]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Key of the Nile''', the '''Looped Tau Cross''', and the '''Ansated Cross'''. It was an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian symbol of [[life]]. Sometimes given a Latin name if it appears in specifically Christian contexts, such as the '''''crux ansata''''' ("handled cross").
|
[[Image:AnkhSymbol.jpg]]
|-
| | '''[[Christian cross]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Latin cross''' or '''''crux ordinaria'''''. It is the most common symbol of [[Christianity]], intended to represent the redeeming [[martyr]]dom of [[Jesus]] when he is [[crucifixion|crucified]] on the [[True Cross]] in the [[New Testament]].
|
[[Image:Christian cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''Coptic Cross'''
|
A small circle from which emanate four branches of equal length, with angled T shapes in the corner, cross-pieces outward, representing the nails used in Jesus' crucifixion.
|
[[Image:Coptic-Cross-so-called.png]]
|-
| | '''Greek cross'''
|
Also known as the '''''crux immissa quadrata'''''. Has all branches of equal length.
|
[[Image:Greek cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[High cross]]'''
|
Free-standing [[Celtic cross]]es in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]], very common in churches and graveyards.
|
[[Image:Ccross.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Labarum]]'''
|
[[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]]'s Labarum is also known as a ''Chrismon'', or [[Christogram|monogram of the name Jesus Christ]]. Several other forms of Chrismons exist.
|
[[Image:Labarum.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Lorraine|Lorraine Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[heraldry]]. It is similar to a [[patriarchal cross]], but usually has one bar near the bottom and one near the top, rather than having both near the top.
|
[[Image:Cross_of_Lorraine.jpg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Nordic Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[vexillology|flags]] descended from the [[Dannebrog]].
|
[[Image:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Papal Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[ecclesiastical heraldry]].
|
[[Image:Papal.gif|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Patriarchal cross]]'''
|
Similar to a Christian cross, but with an additional, smaller crossbar above the main one, and sometimes a short, slanted crosspiece near its foot.
|
[[Image:Patriarchal cross.png]]
|-
| | '''[[Red Cross (symbol)|Red Cross]]'''
|
Used as a symbol for medical care in most of the world, the [[Red Crescent (symbol)|Red Crescent]] being used in Islamic countries and the [[Magen David Adom]] in [[Israel]].
|
[[Image:Flag of the Red Cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Sacrifice]]'''
|
A Latin cross with a superimposed sword, blade down. It is a symbol used by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] at the site of many war memorials.
|
[[Image:Cross of Sacrifice.jpg|100px]]
|-
| | '''[[Saint Andrew's Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[Scotland]]'s national flag, it is also called the '''[[Saltire]]''', the '''Boundary Cross''' (because it was used by the Romans as a barrier) and the '''''crux decussata'''''. [[Saint Andrew]] is believed to have suffered a martyr's death on such a cross, hence its name. The cross doesn't have to be at this particular angle to qualify as a saltire; the symbol [[X]] can also be considered a St. Andrew's Cross.
|
[[Image:Flag of Scotland.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of St. Peter|Saint Peter's Cross]]'''
|
An upside-down Latin cross, based on a tradition that holds that [[Saint Peter]] was martyred by being crucified upside-down. Today it is often associated with anti-Christian or [[Satanism|Satanic]] groups.
|
[[Image:Peter's Cross.svg]]
|-
| | '''[[Skull and crossbones]]'''
|
Not a cross as such, but a saltire made of bones, with an overlaid skull. Traditionally used by [[Freemasons]], and was the battle flag of the [[Knights Templar (Freemason degree)|Knights Templar]] fleet, later [[pirate]]s. It was actually relatively rarely used by pirates, each ship having its own design, often involving an [[hourglass]].
| [[Image:Toxic.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''Slavonic Cross'''
|
Used in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. The top line is said to represent the headboard, and the bottom, slanted line is thought to point up to [[Heaven]] and down to [[Hell]]. Some say that the upper side pointing to the right (according to Jesus' view from the Cross) indicates the repentant thief to whom Jesus promised Paradise, and the lower side pointing to the left indicates the thief who mocked Jesus. Others suggest that the bottom line represents the footrest, wrenched loose by Jesus' writhing in intense agony. The letters IC XC found at the end of the main arm of some Slavonic Crosses are a [[Christogram]], representing the name of Jesus Christ.
|
[[Image:Slavcross.gif|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Sun cross]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Sunwheel''', '''solar cross''' or '''Odin's cross''', because [[Odin]]'s symbol in [[Norse mythology]] was a cross in a circle.
|
[[Image:Simple crossed circle.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Tau|Tau Cross]]'''
|
Also known as '''[[Saint Anthony]]'s Cross''', the '''Egyptian Cross''' and the '''''crux commissa'''''. It is shaped like the letter [[T]]. [[Francis of Assisi]] used it as his signature.
|
[[Image:Cross tau.gif|150px]]
|-
| | '''Thieves' Cross'''
|
Also known as the '''Furka Cross'''. The [[fork]], shaped like the letter [[Y]].
|
<!--no picture yet available-->
|}
==In heraldry==
These crosses are ones used exclusively or primarily in [[heraldry]], and do not necessarily have any special meanings commonly associated with them. Crosses that are used in heraldry but also commonly in other contexts are not listed here.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Cross name !! Description !! Picture
|-
| | The cross as '''heraldic "ordinary"'''
|
A simple [[Heraldry|heraldic]] cross (the default if there are no additional specifying words) has arms of roughly equal length, artistically proportioned to the particular shape of the shield, which extend to the edges of the shield. Illustrated is the [[blazon]] "Azure, a cross Or" (i.e. a gold cross on a blue shield).
A cross which does not extend to the edges of the shield is ''humetty'', in heraldic terminology.
|
[[Image:Azure-Cross-Or-Heraldry-small.png]]
|-
| | '''Cross bottony'''
|
A cross with the ends of the arms bottony (or botonny), i.e. shaped like an architectural [[trefoil]]. It occurs counterchanged on the [[flag of Maryland]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Bottony-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross crosslet'''
|
A cross with the ends of each arm crossed.
|
[[Image:Cross-Crosslet-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Crusaders' cross'''
|
Also known as the '''Jerusalem cross'''. This cross was the symbol of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, which existed for almost two hundred years after the First Crusade. The four smaller crosses are said to symbolize either the four books of the Gospel or the four directions in which the Word of Christ spread from Jerusalem. Alte |
ternity,
together with those who have trusted in him rather than in God.
This penultimate event is the [[Last Judgment]] of the Great White Throne. Each person will be consigned to either hell or [[heaven]]. The end of all things is a new heaven and a new earth, the mystery of an age of endless ages, when there will no longer be death and "God will be all in all" (1 Cor 15:28). This is that final moment of ultimate perfection and bliss toward which all orthodox Christians finally direct their hope.
Premillennialists fall into two primary categories: ''historic'' premillennialism and ''dispensational'' premillennialism. Historic premillennialism is so-called because it is the classic form which may be found in writings of some of the early church fathers, although in an undeveloped form. The [[Montanist]] sect espoused premillennialism, and their "fanatical excesses" brought premillennialism into discredit with the wider church (Schaff; [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.v.xiv.xxii.html]).
Dispensational premillennialism is that form which derives from [[John Nelson Darby]] (1800&ndash;1882) and [[Dispensationalism|dispensational]] theology. It is dispensational premillennialism that first taught the notion of a pretribulation [[rapture]]. [[Tribulation|Pretribulationists]] believe that the second coming will be in two stages separated by a seven-year period of tribulation. At the first he will return in the air to rescue those who are Christians at the time (the rapture). Then follows a seven-year period of suffering, in which the [[Antichrist]] will conquer the world and kill those who refuse to worship him. At the end of the seven years, the final witness will go out before men and angels, and Christ will return to the earth. He will defeat the [[Antichrist]] and rescue the [[Judaism|Jews]] and those who have converted to Christianity during the tribulation. Dispensationalism has also spawned [[Tribulation|Midtribulationists]], who believe that Christians will not be removed until 3-1/2 years of the final seven years of this age have elapsed. They place the Rapture when the Temple sacrifices have been halted and the Antichrist has enshrined himself in the Temple, calling himself God. [[Post Tribulation Rapture|Posttribulationists]] (generally the view of historic premillennialism) see no appreciable difference in the timing of the rapture and the "official" second coming. Thus they hold that Christ will not return until the end of the [[tribulation]] and that Christians will suffer for the faith as they bring forth the final witness associated with the 5th seal.
The belief in the pretribulation or midtribulation rapture theories of dispensationalism is often criticized, on the grounds that it results in the division of Christ's single return into two stages. Some see it as an impossible "apartheid of the Elect" of sorts which is not seen in scripture. Pretribulationists defend it on the basis of a scripture passage which affirms that God has not appointed His people to wrath. Posttribulationists counter that the tribulation associated with the final witness of the saints is in no way connected to the wrath of God. This wrath of God will only come at the last day, and it will fall upon the heads of the wicked at the [[last judgment]].
Some specifically criticize dispensational premillennialism for anticipating the rebuilding of the Hebrew Temple and the offering again of animal sacrifices during the millennial reign of Christ. In dispensationalism the return of the sacrifices will be ceremonial in nature. Like the ceremony of Communion or the Lord's Supper, they believe that the sacrifices will be performed on the appointed feast days in the future Millennium. They say that the reason the animal sacrifices will continue is because they will be enacted as a memorial to the Savior who came to earth as the Sacrifice Lamb. However, critics view the idea of blood sacrifices reinstituted after Christ's return as incompatible with Christ's completed work and find the idea abhorrent (O. T. Allis, ''Prophecy and the Church'', p. 248).
[[Postmillennialism]] is of two antithetical varieties, millennial and non-millennial. Some postmillennialists believe that the millennium is a future golden age, when Christian saints will reign over all of the earth before the return of Christ and the end of the world. This variety gained brief notoriety through the [[Anabaptist]] movement in the 16th century, in the segment led by [[Thomas Muntzer]]. [[Utopian]] ideals and [[Marxism]] in particular have at times brought about revivals of [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] belief derived from this variety of postmillennial expectations.
=== Kingdom of God: Non-literal Millennial views ===
[[Postmillennialism]] of the more common form is sometimes called "optimistic [[amillennialism]]". As in amillennialism the "thousand years" is an idiomatic expression for the entire period following the resurrection of Christ until His return. Neither version anticipates a physical throne set up in geographical Jerusalem on earth, where Christ will reign for one thousand years. Both believe that Christ is reigning now, at the right hand of God, in fulfillment of the promises made to David that his throne would be without end. However, unlike the more usual amillennialism, postmillennial expectation for the future is optimistic concerning the progress of the [[Gospel]] and the increasing practical benefit of Christianity to all men. Postmillennialists anticipate that prior to Christ's return, the world will have gradually but entirely converted to Christianity, at least nominally, through the preaching of the gospel. God's legal sanctions ''in history'' are predictable, ensuring the punishment of the wicked and reward of the just, and the power of the Holy Spirit, working through the gospel, will eventually be pervasive. Stated another way, they believe that the [[Second Coming|Second Advent]] will be an event that continues the state of earthly affairs at the time, rather than interposing a radical discontinuity to them. Some anticipate a final apostasy, immediately prior to the final judgment. Postmillennialism of this kind was common in [[17th-century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and in America in the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]] prior to [[World War I]]. Additionally, postmillennialists typically envision a future conversion of the Jewish people, en masse, to the Christian faith. Some versions of postmillennialism expect the [[Antichrist]] to arise in the future, but most have preterist or idealist interpretations of the Antichrist.
This variety of postmillennialism has been revived in the last forty years, particularly among conservative Calvinist groups. The view places particular emphasis on the timing of Christ's return, which is expected only after a future period of global prosperity. This postmillennial expectation, as an important feature of Christian eschatology, is favored by [[Christian Reconstructionism|Christian Reconstructionists]] such as [[Gary North (Christian Reconstructionist)|Gary North]], R. J Rushdoony, Greg Bahnsen, Kenneth Gentry, [[Andrew Sandlin]] and Gary DeMar; and by non-Reconstructionists such as Loraine Boettner, Errol Hulse, G.I. Williamson and John Jefferson Davis. This version of postmillennialism has repopularized evangelical interest in '''Preterist''' (fulfilled) interpretations.
[[Preterism]] is a variant of Christian eschatology which deals with the position of past fulfillment of the Last Days (or End Times) prophecies in varying degrees. The term preterism is derived from the word preterite, or past perfect tense; it also has its roots in the Latin word ''præter'', meaning "past." The Preterist believes that most (a historically orthodox position) or all (a historically heterodox position) of the prophetic passages in the Bible, which have been commonly taken to refer to the end of the world, in fact refer to events in the [[1st century|first century]] AD, such as the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor [[Nero]], and were fulfilled in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD [[70]]. The [[Preterism]] page contains much more detail about this view.
[[Amillennialism|Amillennialists]] (no literal thousand years) hold that the millennium represents the period between Christ's death and resurrection and his Second Coming, that is, the age of the Church. This view is related to the understanding of a ''millennium'' as a short time period to [[God]], with an inexact extent. Some amillennialists and postmillennialists adopt a preterist (fulfilled) historical interpretation of the establishment of the Kingdom of God and the appearing of the antichrist. Others adopt an idealist interpretation either exclusively or in addition to historicism of some kind, so that in their understanding, the kingdom of God is repeatedly established, and many antichrists arise in conflict with it throughout history only to finally be destroyed.
Millennialism is not an all-encompassing description of eschatology, and ideas concerning the timing of Christ's coming are often not a central issue of eschatology. For example, amillennialism may or may not be the belief of the [[Catholicism|Catholic]] church, or of many [[Protestantism|Protestants]]; the issue simply is not a central feature of their view of last things or a focus of their faith. Typically, expectations concerning the reign of Christ are seen as partially fulfilled. The kingdom of God is "now and not yet"&mdash;realized now in a hidden way in the Church but awaiting full revealing with the [[Parousia]] (the appearing of Christ). Generally, the return of Christ is expected "any time", as the signs anticipating his appearing are believed to have been long since fulfilled by Christ's return to the Father, and the d |
tir-fried dish usually made with the peeled skin of a watermelon
Other favorites with unique Cantonese style:
* Roast suckling pig (&#20083;&#35948;)
* Roast duck (&#29138;&#40232; or &#28779;&#40232;)
* Roast goose (&#29138;鵝), the most famous version being from [[Yung Kee]] in [[Hong Kong]]
* Braised crispy chicken (&#28856;&#23376;&#38622;)
* [[Soy sauce]] chicken (&#35913;&#27833;&#38622;) - chicken slowly cooked in soy sauce
* Beef entrails (&#29275;&#38620;)
* Beef stew (&#29275;&#33129;)
* Hot pot (&#28779;&#37707; or &#25171;&#37002;&#29200;)
* Hong Kong style [[Lo mein]] (&#25736;&#40629;) - [[noodles]] served with a separate bowl of broth.
* Pan-fried crispy noodles (&#28207;&#24335;&#29006;&#40629;) - ''two sides brown'' fried egg noodles
* Various dessert drinks served with shaved ice (&#21032;&#20912;)
* taro duck
* salt and pepper fried squid
* salt and pepper fried shrimp
==See also==
*[[Hong Kong eating culture]]
*[[Chinese food therapy]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mediterrasian.com/cuisine_of_month_recipes_chinese.htm Chinese recipes]
[[Category:Cantonese cuisine|*]]
[[Category:Hong_Kong_cuisine]]
[[fr:Cuisine cantonaise]]
[[ja:&#24195;&#26481;&#26009;&#29702;]]
[[zh:&#31908;&#33756;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chiuchow cuisine</title>
<id>6183</id>
<revision>
<id>27142798</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T06:35:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dpr</username>
<id>200152</id>
</contributor>
<comment>emigrants</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
'''Chiuchow cuisine''', '''Teochew cuisine''' or '''Chaozhou cuisine''' (&#28526;&#24030;&#33756;; [[pinyin]]: Cháozhōu cài) originates from [[Chaozhou|Chiuchow]] (now called 'Chaozhou'), a city of [[China]] in [[Guangdong Province]], not far from [[Guangzhou|Canton]].
Hence the cooking style is very similar to [[Cantonese cuisine]].
However, Chiuchow cuisine does have some unique dishes that are not in Cantonese cuisine. ("Chiuchow" is a Cantonese pronunciation in common usage due to Teochew influence in Cantonese culture and cuisine.)
Chiuchow cuisine is particularly well known for its [[seafood]] and its [[vegetarian]] dishes. Its use of flavoring is much less heavy-handed than most cuisines from other parts of China and depends much on the freshness of the ingredients for taste. Chiuchow cuisine is also known for serving [[rice soup]] (&#28526;&#24030;&#31964;), in addition to steamed rice with meals, which is quite different from Cantonese [[porridge]] or [[congee]] which is very thick and gluey. The Chiuchow rice soup is very watery with the rice sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl.
Authentic Chiuchow restaurants serve very strong [[oolong]] [[tea]] called KungFu tea in very tiny cups before and after the meal.
There is a famous feast in Chiuchow cuisine called "Gau Dai Gui" (&#20061;&#22823;&#31755;) which roughly means "nine big courses" in the dinner.
Chiuchow chefs pride themselves on their skill in vegetable carving.
Carved vegetables are used as garnishes on cold dishes and on the banquet table.
Chiuchow is also known for a late night dinner called "Da Loun" (&#25171;&#20919;). Chiuchow people like to eat out in restaurants or at roadside food stalls close to midnight before they go to bed. Some restaurants stay open till dawn.
Unlike Cantonese or Mandarin cuisine, Chiuchow restaurant menus will sometimes have a dessert section.
Some famous Chiuchow dishes include, among others:
* Steamed goose (&#33976;&#40285;)
* Cold crab (&#28526;&#27954;&#20941;&#34809;)
* Fun Goh (&#28526;&#27954;&#31881;&#26524; a steamed [[dumpling]] filled with dried radish, peanuts and ground meat)
* Shrimp balls (&#34662;&#26839;)
* Oyster pancake (&#34836;&#28889;)
* [[Tieguanyin|Tiet Kwun Yum]] (&#37941;&#35264;&#38899; a premium grade Oolong [[Tea]])
Many people of [[Chaozhou|Teochiu]] or [[Chaozhou|Chiuchow]] heritage have settled in [[Southeast Asia]], especially [[Singapore]]; influences can be noted in the [[cuisine of Singapore]].
==See also==
* [[cuisine]]
* [[Cantonese cuisine]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[cooking]]
[[zh:%E6%BD%AE%E5%B7%9E%E8%8F%9C]]
[[category:Chaoshan]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Chiuchow cuisine| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Co-NP</title>
<id>6184</id>
<revision>
<id>34854786</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T05:26:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcoetzee</username>
<id>13476</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Skip redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computational complexity theory]], '''co-NP''' is a [[complexity class]]. A problem <math>\mathcal{X}</math> is a member of '''co-NP''' if and only if its [[complement (complexity)|complement]] <math>\overline{\mathcal{X}}</math> is in complexity class '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]'''. In simple terms, '''co-NP''' is the class of problems for which efficiently verifiable proofs of ''no'' instances, sometimes called ''counterexamples'', exist.
For example, there is an NP-complete problem called the [[subset-sum problem]], which asks if any subset of a finite set of integers sums to zero. Its complement problem is in co-NP and asks if ''every'' subset sums to a ''nonzero'' number. A counterexample would be a subset which does sum to zero, which is easy to verify.
'''P''' is a subset of both '''NP''' and '''co-NP'''. That subset is thought to be strict in both cases. '''NP''' and '''co-NP''' are also thought to be unequal. If so, then no '''[[NP-complete]]''' problem can be in '''co-NP''' and no '''[[co-NP-complete]]''' problem can be in '''NP'''.
This can be shown as follows. Assume that there is an '''NP-complete''' problem that is in '''co-NP'''. Since all problems in '''NP''' can be reduced to this problem it follows that for all problems in '''NP''' we can construct a non-deterministic Turing machine that decides the complement of the problem in polynomial time, i.e., '''NP''' is a subset of '''co-NP'''. From this it follows that the set of complements of the problems in '''NP''' is a subset of the set of complements of the problems in '''co-NP''', i.e., '''co-NP''' is a subset of '''NP'''. Since we already knew that '''NP''' is a subset of '''co-NP''' it follows that they are the same. The proof for the fact that no '''co-NP-complete''' problem can be in '''NP''' is symmetrical.
If a problem can be shown to be in both '''NP''' and '''co-NP''', that is generally accepted as strong evidence that the problem is probably not '''NP-complete''' (since otherwise '''NP''' = '''co-NP'''). One example is [[integer factorization]], the problem of determining whether an integer n has a [[prime number|prime]] factor less than k. It is in both '''NP''' and '''co-NP''' (as a consequence of [[primality certificate]]s), but is generally suspected to be outside '''P''', outside '''NP'''-complete, and outside '''co-NP'''-complete.
== References ==
* Complexity Zoo: [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#conp coNP]
{{ComplexityClasses}}
[[Category:Complexity classes]]
[[es:Co-NP]]
[[he:Co-NP]]
[[de:Co-NP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck Yeager</title>
<id>6185</id>
<revision>
<id>40772983</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:47:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.202.122.228</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The ''Right Stuff'' */ edited the words "the right stuff" out of italics and into quotes, as they pertain to a concept and not the book per se.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChuckYeager.jpeg|thumb|172px|General Yeager]]
[[Brigadier General]] '''Charles Elwood "Chuck" Yeager''' (born [[February 13]], [[1923]] in [[Myra, West Virginia|Myra]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|Lincoln County]], [[West Virginia]]) is a [[World War II]] [[Flying ace|ace]] and [[test pilot]], considered a [[legend (person)|living legend]] of [[aviation]]. He is most famous for being the first human to undeniably travel faster than sound. Yeager's flying career has spanned more than sixty years and taken him to every corner of the globe, even into the [[Soviet Union]] during the height of the [[Cold War]].
==Biography==
Yeager was born into a poor family in [[West Virginia]] and joined the army in 1939, serving as an [[aircraft]] mechanic. He was selected for flight training in 1942 and soon showed outstanding natural talent as a pilot. Posted to the [[United Kingdom]] in 1944, Yeager flew [[P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustangs]] in combat (his aircraft being named ''Glamorous Glen'' after his then-girlfriend, later wife, [[Glennis Yeager|Glennis Faye Dickhouse]] (later Yeager), gaining one victory before he was shot down over [[France]]. He escaped to [[Spain]] without being captured and was soon flying with the [[363rd Fighter Squadron]] once more, despite a strict policy that no escaped pilot should fly over enemy territory again. Yeager went straight to [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] himself to plead his case. He later credited his postwar success in the Air Force to this decision, saying that his test pilot career followed naturally from being a decorated combat ace with a good kill record.
Yeager demonstrated outstanding eyesight, flying skills, and combat leadership; he distinguished himself by becoming the first [[United States|American]] [[aviator|pilot]] to make "[[ace in a day]]": he shot down five enemy aircraft in one mission, finishing the war with 11.5 official victories, including one of the first air-t |
oherent assertions in philosophy, and they sought clarity and precision in argument by the use of exact [[language]] and by breaking down philosophical [[propositions]] into their simplest components. Russell, in particular, saw logic and [[science]] as the principal tools of the philosopher. Indeed, unlike most philosophers who preceded him and his early contemporaries, Russell did not believe there was a separate method for philosophy. He believed that the main task of the philosopher was to illuminate the most general propositions about the [[world]] and to eliminate confusion. In particular, he wanted to end what he saw as the excesses of [[metaphysics]]. Russell adopted [[William of Ockham]]'s principle against multiplying unnecessary entities, [[Occam's Razor]], as a central part of the method of analysis.
===Epistemology===
Russell's [[epistemology]] went through many phases. Once he shed [[neo-Hegelianism]] in his early years, Russell remained a philosophical [[realist]] for the remainder of his life, believing that our direct experiences have primacy in the acquisition of knowledge. While some of his views have lost favour, his influence remains strong in the distinction between two ways in which we can be familiar with objects: "[[knowledge by acquaintance]]" and "[[knowledge by description]]". For a time, Russell thought that we could only be acquainted with our own [[sense data]]&mdash;momentary [[perception]]s of [[colours]], [[sounds]], and the like&mdash;and that everything else, including the [[Nature|physical]] objects that these were sense data ''of'', could only be inferred, or reasoned to&mdash;i.e. known by description&mdash;and not known directly. This distinction has gained much wider application, though Russell eventually rejected the idea of an intermediate sense datum.
In his later philosophy, Russell subscribed to a kind of [[neutral monism]], maintaining that the distinctions between the [[matter|material]] and [[mental]] worlds, in the final analysis, were arbitrary, and that both can be reduced to a neutral property&mdash;a view similar to one held by the American philosopher, [[William James]], and one that was first formulated by [[Baruch Spinoza]], whom Russell greatly admired. Instead of James' "pure experience", however, Russell characterised the stuff of our initial states of perception as "events", a stance which is curiously akin to his old teacher [[Alfred North Whitehead|Whitehead]]'s [[process philosophy]].
===Ethics===
While Russell wrote a great deal on ethical subject matters, he did not believe that the subject belonged to philosophy or that when he wrote on ethics that he did so in his capacity as a philosopher. In his earlier years, Russell was greatly influenced by [[G.E. Moore]]'s ''Principia Ethica''. Along with Moore, he then believed that moral facts were objective, but only known through [[intuition]], and that they were simple properties of objects, not [[equivalent]] (e.g., pleasure is good) to the natural objects to which they are often ascribed (see [[Naturalistic fallacy]]), and that these simple, undefinable moral properties cannot be analyzed using the non-moral properties with which they are associated. In time, however, he came to agree with his philosophical [[hero]], [[David Hume]], who believed that ethical terms dealt with [[subjective]] [[values]] that cannot be verified in the same way that matters of fact are. Coupled with Russell's other doctrines, this influenced the [[logical positivists]], who formulated the theory of [[emotivism]], which states that ethical propositions (along with those of [[metaphysics]]) were essentially meaningless and nonsensical or, at best, little more than expressions of [[attitude (psychology)|attitude]]s and [[preferences]]. Notwithstanding his influence on them, Russell himself did not construe ethical propositions as narrowly as the positivists, for he believed that ethical considerations are not only meaningful, but that they are a vital subject matter for [[civil]] discourse. Indeed, though Russell was often characterised as the [[patron saint]] of rationality, he agreed with [[David Hume|Hume]], who said that reason ought to be subordinate to ethical considerations.
Russell wrote some books about practical ethical issues such as marriage. His opinions on this field are liberal. He argues that sexual relationships outside of marriages are acceptable. In his book, ''Human Society in Ethics and Politics'' (1954), he advocates in favor of the view that we should see moral issues from the point of view of the desires of individuals. Individuals are allowed to do what they desire, as long as there are no conflicting desires among different individuals. Desires are not bad, in and of themselves, but on occasion, their potential or actual consequences are. Russell also writes that punishment is important only in an instrumental sense. Thus we should not punish someone solely for the sake of punishment.
===Logical atomism===
Perhaps Russell's most systematic, metaphysical treatment of philosophical analysis and his empiricist-centric logicism is evident in what he called [[Logical atomism]], which is explicated in a set of [[lectures]], "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism," which he gave in [[1918]]. In these lectures, Russell sets forth his [[concept]] of an [[ideal]], [[isomorphic]] language, one that would mirror the world, whereby our knowledge can be reduced to terms of [[wikt:atomic|atomic]] propositions and their [[truth-function]]al compounds. Logical atomism is a form of radical empiricism, for Russell believed the most important requirement for such an ideal language is that every meaningful proposition must consist of terms referring directly to the objects with which we are acquainted, or that they are defined by other terms referring to objects with which we are acquainted. Russell excluded certain formal, logical terms such as ''all'', ''the'', ''is'', and so forth, from his isomorphic requirement, but he was never entirely satisfied about our understanding of such terms. One of the central themes of Russell's atomism is that the world consists of logically independent facts, a plurality of facts, and that our knowledge depends on the data of our direct experience of them. In his later life, Russell came to doubt aspects of logical atomism, especially his principle of isomorphism, though he continued to believe that the process of philosophy ought to consist of breaking things down into their simplest components, even though we might not ever fully arrive at an ultimate [[wikt:atomic|atomic]] [[fact]].
===Logic and philosophy of mathematics===
Russell had great influence on modern [[mathematical logic]]. The American philosopher and logician [[Willard Quine]] said Russell's work represented the greatest influence on his own work.
Russell's first mathematical book, ''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry'', was published in [[1897]]. This work was heavily influenced by [[Immanuel Kant]]. Russell soon realised that the conception it laid out would have made [[Albert Einstein]]'s schema of [[space-time]] impossible, which he understood to be superior to his own system. Thenceforth, he rejected the entire [[Kantian]] program as it related to mathematics and [[geometry]], and he maintained that his own earliest work on the subject was nearly without value.
Interested in the definition of [[number]], Russell studied the work of [[George Boole]], [[Georg Cantor]], and [[Augustus De Morgan]], while materials in the Bertrand Russell Archives at [[McMaster University]] include notes of his reading in algebraic logic by [[Charles S. Peirce]] and [[Ernst Schröder]]. He became convinced that the foundations of mathematics were tied to logic, and following [[Gottlob Frege]] took an extensionalist approach in which logic was in turn based upon set theory. In [[1900]] he attended the first [[International Congress of Philosophy]] in [[Paris]] where he became familiar with the work of the Italian mathematician, [[Giuseppe Peano]]. He mastered Peano's new symbolism and his set of [[axioms]] for [[arithmetic]]. Peano was able to define logically all of the terms of these axioms with the exception of ''0'', ''number'', ''successor'', and the singular term, ''the''. Russell took it upon himself to find logical definitions for each of these. Between 1897 and 1903 he published several articles applying Peano's notation to the classical Boole-Schröder algebra of relations, among them ''On the Notion of Order'', ''Sur la logique des relations avec les applications à la théorie des séries'', and ''On Cardinal Numbers''.
Russell eventually discovered that [[Gottlob Frege]] had independently arrived at equivalent definitions for ''0'', ''successor'', and ''number'', and the definition of number is now usually referred to as the Frege-Russell definition. It was largely Russell who brought Frege to the attention of the English-speaking world. He did this in [[1903]], when he published [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics/ ''The Principles of Mathematics''], in which the concept of class is inextricably tied to the definition of number. The appendix to this work detailed a paradox arising in Frege's application of second- and higher-order functions which took first-order functions as their arguments, and he offered his first effort to resolve what would henceforth come to be known as the Russell Paradox. In writing ''Principles'', Russell came across Cantor's proof that there was no greatest [[cardinal number]], which Russell believed was mistaken. The Cantor Paradox in turn was shown (for example by Crossley) to be a special case of the Russell Paradox. This caused Russell to analyze [[class (set theory)|classes]], for it was known that given any number of elements, the number of classes they result in is greater than th |
lothing - and products where colour integrity appears important. Nonetheless, [[Tesco.com]] has had success delivering groceries in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], albeit that many of its goods are of a generic quality, and clothing sold through the internet is big business in the U.S.
==Acceptance of e-commerce==
[[Consumer]]s have accepted the e-commerce business model less readily than its proponents originally expected. Even in product categories suitable for e-commerce, electronic shopping has developed only slowly. Several reasons might account for the slow uptake, including:
* Concerns about [[security]]. Many people will not use [[credit card]]s over the Internet due to concerns about theft and [[credit card fraud]].
* Lack of instant gratification with most e-purchases (non-digital purchases). Much of a consumer's reward for purchasing a product lies in the instant gratification of using and displaying that product. This reward does not exist when one's purchase does not arrive for days or weeks.
* The problem of access to web commerce, particularly for poor households and for developing countries. Low [[diffusion (business) | penetration rates]] of Internet access in some [[sector]]s greatly reduces the potential for e-commerce.
* The social aspect of [[shopping]]. Some people enjoy talking to sales staff, to other shoppers, or to their cohorts: this social reward side of [[retail therapy]] does not exist to the same extent in [[Online Shop|online shopping]].
==Suppliers offering services to electronic commerce practitioners==
===Financial===
* [[PayPal]]
* [[Yahoo!]]
* [[Moneybookers]]
* [[Webmoney]] (Russia)
* PayZip (Singapore)
===Software===
* [[osCommerce]]
* [[eMeta Corporation]]
* [[NetSuite Inc.]]
* [[Wax Digital]]
==Entities using electronic commerce==
*[[Amazon.com]]
*[[eBay]]
*[[exostar]]
*[[rediff.com]]
*[[Smarthome]]
*[[Nuvvo]]
==See also==
*[[Bricks and clicks business model]]
*[[Business-to-business electronic commerce]]
*[[Business-to-consumer electronic commerce]]
*[[Credit card fraud]]
*[[Disintermediation]]
*[[ETrading]]
*[[Electronic business]]
*[[E-marketing]]
*[[Internet fraud]]
*[[Management]]
*[[Marketing]]
*[[Online auction business model]]
*[[Product feeds]]
*[[Reintermediation]]
*[[Secure electronic transaction]] - a credit card security protocol
*[[Web traffic]]
==External links==
*General Information
**[http://www.cio.com/research/ec/ CIO's Ebusiness Research Center]
**[http://www.electronicmarkets.org/ NetAcademy on Electronic Markets]
**[http://www.commercestarterkit.org/ Commerce Starter Kit 2.0] - Free ecommerce software for ASP.NET 2.0 websites
*How-To
**[http://www.shoffy.com/e-commerce/building-your-own-ecommerce-store.htm 1-2-3 eCommerce] - Step-by-Step instruction on how to get started in eCommerce
*Ecommerce News
**[http://ecommerce.internet.com/ Ecommerce Guide]
**[http://www.ec-bp.org/ Ecommerce Best Practices (B2B)]
**[http://www.ecommercetimes.com/ Ecommerce Times]
*Security
**[http://www.quickoverview.com/overviews/ecommerce-safety-howto.html ECommerce Safety - A Quick Overview]
*Consumer Awareness and Education
**[http://nacpec.org North American Consumer Project on Electronic Commerce (NACPEC)]
**[http://icecc.com Institute of Certified E-Commerce Consultants (ICECC)]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Chaudhury | first = Abijit
| coauthors = Jean-Pierre Kuilboer
| year = 2002
| title = e-Business and e-Commerce Infrastructure
| publisher = McGraw-Hill
| id = ISBN 0-07-247875-6
}}
* [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-12-22-shoppers_x.htm Kessler, M. (2003). More shoppers proceed to checkout online. Retrieved January 13, 2004]
* {{cite book
| last = Nissanoff | first = Daniel
| year = 2006
| title = '''FutureShop''': How the New Auction Culture Will Revolutionize the Way We Buy, Sell and Get the Things We Really Want
| publisher = The Penguin Press
| id = ISBN 1-594-20077-7
| edition = Hardcover
| pages = 246 pages
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Seybold | first = Pat
| year = 2001
| title = Customers.com
| publisher = Crown Business Books (Random House)
| id = ISBN 0-609-60772-3
}}
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[ar:تجارة إلكترونية]]
[[da:E-handel]]
[[de:Elektronischer Handel]]
[[es:Comercio electrónico]]
[[fi:Verkkokauppa]]
[[fr:Commerce électronique]]
[[he:מסחר אלקטרוני]]
[[id:Perdagangan elektronik]]
[[it:Commercio elettronico]]
[[ja:電子商取引]]
[[lt:Elektroninė komercija]]
[[lv:Elektroniskā komercija]]
[[nl:Electronic commerce]]
[[pl:Handel elektroniczny]]
[[pt:Comércio eletrônico]]
[[ro:Comerţ electronic]]
[[ru:Электронная коммерция]]
[[th:พาณิชย์อิเล็กทรอนิกส์]]
[[uk:Електронна комерція]]
[[vi:Thương mại điện tử]]
[[zh:电子商务]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euler's formula</title>
<id>9613</id>
<revision>
<id>41771636</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:07:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>164.107.166.97</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Euler's formula in ''[[complex analysis]]''. For other meanings, see [[Euler function (disambiguation)|Euler function]].''
[[image:Euler's formula.png|thumb|right|360px]]
'''Euler's formula''', named after [[Leonhard Euler]] (pronounced ''oiler''), is a [[mathematics|mathematical]] formula in the subfield of [[complex analysis]] that shows a deep relationship between the [[trigonometric functions]] and the [[exponential function|complex exponential function]]. ([[Euler's identity]] is a special case of the Euler formula).
Euler's formula states that, for any [[real number]] ''x'',
: <math>e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x \!</math>
where
:''<math>e</math>'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]]
:''<math>i</math>'' is the [[imaginary unit]]
:<math>\sin</math> and <math>\cos</math> are [[trigonometric function]]s.
[[Richard Feynman]] called Euler's formula "our jewel" and "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" (Feynman, p. 22-10).
==History==
Euler's formula was proved (in an obscured form) for the first time by [[Roger Cotes]] in [[1714]], then rediscovered and popularized by Euler in [[1748]]. Neither of these men saw the geometrical interpretation of the formula: the view of complex numbers as points in the plane arose only some 50 years later (see [[Caspar Wessel]]).
== Applications in complex number theory ==
This formula can be interpreted as saying that the function ''e''<sup>''ix''</sup> traces out the unit circle in the [[complex number|complex number plane]] as ''x'' ranges through the real numbers. Here, ''x'' is the [[angle]] that a line connecting the origin with a point on the unit circle makes with the positive real axis, measured counter clockwise and in radians. The formula is valid only if sin and cos take their arguments in radians rather than in degrees.
The proof is based on the [[Taylor series]] expansions of the [[exponential function]] ''e''<sup>''z''</sup> (where ''z'' is a complex number) and of sin ''x'' and cos ''x'' for real numbers ''x'' (see below). In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all ''complex'' numbers ''x''.
Euler's formula can be used to represent complex numbers in [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]]. For any complex number ''z'', we have the following relationships:
:<math> z = x + iy = Ae^{i\phi} \!</math>
where
:<math> x = \mathrm{Re}\{z\} \!</math>
:<math> y = \mathrm{Im}\{z\} \!</math>
:<math> A = |z| \!</math>
and
:<math> \phi = \angle z \!</math>
The formula also provides a definition for the [[natural logarithm]] of complex arguments:
:<math>\ln(z) = \ln(Ae^{i\phi}) = \ln(A) + \ln(e^{i\phi}) = \ln(A) + i\phi \!</math>
for ''z''&ne;0. Therefore,
:<math> \mathrm{Re} \{ \ln(z) \} = \ln(A) = \ln(|z|) \!</math>
and
:<math> \mathrm{Im} \{ \ln(z) \} = \phi = \angle z \!</math>
By using the exponential laws
: <math>e^{a + b} = e^a \cdot e^{b}</math>
and
: <math>(e^a)^b = e^{a b} \,</math>
(which are valid for all complex numbers ''a'' and ''b''), one can also readily derive several [[trigonometric identity|trigonometric identities]] as well as [[de Moivres formula|de Moivre's formula]].
==Relationship to trigonometry==
Euler's formula provides a powerful connection between [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] and [[trigonometry]], and provides an interpretation of the sine and cosine functions as weighted sums of the exponential function:
: <math>\cos x = {e^{ix} + e^{-ix} \over 2}</math>
: <math>\sin x = {e^{ix} - e^{-ix} \over 2i}</math>
The two equations above can be derived by adding or subtracting Euler's formulas:
: <math>e^{ix} = \cos x + i \sin x \;</math>
: <math>e^{-ix} = \cos x - i \sin x \;</math>
and solving for either cosine or sine.
These formulas can even serve as the definition of the trigonometric functions for complex arguments ''x''. For example, letting ''x'' = ''iy'', we have:
:<math> \cos(iy) = {e^{-y} + e^{y} \over 2} = \cosh(y) </math>
:<math> \sin(iy) = {e^{-y} - e^{y} \over 2i} = i \sinh(y) </math>
==Relationship to the hyperbolic functions==
A second version of Euler's formula involves [[hyperbolic functions]], but it is a simple repetition of an identity used with real numbers.
: <math>e^{ix} = \cosh(i x) + \sinh(i x) \;</math>
The formulae above can be used to relate the [[hyperbolic sine]] and [[hyperbolic cosine]] functions to the usual trigonometric functions and can likewise be proven using Taylor Series.
: <math>\cos x = \cosh(i x) \;</math>
: <math>i \sin x |
[[Shigeru Mizuki]], ''[[Ge Ge Ge no Kitaro]]'', - Master of horror of Japanese [[manga]]
* [[Morris (comics)|Morris]], ''[[Lucky Luke]]''
* [[Paul Palnik]], ''[[The God of Cartoons]] American Jewish cartoon prophet.
* [[Virgil Partch]], known as "VIP," he was a leading US gag cartoonist of the '50s and 60s
* [[Bob Penuelas]], ''[[Wilbur Kookmeyer]]''
* [[Peyo]], ''[[the Smurfs]]'', ''Benoit Brisefer'', ''Johan et Pirlouit''
* [[Hugo Pratt]], ''[[Corto Maltese]]''
* [[Quino]] (Joaquín Salvador Lavado), ''[[Mafalda]]'' - Often regarded as the foremost Latin-American cartoonist, and a fierce social satirist.
* [[Heath Robinson|W. Heath Robinson]], British satirist famous for drawings of convoluted machines, similar to Rube Goldberg
* [[Jonathan Rosenberg]], ''[[Goats (comic)|Goats]]''
* [[Ronald Searle]], St Trinians, Molesworth, ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'', editorial work and more
* [[Elzie Crisler Segar]], ''[[Popeye]]''
* [[Jean-Jacques Sempé|Sempé]]
* [[Dan Shive]], ''[[El Goonish Shive]]''
* [[Posy Simmonds]], ''The Silent Three of St Botolph's'', ''Gemma Bovery''
* [[Siné]]
* [[Ralph Steadman]], editorial cartoonist and book illustrator
* [[Uli Stein]], ''Mice''
* [[Saul Steinberg]]
* [[Howard Tayler]], pioneered web-cartooning as a profession.
* [[Osamu Tezuka]], ''[[Astroboy]]'', ''[[Phoenix (manga)|Phoenix]]'' - Known as the "god" of Japanese [[manga]], who practically defined modern Japanese cartooning
* [[Ben Wicks]], well known Canadian cartoonist and illustrator. Strips include ''The Outsider'', ''Wicks''
===Animated cartoonists===
* [[Ralph Bakshi]]
* [[Tex Avery]]
* [[Art Babbitt]]
* [[Frederic Back]]
* [[Joseph Barbera]]
* [[Don Bluth]]
* [[Brett Bower]], Australian
* [[Tim Burton]]
* [[Les Clark]]
* [[Bob Clampett]]
* [[Gabor Csupo]]
* [[Shamus Culhane]]
* [[Arthur Davis]]
* [[Marc Davis]]
* [[Gene Deitch]]
* [[Andreas Deja]]
* [[Walt Disney]]
* [[Norm Ferguson]]
* [[Friz Freleng]]
* [[Eric Goldberg]]
* [[Dave Hand]]
* [[William Hanna]]
* [[Rudolf Ising]]
* [[Wilfred Jackson]]
* [[Ollie Johnston]]
* [[Chuck Jones]]
* [[Milt Kahl]]
* [[Glen Keane]]
* [[Ward Kimball]]
* [[John Kricfalusi]]
* [[Kutty]]
* [[John Lasseter]]
* [[Eric Larson]]
* [[John Lounsbery]]
* [[Ham Luske]]
* [[Robert McKimson]]
* [[Joe Murray]]
* [[Fred Moore]]
* [[Grim Natwick]]
* [[Bill Plympton]]
* [[Wolfgang Reitherman|Wolfgang "Woolie" Reitherman]]
* [[Herbert "Herbie" Ryman]]
* [[Ben Sharpsteen]]
* [[Tom Sito]]
* [[Frank Tashlin]]
* [[Frank Thomas]]
* [[Bill Tytla]]
* [[Richard Williams]]
===Cartoonists of comic strips===
* [[Scott Adams]], ''[[Dilbert]]''
* [[Bill Amend]], ''[[Fox Trot]]''
* [[George Baker (cartoonist)|George Baker]], ''[[Sad Sack]]''
* [[Darrin Bell]], ''[[Candorville]]'', ''[[Rudy Park]]''
* [[Berke Breathed]], ''[[Bloom County]]'' ([[1980]]'s American social-polticial), ''[[Outland (comic)|Outland]]'', ''[[Opus (comic strip)|Opus]]''
* [[David Breger]], ''[[G.I. Joe]]''
* [[Dik Browne]], ''[[Hi and Lois]]'', ''[[Hagar the Horrible]]''
* [[Ernie Bushmiller]], ''[[Nancy (comic strip)|Nancy]]''
*[[Milton Caniff|Milt Caniff]], ''[[Terry and the Pirates (comics)|Terry and the Pirates]]'', ''[[Steve Canyon]]''
* [[Al Capp]], ''[[Lil Abner]]''
* [[Stan Cross]], ''[[The Potts]]'' and ''[[Wally and the Major]]''
* [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]], ''[[Garfield]]''
* [[Bud Fisher]], ''[[Mutt and Jeff]]''
* [[Ham Fisher]], ''[[Joe Palooka]]''
* [[Chester Gould]], ''[[Dick Tracy]]''
* [[Bill Griffith]], ''[[Zippy the Pinhead]]''
* [[Tove Jansson|Tove]] and [[Lars Jansson]], ''[[Moomin|The Moomins]]''
* [[Lynn Johnston]], ''[[For Better or For Worse]]''
* [[Eric Jolliffe]], ''[[Andy]]''
* [[Hank Ketcham]], ''[[Dennis the Menace]]''
* [[Walt Kelly]], ''[[Pogo]]''
* [[Kemsley]], ''[[Ginger Meggs]]''
* [[Frank King]], ''[[Gasoline Alley]]''
* [[Keith Knight]], ''[[The K Kronicles]]''
* [[Fred Lasswell]], ''[[Barney Google]]''
* [[Raymond Macherot]], ''[[Harold Clifton|Colonel Clifton]]''
* [[Winsor McCay]], ''[[Little Nemo]]''
* [[Patrick McDonnell]], ''[[Mutts]]''
* [[George McManus]], ''[[Bringing up Father]]''
* [[Dale Messick]], ''[[Brenda Starr]]''
* [[Steve Nease]], ''[[Pud]]''
* [[Fred Negro]], ''Pub Strip''
* [[Charles Peattie]] and [[Russell Taylor]], ''Alex''
* [[Stan Pitt]], ''[[Larry Flynn, Detective]]''
* [[Quino]]. ''[[Mafalda]]''
* [[Charles M. Schulz]], ''[[Peanuts]]''
* [[Jeff Shesol]], ''[[Thatch (comic strip)]]''
* [[Caroll Spinney]], ''[[Harvey (comic)|Harvey]]''
* [[Garry Trudeau]], ''[[Doonesbury]]''
* [[Gustave Verbeek]], ''The Upside Downs'', ''The Terrors of the Tiny Tads''
* [[Bill Watterson]], ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''
* [[Monty Wedd]], ''[[The Scorpion]]'', ''[[Bert and Ned]]'', ''[[Tod Trail]]'', ''[[Kirk Raven]]'', ''[[Ned Kelly]]'', ''[[Sword and Sabre]]'', ''[[Captain Justice]]'', ''[[Ben Hall]]'' and ''[[The Making of a Nation]]''
* [[Jeff Wilson (cartoonist)|Jeff Wilson]], ''[[The Avridge Farm]]''
* [[J.D. Frazer]], ''[[User Friendly]]''
=== Cartoonists of single panel cartoons (gag cartoons) ===
* [[Doug Davis]]
* [[Charles Addams]]
* [[Ivan Brunetti]]
* [[Irwin Caplan]]
* [[Patrick Chappatte]] (Chappatte)
* [[Dick Cavalli]]
* [[Roz Chast]]
* [[Chon Day]]
* [[John Dempsey]]
* [[Mort Drucker]]
* [[Dave Gerard]]
* [[Carl Giles]] (Giles)
* [[Grea]]
* [[Bill Harrison]]
* [[Ray Helle]]
* [[Tom Henderson]]
* [[Ned Hilton]]
* [[Judy Horacek]]
* [[Stan Hunt]]
* [[Al Johns]]
* [[Jeff Keate]]
* [[Hank Ketcham]]
* [[Ted Key]]
* [[Bill King]]
* [[Nick D. Kim]] (Nick)
* [[Gary Larson]]
* [[Mel Lazarus]]
* [[Bill O'Malley]]
* [[Frank Owen]]
* [[Larry Reynolds]]
* [[Salo]]
* [[Vahan Shirvanian]]
* [[Chris Slane]]
* [[Ton Smits]]
* [[Syverson]]
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[Don Tobin]]
* [[Walt Wetterberg]]
* [[Herb Williams]]
* [[Gahan Wilson]]
* [[George Wolfe (cartoonist)|George Wolfe]]
* [[Kevin Woodcock]]
* [[Zero (cartoonist)|Zero]]
===Political cartoonists===
* [[Naji al-Ali]], Palestinian cartoonist assassinated in 1987
* [[Dean Alston]], Australian
* [[Darrin Bell]], American political cartoonist and comic strip cartoonist
* [[Steve Bell (cartoonist)|Steve Bell]], contemporary British political cartoonist
* [[Ruben Bolling]], ''[[Tom the Dancing Bug]]'' Contemporary American political
* [[Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro|Bordalo Pinheiro, Rafael]] - (1846-1905), Portuguese, creator of ''Zé Povinho''
* [[Chico Caruso]], Brazilian
* [[Paul Conrad]], political cartoons
* [[Cook, Patrick (1949- )]], Australian
* [[Stan Cross]], Australian
* [[Jay Norwood Darling]], [[editorial cartoon]]ist (two time [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner), also designed the first [[Federal Duck Stamp]]
* [[David Ditchburn]], Australian
* [[Andy Donato]], Canadian political cartoonist, works for the [Sun] newspaper chain.
* [[Mark Fiore]], American political cartoonist
* Theodore Geisel ([[Dr. Seuss]]), Was a political and advertising cartoonist before and during World War II before becoming a children's author
* [[Herblock]], full name Herbert Block, longtime American cartoonist for the [[Washington Post]], 3 times [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner
* [[William Hogarth]], [[18th century]] British political cartoonist
* [[Horner, Arthur (b. 1916) ]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Bill Leak]] - Australian
* [[Michael Leunig]] - Australian
* [[Predrag Koraksic Corax]], contemporary Serbian political cartoonist.
* [[David Low]], political cartoonist in Britain between the World Wars, characters included [[Colonel Blimp]].
* [[Bill Mauldin]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner, gained fame as "soldiers' cartoonist" in [[World War II|World War 2]] with his "dogfaces" ''[[Willie and Joe]]''
* [[McCrae, Stewart (1919- )]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Moir, Alan Charles (1945- )]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Molnar, George (1910-1998)]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Terry Mosher|Aislin]], cartoonist for the ''[[Montreal Gazette]]''
* [[Thomas Nast]], first drew Republican elephant and Democratic donkey, [[Tammany Hall]] tiger, set the pattern for the modern [[Santa Claus]]
* [[Steve Nease]], Metroland newspaper chain
* [[Peter Nicholson]] (1946- ) - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Pat Oliphant]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner, longtime contemporary American cartoonist originally from Australia
* [[Ward O'Neill]], Australian
* [[Paul Palnik]] American, Jewish, Kabbalistic Spiritual Cartoons.
* [[Bruce Petty]], Australian
* [[Matthew Pritchett|Matt Pritchett]], (''Matt'') single panel political cartoons in the British [[Daily Telegraph]]
* [[Pryor, Geoff (1944- )]] - Australian
* [[Ted Rall]], contemporary American political cartoonist.
* [[Dan Russell]]
* [[Jim Russell]]
* [[Spooner, John (1946- )]] - Australian
* [[Tom Tomorrow]], ''[[This Modern World]]'' Contemporary American political cartoonist
* Vicky, full name [[Victor Weisz]] (1913-66) British Socialist cartoonist, born in Berlin, of Hungarian Jewish extraction. Originated Supermac sobriquet applied to [[Harold Macmillan]].
* [[William Ellis Green]] - Australian
* [[Cathy Wilcox]] - Australian political cartoonist and illustrator
* [[J. Winburn]] - American satirical cartoonist of alternative humor & social commentary
* [[Paco Calderón]] Mexican
===Cartoonists of comic books===
* [[Ben Caldwell]], famous creator of the Dare Detectives.
* [[Sergio Aragones]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', also the creator of GROO.
* [[Kim Deitch]] creator of Waldo The Cat and comic novels
* [[Bill Elder]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'' comics, ''[[Little Annie Fanny]]'' in ''Playboy''
* [[Dan DeCarlo]], ''[[Archie Comics|Archie]]'', ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'', ''[[Sabrina the Teenage Witch]]''
* [[Harvey Kurtzman]], first editor of ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', one of the most influential comic artists of all time
* [[Pran Kumar Sharma]], ''[[Chacha Chaudhary]]''
* [[Wally Wood]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', both comics and magazine
* [[Jhonen Vasquez]], Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, Squee! |
making the first [[radio]] broadcast of the accordion in [[1921]] and the first sound [[film|motion picture]] featuring the accordion, for [[Vitaphone]], in [[1928]].
== Button accordions ==
[[Image:C-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type C)]]
[[Image:B-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type B)]]
On '''button accordions''' the [[melody]]-side [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] consists of a series of [[button]]s (rather than [[piano]]-style keys.) There exists a wide variation in keyboard systems, tuning, action and construction of these instruments.
'''Diatonic button accordions''' have a [[melody]]-side keyboard that is limited to the notes of [[diatonic]] [[scale (music)|scales]] in a small number of [[key (music)|keys]] (sometimes only one). The [[bass (music)|bass]] side usually contains the principal [[chord (music)|chords]] of the instrument's key and the root notes of those chords.
[[Image:Busking_Accordionist.jpg|thumb|Garmon' player]]Almost all diatonic button accordions (e.g.: [[melodeon]]) are bisonoric, meaning each button produces two notes: one when the [[bellows]] is compressed, another while it is expanded; a few instruments (e.g.: [[garmon']]) are unisonoric, with each button producing the same note regardless of bellows direction; still others have a combination of the two types of action: ''See [[#Hybrids|Hybrids]] below.''
A '''chromatic button accordion''' is a type of button accordion where the melody-side keyboard consists of uniform rows of buttons arranged so that the pitch increases [[chromatic scale|chromatically]] along diagonals. The bass-side keyboard is usually the Stradella system, one of the various free-bass systems, or a converter system. Included among chromatic button accordions is the [[Russia]]n [[Bayan (accordion)|bayan]]. Sometimes an instrument of this class is simply called a '''chromatic accordion''', although other types, including the piano accordion, are fully chromatic as well. There can be 3 to 5 rows of treble buttons. In a 5 row chromatic, two additional rows repeat the first 2 rows to facilitate options in fingering. Chromatic button accordions are preferred by many [[European classical music|classical music]] performers, since the treble keyboard with diagonally arranged buttons allows a greater range than a piano keyboard configuration.
Various cultures have made their own versions of the accordion, adapted to suit their own music. [[Russia]] alone has several, including the [[Bayan]], [[Garmon]], [[Livenka]], and [[Saratovskaya Garmonika]].
Various '''hybrids''' have been created between instruments of different keyboards and actions. Many remain curiosities, only a few have remained in use. Some notable examples are:
*The [[Schrammel accordion]], used in [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[chamber music]] and [[Klezmer]], which has the treble keyboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass keyboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion.
*The [[schwyzerörgeli]] or [[Switzerland|Swiss]] organ, which has a (usually) 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement (actually a subset of the Stradella system), that travel parallel to the bellows motion.
*The [[trikitixa]] of the [[Basque people]] has a 2-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass.
*In [[Scotland]], the favoured diatonic accordion is, paradoxically, the instrument known as the [[British Chromatic Accordion]]. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered to be the German manufactured "Shand Morino", produced by Hohner with the input of the late Sir Jimmy Shand. {{Ref|Howard98}}
==Stradella bass system==
[[Image:Acchords.png|thumb|right|250px|Stradella bass layout]]
The '''Stradella Bass System''' uses rows of buttons arranged in a [[circle of fifths]]; this places the principal major chords of a key in three adjacent rows. Each row contains, in order: A major third (the "counter-bass" note), the root note, the major chord, the minor chord, the seventh chord, and the diminished seventh chord.
Depending on the price, size or origin of the instrument, some rows may be missing completely or in different positions. In most Russian layouts the diminished seventh chord row is moved by one button, so that the C diminished seventh chord is where the F diminished seventh chord would be in a standard Stradella layout; this is done in order to achieve a better reachability with the forefinger.
Common configurations are:
*"12 Bass" accordion: Fundamental Bass goes from B&#9837; to A (the third to eighth column in the picture above), and only has Fundamental Bass and major chords.
*"24 Bass" goes from A&#9837; to A, and has Fundamental Bass, major and minor chords
*"32 Bass" goes from E&#9837; to E, and has FB, major, minor and seventh chords
*"48 Bass" goes from E&#9837; to E, and has all six rows
*"72 Bass" goes from D&#9837; to F&#9839;, and has all six rows
*"80 Bass" goes from C&#9837; to G&#9839;, and has everything except diminished
*"96 Bass" is as 80 Bass, but with all six rows
*"120 Bass" goes from A&#9837;&#9837; (i.e. low G) to A&#9839; &mdash; that's 20 columns &mdash; with all six rows.
== Free bass systems ==
There are various free bass systems in use; most consist of a rotated version or mirror image of one of the melody layouts used in chromatic button accordions. One notable exception is the Titano line of converter bass, which repeats the first two bass rows of the Stradella system one and two octaves higher moving outward from the bellows.
Skillfull use of the free bass system enabled the performance of classical piano music, rather than music arranged specifically for the accordion's standard chorded capability. Beginning in the 1960s, competitive performance on the accordion of classical piano compositions, by the great masters of music, occurred. Although never mainstreamed in the larger musical scene, this convergence with traditional classical music propelled young accordionists to an ultimate involvement with classical music heretofore not experienced.
Many modern and [[avant-garde]] composers (such as [[Sofia Gubaidulina]], [[Luciano Berio]] and [[Magnus Lindberg]]) have written for the free bass accordion and the instrument is becoming more frequently integrated into [[new music]] chamber and improvisation groups.
== Audio samples ==
*{{Listen|filename=accordian_chords-01.ogg|title=Accordion chords|description=Chords being played on an accordion &mdash; 145 KB |format=[[Ogg]]}}
==Related instruments==
=== Squeezeboxes ===
*[[Concertina]]
*[[Bandoneon]]
*[[Flutina]]
=== Other free-reeds ===
*[[Harmonica]]
*[[Harmonium]]
*[[Melodica]]
*[[Sheng]]
*[[Khene]]
==Trivia==
*Despite the popularity of the accordion, especially in [[polka]] music by artists such as [[Lawrence Welk]], [[Myron Floren]], [[Frankie Yankovic]] and [["Weird Al" Yankovic]] (no relation), the instrument does have its critics. An oft-reprinted cartoon in ''[[The Far Side]]'' is a split panel in which the upper half is captioned, "Welcome to Heaven... here's your harp!" while the lower panel is captioned, "Welcome to Hell... here's your accordion!"
==References==
#{{Note|Howard98}}p.98, Howard, Rob (2003) ''An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments'' Stockport:Robaccord Publications ISBN 0-9546711-0-4
==External links==
{{commonscat|accordions}}
*[http://www.mcrow.net/Accordion%20Virus.htm Accordion synth software for Reaktor]
{{Squeezebox}}
[[Category:Free reed aerophones]]
[[Category:Keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:Sets of free reeds]]
[[de:Akkordeon]]
[[es:Acordeón]]
[[eo:Akordiono]]
[[fr:Accordéon]]
[[gl:Acordeón]]
[[ia:Accordion]]
[[it:Fisarmonica]]
[[he:אקורדיון]]
[[nl:Accordeon]]
[[ja:アコーディオン]]
[[no:Trekkspill]]
[[nn:Trekkspel]]
[[pl:Akordeon]]
[[pt:Sanfona]]
[[ru:Гармонь]]
[[fi:Harmonikka]]
[[sv:Dragspel]]
[[uk:Акордеон]]
[[zh:手风琴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artificial intelligence</title>
<id>1164</id>
<revision>
<id>42052332</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tailpig</username>
<id>312490</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42030028 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
[[Image:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Honda's intelligent humanoid robot]]
{{Redirect|AI}}
'''Artificial intelligence''' ('''AI''') is defined as [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] exhibited by an [[artificial]] entity. Such a system is generally assumed to be a [[computer]].
Although AI has a strong [[science fiction]] connotation, it forms a vital branch of [[computer science]], dealing with intelligent [[behavior]], [[learn]]ing and [[adaptation]] in [[machine]]s. [[Research]] in AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Examples include [[control system|control]], [[Automated planning and scheduling|planning and scheduling]], the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions, [[handwriting recognition|handwriting]], [[speech recognition|speech]], and [[facial recognition system|facial recognition]]. As such, it has become a [[scientific]] discipline, focused on providing solutions to real life problems. AI systems are now in routine use in [[economics]], [[medicine]], [[engineering]] and the [[military]], as well as being built into many common home computer [[Computer software|software]] applications, traditional strategy games like [[computer chess]] and other [[video games]].
==Schools of thought==
AI divides roughly into two schools of thought: Conventional AI and [[Comp |
inal inhabitants was on the whole quite good; many [[Batavians]] even served in the [[Ala (Roman military)|Roman cavalry]]. Batavian culture was influenced by the Roman one, resulting among other things in Roman-style temples such as the one in [[Elst]], dedicated to local gods. Also the trade flourished: the salt used in the Roman empire was won from the North Sea and remains are found across the whole Roman empire. However, this did not prevent the [[Batavian rebellion]] of 69 AD, a [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/batavians.html very successful revolt] under the leadership of Batavian [[Gaius Julius Civilis]]. Forty '''castellae''' were burnt down because the Romans violated the rights of the Batavian leaders by taking young Batavians as their slaves. Other Roman soldiers (like those in Xanten and the auxiliary troops of Batavians and Caninefatae from the legions of Vitellius) joined the revolt, which split the northern part of the Roman army. April 70 AD, Vespasianus sent a few legions to stop the revolt. Their commander, Petilius Cerialis, eventually defeated the Batavians and started negotiations with Julius Civilis on his home ground, somewhere between the Waal and the Maas near Noviomagus (Nijmegen) or&mdash;as the Batavians probably called it&mdash;Batavodurum.
<br>''(Source: ''Historiae'' by Tacitus, 1st century AD)''. [http://www.ru.nl/ahc/vg/html/vg000232.htm Translation into Dutch by the Radboud Universiteit, Nijmegen]
The Roman civilisation in the area was eventually overrun in the mass migration of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] peoples (later known as the ''[[Völkerwanderung]]'').
== Holy Roman Empire ==
The newcomers merged with the original inhabitants to create three peoples in the [[Low Countries]]: the [[Frisians]] along the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks became [[Christians]] after their king [[Clovis I]] converted in 496. Christianity was introduced in the north after the conquest of Friesland by the Franks. Anglo-Saxon missionaries such as [[Willibrord]], [[Wulfram of Sens|Wulfram]] and [[Boniface]] were active in converting these tribes to Christianity. Boniface was martyred by the Frisians in [[Dokkum]] (754). The Saxons in the east were converted before the conquest of Saxony, and became Frankish allies.
The Netherlands belonged to the Frankish empire of [[Charlemagne]], with its heartland in what is today [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning [[France]], [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to France in the west, Germany in the east and a middle empire that lay between the two. Most of the Netherlands was part of the middle empire. Later this middle empire was split: most of the Dutch-speaking lands became a part of Germany; Flanders became part of France.
From 800 AD to 1000 AD, the Low Countries suffered considerably from [[Viking]] raids (one of which destroyed the wealthy city of [[Dorestad]]). Most of the Netherlands was occupied by the Vikings from 850 to 920. This was about the same time that France and Germany were fighting for supremacy over the middle empire. The Vikings wanted to restore the Frisian kingdom which they had lost 150 years earlier to the Franks. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result. Viking supremacy ended in 920 when King [[Henry]] of Germany liberated [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
The German kings and emperors dominated the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th century. Germany was called the [[Holy Roman Empire]] after the coronation of King Otto the Great as emperor. The Dutch city of Nijmegen used to be the spot of an important domain of the German emperors. Several German emperors were born and died there. (Byzantine empress Theophanu died in Nijmegen for instance.) Utrecht was also an important city and trading port at the time. German officials closely watched the count of Westfriesland (Holland) in the Rhine delta. The count rebelled in 1018. The county was destined to become a part of [[Utrecht]] after 1018, but the difficulties between the pope and the emperor saved the county.
Much of the western Netherlands (what is today Holland) was barely inhabited between the end of the Roman period and around 1100. Around 1000, Frankish farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began purchasing the swampy land, draining it and cultivating it. This process happened quickly and the uninhabited territory was settled in only a few generations. They built independent farms that were not part of villages, something unique in Europe at the time. Before this happened the language and culture of most of the people who lived in the area that is now Holland were [[Frisian]]. The area was known as "West Friesland" (''Westfriesland''). As settlement progressed, the area slowly dutchified, i.e. became more Frankish. This area became known as '[[Holland]]' in the 12th century. (The part of North Holland situated north of [[IJ (bay)|'t IJ]] is still colloquially know as West Friesland).
Around 1000 AD there were several agricultural developments (described sometimes as an agricultural revolution) that resulted in an increase in production, especially food production. The economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. [[Guilds]] were established and markets developed as production exceeded local needs. Also, the introduction of [[currency]] made trading a much easier affair than it had been before. Existing towns grew and new towns sprang into existence around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas. Commerce and town development increased as the population grew.
The [[Crusade|crusades]] were popular in the Low Countries and drew many to fight in the [[Holy Land]]. At home, there was relative peace in Europe. Viking, Hungarian and Muslim pillaging had stopped.
Both the Crusades and the relative peace at home contributed to trade and the growth in commerce.
Cities arose and fluorished, especially in [[Flanders]] and [[Brabant]]. As the cities grew in wealth and power, they started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]], including [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]], the right to self-government and the right to pass laws. In practice, this meant that the wealthiest cities became quasi-independent [[Republic|republics]] in their own right. Two of the most important cities were [[Brugge]] and [[Antwerp]] which would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.
The Holy Roman Empire was not able to maintain political unity in the Low Countries. In addition to the growing independence of the towns, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms and felt little sense of obligation to the emperor who governed over large parts of the nation in name only. Large parts of what now comprise the Netherlands were governed by the Count of [[Holland]], the Duke of [[Gelre]], the Duke of [[Brabant]] and the Bishop of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] in the north maintained their independence and were governed by the lower nobility.
The various feudal states were in a state of almost continual war. [[Gelre]] and [[Holland]] fought for control of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, whose bishop had in 1000 ruled over half of what is today the Netherlands, was marginalised as it experienced continuing difficulty in electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighbouring states were more stable. [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]] and most of [[Gelre]], which used to be part of Utrecht, became independent. [[Brabant]] tried to conquer its neighbours, but was not successful. [[Holland]] also tried to assert itself in Zeeland and [[Friesland]], but its attempts failed.
[[Friesland]] in the north continued to maintain its independence during this time. It had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian Freedom") and resented the imposition of the feudal system and the patriciate found in other European towns. They regarded themselves as allies of Switzerland. The Frisian battle cry was "better dead than a slave". They later lost their independence when they were defeated in 1498 by the German [[Landsknecht]] mercenaries of Duke Albrecht of Saxony-Meissen.
{{History Benelux states}}
== Burgundian period ==
Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] was eventually united by the Duke of [[Burgundy]] in 1433. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town where they lived, their local duchy or county or as subjects of the Holy Roman Empire. The Burgundian period is when the Dutch began the road to nationhood.
The conquest of the county of Holland by the Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy was an odd affair. Leading noblemen in Holland in fact invited the duke to conquer Holland, even though he had no historical claim to it. Some historians say that the ruling class in Holland wanted Holland to integrate with the Flemish economic system and adopt Flemish legal institutions. Europe had been wracked by many civil wars in the 14th and 15th centuries, while Flanders had grown rich and enjoyed peace.
After a few years of conflict, the countess of Holland was deposed in favour of the Burgundian dukes. Holland's trade developed rapidly, especially in the area of shipping and transport. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of Holland defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern |
e). The seating area is still under excavation.
'''Temple of Augustus''': It was built by the Galatian King [[Pylamenes]] in [[AD 10]] as a tribute and sign of fidelity to [[Augustus]], and was reconstructed by the Romans on the ancient Ankara Acropolis in the 2nd century. It is important for the "Monument Ancyranum", the sole surviving political testament of Augustus, detailing his achievements inscribed on its walls in [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. In the fifth century the temple was converted into a church by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. The temple is in the Ulus quarter of the city.
'''Roman Bath''': This bath has all the typical features of a classical [[Roman bath]]: a frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (cool room) and caldarium (hot room). The bath was built in the reign of Emperor [[Caracalla|Caracalla]] in 3rd century AD to honour the [[Asclepios]], the God of Medicine. Today only the basement and first floors remain. Situated in Ulus quarter.
'''Column of Julian''': This column, in Ulus, was erected in AD 362, to commemorate a visit by the Roman Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. It stands fifteen meters high and has a typical leaf decoration on the capital.
===Modern monuments===
'''Monument to a Secure, Confident Future''': This monument, in Güven Park, Bakanlıklar quarter, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself."
'''Victory Monument (''Zafer Anıtı'')''': Erected in 1927 in Zafer Square in the Sıhhiye quarter, it depicts Atatürk in uniform.
'''Hatti Monument''': Built in the 1970's in Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti gods and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization.
===Mosques===
[[Image:Kocatepe Mosque Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Kocatepe Mosque]]
'''Kocatepe Mosque''': This mosque was constructed in the late 20th century in accordance with classical Ottoman models, which emphasize the placement of four minarets. Its size and prominent location make it a landmark that can be seen from most anywhere in central Ankara.
'''[[Haci Bayram]] [[Mosque]]''': This mosque, in Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style and was subsequently restored by architect [[Sinan]] in the 16th century, with Kutahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Haci Bayram Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque.
===Parks===
Ankara has many delightful parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Park (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical Garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the [[China|Chinese]] government), Abdi Ipekci Park, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altın Park (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyari (said to be, Europe's Biggest Park inside city borders) and Göksu Park.
[[Image:Goksu Park Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Göksu Park located in Eryaman district was established in 2004]]
'''Atatürk Farm and Zoo (''Atatürk Orman Çiftliği, AOÇ'')''' is an expansive recreational farming area housing a [[zoo]], several small agricultural farms, [[greenhouse]]s, restaurants, a [[Dairy farming|dairy farm]] and a [[brewery]]. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in [[1881]], in [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]]. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm as its excellent old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, through an excellent traditional restaurant (''Merkez Lokantasi'', Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered in the farm.
===Shopping===
[[Image:Karum Inside.HB.jpg|left|thumb|200px|An inside view of Karum Shopping & Business Center.]]
Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in ''Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu'' (Weavers' road) near Ulus, where a myriad of things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found for bargain prices. ''Bakırcılar Çarşısı'' (Bazaar of coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here...like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Walking up the hill to the castle gate, you find many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce.
[[Image:Beymen Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Beymen Store located in popular Tunalı Hilmi Avenue]]
Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum which is located to the end of the Avenue; and in the [[Atakule Tower]] in Çankaya. Çankaya being the quarter with the highest elevation in the city, the tower has a magnificent view over the whole city, and also has a [[revolving restaurant]] at the top where the complete panorama can be enjoyed in a more leisurely fashion.
As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, there are several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities along the western highway, also known as [[Eskisehir Province|Eskisehir]] road. The Armada mall on the highway, the Galleria in Ümitköy, and a huge mall in Bilkent Center offering North American and European style mall-shopping opportunities (These can be reached following the Eskişehir highway).
==Universities==
Ankara is known for the multitude of universities it is home to.
These include the following, several of them being among the most
reputable of the country:
* [[Ankara University]]
* [[Atilim University|Atılım University]]
* [[Baskent University|Başkent University]]
* [[Bilkent University]]
* [[Cankaya University|Çankaya University]]
* [[Gazi University]]
* [[Hacettepe University]]
* [[Middle East Technical University]]
* [[Ufuk University]]
==Transportation==
[[Image:Ankara_Metro.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Subway of Ankara.]]
[[Esenboga International Airport]], located in the north of the city, is the main airport of Ankara. The bus lines constitute the main means of inter-city transportation in Turkey, and [http://www.asti.com.tr Ankara Intercity Bus Terminal] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Ankara Şehirlerarası Terminal İşletmesi, AŞTİ) is an important part of the network. The railstation "Ankara Garı" of [[Turkish Republic Railways]] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demiryolları, TCDD) is an important hub connecting western and eastern parts of the country.
[http://www.ego.gov.tr EGO] (Elektrik Gaz Otobüs) operates the public transportation. There are currently two subway lines in the city and three more are under construction.
[[Image:Ankara subway.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A view from Ankara Metro.]]
==Sports==
The city has three [[football clubs]] currently competing in the [[Turkish Premier Super League]]: [[Genclerbirligi|Gençlerbirliği]] (finished 5th in the league), [[Ankaraspor|Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor]] (finished 7th in the league), and [[Ankaragücü]] (finished 13th in the league).
==See also==
* [[Synod of Ancyra]]
* [[maNga (band)]]
==External links==
{{commons|Ankara}}
*[http://www.worldturkey.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=12 Ankara City Life Photos Gallery]
*[http://www.ankara.bel.tr/album.asp Photo Album of Municipality of Ankara]
*[http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_14 Pictures of Ankara]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html Monumentum Ancyranum]
*[http://goturkey.kultur.gov.tr/destinasyon_en.asp?belgeno=9572&belgekod=9572&Baslik=Ankara Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism's ''Ankara & environs'' page]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/ankara/ Ankara Weather Forecast Information]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_turkey Pictures of the capital of this province]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_museum_turkey Pictures of some of the oldest and finest finds in the country at Ankara Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_anit_kabir Atatürk Mausoleum in Ankara]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in Turkey]]
[[Category:Ankara]]
[[ar:أنقرة]]
[[az:Ankara]]
[[bg:Анкара]]
[[bs:Ankara]]
[[ca:Ancyra]]
[[cs:Ankara]]
[[cy:Ankara]]
[[da:Ankara]]
[[de:Ankara]]
[[es:Ankara]]
[[eo:Ankara]]
[[fa:استان آنکارا]]
[[fr:Ankara]]
[[gl:Ancara - Ankara]]
[[ko:앙카라]]
[[hr:Ankara]]
[[io:Ankara]]
[[id:Ankara]]
[[ia:Ankara]]
[[it:Ankara]]
[[he:אנקרה]]
[[ku:Enqere]]
[[la:Ancyra]]
[[lt:Ankara]]
[[lb:Ankara]]
[[hu:Ankara]]
[[nl:Ankara]]
[[nds:Ankara]]
[[ja:アンカラ]]
[[ka:ანკარა]]
[[no:Ankara]]
[[nn:Ankara]]
[[pl:Ankara]]
[[pt:Ancara]]
[[ro:Ankara]]
[[ru:Анкара]]
[[simple:Ankara]]
[[sk:Ankara]]
[[sl:Ankara]]
[[sr:Анкара]]
[[fi:Ankara]]
[[sv:Ankara]]
[[tr:Ankara (şehir)]]
[[uk:Анкара]]
[[zh:安卡拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arabic language</title>
<id>803</id>
<revision>
<id>41737407</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:20:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emrrans</username>
<id>603651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Correction.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Arabic
|nativename=العربية ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʻarabiyyah}}''
|pronunciation=/alˌʕa.raˈbij.ja/
|states=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tun |
ight;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=17}}
|}
'''February 17''' is the 48th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 317 days remaining (318 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
* [[1370]] - [[Battle of Rudau]]
* [[1500]] - [[Battle of Hemmingstedt]]
* [[1621]] - [[Miles Standish]] is appointed as first commander of [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth colony]].
* [[1753]] - February 17 is followed by [[March 1]] as [[Sweden]] moves to the Gregorian from the [[Julian calendar]].
* [[1801]] - An [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral]] tie between [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Aaron Burr]] is resolved when Jefferson is elected [[President of the United States]] and Burr [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] by the [[United States House of Representatives]].
* [[1814]] - [[Battle of Mormans]]
* [[1819]] - The [[United States House of Representatives]] passes the [[Missouri Compromise]].
* [[1854]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] recognizes the independence of the [[Orange Free State]].
* [[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[CSS H. L. Hunley]] is the first submarine to engage and sink a warship, the [[USS Housatonic]].
* [[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Columbia, South Carolina]] burns as [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces flee from advancing [[United States|Union]] forces.
* [[1867]] - The first ship passes through the [[Suez Canal]].
* [[1895]] - ''[[Swan Lake]]'', with music by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], is first performed at full length in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]].
* [[1913]] - The [[Armory Show]] opens in [[New York City]], displaying works of artists who are to become some of the most influential painters of the early [[20th century]].
* [[1924]] - In [[Miami, Florida]], [[Johnny Weissmuller]] sets a new world record in the 100-yard freestyle [[swimming]] competition with a time of 52-2/5 seconds.
* [[1933]] - The [[magazine]] ''[[Newsweek]]'' is published for the first time.
* 1933 - The [[Blaine Act]] ends [[Prohibition]] in the [[United States]].
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Eniwetok Atoll]] begins. The battle ends in an American victory on [[February 22]].
* [[1947]] - The [[Voice of America]] begins to transmit [[radio]] broadcasts into the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1957]] - A fire at a home for the elderly in [[Warrenton, Missouri|Warrenton]], [[Missouri]] kills 72 people.
* [[1958]] - [[Pope Pius XII]] declares [[Saint]] [[Clare of Assisi]] (1193~1253) the [[patron saint]] of [[television]]
* [[1959]] - The first [[weather satellite]], [[Vanguard 2]], was launched to measure [[cloud]]-cover distribution.
* [[1962]] - A storm kills more than 300 people in [[Hamburg]], [[West Germany]].
* [[1964]] - In [[Wesberry v. Sanders]] the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] rules that [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] districts have to be approximately equal in population.
* [[1968]] - In [[Springfield, Massachusetts]] the [[James Naismith|Naismith]] Memorial [[Basketball Hall of Fame]] opens.
* [[1972]] - Sales of the [[Volkswagen Beetle]] model exceed those of [[Ford Model-T]].
* [[1974]] - [[Robert K. Preston]], a disgruntled [[U.S. Army]] private, buzzes the [[White House]] with a stolen [[helicopter]].
* [[1979]] - The [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] begins.
* [[1992]] - A court in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] sentences [[serial killer]] [[Jeffrey Dahmer]] to life in prison.
* [[1995]] - [[Colin Ferguson]] is convicted of six counts of [[murder]] for the December [[1993]] [[Long Island Rail Road]] shootings and later receives a 200+ year sentence.
* 1995 - The [[Cenepa War]] between [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] ends on a [[cease-fire]] brokered by the [[UN]].
* [[1996]] - In [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], world champion [[Garry Kasparov]] beats the [[Deep Blue]] [[supercomputer]] in a [[chess]] match.
* [[2003]] - [[Baltimore Orioles]] pitching prospect [[Steve Bechler]] dies in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], one day after collapsing during a spring-training workout; doctors later link the 23-year-old’s sudden death to the dietary supplement [[ephedra]].
* [[2006]] - At [[Hampton School]], [[Hampton]] the Great Gas Scare of 2006 is finally over, after hours of terror.
==Births==
*[[1490]] - [[Charles III, Duke of Bourbon]], Constable of France (d. [[1527]])
*[[1519]] - [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], French soldier and politician (d. [[1563]])
*[[1524]] - [[Charles of Guise]], French cardinal (d. [[1574]])
*[[1581]] - [[Fausto Poli]], Italian Catholic priest (d. [[1653]])
*[[1646]] - [[Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert]], French economist (d. [[1714]])
*[[1653]] - [[Arcangelo Corelli]], Italian composer (d. [[1713]])
*[[1718]] - [[Matthew Tilghman]], American Continental Congressman (d. [[1790]])
*[[1723]] - [[Tobias Mayer]], German astronomer (d. [[1762]])
*[[1752]] - [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]], German writer (d. [[1831]])
*[[1754]] - [[Nicolas Baudin]], French explorer (d. [[1803]])
*[[1766]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English demographer and political economist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1781]] - [[René Laënnec]], French physician (d. [[1826]])
*[[1792]] - [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], German biologist (d. [[1876]])
*[[1796]] - [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]], German physician (d. [[1866]])
*[[1817]] - King [[William III of the Netherlands]] (d, [[1890]])
*[[1820]] - [[Henri Vieuxtemps]], Belgian composer (d. [[1881]])
*[[1821]] - [[Lola Montez]], Mexican dancer, actress, friend of monarchs (d. [[1861]])
*[[1836]] - [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]], Spanish poet (b. [[1870]])
*[[1844]] - [[Aaron Montgomery Ward]], American department store founder (d. [[1913]])
*[[1848]] - [[Louisa Lawson]], Australian feminist, suffragist, writer (d. [[1920]])
*[[1854]] - [[Friedrich Alfred Krupp]], German industrialist (d. [[1902]])
*[[1864]] - [[Banjo Paterson]], Australian poet (d. [[1941]])
*[[1874]] - [[Thomas J. Watson]], American computer manufacturer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1877]] - [[André Maginot]], French politician (d. [[1932]])
*[[1888]] - [[Otto Stern]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1969]])
*[[1887]] - [[Leevi Madetoja]], Finnish composer (d. [[1947]])
*[[1908]] - [[Red Barber]], baseball announcer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1910]] - [[Marc Lawrence]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1912]] - [[Andre Norton]], American author (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Arthur Kennedy (actor)|Arthur Kennedy]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1919]] - [[Kathleen Freeman]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1920]] - [[Ivo Caprino]], Norwegian animated film director
*[[1922]] - [[Marshall Teague]], American race car driver (d. [[1959]])
*[[1924]] - [[Margaret Truman]], American novelist
*[[1925]] - [[Ron Goodwin]], English composer and conductor (d. [[2003]])
*1925 - [[Hal Holbrook]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[Chaim Potok]], American author (d. [[2002]])
*1929 - [[Patricia Routledge]], English actress
*[[1930]] - [[Ruth Rendell]], English writer
*[[1932]] - [[Buck Trent]], American banjo player
*[[1934]] - [[Alan Bates]], English actor (d. [[2003]])
*1934 - [[Barry Humphries]], Australian actor and comedian
*[[1935]] - [[Christina Pickles]], British actress
*[[1936]] - [[Jim Brown]], American football player
*[[1939]] - [[Mary Ann Mobley]], American actress and beauty queen
*[[1941]] - [[Gene Pitney]], American singer
*[[1942]] - [[Huey P. Newton]], American founder of the [[Black Panther Party]] (d. [[1989]])
*[[1944]] - [[Karl Jenkins]], Welsh composer
*[[1945]] - [[Zina Bethune]], American actress
*1945 - [[Brenda Fricker]], Irish actress
*[[1949]] - [[Fred Frith]], British musician
*[[1953]] - [[Janice Dickinson]], American model
*1953 - [[Norman Pace]], British actor and comic
*[[1954]] - [[Rene Russo]], American actress
*[[1956]] - [[Richard Karn]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Loreena McKennitt]], Canadian musician, singer, and songwriter
*[[1962]] - [[Alison Hargreaves]], British mountaineer (d. [[1995]])
*1962 - [[Lou Diamond Phillips]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Michael Jordan]], American basketball player
*[[1966]] - [[Luc Robitaille]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1967]] - [[Chanté Moore]], American singer
*[[1969]] - [[Tuesday Knight]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Dominic Purcell]], English Born Actor
*1970 - [[Tim Mahoney]], American musician ([[311 (band)]])
*[[1971]] - [[Martyn Bennett]], Canadian musician and composer (d. [[2005]])
*1971 - [[Denise Richards]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Billie Joe Armstrong]], American singer and musician ([[Green Day]])
*1972 - [[Philippe Candeloro]], French figure skater
*[[1973]] - [[Amy Van Dyken]], American swimmer
*[[1974]] - [[Jerry O'Connell]], American actor
*1974 - [[Bryan White]], American singer
*[[1975]] - [[Wish Bone]], American rapper
*1975 - [[Vaclav Prospal]], Czech hockey player
*[[1978]] - [[Jacob Wetterling]], American kidnapping victim
*[[1980]] - [[Jason Ritter]], American actor
*[[1981]] - [[Joseph Gordon-Levitt]], American actor
*1981 - [[Paris Hilton]], American actress and heiress
*[[1982]] - [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1991]] - [[Bonnie Wright]], British actress
*[[1996]] - [[Sasha Pieterse]], South African actress
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[197]] - [[Clodius Albinus]], Roman usurper (killed in battle)
*[[364]] - [[Jovian]], [[Roman Emperor]]
*[[1339]] - Duke [[Otto of Austria]] (b. [[1301]])
*[[1596]] - [[Friedrich Sylburg]], German classical scholar (b. [[1536]])
*[[1600]] - [[Giordano Bruno]], Italian philosopher (burned at the stake) (b. [[1548]])
*[[1609]] - [[Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1549]])
*[[1624]] - [[Juan de Mariana]], Spanish historian (b. [[1536]])
*[[1659]] - [[Abel Servien]], French diplomat (b. [[1593]])
*[[1673]] - [[Molière]], French playwright (b. [[1622]])
*[[1680]] - [[Denzil Holles, 1s |
ists therefore argue, on typological grounds, that we need to reevaluate the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European. A potential solution was provided by [[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]], who argued that the series traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should in fact be reconstructed as [[Glottalization|glottalized]] — either [[implosive]] {{IPA|(ɓ, ɗ, ɠ)}} or [[ejective]] {{IPA|(pʹ, tʹ, kʹ)}}. The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be seen as just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. This has become known as the [[Glottalic theory|Glottalic Theory]], and although it has not yet become accepted, it does have a large number of proponents, and is an excellent example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction
The reconstruction of proto-sounds and their historical transformations enables us to proceed further: we can compare grammatical morphemes (word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of declension and conjugation, and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage can never be complete (for example, proto-[[syntax]] is far more elusive than [[phonology]] or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and all elements of linguistic structure undergo inevitable erosion and gradual loss or replacement over time), but a consistent partial reconstruction can and must be attempted as proof of genetic relationship.
==Weaknesses of the comparative method==
While most historical linguists continue to use the comparative method, many of them now also recognize quite a few serious weaknesses in the method. In recent years, alternatives to the comparative method have been proposed (see [[Mass lexical comparison]]), in part due to percieved problems inherent to the method.
===The Neogrammarian Hypothesis===
The first weakness of the comparative method is the fundamental Neogrammarians' assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions". This assumption is problematic even on theoretical grounds: the very fact that different languages evolved according to different sound-change laws seems to indicate a degree of arbitrariness in language evolution. Moreover, once one accepts that sound changes may be conditioned by context according to rather complicated rules, one opens the door for "laws" that may affect only a few words, or even a single word; which is logically equivalent to admitting exceptions to the broader laws. This problem has led some critics to a radically opposite position, summarized by the maxim "each word has its own history."
====Borrowings and random mutations====
Even the Neogrammarians recognized that, apart from the general sound change laws, languages are also subject to borrowings from other languages and other ''sporadic changes'' (such as irregular inflections, compounding, and abbreviation) that affect one word at a time, or small subsets of words.
While borrowed words should be excluded from the analysis, on the grounds that they are not ''genetic'' by defintion, they do add noise to the data, and thus may hide systematic laws or distort their analysis. Moreover, there is the danger of circular reasoning — namely, of assuming that a word has been borrowed solely because it does not fit the current assumptions about the regular sound laws.
The other exceptions to the sound laws are a more serious problem, because they occur in generic language transmission. One example of such a sporadic change, with no apparent logical reason, is the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word for "word," ''palabra''. By regular sound changes from Latin, it should have become ''parabola'', but the ''r'' and ''l'' changed places by sporadic [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]).
In principle, As those sporadic changes accumulate, they will increasingly obscure the systematic sound laws, and eventually prevent the recognition of the genetic relationship between languages, or lead to incorrect reconstructions of proto-languages and incorrect family trees.
====Analogy====
A source of sporadic changes that was recognized by the Neogrammarians themselves was [[analogy (linguistsics)|analogy]], in which a word is sporadically changed to be closer to another word in the lexicon which is perceived as being somehow related to it. For example, the [[Russian language|Russian]] word for "nine," by regular sound changes from [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]], should have been {{IPA|/nʲevʲatʲ/}}, but is actually {{IPA|/dʲevʲatʲ/}}. It is believed that the initial ''{{IPA|nʲ-}}'' changed to ''{{IPA|dʲ-}}'' due to influence of the word for "ten" in Russian, {{IPA|/dʲesʲatʲ/}}.
====Gradual application====
More recently, [[William Labov]] and other linguists who have studied contemporary language changes in detail have discovered that even a systematic sound change is at first applied in an unsystematic fashion, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors. Often the sound change begins to affect some words in a language, and then gradually spreads to others. These observations considerably weaken the Neogrammarians axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions."
===Problems with the tree model===
Another weakness of the comparative method is its reliance on the so-called "Tree Model" (German ''Stammbaum''). In this model, daughter languages are seen as branching out from the proto-language, gradually growing more and more distant from the proto-language through accumulated phonological, morpho-syntactical, and lexical changes; and possibly splitting into further daughter languages. This model is usually representd by upside-down tree-like diagrams. For example, here is a diagram of the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] family of languages, spoken throughout the southern and western [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]:
[[Image:Uto-Aztecan Family Tree.jpg|none|720px|center]]
(Families are in '''bold''', individual languages in ''italics''. Not all of the branches and languages are shown, for lack of space.)
====The Wave Model====
Unfortunately, the tree model does not reflect the reality of how languages change. Since languages change gradually, there are long periods in which different dialects of a language, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with one another and influence each other. Even once they are completely separated, languages which are near to one another will continue to influence each other, often sharing grammatical, phonological, and lexical innovations. A change in one language of a family will often spread to neighboring languages; and multiple waves of change may partially overlap like waves on the surface of a pond, across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range (Fox 1995:129) The following diagram illustrates this conception of language change, called the ''Wave Model'':
[[Image:Wave_Model_Schmidt.jpeg|none|300px|center]]
This is a serious challenge to the comparative method, which is entirely based on the assumption that each language has a single "genetic" parent, and hence that the genetic relationship between two languages is due to their descent from a common ancestor.
===Non-uniformity of the proto-language===
Another assumption implicit in the methodology of the comparative method is that the proto-language is uniform. However, even in extremely small language communities there are always [[Dialect|dialect differences]], whether based on area, gender, class, or other factors (the Pirahã language of Brazil is spoken by only several hundred people, but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women, for example). Therefore, the single proto-language reconstructed by the comparative method is, in all likelihood, a language which never existed.
===Creoles===
Another potential problem for the comparative method is the phenomenon of [[creole language]] formation, where essentially a new language is formed from a complicated combination of two languages that are not closely related. The [[papiamentu]] language, spoken in the [[Caribbean]], is a notable example. In these events, the new language may end up with a lexicon and phonology which is derived from both parent languages, in varying proportions; while the grammar (morphology and syntax) is partly inherited, and partly the result of local innovation. Often function words from one of the parent languages are inherited, but used for a completely different function in the creole.
Creole formation seems to be a fairly common phenomenon. Dozens of such events have been documented in the last 500 years, in the wake of European colonial expansion, and many more must have happened along the fringes of past empires. While the comparative method may be able to detect the existence of a genetic relation between the creole and the parent languages (or between two creoles with shared parents), the reconstructed "proto-language" is likely to be a thoroughy artificial construct.
===Subjectivity of the reconstruction===
While the identification of systematic sound correspondences between known languages is failry objective, the reconstruction of their common ancestral language is inherently subjective. In the proto-Algonquian example above, the choice of ''m'' as the parent phoneme is only ''likely'', not ''certain''. It is quite possible that a proto-Algonquian language with ''b'' in those locations split into two branches, one which preserved ''b'' and one with ''m'' instead; and while the first originated only the Arapaho, the second spread out wider and originated all the other Algonquian tribes. (Such dramatic asymmetries in the growth of different branches of the same tree are actually common; contrast for example the Romance and Celtic branches of Indo-Euro |
ana]].
''Shareholders include:''
*[[EADS]] (28%)
See also : [[Europa rocket]]
==External links==
* [http://www.arianespace.com/site/index2.html Arianespace website]
[[Category:Aerospace companies]]
[[ca:Arianespace]]
[[de:Arianespace]]
[[fr:Arianespace]]
[[it:Arianespace SA]]
[[hu:Arianespace]]
[[ja:アリアンスペース]]
[[pt:Arianespace]]
[[sv:Arianespace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amiga 500+</title>
<id>3114</id>
<revision>
<id>39067945</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T14:08:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garvanit</username>
<id>913652</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] '''500 Plus''', ('''A500+''') is a enhanced version of the original [[A500|Amiga 500]].
The A500+ featured:
* [[Motorola 68000]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] running at 7.09 MHz (PAL) / 7.16 MHz (NTSC), like its predecessor.
* 1MB of [[Chip RAM]] (Very early versions comes with 512KB)
* [[Kickstart]] 2.04 (v37.175)
* [[AmigaOS|Workbench]] 37.67 (release 2.04)
* Built in battery backed RTC (Real Time Clock) (lacking in the A500)
* Full [[Enhanced Chip Set|ECS]] Chipset including new version of the [[Agnus]] chip and [[Original_Amiga_chipset#Denise|Denise]] chip.
The A500+ was officially introduced in [[1992]], however the plus was released in near secrecy, masquerading as A500 units in late [[1991]]. It has been speculated that Commodore had already sold out the remaining stocks of A500s, before the run up to the profitable Christmas sales period. In order to make enough A500's before Christmas, Commodore used stocks of the new 8A revision motherboards destined for the A500+. Many users were unaware that they were purchasing anything other than a standard A500. Although the A500+ was an improvement to the A500, it was minor, making it the shortest lived Amiga model. It was discontinued and replaced by the [[A600|Amiga 600]] in summer [[1992]].
Commodore created the A500+ for a couple of reasons. The first was cost reduction; minor changes were made to the motherboard to make it cheaper to produce. It was also so that Commodore could introduce the new version of the [[AmigaOS|Amiga Operating system]], 2.04.
Due to the new [[Kickstart]], quite a few popular games failed to work on the A500+, and a lot of people took them back to dealers demanding an original [[Kickstart]] 1.3 [[A500]]. This problem was solved by third-parties who produced Kickstart [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[switching boards]], that could allow the A500+ to be downgraded to Kickstart 1.2 or 1.3. It also encouraged game developers into better programming habits, something that was essential as when the A500+ was launched, Commodore already had plans for the introduction of the next-generation [[A1200]] computer.
{{CBM_computers}}
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga A-500 Plus]]
[[fr:Amiga 500+]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accumulator (computing)</title>
<id>3116</id>
<revision>
<id>37346570</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T11:28:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.81.161.150</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''The article is about a computer processor register. For other uses of'' accumulator'', please see [[accumulator]].''
In a [[computer]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], an '''accumulator''' is a [[processor register|register]] in which intermediate [[arithmetic logic unit|arithmetic and logic]] results are stored. Without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to [[primary storage|main memory]], perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register.
The canonical example for accumulator use is summing a list of numbers. The accumulator is initially set to zero, then each number in turn is added to the value in the accumulator. Only when all numbers have been added is the result held in the accumulator written to main memory or to another, non-accumulator, CPU register.
Modern CPUs usually have many registers, all or many of which may be capable of being used for calculations. The characteristic which distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a [[computer architecture]] is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an ''implicit'' [[operand]] for arithmetic [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s. For instance, a computer might have an instruction like:
ADD ''[[memory address|memaddress]]''
This instruction would add the value read from the memory location at ''memaddress'' to the value from the accumulator, placing the result in the accumulator. The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction.
Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but in other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification. The common [[x86]] microprocessor architecture is like this: the AX register is an accumulator (implicit operand) in some arithmetic instructions, but in other arithmetic instructions AX is one of several registers which can be specified.
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[da:Akkumulator (processor)]]
[[de:Akkumulator (Computer)]]
[[fr:Accumulateur (informatique)]]
[[pl:Akumulator (informatyka)]]
[[zh:累加器]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abu Zubaydah</title>
<id>3117</id>
<revision>
<id>37046319</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T05:12:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sreed1234</username>
<id>467341</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>living people category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abuzubaydah.jpg|right|frame|Abu Zubaydah is the highest-ranking [[al-Qaida]] leader in U.S. custody]]
'''Abu Zubaydah''' ([[12 March]] [[1971]] - present) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1575;&#1576;&#1608;
&#1586;&#1576;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577;)
was a high-ranking member of [[al-Qaida]] and close associate of [[Osama bin Laden]]. He is currently in U.S. custody in an unknown location. Zubaydah's name is often [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Abu Zubaidah''', '''Abu Zubeida''', or '''Abu Zoubeida'''. Born '''Zein al-Abideen Mohamed Hussein''' (Arabic: &#1586;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;), he is also known by over thirty-five [[alias]]es.
Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], Zubaydah has been close to al-Qaida all his life, helping to operate a popular terrorist training camp near the border between [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] in the early 1990s. He became an associate of [[Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi]], and served as a chief recruiter for al-Qaida.
In the late 1990s, Zubaydah played a lead role in one of the [[2000 millennium attack plots]], and a possible tangential role in a second. There were plans to bomb a fully booked [[Radisson]] hotel in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], and three other sites. This targeted tourists from the [[United States]] and [[Israel]]. But on [[November 30]], [[1999]], Jordanian intelligence intercepted a call between Zubaydah and [[Khadr Abu Hoshar]], a [[Palestinian]] militant, and determined that an attack was imminent. Jordanian police arrested 22 conspirators and foiled the attack. Zubaydah was sentenced to death [[in absentia]] by a Jordanian court for his role. There is also evidence that Zubaydah approved the Los Angeles airport bomb plot in 2000. This plot was also foiled.
In March of [[2001]], [[United States]] [[Condoleezza Rice]] was informed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] that Zubaydah was planning a major operation in the near future. This was one of the first of many reports in the Spring of 2001 that increased the threat level and indicated that an attack was coming. Many of these reports mentioned Zubaydah by name. The attack finally came in the form of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
The U.S. government believes he became al-Qaeda's top military strategist following the death of [[Muhammad Atef]] in November 2001. A later plot to [[Paris embassy terrorist attack plot|bomb the U.S. embassy in Paris]] failed, as did an alleged plot to attack a target in [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. Zubaydah was probably a conspirator in both of those plots.
[[Image:CommissionReportOnTravel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|References cited by the [[9/11 Commission]], showing that Zubaydah was often the bulk of references]]U.S. intelligence located Zubaydah in 2002 by tracing his phone calls. He was captured [[March 28]], [[2002]], in a two story apartment in [[Faisalabad]], Pakistan. He was shot three times in a firefight, including a wound to the groin and a wound to the thigh, but survived. While in U.S. custody, he has given a great deal of information about the 9/11 attack plot, detail that led to the indictments of over one hundred people, including [[Mohamed Harkat]]. Critics however have claimed that several of the interrogations may have bordered on torture to pressure Zubaydah into fingering other suspects.
Zubaida is held within the [[CIA prison system]], where many have claimed that he is possibly subjected to torture. His statements under interrogation have provided a very large amount of the information used around the world as 'definitive', and he is the sole person to make many of the claims.
==External links==
* [http://www.gpoaccess.go |
Resolution 1583]]
''See also: [[History of Lebanon]]''
===United States Department of State===
''see also: [[United States Department of State]]''
* This article incorporates text from the United States Department of State, "[http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rpt/fto/2801.htm Background Information on Foreign Terrorist Organizations]," released by the [[Office of Counterterrorism]], [[October 8]], [[1999]].
* This article also in incorporates text from the United States Department of State, "Foreign Terrorist Organizations", Secretary of State, [[October 8]], [[1999]]: originally on http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/fto1999.htm, since removed.
===Information===
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hizbullah.htm Hizbullah in Lebanon], entry from the ''Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World''.
* [http://www.hizbollah.org/english/info.htm Hizbollah.org] identity and goals
* ''Hizbullah: Politics and Religion'' by [[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb]], (Pluto Press Ltd, 2001), ISBN 0745317936
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Excluded/Hezbollahbooks.htm Ten books on Hezbollah].
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4314423.stm What is Hezbollah] BBC, March 2005
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Terrorism/Terrorist_Organizations/Hizballah/ Open Directory Project - ''Hizballah''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Lebanon/Government/Politics/Parties/ Yahoo - ''Hezbollah''] directory category
* [http://www.terrorismanswers.com/groups/hezbollah.html Hezbollah: Lebanon, Islamists], Council on Foreign Relations
* [http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/rn/2002-03/03rn42.htm Hezbollah in Profile], Parliament of Australia ([http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2002-03/03rn42.pdf PDF] version)
* Abridged translation of "''[http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/Hiz_letter.htm Nass al-Risala al-Maftuha allati wajahaha Hizballah ila-l-Mustad'afin fi Lubnan wa-l-Alam]''" (Hizballah Program), [[February 16]], [[1985]] in [[al-Safir]] ([[Beirut]]).
* [http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0303/15/cp.00.html CNN transcripts]
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/history/terrorist-organizations/hezbollah/ Rotten.com article on Hezbollah]
===Articles===
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/664445.html Lebanese army sappers defuse rockets intended for Israel] AP, [[December 30]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.defense-update.com/2005/12/al-ghajar-village-flashpoint.html Al-Ghajar Village Flashpoint] Defense Update, [[December 5]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369844 Radical Islam in Latin America] Chris Zambelis, [[December 2]] [[2005]]
* {{note|EUBlock}} High-level Group of Regulatory Authorities in the Field of Broadcasting – Incitement to hatred in broadcasts coming from outside of the European Union – [[17 March]] [[2005]]. Originally at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/avpolicy/legis/conclusions_regulateurs/conclusions_regulateurs_fin_en.pdf
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/MoralLogic.htm The Moral Logic of Hizbullah] by [[Martin Kramer]].
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Calculus.htm Hizbullah: The Calculus of Jihad] by [[Martin Kramer]].
* [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=574&ncid=721&e=1&u=/nm/20050209/wl_nm/mideast_hizbollah_dc Palestinians Say Hizbollah Trying to Wreck Truce] Diala Saadeh, Reuters, [[February 9]], [[2005]]
* [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=540&ncid=736&e=1&u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat Hezbollah May Be Threat to Mideast Truce] Mohammed Daraghmeh, Associated Press, [[February 9]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/479049.html Iranian arrested photographing Israeli Embassy in Azerbaijan] Amos Harel and Yossi Melman, Haaretz, [[September 20]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/2004/0914lcard.htm Hizballah and Syria's "Lebanese Card"] Nicholas Blanford, Middle East Online Report, [[September 14]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=1&article_id=7297 UNIFIL keeps constant watch in South Lebanon] The Daily Star, [[August 13]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=5&article_id=6519 Sticking to the rules in South Lebanon] The Daily Star, [[July 23]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.mafhoum.com/press7/190P8.htm In Search of Hezbollah], by Adam Shatz New York Review of Books, [[April 29]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?article_ID=1315&categ_ID=2&edition_id=1 Nasrallah to Hamas: We are under your command] The Daily Star, [[March 29]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.merip.org/mero/mero042803.html Hezbollah in the Firing Line]. Middle East Report, [[April 28]], [[2003]]
* Zisser, Eyal, "''[http://www.meforum.org/article/499 The Return of Hizbullah]''". Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2003.
* Westcott, Kathryn, "''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1908671.stm Who are Hezbollah?]''", [[BBC]] News Online
* [http://www.meib.org/articles/0202_l1.htm ''[[MEIB]]'' Hezbollah: Between Tehran and Damascus by Gary C. Gambill and Ziad K. Abdelnour]
* "''[http://members.optushome.com.au/spainter/Hezbollah.html Liberals, Labor, ABC unite against Hezbollah but are they telling the truth]''?"
* '[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=247609&contrassID=2&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0 Arms from Iraq caused blast at Hezbollah base]'
* [http://www.meib.org/articles/9909_l5.htm ''[[MEIB]]'' Hezbollah is Recruiting Europeans for Terrorist Attacks against Israel]
* [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=1828&l=1 Hizbollah: Rebel without a cause?].Middle East Briefing N°7 by the International Crisis Group, [[30 July]] [[2003]]
[[Category:Hezbollah|*]]
[[Category:Political parties in Lebanon]]
[[ar:حزب الله]]
[[cs:Hizballáh]]
[[da:Hizbollah]]
[[de:Hisbollah]]
[[fi:Hizbollah]]
[[fr:Hezbollah]]
[[he:חיזבאללה]]
[[ja:ヒズボッラー]]
[[nl:Hezbollah]]
[[pl:Hezbollah]]
[[pt:Hizbollah]]
[[ru:Хезболлах]]
[[sl:Hezbolah]]
[[sv:Hizbollah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homeland</title>
<id>13920</id>
<revision>
<id>40103554</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T03:52:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adammathias</username>
<id>478268</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''homeland''' is the concept of the territory to which one belongs; usually, the country in which a particular nationality was born. When used as a [[proper noun]], the word (and its cognates in other languages; e.g., ''Heimatland'' in German) has [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nationalist]] connotations. As a common noun, it simply connotes the country of one's origin.
There are synonyms with varying connotations: [[fatherland]], [[motherland]], [[mother country]], [[country of origin]], and [[native land]].
In [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]] [[South Africa]] the concept was given a different meaning. The white government transformed the 13% of its territory that had been exempted from white settlement into regions of home-rule. Then they tried to bestow independence on these regions, so that they could then claim that the other 87% was white territory. See [[Bantustan]].
The [[Soviet Union]] created homelands for some minorities in the [[1920s]], including the [[Volga German ASSR]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]]. Often, as in the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later brutally abolished and their inhabitants deported to either [[Siberia]] or the [[Kazakh SSR]].
It was extremely rare for the term to be used by [[United States]] citizens to describe their own country up until the term of President [[George W. Bush]], the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], and the subsequent creation of the [[Department of Homeland Security]]. It was more common for people to use it to refer to the land of their ancestors, so many found the use of the term to be jarring, and others, due to the word's ethnic nationalism connotations, feel it has almost [[Nineteen Eighty-Four|Orwellian]] overtones.
==See also==
*[[Homeland Security]]
*[[Separatism]]
*[[List of ethnic groups]]
*[[Ethnic autonomous regions]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[de:Heimat]]
[[eo:hejmo (regiono)]]
[[pl:ojczyzna prywatna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of extinct nations and states</title>
<id>13921</id>
<revision>
<id>15911505</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-07T06:36:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> List of extinct states</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of present-day nations and states</title>
<id>13922</id>
<revision>
<id>41428655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:34:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.10.38.16</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Lists by country}}
This is a list of articles on the [[history]] of contemporary countries, states and dependencies.
* See [[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]] and [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]] for articles about countries that are no longer in existence.
* See [[List of countries]] for other articles and lists on countries.
{{compactTOC2}}__NOTOC__
==A==
[[History of Abkhazia|Abkhazia]] -
[[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] -
[[History of Albania|Albania]] -
[[History of Algeria|Algeria]] -
[[History of Andorra|Andorra]] -
[[History of Angola|Angola]] -
[[History of Anguilla|Anguilla]] -
[[History of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]] -
[[History of Argentina|Argentina]] -
[[History of Armenia|Armenia]] -
[[History of Aruba|Aruba]] -
[[History of Ashmore and Cartier I |
d Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by [[Pope Innocent X]] in [[1650]].
===Ambrosian Nuns===
The Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]], but were independent in government. [[Pope Sixtus IV]] gave the nuns canonical status in [[1474]]. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life. Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo.
Another group of cloistered "Nuns of St Ambrose", also called the Annunciatae (Italian: ''Annunziate'') of Lombardy or "Sisters of St Marcellina", were founded in [[1408]] by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on [[September 14]], [[1510]].
===The [[Oblates of St Ambrose and of St Charles]]===
In some sense also "Ambrosians" are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of "Priests of Peace". In August [[1578]] the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of "Oblates of St. Ambrose." They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in [[1584]]. These Oblates were dispersed by [[Napoleon I]] in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of "Oblates of St. Charles" and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the [[19th century]] similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the "Oblates of St Charles", established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman.
==See also==
*[[Ambrosian Rite]]
See Herzog-Hauck's ''Realencyklopadie'', i. 439.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{catholic}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrosiaster</title>
<id>1718</id>
<revision>
<id>29324051</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T23:06:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thierry Caro</username>
<id>441183</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosiaster''', a commentary on St [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s epistles, "brief in words but weighty in matter," and valuable for the criticism of the [[Latin]] text of the [[New Testament]], was long attributed to St [[Ambrose]].
[[Erasmus]] in 1527 threw doubt on the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Because [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] cites part of the commentary on [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] as by "Sanctus Hilarius" it has been ascribed by various critics at different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom G. Morin (''Rev. d'hist. et de litt. religieuses'', tom. iv. 97 f.) broke new ground by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew, writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to [[Spain]] in 378-380 and then relapsed to [[Judaism]], but he afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of [[Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius]], proconsul of [[North Africa during the Classical Period|Africa]] in 377.
With this attribution Professor Alex. Souter, in his ''Study of Ambrosiaster'' (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years, incorporating remarks of [[Hilary of Poitiers]] on Romans. The best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini in his complete edition of that father's works.
In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the authorship of the ''Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti,'' which the manuscripts ascribe to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. He concludes, on very thorough [[philology|philological]] and other grounds, that this is with one possible slight exception the work of the same "Ambrosiaster." The same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[fr:Ambrosiaster]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrosius Aurelianus</title>
<id>1719</id>
<revision>
<id>40977437</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:14:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Betacommand</username>
<id>509520</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosius Aurelianus''' (incorrectly referred to in the ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' as '''Aurelius Ambrosius ''') was a leader of the [[Romano-British]], who won important battles against the [[Anglo-Saxons]] in the [[5th century]], according to [[Gildas]] and to the legends preserved in the ''[[Historia Britonum]]''. According to the Annal ''Chronicon Maiora'' Ambrosius came to power in [[479]]. Some scholars have speculated that he was the leader of the Romano-British at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]] and as such may have become a [[historical basis for King Arthur]].
== Aurelianus according to Gildas ==
Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people Gildas identifies by name in his sermon [[Gildas#De Excidio Britanniae|De Excidio Britanniae]]. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as "a gentleman who, perhaps alone of the Romans, had survived the shock of this notable storm. Certainly his parents, who had worn the purple, were slain in it. His descendants in our day have become greatly inferior to their grandfather's [''avita''] excellence." According to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force, and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: "Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens [meaning the Romano-British inhabitants] were victorious."
Two points in this brief description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' parents "had worn the purple": does this mean that Ambrosius was related to one of the [[Roman Emperors]], perhaps the [[House of Theodosius]] or a usurper like [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]]? The second question is the meaning of the word ''avita'': does it mean "ancestors", or did Gildas intend it to mean more specifically "grandfather" — thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of [[Mons Badonicus]]? The lack of information for this period prevents us from decisively answerering these questions.
== Other accounts of Aurelianus ==
The ''Historia Britonum'' preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. The most significant of these is the story about Ambrosius, [[Vortigern]], and the two dragons beneath [[Dinas Emrys]] 'Fortress of Ambrosius' in Chapters 40&ndash;42. This story was later retold with more detail by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] in his fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] the visonary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native [[Celt]]ic inhabitants of Britain over the [[Saxons]] and the [[Normans]].
But there are smaller snippets of tradition preserved in ''Historia Brittonum'': in Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius; later, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, 15km ESE of [[Amesbury]] near [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]]), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus; lastly, in Chapter 48, it is said that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the kingdoms of [[Buellt]] and [[Gwrtheyrion]]. It is not clear how these various traditions relate to each other or that they come from the same tradition, and it is very possible that these references are to a different Ambrosius. The ''Historia Brittonum'' dates the battle of Guoloph to 439, forty to fifty years before the battles that Gildas says were commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus.
Because Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown in the ''Historia Brittonum'' as being in conflict, some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius, and the other by Vortigern. J.N.L. Myres built upon this suspicion and put forth the hypothesis that belief in [[Pelagianism]] reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain, and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Some later historians accepted this hypothesis as fact, and have created a narrative of events in fifth-century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of this conflict between these two figures is that the ''Historia Brittonum'' i |
]]
[[fi:Delaware]]
[[fr:Delaware]]
[[he:דלאוור]]
[[hu:Delaware]]
[[id:Delaware]]
[[is:Delaware fylki]]
[[it:Delaware]]
[[ja:デラウェア州]]
[[ka:დელავერი]]
[[ko:델라웨어 주]]
[[lt:Delaveras]]
[[lv:Delavēra]]
[[mk:Делавер]]
[[nl:Delaware]]
[[nn:Delaware]]
[[no:Delaware]]
[[os:Делавэр]]
[[pl:Delaware]]
[[pt:Delaware]]
[[ru:Делавэр]]
[[simple:Delaware]]
[[sk:Delaware (štát)]]
[[sl:Delaware]]
[[sq:Delaware]]
[[sr:Делавер]]
[[sv:Delaware]]
[[tr:Delaware]]
[[uk:Делавер]]
[[zh:德拉瓦州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dictionary</title>
<id>7931</id>
<revision>
<id>42073459</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:14:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.88.90.2|69.88.90.2]] to last version by Antandrus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} ''For the sister project [[Wiktionary]], see [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Main_Page http://wiktionary.org/].''
A '''dictionary''' is a list of words with their definitions, a list of characters with their [[glyph]]s, or a list of words with corresponding words in other languages. In some languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] form appears as the main word or headword in most dictionaries. Many dictionaries also provide [[pronunciation]] information; [[grammar|grammatical]] information; word derivations, histories, or [[etymology|etymologies]]; illustrations; usage guidance; and examples in phrases or sentences. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book.
[[Image:Latin_dictionary.jpg|thumb|250px|multi-volume Latin dictionary in the [[University Library of Graz]]]]
==Word order==
Today, dictionaries of languages with [[alphabet]]ic and syllabic [[writing system]]s list words in alphabetical or some analogous phonetic order. Words and characters in [[ideographic]] writing systems such as [[Chinese character|Chinese]] are sorted according to one of numerous schemes based on the components, number of [[Stroke order|strokes]], overall shape, or pronunciation of each character. Due to the nature of Chinese characters, linear sorts are particularly unsuitable for Chinese dictionaries. ''(See [[collation]] for more information on linguistic sorting).''
The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in [[1604]] and alphabetical ordering was a rarity until the [[18th century]]. Before alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, i.e. a list of animals all together in one topic.
==Pronunciation==
Dictionaries have had a variety of means of expressing the means of pronouncing words in those languages that are not entirely phonetic. Three different methods are common.
The earliest was simply to indicate the syllables that have greater stress using accent marks, such as in [[Samuel Johnson]]'s eighteenth century dictionary. Here the accent mark followed the stressed syllable. This is analogous to the tonal marks for Chinese or the [[accent nucleus]] for Japanese. Regular languages such as Spanish do not need any special marking for this purpose.
For languages that have no official standard pronunciation, like English or German, a system of [[respelling]] was introduced with the letters given [[diacritic]]s, also known as accent marks, (e.g., [[macron]]s, [[tilde]]s, [[breve]]s, [[circumflex]]es) that do not occur in ordinary writing, to assist the reader in pronouncing the words. These had the additional capacity for accepting regional differences, especially in a federal society. For example, most Americans pronounce the first vowel in one group of words such as "ask" and "dance" in one manner, while it is standard for the English to pronounce them in a consistently different manner. Some dictionaries before 1970 added an accent mark of one dot atop the letter "a," which specifies this choice, rather than either one definitively.
Finally, totally new [[phonetic alphabet]]s such as [[IPA]] were devised, especially for those languages like French which have an official pronunciation. These use an accent mark that precedes a stressed syllable. It is also used to indicate only one preferred pronunciation, such as [[Received pronunciation|RP]] or [[General American]], for foreigners to learn the language or for domestic people to alter their dialect. Currently this system has prestige, but it cannot easily interrelate dialectic variations.
==Coverage==
Dictionaries vary wildly in size and scope. A dictionary that attempts to cover as many words from a particular speech community as possible is called a [[maximizing dictionary]] (e.g. the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''), whereas a dictionary that attempts to cover only a limited selection of words from a speech community is called a [[minimizing dictionary]] (e.g. a dictionary containing the 2000 most frequently used words in the English language).
==Special-purpose dictionaries==
There are many different types of dictionaries, including bilingual, multilingual, historical, biographical, and geographical dictionaries.
===Bilingual dictionaries===
In [[Bilingual dictionary|bilingual dictionaries]], each entry has translations of words in another language. For example, in a Japanese-English dictionary, the entry ''tsuki'' has the corresponding English word, ''moon.'' In dictionaries between English and a language using a non-[[Roman alphabet|Roman]] script, entry words in the non-English language may be either printed and sorted in the native order, or [[Romanization|romanized]] and sorted in Roman alphabetical order.
===Specialized dictionaries===
Specialized dictionaries (also referred to as technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields. A [[specialized dictionary]] may have a relatively broad coverage, e.g. a [[picture dictionary]], in that it covers several subject fields such as science and technology (a [[multi-field dictionary]]), or their coverage may be more narrow, in that they cover one particular subject field such as law (a [[single-field dictionary]]) or even a specific sub-field such as contract law (a [[sub-field dictionary]]). Specialized dictionaries may be [[Maximizing dictionary|maximizing dictionaries]], i.e. they attempt to achieve comprehensive coverage of the terms in the subject field concerned, or they may be [[Minimizing dictionary|minimizing dictionaries]], i.e. they attempt to cover only a limited number of the specialized vocabulary concerned. Generally, multi-field dictionaries tend to be minimizing, whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to be maximizing. See also [[LSP dictionary]].
===Character dictionaries===
In East Asian languages, a dictionary form for [[Chinese character|Han (Chinese) characters]] has developed, called ''Kan-wa jiten'' (literally 'Han-Japanese dictionary') in Japanese and ''Okpyeon'' ('Jewel Book') in Korean. Each entry has one Chinese character with information about [[stroke (Chinese character)|stroke]] count and order, readings (pronunciations), and a list of words using that character.
===Data dictionaries===
Data sets and databases collected and utilized for statistical analysis are typically accompanied by, or able to be used to generate, a list of all [[variable]] names used within the data set, as well as matters such as their meaning, values, [[level of measurement]], length, decimal allowances, and stype (numeric, string, etc.)
===Glossaries===
Another variant is the [[glossary]], an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine or science. The simplest dictionary, a [[defining dictionary]], provides a [[core glossary]] of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English [[idiom]]s and [[metaphor]]s, can be defined.
==Variations between dictionaries==
===Prescription and description===
Dictionary makers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: [[Prescription and description|''prescriptive'' or ''descriptive'']]. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (OED) is ''descriptive'', and attempts to describe the actual use of words. [[Noah Webster]], on the other hand, intent on forging a distinct identity for the [[American language]], altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of numerous words. This is why [[American English]] now uses the spelling "color" while the rest of the world uses "colour". (See [[American and British English differences]].) While disapproved of in the UK, the US spellings are universally understood; likewise the British spellings are not acceptable in America.
While descriptivists would charge that prescriptivism is an unnatural attempt to dictate usage or curtail change, prescriptivists would argue that to document, without judgment, usages which they consider improper or inferior sanctions those usages by default, causing the language to deteriorate in practice. Although much is made of these differing views, they usually apply to a very small number of controversial words, while not affecting the vast majority for which there is common agreement. But the softening of usage notations, from the previous edition, for two words, ''ain't'' and ''irregardless,'' out of over 450,000 in [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary|Webster's Third]] in [[1961]], was enough to provoke outrage among many with prescriptivist leanings, who branded the dictionary as "permissive."
The prescriptive/descriptive issue has been given so much consideration in mode |
}}
A '''''coup d'état''''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ku de'ta/}}), or simply a '''[[Wiktionary:coup|coup]]''', is the sudden overthrow of a [[government]] against the
[[volonté générale]] formed by the majority of the [[citizenry]], usually done by a smaller supposedly weaker body that just replaces the top power figures. It may or may not be violent in nature. It is different from a [[revolution]], which is staged by a larger group and radically changes the political system. The term is [[French language|French]] for "a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state" (literally, ''coup'', hit, and ''état'', [[state]]). The term ''coup'' can also be used in a casual sense to mean a gain in advantage of one nation or entity over another; e.g. an ''intelligence coup''. By analogy, the term is also applied to corporations, etc; e.g. a ''boardroom coup''.
Since the unsuccessful coup attempts of [[Wolfgang Kapp]] in [[1920]], and of [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[1923]], the [[Swiss German]] word "'''Putsch'''" (originally coined with the [[Züriputsch]] of [[1839]]) is often used also, even in [[France]] (such as the putsch of [[November 8]], [[1942]] and the putsch of [[April 21]], [[1961]], both in [[Algiers]]), while the direct German translation is ''Staatsstreich''.
[[Tactics|Tactically]], a coup usually involves control of some active portion of the [[military]] while neutralizing the remainder of a country's armed services. This active group captures or expels leaders, seizes physical control of important government offices, means of communication, and the physical [[infrastructure]], such as streets and power plants. The coup succeeds if its opponents fail to dislodge the plotters, allowing them to consolidate their position, obtain the surrender or acquiescence of the populace and surviving armed forces, and claim [[legitimacy]].
Coups typically use the power of the existing government for its own takeover. As [[Edward Luttwak]] remarks in his ''Coup d'état: A practical handbook'': "A coup consists of the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder." In this sense, use of military or other organized force is not the defining feature of a coup d'état. Any seizure of the state apparatus by extra-legal tactics may be considered a coup, according to Luttwak.
==History==
Coups have long been part of political tradition. Indeed, [[Julius Caesar]] orchestrated a coup and was subsequently the victim of another coup. Many Roman emperors, such as [[Claudius]], came to power in coups, as did King [[Jehu]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. In the November of 1799, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] staged a coup and seized power in France.
In the late [[20th century]] coups occurred most commonly in [[developing country|developing countries]], particularly in [[Latin America]] (e.g. [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Argentina]]), [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] ([[Pakistan]]), but also in the Asia Pacific ([[Fiji]] and the [[Philippines]]) and in Europe (e.g. [[Greece]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], and the [[Soviet Union]]). Since the [[1980s]], the coup has been seen somewhat less frequently. A significant reason is the general inability to resolve the economic and political problems of developing nations, which has made armed forces, particularly in Latin America, much more reluctant to intervene in politics. Hence, in contrast to past crises, the armed forces have sat on the sidelines through economic crises such as the [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[Thailand]] in [[1998]] or the [[South American economic crisis of 2002|Argentine crisis]] of [[2002]] and have tended to act only when the military perceives itself as institutionally threatened by the civilian government, as occurred in Pakistan in [[1999]].
Coups d'état have often been seen as a means for powerful nations to assure favorable outcomes in smaller foreign states. In particular, the American [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and Soviet [[KGB]] developed a reputation for supporting coups in states such as Chile and [[Afghanistan]], respectively. Such actions are substitutes for direct military intervention which would have been more politically unpopular. The governments of France and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] have engineered coups as well.
==Recent forms of coup==
In recent years, use of the traditional military coup has declined. A new, more contemporary form of military intervention which some regard as a coup d'état is simple ''threat'' of military force to remove a particularly unpopular leader. This has occurred twice in the Philippines. In contrast to previous coups d'état, the military does not directly assume power, but rather serves as an arbiter for civilian leaders.
In [[Mauritania]] a white coup d'état happened on [[August 3]], [[2005]] when the president was in [[Saudi Arabia]].
In recent years mass street [[protest]]s have also often been able to force unpopular and corrupt leaders from office in a coup-like fashion. In situations of this sort, such as in [[Serbia]] ([[2000]]), [[Argentina]] ([[2001]]), [[Bolivia]] ([[2003]]), [[Ukraine]] ([[2004]]&ndash;[[2005]]), [[Lebanon]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Bolivia]] ([[2005]]), popular uprisings simply forced the sitting president to resign his office, causing someone new to assume the presidency. This often results in a period of stability and calm, in which an unknown and uncontroversial vice president can rule the nation until new elections can be held.
In 2002 the United States allegedly supported a coup in [[Venezuela]] against President [[Hugo Chávez]], despite Chávez having been elected by popular vote in two consecutive elections. The coup failed, mainly due to sizable public protests in support of Chávez which dwarfed rallies launched by his opponents. Chávez was returned to office two days after the coup, the provisional military [[junta]] was dissolved, and the democratic government survived a [[referendum]] on new elections by a large margin. In cases such as these, popular protests have been able to prevent coups and place popular leaders back in office.
==Types of coups==
[[Samuel P. Huntington]] has divided coups into three types (ignoring Luttwak's non-military coups)
* '''Breakthrough coups''' - In which a revolutionary army overthrows a traditional government and creates a new bureaucratic elite. Breakthrough coups are generally led by [[non-commissioned officer]]s (NCOs) or junior officers and only happen once. Examples include [[China]] in [[1911]], [[Egypt]] in [[1952]], Greece in [[1967]] and [[Liberia]] in [[1980]].
* '''Guardian coups''' - These coups have been described as [[musical chairs]]. The stated aim of this form of coup is to improve public order, efficiency, or to end corruption. There is usually no fundamental shift in the structure of power, and the leaders of these types of coups generally portray their actions as a temporary and unfortunate necessity. Many nations with guardian coups undergo many shifts between civilian and military governments. Examples include Pakistan, [[Turkey]], and [[Thailand]].
* '''Veto coups''' - These coups occur when the army vetoes mass participation and social mobilization. In these cases the army must confront and suppress large-scale and broad-based opposition and as a result they tend to be repressive and bloody. Examples include [[Chilean coup of 1973|Chile in 1973]] and Argentina in [[1976]], as well as the overthrow of President [[Fujimori]] of Peru in [[2000]]. An abortive and botched veto coup occurred in [[Venezuela]] in [[2002]].
Coups can also be classified by the level of the military that leads the coup. Veto coups and guardian coups tend to be led by senior officers. Breakthrough coups tend to be led by junior officers or NCOs. In cases where the coup is led by junior officers or enlisted men, the coup is also a [[mutiny]] which can have grave implications for the organizational structure of the military.
There is also a category known as '''bloodless coups''' in which the mere threat of violence is enough to force the current government to step aside. Bloodless coups are so called because they involve no violence and thus no bloodshed. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s [[18 Brumaire]] coup is often pointed out as an example of bloodless coup, showing that bloodless coups are not always considered to be "bloodless": on 18 Brumaire, several members of parliament were thrown out the windows of the building where they assembled. More recently, [[Pervez Musharraf]] of Pakistan came to power in a bloodless coup in [[1999]].
The term '''[[self-coup]]''' is used when the current government assumes extraordinary powers not allowed by the legislation. An example is [[Alberto Fujimori#Self-coup|Alberto Fujimori]] in [[Peru]], who was democratically elected, but later took control of the legislative and judicial powers, or the coup of French
Emperor [[Napoleon III|Louis Napoléon Bonaparte]] in [[1851]] against the powerful [[National Assembly]]; some argue that the assumption of "emergency powers" by [[King Gyanendra]] of [[Nepal]] is a self-coup.
==Post-military-coup governments==
After the coup, the military is faced with the issue of the type of government to establish. In Latin America, it was common for the post-coup government to be led by a [[junta]], a [[committee]] of the chiefs of staff of the various armed forces. A common form of African post-coup government is the revolutionary assembly, a quasi-legislative body made of members elected by the army. In Pakistan, the military leader typically assumes the title of chief [[martial law]] administrator.
According to Huntington, most coup leaders act under the concept of ''right orders'': they believe that the best way to solve the problems their country is facing is to issue correct orders. This view of government un |
ane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus."
Other differences include:
*The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
*The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called [[chromosome]]s, which are highly condensed (i.e. folded around [[histone]]s). All chromosomal DNA is stored in the ''[[cell nucleus]]'', separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic [[organelle]]s can contain some DNA.
*Eukaryotes can move using ''cilia'' or ''flagella''. The flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.
{| align="center" class="toccolours" border="1" style="border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse;"
|+'''Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaroytic and eukaryotic cells'''
|-
|&nbsp;
!Prokaryotes
!Eukaryotes
|-
!Typical organisms
|[[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]]
|[[protist]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s
|-
!Typical size
|~ 1-10 [[µm]]
|~ 10-100 [[µm]] ([[spermatozoon|sperm cell]]s, apart from the tail, are smaller)
|-
!Type of [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]
|[[nucleoid region]]; no real nucleus
|real nucleus with double membrane
|-
!DNA
|circular (usually)
|linear molecules ([[chromosome]]s) with [[histone]] [[protein|proteins]]
|-
!RNA-/protein-synthesis
|coupled in [[cytoplasm]]
|RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus<br />protein synthesis in cytoplasm
|-
![[Ribosome]]s
|50S+30S
|60S+40S
|-
!Cytoplasmatic structure
|very few structures
|highly structured by endomembranes and a [[cytoskeleton]]
|-
![[chemotaxis|Cell movement]]
|[[flagellum|flagella]] made of [[flagellin]]
|flagella and [[cilium|cilia]] made of [[tubulin]]
|-
![[mitochondrium|Mitochondria]]
|none
|one to several dozen (though some lack mitochondria)
|-
![[Chloroplast]]s
|none
|in [[algae]] and [[plant]]s
|-
!Organization
|usually single cells
|single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells
|-
![[Cell division]]
|[[Binary fission]] (simple division)
|[[Mitosis]] <br />[[Meiosis]]
|}
{| align="center" class="toccolours" border="1" style="border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse;"
|+'''Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells'''
|-
|
!Typical animal cell
!Typical plant cell
|- valign="top"
!Organelles
|
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
**[[Nucleolus]] (within nucleus)
*Rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER)
*Smooth ER
*[[Ribosome]]s
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]]
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]s
*[[Vacuole]]s
*[[Lysosome]]s
*[[Centriole]]s
|
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
**[[Nucleolus]] (within nucleus)
*Rough ER
*Smooth ER
*[[Ribosomes]]
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]] ([[dictiosome]]s)
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Mitochondrion]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]
*[[Chloroplast]] and other [[plastid]]s
*[[Central vacuole]]
**[[Tonoplast]] (central vacuole membrane)
*[[Peroxisome]]
*[[Glyoxysome]]
|- valign="top"
!Additional structures
|
*[[Cilium]]
*[[Flagellum]]
*[[Plasma membrane]]
|
*[[Plasma membrane]]
*[[Cell wall]]
*[[Plasmodesmata]]
*[[Flagellum]] (only in gametes)
|}
==Cell functions==
===Cell growth and metabolism===
''Main articles:'' [[Cell growth]], [[Cell metabolism]]
Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual [[cell (biology)|cell]]s process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: [[catabolism]], in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and [[anabolism]], wherein the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.
Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically-complex sugar molecule called [[glucose]]. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate ([[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]), a form of energy, via two different pathways.
The first pathway, [[glycolysis]], requires no oxygen and is referred to as [[anaerobic metabolism]]. Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy.
The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or [[citric acid cycle]], occurs inside the mitochondria and is capable of generating enough ATP to run all the cell functions.
===Making new cells===
''Main article:'' [[Cell division]]
[[Image:proteinsynthesis.png|frame|An overview of protein synthesis.<br/>Within the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the cell (''light blue''), [[gene]]s (DNA, ''dark blue'') are [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into [[RNA]]. This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature [[mRNA]] (''red'') that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the [[cytoplasm]] (''peach''), where it undergoes [[translation (genetics)|translation]] into a protein. mRNA is translated by [[ribosome]]s (''purple'') that match the three-base [[codon]]s of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate [[transfer RNA|tRNA]]. Newly-synthesized proteins (''black'') are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule (''orange''), to become fully active.]]
Cell division involves a single cell (called a ''mother cell'') dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in [[multicellular organism]]s (the growth of [[biological tissue|tissue]]) and to procreation ([[vegetative reproduction]]) in [[unicellular organism]]s.
[[Prokaryote|Prokaryotic]] cells divide by [[binary fission]]. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called [[mitosis]], followed by division of the cell, called [[cytokinesis]]. A [[diploid]] cell may also undergo [[meiosis]] to produce haploid cells, usually four. [[Haploid]] cells serve as [[gamete]]s in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
[[DNA replication]], or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.
===Protein synthesis===
''Main article:'' [[Protein biosynthesis]]
Protein synthesis is the process in which the cell builds [[protein]]s.
DNA [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] refers to the synthesis of a [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA) molecule from a DNA template. This process is very similar to DNA replication. Once the mRNA has been generated, a new protein molecule is synthesized via the process of [[translation (genetics)|translation]].
The cellular machinery responsible for synthesizing proteins is the [[ribosome]]. The ribosome consists of structural RNA and about 80 different proteins. When the ribosome encounters an mRNA, the process of [[translation (genetics)|translating]] an mRNA to a protein begins. The ribosome accepts a new [[transfer RNA]], or tRNA&mdash;the adaptor molecule that acts as a translator between mRNA and protein&mdash;bearing an [[amino acid]], the building block of the protein. Another site binds the tRNA that becomes attached to the growing chain of amino acids, forming the a polypeptide chain that will eventually be processed to become a protein.
==Origins of cells==
''Main article'': [[Origin of life]]
The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, and was one of the most important steps in evolution of life as we know it. The birth of the cell marked the passage from prebiotic chemistry to biological life.
===Origin of first cell===
If life is viewed from the point of view of [[replicator|replicators]], that is [[DNA]] molecules in the organism, cells satisfy two fundamental conditions: protection from the outside environment and confinement of biochemical activity. The former condition is needed to maintain the fragile [[DNA]] chains stable in a varying and sometimes aggressive environment, and may have been the main reason for which cells evolved. The latter is fundamental for the evolution of [[biological complexity]]. If freely-floating DNA molecules that code for [[enzyme|enzymes]] are not enclosed into cells, the enzymes that benefit a given DNA molecule (for example, by producing nucleotides) will automatically benefit the neighbouring DNA molecules. This might be viewed as "[[parasitism]] by default." Therefore the [[natural selection|selection pressure]] on DNA molecules will be much lower, since there is not a definitive advantage for the "lucky" DNA molecule that produces the better enzyme over the others: All molecules in a given neighbourhood are almost equally advantaged.
If all the DNA molecule is enclosed in a cell, then the enzymes coded from the molecule will be kept close to the DNA molecule itself. The DNA molecule will directly enjoy the benefits of the enzymes it codes, and not of others. This means other DNA molecules won't benefit from a positive mutation in a neighbouring molecule: this in turn means that positive mutations give immediate and selective advantage to the replicator bearing it, and not on others. This is thought to have been the one of the main driving force of evolution of life as we know it.
(Note. This is more a metaphor given for simplicity than complete accuracy, since the earliest molecules of life, probably up to the stage of cellular life, were most likely [[RNA]] molecules, acting both as replicators and enzymes: see [[RNA world hypothesis]] . But the core of the reasoning is the same.)
Biochemically, cell-like spheroids formed by [[proteinoid|proteinoids]] are observed by heating [[amino acid|amino acids]] with [[phosphoric acid]] a |
g of "monarchy" or "dictature". Instead, these first Emperors constructed their office as a complicated collection of offices, titles, and honours, that were consolidated around a single person and his closest relatives (while in the republic the "taking of turns", often in shared offices, had been the principle for passing on power). These early Roman emperors didn't need a specific name for their monarchy: they had enough offices and powers accumulated so that in any field of power they were "unsurpassable", and besides: everybody just ''knew'' they had supreme power. If needed that supreme power could be demonstrated by a proces for high treason, exile, poisoning, or whatever, for those who gave semblance not to understand.
As the first Roman Emperors did not rule by virtue of any ''particular'' republican or senatorial office, the ''name'' given to the office of "[[head of state]]" in this new monarchical [[form of government]] became different depending on tradition, none of these traditions consolidated in the early days of the [[Roman Empire]]:
* '''[[Princeps]]''' (as, for example, in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''). This tradition did not continue. An echo can be found in [[Niccolo Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'', where "Prince" is used as a generic name for "monarch", and later in the first dynasties of Imperial monarchs of ancient Rome being called [[principate]] by historians. This name for the Roman monarch appears to go back to the office of [[Princeps senatus]] (which can be translated as "president of the senate"), an office since Augustus held exclusively by the ruling monarch.
* '''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''' (as, for example, in [[Suetonius]]' ''[[Twelve Caesars]]''). This tradition continued in many languages: in [[German (language)|German]] it became "[[Kaiser]]"; in certain [[Slavic languages]] it became "[[Tsar]]"; in [[Hungarian (language)|Hungarian]] it became "[[Nobility and Royalty of the Kingdom of Hungary|Császár]]", and several more variants. The name derived from [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[cognomen]] "Caesar": this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] had died out. In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius).
*'''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' was the [[honorific]] first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: after him all Roman emperors added it to their name. Although it had a high symbolical value, something like "akin to divinity", it was generally not used to indicate the office of ''Emperor'' itself. Exceptions include the title of the ''[[Augustan History]]'', a half-mockumentary biography of the Emperors of the 2nd and 3rd century. Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific ([[Augusta]]) to his wife. Since there was no "title" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and certainly not as a rule all wives of reigning Emperors.
* '''[[Imperator]]''' (as, for example, in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''). In the [[Roman Republic]] Imperator meant "(military) commander". In the late Republic ''Imperator'' was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the [[Roman Senate]] after a great victory, roughly comparable to [[field marshal]]. This title, during the Republic, had been given to people seven times at all: in 90 BC to a Gaius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Cneus Pompeus, in 60 BC to the other, most famous, Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the former, in 50 BC to Marcus Tullius Cicero, in 45 BC again to Caius Julius Caesar, in 44 BC to Marcus Iunius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (relative and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). Soon after the emergence of the imperial monarchy in Rome "Imperator" also became an exclusive title, adopted by the ruling monarch. This led to "Emperor" in [[English (language)|English]] and, among other examples, "Empereur" in [[French (language)|French]]. The Latin feminine form [[Imperatrix]] only developed after "Imperator" had gotten the connotation of "Emperor". In 15 AD Tiberius Augustus Germanicus was also ''imperator'' with the old meaning of the term during the empire of his most famous relative Tiberius Augustus.
* {{polytonic|'''Αὐτοκράτωρ''', '''βᾰσῐλεύς'''}}: although the Greeks used equivalents of "Caesar" (Καίσαρ) and "Augustus" (in two forms: Αύγουστος or translated as Σεβαστός/"Sebastos") these were rather used as part of the name of the Emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used {{polytonic|αὐτοκράτωρ}} ("autokratôr", only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of "[[autocrat]]") or {{polytonic|βᾰσῐλεύς}} ("[[basileus]]", until then the usual name for "[[sovereign]]"). "Autokratôr" ''could'' be seen as a translation of the Latin "Imperator" (it was certainly used as its replacement in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire), but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the Greeks "Autokratôr" was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin ''dictator'' concept ("the one with unlimited power"), before it came to mean Emperor. Basileus appears not to have been used in the meaning of Emperor before the 7th century.
After the problematic [[Year of the four emperors|year 69]], the [[Flavian Dynasty]] reigned for about half a century. The succeeding [[:Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty|Nervan-Antonian Dynasty]], ruling for most of the [[2nd century]], stabilised the Empire. This epoch became known as the era of the ''[[Five Good Emperors]]'', and was followed by the short-lived [[Severan Dynasty]].
In the [[3rd century]] [[Barracks Emperor]]s succeeded one another at short intervals. The next period, known as the [[Dominate]], started with the [[Tetrarchy]] installed by [[Diocletian]].
Through most of the [[4th century]], there were separate emperors for the [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] and [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern part]] of the Empire. Although there were several dynastic relations between the Emperors of both parts, they also often were adversaries. The last Emperor to rule a unified Roman Empire was [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]]. Less than a [[Roman Emperor (Late Empire)|century after his death]] in [[395]], the last Emperor of the Western half of the Empire was driven out.
=====The Eastern Emperors after 476=====
:''see [[Byzantine Emperor]]''
======Byzantine Emperors (Second Rome)======
[[Image:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 003.jpg|thumb|380px|Under [[Justinian I]], reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from the [[Ostrogoth]]s: that's why this famous [[mosaic]], featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired at [[Ravenna]].]]
Historians generally call the eastern part of the Roman Empire the [[Byzantine Empire]] due to its capital [[Constantinople]], whose ancient name was [[Byzantium]] (now [[Istanbul]]). After the fall of Rome to [[barbarian]] forces in [[476]], the title of "emperor" lived on in rulers of Constantinople ([[New Rome]]).
The Byzantine Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as a traditional monarch when Emperor [[Heraclius]] took the title of [[Basileus]] (the original [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "King") in the [[seventh century]]. A specifically Byzantine development of emperor's position was [[cesaropapism]], position as leader of christians.
The Byzantine empire produced also three reigning empresses: [[Irene (empress)|Irene]], [[Zoe (empress)|Zoe]], and [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]].
======Latin Emperors======
In [[1204]], the [[Fourth Crusade]] captured Constantinople, and soon established a [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]] under one of the Crusader leaders. The Latin Empire was, however, unable to consolidate control of the whole of the former territories of the Byzantine Empire. Driven out of Constantinople in [[1261]] some territories in Greece still recognized their authority for some time. Eventually, the Imperial title became redundant and did not even contribute any longer to the prestige of the noblemen in their own country: it remained dormant in [[1383]].
======Byzantine Emperors after the 4th Crusade======
In Asia Minor, after being driven out of Constantinople, relations of the last pre-Crusader emperors established the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. Similarly, the [[Despotate of Epirus]] was founded in the Western Balkans (the rulers of the latter took the title of Emperor for a short time following their conquest of Thessalonica a few decades later).
Eventually, the Nicaean Emperors were successful in reclaiming the Byzantine imperial title. They managed to force Epirus into submission and retake Constantinople by [[1261]], but Trebizond remained independent. The restored Byzantine empire finally fell due to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] invasion in [[1453]]. The [[Empire of Trebizond|Trapezuntines]] held on until [[1461]].
====Revivals of the title in Post-Roman Christian Europe====
:''See: [[Holy Roman Emperor]]''
=====Charlemagne and the Carolingian heirs=====
On [[25 December ]], [[800]], [[Charlemagne|Charles I]], [[List of Frankish Kings|King of the Franks]], was crowned Emperor by [[Pope Leo III]] in [[Rome]]. This was seen as a revival of the [[Western Roman Empire]], and descendan |
The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The [[triforium]] was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The "bright valley," Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the "valley of Wormwood," infamous as a den of robbers. "It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves."-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.)
===Abbey Church of St.-Denis===
''See'' [[Abbey Church of Saint Denis|Abbey Church of St.-Denis]].
===Clairvaux Abbey===
''See'' [[Clairvaux Abbey]].
===Citeaux Abbey===
''See'' [[Citeaux Abbey]].
===Kirkstall Abbey===
''See'' [[Kirkstall Abbey]].
===Fountains Abbey===
''See'' [[Fountains Abbey]].
==Austin Canons==
The buildings of the Austin [[canon (priest)|canons]] or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in [[England]] at [[Colchester, England|Colchester]], where a house for Austin canons was founded about A.D. [[1105]], and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christchurch (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, etc., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and [[Lanercost Priory|Lanercost]]. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave.
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%"
|+
===Bristol Cathedral===
|-
| align="center" |
[[image:bristol_abbey.png]]
| align="left" |
<pre>
FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol
A. Church.
B. Great cloister.
C. Little cloister.
D. Chapter-house.
E. Calefactory.
F. Refectory.
G. Parlour.
H. Kitchen.
I. Kitchen court.
K. Cellars.
L. Abbot's hall.
P. Abbot's gateway.
R. Infirmary.
S. Friars' lodging.
T. King's hall.
V. Guest-house.
W. Abbey gateway.
X. Barns, stables, etc
Y. Lavatory.
</pre>
|}
The above plan of the [[Abbey of St Augustine]]'s at [[Bristol]], now the [[Bristol Cathedral|cathedral church of that city]], shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date.
==Premonstratensians==
The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of [[Easby, Yorkshire]], and [[Bayham, Kent]]. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. [[1119]], by Norbert (born at [[Xanten]], on the [[Lower Rhine]], c. [[1080]]) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of [[Coucy]] in the diocese of [[Laon]]. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. It long maintained its rigid austerity, until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. [[1140]], and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the [[Humber]]. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.
The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; therefore they built their church like a long room.
The Premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these Chanones de Premontre now run the former Benedictine Abbey at Conques in South West France, which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the Way of Saint James, from Le Puy en Velay in Auvergne, to Santiago de Compostella in Galicia, Spain.
==Carthusian==
The [[Carthusian]] order, on its establishment by [[Bruno of Cologne|St Bruno]], about A.D. [[1084]], developed a greatly modified form and arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of this order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at [[Chartreux]], near [[Grenoble]], was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments throughout [[Europe]], even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the [[Certosa]]s of [[Pavia]] and [[Florence]]. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of [[Clermont]], from [[Viollet-le-Duc]].
==Clermont==
The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished at intervals with watch towers. The enclosure is divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of the monks open, is musch the larger. The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary, divided from the monks' choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south surrounded by the chapter-house, the refectory and the chapel of Pontgibaud. The kitchen with its offices lies behind the refectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister.
To the north of the church, beyond the [[sacristy]], and the side chapels, there is the cell of the sub-prior, with its garden. The lodgings of the prior occupy the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent. A small raised court with a fountain is before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers, the stables and lodgings of the [[lay brothers]], the barns and granaries, the [[dovecot]] and the bakehouse. There is also a prison. In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks.)
The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage, wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet. Between the cell and the cloister gallery is a passage or corridor, cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen. There is a hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of foo |
rname>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[COBOL]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[COBOL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ChristianIty</title>
<id>5067</id>
<revision>
<id>15903308</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-27T05:45:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric119</username>
<id>7110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>add to category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity]] {{R from CamelCase}} <!-- foo --></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesS</title>
<id>5068</id>
<revision>
<id>15903309</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesU</title>
<id>5069</id>
<revision>
<id>15903310</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesD</title>
<id>5070</id>
<revision>
<id>15903311</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesK</title>
<id>5071</id>
<revision>
<id>15903312</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountrY</title>
<id>5072</id>
<revision>
<id>15903313</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Country]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesC</title>
<id>5073</id>
<revision>
<id>15903314</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesH</title>
<id>5074</id>
<revision>
<id>15903315</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesJ</title>
<id>5075</id>
<revision>
<id>15903316</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesB</title>
<id>5076</id>
<revision>
<id>15903317</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesL</title>
<id>5077</id>
<revision>
<id>15903318</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesM</title>
<id>5078</id>
<revision>
<id>15903319</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesE</title>
<id>5079</id>
<revision>
<id>15903320</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesF</title>
<id>5080</id>
<revision>
<id>15903321</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesQ</title>
<id>5081</id>
<revision>
<id>15903322</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesI</title>
<id>5082</id>
<revision>
<id>15903323</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CityBerlin</title>
<id>5085</id>
<revision>
<id>15903324</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Berlin]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ChesS</title>
<id>5087</id>
<revision>
<id>15903325</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-27T02:43:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric119</username>
<id>7110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess]] {{R from CamelCase}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesR</title>
<id>5088</id>
<revision>
<id>15903326</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CantorSet</title>
<id>5089</id>
<revision>
<id>15903327</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor_set]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ChristianityTalk</title>
<id>5090</id>
<revision>
<id>15903328</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-14T08:15:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
<id>901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Talk:Christianity]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Christianity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ColdWar</title>
<id>5093</id>
<revision>
<id>15903329</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-28T12:09:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cold War]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CategorySchemes</title>
<id>5094</id>
<revision>
<id>15903330</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T11:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[wikipedia:Category schemes]] </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia:Category schemes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CategorySchemesTalk</title>
<id>5096</id>
<revision>
<id>15903332</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:34:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Category schemes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CryptologY</title>
<id>5097</id>
|
the population of those countries as compared to the U.S. Because of the high cost of HBO, many Americans only view HBO programs on [[DVD]]s or in basic cable or broadcast [[television syndication|syndication]], months or even years after the network has first broadcast the programs.
HBO has international operations in Latin America, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Pakistan and India. It also had an early investment in [[New Zealand]]'s [[SKY Network Television]] through the channel HBO (now Sky Movies).
HBO also had a couple of joint ventures, first, with the formation of [[TriStar Pictures]] with [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[CBS]]. Columbia later bought the 2/3rds interest of the studio. Then, HBO merged its [[The Comedy Channel|Comedy Channel]] with [[Viacom]]'s HA! cable network to form [[Comedy Central]]. In 2003, Viacom bought HBO's half of the channel and merged it to its [[MTV Networks]] unit. In 2005, HBO and [[New Line Cinema]] launched [[Picturehouse]], an independent film distributor.
== Captain Midnight Attacks ==
Controversy erupted in the cable programming world in the mid-1980s as cable operators began scrambling their programming and charging fees to home satellite dish owners who accessed the same satellite signals cable operators received. Many satellite dish owners were forced to purchase descrambling equipment at a cost of hundreds of dollars in addition to paying monthly or annual subscription fees to cable programming providers. Programming costs for home dish owners were often higher than fees paid by cable subscribers, despite dish owners being responsible for owning and servicing their own equipment.
When HBO scrambled its signal, it offered subscriptions to home dish owners for $12.95 per month, which was either equal to or slightly higher than what cable subscribers paid. Dish owners felt they were being asked to pay a price that was designed to be anti-competitive, and it triggered a national movement among dish owners to more strongly regulate the cable industry and force them to stop anti-competitive pricing.
While some dish owners called their elected officials, others took a more direct approach to send a message to the industry.
On the evening of [[April 27]], [[1986]] at 12:32am John R. MacDougall, a satellite TV dealer in [[Ocala, Florida]] was working at Central Florida Teleport, a company that uplinks services to satellites. He was overseeing the uplink of the movie ''[[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]]''. At the end of his shift he swung the dish back in to its storage position pointing directly upward which happened to be the location of [[Galaxy 1]], the [[satellite]] that carries HBO. As a protest against the introduction of high fees and scrambling equipment he transmitted a signal onto the satellite which overrode HBO's airing of [[The Falcon and the Snowman]]. The text message which appeared on the sets of HBO subscribers across the Eastern time zone:<br>
GOODEVENING HBO<br>
FROM CAPTAIN MIDNIGHT<br>
$12.95/MONTH?<br>
NO WAY!<br>
(SHOWTIME/MOVIE CHANNEL BEWARE)<br>
MacDougall chose the name "[[Captain Midnight]]" from a movie he had recently seen, On the Air Live with Captain Midnight. After media pressure forced the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to act, MacDougall was charged and plea bargained a $5,000 fine and was placed on one year's probation.
==Slogans==
*[[1972]]: "Different and First"
*[[1978]]: "Don't Miss HBO"
*[[1982]]: "Start with Us on HBO"
*[[1983]]: "There's No Place Like HBO"
*[[1986]]: "Let's All Get Together"
*[[1989]]: "Watch Us Here on HBO"
**"Simply The Best"
*[[1990]]: "We're HBO"
*[[1993]]: "We're Out of Town Today"
*[[1997]]-present: "It's Not TV, It's HBO"
**"Sunday is HBO"
==Channels==
*[[Home Box Office|HBO]]
*[[HBO 2]]
*[[HBO Signature]]
*[[HBO Family]]
*[[HBO Comedy]]
*[[HBO Zone]]
*[[HBO Latino]]
*[[HBO On Demand]]
=== HBO HD ===
[[Image:HBO_HD.jpg|right]]'''HBO HD''' is a [[High-definition television|high definition]] [[simulcast]] of the primary [[HBO]] channel.
==HBO original programming==
[[Image:Poster 2.jpeg|right|thumb|Poster for the original HBO miniseries ''Band of Brothers''.]]
[[Image:Tv poster sex and the city.jpg|thumb|right|Poster for HBO's original series ''Sex and the City''.]]
[[Image:Sfu.PNG|thumb|right|Poster for HBO's original series ''Six Feet Under''.]]
The following is a list of original HBO programming that has appeared on the channel or is currently under production.
* ''[[1st & Ten]]'' (1984&ndash;1990)
* ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (1990)
* ''[[America Undercover]]'' (1983&ndash;present)
* ''[[Angels in America]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Arliss]]'' (1996&ndash;2003)
* ''[[Autopsy (TV series)|Autopsy]]'': Hosted by [[Dr. Michael Baden]]. (1994&ndash;2002)
* ''[[Band of Brothers]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2001)
* ''[[Big Love]]'' (2006&ndash;present)
* ''[[Boxing After Dark]]''
* ''[[Carnivàle]]'' (2003&ndash;2005)
* ''[[The Comeback (TV series)|The Comeback]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Cosmic Slop (film)]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Costas Now]]'' (2005&ndash;present) (formerly ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' (2001&ndash;2005))
* ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'' (2000&ndash;present)
* ''[[Da Ali G Show]]'' (with [[Channel 4]]) (2003&ndash;2005)
* ''[[Def Comedy Jam]]'' (1992&ndash;1997)
* ''[[Def Poetry]]'' (2002&ndash;present)
* ''[[Deadwood (television)|Deadwood]]'' (2004&ndash;present)
* ''[[Dream On (Comedy)|Dream On]]'' (1990&ndash;1996)
* ''[[Entourage (TV series)|Entourage]]'' (2004&ndash;present)
* ''[[Extras (sitcom)|Extras]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2005&ndash;present)
* ''[[Family Bonds]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Fraggle Rock]]'' (with [[Television South | TVS]] and [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation | CBC]] (1983&ndash;1987)
* ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Hardcore TV]]'' (1994)
* ''[[The Hitchhiker]]'' (1983-1990)
* ''[[Hysterical Blindness]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Inside the NFL]]'' (1977&ndash;present)
* ''[[John Adams (miniseries)|John Adams]]'' (2007)
* ''[[K Street (television)|K Street]]'' (2003)
* ''[[The Larry Sanders Show]]'' (1992&ndash;1998)
* ''[[Live From Baghdad (movie)|Live From Baghdad]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Mr. Show with Bob and David]]'' (1995&ndash;1998)
* ''[[Norma Jean & Marilyn]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Not Necessarily the News]]'' (1983&ndash;1990)
* ''[[Oz (TV series)|Oz]]'' (1997&ndash;2003)
* ''[[Perversions of Science]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'' (2002&ndash;present)
* ''[[Real Sex]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Real Sports]]'' (1995&ndash;present)
* ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2005&ndash;present)
* ''[[Sex and the City]]'' (1998&ndash;2004)
* ''[[Sex Bytes]]''
* "[[Sheer Perfection (miniseries)]]" (2006)
* ''[[Six Feet Under]]'' (2001&ndash;2005)
* ''[[Spawn (TV series)|Spawn]]'' (1997-1999)
* ''[[Sports of the 20th Century]]'' documentaries
* ''[[The Sopranos]]'' (1999&ndash;present)
* ''[[The Storyteller]]'' (with Jim Henson) (1987&ndash;1988)
* ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1989&ndash;1996)
* ''[[Tenacious D]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Tracey Takes On...]]'' (1996&ndash;1999)
* ''[[Unscripted]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Wire (television)|The Wire]]'' (2002&ndash;present)
* ''[[World Championship Boxing]]'' (1977&ndash;present)
==Movies==
HBO currently has exclusive deals with sister company [[Warner Bros.]], [[Dreamworks]] and [[Twentieth Century Fox]]. In addition, it holds partial pay-cable rights to movies produced by [[Sony Pictures]] (excluding those in partnership with [[Revolution Studios]]), and [[Universal Studios]] (along [[Rogue Pictures]] and [[Focus Features]]). Despite also being a sister company to HBO, some [[New Line Cinema]] films do not appear on HBO due to a prior output deal with competitor [[Starz!]].
As a result of these limited deals, HBO often fills its late-night schedule with recent B-movies (some of which were never released theatrically) produced by lesser-known independent companies. On the other hand, HBO often shows sub-runs (that is, runs of films that have already received broadcast network/syndicated television releases) of theatrical films from [[Paramount Pictures]], Universal Pictures, and [[Lions Gate Films]].
In 2003, HBO acquired the exclusive pay-cable rights to ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' from Fox and [[Lucasfilm, Ltd.]], and during its initial 18-month term of license aired the movie without it first seeing any pay-per-view cable release. HBO also has pay-cable rights to its sequel, ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith|Revenge Of The Sith]]'' (ROTS will debut in the [[summer]] of [[2006]])--and will be able to become the first major cable network to run all six films (a deal to air the entire saga, including the revised DVD version of the original trilogy [IV, V, and VI] was made during negotiations for the pay-cable rights to ''Clones'').
HBO also has exclusive pay-cable rights to its own in-house theatrical films made under [[HBO Films]].
Usually films which HBO has pay-cable rights will also run on Cinemax during its time of license.
== Sports ==
HBO's first broadcast was of a [[New York Rangers]] / [[Vancouver Canucks]] game, transmitted to a [[CATV]] system in [[Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania]] on November 8, 1972. HBO is known for its boxing matchups including those shown on [[HBO World Championship Boxing]]. In 1975, the "[[Thrilla in Manila]]" [[boxing]] match between [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Joe Frazier]] aired on HBO and was the first program on the pay-cable net |
kle</username>
<id>199106</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary|abdication}}
'''Abdication''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abdicatio'', disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one) is the act of renouncing and resigning from a formal office, especially from the supreme office of [[state]]. (In [[Roman law]] the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member, as the disinheriting of a son.) A similar term for an elected or appointed official is [[resignation]].
==Abdications in Classical Antiquity==
Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity were those of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] the [[Roman Dictator|Dictator]] in [[79 BC]], [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] in [[305|AD 305]], and Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] in [[476|AD 476]].
==The British Crown==
Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] in [[1936]]. Edward abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcée [[Wallis Simpson]], over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the [[Commonwealth]], the royal family and the [[Church of England]]. (''See'' [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII]].) This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily. [[Richard II of England]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country.
When [[James II of England]], after throwing the [[Great Seal of the Realm]] into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in [[1688]], he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in Parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest "''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of [[Jesuits]] and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''" The [[Scottish parliament]] pronounced a decree of [[forfeiture]] and [[deposition]].
Because the title to the Crown depends upon [[statute]], particularly the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], a Royal Abdication can only be effected by an [[Act of Parliament]]. To give legal effect to the abdication of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]], His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed.
==Modern abdications==
Historically, if a monarch abdicated it was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty. As a result, abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence. This has changed in a small number of countries: the monarchs of the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Cambodia]] have abdicated as a result of old age. Prince [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]] recently made his son [[regent]], an act which amounted to an abdication in fact if not in law.
==List==
The following is a list of the important abdications:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| align="left" | [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]]
| align="right" | [[79 BC]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Diocletian]] || align="right" | [[305|AD 305]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Pope Benedict IX]]
| align="right" | 1048
|-
| align="left" | [[Isaac I Comnenus]] || align="right" | 1059
|-
| align="left" | [[Emperor Huizong of Song China]]
| align="right" | [[January 18]], [[1126]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Stephen II of Hungary]]
| align="right" | 1131
|-
| align="left" | [[Albert I of Brandenburg]]
| align="right" | 1169
|-
| align="left" | [[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]]
| align="right" | 1206
|-
| align="left" | [[Pope Celestine V]]
| align="right" | [[December 13]], [[1294]]
|-
| align="left" | [[John Baliol of Scotland]]
| align="right" | 1296
|-
| align="left" | [[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East
| align="right" | 1355
|-
| align="left" | [[Richard II of England]]
| align="right" | [[September 29]], [[1399]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Antipope John XXIII|Baldassare Cossa, Antipope John XXIII]]
| align="right" | 1415
|-
| align="left" | [[Eric VII of Denmark|Eric VII of Denmark or Erik XIII of Sweden]]
| align="right" | 1439
|-
| align="left" | [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy]]
| align="right" | 1440
|-
| align="left" | [[Murad II]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan
| align="right" | 1444 and 1445
|-
| align="left" | [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
| align="right" | 1555-[[1556]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Christina of Sweden]]
| align="right" | [[June 6]], [[1654]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]]
| align="right" | [[July 24]], [[1567]]
|-
| align="left" | [[John II of Poland|John Casimir of Poland]]
| align="right" | 1668
|-
| align="left" | [[James II of England]]
| align="right" | 1688
|-
| align="left" | [[Frederick Augustus I of Poland|Frederick Augustus of Poland]]
| align="right" | 1706
|-
| align="left" | [[Philip V of Spain]]
| align="right" | 1724
|-
| align="left" | [[Victor Amadeus II of Savoy|Victor Amadeus]] of [[Sardinia]]
| align="right" | 1730
|-
| align="left" | Ahmed III, Ottoman Sultan
| align="right" | 1730
|-
| align="left" | Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)
| align="right" | 1759
|-
| align="left" | [[Stanislaus II of Poland]]
| align="right" | 1795
|-
| align="left" | [[Qianlong Emperor of China]]
| align="right" | [[February 9]], [[1796]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy|Charles Emanuel IV]] of [[Sardinia]]
| align="right" | [[June 4]], [[1802]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Charles IV of Spain]]
| align="right" | [[March 19]], [[1808]]
|-
| align="left" | Joseph Bonaparte of Naples
| align="right" | [[June 6]], [[1808]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Gustav IV of Sweden]]
| align="right" | [[March 29]], [[1809]]
|-
| align="left" | Louis Bonaparte of [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]]
| align="right" | [[July 2]], [[1810]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I, French Emperor]]
| align="right" | [[April 4]], [[1814]], and [[June 22]], [[1815]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy|Victor Emanuel]] of [[Sardinia]]
| align="right" | [[March 13]], [[1821]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Charles X of France]]
| align="right" | [[August 2]], [[1830]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Peter IV of Portugal|Pedro IV of Portugal]] <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
| align="right" | [[May 28]], [[1826]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]] <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
| align="right" | [[April 7]], [[1831]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Miguel of Portugal]]
| align="right" | [[May 26]], [[1834]]
|-
| align="left" | [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] of the [[Netherlands]]
| align="right" | [[October 7]], [[1840]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe, King of the French]]
| align="right" | [[February 24]], [[1848]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Louis Charles of Bavaria]]
| align="right" | [[March 21]], [[1848]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand of Austria]]
| align="right" | [[December 2]], [[1848]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Charles Albert of Savoy|Charles Albert]] of [[Sardinia]]
| align="right" | [[March 23]], [[1849]]
|-
| align="left" | Leopold II of [[Tuscany]]
| align="right" | [[July 21]], [[1859]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Isabella II of Spain]]
| align="right" | [[June 25]], [[1870]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Amadeus I of Spain]]
| align="right" | [[February 11]], [[1873]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Alexander of Bulgaria]]
| align="right" | [[September 7]], [[1886]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Milan II of Serbia|Milan of Serbia]]
| align="right" | [[March 6]], [[1889]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani of Hawai{{okina}}i]]
| align="right" | [[January 17]], [[1893]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align="left" | [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|Xuantong Emperor of China]]
| align="right" | [[February 12]], [[1912]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align="left" | [[Nicholas II of Russia]]
| align="right" | [[March 15]], [[1917]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align="left" | [[Wilhelm II of Germany]]
| align="right" | [[November 9]] |
l the tastes - bitter, sour, salt, sweet, hot each resembling one emotion like joy, sorrow, anger, etc. It is believed that eating [[Ugadi pachchadi]] makes them ready to face all the evens and odds in the coming year. Tamil people from Tamil Nadu call their new year as ''Varusha Pirappu'' which means birth of new year. [[Punjabi]] people from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] and other northern states in India also celebrate [[Vaisakhi]] which is a harvest festival on [[13 April]].
====Fasting====
Fasting is when an individual eats very little or abstains from food altogether. Fasting in common among Hindus during the holy days of Navaratri. Many Hindus choose certain days to refrain from eating certain food items, such as [[edible salt]] or [[sour]] foods. This is seen as a form of [[penance]] or [[tapasya]] or alternatively as a mean to develop a close bond with the [[God|Supreme Being]].
===Marriage===
Marriage is an important celebration in the life of a Hindu. Traditionally, parents look for a match for their son/daughter (though love marriages are now a days becoming common). In doing this, parents seek the help of a person, often a brahmin, called 'panthulu' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] who has details of many people looking to get married.It is strongly believed that the ''jathakam'' (which is believed to govern the life of a hindu and is defined for each person according to the time and day of birth associating with moon signs and position of some stars) of the two people should match for their fortune after their marriage.Generally parents donot accept their son/daughter to marry a person of other caste. People spend large amounts of money for the marriage of their children even at the expense of running in to debts. All the friends and relatives are invited for the marriage and are offered delicacies.The whole marriage celebrations can take up to one week depending on the practice in that region.
====Pilgrimage====
[[Image:Mela.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In [[2001]], more than 20 million Hindus gathered on the banks of the river Ganges to celebrate the Kumbh Mela]]
Many Hindus make piligrimages to the holy shrines (known as ''Tirthas''). Hindu holy shrines include the abode of Shiva, Mount [[Kailash]] in [[Tibet]], Shiva's lingam in [[Amarnath]], [[Anantnag]], [[Rameshwaram]], and [[Kedarnath]]; the holy cities of [[Haridwar]], [[Dwarka]], [[Allahabad]], [[Mathura]], [[Tirumala]], [[Kashi]], , and [[Ayodhya]]; [[Vasihno Devi]] and [[Mahabalipuram]]. Hundreds of millions of Hindus annually visit holy rivers such as the [[Ganges]] (the real name of the Ganges River is the Ganga) and [[Varanasi|temples near them]], wash and bathe themselves to purify their sins, make sacrifices and win pivous credits.
The [[Kumbha Mela]] (''the Great Fair'') is a gathering of between 10 to 20 million Hindus upon the banks of the holy rivers, as periodically ordained in different parts of India by Hinduism's priestly leadership. The most famous is at the confluence of the [[Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] which is known as Sangam. It is regarded as the largest gathering of humanity on Earth.
====Death====
Upon the death of a Hindu person, his or her body is ceremonially bathed and wrapped in clean, mostly white [[khadi]] cloth. The families often dress their departed relative in their best clothes, but maintain an emphasis on less color.
At the ceremony of cremation all mourners must wear only white clothes. In India, especially nothern India, white is the color of mourning. In modern times, dull colored clothes, shirts and pants are deemed acceptable.
An attending priest conducts the ceremony, purifying the body and pyre by sprinkling holy water and continuously singing or chanting religious [[hymns]] or songs. The body is to be set alight only by the eldest male child of the deceased, or the closest male relative. However, in modern society women are asserting their right as children and/or closest relative of the deceased to cremate their loved ones. In many cases, this is increasingly being accepted.
Hindus in India are cremated upon open grounds upon wooden pyres, though the use of cremation chambers is increasing in popularity owing to the scarcity of wood and lack of exposure. The ashes of the person's remains are gathered and placed in a pot, which may be ritually immersed in any of Hinduism's holy rivers by the family with an attending priest. However, if one is unable to reach a Hindu holy river, it is best to find a river or body of water that flows into the ocean. If Ganga water (or water from any holy river) is available in sealed copper pots, water is either poured into the mouth of the deceased, or mixed with the ashes following cremation, if it is not available, holy water prepared by priests is poured into the mouths of the deceased. It is accepted that the ashes of the deceased will be immersed within 3 days. If it is not done within this time frame, additional rituals must be carried out, and not very many people know what those rituals are.
The practice of cremation is not universal among Hindus. Hindus of various regions and castes may bury their dead as well, as per their families tradition. However, many prefer cremation in comparison to burial, even if burial is the common practice of the family.
==Religion for the common Hindu==
[[Image:Khujaraho.JPG|right|thumb|250px|[[Icons]], also known as [[murtis]], play a crucial role in Hinduism. Shown here is a 10th-century temple in Khajuraho depicting Hindu icons]]
{{seealso|Yoga|Vedic astrology|Bhagavad Gita|Ramayana}}
To all Hindus, the [[Vedas]] are the main source of religious social and religious practices in Hindu, and indeed Indian society.
The [[Puranas]] are a wide collection of religious treatises, biographies and stories on the historical, mythological and religious characters in Hindu folklore, classic literature and sacred scriptures. There are often the source of popular Hindu folk tales and religious lessons.
[[Yoga]] is an important connection to a Hindu to his religious and historical heritage. The art of spiritual and physical exercises are a distinguished native tradition pursued by millions of Hindus worldwide.
Indian [[Vedic astrology]] is important to the conduct of any of life's important events such as marriage, applying for a post or admission, buying a house or starting a new business. To millions of Hindus, the kundali is an invaluable possession that charts the course of life for a man or a woman from the time of his birth, all ascertained by Vedic mathematics and astrology.
The most popular Hindu scriptures are the [[Mahabharata]], the holy war between good and evil. [[Krishna]]'s discourse to the warrior prince [[Arjuna]], the [[Bhagavad Gita]] is the guide book on life for the common Hindu. It is the source of divine guidance and inspiration, where the reader learns to interpret Krishna's teachings in the personal and worldly contexts of life. Most Hindus consider this book as the main source of religious teaching.
To hundreds of millions of Hindus, [[Rama]] is more than just an incarnation of the Supreme, or simply a just king of [[Ayodhya]]. He is the still living, thriving soul and identity of real Hinduism. [[Rama]] is the image of Hinduism, the Perfect Man, its conscience and undying hope of deliverance.
The doctrines of [[moksha]] by the discharge of personal, social and religious duty has developed into a strong characteristic of [[fatalism]], or acceptance of vagaries in life as the will of God, and not seeking to apply oneself to change institutions. Many dalit Hindus have been criticized for not aggressively combating this evil against them, and the factors influencing the submissiveness of society to brahmin authority, epidemics, natural disasters and authoritarian government through the [[history of India]] has been attributed to fatalistic thinking.
== See also ==
===Hindu people===
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bali]]
*[[Demographics of India]]
*[[History of India]]
* [[World Hinduism]]
* [[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Indian Nationalism]], [[Hindutva]]
* [[Survey of Hindu organisations]]
===Hinduism===
*[[Ramayana]]
*[[Mahabharata]]
*[[Bhagavad Gita]]
*[[Vaishnavism]]
*[[Shaivism]]
*[[Balinese Hinduism]]
*[[Criticism of Hinduism]]
* ''The Hindu prayer'' [[Jai Jagdish Hare]]
===Other Dharmic religions===
*[[Jainism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Sikhism]]
=== Literature ===
*Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu [http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/books/wiah/index.htm]
*Goel, Sita Ram: How I became a Hindu [http://voi.org/books/hibh/]
=== External links ===
*[http://www.pariharam.com More about Hinduism]
*[http://www.voi.org/books/htemples2/app3.htm Meaning of the word Hindu]
*[http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Hinduism/id/22591 Who is a Hindu]
*
{{Hinduism}}
[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Indian culture]]
[[ru:Индус]]'''</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hernando de Alarcón</title>
<id>13678</id>
<revision>
<id>27835757</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T17:28:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Changing category Spanish explorers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón''', a [[Spain|Spanish]] navigator of the [[16th century]], noted for having led an early expedition to the peninsula of [[Baja California (peninsula)|Baja California]], meant to be coordinated with [[Francisco Vasquez de Coronado|Francisco Vasquéz de Coronado]]'s overland expedition, and for penetrating the lower [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], perhaps as far as the modern California-Arizona boundary.
Little is known about Alarcón's life outside of his expedition in [[New Spain]]. He set sail on [[May 9]], [[1540]] with orders from the Spanish Viceroy [[Antonio de Mendoza]] to await at a certain point on the coast the arr |
hat they source the food from.
*'''The story of the construction of the [[Temple of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 5:15-7:51): [[Hiram]] of [[Tyre]], a friend of David's, sends an embassy to Solomon, causing Solomon to propose to build a temple. Solomon and Hiram enter into a trade agreement so that Solomon can obtain the necessary raw materials. Solomon enlists several workers via conscription, and Solomon's men, those of Hiram, and the Gebalites, prepare the temple, of which an extensive description of the temple is given. Solomon also builds a palace for himself, which is also described. A bronze worker, somewhat confusingly, also called Hiram (named ''Hiram-abi'' by Chronicles, i.e. ''Hiram is my father''), is brought from Tyre to do Solomon's metal work. Two columns - named [[Jachin]] and [[Boaz]] - are built next to the temple door, and the temple is generally designed like those of [[Hadad]] in Tyre's vassal states.
*'''The story of the [[Translation of the Ark to the Temple]]''' (1 Kings 8:1-9:9) - The elders of Israel, and the Israelite princes, come to Solomon for the moving of [[ark of the covenant|the ark]] from [[Zion]]. While the priests move the ark, a sacrifice is made which is so substantial that it cannot be counted. Finally, when the ark arrives in the Temple, and the priests that had been carrying it return outside, a dark cloud fills the temple, which Solomon says is where Yahweh intends to dwell forever. Solomon then extracts a promise from Yahweh to uphold the [[Davidic covenant]], and to return to the aid of the people if they sin but later repent.
*'''The story of [[Cabul]]''' (1 Kings 9:10-14) - After twenty years of giving Solomon the supplies that he wished for, Hiram is given twenty cities in Galilee by Solomon, which became known as Cabul, since Hiram wasn't satisfied with them.
*'''An account of [[Solomon's building programme]]''' (1 Kings 9:15-25) - Solomon uses slave labour to build several cities for storing supplies. Amongst these is Gezer, which had previously existed but was burnt to the ground by Pharaoh, who returned it to Solomon's ownership as a dowry. For this building programme, Solomon enslaved every Canaanite still living in the land. Solomon also builds [[Millo]] as soon as Pharaoh's daughter moves from Zion to her newly built palace.
*'''The story of the [[Queen of Sheba]]''' (1 Kings 10:1-10, and 10:13) - The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon and tests his wisdom, bringing with her a large retinue, and precious expensive things. Solomon's replies leave her breathless at his wisdom, and she is further impressed by his waiters, and banquet, and therefore gives Solomon some of her precious things. Before she returns to her homeland, Solomon gives her everything that she asks for, and other presents.
*'''An account of the [[wealth of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 4:20-5:6, 9:26-28, 10:11-12, and 10:14-29) - Solomon's empire stretched all the way from the Euphrates to Egypt (though quite how it got this big is not explained), and the many vassal states paid him tribute. He also had extravagent banquets every day, and owned thousands of horses. Solomon built a fleet in Ezion-geber, near Elath, and Hiram staffs him with seamen, who collect a large amount of gold from Ophir and bring it to Solomon. Solomon uses the gold to make goblets and utensils and so forth, even creating a throne made from ivory and inlaid with gold. Hiram's fleet brings further expensive materials from Ophir besides the gold, such as ivory, silver (which, according to the text, at the time was worthless), and [[monkey]]s. In addition to the gold from Hiram's fleet, from merchants, and from the Arab kings, all the visitors to Solomon's court bring with them expensive tributes, hence Solomon grew richer than anyone else on earth. Solomon also traded horses.
*'''The story of [[Solomon's harem]]''' (1 Kings 11:1-13) - Apart from his Egyptian wife, Solomon also had over 300 wives and 700 [[concubine]]s from nations that the [[Mizvot]] forbid intermarriage with. The wives make Solomon polytheistic, worshipping the gods of his wives, such as [[Astarte]], [[Milcom]], and [[Chemosh]], even building high places to them opposite Jerusalem. So Yahweh promises Solomon that a part of the kingdom will be removed and given to another during the reign of Solomon's descendants.
*'''The story of [[Hadad (Edomite refugee in Egypt)|Hadad, the survivor of genocide]]''' (1 Kings 11:14-22 and 11:25b) - Hadad, the sole survivor of [[David's vassal states|King David's genocide of the Edomites]], fled to Egypt. Having won favour with the Pharaoh, Hadad was given in marriage to the sister of Queen [[Tahpenes]], the wife of Pharaoh. Hadad and his wife have a son, who Pharaoh brings up as his own. Hadad later requests permission from Pharaoh to return to his own country, and he becomes king of Edom.
*'''The story of [[Rezon]]''' (1 Kings 11:23-25a) - A man named Rezon fled from [[Hadadezer bar Rehob|Hadadezer, the king of Zobah]], when [[David's vassal states|King David slaughtered Hazadezer's army]]. Rezon gathered a group of men and took over as king of Damascus, seceeding from Solomon's empire.
*'''The story of [[Rehoboam]]''' (1 Kings 11:41-12:1, 12:3-19, 12:20b-24, and 14:21-31a) - When Solomon died, his son, Rehoboam, was proclaimed king at Shechem. The people appeal to Rehoboam to have their servitude lightened, and so he seeks the advice first of the elders and then of the youths. The elders suggest complying with the wishes, but Rehoboam decides to go with the advice of the youths, namely to enforces even heavier servitude. This results in rebellion, and when Rehoboam sends out [[Adoram]], the man in charge of forced labour, the people stone Adoram to death. Rehoboam is forced to flee to Jerusalem as only Judah remains loyal to him, and there he plans an attack using the army of Benjamin and Judah against the forces of Israel. However, a ''man of God'', named [[Shemiah]], is told by God to tell Rehoboam not to fight, and when Rehoboam is told this, he complies. Later in his reign, [[Shishak]], the [[Pharaoh]], attacks, looting the temple and palace, leaving Rehoboam compelled to use bronze to replace the golden shields of Solomon that Shishak had taken.
*'''The story of [[Jeroboam]]''' (1 Kings 11:26-40, 12:2, and 12:25-32) - The man in charge of the work force from the house of Joseph, Jeroboam, bumps into [[Ahijah]], a prophet from Shiloh, when Jeroboam's task, the construction of Millo, is complete. Ahijah spontaneously tore his cloak into twelve parts and gave ten pieces to Jeroboam as a symbol of God's will, explaining that the division is owing to Solomon turning to heathen practices. Solomon subsequently tries to have Jeroboam killed for treason, but he escapes to the protection of the Egyptian Pharaoh, only returning when he hears that Solomon's son has succeeded him as king. When Israel rebels against Rehoboam, they appoint Jeroboam as their new king, and Jeroboam establishes Shechem as his capital and then moves to [[Penuel]]. However, Jeroboam percieves that a religion centralised at Jerusalem, particularly the annual pilgramage to there, is a threat to independance, and so establishes cult centres at the very edges of his own kingdom, putting up golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, saying "here is your God". Jeroboam also appoints non-Levites to the priesthood.
*'''The story of the [[fasting man of God]]''' (1 Kings 12:33-13:34) - At a rival ceremony in Bethel to the traditional one at Jerusalem, Jeroboam prepares to make a sacrifice. At that moment, a man of God (who is not named), prophecies to Jeroboam about a future destruction of the priests and worship at Bethel. Jeroboam orders that the man be siezed, but his arm freezes and the altar collapses, so Jeroboam takes this as a sign and appeals to the man of God. The man of God restores Jeroboam's arm, but refuses Jeroboam's hospitality as the man of God was ordered to fast by God, and to return home immediately. An old prophet from Bethel (who is not named) follows the man of God, and offers his own hospitality, but it too is rejected. Then the old prophet states that God had told him to offer his hospitality, so the man of God accepts, but is killed by a lion as he had broken the fast. Then the old prophet mourns the man, buries him, and requests to be buried in the same grave.
*'''The story of [[Abijah of Israel]]''' (1 Kings 14:1-20) - Jeroboam's son and heir, Abijah, becomes sick, so Jeroboam sends his wife, in disguise, to the prophet [[Ahijah]], to ask what can be done. Ahijah replies that Jeroboam's Canaanite practices have condemned his dynasty to destruction, and Abijah is doomed from the moment the wife returns to the son. Duly, when the wife returns to Tirzah and enters her house, the son dies.
*'''The story of [[Abijam|Abijah of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 14:31b-15:8a) - After Rehoboam dies, Abijah (named as Abijam in Kings but Abijah in Chronicles), his son, succeeds him as king of Judah. Abijam appears to be the grandson (or otherwise a descendant) of [[Absalom]] by his mother's side. Abijam continued the war against Jeroboam to conquer Israel. A more full account of the war is given in Chronicles.
*'''The story of [[Asa of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 15:8b-24a): Abijam's son, Asa, succeeds him as king of Judah, and he quickly deposed Maacah, his grandmother, from having any authority, as she supports the Canaanite religious practices. Asa also burns his grandmother's [[asherah]]. During Asa's reign there is a perpetual war between him and Baasha, the king of Israel, who Ben-hadad, king of Aram, was supporting. Asa bought Ben-hadad's loyalty by sending him what remained of the treasures of the temple and his palace, so Ben-hadad changes sides and attacks several cities, and the regions of the tribes of Dan and Naphtali. Baasha retreats to his capital rather than continue fortifying [[Raamah]], so Asa dismantles the fortifications and uses them t |
people|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:James Joyce| ]]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Joyce, James]]
{{featured article}}
[[cs:James Joyce]]
[[da:James Joyce]]
[[de:James Joyce]]
[[et:James Joyce]]
[[es:James Joyce]]
[[eo:James JOYCE]]
[[fa:جیمز جویس]]
[[fr:James Joyce]]
[[ga:James Joyce]]
[[ko:제임스 조이스]]
[[hr:James Joyce]]
[[ia:James Joyce]]
[[it:James Joyce]]
[[he:ג'יימס ג'ויס]]
[[hu:James Joyce]]
[[mk:Џемс Џојс]]
[[nl:James Joyce]]
[[ja:ジェイムズ・ジョイス]]
[[no:James Joyce]]
[[pl:James Joyce]]
[[pt:James Joyce]]
[[ro:James Joyce]]
[[ru:Джойс, Джеймс]]
[[sh:James Joyce]]
[[simple:James Joyce]]
[[sk:James Joyce]]
[[sl:James Joyce]]
[[sr:Џемс Џојс]]
[[fi:James Joyce]]
[[sv:James Joyce]]
[[tr:James Joyce]]
[[zh:詹姆斯·乔伊斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Judo</title>
<id>15601</id>
<revision>
<id>42098039</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:40:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.234.116.91</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Gradings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" width="250" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | Judo
|-
! colspan="2" | Japanese Name
|-
| width="125" | [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| width="125" | 柔道
|-
| width="125" | [[Kana]] spelling
| width="125" | じゅうどう
|-
| width="125" | Modified [[Hepburn]]
| width="125" | Jūdō
|-
| width="125" | [[Kunrei-shiki]]
| width="125" | Zyûdô
|-
| width="125" | [[Nihon-shiki]]
| width="125" | Zyûdô
|}
'''Judo''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 柔道, ''jūdō''; "gentle way") is a [[martial art]], [[sport]], and [[philosophy]] originated in [[Japan]]. Judo was developed from [[Jujutsu]], and was founded by Dr. [[Jigoro Kano]] (嘉納治五郎) in [[1882]]. The sport became the model of the modern Japanese martial arts, [[gendai budo]], developed from old [[koryu]] schools. Practitioners of Judo are called '''judoka''' (柔道家).
==History and philosophy==
The early history of Judo and that of its founder, Japanese [[polymath]] and educator [[Jigoro Kano|Kano Jigoro]] (surname first in [[Japanese name|Japanese]]) (1860-1938), are inseparable. Kano was born into a well-to-do Japanese family. His grandfather was a self-made man, a [[sake]] brewer from [[Shiga prefecture]] in central Japan; however, Kano's father was not the eldest son and did not inherit the business, but instead became a Shinto priest and government official, with enough influence for his son to enter the second incoming class of [[Tokyo Imperial University]].
Kano was a small, frail boy, who, even in his twenties, did not weigh more than a hundred pounds, was often picked on by bullies. He first started pursuing [[jujitsu]] (柔術), at that time a flourishing art, at the age of 17, but met with little success---in part due to difficulties finding a teacher who would take him on as a serious student. When he went off to the University to study literature at the age of 18, he continued his martial efforts, eventually gaining a referral to [[Hachinosuke Fukuda]], a master of the [[Tenjin Shinyo Ryu]] (天神真楊流) and ancestor of noted Japanese/American judoka [[Keiko Fukuda]], who is one of Kano's oldest surviving students. Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis of [[randori]] (乱取り), or free practice, in Judo.
Little more than a year after Kano joined Fukuda's school, Fukuda took ill and died. Kano then became a student in another Tenjin Shinyo school, that of [[Masatomo Iso]], who put more emphasis on formal [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] than did Fukuda. Through dedication, Kano quickly earned the title "[[shihan]]", or master, and became assistant instructor to Iso at the age of 21. Iso, too, took ill, and Kano, feeling that he still had much to learn, took up another style, becoming a student of [[Tsunetoshi Iikubo]] of [[Kito Ryu]]. Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on free practice; on the other hand, Kito Ryu emphasized throwing techniques to a much greater degree than Tenjin Shinyo Ryu.
By this time, Kano was devising new techniques, such as the ''kata guruma'' ( or 'shoulder wheel', known as a fireman's carry to Western wrestlers who use(d) a slightly different form of this technique) and ''uki goshi'' (floating hip toss). His thoughts were already on doing more than expanding the canons of Kito and Tenjin Shinyo Ryu; full of new ideas, in part as a result of his education, Kano had in mind a major reformation of jujutsu, with techniques based on sound scientific principles, and with focus on development of the body, mind, and character of young men in addition to development of martial prowess. At the age of 22, just about to finish his degree at the University, Kano took 9 students from Iikubo's school to study jujitsu under him at the [[Eishoji Temple]]. Although two years would pass before it would be called by that name, and Kano had not yet been accorded the title of "master" in the Kito ryu (起倒流) -- Iikubo would come to the temple to help teach three days per week, this was the founding of the [[Kodokan Institute|Kodokan]] (講道館) or "place for learning the way."
<!--to be continued-->
The word Judo is composed of two kanji: "ju" (柔), which means gentleness, and "dō" (道), way or road(the same character as the Chinese "[[tao]]"). Thus Judo literally means "the gentle way", or "the way of giving way", and may also be defined as "the way of suppleness", "the way of flexibility, or "the way of adaptability". To English speakers, Judo and Jujutsu would mean "the easy way", as in the easiest way to accomplish something. Judo takes from jujutsu ("gentle art") the principle of using one's opponent's strength against him and adapting well to changing circumstances. For example, if the attacker was to push against his opponent he would find his opponent stepping to the side and allowing (usually with the aid of a foot to trip him up) his momentum to throw him forwards (the inverse being true for pulling). Kano saw jujutsu as a disconnected bag of tricks, and sought to unify it according to some principle; he found it in the notion of "maximum efficiency". Jujitsu techniques which relied solely on superior strength were discarded or adapted in favour of those which involved redirecting the opponent's force, off-balancing the opponent, or making use of superior leverage.
<!--also will be continued-->
== Judo's Theory of Combat ==
Judo assumes that there are two main phases of combat: the standing (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'') and the ground (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'') phase. Each phase requires its own mostly separate techniques, strategies, [[randori]], conditioning and so on, although some special training is devoted to 'transitional' techniques to bridge the gap. Some [[judoka]] can become quite skilled in one phase and be rather weak in the other, depending on where their interests most lie, although most are rather balanced between the two.
'''The Standing Phase'''
In the standing phase, which is considered the initial phase, the opponents try to throw each other to the ground. Even though standing joint-lock and choke/strangulation submission techniques are legal in the standing phase, they are quite rare due to the fact that they are much harder to apply standing than throws are. Some judoka, however, are very skilled in combining takedowns with submissions, where a submission technique is begun standing and finished on the ground. Strikes (i.e. punches, kicks etc) are not allowed due to their certainty of injury, but judoka are supposed to 'take them into consideration' while training by, for example, not fighting in a bent-over position for long, since this position is vulnerable to knee-strikes and others. The main purpose of the throwing techniques ([[nage waza]]) is to take an opponent who is standing on his feet, mobile and dangerous, down onto his back where he cannot move any more. Thus, the main reason for throwing the opponent is to control him and put yourself in a dominant position above him where you have more potential to inflict damage on him than he does on you. Be that as it may, another reason to throw the opponent is to shock his body through smashing him forcefully onto the ground. If a judoka executes a powerful yet fully controlled throw, he can win a match outright due to the theory that he has displayed enough superiority. In actual fact, this kind of victory is very difficult to achieve if the opponents are equally matched. Therefore points are given for lesser throws in the standing phase of combat. In real fight situations, a throw in itself can create shock to the opponent, and the impact can potentially knock the opponent unconscious (depending on the hardness of the ground).
'''The Ground Phase'''
In the ground phase, which is considered the secondary phase of combat, the opponents try to hold, or get the opponent to submit either by using arm locks (leg locks are not allowed due to safety regulations) or by chokes and strangulations.
'''Footsweeps'''
Footsweeps are used to off-balance the opponent.
'''Pins'''
Pins are considered important since in a real fight the person on top who has control of the person beneath can hit him with knees, forearms, the head and so on. If a pin is held for 25 seconds, the person doing the pinning wins the match. The reason for requiring such a long pin is that in order to be able to hit the person underneath you effectively, you have to have full control of him for a long time. In a match, if you |
g-convex]]. That is, it is the only function that could possibly be a generalization of the factorial function.
== Applications ==
* Factorials are important in [[combinatorics]]. For example, there are ''n''! different ways of arranging ''n'' distinct objects in a sequence. (The arrangements are called [[permutation]]s.) And the number of ways one can choose ''k'' objects from among a given set of ''n'' objects (the number of [[combinations]]), is given by the so-called [[binomial coefficient]]
:<math>{n\choose k}={n!\over k!(n-k)!}.</math>
* Factorials also turn up in [[calculus]]. For example, [[Taylor's theorem]] expresses a function ''f''(''x'') as a [[power series]] in ''x'', basically because the ''n''-th [[derivative]] of ''x''<sup>''n''</sup> is ''n''!.
* The [[volume]] of an ''n''-[[dimension]]al [[hypersphere]] can be expressed as:
:<math>V_n={\pi^{n/2}R^n\over (n/2)!}.</math>
Note that the Gamma function is required for odd dimensions and that its value cancels out the apparent fractional power of <math>\pi</math> in those cases.
* Factorials are also used extensively in [[probability theory]].
* Factorials are often used as a simple example, along with [[Fibonacci number]]s, when teaching [[recursion]] in [[computer science]] because they satisfy the following recursive relationship (if ''n'' &ge; 1):
:<math> n! = n \times (n-1)!. \,</math>
* Factorials are important in [[number theory]]. Among other properties, all factorials are [[highly abundant number]]s.
==Rate of growth==
[[Image:Log-factorial.PNG|300px|thumb|right|Plot of the natural logarithm of the factorial]]
As ''n'' grows, the factorial ''n''! becomes larger than all [[polynomial]]s and [[exponential function]]s in ''n''.
When ''n'' is large, ''n''! can be estimated quite accurately using [[Stirling's approximation]]:
:<math>n!\sim \sqrt{2\pi n}\left(\frac{n}{e}\right)^n</math>
A weak version that can be proved with [[mathematical induction]] is<!-- Someone might wish to add the proof... -->
:<math>\left({n \over 3}\right)^n < n! < \left({n \over 2}\right)^n\ \mbox{if}\ n\geq 6.\,</math>
The [[logarithm]] of the factorial can be used to calculate the number of digits in a given base the factorial of a given number will take. log ''n''! can easily be calculated as follows:
:<math>\sum_{k=1}^n{\log k}</math>
Note that this function, if graphed, is approximately [[linear function|linear]], for small values; but the factor <math>{\log n!} \over n</math> does grow arbitrarily large, although quite slowly. The graph of log(''n''!) for ''n'' between 0 and 20,000 is shown in the figure on the right.
A good approximation for log ''n''! based on Stirling's approximation is
:<math>\ln(n!) \approx n\ln(n) - n + \frac {\ln(n)} {2} + \frac {\ln(2 \pi)} {2}.</math>
One can see from this that log(''n''!) is [[Big O notation|&Omicron;]](''n'' log ''n''). This result plays a key role in the analysis of the [[computational complexity theory|computational complexity]] of [[sorting algorithm]]s.
==Computation==
The numeric value of ''n''! can be calculated by repeated multiplication if ''n'' is not too large. That is basically what pocket calculators do. The largest factorial that most calculators can handle is 69!, because 70!&nbsp;>&nbsp;10<sup>100</sup>. In practice, most software applications use only small factorials which can be computed by direct multiplication or table lookup. Larger values are often approximated in terms of [[floating-point]] estimates of the [[Gamma function]], usually with [[Stirling's formula]].
For [[number theory|number theoretic]] and [[combinatorics|combinatorial]] computations, very large exact factorials are often needed. [[Bignum]] factorials can be computed by direct multiplication, but multiplying the sequence 1&times;2&times;...&times;''n'' from the bottom up (or top-down) is inefficient; it is better to recursively split the sequence so that the size of each subproduct is minimized.
The asymptotically-best efficiency is obtained by computing ''n''! from its prime factorization. The prime factors in ''n''! are all lesser than or equal to ''n'', and the power of ''p'' occurring in the prime factorization of ''n''! is
:<math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \lfloor n/p^i \rfloor</math>.
As documented by [[Peter Borwein]], prime factorization allows ''n''! to be computed in time [[Big O notation|O]](''n''(log ''n'' log log ''n'')<sup>2</sup>), provided that a fast [[multiplication algorithm]] is used (for example, [[Schönhage-Strassen multiplication]]).{{ref|borwein}} Peter Luschny presents source code and benchmarks for several efficient factorial algorithms, with or without the use of a [[prime sieve]].{{ref|luschny}}
==Factorial-like products==
===Primorial===
The [[primorial]] is similar to the factorial, but with the product taken only over the [[prime number]]s.
===Multifactorials===
A common related notation is to use multiple exclamation points to denote a '''multifactorial''', the product of integers in steps of two (''n''!!), three (''n''!!!), or more.
''n''!! denotes the '''double factorial''' of ''n'' and is defined recursively by
:<math>
n!!=
\left\{
\begin{matrix}
1,\qquad\quad\ &&\mbox{if }n=0\mbox{ or }n=1;
\\
n(n-2)!!&&\mbox{if }n\ge2.\qquad\qquad
\end{matrix}
\right.
</math>
For example, 8!! = 2 · 4 · 6 · 8 = [[384 (number)|384]] and 9!! = 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 9 = 945. The sequence of double factorials {{OEIS|id=A006882}} for ''n'' = 0, 1, 2,... starts
:1, 1, 2, 3, [[8 (number)|8]], [[15 (number)|15]], [[48 (number)|48]], [[105 (number)|105]], 384, 945, 3840, ...
Some identities involving double factorials are:
:<math>n!=n!!(n-1)!! \,</math>
:<math>(2n)!!=2^nn! \,</math>
:<math>(2n+1)!!={(2n+1)!\over(2n)!!}={(2n+1)!\over2^nn!}</math>
:<math>\Gamma\left(n+{1\over2}\right)=\sqrt\pi{(2n-1)!!\over2^n}</math>
One should be careful not to interpret ''n''!! as the factorial of ''n''!, which would be written (''n''!)! and is a much larger number (for ''n''>2). Some mathematicians have suggested an alternative notation of ''n''!<sub>2</sub> for the double factorial and similarly ''n''!<sub>n</sub> for other multifactorials, but this has not come into general use.
The double factorial is the most commonly used variant, but one can similarly define the triple factorial (''n''!!!) and so on. In general, the ''k''-th factorial, denoted by ''n''!<sup>(''k'')</sup>, is defined recursively as
:<math>
n!^{(k)}=
\left\{
\begin{matrix}
1,\qquad\qquad\ &&\mbox{if }0\le n<k;
\\
n(n-k)!^{(k)},&&\mbox{if }n\ge k.\quad\ \ \,
\end{matrix}
\right.
</math>
===Hyperfactorials===
:''Main article: [[Hyperfactorial]]''
Occasionally the '''hyperfactorial''' of ''n'' is considered. It is written as ''H''(''n'') and defined by
:<math>
H(n)
=\prod_{k=1}^n k^k
=1^1\cdot2^2\cdot3^3\cdots(n-1)^{n-1}\cdot n^n.
</math>
For ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, 4,... the values of ''H''(''n'') are 1, 4, [[108 (number)|108]], 27648,... {{OEIS|id=A002109}}.
The hyperfactorial function is similar to the factorial, but produces larger numbers. The rate of growth of this function, however, is not much larger than a regular factorial.
===Superfactorials===
[[Neil Sloane]] and [[Simon Plouffe]] defined the '''superfactorial''' in 1995 as the product of the first ''n'' factorials. So the superfactorial of 4 is
:<math> \mathrm{sf}(4)=1! \times 2! \times 3! \times 4!=288 \,</math>
In general
:<math>
\mathrm{sf}(n)
=\prod_{k=1}^n k! =\prod_{k=1}^n k^{n-k+1}
=1^n\cdot2^{n-1}\cdot3^{n-2}\cdots(n-1)^2\cdot n^1.
</math>
The sequence of superfactorials starts (from ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0) as
:1, 1, 2, [[12 (number)|12]], 288, 34560, 24883200, ... {{OEIS|id=A000178}}
This idea was extended in 2000 by [[Henry Bottomley]] to the '''superduperfactorial''' as the product of the first ''n'' superfactorials, starting (from ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0) as
:1, 1, 2, 24, 6912, 238878720, 5944066965504000, ... {{OEIS|id=A055462}}
and thus [[recursion|recursively]] to any '''multiple-level factorial''' where the ''m''th-level factorial of ''n'' is the product of the first ''n'' (''m''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1)th-level factorials, i.e.
:<math>\mathrm{mf}(n,m) = \mathrm{mf}(n-1,m)\mathrm{mf}(n,m-1)
=\prod_{k=1}^n k^{n-k+m-1 \choose n-k} </math>
where <math>\mathrm{mf}(n,0)=n</math> for <math>n>0</math> and <math>\mathrm{mf}(0,m)=1</math>.
===Superfactorials (alternative definition)===
[[Clifford Pickover]] in his 1995 book ''Keys to Infinity'' defined the '''superfactorial''' of ''n'', written as ''n''$ (the $ should really be a factorial sign ! with an S superimposed) as
:<math>n\$\equiv \begin{matrix} \underbrace{ n!^{{n!}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{n!}}}}}} \\ n! \end{matrix} \,</math>,
or as,
:<math>n\$=n^{(4)}n \,</math>
where the <sup>(4)</sup> notation denotes the [[hyper4]] [[operator]], or using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]],
:<math>n\$=(n!)\uparrow\uparrow(n!) \,</math>
This sequence of superfactorials starts:
:<math>1\$=1 \,</math>
:<math>2\$=2^2=4 \,</math>
:<math>3\$=6\uparrow\uparrow6=6^{6^{6^{6^{6^6}}}} \!</math>
==See also==
* [[Alternating factorial]]
* [[Digamma function]]
* [[Exponential factorial]]
* [[Factorial prime]]
* [[Factoradic]]
==References==
* {{note|borwein}} Peter Borwein. "On the Complexity of Calculating Factorials". ''Journal of Algorithms'' 6, 376-380 (1985)
* {{note|luschny}} Peter Luschny. [http://www.luschny.de/ma |
nt in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative amount. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a [[linear combination]] of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See [[Cartesian coordinate system]])
=== Time ===
[[Time]] is often referred to as the "[[fourth dimension]]". It is, in essence, one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that movement seems to occur at a fixed rate and [[arrow of time|in one direction]].
The equations used by physics to model reality often do not treat time in the same way that humans perceive it. In particular, the equations of [[classical mechanics]] are [[T-symmetry|symmetric with respect to time]], and equations of [[quantum mechanics]] are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as [[C-symmetry|charge]] and [[Parity (physics)|parity]]) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the [[laws of thermodynamics]] (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing [[entropy]]).
The most well-known treatment of time as a dimension is [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity|theory of general relativity]], which treats perceived space and time as parts of a four-dimensional [[manifold]].
=== Additional dimensions ===
Theories such as [[string theory]] predict that the space we live in has in fact many more dimensions (frequently 10, 11 or 26), but that the universe measured along these additional dimensions is subatomic in size. As a result, we perceive only the three spatial dimensions that have macroscopic size.
=== Units ===
In the physical sciences and in engineering, the ''dimension'' of a physical quantity is the expression of the class of [[Units of measurement|physical unit]] that such a quantity is measured against. The dimension of speed, for example, is length divided by time. In the [[SI]] system, the dimension is given by the seven exponents of the [[fundamental unit|fundamental quantities]]. See [[Dimensional analysis]].
==Mathematical dimensions==
In [[mathematics]], no definition of dimension adequately captures the concept in all situations where we would like to make use of it. Consequently, [[mathematician]]s have devised numerous definitions of dimension for different types of spaces. All, however, are ultimately based on the concept of the dimension of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] ''E''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup>. The point ''E''<sup>&nbsp;0</sup> is 0-dimensional. The line ''E''<sup>&nbsp;1</sup> is 1-dimensional. The plane ''E''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup> is 2-dimensional. And in general ''E''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup> is ''n''-dimensional.
A [[tesseract]] is an example of a four-dimensional object.
In the rest of this section we examine some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.
=== Hamel dimension ===
For [[vector space|vector spaces]], there is a natural concept of dimension, namely the cardinality of a basis.
See [[Hamel dimension]] for details.
=== Manifolds ===
A [[connectedness|connected]] topological [[manifold]] is [[locally]] [[homeomorphic]] to Euclidean ''n''-space, and the number ''n'' is called the manifold's dimension. One can show that this yields a uniquely defined dimension for every connected topological manifold.
The theory of manifolds, in the field of [[geometric topology]], is characterised by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the '''high-dimensional''' cases ''n'' > 4 are simplified by having extra space in which to 'work'; and the cases ''n'' = 3 and 4 are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the [[Poincaré conjecture]], where four different proof methods are applied.
=== Lebesgue covering dimension ===
For any [[topological space]], the [[Lebesgue covering dimension]] is defined to be ''n'' if ''n'' is the smallest [[integer]] for which the following holds: any [[open cover]] has a refinement (a second cover where each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than ''n'' + 1 elements. For manifolds, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such n exists, then the dimension is infinite.
===Inductive dimension===
The [[inductive dimension]] of a topological space may refer to the ''small inductive dimension'' or the ''large inductive dimension'', and is based on the analogy that ''n''+1-dimensional balls have ''n'' dimensional [[boundary (topology)|boundaries]], permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets.
=== Hausdorff dimension ===
For sets which are of a complicated structure, especially [[fractal]]s, the [[Hausdorff dimension]] is useful. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all [[metric space|metric spaces]] and, unlike the Hamel dimension, can also attain non-integer real values. The upper and lower [[box-counting dimension|box dimensions]] are a variant of the same idea.
=== Hilbert spaces ===
Every [[Hilbert space]] admits an [[orthonormal basis]], and any two such bases have the same [[cardinality]]. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide.
=== Krull dimension of commutative rings ===
The [[Krull dimension]] of a commutative [[ring (algebra)|ring]], named after [[Wolfgang Krull]] (1899 - 1971), is defined to be the maximal number of strict inclusions in an increasing chain of [[prime ideal]]s in the ring.
== Science fiction ==
[[Science fiction]] texts often mention the concept of dimension, when really referring to [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s, [[alternate universe]]s, or other [[planes of existence]], or concepts that are beyond the reader. The word gives a sense of authority to a film, and inspires imagination and awe in the minds of the reader, that one could travel to "another dimension". This concept is derived from the idea that in order to travel to parallel/alternate universes/planes of existence one must travel in a spatial direction/dimension besides the standard ones. In effect, the other universes/planes are just a small distance away from our own, but the distance is in a fourth (or higher) spatial dimension, not the standard ones.
== Anaglyph ==
''This section should be merged into [[Anaglyph image]].''
To understand how Anaglyph 3D works, you must understand how Stereoscope 3D works. It's basically blending the two images taken eye width apart. The eye thinks it's seeing one normal image by blending together one image we see with both eyes. You blend two slightly different pictures together and look at it. It looks 3D! Anaglyph is just taking a single framed 3D image and making one eye only see one image... the red sees the blue (because the red of the glasses blends in with the red) and the blue sees the red (the blue of the glasses blends in with the blue). This creates a normal stereo graph image without the need of crossing your eyes the whole time you're looking at the image.
== More dimensions ==
* [[Dimension of an algebraic variety]]
* [[Topological dimension]]
* [[Isoperimetric dimension]]
* [[Poset dimension]]
* [[Pointwise dimension]]
* [[Lyapunov dimension]]
* [[Kaplan-Yorke dimension]]
* [[Exterior dimension]]
* [[Hurst exponent]]
* [[q-dimension]]; especially:
** [[Information dimension]] (corresponding to q=1)
** [[Correlation dimension]] (corresponding to q=2)
== See also ==
=== Degrees of freedom ===
* Zero dimensions
**[[Point (geometry)|Point]]
**[[Zero-dimensional space]]
* One dimension
**[[Line (mathematics)|Line]]
* Two dimensions
**[[2D geometric model]]s
**[[2D computer graphics]]
* Three dimensions
**[[3D computer graphics]]
**[[3-D film]]s and video
**[[Stereoscopy]] (3-D imaging)
* Four dimensions
**[[Time]] (4th dimension)
**[[Fourth dimension|Fourth spatial dimension]]
**[[Tesseract]] (four dimensional shapes)
* Five dimensions
**[[Kaluza-Klein theory]]
**[[Fifth dimension (geometry)|Fifth dimension]]
* Ten, eleven or twenty-six dimensions
**[[String theory]]
**[[M-theory]]
**[[Why 10 dimensions?]]
**[[Calabi-Yau spaces]]
* Infinitely many dimensions
**[[Banach space]] (only some have infinitely many dimensions)
* [[Special relativity]]
* [[General relativity]]
=== Other ===
* [[Dimension (data warehouse)]] and [[dimension table]]s
* [[Dimensional analysis]]
== Further reading ==
* [[Thomas Banchoff]], (1996) ''Beyond the Third Dimension: Geometry, Computer Graphics, and Higher Dimensions, Second Edition'', Freeman
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]], (1999) ''Surfing through Hyperspace: Understanding Higher Universes in Six Easy Lessons'', Oxford University Press
* [[Rudy Rucker]] (1984), ''The Fourth Dimension'', Houghton-Mifflin
* Edwin A. Abbott, (1884) ''[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatland Flatland]''
* [http://scholar.uwinnipeg.ca/courses/38/4500.6-001/Cosmology/dimensionality.htm Dimensionality]
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/physics/dimensions.htm Introdution to give you a visual understanding of N-Dimensions]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Dimension|*]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[da:Dimension]]
[[de:Dimension (Physik)]]
[[eo:Dimensio]]
[[fi:Ulottuvuus]]
[[fr:Dimension]]
[[he:ממד]]
[[id:Dimensi]]
[[io:Dimensiono]]
[[it:Dimensione]]
[[ja:次元]]
[[ko:차원]]
[[nl:Dimensie]]
[[pl:Wymiar (matematyka)]]
[[simp |
s never met the company's expectations. It is rumored that in 1983, in response to a massive number of returned orders from distributors, [http://www.snopes.com/business/market/atari.asp Atari buried millions of unsold game cartridges] (the bulk of them consisting of two titles, Pac-Man and E.T.) in a [[New Mexico]] [[desert]] [[landfill]]. Howard Scott Warshaw (the programmer behind [[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]], [[Yars' Revenge]], [[Raiders of the Lost Ark (Atari 2600)|Raiders of the Lost Ark]], and [http://www.atariage.com/software_page.html?SoftwareLabelID=2688 Saboteur]) [http://beepbopboop.heavysixer.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=47&Itemid=67] still reflects fondly on his Atari days.
Still, Atari held a formidable position in the world video game market. They were the number one console maker in every market except [[Japan]], whose market belonged to [[Nintendo]], which had released their first game console, the [[Famicom]] (known to the rest of the world as the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]) in 1983. The system took Japan by storm, and Nintendo began to look to other markets. They approached Atari and offered a licensing deal: Atari would build and sell the system, paying Nintendo a royalty. The deal was in the works, and the two companies tentatively decided to sign the agreement at the 1983 Summer [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES]]. Unfortunately, at that same show [[Coleco]] was showing their new [[Coleco Adam|Adam computer]], and the display unit was running Nintendo's [[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]. But Atari owned the rights to publish Donkey Kong for computers. Atari CEO [[Ray Kassar]] had a fit, accusing Nintendo of double dealing with the Donkey Kong license. Nintendo in turn tore into Coleco, who only had the console rights to the game. In the coming month, Ray Kassar was forced to leave Atari, and executives involved in the Famicom deal were forced to start over again from scratch.
These problems were followed by the infamous [[video game crash of 1983]], which caused losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for its troubled division. As for Nintendo, Atari could no longer afford the Famicom deal, and eventually Nintendo would be forced to go it alone.
In [[July 1984]], Warner sold the home computing and game console divisions of Atari to [[Jack Tramiel]], the recently ousted founder of Atari competitor [[Commodore International]], under the name '''Atari Corporation''' for $240 million in stocks under the new company. Warner retained the arcade division, continuing it under the name [[Atari Games]] and eventually selling it to [[Namco]] in 1985. Warner also sold the fledgling '''Ataritel''' to [[Mitsubishi]].
[[Image:Atari 1040STf.jpg|left|thumb|280px|Atari ST]]
Under Tramiel's ownership, '''Atari Corp.''' used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development of their 16-bit computer system the [[Atari ST]]. In 1985 they released their update to the 8-bit computer line, the Atari XE series, as well as the 16-bit [[Atari ST]] line. Then, in 1986, Atari launched two consoles designed under the Warner Atari - Atari 2600jr and the [[Atari 7800]] console (which saw limited release in 1984). Atari rebounded, producing a $25 million profit that year. The Atari ST line proved very successful (but mostly in Europe, not the U.S.), ultimately selling more than 4 million units. It was especially popular among musicians, as it had built in [[MIDI]] ports. Still, its closest competitor in the marketplace, the [[Commodore Amiga]], outsold it 3 to 2. Atari eventually released a line of inexpensive [[IBM PC compatible]]s as well as an MS-DOS compatible palm computer called the Atari Portfolio.
In 1989, Atari also released the [[Atari Lynx]], a handheld console with color graphics, to critical acclaim. However, a shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season. As a result, the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's [[Game Boy]], which had only a black and white display but was widely available. Also in 1989, Atari Corp. sued Nintendo for $250 million, alleging it had an illegal monopoly. Atari lost.
===The 1990s: Decline===
As the fortunes of Atari's ST and PC compatible computers faded, consoles and software again became the company's main focus. In 1993, Atari released its last console, the Jaguar. After a period of initial success, it, too, failed to meet expectations. It was not nearly as powerful as [[Sony Computer Entertainment|Sony Computer Entertainment's]] [[PlayStation]] or [[Sega|Sega's]] [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]] and lacked the extensive third party support its Japanese competitors had easily secured for their consoles.
By 1996, a series of successful lawsuits followed by profitable investments had left Atari with millions of dollars in the bank, but the failure of the Lynx and Jaguar left Atari without any products to sell. In addition, Tramiel and his family wanted out. The result was a rapid succession of changes in ownership. In July 1996, Atari merged with [[JT Storage|JTS Inc.]],a short-lived maker of hard disk drives, to form JTS Corp. Atari's role in the new company largely became a holder for the Atari properties and minor support, consequently the name largely disappeared from the market.
Although the original Atari ceased to exist, a large amount of underground development remains for Atari's game systems and computers of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and many of the retro-gaming conventions (such as World Of Atari, [[Classic Gaming Expo]], Philly Classic, and the Midwest Gaming Classic), focus largely on Atari. There are also websites dedicated to the release of new products for the original Atari consoles and computers, such as [[AtariAge]].
In [[March 1998]], JTS sold the Atari name and assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million&mdash;less than a fifth of what Warner Communications had paid 22 years earlier. This transaction primarily involved the [[brand]] and [[intellectual property]], which now fell under the Atari Interactive division of Hasbro Interactive. The brand name changed hands again in [[December 2000]], when French software publisher [[Infogrames]] took over Hasbro Interactive.
In the meantime, [[Atari Games]] was bought out by its employees in 1986, who also founded [[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] to bring their arcade games in to the home. The new [[Time-Warner]] eventually started gaining more and more shares in the company until they eventually owned the company completely again by 1994. At that point Atari Games ceased to exist and became part of Time-Warner Interactive. By 1996, Time-Warner sold TWI to [[Williams (gaming company)|WMS Industries, Inc.]], owner of [[Midway Games|Midway]] at the time. WMS brought the properties under Midway (which it now renamed Midway Games Inc.), and re-instated the [[Atari Games]] name. In 1998, Midway was sold to its shareholders and spun off as a separate company. Over 1999-2000, Midway held closed door proceedings with Hasbro which ultimately led to Atari Games being renamed Midway Games West. Midway left the arcade industry in 2001, and shut down Midway Games West in 2003 - closing the chapter on what was left of the original Atari arcade division.
===The 2000s: Revival and re-release of Atari classics===
In [[October 2001]], [[Infogrames]] announced that it was "reinventing" the Atari brand with the launch of three new games. On [[May 7]], [[2003]], Infogrames officially reorganized its US subsidiary as a separate entity known as '''Atari, Inc.'''. It named its European operations to Atari Europe, and kept the main holdings company as Infogrames Entertainment.
[[Image:Atari Classics 10 in 1 TV Games.jpg|thumb|Atari 10-in-1 TV Game]]
In 2002, [[Jakks Pacific]], a toy making company, released a [[TV game|plug-and-play]] video game console called the Atari 10-in-1 TV Game, believed by many to arouse interest in the concept of self-contained entertainment devices that did not require separate hardware to operate. It was battery-operated and shaped similarly to an Atari 2600 joystick, and included A/V ports. In 2004, the same company created a device called Atari Paddle Games, in the shape of one of the 2600's "paddle" controllers with appropriate titles included. However, as stated, neither of the games were directly released by Atari.
[[Image:Atari Flashback Console.jpg|thumb|Atari Flashback Console]]
The same year that the Paddle Games were released, Atari released a TV game of their own which they called the [[Atari Flashback]] Console. The device they produced looked like a minute version of the Atari 7800 console originally released in 1984, 20 years previously. The two controllers were small as well, having a joystick and two red buttons on each side. Twenty titles were built into the system. Unlike most plug-and-plays, the Flashback was not powered by batteries, but an (included) AC adaptor instead. The Flashback did fairly well in sales; however, many Atari fans felt disappointed. Many people felt that the device itself was far too small, and the joysticks felt very dissimilar to those of the 7800. Since the games were all recreated on hardware more closely resembling the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] than the 7800, some of the aspects of certain games concerning the sound, graphics, or gameplay were either changed or omitted. Overall, many enthusiasts believed that the Flashback did not capture the true Atari experience.
Due to popular demand, Atari released a new version of the Flashback console, titled ''[[Atari Flashback 2]]'', in August 2005.
Also, in late October 2005, Atari released one of two collections of its classic arcade games only for the Nokia N-Gage console, titled Atari Masterpieces. Atari Masterpieces Volume I includes classic arcade ga |
, from which we remove all bounds, and wherein we allow the mind an endless progression of thought, without ever completing the idea, there we have our idea of infinity ... yet when we would frame in our minds the idea of an infinite space or duration, that idea is very obscure and confused, because it is made up of two parts very different, if not inconsistent. For let a man frame in his mind an idea of any space or number, as great as he will, it is plain the mind rests and terminates in that idea; which is contrary to the idea of infinity, which consists in a supposed endless progression." (Essay, II. xvii. 7., author's emphasis)
Famously, the ultra-empiricist [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] tried to defend the idea of a potential infinity in the light of the discovery, by [[Evangelista Torricelli]], of a figure ([[Gabriel's horn]]) whose [[surface area]] is infinite, but whose [[volume]] is finite. Not reported, this motivation of Hobbes came too late as [[curve]]s having infinite length yet bounding finite areas were known much before. Such seeming paradoxes are resolved by taking any finite figure and stretching its content infinitely in one direction; the magnitude of its content is unchanged as its divisions drop off geometrically but the magnitude of its bounds increases to infinity by necessity. Potentiality lies in the definitions of this operation, as [[well-defined]] and interconsistent mathematical axioms. A potential infinity is allowed by letting an infinitely-large quantity be cancelled out by an infinitely-small quantity.
=== Modern philosophical views ===
Modern discussion of the infinite is now regarded as part of set theory and mathematics, and generally avoided by philosophers. An exception was [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], who made an impassioned attack upon [[axiomatic set theory]], and upon the idea of the actual infinite, during his "middle period".{{rf|2|antinomies}}
:"Does the relation m = 2n correlate the class of all numbers with one of its subclasses? No. It correlates any arbitrary number with another, and in that way we arrive at infinitely many pairs of classes, of which one is correlated with the other, but which are never related as class and subclass. Neither is this infinite process itself in some sense or other such a pair of classes ... In the superstition that m = 2n correlates a class with its subclass, we merely have yet another case of ambiguous grammar." (''Philosophical Remarks'' § 141, cf ''Philosophical Grammar'' p. 465)
Unlike the traditional empiricists, he thought that the infinite was in some way given to sense experience.
:"... I can see in space the possibility of any finite experience ... we recognise [the] essential infinity of space in its smallest part." "[Time] is infinite in the same sense as the three-[[dimension]]al space of sight and movement is infinite, even if in fact I can only see as far as the walls of my room."
:"... what is infinite about endlessness is only the endlessness itself."
=== Infinity symbol ===
The precise origins of the infinity symbol ∞ are unclear. One possibility is suggested by the name it is sometimes called &mdash; the [[lemniscate]], from the Latin ''lemniscus'', meaning "ribbon". One can imagine walking forever along a simple loop formed from a ribbon.
A popular explanation is that the infinity symbol is derived from the shape of a [[Möbius strip]]. Again, one can imagine walking along its surface forever. However, this explanation is improbable, since the symbol had been in use to represent infinity for over two hundred years before [[August Ferdinand Möbius]] and [[Johann Benedict Listing]] discovered the Möbius strip in [[1858]].
[[John Wallis]] is usually credited with introducing ∞ as a symbol for infinity in [[1655]] in
his ''De sectionibus conicus''. One conjecture about why he chose this symbol is that he derived it from a [[Roman numeral]] for 1000 that was in turn derived from the [[Etruscan numerals|Etruscan numeral]] for 1000, which looked somewhat like <font face="Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode">CI&#390;</font> and was sometimes used to mean "many". Another conjecture is that he derived it from the Greek letter &#969; ([[omega]]), the last letter in the [[Greek alphabet]].
The infinity symbol is represented in [[Unicode]] by the character ∞ (&amp;#8734;).
== Mathematical infinity ==
Infinity is the state of being greater than any finite (real) number however large.
=== Infinity in real analysis ===
In [[real analysis]], the symbol <math>\infty</math>, called "infinity", denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. <math>x \rightarrow \infty</math> means that ''x'' grows beyond any assigned value, and <math>x \rightarrow -\infty</math> means x is eventually less than any assigned value. Points labeled <math>\infty</math> and <math>-\infty</math> can be added to the real numbers as a [[topological space]], producing the '''two-point [[compactification (mathematics)|compactification]]''' of the real numbers. Adding algebraic properties to this gives us the [[extended real number]]s. We can also treat <math>\infty</math> and <math>-\infty</math> as the same, leading to the '''one-point compactification''' of the real numbers, which is the [[real projective line]]. [[Projective geometry]] also introduces a [[line at infinity]] in [[plane geometry]], and so forth for higher dimensions.
Infinity is often used not only to define a limit but as if it were a value in the extended real numbers in [[real analysis]]; if ''f''(''t'') &ge; 0 then
*<math>\int_{0}^{1} \, f(t) dt \ = \infty</math> means that ''f''(''t'') does not bound a finite area from 0 to 1
*<math>\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \ = \infty</math> means that the area under ''f''(''t'') is infinite
*<math>\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \ = 1</math> means that the area under ''f''(''t'') equals 1
=== Infinity in complex analysis ===
As in real analysis, in [[complex analysis]] the symbol <math>\infty</math>, called "infinity", denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. <math>x \rightarrow \infty</math> means that the magnitude
<math>|x|</math> of x grows beyond any assigned value. A point labeled <math>\infty</math> can be added to the complex plane as a [[topological space]] giving the one-point compactification of the complex plane. When this is done, the resulting space is still a one-dimensional complex manifold and called the extended complex plane or the [[Riemann sphere]].
In this context is often useful to consider [[meromorphic function]]s as maps into the Riemann sphere taking the value of <math>\infty</math> at the poles. The domain of a complex-valued function may be extended to include the point at infinity as well. One important example of such functions is the group of [[Möbius transformation]]s.
===Infinities as part of the extended real number line===
Infinity is '''not''' a real number but may be considered part of the [[extended real number line]], in which arithmetic operations involving infinity may be performed. In this system, infinity has the following arithmetic properties:
==== Infinity with itself ====
# <math>\infty + \infty = \infty \cdot \infty = (-\infty) \cdot (-\infty) = \infty</math>
# <math>(-\infty) + (-\infty) = \infty \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty) \cdot \infty = -\infty</math>
==== Operations involving infinity and real numbers ====
# <math>-\infty < x < \infty</math>
# <math> x + \infty = \infty</math> and <math> x + (-\infty) = -\infty</math>
# <math> x - \infty = -\infty</math>
# <math> x - (-\infty) = \infty</math>
# <math>{x \over \infty} = 0</math> and <math>{x \over -\infty} = 0</math>
# If <math>0<x<\infty</math> then <math>x \cdot \infty = \infty</math> and <math>x \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty)</math>.
# If <math>-\infty<x<0</math> then <math>x \cdot \infty = -\infty</math> and <math>x \cdot (-\infty) = \infty</math>.
==== Undefined operations ====
# <math>0 \cdot \infty</math> and <math>0 \cdot (-\infty)</math>
# <math>\infty + (-\infty)</math> and <math>(-\infty) + \infty</math>
# <math>{\pm\infty \over \pm\infty}</math>
# <math>{\pm\infty}^0</math>
# <math>1^{\pm\infty}</math>
Notice that <math>[{x \over \infty} = 0] \not\equiv [0 \cdot \infty = x]</math>. This is because zero times infinity is undefined.
=== Infinities in nonstandard analysis===
The original formulation of the calculus by Newton and Leibniz used infinitesimal quantities. In the twentieth century, it was shown that this treatment could be put on a rigorous footing through various logical systems, including [[smooth infinitesimal analysis]] and [[nonstandard analysis]]. In the latter, infinitesimals are invertible, and their inverses are infinite numbers. There is not just one size of infinity. For example if H is an infinite number, then H + H = 2H is a different infinite number.
=== Infinity in set theory ===
A different type of "infinity" are the [[ordinal]] and [[cardinal number|cardinal]] infinities of set theory. [[Georg Cantor]] developed a system of [[transfinite number]]s, in which the first transfinite cardinal is [[aleph number|aleph-null]] (<math>\aleph_0</math>), the [[cardinality]] of the set of [[natural number]]s. This modern mathematical conception of the quantitative infinite developed in the late nineteenth century from work by Cantor, [[Gottlob Frege]], [[Richard Dedekind]] and others, |
odMenuPrimerNivel=2&codMenuSegundoNivel=10&codMenu=40
| title = History of San Roque, donde reside la de Gibraltar (''History of San Roque, where that of Gibraltar lives on''), in Spanish
| publisher = San Roque City Council
| accessdate = 2005-12-15
}}
# {{note|Hills3}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 177.
# {{note
| Sepulveda2
}}''Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza'', p. 91.
# {{note|oldinhabitants}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.gibconnect.com/~loonylenny/Oldinhabitants/oldinhabitants.htm
| title = The Old (Spanish) Inhabitants of Gibraltar who remained in town after the Rock was captured by the British in 1704
| work = Loony Lenny online. Gibraltar for kids
| accessdate = 2005-12-15
}}
# {{note|Jackson3}} {{note_label|Jackson3|16|a}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 114.
# {{note|lettergeorgei}} {{cite web
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=37765
| title = Letter from George I to the King of Spain On the restitution of Gibraltar (1/6/1721)
| publisher = British History Online
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|catholic}} {{cite web
| author = Catholic Encyclopedia
| year = 1913
| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06550a.htm
| title = ''Vicariate Apostolic of Gibraltar
| publisher = New Advent
| accessdate = 2006-01-02
}}
# {{note|Hills4}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 368.
# {{note|felix}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.adolfhitler.ws/lib/proc/direct18.html
| title = Operation Felix. Directive No.18
| work = Adolf Hitler Historical Record
| publisher = adolfhitler.ws
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|un2231}} {{cite web
| author = UN General Assembly
| year = 1966
| url = http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm
| title = Resolution 2231(XXI). Question of Gibraltar
| format = PDF
| work = Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its Twenty-First Session
| publisher = United Nations
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|un2353}} {{cite web
| author = UN General Assembly
| year = 1967
| url = http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/22/ares22.htm
| title = Resolution 2353(XXII). Question of Gibraltar
| format = PDF
| work = Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its Twenty-Second Session
| publisher = United Nations
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|incipe}} {{cite web
| author = Jesús Salgado (coord.)
| year = 1996
| url = http://www.incipe.org/gibraltar.pdf
| title = Informe sobre Gibraltar (''Report on Gibraltar'') (Spanish)
| format = PDF
| publisher = INCIPE (Instituto de Cuestiones Internacionales y Política Exterior)
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|Jackson4}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 316.
# {{note|doves}} {{cite web
| author = Giles Tremlett
| year = [[November 7]] [[2002]]
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/gibraltar/story/0,11525,835097,00.html
| title = Rock's voters signal rejection of Spanish deal
| work = Special Report. Gibraltar
| publisher = The Guardian
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|spaniards}} {{cite web
| author = Tito Benady
| year = 2001
| url = http://www.iteg.org/documentos/spaniards_in_gibraltar.pdf
| title = Spaniards in Gibraltar after the Treaty of Utrecht
| format = PDF
| publisher = Instituto Transfronterizo del Estrecho de Gibraltar - Transborder Institute of the Strait of Gibraltar
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|Jackson5}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 316.
# {{note|brussels}} {{cite web
| author = Governments of the United Kingdom and Spain
| year = [[27 November]] [[1984]]
| url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/brussels_agreement.html
| title = The Brussels Agreement
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|airport}} {{cite web
| author = Governments of the United Kingdom and Spain
| year = [[2 December]] [[1987]]
| url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/airport_agreement.html
| title = The Airport Agreement
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|tireless}} {{cite web
| author = Ministerio español de Asuntos Exteriores (''Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs'')
| url = http://www.mae.es/mae/util/PrintDocumento.jsp?idNodo=4000&plantilla=PrintSimple&
| title = Press conference of the Spanish Foreign Office Minister, Mr. Pique in London, of 2001 [[January 24]]
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|benach}} {{cite web
| author = The Environmental Safety Group
| year = 28/11/05
| url = http://www.gibnews.net/cgi-bin/gn_view.pl/?ESGX051128_1.xml
| title = ESG Press Release: Professor Benach meets Government and Hassans
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|rota}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/rota.htm
| title = Naval Station Rota Report
| publisher = Globalsecurity.org
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|iu}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.izquierda-unida.es/iualdia/2004/julio/12/andalucia.htm
| title = IULV-CA rechaza el atraque del Tireless y se compromete a fiscalizar a la junta en la desnuclearización de Andalucía
| year = 2004, [[July 8]]
| author = [[United Left (Spain)
| Izquierda Unida]]
| accessdate = 2005-12-30
}}
# {{note|observers}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.gibnet.com/texts/ref02or.pdf
| title = Gibraltar Referendum Observers Report
| year = December, 2002
| accessdate = 2006-01-20
| format = PDF
| author = Committee of Observers
}}
# {{note|washtimes}} {{cite web
| author = Peter Almond
| year = 2004, [[August 14]]
| url = http://www.washtimes.com/upi-breaking/20040804-102838-7490r.htm
| title = U.K. ignores Spain on Gibraltar tercentenary
| publisher = The Washington Times
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|tri}} {{cite web
| author = Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/new_dialogue_forum_statement_October_2004.html
| title = Joint Statement Announcing new Dialogue Forum - 'Tripartite Talks' for Gibraltar
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
</div>
==External links==
*[http://www.gibconnect.com/~loonylenny/timeline/timeline.htm A Timeline of Gibraltar's History in ''Gibraltar for kids'']
*[http://www.discovergibraltar.com/other/history/history.htm History of Gibraltar (detailed) in discoverGibraltar.com]
*[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/about_gib/history/history_index.htm Government of Gibraltar website: History of Gibraltar]
*[http://www.chronicle.gi/Features/tommy%20finlayson.htm The Struggle by Democracy, by T J Finlayson]. A history of the political evolution of Gibraltar from the 19th century to 2000.
[[Category:History of Europe|Gibraltar]]
[[Category:History of Gibraltar]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[es:Historia de Gibraltar]]
[[fr:Histoire de Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Gibraltar</title>
<id>12079</id>
<revision>
<id>15909787</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-22T04:52:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]] -- merged with main page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Gibraltar</title>
<id>12080</id>
<revision>
<id>27334656</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-04T09:20:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grutness</username>
<id>117878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Population:'''
29,481 (July [[2000]] est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
21% (male 3,167; female 3,013)
<br>''15-64 years:''
65% (male 10,141; female 8,925)
<br>''65 years and over:''
14% (male 1,769; female 2,466) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
0.91% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
14.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
8.45 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
3.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.14 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.72 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
5.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
78.95 years
<br>''male:''
76.09 years
<br>''female:''
81.96 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.15 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Gibraltarian(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Gibraltar
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Gibraltarian British (of mixed [[Genoa|Genoese]], [[Malta|Maltese]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]], with some [[Germany|German]] descent), other [[Great Britain|British]], [[Moroccan|Moroccan]], [[India]]n.
'''Religions:'''
[[Roman Catholic]] 76.9%, [[Church of England]] 6.9%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 6.9%, [[Jew|Jewish]] 2.3%, other (including [[Hinduism|Hindu]]) or none 7% (1991)
'''Languages:'''
[[English language|English]] (used in schools and for official purposes), [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Most Gibraltarians converse in a [[patois]] called ''[[llanito]]'' or ''[[Yanito]]'', which is a mix of Andalucian Spanish and [[British English|British]] English with [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] loan words.
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
NA
<br>''total population:''
above 80%
<br>''male:''
NA%
<br>''female:''
NA%
:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]
{{Gibraltar-stub}}
[[Category:Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Gibraltar</title>
<id>12081</id>
<revision>
|
ly_and_unsafely_typed|safe]], [[Datatype#Nominative_vs_structural_typing|nominative]]
|implementations = [[GNAT]]
|dialects = Ada&nbsp;83, Ada&nbsp;95, Ada&nbsp;2005
|influenced_by = [[ALGOL]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[C++]] (Ada&nbsp;95), [[Smalltalk]] (Ada&nbsp;95)
|influenced = [[C++]]
}}
'''Ada''' is a [[Structured programming|structured]], [[statically typed]] [[Imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] designed by a team led by [[Jean Ichbiah]] of [[Groupe Bull|CII Honeywell Bull]] during [[1977]]&ndash;[[1983]]. It addresses many of the same tasks as [[C programming language|C]] or [[C++]], but with one of the best [[Type safety|type-safety]] systems available in a [[statically typed]] programming language. Ada was named after [[Ada Lovelace]], often credited as the first computer programmer.
== Features ==
Ada was originally targeted at [[embedded system|embedded]] and [[real-time]] systems, and is still commonly used for those purposes. The Ada&nbsp;95 revision, designed by [[Tucker Taft|S. Tucker Taft]] of [[Intermetrics]] between [[1992]] and [[1995]], improved support for systems, numerical, and financial programming.
Notable features of Ada include [[strongly typed languages|strong typing]], [[modularity (programming)|modularity mechanisms]] (packages), [[run-time checking]], [[parallel processing]] (tasks), [[exception handling]], and [[generic programming|generic]]s. Ada&nbsp;95 added support for [[object-oriented programming]], including [[dynamic dispatch]].
Ada supports run-time checks in order to protect against access to unallocated memory, [[buffer overflow]] errors, [[off by one errors]], array access errors, and other avoidable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, it is very widely used in critical systems like [[avionics]], weapons and spacecraft.
It also supports a large number of compile-time checks to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code.
Ada's dynamic [[memory management]] is safe and high-level, like Java and unlike C. The specification does not require any particular implementation. Though the semantics of the language allow automatic [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it. Ada does support a limited form of [[region-based storage management]]. Invalid accesses can always be detected at run time (unless of course the check is turned off) and sometimes at compile time.
The Ada language definition is unusual among [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standards in that it is [[free content]]. One result of this is that the standard document (known as the ''Ada Reference Manual'' or ''ARM'') is the usual reference Ada programmers resort to for technical details, in the same way as a particular standard textbook serves other programming languages.
== History ==
In the [[1970s]], the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] (DoD) was concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In [[1975]] the [[Higher Order Language Working Group]] (HOLWG) was formed with the intent of reducing this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's requirements; the result was Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell from over 450 in [[1983]] to 37 by [[1996]].
{{Wikisource|Steelman language requirements}} The [[working group]] created a series of language requirements documents&mdash;the Strawman, Woodenman, Tinman, Ironman and [[Steelman language requirements|Steelman]] documents. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in [[1977]] that no existing language met the specifications.
Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red ([[Intermetrics]] led by [[Benjamin Brosgol]]), Green ([[CII Honeywell Bull]], led by [[Jean Ichbiah]]), Blue ([[SofTech]], led by [[John Goodenough]]), and Yellow ([[SRI International]], led by [[Jay Spitzen ]]).<!-- Though Intermetrics and Bull have previous links, I am including them for parallelism. --> In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May of [[1979]], the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada&mdash;after [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace]]. This proposal was influenced by the programming language [[LIS programming language|LIS]] that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the [[1970s]]. The preliminary Ada reference manual
was published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on [[December 10]], [[1980]] ([[Ada Lovelace]]'s birthday), and
given the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada Lovelace's birth year.
[[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|right|caption|thumbnail|157px|[[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada King]], Countess of Lovelace.]]
In [[1987]], the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the ''Ada mandate'') for every software project where new code was more than 30% of result, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. This requirement was effectively removed in [[1997]], as the DoD began to embrace COTS ([[commercial off-the-shelf]]) technology. Similar requirements existed in other [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] countries.
Because Ada is a strongly-typed language, it has been used outside the military in commercial aviation projects, where a software bug can mean fatalities. The fly-by-wire system in the [[Boeing 777]] runs software written in Ada.
The language became an [[ANSI]] standard in [[1983]] ([http://archive.adaic.com/standards/83lrm/html/Welcome.html ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A], and
without any further changes became
an [[International standard|ISO standard]] in [[1987]] (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada&nbsp;83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada&nbsp;87, from the date of its adoption by ISO.
Ada&nbsp;95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard ([http://www.adaic.org/standards/95lrm/html/RM-TTL.html ISO-8652:1995]) is the latest standard for Ada. It was published in February [[1995]] (making Ada&nbsp;95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language). To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the [[US Air Force]] funded the development of the [[GNAT]] [[Compiler]]. Nowadays the GNAT Compiler is part of the [[GNU Compiler Collection]].
Work continues on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada&nbsp;95 was published in October [[2001]]. Presently, more work is being done to produce the roughly once-a-decade major update
to Ada, expected in [[2007]] (see [http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG9/projects.htm#AMD official schedule]). This new version is commonly known as Ada&nbsp;2005, just as Ada&nbsp;95 was commonly known as Ada&nbsp;94 prior to its publication.
== "Hello, world!" in Ada ==
A common example of a language's [[syntax]] is the [[Hello world program]]:
'''with''' Ada.Text_IO;
'''procedure''' Hello '''is'''
'''begin'''
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line("Hello, world!");
'''end''' Hello;
There are shortcuts available for <tt>Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line</tt>, needing less typing, however they are not used here for better understanding. For a detailed explanation see [[Wikibooks:Ada Programming/Basic]].
== The Ariane 5 failure ==
A commonly encountered myth blames the loss of [[Ariane 5 Flight 501]], a [[European Space Agency]] [[Ariane 5]] rocket, on a bug in an Ada program or on disabling Ada's runtime checks. For the [[Ariane 4]] it had been proven that those runtime checks weren't needed. Although range checks and appropriate exception handlers on all type conversions might have trapped the problem, the problem itself was a design decision to reuse a part and its software from the [[Ariane 4]] rocket without adequate analysis of its suitability or tests on [[Ariane 5]] data.
== See also ==
=== Online tutorials ===
Ada has always been a very open language, and there are many online tutorials available. The following sites have link collections to Ada tutorials
* [[wikibooks:Programming:Ada:Tutorials|Wikibook tutorial for programming in Ada]] - needs some additions
* [http://www.adahome.com/Tutorials at Adahome] - not updated very recently however
* [http://www.adaworld.com/tutorialsmain.html at adaworld] - this site is very good
* [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php at Computer-Books.us] - A collection of Ada books available for free download.
=== Organizations ===
*[[Ada Information Clearinghouse]]
*[[SIGAda]] - [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Special Interest Group on Ada
*[[Ada-Europe]] - European organization to promote the use of Ada
=== Compilers ===
* [[GNAT]] - [[GNAT Modified General Public License|Free]] compiler based on [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]
* [[JGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[Java Runtime Environment]]
* [[MGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[.NET Framework]] Environment ([[A Sharp (.NET)|A#]] project)
* [[ObjectAda]]
=== Tools ===
* [[Aunit]]
* [[AdaGIDE]] (A free GNAT Ada [[Integrated Development Environment]] for Windows)
* [[GNAT Programming Studio]] (GPS)
* [[GNAVI]] (Ada Visual RAD)
* [[GN |
o its members, and criticism from Jewish groups began again. The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], is on record as opposing the vicarious baptism of Holocaust victims. Rabbi [[Marvin Hier]] of the Center holds: "If these people did not contact the Mormons themselves, the adage should be: Don't call me, I'll call you. With the greatest of respect to them, we do not think they are the exclusive arbitrators of who is saved." Recently Church leaders have agreed to meet with leaders of the [[World Gathering of Jewish Holocaust Survivors]].
In December 2002, independent researcher [[Helen Radkey]] published a report showing that the Church's 1995 promise to remove Jewish Nazi victims from its International Genealogical Index was not sufficient; her research of the Church's database uncovered the names of about 19,000 who had a 40 to 50 percent chance of having "the potential to be Holocaust victims...in Russia, Poland, France, and Austria."
Genealogist [[Bernard Kouchel]] conducted a search of the International Genealogical Index, and discovered that many well known Jews have been vicariously baptized, including [[Rashi]], [[Maimonides]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Menachem Begin]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[Marc Chagall]], and [[Gilda Radner]]. Some permissions may have been obtained, but there is not currently a system in place to ensure that these permissions have been obtained, which has angered many in various religious and cultural communities.
In 2004, Schelly Talalay Dardashti, Jewish genealogy columnist for [[Jerusalem Post|''The Jerusalem Post'']] noted that Jews, even those with no Mormon descendants, are being rebaptised after being removed from the rolls. In an interview, D. Todd Christofferson, a church official, told ''The New York Times'' that it was not feasible for church to continuously monitor the archives to ensure that no new Jewish names appear. The agreement referred to above did not place this type of responsibility on the centralized Church leadership.
''See also:'' [[ancestor liberation]]
==References==
*Roberts, B.H. (editor); ''History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''; The Deseret Book Company; ISBN 0-87579-490-4 (revised 2nd edition, softcover, 1975)
*Tvedtnes, John A.; ''Baptism for the Dead: The Coptic Rationale''; Retrieved Aug 19, 2003, from http://www.fairlds.org/apol/misc/misc23.html
==External links==
=== Links with a Neutral Viewpoint about Baptism for the Dead===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/mormon/features/rites/baptismdead.shtml Baptism for the Dead] The BBC's Religion and Ethics report
*[http://www.ctlibrary.com/ct/1998/august10/8t9063.html Directions: Did Paul Baptize for the Dead?] From Christianity Today
*[http://prosblogion.ektopos.com/archives/2005/06/baptism_for_the.html Baptism for the Dead] A philosophical consideration of paedobaptism and baptism for the dead.
=== Opposed to Mormon Baptism for the Dead ===
* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc01/htm/iii.ix.xiii.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library]
* [http://christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-r001.html Christian Answers]
* [http://www.cornerstonechurchonline.com/biblestudies/baptism4thedead.htm Cornerstone Church, Garden City, Kansas]
* [http://www.nccg.org/FAQ116-BapDead.html New Covenant Church of God]
=== In Favor of Baptism for the Dead ===
* [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/temples/Baptism_Ancient_EOM.htm Ancient Sources for Baptism of the Dead] By Krister Stendahl
* [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_BaptDead.shtml Questions about Baptism for the Dead] By Jeff Lindsay
* [http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=297 Does the Bible Teach Salvation for the Dead?] By John A. Tvedtnes
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/2671/ECBapDd.html Mormonism and Early Christianity: Baptism for the Dead] By Barry Bickmore
* [http://deseretbook.com/personalwritings/78 To All the Saints] Letters from Joseph Smith regarding proxy baptisms
===About unauthorized proxy baptisms===
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/West/12/10/baptizing.the.dead.ap/ ''Mormons meet with Jews over baptizing Holocaust victims'' from CNN.com]
* [http://www.sltrib.com/2002/Dec/12122002/utah/10420.asp ''LDS Church Reaffirms No Proxy Baptisms of Jews'' from The Salt Lake Tribune]
* [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1088650997941&apage=1 Vicarious baptism of Jews continues in 2004]
[[de:Totentaufe]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism]]
[[Category:Baptism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beltane</title>
<id>4306</id>
<revision>
<id>38837593</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T23:34:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jonathanischoice</username>
<id>89764</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Gaelic holiday. For the [[Celtic metal|Celtic doom metal]] band see [[Beltaine (band)]], for the [[Inkubus Sukkubus]] album see [[Beltaine (album)]], and for the song by [[Marc Bolan]] and [[T. Rex (band)|T. Rex]] see [[Beltane Walk]].''
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="40%" style="float:right; margin-left:15px"
| colspan="3" bgcolor=#33FFFF | <center><font size="+1">'''Beltane'''</font></center>
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Observed by:
| bgcolor="white" | [[Gaels]], [[neopaganism|Neopagans]],
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Other names
| bgcolor="white" | Beltaine, Bealtuinn
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Meaning:
| bgcolor="white" | "Bright fire"
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Begins:
| bgcolor="white" | Around the midpoint of the Sun's movement<br>between the [[Vernal Equinox]] and [[Summer Solstice]].
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Occasion:
| bgcolor="white" | Traditional first day of summer in Ireland
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Symbols:
| bgcolor="white" | Bale fire
|-
| bgcolor="#33FFFF" | Related to:
| bgcolor="white" | [[Walpurgis Night]], [[May Day]]
|}
'''Beltane''' or '''Beltaine''' is an ancient [[Gaels|Gaelic]] holiday celebrated around [[May 1]]. '''Bealtaine''' (pronounced [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ˈbʲɑlˠ.t̪ˠə.n̪ʲə}}/) is the name for the month of [[May]] in [[Irish language|modern Irish]], and is also the traditional first day of summer in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. It is a [[Cross-quarter day]], marking the midpoint in the [[Sun]]'s progress between the [[Vernal Equinox]] and [[Summer Solstice]]. The [[astronomy|astronomical]] date for this midpoint (Old Beltane) is slightly later, [[May 5]].
==Etymology==
''Beltane'' derives from the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Beáltaine'' or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ''Bealtuinn''; both from Old Irish ''Beltene'' "bright fire" from ''belo-te(p)niâ''), where ''belo-'' is allied to the English word ''bale'' (as in ''bale-fire''), the [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''bael'', and also the [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''baltas'', meaning "white" or "shining" from which the [[Baltic]] takes its name.
In [[Gaelic]] the terminal vowel ''-o'' (from ''Belo'') was dropped, as shown by numerous other transformations from early or Proto-Celtic to Early Irish, thus the Gaulish god-names [[Belenos]] ("bright one") and his partner [[Belisama]]. Belenos was probably the same divinity, originally from ''belo-nos'' "our shining one", is also from the same source, as was [[Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] [[Cymbeline|Cym-beline]].
From the same [[Proto-Celtic]] roots we get a wide range of other words: the verb ''beothaich'', from Early Celtic ''belo-thaich'' (to kindle, light, revive, or re-animate); ''baos'', from ''Baelos'' (shining); ''beòlach'' (ashes with hot embers), from ''beò'' (originally ''belo'') + ''luathach'', "shiny-ashes" or "live-ashes".
Metaphorically a ''beolach'' was also a shining youth or a lively youth, a hero, ''beò-lach'' or ''belo-lach''; for ''-lach'' (youth). Similarly ''boil'', ''boile'' came from "fiery madness", through Irish ''buile'', Early Irish ''baile'': and ''boillsg'' (gleam); ''bolg-s-cio-''; related to [[Latin]] ''fulgeo'', "shine", English ''effulgent'', Lithuanian ''blizgù'', glance, shine, English ''blink'' (where the shine causes eyes to shut), [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''bhleg'' -> ''fulgeo'' ([[Grimms' Law]]). In this way the Celtic tribe of [[Belgae]] in Northern France from which Belgium today takes its name, may derive from the same root. One of its tribes was called the [[Bellovaci]]. Some have suggested that the Ancient Irish "[[Fir Bolg]]" (i.e. "the Shining Ones") of [[Celtic mythology]] may have derived from the same word.
==Origins of Beltane==
Early Gaelic sources from around the [[10th century]] state that the [[Druidry|Druid]]s would create a [[need-fire]] on top of a hill on this day and rush the village's cattle through the fires to purify them and bring luck ("Eadar dà theine Bhealltuinn" in Scottish Gaelic, "Between two fires of Beltane"). People would also go between the fires to purify themselves. This was echoed throughout history after [[Christianization]], with lay people instead of Druid priests creating the need-fire. The festival persisted widely up until the [[1950s]], and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today. A revived Beltane Fire Festival has been held every year (except [[2003]]) during the night of [[30 April]] on [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]] in [[Edinburgh]], [ |
rad]] ([[Russia]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Treptow-Köpenick]] ([[Berlin]]), since 1990
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Katowice]] ([[Poland]]), since 1991
* {{flagicon|Palestine}} - [[Bethlehem]] ([[West Bank|West Bank, Israel]]), since 1996
* {{flagicon|Turkey}} - [[İstanbul]] ([[Turkey]]), since 1997
|}
==Landmarks==
The centre of Cologne was completely destroyed during World War II. The reconstruction of the city, while respecting the old layout and naming of the streets, followed the style of the 1950s. Thus, the city today is characterised by simple and modest post-war buildings, with few interspersed pre-war buildings which were reconstructed due to their historical importance. Some buildings of the "Wiederaufbauzeit" (era of reconstruction) as e.g. the opera house by [[Wilhelm Riphahn]] are nowadays regarded as classics in modern architecture. Nevertheless, the uncompromising modern style of the opera house and other modern buildings is disputed until today.
* [[Cologne Cathedral]] (German: ''Kölner Dom'') is the city's famous landmark and unofficial symbol. It is a [[gothic architecture|Gothic]] [[church]], started in [[1248]], and completed in [[1880]]. In [[1996]], it was designated a [[World Heritage site]]; it claims to house the [[Relic|relics]] of the [[Biblical Magi|Three Magi]]. It is interesting to note, that the residents of Cologne call the cathedral "the eternal construction site". They predict that by the time the renovation of the building has finished the end of the world will be upon us!
* Twelve [http://www.romanische-kirchen-koeln.de/ Romanesque Churches]: These buildings are outstanding examples of medieval sacral architecture. The roots of some of the churches date back even to Roman times, like St. Gereon, which originally was a chapel on a Roman graveyard. With the exception of St. Maria Lyskirchen all of these churches had been very badly damaged during World War II. Reconstruction was only finished in the 1990s.
* [[University of Cologne|Cologne University]], with approx. 44,000 students as of 2005, is one of the largest universities in Germany.
* Fragrance-Museum Farina House, the birthplace of [[Eau de Cologne]].
* [[Römisch-Germanisches Museum]] (English: Roman-Germanic Museum)
* [[Wallraf-Richartz Museum]]
* [[Museum Ludwig]]
* [[Kölner Philharmonie]] - the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra (also known as Gürzenich Orchestra) and the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra Building
* [[RheinEnergieStadion]], the major Cologne stadium, primarily used for [[soccer|football]] games, seating 50,997 visitors in national games and 46,134 in international games, home to the local [[Bundesliga (football)|Bundesliga]] team, [[1.FC Köln]], and to the local [[NFL Europe]] team, the [[Cologne Centurions]].
* Kölnarena, a multifunctional event hall, home to the local [[ice hockey]] team, the [[Kölner Haie]] (English: Cologne Sharks).
* [[Kölnturm]] (English: Cologne Tower), with 150 metres in height Cologne's second tallest building, second only to the cathedral.
* [[Colonius]] - a telecommunication tower with an observation deck.
* [[Colonia-Hochhaus]] - Germany's tallest residential building.
* [[Hansa-Hochhaus]] - designed by architect Jakob Koerfer and completed in 1925, it was Europe's tallest office building.
* [[Rheinseilbahn]] - an aerial tramway crossing the [[Rhine]].
* [[Fair Tower Cologne|Messeturm Köln]] (English: Exhibition Tower Cologne).
* ''Hohe Strasse'' (English: High Street) is one of the main shopping areas and extends past the cathedral in an approximately southern direction. This street is particularly popular with tourists and contains many gift shops, clothing stores, (fast food) restaurants and electronic goods dealers.
* [[Ford Motor Company]] plants, assembling the [[Ford Fiesta]] and [[Ford Fusion (European)|Ford Fusion]] as well as manufacturing engines and parts.
* ''Schildergasse'' - extends the shopping area of ''Hohe Strasse'' to the West ending at ''Neumarkt''.
* ''Ehrenstrasse'' - the shopping area around Apostelnstrasse, Ehrenstrasse, and Rudolfplatz is a little more on the eccentric and stylish side.
* Historic ''Ringe'' boulevards (such as Hohenzollernring, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring, Hansaring) with their medieval city gates (such as Hahnentorburg on Rudolfplatz) are also known for their night life.
* German Sports & Olympic Museum, with expositions about sports from antiquity until present.
* [[Schokoladenmuseum]] (Chocolatemuseum) officially called Imhoff-Stollwerck-Museum.
<BR>
[[Image:Panorama cologne 20050114.jpg|750px|center]]
==Famous Cologners==
Famous people whose roots can be found in Cologne:
* [[Konrad Adenauer|Adenauer, Konrad]] ([[January 5]], [[1876]] - [[April 19]], [[1967]]), politician, Mayor of Cologne from [[1917]] to [[1933]] and [[German Chancellor]] between [[1949]] and [[1963]]
* [[Heinrich Böll|Böll, Heinrich]] ([[December 21]], [[1917]] - [[July 16]], [[1985]]), writer and winner of the [[Nobel prize for literature]] in [[1972]]
* [[Alex Calatrava|Calatrava, Alex]] ([[June 14]], [[1973]]), Spanish professional tennis player
* [[Udo Kier|Kier, Udo]] (born [[October 14]], [[1944]]), actor
* [[Heiner Lauterbach|Lauterbach, Heiner]] (born [[April 10]], [[1953]]), actor
* [[Willy Millowitsch|Millowitsch, Willy]] ([[January 8]], [[1909]] - [[September 20]], [[1999]]), actor and playwright
* [[Ottmar Liebert|Liebert, Ottmar]] (born [[February 1]], [[1961]]), musician
* [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach, Jacques]] ([[June 20]], [[1819]] - [[October 5]], [[1880]]), composer
* [[Joost van den Vondel|Vondel, Joost van den]] ([[November 17]], [[1587]] - [[February 5]], [[1679]]), poet and playwright
==External links==
{{Commons|Cologne}}
===Official information===
* [http://www.koeln.de Cologne], official Cologne portal
* [http://www.stadt-koeln.de City of Cologne], official City of Cologne information portal for inhabitants
* [http://www.domforum.de/ Domforum], Cologne Cathedral's official website
* [http://www.uni-koeln.de/ University of Cologne]
* [http://www.kirchenkoeln.de/ Churches of Cologne]
* [http://www.museenkoeln.de/ Cologne Museums]
* [http://www.koelnmusik.de/ Cologne Philharmonics]
* [http://www.zoo-koeln.de/ Cologne Zoo]
===Tourism and travel===
* [http://www.koeln.de/tourismus/koelntourismus/ Cologne Tourist Board]
* [http://www.koelnverkehr.de/ Cologne Traffic Information]
* [http://www.airport-cgn.de/ Cologne Airport]
* [http://www.kvb-koeln.de/ KVB] - Cologne Public Transportation
* [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ln/Bildergalerie Photo Gallery]
* [http://www.Farina-Haus.de/ Eau de Cologne Museum]
* [http://www.wjt2005.de/index.php 20th World Youth Day 2005]
* [http://www.stadtplan.net/LRF403372 Cologne City Map] at [http://www.stadtplan.net/ stadtplan.net]
* [http://www.vinc3nt.com/cologne 250 pictures with guide of Cologne's places of interest]
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/cologne/cologne.html Cologne City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and Virtual Tours
* {{wikitravel}}
===Culture and history===
* [http://www.koelsch-akademie.de/ Academy for the Language of Cologne]
* [http://www.rote-funken.de Rote Funken]
* [http://www.ag-festung-koeln.de/ The Prussian fortress Cologne]
* [http://wikoelsch.dergruenepunk.de/index.php/Köln Cologne in the Kölsch Wiki Projekt (Ripuarian)]
----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]
[[Category:Cologne|*]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League]]
[[Category:Roman legions camps]]
<!-- interlanguage links - do not remove -->
[[af:Keulen]]
[[als:Köln]]
[[ar:كولونيا]]
[[bg:Кьолн]]
[[ca:Colònia (Alemanya)]]
[[cs:Kolín nad Rýnem]]
[[da:Köln]]
[[de:Köln]]
[[et:Köln]]
[[es:Colonia (Renania del Norte-Westfalia)]]
[[eo:Kolonjo]]
[[fa:کلن]]
[[fr:Cologne]]
[[ko:쾰른]]
[[id:Köln]]
[[it:Colonia (Germania)]]
[[he:קלן]]
[[ku:Köln]]
[[la:Colonia Agrippina]]
[[lb:Köln]]
[[lv:Ķelne]]
[[li:Kölle]]
[[lb:Köln]]
[[nl:Keulen]]
[[ja:ケルン]]
[[no:Köln]]
[[pl:Kolonia (miasto)]]
[[pt:Colônia (Alemanha)]]
[[ro:Köln]]
[[ru:Кёльн]]
[[scn:Culonia]]
[[simple:Cologne]]
[[sk:Kolín nad Rýnom]]
[[fi:Köln]]
[[sv:Köln]]
[[tl:Cologne]]
[[tr:Köln]]
[[zh:科隆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buddhist cuisine</title>
<id>6188</id>
<revision>
<id>39921071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T21:05:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.71.223.140</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Common sources for Buddhist foods */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
<div style="float: right; padding-left: 1em;">
{| style="border:1px solid black"
!style="background: #0011B0; border-bottom:1px solid= #FFD0FB" colspan=2|<font color="white"> "Buddhist cuisine"</font>
|-
|'''In [[Chinese language|Chinese]]'''
|-
| <small>[[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional form]]:</small> || 齋菜
|-
| <small>[[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified form]]:</small>|| 斋菜
|-
| <small> [[Pinyin|Romanization]]: </small> || ''zh&#257;i cài''
|-
|
|-
|'''In [[Japanese language|Japanese]]'''
|-
| <small>In [[Kanji|Kanji]]:</small> || 精進料理
|-
| <small>In [[Kana|Kana]]: </small>|| しょうじんりょうり
|-
| <small>[[Romaji|Romanization]]: </small> ||''shōjin ryōri''
|}
</div>
'''Buddhist cuisine''' is a kind of [[cuisine]] mainly for the believers of [[Buddhism]]. It is known as ''zh&#257;i cài'' (''zh&#257;i'' means "purification" or "discipline", ''cai'' means "cuisine" or "vegetable") in [[China]], and ''shōjin ryōri'' (''shōjin'' means "devotion", ''ryōri'' means "cuisine" ) in [[Japan]], and by many other names in other countries.
== Three types of restrictions ==
[[Reincarnation]] is one basic tenet of [[Buddhism]], and this includes reb |
2004, or almost 5% of net income).
Since [[1998]] Harley-Davidson has also owned [[Buell Motorcycle Company]].
== The Harley-Davidson V-twin engine==
[[Image:Harley_V-twin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Harley-Davidson''' 45° V-twin, Evo Sportster.]]
The classic Harley-Davidson engines are two-[[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]], [[V-twin]] engines with the pistons placed at a 45 degree angle. The [[crankshaft]] has a single pin, and both [[piston]]s are connected to this pin through their [[connecting rod]]s. This design causes the pistons to fire at uneven intervals.
On the V-twin, the sequence is as follows:
# the first piston fires (this is the 0° position)
# the other piston fires at 315° into the stroke
# there is a 405° gap (as both cylinders go through their exhaust stroke) until the first piston fires again
This design, which is covered under several [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|United States patent]]s, gives the Harley-Davidson V-twin its unique "potato-potato" sound.
On [[1 February]] [[1994]], the company filed a [[trademark]] application for
the distinctive sound of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: "The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use". Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. After six years, Harley-Davidson withdrew their trademark application.
[[Image:harley.electraglide.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Harley-Davidson''' Electra Glide "Ultra Classic".]]
===The Big Twins===
* [[Flathead engine|Flathead]], 1909-1936.
* [[Knucklehead]], 1936-47, 61 and 74 cubic inches (1.0 and 1.2 L)
* [[Panhead]], 1948-65, 61 and 74 cubic inches (1.0 and 1.2 L)
* Shovelhead, 1966-85, 74 cubic inches (1.2 L) and 80 cubic inches since late 1978
* Evolution (aka "Evo" and "Blockhead"), 1984-99, 80 cubic inches (1.3 L)
* Twin Cam 88 (aka "Fathead") 1999-present, 88 cubic inches (1.4 L)
* Twin Cam 88B (counter balanced version of the Twin Cam 88) 2000-present, 88 cubic inches (1.4 L)
* All Big Twins are air-cooled 45-degree V-Twins.
===The Sportsters===
* Ironhead, 1957-1985, 900 and 1000 cc
* Evolution, 1986-present, 883, 1100 and 1200 cc
===Revolution water-cooled engine===
* Revolution, 2002-present, 69 cubic inches (1.13 L), 60 degree V-twin, Liquid cooled.
* Used in VRSC (V-Twin Racing Street Custom) models. At first it was used in a single model called the V-Rod; it now comes in four consumer models: The V-Rod, the "roadster-styled" Street Rod, the long and low Night Rod, and the VRSCSE² Screamin’ Eagle V-Rod.
* There is also a non-street fifth variant: the VRXSE SE Destroyer. The Screamin’ Eagle V-Rod Destroyer is a 165+hp, professional-level drag-racing motorcycle designed exclusively for competition by Harley-Davidson Custom Vehicle Operations; it comes stock with larger 79 cu.in. engine, air shifter and wheelie bar, among other features. The Destroyer is a turn-key motorcycle tuned to make sub 10-second quarter-mile runs in the hands of a pro-level rider.
==Model designations==
Harley model designations are a sequence of letters and numbers, combined in limited ways. The sequences can be long, as in the [[2006]] model designation FLHTCUSE.
The first letter is one of the following:
:F (Big Twin), M (Military), X (Sportster), or V (VRSC)
Letters are appended singly or in pairs, as follows:
:B (Belt Drive), C (Classic or Custom), D (Dyna Glide), DG (Disk Glide), E (Electric start), F (Fat Boy (1990-present) or Foot-shift (1972 and prior)), H (High compression), L (Hydra Glide forks), LR (Low Rider), P (Police), R (Race or Rubber-mount), S (Sport or Springer), SB (Single belt final drive), ST ([[Softail]]), T (Touring), WG (Wide Glide), I (Fuel injection), SE (Screamin’ Eagle), U (Ultra)
Custom Vehicle Operations models can also have a number (2,3,4) added.
Note that these conventions for model designations are broken regularly by the company.
== History ==
=== Company founding ===
The company considers [[1903]] to be its year of founding, though the Harley-Davidson enterprise could be considered to have started in [[1901]] when William S. Harley, age 21, drew up plans for a small engine that displaced 7.07 cubic inches (116cc) and had four-inch flywheels. The engine was designed for use in a regular pedal-bicycle frame.
Over the next two years Harley and his boyhood pal Arthur Davidson labored on their little motor-bicycle using the northside machine shop of their friend Henry Melk. It was finished in [[1903]] with the help of Arthur's brother, Walter Davidson. Upon completion the boys found their little "power-cycle" unable to conquer Milwaukee's modest hills without pedal assistance. Will Harley and the Davidsons quickly wrote off their first motor-bicycle as a valuable learning experiment.
Starting fresh, work was immediately begun on a new and much improved machine. This first "real" Harley-Davidson motorcycle would have a bigger engine of 24.74 cubic inches (405cc) with 9-3/4 inch flywheels weighing 28 pounds. The machine's advanced loop-frame was similar to the 1903 [[Milwaukee Merkel]] motorcycle. They also got help with their new engine from outboard motor pioneer [[Ole Evinrude]]. Elder brother William A. Davidson also lent a hand in the enterprise.
The prototype of the new improved loop-frame model was assembled in a 10 by 15 foot (3 by 5 meter) shed in the Davidson family backyard. The machine was functional by [[8 September]] [[1904]] when it was entered in a Milwaukee motorcycle race, the first known appearance of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle.
In January [[1905]], small advertisements were placed in the "Automobile and Cycle Trade Journal" that offered bare Harley-Davidson engines to the do-it-yourself trade. By April, complete motorcycles were in production on a very limited basis. In 1905 no more than a dozen machines were built in the backyard shed. (Some years later the original shed was taken to the Juneau Avenue factory where it would stand for many decades as a tribute to the Motor Company's humble origins. Unfortunately, the first shed was "accidentally" destroyed by contractors in the early [[1970s]] during a clean-up of the factory yard.)
In [[1906]] Harley and the Davidsons built their first factory on Chestnut Street (later Juneau Avenue). This location remains the Motor Company's corporate [[headquarters]] today. The first Juneau Avenue plant was a modest 40 by 60 foot single-story wooden structure. That year around 50 motorcycles were produced.
[[Image:1907 Harley Davidson.jpg|thumb|right|1907 model.]]
In 1907 William S. Harley graduated from the [[University of Wisconsin]] at Madison with a degree in [[mechanical engineering]]. That year additional factory expansion came with a second floor and later with facings and additions of Milwaukee pale yellow ("cream") brick. With the new facilities production increased to 150 motorcycles in [[1907]]. That September a milestone was reached when the fledgling company was officially incorporated. They also began selling their motorcycles to police departments around this time, a tradition that continues today.
Production in 1905 and 1906 were all single-cylinder models with 26.84 cubic inch (440cc) engines. But as early as February of 1907 a prototype model with a 45-degree V-Twin engine was displayed at the [[Chicago]] Automobile Show. Although shown and advertised, very few dual cylinder V-Twin models were built between 1907 and [[1910]]. These first V-Twins displaced 53.68 cubic inches (880cc) and produced about 7 horsepower (5 kW). This gave about double the hill-climbing power of the first singles. Top speed was about 60 mph (97 km/h). Not bad in those days of primitive mud-rut and sand roads. Production paced factory expansion, jumping from 450 motorcycles in [[1908]] to 1,149 machines in [[1909]].
The success of Harley-Davidson (along with [[Indian (motorcycle)|Indian]]'s success) had attracted great attention and many imitators. By [[1911]] some 150 makes of motorcycles had already been built in the [[United States]] -- although just a handful would survive the [[1910s]].
In 1911 an improved V-Twin model with mechanically operated intake valves was introduced. (Earlier V-Twins had used "automatic" intake valves that opened by engine vacuum). Displacing 49.48 cubic inches (810cc), the 1911 V-Twin was actually smaller than earlier twins, but gave better performance. After 1913 the majority of bikes produced by Harley-Davidson would be V-Twin models.
By [[1913]] the yellow brick factory had been demolished and on the site a new 5-story structure of reinforced concrete and red brick had been built. Begun in 1910, the red brick factory with its many additions would take up two blocks along Juneau Avenue and around the corner on 38th Street. Despite the competition, Harley-Davidson was already pulling ahead of Indian and the rest of the pack and would also dominate motorcycle racing after [[1914]]. Production that year swelled to 16,284 machines. Although the future looked rosy, on the horizon lay the gathering storm clouds of world war.
=== World War I era ===
In [[1917]], the United States was drawn into [[World War I]]. The military demanded motorcycles for the war effort. Harleys had already been used by the military in border skirmishes with [[Pancho Villa]], but World War I was the first time the motorcycle had been broadly adopted for combat service. The company had consolidated its position as the motorcycle of choice for police forces. Harley-Davidson provided over 20,000 machines to the military forces during World War I.
By [[1920]], Harley-Dav |
res that are unethical (Lynn 2001). H. L. Kaye wrote of "the obvious truth that eugenics has been discredited by Hitler's crimes" (Kaye 1989). R. L. Hayman argued "the eugenics movement is an anachronism, its political implications exposed by the Holocaust" (Hayman 1990).
[[Steven Pinker]] has stated that it is "a conventional wisdom among left-leaning academics that genes imply genocide." He has responded to this "conventional wisdom" by comparing the history of [[Marxism]], which had the opposite position on genes to that of Nazism:
<Blockquote>But the 20th century suffered “two” ideologies that led to genocides. The other one, Marxism, had no use for race, didn't believe in genes and denied that human nature was a meaningful concept. Clearly, it's not an emphasis on genes or evolution that is dangerous. It's the desire to remake humanity by coercive means (eugenics or social engineering) and the belief that humanity advances through a struggle in which superior groups (race or classes) triumph over inferior ones.[http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/books/tbs/media_articles/2002_10_30_upi.html]</Blockquote>
[[Richard Lynn]] argues that any social philosophy is capable of ethical misuse. Though Christian principles have aided in the abolition of slavery and the establishment of welfare programs, he notes that the Christian church has also burned many dissidents at the stake and waged wars against nonbelievers in which Christian crusaders slaughtered large numbers of women and children. Lynn argues the appropriate response is to condemn these killings, but believing Christianity "inevitably leads to the extermination of those who do not accept its doctrines" is unwarranted (Lynn 2001).
===Genetic diversity===
Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of [[genetic diversity]], in which case a culturally accepted improvement of the [[gene pool]] may, but wouldn't necessarily, result in biological disaster due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change and other factors both known and unknown. This kind of argument from the [[precautionary principle]] is itself widely criticized.
The possible elimination of the [[autism]] [[genotype]] is a significant political issue in the [[autism rights movement]] which claims autism is a form of [[neurodiversity]].
===Counter-arguments===
One website on logic has used the statement "Eugenics must be wrong because it was associated with the Nazis" as a typical example of the [[association fallacy]]. [http://www.fallacyfiles.org/guiltbya.html] The stigmatization of eugenics because of its association, on the other hand, has not at all slowed the application of medical technologies that decrease the incidence of birth defects, or to slow the search for their causes.
== Eugenics in popular culture ==
Eugenics is a recurrent theme in [[science fiction]] (often [[dystopian]]) - the novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]] explores the theme in depth, as does the more recent (and up-to-date on the science) movie ''[[Gattaca]]'', whose plot turns around [[genetic testing]]. [[Boris Vian]] (under the pseudonym Vernon Sullivan) takes a more light-hearted approach in his novel ''Et on tuera tous les affreux'' ("And we'll kill all the ugly ones").
Other novels touching upon the subject include ''[[The Gate to Women's Country]]'' by [[Sheri S. Tepper]] and ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'' by [[C.S. Lewis]]. The [[Eugenics Wars]] are a significant part of the background story of the [[Star Trek]] universe. Eugenics are also a significant part of the plot of the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Moonraker]]''.
In [[Frank Herbert|Frank Herbert's]] [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] series of novels, selective breeding programs form a significant theme. Early in the series, the [[Bene Gesserit]] religious order manipulate breeding patterns over many generations in order to create the [[Kwisatz Haderach]]. In [[God Emperor of Dune]], the emperor [[Leto Atreides II|Leto II]] again manipulates human breeding in order to achieve his own ends.
There tends to be a eugenic undercurrent in the [[science fiction]] concept of the [[supersoldier]]. Several depictions of these supersoldiers usually have them bred for combat or genetically selected for attributes that are beneficial to modern or future combat.
In the novel ''[[Time Enough for Love]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]], a large trust fund is created to give financial encouragement to marriage among people whose parents and grandparents were long-lived. The result is a subset of Earth's population who have significantly above-average lifespans. Members of this group appear in many of the works by the same author.
See also [[Genetic engineering in fiction]].
== See also ==
* [[List of eugenicists]]
* [[Biological determinism]]
* [[Genetic determinism]]
* [[Race and intelligence]]
* [[Repository for Germinal Choice]]
* [[Social Justice]]
* [[State racism]], a concept coined by [[Michel Foucault]]
==References==
;Early works on eugenics
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm "Eugenics: Its definition, scope, and aims,"] ''The American Journal of Sociology'' 10:1 (July 1904).
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/hereditary-genius/ ''Hereditary genius: an inquiry into its laws and consequences''] (London: Macmillan, 1869). (Galton's first comprehensive work on eugenics)
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1860-1869/galton-1865-hereditary-talent.pdf "Hereditary talent and character"], ''Macmillan's Magazine'' 12 (1865): 157-166 and 318-327. (Galton's first article on heredity and eugenics)
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/human-faculty/ ''Inquiries into human faculty and its development''] (London, Macmillan, 1883). (Galton coins the word "eugenics")
;Histories of eugenics
Many modern histories of eugenics are very critical of its history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Not all scholars are in agreement about what implications the histories of eugenics have for the present or future of genetics and society.
*Mark Haller, ''Eugenics: Hereditarian attitudes in American thought'' (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963). (Early work on the history of eugenics)
*[[Daniel Kevles]], ''In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity'' (New York: Knopf, 1985). (Most recent survey work on the history of eugenics)
*Stefan Kühl, ''The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German National Socialism '' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). (On the connections between U.S. and Nazi eugenics and eugenicists)
*Dieter Kuntz, ed., ''Deadly medicine: creating the master race'' (Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2004). (On the use of science for eugenics in the U.S. and the Holocaust) [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine/ online exhibit]
*Diane B. Paul, "Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics," in Jonathan Hodge and Gregory Radick, eds., ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214-239. (Darwin's assessment of Galton)
*Robert Proctor, ''Racial hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). (On the mobilization of the medical community under the Nazi state and the development of the racial hygiene movement)
*Paul Weindling, ''Health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism, 1870-1945'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). (On the development of hygiene movements in Germany)
;Histories of hereditarian thought
*Elazar Barkan, ''The retreat of scientific racism: changing concepts of race in Britain and the United States between the world wars'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). (On the changing attitudes towards race and biology in the 20th century academic community)
*Stephen J. Gould, ''The mismeasure of man'' (New York: Norton, 1981). (Looks at the history of using science for racist purposes)
*[[Donald A. MacKenzie]], ''Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The social construction of scientific knowledge'' (Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press, 1981). (On the development of 19th century eugenics and theories of heredity)
;Criticisms of modern eugenics
*Tom Shakespeare, ''Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome'', with Anne Kerr (New Clarion Press, 2002).
*Robert L. Hayman, ''Presumptions of justice: Law, politics, and the mentally retarded parent''. ''Harvard Law Review'' 1990, 103, 1202-71. (p. 1209)
*H. L. Kaye, ''The social meaning of modern biology'' 1987, New Haven, CT Yale University Press. (p. 46)
;Advocates of modern eugenics
*[[Richard Lynn]], ''Eugenics: A Reassessment (Human Evolution, Behavior, and Intelligence)'' (Praeger Publishers, 2001).
*[[Thomas Sowell]], ''Ethnic America''. Basic Books, 1981. ISBN 0465020755
;Other references
*[[James D. Watson]], ''A passion for DNA: Genes, genomes, and society'' (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2000). (Co-discoverer of DNA talks about genes and ethics)
*[[Nicholas Agar]], Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement (Blackwell, 2004).
==Further reading==
*Mark B. Adams, ed., ''The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). ISBN 0195053613
*[[Edwin Black]], ''War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race'' (Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003). [http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/] ISBN 1568582587
*Edwin Black, "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/11/09/ING9C2QSKB1.DTL Eugenics and the Nazis -- the California connection]", ''San Francisco Chronicle'' ([[9 November]] [[2003]]).
*[[Elof Axel Carlson]], ''The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea |
t]] stopped all future domestic manufacture of fully-automatic weapons for civilian use. However, machine guns manufactured domestically prior to 1986 and imported prior to 1968 may be transferred between civilians in accordance with federal and state law. Several Soviet and Chinese rifles made it into the U.S. during the mid-1960s when returning Vietnam Veterans brought them home after capture from enemy troops. Many of these were properly registered during the 1968 NFA amnesty. In addition, several states have laws on their books outlawing private possession of full-automatic firearms even with NFA approval.
Certain [[semi-automatic]] AK-47 models were banned by the now-expired [[Federal assault weapons ban]] of 1994&ndash;2004. A semi-automatic rifle, similar externally to the AK-47 but operably identical to many hunting rifles, was used in a much publicized 1989 shooting in a [[Stockton, California]], schoolyard, and in the 1993 murders outside of the [[Langley, Virginia]], headquarters of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (see [[Mir Amir Kansi]]). Another much-publicized use of the AK-47 in the United States happened when bank robbers exchanged fire with police after a botched robbery. The [[North Hollywood shootout]] involved AK-47's that were illegal to possess. Ignoring the law while committing numerous other felonies, both assailants were shot and died at the scene. Citing these tragedies, gun control advocates lobbied for strict controls on military-style semi-automatic firearms even though most criminals do not buy their weapons legally.
==Cultural influence==
[[Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Mozambique.png|thumb|right|200px|Coat of arms of [[Mozambique]]]]
The AK-47 and its derivatives are favored by many non-[[Western world|West]]ern powers because of their ease of use, robustness, simplicity, and manufacturing cost effectiveness. Estimates for production range over 100 million units. During most of the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union and China followed a military assistance program, supplying their arms and technical knowledge to numerous countries. In addition, another policy saw the supply of weapons, free of charge, to pro-communist fighters such as the [[Sandinistas]] and [[Viet-Cong]]. This policy was mirrored in the West, with the United States providing arms to such groups as the Afghan [[Mujahideen]].
The broad proliferation of this weapon is reflected by more than just its numbers. The AK-47 is included in the [[Mozambique]] flag and [[coat of arms]] (formerly also in [[Burkina Faso]] coat of arms) and the [[Hizballah]] flag. "[[Kalash]]", a shortened form of "[[Kalashnikov]]", is used as a name for boys in some African countries. Moreover, moviemakers who arm cinema terrorists, gang members (e.g. films like ''[[Boyz N The Hood]]''), and "bad guys" in general with AK-47s add much to the weapon's cultural mystique. Numerous computer and video games feature AK-47s. The weapon is used as a backdrop for reporters during Terrorism news stories. Fiction writers are also quick to arm their characters with the weapon.
The sheer ubiquity of the AK-47, its iconography, the fact that it possesses easily the most distinguishable weapon outline, and its nefarious association with violent conflict will ensure a significant and conspicuous impact on society.
[[Image:Far-sol-gas.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces]] armed with AK-47's, engaging in a training exercise]]
==Versions==
Kalashnikov variants include:
*'''AK-47 1948–51, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— the very earliest models had a stamped sheet metal receiver; now rare.
*'''AK-47 1952, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— has a milled receiver and wooden buttstock and handguard. Barrel and chamber are chrome plated to resist corrosion. Rifle weight 4.2 kg.
*'''AKS-47'''— featured a downward-folding metal stock similar to that of the German [[MP40]], for use in the restricted space in the [[BMP]] infantry combat vehicle.
*'''[[RPK]] 7.62 × 39 mm'''— squad automatic rifle version with longer barrel and bipod.
*'''AKM 7.62 × 39 mm'''— a simplified, lighter version of the AK-47; receiver is made from stamped and riveted sheet metal. A slanted muzzle device was added to counter climb in automatic fire. Rifle weight 3.61 kg.
*'''AKMS 7.62 × 39 mm'''— folding-stock version of the AKM intended for [[airborne]] troops.
*'''[[AK-74]] series 5.45 x 39 mm'''— see [[AK-74|main article]] for details.
[[Image:000715-F-2829R-001.jpg|thumb|right|280px| A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK during the weapons familiarization phase of [[Exercise Rescue Eagle 2000]] at Babadag Range, Romania, on July 15, 2000]]
==Other versions==
The AK-47 and its descendants are or have been manufactured in the following countries: [[Egypt]], [[China]], [[North Korea]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Yugoslavia]] (as the M70 and M80 series), [[Romania]], [[Hungary]] (as AMD-63 and AMD-65), [[Iraq]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Certainly more have been produced elsewhere, but the above list represents major producers. An updated AKM design is still produced in Russia.
The basic design of the AK-47 has been used as the basis for other successful rifle designs such as the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[Rk 62|Valmet 62/76]], the [[Israel]]i [[Galil]], the [[India]]n [[INSAS]] and the Yugoslav [[Zastava (weapon)]] M76 and M77 and M77/82 (not to be confused with the [[Barrett]] [[M82 (rifle)|M82]]) rifles. Several [[bullpup]] designs have surfaced, although none have been produced in quantity.
==Quotes==
Yuri Orlov, the protagonist from the ''[[Lord of War]]'' film:
<blockquote>''Of all the weapons in the vast Soviet arsenal, nothing was more profitable than Avtomat Kalashnikova model of 1947. More commonly known as the AK-47, or Kalashnikov. It's the world's most popular assault rifle. A weapon all fighters love. An elegantly simple 9-pound amalgamation of forged steel and plywood. It doesn't break, jam, or overheat. It'll shoot whether it's covered in mud or filled with sand. It's so easy, even a child can use it; and they do. The Soviets put the gun on a coin. Mozambique put it on their flag. Since the end of the Cold War, the Kalashnikov has become the Russian people's greatest export. After that comes vodka, caviar, suicidal novelists. One thing is for sure, no one was lining up to buy their cars. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0399295/quotes]
</blockquote>
Ordell Robbie, the protagonist from the film ''[[Jackie Brown]]'':
<blockquote>''There it is, the AK-47. When you absolutely, positively, have to kill every single motherfucker in the room; accept no substitute.'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119396/quotes]
</blockquote>
==See also==
* [[List of modern armament manufacturers]]
* [[Civilian "Cousins" of the AK-47]]
* [[Comparison of the AK-47 and M16]]
* [[AK-74]]
* [[AK-101]]
* [[AK-103]]
* [[AK-107]] includes AK-108
* [[Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle]]
* [[Karabinek-granatnik wz.1960]]
==References==
* Fackler et al. (1984). "Wounding potential of the Russian AK-74 assault rifle", ''Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection & Critical Care.'' '''24''', 263-6.
* Ezell, Edward Clinton (1986). ''The AK-47 Story: Evolution of the Kalashnikov Weapons.'' Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0811709167. (Prior to his death, Ezell was the curator of military history at the [[Smithsonian Museum]].)
* ''[[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness World Records 2005]].'' ISBN 1892051222.
==External links==
* [http://www.izhmash.ru/eng manufacturer site]
* [http://www.sturmgewehr.com/bhinton/AK/ Buddy Hinton Collection / AK]
* [http://kalashnikov.guns.ru/ AK Site &mdash; Kalashnikov Home Page]
* [http://www.enemyforces.com/firearms/ak47.htm AK-47 Assault Rifle]
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=85766 AK-47@Everything2.com]
* [http://www.us.imdb.com/title/tt0254151/ Automat Kalaschnikow] film documented the man and his machine
* [http://www.milparade.com/kalashnikov/chapter9/09_15.shtml AK47S self-loading carbine (USA)]
* Home of the [http://www.ak-47.net/ AK-47] on the Internet.
* [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/ak-47.html AK-47 Assault rifle] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)]
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://world.guns.ru/ Modern Firearms]
* [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/akm.html AKM Assault Rifle] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)]
* [http://www.pbase.com/the_kampfer/image/47449546 animation of an AK-47 action in operation]
==Video links==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0&p=8 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) How AK47 Work Presentation (.Video clip)]
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0&p=7 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) AK-47 Presentation (.swf)]
*[http://jardax.ethernet.cz/Gun/Video/ak47_slow.avi Kurzzeitmesstechnik Mehl Slow-Motion video of AK-47 action in operation (DivX Movie)]
*[http://www.carfield.com.hk/fun/classic/machine/How_AK47_Work.avi Bruce Canfield animation of AK-47 action in operation.]
==Manual==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/284_US_Army_AK47.pdf Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (MANUAL) AK 47 Manual (.pdf)]
[[Category:7.62 mm firearms]]
[[Category:Assault rifles]]
[[Category:Cold War weapons of the Soviet Union]]
[[bg:АК-47]]
[[de:AK-47]]
[[et:AK-47]]
[[es:AK-47]]
[[fa:کلاشنیکوف]]
[[fr:AK-47]]
[[gl:AK-47]]
[[ko:AK-47]]
[[id:AK-47]]
[[it:AK-47]]
[[he:AK-47]]
[[ku:AK-47]]
[[hu:AK-47]]
[[ms:AK-47]]
[[nl:AK-47]]
[[ja:AK-47]]
[[no:AK-47]]
[[pl:Karabinek AK]]
[[pt:AK-47]]
[[sl:AK-47]]
[[sr:АК-47]]
[[fi:AK-47]]
[[sv:AK-47]]
[[vi:AK-47]]
[[tr:Ak-47]]
[[zh:АК-47]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atanasoff Berry Computer</title>
<id>1349</id>
<revision>
<id>40590582</id>
|
<id>39452118</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T05:27:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.67.53.254</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], '''on-base plus slugging''' (denoted by '''OPS''') incorporates [[on base percentage]] (OBP) and [[slugging percentage]] (SLG). This statistic combines both the ability of a player to get on base and to hit for power. It is very popular in measuring the offensive worth of a player, because it is easy to calculate and has a strong positive correlation, at the team level, with runs per game. An OPS of .900 or higher puts the player in the upper echelon of offensive ability. Typically, the league leader in OPS will hover near the 1.000 mark.
Note that since SLG and OBP are usually given to only three or four digits of precision, those who look for arbitrary accuracy might want to use the following, more accurate formula:
{{sabermetric | formula = <math>OPS = \frac{AB(H+BB+HBP)+TB(AB+BB+SF+HBP)}{AB(AB+BB+SF+HBP)}</math>}}
The math involved in calculating OPS is not simply adding OBP and SLG. Such an equation is inexecutable because the denominator of each fraction is different.
The [[Major League Baseball]] players with a lifetime OPS higher than 1.000 are:
# [[Babe Ruth]], 1.1636
# [[Ted Williams]], 1.1155
# [[Lou Gehrig]], 1.0798
# [[Barry Bonds]], 1.0533
# [[Todd Helton]], 1.0404
# [[Jimmie Foxx]], 1.0376
# [[Albert Pujols]], 1.0372
# [[Hank Greenberg]], 1.0169
# [[Rogers Hornsby]], 1.0103
# [[Manny Ramírez]], 1.0076
Foxx has the highest career OPS for a right-handed batter.
The top ten single-season performances in MLB are (all left-handed hitters):
# Barry Bonds, 1.4217 (2004)
# Barry Bonds, 1.3807 (2002)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3791 (1920)
# Barry Bonds, 1.3785 (2001)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3586 (1921)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3089 (1923)
# Ted Williams, 1.2874 (1941)
# Barry Bonds, 1.2778 (2003)
# Babe Ruth, 1.2582 (1927)
# Ted Williams, 1.2566 (1957)
The highest single-season mark for a right-handed hitter was 1.2449 by [[Rogers Hornsby]] in 1925 (13th on the all-time list). Since 1925, the highest single-season OPS for a right-hander is 1.2224 by [[Mark McGwire]] in 1998.
OPS+, Adjusted OPS, is a closely related statistic. OPS+ is OPS adjusted for the park and the league the player played in.
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[ja:OPS (野球)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Stolen base</title>
<id>3811</id>
<revision>
<id>38977456</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:19:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baseball_steal.jpg|thumb|360px|The all-time stolen base leader, [[Rickey Henderson]], swipes third in [[1985]].]]
In [[baseball]], a '''stolen base''' occurs when a [[baserunner]] successfully advances to the next base while the [[pitcher]] is delivering the ball to [[home plate]]. In [[baseball statistics]], stolen bases are denoted by '''SB'''. If the [[catcher]] thwarts the stolen base by throwing the runner out, the event is recorded as ''caught stealing'' (CS).
The stolen base (or its attempt) is one of the more exciting plays in baseball. It has a feeling of free-spiritedness and daring, as the runner forgoes the safer course of staying at his base until the batter hits the ball. Successful base-stealing requires not just simple running speed, but also good base-running instincts, quickness, and split-second timing.
==Background==
In the 19th century, stolen bases were credited when a baserunner reached an extra base on a base hit from another player. For example if a runner on [[First baseman|first base]] reached [[Third baseman|third base]] on a single, it would count as a steal. A Scottish-born [[outfielder]] named [[Hugh Nicol]] was once credited with 138 stolen bases (many, but not all, of which would have counted under modern rules) in one year. Modern steal rules were implemented in [[1898]], and steals are now only credited when a runner successfully takes an extra base while the ball is being pitched. In addition, if the situation of the game is such that the steal is of little use (usually late innings with a large difference in score), and the catcher does not attempt to throw out the runner, the runner is not credited with a steal, and the base is attributed to ''defensive indifference''.
Base stealing was popular in the game's early decades, with speedsters such as [[Ty Cobb]] and [[Clyde Milan]] stealing nearly 100 bases in a season. But the tactic fell into relative disuse after [[Babe Ruth]] introduced the era of the home run -- in [[1955]], for example, no one in baseball stole more than 25 bases. Base-stealing was brought back to prominence primarily by [[Maury Wills]], who broke Cobb's single-season record by stealing 104 bases in [[1962 in sports|1962]]. Wills' record was broken in turn by [[Lou Brock]] in [[1974 in sports|1974]], and [[Rickey Henderson]] in [[1982 in sports|1982]].
==Record Holders==
[[Rickey Henderson]] is the most prolific base stealer in [[Major League Baseball]] history, with 1,406 over his career. This total is 468 more than the runner-up ([[Lou Brock]], who has 938) and, as of the end of the [[2004 in baseball|2004]] season, an astonishing 824 more than the next-highest active player ([[Kenny Lofton]]). Henderson also holds the modern record for steals in one season, with 130 in [[1982]].
There are only two players in Major League Baseball history with at least twelve seasons of fifty or more stolen bases: Lou Brock (12) and Rickey Henderson (13). Interestingly, Lou Brock's twelve seasons were ALL consecutive, whereas Rickey Henderson "only" had seven of his thirteen 50+ steal seasons consecutively. At the end of the 1983 season, Rickey Henderson had become the first and only player to have 2 consecutive seasons (1982 & 1983) with more than 100 stolen bases. Four years later, [[Vince Coleman (baseball)|Vince Coleman]] broke that unbelievable record when he stole more than 100 bases for 3 consecutive seasons (1985, 1986 & 1987).
==Technique and Strategy==
A base-stealing runner must begin running as soon as the pitcher has committed himself to throwing a pitch to home plate, neither sooner nor later. If he begins to run too soon, the pitcher may throw to a base rather than to home &mdash; in this case, the runner is ''picked off'', and will most likely be tagged out. Before the pitch, the runner will often take a ''lead-off'', walking several steps away from the base as a head start for his next advance. In some cases, the pitcher may ''hold the runner on'' by throwing to the base several times before pitching, in the hope of dissuading the runner from too big a lead-off. This action can also result in the runner being tagged out in a pick-off. Another popular strategy is for the runner to attempt a steal while the hitter is instructed to swing at the pitch if it is at all hittable. This ''[[hit and run (baseball)|hit-and-run play]]'' can give the runner a good head start to take an extra base on the hit. But if the hitter fails to hit the ball, the hit-and-run becomes a pure steal attempt, and the runner may be thrown out. Another risk of the hit-and-run is that a caught line-drive could result in an easy double play.
A second and lessor known technique is the "delayed" steal. This technique, famously practiced by Eddie Stanky of the Brooklyn Dodgers, is where the runner does not break immediately for second when the pitcher commits to the plate. Instead the runner takes two or three large shuffles off of the base when the pitchers goes to the plate. This keys the middle infielders and the catcher to let their guard down, as it appears the runner is not stealing, but only getting a good secondary lead in case the ball is hit. In reality the delayed stealer is closing distance with second base. When the ball crosses the plate the runner breaks for second base, and is essentially stealing the base on the middle infielders who have not covered second base. Addtionally, the catcher is not ready to come out of his crouch and cannot throw to second until an infielder gets there. The delayed steal is a deceptive technique that is sometimes executed by even slow runners and many times results in a catcher throwing into centerfield. The technique is rarely seen at the Major League level but is used effectively by multiple college programs.
[[Second base]] is the base most often stolen, as it is farthest from home plate and thus a longer throw from the catcher is required to prevent it. Third base is more difficult to steal, but this is still commonly done. It is possible for a player to steal home base, but this requires great daring and aggressiveness as the ball will almost certainly arrive at home plate before the runner. [[Ty Cobb]] holds the records for most steals of home in a single season (8) as well as for a career (54). [[Jackie Robinson]] was also renowned for the thrilling feat of stealing home. In more recent decades, a pure steal of home is hardly ever attempted, although home base is still occasionally stolen during a "delayed double steal," in which a runner on first base attempts to steal second while the runner on third base breaks for home as soon as the catcher throws to second base.
It is sometimes thought that [[First baseman|first base]] can be stolen by the batter, because he can run to first base if the catcher fails to catch a third strike. But such a play (if the batter is successful) is not recorded as a stolen base, but as a [[strikeout]] plus a [[passed ball]] or [[wild pitch]]. In baseball's earlier decades, a runner on second base could steal first base, perhaps with the intention of drawing a throw wh |
of the characters. Square has used the New Game+ concept in later games, such as ''[[Chrono Cross]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]''.
==Playable characters==
{{spoiler}}
*'''[[Crono]]''' (クロノ ''kurono'') - The main character. He lives with his mother (Gina, in the Japanese version) in the town of Truce, under the rule of the Guardia Kingdom. He meets a girl who calls herself Marle at the Millennial Fair and is later accused of kidnapping her. In [[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]] when the party is confronted with [[Lavos]] in the Ocean Palace of the [[Kingdom of Zeal]], he sacrifices himself to save his friends. Later, the party can revive him using the Time Egg. His dialogue is never displayed, but implied through character reaction and gestures. There are two exceptions to this, one being in one possible ending, and the second being when the player must select between choices of things for Crono to say. He uses a [[katana]] as a weapon and once he obtains magical ability, his techs become lightning-oriented. The name may likely be intended to be "Chrono," with the missing 'h' simply due to the restriction of character names to only five characters.
*'''[[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]]''' (マール ''māru'') - The tomboy princess of Guardia. Her real name is Princess Nadia, and she is at odds with her father, the king. Bored of her life in the castle, she slips out to the Millennial Fair in Truce. Here, she meets Crono and tries out Lucca's teleporter, which reacts with Marle's pendant and creates a timewarp, sending her to [[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|600 A.D.]] where she is mistaken for the missing Queen Leene. This causes the search for the real Leene to be called off, creating a [[paradox]], which destroys Marle's existence until Crono and Lucca reverse it by finding and saving the real Leene. Marle uses a [[crossbow]] as her weapon and when she gains the ability to use [[magic (gaming)|magic]], she learns to use Ice spells and some of the most powerful healing spells in the game.
*'''[[Lucca_(Chrono_Trigger)|Lucca]]''' (ルッカ ''rukka'') - The genius inventor. Using her intelligence and creativity, Lucca Ashtear invented many devices, such as a battle-training robot named Gato ("Gonzales" in the Japanese version) and a short-range teleporter. She blames herself for her mother's injury that left her legs unusable, but later has the opportunity to revisit the incident and change the events. At the Millennial Fair, the teleporter seemingly fails and sends Marle back through time leading her and Crono on their adventure. Lucca battles with a [[gun]] and when spells become available she gains the ability to cast Fire magic.
*'''[[Frog_(Chrono_Trigger)|Frog]]''' (カエル ''kaeru'') - A knight from 600 A.D., whose real name is Glenn. He was a squire under [[Cyrus (Chrono Trigger)|Cyrus]], a "Knight of the Square Table." He later witnessed Magus killing Cyrus, and shortly afterwards, was transformed into an [[anthropomorphic]] frog by the dark wizard. Frog dedicates his life to protecting Queen Leene and vows to avenge Cyrus by killing Magus. He is the true bearer of the [[Masamune_(video_game_weapon)|Masamune]], an ancient sword, which is Magus' one true weakness. Frog can later put Cyrus's ghost to rest and has the opportunity to either defeat or ally himself with Magus. Frog wields a [[broadsword]] and can learn Water magic once he meets Spekkio.
*'''[[Robo_(Chrono_Trigger)|Robo]]''' (ロボ ''robo'') - A robot from [[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|2300 A.D.]] Originally created to assist humans at the Proto Dome in the future, he is rendered dormant by the apocalypse in [[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1999 A.D.]] He is found and repaired by Lucca and upon his reactivation Robo has no memory of his prior mission, and joins the party. His real name is Prometheus, and his serial number is R-66Y. He uses his robotic arm as a weapon and gains no use of magic (although he is equipped with laser weapons which mimic the Shadow element). Robo's alter-ego "Prometheus" is a reference to the Greek god [[Prometheus]], who was punished by [[Zeus]] for giving fire to man. In an optional side quest, Robo is punished by his maker, "Mother Brain", for having sympathy for humans, and he meets his long-lost "girlfriend," Atropos, a reference to [[Atropos]], who was the third of the [[Moirae]] the oldest of the Three Fates.
*'''[[Ayla_(Chrono_Trigger)|Ayla]]''' (エイラ ''eira'') - The chief of the Ioka tribe in [[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]] Her people are in constant war against the Reptites: an evolved, intelligent race of anthropomorphic reptiles of the prehistoric era. After [[Lavos]] hits the planet, dust blasts into the atmosphere and blocks out the sun. This causes an ice age and the extinction of the Reptites. Ayla can not use magic because she was born before the [[Kingdom of Zeal|age of magic]]. Instead, she uses her fists as her weapons and is the only character who doesn't need to buy weapon upgrades (however, at level 73 she gains the IronFist, increasing her critical hit rate and randomly causing chaos, and at level 96 she upgrades to the BronzeFist, hitting for 9999 HP at critical). Ayla could be an [[allusion]] to [[Jean Auel]]'s ''[[Earth's Children]]'' series, the protagonist of which is a tall, blonde-haired, blue eyed, prehistoric girl named Ayla. It could also refer to the [[tayra]] (''Eira barbara'').
*'''[[Magus_(Chrono_Trigger)|Magus]]''' ('''Janus''') (魔王 ''maō'') - The dark wizard waging war against the Kingdom of Guardia in 600 A.D. Magus is an optional character, and, if acquired, becomes one of Crono's most powerful allies. Magus is actually Janus, the young prince of Zeal in [[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]] After an encounter with Lavos as a boy, he was sent through a time gate to 600 A.D. In this time, he met a Mystic named [[Ozzie, Slash, and Flea (Chrono Trigger)|Ozzie]], and with Ozzie's help, he was able to realize his magical powers and recruit an entire army of Mystics to battle the Kingdom of Guardia. His real purpose in this plan was to gain enough power to summon and destroy Lavos. He fights using a [[scythe]], as well as a combination of all types of magic (fire, ice, lightning, and shadow). The word "[[Magus]]" is the singular form of the word "magi", which is commonly used to describe the [[Three Wise Men]] of the [[Bible]]. The Japanese name 魔王 literally means "Devil King" or "Dark Lord", representing his leadership over the "devil race" Mystics. The three wise men are doubly referenced by the Gurus of Zeal, who are mentors to the young Magus. It must be noted that the name of the Gurus are different in the Japanese version, and therefore, the biblical reference noted here were added in by the translator and not part of the original team. Another possible alusion is to one Simon Magus, a New Testament magician and false prophet. He wanted to join Christ's followers to perform miracles as Peter and the other Apostles did. He is strongly reprimanded for his greed.
==Time periods==
{{spoiler}}
In ''Chrono Trigger'', the characters can visit six different eras via portals known as gates or pillars of light, and the [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)|Epoch]] [[time machine]]. In these time periods, the party witnesses various events than in a sense explain certain mythological and biblical{{ref|testament}} mysteries of our own [[Earth]].
*'''[[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]]''' ([[prehistory|Prehistoric]] era): The two major civilizations of the world, the Reptites and the [[ape]] like humans, are at continuous conflict with one another. The Reptites are a representation of the [[dinosaur]]s and consider themselves far superior to the pre-evolved humans. The Reptites reside in Tyranno Lair, which is ultimately destroyed when Lavos falls from space and destroys their home. Thus is an "explanation" for the mystery of the dinosaur's extinction. After Lavos strikes, the residents of the world complain that their world is getting colder, suggesting the beginning of the [[Ice Age]]. In ''Chrono Cross'', it is stated that this first encounter with Lavos caused the apes to evolve into humans. Ayla lives in this time period.
*'''[[12000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]]''' (Dark Ages): In ''Chrono Trigger''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Dark Ages, the human race has divided itself into the magical, intelligent, and skyliving "Enlightened Ones" and the powerless, unintelligent, and earthliving "Earthbound Ones." When Queen Zeal's quest for immortality causes her to awaken the evil creature Lavos, she destroys the entire Enlightened civilization and their kingdom in the sky, resulting in the Enlightened Ones being forced to live among the Earthbound. The Dark Ages actually correspond to an [[Ice Age]], whereas the historical [[Dark Ages]] occurred in 400 A.D. This time period is the home of Janus (Magus), and his sister Schala.
*'''[[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|600 A.D.]]''' ([[Middle Ages]]): The Middle Ages introduce the next race of intelligent monsters after the Reptites, known as the Mystics, who, like the Reptites, despise humans. This era closely corresponds with the historical Dark Ages. Frog is found here.
*'''[[1000 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1000 A.D.]]''' (Present): This era closely corresponds to the historical [[High Middle Ages]], in which stability returned after the Dark Ages. Noticibly however is the significant improvement in technology since 600 A.D. This is where the story begins with Crono, Marle and Lucca.
*'''[[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1999 A.D.]]''' ([[Apocalypse]]): In this time period, Lavos awakens from below the surface of the earth to destroy the world. [[Nostradamus]] predicted that the world would end in 1999 A.D.
*'''[[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|2300 A.D.]]''' ([[Future]]): After Lavos des |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.