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needlecraft); a talk on goldfish and their care; "Morning Devotions"; and music.
Over the next four years, these largely isolated stations were gradually brought together into a cohesive broadcasting organisation through regular program relays, and coordinated by a centralised bureaucracy. During its first decades, the programming schedules included music, news and current affairs, sport, drama, children's programs, and school broadcasts. Because recording technology was still relatively primitive, all ABC programs were broadcast live until 1935, including music. For this purpose, the ABC established broadcasting orchestras in each state, and in some centres employed choruses and dance bands.
In 1934, famed conductor Sir [[Bernard Heinze]] was appointed part-time musical advisor to the ABC. In 1937 the network was further expanded with the purchase of 4BC in Brisbane. In 1939 the ABC began publishing the ''ABC Weekly''.
===World War II===
During the [[World War II |Second World War]], the ABC continued to recruit staff, including a greater proportion of women to replace men who had joined the armed forces. The organisation established reporting and recording facilities in numerous overseas locations, including the Middle East, Greece and the Asia-Pacific region. An early challenge to its independence came in June 1940 when wartime censorship was imposed, and the Department of Information (headed by Sir [[Keith Murdoch]]) took control of the ABC’s 7 p.m. nightly national news. This lasted only until September, when control of the news was returned to the ABC after listeners expressed a preference for independent news presented by the Commission.
During the war, the ABC's [[news program|news bulletins]] attained a reputation for authority and independence, and from 1942 onwards, were broadcast three times daily through all national and most commercial [[transmitters]]. The ABC's ability to speak to all Australians across a huge, sparsely populated country was now recognised as an essential part of the nation's infrastructure. During and after the war, the ABC was given statutory powers that reinforced its independence from the government and enhanced its news-gathering role. From 1946, the ABC was required to broadcast selected parliamentary sessions live, despite the disruption this caused to regular programming.
On [[7 January]] [[1941]] the ABC revived the Children's Session as a national program, including the "Argonauts Club", which was first broadcast in 1933-34 in Melbourne. The Argonauts Club proved hugely popular with young Australians - by 1950 there were over 50,000 members, with 10,000 new members joining each year in the 1950s. The Club encouraged children's contributions of writing, music, poetry and art, and became one of the ABC's most popular programs, running six days a week for 28 years.
''The Argonauts Club'' was co-hosted for its entire 31-year run by [[Atholl Fleming]], known to generations of Australians by his on-air names "Mac" and "Jason". Many notable Australians worked pseudonymously as presenters on the show, including poet [[A.D. Hope]] ("Antony Inkwell"), future ABC General Manager [[Talbot Duckmanton]] ("Tal") who hosted a weekly sports segment, actors [[Leonard Teale]] ("Chris") and [[John Ewart]] ("Jimmy") and future "Mr Sqiggle" host and film producer [[Patricia Lovell]]. Painter [[Jeffrey Smart]] ("Phidias") commented on art, and popular children's author [[Ruth Park]] contributed dramatised stories. Her main character, which began life as a bunyip, eventually evolved into her beloved "[[Muddle Headed Wombat]]" character, voiced inimitably by Johnny Ewart. Its popularity on The Argonauts led Park to write her popular series of Muddle Headed Wombat books in the 1960s.
In 1942 ''The Australian Broadcasting Act'' was passed, giving the ABC the power to decide when, and in what circumstances, political speeches should be broadcast. Directions from the Minister about whether or not to broadcast any matter now had to be made in writing, and any exercise of the power had to be mentioned in the Commission's Annual Report. It was used only once, in 1963.
Also in 1942, "Kindergarten of the Air" began on ABC Radio in Perth; it was later broadcast nationally and became one of the ABC’s most popular programs.
===Post-war years===
[[Image:Early abc van.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An early ABC [[Outside broadcasting|Outside Broadcast]] van - National Museum of Australia]]
In December 1945, just after the end of the war, the rural affairs program "The Country Hour" premiered. In 1946, legislation was passed requiring the ABC to broadcast Parliament when in session. The parliamentary broadcasts were put onto the interstate network. In subsequent Annual Reports, the Commission commented on the disruption this caused to its programming. Another landmark came on [[June 1]], [[1947]], when the ABC's independent national news service was inaugurated.
During the 1950s, the variety and quantity of programming increased significantly, including light entertainment, sports coverage, talk programs, and features — early forms of what became known as [[radio documentary|documentaries]]. The ABC's coverage of rural affairs was significantly enhanced by the deployment of journalists and broadcasters in major country areas. The increasing availability of [[landline]]s and [[teleprinter]]s allowed the organisation to gather and broadcast news and other program material with much greater efficiency than in the previous two decades. By the 1950s, as many as 13 national news bulletins were broadcast daily. By 1956, the Commission had begun to establish an international presence with offices opening in [[London]], [[New York]] and [[Port Moresby]].
In 1953, the federal ''Television Act'' was passed, providing the initial regulatory framework for both the ABC and commercial television networks. In late 1956, the ABC started regular [[television]] broadcasts from Sydney and Melbourne, just in time to cover the Summer Olympic Games in Melbourne. On November 5, the ABC made its first TV broadcast from its Sydney studios, inaugurated by Prime Minister [[Robert Menzies]], and on November 19 the first TV broadcast beamed out from the ABC's Melbourne's studios.
Within a year, ABC-TV was broadcasting from each of the six state capitals. In its first decade, the network developed a wide range of programming that included [[ABC News|news bulletins]], light entertainment, children's and educational programs, and the performing arts.
By the mid-1960s, [[videotape]] equipment had been installed in all of the ABC's major centres, and during that decade, direct television relays were laid, first from Melbourne to Sydney, and Sydney to Canberra, then between all major centres except for Perth and Hobart. By 1972, all State capitals were linked, allowing simultaneous viewing and national programming. In 1975, colour television was introduced in Australia.
===The 1960s and 70s: growing social and intellectual influence===
The authority and influence of the ABC have been most strongly felt in news and current affairs, in which the organisation's innovations have set the standard for Australian broadcasting. In 1961, ABC-TV started a weekly current affairs program ''[[Four Corners (TV series)|Four Corners]]'', which was characterised by a new, vigorous investigative reporting style of political and social issues that were occasionally ahead of public opinion.
The ABC was one of the first TV networks to embrace the rock'n'roll revolution of the late 1950s, most notably with its pioneering show ''[[Six O'Clock Rock]]'', hosted by [[Johnny O'Keefe]]. During the 60s and early 70s the ABC continued to produce programs on popular music, including the pop show ''Hitscene'', innovative performance specials by groups such as [[Tully (band)|Tully]] and [[Max Merritt & The Meteors]], and the landmark magazine-style program ''[[GTK (TV show)|GTK]]'', which premiered in 1969 and screened for 10 minutes, four nights per week, Monday to Thursday, just before the 7pm news bulletin.
As well as news, special reports, film clips and interview segments, ''GTK'' was especially notable - and of great historical value - for the inclusion of a nightly segment of specially recorded live in-studio performances by Australian bands. Each week a different band was featured, which would record four songs; in the case of more popular bands, the producers chose tracks other than their hits to demonstrate different aspects of their music. Although it was long thought that most of this priceless material had been erased - like the BBC, an ill-advised "economy drive" in the late 1970s led to the wholesale erasure of large amounts of videotaped material, including most of the first two years of ''[[Countdown (TV show)|Countdown]]''. However, extensive archival research within the ABC following the recent closure of the old [[Gore Hill]] studios in Sydney has revealed that, although some early videotape-only content was erased, much of the primary footage had (fortunately) been shot on film and most of this was retained. It is believed that approximately 80% of ''GTK'' has survived.
In 1967, the weeknight television current affairs program, ''[[This Day Tonight]]'' (TDT), and its counterpart on radio, ''PM'', were introduced. Many people regard these programs, and others like them, to be essential parts of Australian public life, in which politicians and other public figures and organisations were subject to rigorous, though balanced, interviewing and reportage. The ABC also focused on producing radio and television talk programs that explored a wide range of national and international issues. Prominent among these was ''[[The Science Show]]'', which started in 1975 on ABC Radio, hosted by [[Robyn Williams]]. Beg
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g/toah/hd/refo/ho_1975.1.138.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art]
* [http://watch.pair.com/erasmus.html In Defense of Erasmus and the Textus Receptus]
* [http://www.esn.org La herencia Erasmus: Presente y futuro]
* [http://smith2.sewanee.edu/erasmus/ The Erasmus Text Project]
=== eBooks ===
* {{gutenberg author| id=Desiderius+Erasmus | name=Erasmus}}
<!-- interwiki -->
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[[Category:1466 births]]
[[Category:1536 deaths]]
[[Category:Bible translators]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers]]
[[Category:Dutch theologians]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers]]
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[[Category:Rhetoricians|Erasmus]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:إيرازموس]]
[[ca:Erasme de Rotterdam]]
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[[he:ארסמוס מרוטרדם]]
[[hr:Erazmo Roterdamski]]
[[id:Desiderius Erasmus]]
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[[la:Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus]]
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[[sh:Erazmo Roterdamski]]
[[sv:Erasmus av Rotterdam]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Encyclopedia Brown</title>
<id>10153</id>
<revision>
<id>41557208</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:22:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.167.234.22</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Book listing */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Encyclopedia Brown - Boy Detective.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Cover of ''Encyclopedia Brown: Boy Detective'']]'''Leroy "Encyclopedia" Brown''' is a [[Detective fiction|fictional boy detective]], the main character in a long series of [[Children's literature|children's books]] written by [[Donald J. Sobol]] since 1963.
Brown lives in the fictional Idaville, [[Florida]], where his [[father]] is [[chief of police]]. In the [[book]]s, Brown will either solve cases presented to him by his father, often cases his father has been unable to solve, or by having someone walk into his [[detective]] agency ("Brown Detective Agency 13 Rover Avenue Leroy Brown President NO case too small 25 cents per day plus expenses"). Brown is sometimes assisted in his investigations by his friend (and "muscle") Sally Kimball. Two of the most frequent "villains" are Bugs Meany (leader of a gang of kids called the "Tigers" with a strong dislike for Brown and Kimball), and Wilford Wiggins (a pre-teen con-artist who attempts a scam every week).
Books featuring this character are subdivided into a number of (possibly interlinked) short stories, each of which presents a [[Mystery fiction|mystery]]. The mystery is always intended to be solved by the reader, thanks to the placement of a logical or factual inconsistency somewhere within the text. Encyclopedia Brown invariably solves the case by exposing this inconsistency, but this part of the story is placed at the end of the book; the bulk of the story ends just at the moment when readers are invited to solve the case themselves, or flip to the section in the back with the answers.
The enduring popularity of the ''Encyclopedia Brown'' books stems, at least partially, from the author's refusal to talk down to his audience (which consists primarily of younger readers), as far as leaving clues and puzzle pieces in each short story. Adult readers who browse through an ''Encyclopedia Brown'' story often find that the mysteries are just as difficult for adults to solve.
Other similar book series are those of the [[Hardy Boys]], [[Nancy Drew]], and [[The Great Brain]].
==Book listing==
The Encyclopedia Brown books, in order of publication, are:
* Foot
*''Encyclopedia Brown, Boy Detective'' ([[1963]], ISBN 0525672001, 1982 reissue ISBN 0553157248)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Secret Pitch'' ([[1965]], ISBN 0525672028)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Finds the Clues'' ([[1966]], ISBN 0525672044)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Gets His Man'' ([[1967]], ISBN 0525672060)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Solves Them All'' ([[1968]], ISBN 0525672125)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Keeps The Peace'' ([[1969]], ISBN 0525672087)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Saves the Day'' ([[1970]], ISBN 0525672109)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Tracks Them Down''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Shows the Way''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Case'' (1973)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Lends a Hand'' (1974)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Dead Eagles''
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Midnight Visitor'' (1977)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Carries On'' (1980)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Sets the Pace''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Cake'' (1982) (Co-written with Glenn Andrews)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Mysterious Handprints'' (1985)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt'' (1988)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Disgusting Sneakers'' (1990)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Two Spies'' (1995)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of Pablo's Nose'' (1996)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Sleeping Dog'' (1998)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Slippery Salamander'' (2000)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Jumping Frogs'' (2005)
Related Books:
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Strange But True Crimes
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Animals
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Cars
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Crimes
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Outdoors
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Spies
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Sports
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Second Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Third Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts
==Quotes==
* "I wouldn't believe him if he swore he was lying."
* "You thieving, lying crook! You should be elected president so you can grant yourself a pardon." - Sally Kimball (From "The Case of Bug's Zebra")
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Brown, Encyclopedia]]
[[Category:Children's books]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Juvenile series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolved</title>
<id>10156</id>
<revision>
<id>15907989</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Evolution]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empire</title>
<id>10158</id>
<revision>
<id>41371230</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:25:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CharlesMartel</username>
<id>881453</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Historical empires (with approximate dates) */ no dates for france?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
:''For alternative meanings, see [[Empire (disambiguation)]]''
An '''empire''' (also known technically, abstractly or disparagingly as an '''imperium''', and with powers known among Romans as "[[imperium]]") comprises a set of regions locally ruled by governors, viceroys or client [[monarch|kings]] in the name of an [[emperor]]. By extension, one could classify as an empire any large, multi-ethnic [[state]] ruled from a single center. Like other states, an empire maintains its political structure at least partly by [[coercion]]. Land-based empires (such as [[Mongol]] or [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]] [[Persia]]) tend to extend in a contiguous area; sea-borne empires, also known as ''[[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]]'' (the [[Athenian empire|Athenian]] and [[British Empire|British]] empires provide examples), may feature looser structures and more scattered territories.
The actual political concept predates the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] by several hundred years: empires began to appear soon after the first cities made the necessary administrative structures possible. The [[Akkadian Empire]] of [[Sargon of Akkad]] furnishes one of the earliest known examples. Compare the concept of "empire" with that of a [[federation]], where a large, multi-ethnic state &mdash; or even an ethnically homogeneous one like [[Japan]] or a small area like [[Switzerland]] &mdash; relies on mutual agreement amongst its component political units. Also, one can compare physical empires with potentially more abstract or less formally structured ''[[hegemony|hegemonies]],'' which add cultural influences to their power repertory within their [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Compare empires with [[superpower]]s.
[[Image:Austria hungary 1911.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Ethnicity|Ethnicities]] within the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], from William R. Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911: compare [[Nation state]].]]
==European Imperialism==
The modern term "empire" derives from the [[Latin]] word ''[[imperium]]'', a word coined in what became possibly the most famous example of this sort of political structure, the [[Roman Empire]] founded in 31 BC. The first empire, however, was the empire created by [[Sargon of Akkad]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. For many centuries, the term "Empire" in the West applied exclusively to states which considered themselves to be successors to the Roman Empire, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], or, later, the [[Russian Empire]].
In [[1204]], when [[Constantinople]] was sacked during the [[Fourth Crusade]], the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] created a [
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:Dardanele]]
[[sr:Дарданели]]
[[fi:Dardanellit]]
[[sv:Dardanellerna]]
[[tr:Çanakkale Boğazı]]
[[uk:Дарданели]]
[[zh:达达尼尔海峡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daugava</title>
<id>8074</id>
<revision>
<id>41991719</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:13:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuban kazak</username>
<id>439789</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Daugava
| image_name = RigaDaugava20060206Blorg.JPG
| caption = The Daugava in Riga during winter
| origin = [[Russia]]
| mouth = [[Gulf of Riga]], [[Baltic Sea]]
| basin_countries = [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]], [[Russia]]
| length = 1020 km (663 mi)
| elevation = 221 m (725 ft)
| discharge = 678 m&sup3;/s (7,310 ft&sup3;/s)
| watershed = 87,900 km&sup2; (33,900 mi&sup2;)
}}
[[Image:Riga new bridge.jpg|thumb|300px|The Daugava in Riga during summer.]]
[[Image:Ustdvinsk.jpg|thumb|300px|The Swedish army bombarding the fortress of [[Daugavgriva]] at the Daugava's estuary.]]
The '''Western Dvina''' or '''Daugava''' ({{lang-be|Заходняя Дзьвіна (Zahodniaja Dźvina)}}, {{lang-lv|Daugava}}, {{lang-ru|Западная Двина́}}, {{lang-pl|Dźwina}}, {{lang-de|Düna}}, {{lang-et|Väina}}) is a [[river]] rising in the [[Valdai Hills]], [[Russia]], flowing through Russia, [[Belarus]], and [[Latvia]], draining into the [[Gulf of Riga]], an arm of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The total length of the river is 1,020 km (633.7 mi.).
It is connected by a canal with [[Berezina]] and [[Dnieper]] rivers.
It is not to be confused with [[Northern Dvina]].
There are three [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dam]]s on the river - [[Rīgas HES]] just upstream from [[Riga]] or 35 km from the mouth of the river, [[Ķeguma HES]] another 35 km further up or 70 km from the mouth, and [[Pļaviņu HES]] another 37 km upstream or 107 km from the mouth. A fourth one, [[Daugavpils HES]], has been planned but has always faced strong criticism. [[Belarus]] currently plans to build several hydroelectric dams on the Belarusian part of Daugava.
=== Cities by Western Dvina ===
*[[Vitebsk]], Belarus
*[[Vieliž]], Belarus
*[[Polatsk]], Belarus
*[[Daugavpils]], Latvia
*[[Jēkabpils]], Latvia
*[[Aizkraukle]], Latvia
*[[Ogre, Latvia|Ogre]], Latvia
*[[Salaspils]], Latvia
*[[Riga]], Latvia
== External links ==
* [http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/atlas/atlas_html/treaties/europe/daugava.html River Daugava Basin]
* [http://www.energo.lv/en/latvenergo/3_2_15.php Daugava Hydropower Plants in Latvia]
=== Main tributaries of Western Dvina ===
*[[Pałata]]
[[Category:Rivers of Latvia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Belarus]]
[[Category:Rivers of Russia]]
[[bg:Западна Двина]]
[[cs:Daugava]]
[[de:Düna]]
[[et:Daugava]]
[[es:Daugava]]
[[eo:Zapadnaja Dvina (urbo)]]
[[ko:서드비나 강]]
[[it:Daugava]]
[[lv:Daugava]]
[[lt:Dauguva]]
[[hu:Daugava]]
[[nl:Daugava]]
[[no:Daugava]]
[[pl:Dźwina]]
[[pt:Duina Ocidental]]
[[ru:Западная Двина (река)]]
[[sr:Даугава]]
[[fi:Väinäjoki]]
[[sv:Daugava]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Datsun</title>
<id>8075</id>
<revision>
<id>39533164</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T03:16:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>221.188.28.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"># [[The Datsuns]]
# [[Nissan Motors|Nissan's]] old brand.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Douglas Coupland</title>
<id>8076</id>
<revision>
<id>41582380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:52:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hydriotaphia</username>
<id>123106</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Non-fiction */ descriptive, not descripatory</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Douglas Coupland''' (born [[December 30]], [[1961]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[fiction]] writer, artist and cultural commentator. He is perhaps best known for the [[1991]] [[novel]] ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]],'' which popularized the term "[[Generation X]]." Most of Coupland's work explores the harsher realities of life for this generation, including intense media saturation, a lack of religious values and economic instability.
==Biography==
Coupland was born to Dr. Douglas Charles Thomas and C. Janet Coupland on a Canadian [[NATO]] [[U.S. Air Force|Air Force]] base in Baden Söllingen, [[Germany]]. Douglas was the third child in his family; the rest of his siblings were all male. His family moved back to Canada four years later, where he was raised and still lives.
Coupland left Vancouver as a teenager to study [[physics]] at [[McGill|McGill University]]. There he stayed only 2 years before going back to Vancouver to study art at [[Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design|Emily Carr]]. Trained as a sculptor, Coupland graduated and began travelling. He worked in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] before returning to his hometown, where he began to write on youth and popular culture for local magazines. This led him to the subject of his breakthrough novel ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'' ([[1991]]), which was critically praised for capturing the [[zeitgeist]] of his peer group, for whom its title provided a convenient label. Although society later guestimated "[[Generation X|generation x]]", the generation, as being born up to and including the early [[1970s]], Douglas' range was close enough to approximate the label. Without knowing it, he had literally provided one of the names for his whole generation. Consequently, Coupland starred in a series of [[MTV]] promos, reading excerpts from his book, participating in a form of mutual validation.
His next novel, ''[[Shampoo Planet]]'', had a more conventional structure than its predecessor but many similarities, including a detailed eye for the mores and minutiae of the lives of its young protagonists, including [[video games]], hippie parents and an obsession with grooming products. ''[[Microserfs]]'' ([[1995]]) is centred on high-tech life in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]], and [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]], [[California]], contrasting the corporate culture of [[Microsoft]] with pre-[[dot-com bubble]] start-up companies.
''[[Girlfriend in a Coma (book)|Girlfriend in a Coma]]'' (with a title from, and many knowing nods within the text to, [[The Smiths]]) showed a willingness to tackle broader themes and featured some of his most mature writing &mdash; poet and critic [[Tom Paulin]] described his use of language as "fresh, like wet paint". Like the earlier novels, however, it was criticised as poorly structured.
With its adoption of [[supernatural]] elements, ''Girlfriend in a Coma'' also marked a change in Coupland's work. Hitherto, his narratives were focused on conventional characters living in a carefully drawn but instantly recognisable modern world. The plots of ''Girlfriend in a Coma'' and his subsequent novels have all introduced either supernatural occurrences or involve what can only be described as "low probability events" (e.g. air disasters, meteorite impacts). This change has moved Coupland away from his earlier generation-defining work, but has allowed him to develop and explore new themes.
While his books are rich in humour, observation and carefully drawn vignettes, Coupland's critics noted a tendency for the plot development to be lost amongst these. The apocalyptic ending of ''Girlfriend...'', which seems forced and out of step with the remainder, is often held up as a case in point. In this context, ''Miss Wyoming'' is possibly his most rounded and satisfying novel.
[[Sofia Coppola]]'s company acquired the film rights to ''Generation X'' in 2001, although the one-year option on the property has long expired, leaving this and many other Coupland film projects in limbo.{{ref|gill}} As of [[2005]], many of the film projects are still awaiting crystalization. Coupland mentioned in a 2005 interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'' that the adaptation of his ''All Families Are [[Psychotic]]'' by [[Dreamworks Pictures]] appears to have the most chance of becoming a film. In the same interview he also [[coming out|came out]] as [[homosexuality|gay]] to the general public.{{ref|duralde}}
==Bibliography==
===Fiction===
*''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'' (1991)
*''[[Shampoo Planet]]'' (1992)
*''[[Life After God]]'' (1994)
*''[[Microserfs]]'' (1995)
*''[[Girlfriend in a Coma (book)|Girlfriend in a Coma]]'' (1998)
*''[[Miss Wyoming]]'' (1999)
*''[[All Families Are Psychotic|All Families Are Psychotic: A Novel]]'' (2001)
*''[[God Hates Japan]]'' (2001)
*''[[Hey Nostradamus!]]'' (2003)
*''[[Eleanor Rigby (novel)|Eleanor Rigby]]'' (2004)
*''[[jPod]]'' (2006)
===Non-fiction===
*''[[Polaroids From The Dead]]'' (1996) &mdash; collected essays
*''[[Lara's Book]]: Lara Croft and the [[Tomb Raider]] phenomenon'' (1998)
*''[[City of Glass (Douglas Coupland book)|City of Glass]]'' (2000)
*''[[Souvenir of Canada]]'' (2002)
*''[[School Spirit]]'' (2002)
*''[[Souvenir of Canada 2]]'' (2004)
*''[[Terry - The Life of Canadian Terry Fox]]'' (2005)
''Polaroids from the Dead'' includes some fiction as well, as a series of 10 quick descriptive shots of Grateful Dead concerts at the beginning were invented.
===Misc===
*''[[September 10 (play)|September 10]]'' (2004) &mdash; play written and performed by Coupland
*''[[Everything's Gone Green (movie)|Everything's Gone Green]]'' (2005) &mdash; screenplay
==References==
*{{note|duralde}}Duralde, Alonso. "[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1589/is_2005_Feb_1/ai_n9487813 All the lonely people]". ''The Advocate''. February 1, 2005.
*{{note|gill}}Gill, Alexandra. "[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20050702/COUPLAND02/TPEntertainment/Film Filming 'that Coupland world']".
|
in the [[1870s]]. However, the Victorian castle stands on the footings of a much older medieval castle possibly built by [[Ifor Bach|Ivor Bach]], a regional baron with links to Cardiff Castle also. The exterior has become a popular location for film and television productions.
[[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] granted Cardiff [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] on [[October 28]], [[1905]]. It was then proclaimed capital city of Wales on [[December 20]], [[1955]]. Therefore, Cardiff celebrated two important [[anniversary|anniversaries]] in [[2005]].
The city is [[county town]] of [[Glamorgan]], although this role has diminished since council reorganisation in [[1974]] paired Cardiff and the [[Vale of Glamorgan]] together as the new county of [[South Glamorgan]]. Further local government restructuring in [[1996]] resulted in Cardiff City's [[Districts of Wales|district]] council becoming a [[unitary authority]].
On [[March 1]], [[2004]], Cardiff was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade City]] status.
==Culture, media, sport and tourism==
:''See also [[List of cultural venues in Cardiff]]''
The city has a professional [[soccer|football]] team, [[Cardiff City F.C.]], nicknamed "The Bluebirds". There is also the world-famous [[Cardiff RFC]] or [[Cardiff Blues]] [[rugby union]] team, and the Cardiff Devils [[Ice Hockey]] team. The city also features an international sporting venue, the [[Millennium Stadium]]. Cardiff hosted the [[1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]].
Cardiff is home to [[Cardiff Castle]], the [[National Assembly for Wales]], [http://www.stdavidshallcardiff.co.uk/English/ St. David's Hall], the [[National Museum & Gallery, Cardiff|National Museum and Gallery]], and [[Cathays|Cathays Park]] (including municipal buildings modelled on those in [[New Delhi]]), and the [http://www.cardiffmetropolitancathedralchoir.macwebsitebuilder.com/cathedralbuilding.html Cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral]. The [[Welsh National Opera]] moved into the [[Wales Millennium Centre]] in November 2004.
Cardiff's centre is a particularly green one with Bute Park, formally the castle grounds, extending northwards from the top of the Cardiff's main shopping street (Queen Street); when combined with the adjacent Llandaff Fields to the northwest it produces a massive open space skirting the river [[Taff]]. Unfortunately Cardiff's central green spaces are now under threat of development. Other popular parks include Roath Park in the north, donated to the city by the [[John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute|3rd Marquess of Bute]] in [[1887]] and which includes a very popular boating lake; [[Victoria Park]], Cardiff's first official park; and Thompson's Park, formerly home to an [[aviary]] removed in the 1970s.
The city has its own university, [[Cardiff University]], as well as two [[University of Wales]] colleges, the [[University of Wales Institute, Cardiff]] and the [http://www.rwcmd.ac.uk/index.asp Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama]. Cardiff has also been repeatedly mentioned in the BBC TV show [[Doctor Who]], where it was often filmed. The mentions are a bit tongue-in-cheek, of the "Where are we? It's not Cardiff again is it?" variety.
Cardiff hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1883]], [[1899]], [[1938]], [[1960]] and [[1978]].
[http://www.cardiffphilatelicsociety.org.uk| Cardiff Philatelic Society] is the oldest [[Philatelic Society]] in Wales. It was formed in 1899.
The [[South Wales hardcore scene]], one of the UK's largest such [[music]] [[scenes]], is largely centred in Cardiff.
==Twinning==
Cardiff has [[town twinning|twinning]] arrangements with:
* [[Luhans'k region|Luhans'k]], [[Ukraine]]
* [[Hordaland]], [[Norway]]
* [[Nantes]], [[France]]
* [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]
* [[Xiamen]], [[China]]
It was previously, but is no longer, twinned with [[Baltimore County, Maryland|Baltimore County]], [[United States|USA]]
==Politics==
Since gaining autonomy at the county level in [[1996]], Cardiff has been governed by Cardiff County Council. From then until [[2004]] the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] had a large working majority. In 1995, the balance was 61 [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] , 9 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] , 1 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] and 1 [[Plaid Cymru]]. In 1999 the balance was 50 [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] , 18 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] , 5 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]s, 1 [[Plaid Cymru]] and 1 Independent.
Following the [[2004]] local elections, no individual political party has a majority on Cardiff County Council. The [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] have 32 councillors (33 were elected, but one councillor crossed the floor to Plaid Cymru) and have formed a minority administration, [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] have 27, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]s have 12 and [[Plaid Cymru]] have 4. The Leader of the Council, Cllr [[Rodney Berman]], is from the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].
==Transport links==
*'''by cycle''': links to the north using the [[National Cycle Network]] and [[Taff Trail]]
*'''by rail''': has several rail links: [[South Wales Main Line]] and regional [[Valley Lines]]
*'''by bus and coach''': on the [[National Express]] network, as well as served by regional buses
*'''by road''': linked to the east and west by the M4 motorway, to the north by the A470.
*'''by air''': [[Cardiff International Airport]] is located 10miles to the south west of the city
*'''by waterbus''': [http://www.cardiffcats.com/] across [[Cardiff Bay]] from Mermaid Quay to Custom House at [[Penarth]] adjacent to [[Cardiff Barrage]]
==Natives of Cardiff==
*[[Danny Abse]]
*[[Leo Abse]]
*[[Wilfred Abse]]
*[[Michael Aspel]]
*[[Jeremy Bowen]]
*[[Jason Barron]]
*[[Shirley Bassey]]
*[[Charlotte Church]]
*[[Gillian Clarke]]
*[[Roald Dahl]]
*[[Dave Edmunds]]
*[[Ryan Giggs]]
*[[Ioan Gruffudd]]
*[[Anna Hagan]]
*[[Lauren Harries]]
*[[John Humphrys]]
*[[Bobi Jones]]
*[[Griff Rhys Jones]]
*[[Rhodri Morgan]]
*[[Terry Nation]]
*[[Ivor Novello]]
*[[Clive Sullivan]]
*[[Shakin' Stevens]]
*[[Toy Mic Trevor]]
*[[John Toshack]]
==See also==
{{Commons|Cardiff}}
*[[List of cultural venues in Cardiff]]
*[[List of Parliamentary constituencies in South Glamorgan]]
*[[List of places in Cardiff]]
*[[Cardiff city centre]]
*[[Cardiff Bay]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cardiff.gov.uk/ Cardiff Council site]
*[http://www.cardiffonline.net/ Cardiff Online]
*[http://www.astrobiology.cf.ac.uk/ Cardiff Centre for Astrobiology (CCAB) ]
*[http://www.regiochannel.co.uk/cardiff/index.html Directory for Cardiff and surroundings]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/cardiff/ Cardiff, BBC]
{{Wales subdivisions}}
{{Welsh Cities}}
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<title>Charles Dickens</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CDickens.jpg|right|200px|framed|'''Charles Dickens''' was a prolific writer who was almost always working on a new installment for a story and rarely missed a deadline.]]
{{redirect|Dickens}}
'''Charles John Huffam Dickens''' ([[February 7]] [[1812]] &ndash; [[June 9]] [[1870]]), [[pen-name]] "[[Boz]]", was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]]. During his lifetime, Dickens was not viewed as the literary monolith we know him as today, but rather as a popular entertainer of fecund imagination and comic genius. Later critics, beginning with [[George Gissing]] and [[G.K. Chesterton]], championed his mastery of prose, his endless invention of memorable characters and his powerful social sensibilities, despite continued criticism from his more rarefied readers, like [[George Henry Lewes]], [[Henry James]], and [[Virginia Woolf]]. The popularity of his novels and short stories during his lifetime and to the present is demonstrated by the fact that none have ever gone [[Out-of-print book|out of print]]. Dickens played a major role in popularising the [[Serial|serialised novel]]. He is remembered by many as the greatest writer of his time. He is frequently referred to by his last name only, even on first reference (''à la'' [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]).
==Life==
Dickens was born in [[Portsmouth]], [[Hampshire]] to [[John Dickens]], a naval pay clerk, and his wife Elizabeth Dickens. When he was five, the family moved to [[Chatham, Kent]]. When he was ten, the family relocated to [[Camden Town, London, England|Camden Town]] in London. His early years were an idyllic time. He thought himself then as a "very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy". He spent his time outdoors, reading voraciously with a particular fondness for the [[Picaresque novel|picaresque]] novels of [[Tobias Smollett]] and [[Henry Fielding]]. He talked later in life of his extremely strong memories of childhood and his continuing [[photographic memory]] of people and events that helped bring his fiction to life. His family was moderately well-off, and he received some education at a private school but all that changed when his father, after spending too much money entertaining and retaining his s
|
ed motion of charged particles in a particular direction (typically these are the electrons) is known as [[electric current]].
The [[SI]] unit of electric charge is the [[coulomb]], which represents approximately 6.24 × 10<sup>18</sup> [[elementary charge]]s (the charge on a single electron or proton). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross-section of a [[conductor (material)|conductor]] carrying one [[ampere]] within one second. The symbol ''Q'' is used to denote a quantity of electric charge.
Electric charge can be directly measured with an [[electrometer]]. The discrete nature of electric charge was demonstrated by [[Robert Millikan]] in his [[oil-drop experiment]].
Formally, a measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge ''e'' (charge is [[quantized]]), but since it is an average, [[macroscopic]] quantity, many orders of magnitude larger than a single elementary charge, it can effectively take on any [[real number|real value]].
== History ==
As reported by the Ancient Greek philosopher [[Thales of Miletus]] around [[600s BC|600 BC]], charge (or ''electricity'') could be accumulated by rubbing [[fur]] on various substances, such as [[amber]]. The Greeks noted that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as [[hair]]. They also noted that if they rubbed the [[amber]] for long enough, they could even get a spark to jump. This property [[Wiktionary:derive|derives]] from the [[triboelectric effect]]. The word ''electricity'' derives from ''ηλεκτρον'' (electron), the Greek word for amber.
[[C. F. Du Fay]] proposed in [[1733]] [http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM] that electricity came in two varieties which cancelled each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, DuFay said that the glass was charged with ''vitreous electricity'', and when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was said to be charged with ''resinous electricity''.
By the [[18th century]], the study of [[electricity]] had become popular. One of the foremost experts was [[Benjamin Franklin]], who argued in favor of a one-fluid theory of electricity. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example he believed that it was the [[glass]] in a [[Leyden jar]] that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was "negatively" charged, and when it had an excess it was "positively" charged. Arbitrarily (or for a reason that was not recorded) he identified the term "positive" with vitreous electricity and "negative" with resinous electricity. [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]] arrived at the same explanation at about the same time.
We now know that the Franklin/Watson model was close, but too simple. Matter is actually composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, the most common being the positively charged [[proton]] and the negatively charged [[electron]]. Rather than one possible [[electric current]] there are many: a flow of electrons, a flow of electron "holes" which act like positive particles, or in [[electrolytic]] [[solution]]s, a flow of both negative and positive particles called [[ion]]s moving in opposite directions. To reduce this complexity, electrical workers still use Franklin's convention and they imagine that electric current (known as ''[[conventional_current|conventional current]]'') is a flow of exclusively positive particles. The conventional current simplifies electrical concepts and calculations, but it ignores the fact that within some conductors (electrolytes, semiconductors, and [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]), two or more species of electric charges flow in opposite directions. The flow direction for ''conventional current'' is also backwards compared to the actual electron drift taking place during electric currents in metals, the typical conductor of electricity, which is a source of confusion for beginners in electronics.
== Properties ==
Aside from the properties described in articles about [[electromagnetism]], charge is a [[theory of relativity|relativistic]] [[invariant (physics)|invariant]]. This means that any particle that has charge ''q'', no matter how fast it goes, always has charge ''q''. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of ''one'' [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] (two [[proton]]s and two [[neutron]]s bound together in a nucleus and moving around at incredible speeds) is the same as ''two'' [[deuterium]] nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).
== Conservation of charge ==
The total electric charge of [[isolated system]]s remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from [[Maxwell's equation]] as a [[continuity equation]]. More generally, the net change in [[charge density]] <math>\rho</math> within a volume of integration <math>V</math> is equal to the area integral over the [[current density]] <math>J</math> on the surface of the volume <math>S</math>, which is in turn equal to the net [[Current (electricity)|current]] <math>I</math>:
:<math>- \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \int_V \rho\, dV = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{dS} = I</math>
== See also ==
* [[Charge decay]]
* [[Current density]]
* [[Electrical discharge]]
* [[SI electromagnetism units]]
* [[Quantity of electricity]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/charge.html Online Charge Converter] - convert between various units of charge, such as ''coulomb'', ''EMU of charge'', ''franklin'', ''ampere-hour'', ''faraday'', and so on
* [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/charge-ex.html Interactive Charge Conversion Table] - convert selected unit to all other units of charge
* [http://www.ce-mag.com/archive/2000/marapril/mrstatic.html How fast does a charge decay?]
[[Category:Electrostatics|*]]
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[[Category:Chemical properties]]
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[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]
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<page>
<title>Electric Charge</title>
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<page>
<title>Ellis Island</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Ellis Island National Monument
| iucn_category = III
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 254
| locator_y = 60
| location = [[New Jersey]] & [[New York]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City, NJ]]
| lat_degrees = 40
| lat_minutes = 41
| lat_seconds = 59
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 74
| long_minutes = 2
| long_seconds = 23
| long_direction = W
| area = 58.38 acres (0.24 km²) (includes [[Statue of Liberty|Statue of Liberty NM]])
| established = [[October 15]], [[1924]]
| visitation_num = 3,618,053 (includes Statue of Liberty NM)
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}<!-- Note: site is not listed in IUCN database, but appears to conform with Category III -->
'''Ellis Island''', at the mouth of the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York Harbor]], was at one time the main [[immigration]] port for immigrants entering the [[United States]] in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]].
==History==
[[Image:Ellis island 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|Landing at Ellis Island, [[1902]]]]
The federal immigration station opened on [[January 1]], [[1892]] and was closed in [[November]] [[1954]] but not before processing more than 12 million immigrants. Previously immigrants were processed at [[Castle Clinton]]. Only about 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S. and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as chronic disease, criminal background, or insanity <ref>[http://www.nps.gov/stli/serv02.htm#Ellis National Park Service: Ellis Island], retreived January 12, 2006.</ref>. Immigrants were examined by both doctors and questioned by government officials. Many who were allowed entry settled in [[New York City|New York]] and northern [[New Jersey]] for at least their first few years in America.
[[Image:Stamp-ctc-ellis-island.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ellis Island imm
|
al ways to structure the graph drawing. All that matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the exact layout. In practise it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same graph. Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier to understand than others.
== Graphs as data structures == {{main|Graph (data structure)}}
There are different ways to store graphs in a computer system. The [[data structure]] used depends on both the graph structure and the [[algorithm]] used for manipulating the graph. Theoretically one can distinguish between list and matrix structures but in concrete applications the best structure is often a combination of both. List structures are often preferred for [[sparse graph]]s as they have smaller memory requirements. Matrix structures on the other hand provide faster access but can consume huge amounts of memory if the graph is very large.
===List structures===
* '''[[Incidence list]]''' - The edges are represented by an [[array]] containing pairs (ordered if directed) of vertices (that the edge connects) and eventually weight and other data.
* '''[[Adjacency list]]''' - Much like the incidence list, each node has a list of which nodes it is adjacent to. This can sometimes result in "overkill" in an undirected graph as node 3 may be in the list for node 2, then node 2 must be in the list for node 3. Either the programmer may choose to use the unneeded space anyway, or he/she may choose to list the adjacency once. This representation is easier to find all the nodes which are connected to a single node, since these are explicitly listed.
===Matrix structures===
* '''[[Incidence matrix]]''' - The graph is represented by a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] of E (edges) by V (vertices), where [edge, vertex] contains the edge's data (simplest case: 1 - connected, 0 - not connected).
* '''[[Adjacency matrix]]''' - there is an N by N matrix, where N is the number of vertices in the graph. If there is an edge from some vertex x to some vertex y, then the element <math>M_{x, y}</math> is 1, otherwise it is 0. This makes it easier to find subgraphs, and to reverse graphs if needed.
* '''[[Admittance matrix]]''' or '''[[Kirchhoff matrix]]''' or '''Laplacian matrix''' - is defined as [[degree matrix]] minus [[adjacency matrix]] and thus contains adjacency information and degree information about the vertices
== Graph problems ==
=== Finding subgraphs ===
A common problem, called [[subgraph isomorphism problem]], is finding [[subgraph]]s in a given graph. Many [[graph properties]] are ''hereditary'', which means that a graph has a property if and only if all subgraphs have it too. For example a graph is [[planar graph|planar]] if it contains neither the [[complete bipartite graph]] <math>K_{3,3}</math> (See [[Three cottage problem]]) nor the [[complete graph]] <math>K_{5}</math>. Unfortunately, finding maximal subgraphs of a certain kind is often an [[NP-complete problem]].
*finding the largest [[complete graph]] is called the [[clique problem]] (NP-complete)
*finding the largest [[independent set]] is called the [[independent set problem]] (NP-complete)
=== [[Graph coloring]] ===
* the [[four-color theorem]]
* the [[perfect graph|strong perfect graph theorem]]
* the [[Erd&#337;s-Faber-Lovász conjecture]] (unsolved)
* the [[total coloring|total coloring conjecture]] (unsolved)
* the [[list edge-coloring|list coloring conjecture]] (unsolved)
=== Route problems ===
* [[Hamiltonian path problem|Hamiltonian path and cycle problems]]
* [[Seven Bridges of Königsberg]]
* [[Minimum spanning tree]]
* [[Steiner tree]]
* [[Shortest path problem]]
* [[Route inspection problem]] (also called the "Chinese Postman Problem")
* [[Traveling salesman problem]] (NP-Complete)
=== [[Network flow]] ===
* [[Max flow min cut theorem]]
* [[Reconstruction conjecture]]
=== [[Visibility graph]] problems ===
* [[Visibility graph|Museum guard problem]]
===[[Covering (graph theory)|Covering Problems]]===
Covering problems are specific instances of subgraph finding problems, and tend to be closely related to the [[clique problem]] or [[independent set problem]].
* [[Set cover problem]]
* [[Vertex cover problem]]
== Important algorithms ==
* [[Bellman-Ford algorithm]]
* [[Dijkstra's algorithm]]
* [[Ford-Fulkerson algorithm]]
* [[Kruskal's algorithm]]
* [[Nearest neighbour algorithm]]
* [[Prim's algorithm]]
== Related areas of mathematics ==
* [[Ramsey theory]]
* [[Combinatorics]]
==Applications==
Many applications of graph theory exist in the form of [[network analysis]]. These split broadly into two categories. Firstly, analysis to determine structural properties of a network, such as whether or not it is a [[scale-free network]], or a [[small-world network]]. Secondly, analysis to find a measurable quantity within the network, for example, for a [[transport network|transportation network]], the level of vehicular flow within any portion of it.
Graph theory is also used to study molecules in science. In condensed matter physics, the three dimensional structure of complicated simulated atomic structures can be studied quantitatively by gathering statistics on graph-theoretic properties related to the topology of the atoms. For example, Franzblau's shortest-path (SP) rings.
== Subareas ==
Graph theory is diverse and contains many identifiable [[List of graph theory topics|subareas]]. Some of them are:
* [[Algebraic graph theory]]
* [[Topological graph theory]]
* [[Geometric graph theory]]
* [[Extremal graph theory]]
* [[Metric graph theory]]
* [[Probabilistic graph theory]]
==Prominent graph theorists ==
* [[Paul Erd&#337;s]]
* [[Frank Harary]]
* [[Denes König]]
* [[W.T. Tutte]]
* [http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/people/alphabetic.html Graph theory white pages] for more graph theorists and their publications.
==Notes==
# The only information a weighted graph provides as such is (a) the vertices, (b) the edges and (c) the weights. Therefore the example in which the weights represent the roads' lengths doesn't imply that the weights are merely redundant annotations: there is no actual topographical information associated with the graph, so unlike reading a map, measuring the distances between the vertices is completely meaningless -- without the weights, there would be no way of telling what the distance between the vertices is in real life.
==See also==
* [[Glossary of graph theory]]
* [[List of graph theory topics]]
* [[Ordered tree data structure]] - DAGs, binary trees and other special forms of graph.
* [[Graph (data structure)]]
* [[Graph drawing]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Graph theory| Important publications in graph theory]]
* [[Disjoint-set data structure]]
== External links==
;Online textbooks
* [http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/diestel/books/graph.theory/ Graph Theory] (1997/2005) by Reinhard Diestel
* [http://www.ecp6.jussieu.fr/pageperso/bondy/books/gtwa/gtwa.html Graph Theory with Applications] (1976) by Bondy and Murty
;Other resources
* [http://www.utm.edu/departments/math/graph/ Graph theory tutorial]
* [http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~dobrush/cs507/presentation/2001/Project10/ppframe.htm Graph theory algorithm presentation]
* [http://students.ceid.upatras.gr/~papagel/project/contents.htm Some graph theory algorithm animations]
**''Step through the algorithm to understand it.''
* [http://www2.hig.no/~algmet/animate.html The compendium of algorithm visualisation sites]
* [http://www.nlsde.buaa.edu.cn/~kexu/benchmarks/graph-benchmarks.htm Challenging Benchmarks for Maximum Clique, Maximum Independent Set, Minimum Vertex Cover and Vertex Coloring]
*[http://www.nd.edu/~networks/gallery.htm Image gallery no.1: Some real-life networks]
*[http://www.aisee.com/graphs/ Image gallery no.2: More real-life graphs]
*[http://people.freenet.de/Emden-Weinert/graphs.html Graph links collection]
*[http://ttt.upv.es/~arodrigu/grafos/index.htm Grafos spanish copyleft software]
*[http://www.ffconsultancy.com/products/ocaml_for_scientists/complete/ Source code for computing neighbor shells in particle systems under periodic boundary conditions]
*[http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/ Graph Theory Resources]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Graph theory]]
[[Category:Algebraic graph theory]]
[[Category:Topological graph theory]]
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[[fa:نظریه گراف]]
[[fr:Théorie des graphes]]
[[ko:그래프 이론]]
[[id:Teori graf]]
[[it:Teoria dei grafi]]
[[he:תורת הגרפים]]
[[lt:Grafų teorija]]
[[nl:Grafentheorie]]
[[ja:グラフ理論]]
[[no:Grafteori]]
[[nn:Grafteori]]
[[pl:Teoria grafów]]
[[pt:Teoria dos grafos]]
[[ru:Теория графов]]
[[simple:Graph theory]]
[[sk:Teória grafov]]
[[sl:Teorija grafov]]
[[sv:Grafteori]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีกราฟ]]
[[vi:Lý thuyết đồ thị]]
[[tr:Çizge Teorisi]]
[[uk:Теорія графів]]
[[zh:图论]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulf stream</title>
<id>12402</id>
<revision>
<id>15910091</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-09T01:41:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wwoods</username>
<id>43844</id>
</contributor>
<comment>shifted content to Gulf Stream</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulf Stream]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gumby</title>
<id>12405</id>
<revision>
<id>42128093</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:25:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.188.116.199</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Parodies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the claymation figure. For the Monty Python character, see [[Gumbies]].''
[[Image:Gumby_pokey.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Gumby and Pokey]]
|
sn't sure whether he was winning or losing.
In addition to discovering a new move, Krush displayed great patience, tact, and generosity while participating in the bulletin board discussion of the game. Due to her social skill and tireless work on behalf of the World Team, she gradually became the focus of all the team's analytical efforts. The analysis tree she maintained gained considerable authority, and the recommendations therein were chosen by the team for more than forty consecutive moves. Even grandmasters rated considerably higher than her began making primary reference to her analysis tree.
Thanks to Krush's efforts, the team worked in a more coordinated fashion than in any Internet game before or since. Unfortunately, on the 58th move, her recommendation was inexplicably delayed from appearing on the [[MSN]] website, and the team voters chose an objectively weaker move. Microsoft denied any failure on their part. Kasparov later published a "forced win" even against the better move proposed by Krush, and while computer analysis subsequently showed that his position was indeed won, it also showed that his analysis contained errors which would have allowed a draw, had he not discovered the mistakes in time.
Controversy aside, the game was a splendid brawl, and the outcome was in doubt for more than fifty moves. Kasparov had high praise for the World Team, and said that the game required more sustained effort from him than any other event in which he has participated, including preparing for World Championship matches. Irina's [[endgame]] analysis pushed back the frontiers of KQP vs KQP endgame knowledge, and her opening novelty has forced grandmasters to abandon Kasparov's opening line in favor of a different move order.
==External links==
*{{fide|id=2012782|name=Irina Krush}}
*[http://www.smartchess.com/SmartChessOnline/default.htm SmartChess Online] maintains an extensive Web page tracking Krush's career.
*[http://www.wtharvey.com/krus.html 15 Winning Combinations from Her Games]
[[Category:1983 births|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:Living people|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:American chess players|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:Chess woman grandmasters|Krush, Irina]]
[[nl:Irina Krush]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques</title>
<id>14527</id>
<revision>
<id>39185810</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T08:22:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.141.234.189</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>m translate name - please check</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IHES_main_building.jpg|thumbnail|IHÉS main building]]
The '''Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques''' ('''I.H.É.S.''', en: Institute of Advanced Scientific Studies) is a [[France|French]] institute supporting advanced research in [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]]. It is located in [[Bures-sur-Yvette]] just south of [[Paris]].
The IHÉS, founded in 1958 by businessman and mathematician [[Léon Motchane]] with the help of [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and [[Jean Dieudonné]], aims to bring together top researchers in the field. It has a small number of permanent professors, appointed for life, and invites about 200 visitors a year for varying terms averaging three months. It also has a small number of so-called long-term visitors. Research is not contracted or directed: it is left to each individual researcher to pursue their own goals. Permanent professors are only required to be in residence six months a year.
Design of the IHÉS is said to be influenced by Robert Oppenheimer, who was then the Director of the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton. The strong personality of [[Alexandre Grothendieck]] and the broad sweep of his revolutionizing theories were a dominating feature of the first ten years at the IHÉS. [[René Thom]] was another prominent figure in its early history. [[Dennis Sullivan]] is remembered as one who had a special talent for encouraging fruitful exchanges among visitors and provoking a new and deeper insight into their ideas.
The IHÉS runs a highly regarded mathematical journal, [[Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS]].
The Directors of the IHÉS in chronological order: Léon Motchane (1958&ndash;71), [[Nicolaas Kuiper]] (1971&ndash;85), [[Marcel Berger]] (1985&ndash;94), [[Jean-Pierre Bourguignon]] (1994&ndash;now).
Some of the top mathematicians who were or are now permanent professors at the IHÉS include [[Alexandre Grothendieck]], [[Jean Bourgain]], [[Alain Connes]], [[Pierre Deligne]], [[René Thom]], [[Pierre Cartier]], [[Mikhail Gromov]] and [[Maxim Kontsevich]].
== External links ==
* Home page: http://www.ihes.fr
[[Category:Mathematical institutes]]
[[de:Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques]]
[[fr:Institut des hautes études scientifiques]]
[[ja:IHÉS]]
[[ko:IHÉS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interpreting Statistical Data</title>
<id>14528</id>
<revision>
<id>15912074</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-13T08:25:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fix broken redirect. Should redirect ignore whitespace after the link?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interpreting statistical data</title>
<id>14529</id>
<revision>
<id>15912075</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-18T19:59:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AstroNomer</username>
<id>94</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>change redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interquartile Range</title>
<id>14530</id>
<revision>
<id>15912076</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interquartile range]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iceland</title>
<id>14531</id>
<revision>
<id>41982291</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:59:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palthrow</username>
<id>391104</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ Added Sturlungaöld</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the chain of supermarkets in the United Kingdom and Ireland, see [[Iceland (supermarket)]]''
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=350 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Lýðveldið Ísland'''</big>
| align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;"
| width="130px"| [[Image:Flag of Iceland.svg|125px|Flag of Iceland]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Coat of Arms of Iceland.png|120px|Iceland: Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width="150px"| ([[Flag of Iceland|In Detail]])
| width="200px"| ([[Coat of Arms of Iceland|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: None''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | [[image:LocationIceland.png|Location of Iceland]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]''' || [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]] and largest city''' || [[Reykjavík]]
|-
|'''[[List of Presidents of Iceland|President]]''' || [[Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson]]
|-
|'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Iceland|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Halldór Ásgrímsson]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 107th]]<br>[[1 E11 m²|103,000 km²]] <br>2.70%
|-
|'''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total ([[January 9]] [[2006]])<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 169th]]<br>300,000<br>2.91/km²
|-
|'''[[Independence]] (from [[Denmark]])'''<br>&nbsp;- Sovereignty<br>&nbsp;- Republic
|<br>[[1 December]] [[1918]]<br>[[17 June]] [[1944]]
|-
|'''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2003)<br>&nbsp; - Total (PPP)<br>&nbsp; - Total<br>&nbsp; - GDP/capita (PPP)<br>&nbsp; - GDP/capita
|<br>$9 billion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|127th]]) <br/> $15 billion ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|87th]])<br>$35,686 ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|5th]])<br>$52,063 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|4th]])
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.956 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|2nd]]) – <font color="#009900">high</font>
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Icelandic króna]] (ISK)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''<br>&nbsp;- year round
| [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+0)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || ''[[Lofsöngur]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.is]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +354
|-
|}
'''Iceland''', officially the '''Republic of Iceland''' ([[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''Ísland'' or ''Lýðveldið Ísland'') is a [[borderless country]], a volcanic island in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Greenland]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Faroe Islands|The Faroe Islands]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Iceland}}
Iceland was one of the last large islands uninhabited by humans until it was discovered and settled by immigrants from [[Scandinavia]] and from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] during the 9th and 10th centuries. [[Íslendingabók]] (''L
|
enesis|Genesis]] early on after its debut in [[1989]], with the [[Nintendo]] [[SNES|Super NES]] proving a strong, roughly equal rival in [[1991]]. The [[NEC]] [[TurboGrafx 16]] was the first 16-bit system to be marketed in the region, but did not achieve a large following, partly due to a limited library of English games and effective marketing from Sega. In Japan, the [[PC Engine]]'s (Turbografx 16) [[1987]] success against the [[Famicom]] and [[CD]] drive peripheral allowed it to fend off the [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis|Mega Drive]] (Genesis) in 1988, which never really caught on to the same degree as outside Japan. The PC Engine eventually lost out to the [[Super Famicom]], but retained enough of a user base to support new games well into the late 1990s. CD-ROM drives were first seen in this generation, as add-ons for the PC Engine in 1988 and the Megadrive in 1991. Basic [[3D graphics]] entered the mainstream with flat-shaded polygons enabled by additional processors in game cartridges like [[Virtua Racing]] and [[Starfox]].
[[Image:N64 Super Mario 64 shifting sand land.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Super Mario 64]]'' became a defining title for 3D platformers]]
In [[1994]]-[[1995]], Sega released [[Sega Saturn]] and [[Sony]] made its debut to the video gaming scene with the [[PlayStation]]. Both consoles used [[32-bit]] technology; the door was open for 3D games. After many delays, Nintendo released its [[64-bit]] console, the [[Nintendo 64]] in [[1996]], selling more than 1.5 million units in only three months. The flagship title, ''[[Super Mario 64]]'', became a defining title for 3D platform games. Nintendo's choice to use [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] instead of [[CD-ROM]]s for the Nintendo 64, unique among the consoles of this period, proved to have negative consequences. In particular, [[Square Co., Ltd.|SquareSoft]], which had released all previous games in its ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series for Nintendo consoles, now turned to the PlayStation; ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' ([[1997]]) was a huge success, establishing the popularity of role-playing games in the west and making the PlayStation the primary console for the genre. By the end of this period, Sony had dethroned Nintendo, the PlayStation outselling the Nintendo 64. The Saturn was successful in Japan but a failure in North America, leaving Sega outside of the main competition.
1998 saw the releases of the Sega [[Dreamcast]] in Japan (1999 in the US) and the [[Game Boy Color]] from Nintendo. In 2000 Sony released the widely anticipated [[PlayStation 2]]. In the same year ''[[The Sims]]'' was released. It was an instant hit and became the best-selling computer game of all time, surpassing ''[[Myst]]''. In 2001 [[Microsoft]] entered the videogame console industry by releasing its new home console, the [[Xbox]]. Its flagship game, ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'', being available at the system's launch. Nintendo released their successor to the Nintendo 64, the [[GameCube]], and the first all-new Game Boy since the console's inception, the [[Game Boy Advance]]. Sega realised they could no longer compete, and announced they would discontinue the Dreamcast and no longer manufacture hardware, becoming a [[third-party developer]] in 2002.
[[Nokia]] entered the handheld market with its N-Gage game-phone [[hybrid]] in 2003. It was criticised for being poorly designed, and flopped. In 2004 Nokia released a re-designed N-Gage, called the [[N-Gage QD]], which didn't fare much better. The other two more technically advanced handhelds to be released in 2004, the [[Nintendo DS]] (DS stands for Dual-Screen) and the [[PlayStation Portable]] (PSP), didn't help the N-Gage. The Nintendo DS is a highly innovative handheld, the PSP is much more powerful and also includes limited media capabilities. In Western countries the consoles have had similar levels of success (PSP sales are slightly higher), but in Japan the DS has been a huge hit, vastly outselling the PSP.
The end of 2005 saw the release of the [[Xbox 360]] - the first of the next generation of consoles.
===The future of console gaming===
2006 will see the continuation of the next generation of console gaming in the form of two new consoles. [[Sony]] with the [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Nintendo]] with the codenamed [[Nintendo Revolution|Revolution]] will join [[Microsoft]] with the already released [[Xbox 360]] in this year's "technology race".
The Xbox 360, will be powered by a multi-core [[Central processing unit|CPU]], the PlayStation 3 will be powered by [[Cell (microprocessor)|Cell processor]] technology, and the Nintendo Revolution will allow the gamer to interact with the game via a wireless motion sensing controller and promises more innovations, although full technical specifications are yet to be revealed.
==Gameplay==
{{main|Gameplay}}
In computer and video gaming, gameplay (sometimes called "Game mechanics") is a general term that describes player interaction with a game. It includes direct interaction, such as controls and [[User interface|interface]], but also [[game design|design]] aspects of the game, such as [[Level (computer and video games)|level]]s and graphics.
Although the use of this term is often disputed, as it is considered too vague for the range of concepts it describes, it is currently the most commonly used and accepted term for this purpose when describing video games.
==Genres==
{{main|Computer and video game genres}}
Games, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into [[computer and video game genres|genre]]s based on gameplay, atmosphere, and various other factors. In fact, games are often much easier to classify by genre than films, music, or books. Due to gaming's relatively short history, technical limitations, and the commercial pressures currently affecting the North American and Japanese markets, electronic games are ensconced in a period of extreme [[formalism]]. Recently, video games have begun to explode in popularity, a rise which coincides with an increase in production value, and thus, development cost. As gamers come to expect talented voice acting, enormous, meticulously-constructed worlds and hollywood-quality sound effects, production costs rise, and owing to the tremendous investment required by publishers (who want to maximize profits), most choose to make games based upon "tried-and-true" ideas, borrowing heavily from previous games and concepts.
This is most evident in the trend of publishers to establish "franchises", which often recycle same characters, situations, conflicts, gameplay mechanics, and themes for any number of sequels. Therefore, though many games may combine genres, very few exist outside the paradigm of previously established genres, with notable exceptions.
The most common genres in use today include [[platform game|platformer]], [[adventure game|adventure]], [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game (RPG)]], [[first person shooter|first person shooter (FPS)]], [[third person shooter]] (both these are sometimes refered to as shoot-'em-ups), [[sports game|sports]], [[racing game|racing]], [[fighting game|fighting]], [[action game|action]] (note that this term is abused often), [[puzzle game|puzzle]], [[simulation game|simulation]], and [[real time strategy|real time strategy (RTS)]]. Most games nowadays are a combination of two or more genres (e.g action/RPG).
The increase in the popularity of [[Internet gaming|online gaming]] has also resulted in sub-genres being formed, such as [[MMORPG|massively multiplayer online role-playing game]] (MMORPG).
==Gaming platforms==
[[Image:gta3-pc-stealing.jpeg|right|thumb|''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'' is an example of a game that is popular as a console game as well as a computer game.]]
Today there are many different devices, or platforms, on which games may be played. Personal computers, consoles, handheld systems, and arcade machines are all common. Games are not interchangeable between platforms so, for example, Xbox games will not work in your PC. The 3 main home video game platform companies are [http://www.nintendo.com Nintendo], [http://www.xbox.com/en-US/ChangeLocale.htm Microsoft], and [http://playstation.com/ Sony], who between them have created seven of the eight home platforms most commonly used today. The final home platform is the PC.
Many games intended for PCs are now just as prevalent on consoles, with many developers creating versions for more than one platform. During the last generation of gaming, most major PC game releases have coincided with the release of console versions, and titles initially developed for a single platform are often ''ported'' to others if they prove to be successful.
===Personal Computer===
{{main|Personal computer game}}
Personal computer games are commonly referred to as "computer games" or "PC games". They are played on the [[personal computer]] with standard [[computer interface device]]s such as the [[Alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer mouse|mouse]], or additional [[peripherals]], such as [[joystick]]s. Video feedback is received by the user through the computer screen, sound through [[speakers]] or [[headphones]]. PC games are often more detailed than console games because of early market releases of their external architecture and [[Video card|graphics cards]].
Today, most major PC games require a recent version of the [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[operating system]] to be installed on the computer. There is, however, a continuing movement to get the most popular games to run under the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Linux]] operating systems, although it is still small.
According to the [[Entertainment Software Association]], console games have outsold computer games roughly four units to one in 2003 and 2004 {{ref|pcsales}}. For more information, see [[#Sales|sales]].
One possible explanation for the declining sales of personal computer
|
. At least one American company produces haggis for the U.S. market. The Caledonian Kitchen, a [[Dallas]], [[Texas]] based gourmet business, began producing both a [[Highland beef]] and vegetarian haggis commercially in 1999. Its haggis is in wide distribution throughout the US.[[Image:hag.jpg|thumb|large haggis]]
==Entertainment==
Haggis is an amusing subject for many people. Those who ask a Scotsman for information about it will rarely get a straight answer. A common "answer" to the question "What is a haggis?" often goes along the following lines. "A haggis is a small four-legged Scottish Highland creature, which has the limbs on one side shorter than the other side. This means that it is well adapted to run around the hills at a steady altitude, without either ascending or descending. However a haggis can easily be caught by running around the hill in the opposite direction." (see [[Wild Haggis]]) Surprisingly the humorous myth is believed by many tourists, thus they are shocked - and possibly disappointed - to hear the truth. See also [[sidehill gouger]].
Haggis is also used in a sport called [[haggis hurling]], involving throwing a haggis as far as possible. The present World Record for Haggis Hurling has been held by Alan Pettigrew for over 21 years. He threw a 1.5 lb Haggis an astonishing 180 feet, 10 inches on the island of [[Inchmurrin]], [[Loch Lomond]], in August 1984.
Haggis [[juggling]] is an unusual competition that takes place at the Scottish Juggling Convention each year, with competitors competing for how long they can [[juggling|juggle]] three, four, or five large haggis.
'Haggis' is an uncommon surname, such as for the animator/games programmer [[Mata Haggis]], creator of the [[Matazone]] website known as [http://www.matazone.co.uk The Other Side], or the screen writer [[Paul Haggis]], known for his work on [[Million Dollar Baby]], [[Due South]], [[Thirtysomething]], and other film and television series. In names it may come from [[Old English]], meaning 'a woodsman's hut', and a Lord Haggis rode on the [[third crusade]] with [[Richard the lionheart]].
==Similar dishes==
In some ways, the northeastern [[U.S.]] dish [[scrapple]] resembles haggis, however scrapple differs in the following ways: it uses [[pig]] [[offal]] instead of sheep offal and [[cornmeal]] instead of oatmeal; it is a [[meat loaf]] rather than a sausage; and it is [[bake]]d instead of being boiled. As a result, the appearance and the flavour vary significantly. So the resemblance lies more in the fact that it is a combination of offal, grain and vegetables than in any specific ingredient or cooking style.
Other similar dishes are the [[balkenbrij]] from [[the Netherlands]], [[pölsa]] (made with beef rather than sheep) from [[Sweden]] and [[saumagen]] (made from pork) from Western [[Germany]].
==References==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Clarissa Dickson-Wright | last = Dickson-Wright | first = Clarissa | title = The Haggis: A Little History | publisher = Pelican Publishing Company | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1-56554-364-5 }}
==See also==
* [[Haggis McLeod]]
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Haggis}}
{{wikibooks|Haggis}}
{{Wikisourcepar|Address to a Haggis}}
* [http://travel.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,7445,1093930,00.html Belief in the Wild Haggis]
* [http://www.haggishunt.com/ Hunting for haggis]
* [http://www.caledoniankitchen.com/ Highland Beef Haggis]
* [http://www.holistech.co.uk/haggis.php Haggis Hurl]
[[Category:Scottish cuisine]]
[[Category:Sausages]]
[[Category:Puddings]]
[[Category:Peasant foods]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]
[[de:Haggis]]
[[es:Haggis]]
[[fi:Haggis]]
[[fr:Haggis]]
[[ja:ハギス]]
[[nl:Haggis]]
[[nn:Haggis]]
[[no:Haggis]]
[[pl:Haggis]]
[[sco:Haggis]]
[[sl:Haggis]]
[[sv:Haggis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hank Aaron</title>
<id>14321</id>
<revision>
<id>41918952</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:47:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Djrobgordon</username>
<id>234424</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv nonsense</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Henry Louis "Hank" Aaron| image name= HankAaron3.jpg
| nicknames= [["Hammerin' Hank", "Bad Henry"]]
| birthdate= [[February 5]], [[1934]]
| birthplace= [[Mobile, Alabama]]
| dead=alive
| deathdate=
| deathplace=
| debutdate=[[April 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]]
| debutteam=[[Milwaukee Braves]]
| debutopponent=[[ Cincinnati Reds]]
| debutstadium=[[Crosley Field]]
| teams='''As Player'''<BR>
[[Milwaukee Braves]] ([[1954 in sports|1954]] – [[1965 in sports|1965]])<BR>
[[Atlanta Braves]] ([[1966 in sports|1966]] –[[1974 in sports|1974]])<BR>
[[Milwaukee Brewers]] ([[1975 in sports|1975]] – [[1976 in sports|1976]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[August 1]], [[1982 in sports|1982]]
| careerhighlights=<BR>
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history|Most career home runs]] (755)
* Most career RBI (2,297)
* Most career extra base hits (1,477)
* Most career total bases (6,856)
* Second in career runs (2,174)
* Second in at-bats (12,364)
*[[List of major league players with 2,000 hits|Third in career hits]] (3,771)
* Only player to hit at least 30 home runs in 15 seasons
* Only player to hit at least 20 home runs in 20 seasons
* Hit 40 home runs in a season 8 times
* First player to reach 3,000 hits and 500 home runs
* 25 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances
* The NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1957 in sports|1957]])
* One [[World Series]] ring ([[1957 in sports|1957]])
* Three Gold Gloves ([[1958 in sports|1958]] - [[1960 in sports|1960]])
* Led NL in home runs 4 times
* Led NL in RBI 4 times
* Led NL in batting 2 times}}
'''Henry Louis "Hank" Aaron''' (born [[February 5]], [[1934]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[Alabama]], [[United States]]), is an American [[baseball]] player and member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Aaron is best known for setting the [[Major League Baseball|Major League]] record for most [[home run]]s in a career (755), surpassing the previous mark of 714 by [[Babe Ruth]]. Aaron also holds the career marks for [[RBI]] (2,297), extra base hits (1,477) and total bases (6,856). He won one [[World Series]] ring with the [[Milwaukee Braves]] in [[1957 in sports|1957]], and the National League [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] Award the same year. He also earned three [[Gold Glove Award]]s, and made 21 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances.
==Pre-professional career==
Henry Louis Aaron was born in a part of [[Mobile, Alabama]] called [[Down The Bay]]. It was a poor area of town populated mostly by [[minorities]]. His family later moved to a better part of Mobile called [[Toulminville]], where he was brought up and attended school. In [[Central High School]], Aaron played [[shortstop]] and [[third base]] and was an outstanding hitter though he batted cross-handed. His team won the [[Negro High School Championship]] two years running. In high school, he also excelled in [[American football|football]].
Aaron's last two years of high school were spent at [[Josephine Allen Institute]], a private high school. Aaron was so proficient a ballplayer at this young age that before his fifteenth birthday he was playing on a semi-pro team, the [[Pritchett Athletics]], as their shortstop and third baseman. He made $3 a game. He tried out for the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Dodgers]] but did not get to show his abilities to the scouts there. He then started playing with the semi-pro [[Mobile Black Bears]] for $10 a game.
His mother wanted Aaron to attend college in [[Florida]]. But with the promise to finish high school, on [[November 20]], [[1951 in sports|1951]] he was signed by scout [[Ed Scott]] to play for the [[Negro American League]] champion [[Indianapolis Clowns]] after the Black Bears played an exhibition against the Clowns the previous year. Aaron helped lead the Clowns to victory in the [[1952 in sports|1952]] [[Negro League World Series]].
==Professional career==
===Minor leagues===
On [[June 14]], [[1952 in sports|1952]] Aaron's contract was acquired by the [[Boston Braves]] for $10,000. He was the last Negro League player to make the jump to the major leagues. Aaron was assigned to the Braves' Class C farm club, the [[Eau Claire Bears]], in [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin|Eau Claire]], [[Wisconsin]] where he played second base. He got two line drive singles in his first game and ended the season batting .326, and won the [[Northern League]]'s Rookie of the Year. He earned $350 a month. In [[1953 in sports|1953]], Aaron, along with [[Horace Garner]] and [[Felix Mantilla]], was sent to the [[Jacksonville Tars]] to break the color line in the [[South Atlantic League]]. Despite enduring non-stop [[Racism|racial epithets]] and [[Hate crime|threats]], Aaron led the league in runs (115), hits (208), doubles (36), RBI (115), and batting average (.362) to become the league's Most Valuable Player. One writer said, "Henry Aaron led the league in everything except hotel accommodations".
To prepare for the big leagues, Aaron played winter ball in Puerto Rico and learned to play the outfield. On [[March 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]], Braves left fielder [[Bobby Thomson]] broke his ankle sliding into second base during a spring training game. The next day Aaron made his first spring training start for the Braves in left field and hit a home run.
===Major leagues===
====The early years====
[[Image:Hankaaron-young.jpg|frame|left|Hank Aaron team portrait]]
On [[April 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]], Aaron made his major league debut and went 0-for-5 against the [[Cincinnati Reds]]' [[Joe Nuxhall]]. In the same game, Aaron's teammate, [[Eddie Mathews]] hit two home runs, the first two of a record 863 home
|
f time on the time scale are usually delimited by major [[geology|geologic]] or [[paleontology|paleontologic]] events, such as [[mass extinction]]s. For example, the boundary between the [[Cretaceous]] period and the [[Palaeogene]] period is defined by the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|extinction event]] that marked the demise of the [[dinosaur]]s and of many marine [[species]].
==Graphical timelines==
The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks.
{{Timeline Geological Timescale}}
==Terminology==
The largest defined unit of time is the [[Eon (geology)|Eon]]. Eons are divided into Eras, which are in turn divided into Periods, Epochs and Stages. At the same time, paleontologists define a system of [[faunal stage]]s, of varying lengths, based on changes in the observed fossil assemblages. In many cases, such faunal stages have been adopted in building the geologic nomenclature, though in general there are far more recognized faunal stages than defined geologic time units.
[[Geologist]]s tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Early and Middle parts of periods and other units -- e.g. "Upper [[Jurassic]]", "Middle [[Cambrian]]". Because geologic units occurring at the same time but from different parts of the world can often look different and contain different fossils, there are many examples where the same period was historically given different names in different locales. For example, in [[North America]] the Early [[Cambrian]] is refered to as the [[Waucoban]] series that is then subdivided into zones based on [[trilobita|trilobites]]. The same timespan is split into [[Tommotian]], [[Atdabanian]] and [[Botomian]] stages in [[East Asia]] and [[Siberia]]. It is a key aspect of the work of the International Commission on Stratigraphy to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.
==History of the time scale==
The principles underlying geologic time scales were laid down by [[Nicholas Steno]] in the late 17th century. Steno argued that rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice" of time. He also formulated the [[Law of superposition|principle of superposition]], which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. Steno's principles were simple; applying them to real rocks proved complex. Over the course of the 18th century geologists came to realize that: 1) Sequences of strata were often eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition; 2) Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances; 3) The strata of any given area represented only part of the Earth's long history.
The first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth took place in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by [[Abraham Werner]], among others) divided the rocks of the Earth's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" and "Quaternary" remained in use as names of geological periods well into the 20th century.
The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by [[William Smith]], [[Georges Cuvier]], and [[Alexandre Brogniart]] in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more finely and precisely. It also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies of the strata and fossils of Europe produced, between 1820 and 1850, the sequence of geological periods still used today.
British geologists dominated the process, and the names of the periods reflect that dominance. The "Cambrian," "Ordovician," and "Silurian" periods were named for ancient British tribes (and defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales). The "Devonian" was named for the British county of [[Devon]], and the name "Carboniferous" was simply an adaptation of "the Coal Measures," the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The "Permian," though defined using strata in Russia, was delineated and named by a British geologist: [[Roderick Murchison]]. <!-- The next three periods in the sequence . . . -->
British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into Eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs.
When [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented. [[Creationist]]s proposed dates of only a few thousand years, while others suggested large (and even infinite) ages. For over 100 years, the age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of considerable debate until advances in the latter part of the 20th century allowed [[radioactive dating]] to provide relatively firm dates to geologic horizons. In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists constructed time scales based solely on the relative positions of different strata and fossils.
In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission) started an effort to define global references ([[Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point|Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points]]) for geologic periods and faunal stages. Their most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of Gradstein et al. (ISBN 0521786738), and used as the foundation of this page.
==Table of geologic time==
{{mergefrom|List of time periods}}
{| class="wikitable" border="3" style="font-size:95%;"
|-
! [[Eon (geology)|Eon]]
! [[Era (geology)|Era]]
! colspan="2" | Period<sup>1</sup>
! Series/<br>Epoch
! Major Events
! Start, Million<br/>Years Ago<sup>2</sup>
|-
| rowspan="37" style="background:#B3E2D1" | [[Phanerozoic|Phane-<br>rozoic]]
| rowspan="7" style="background:#FFFF00" | [[Cenozoic]]
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDCC8A" rowspan="4" | [[Neogene]]<sup>3</sup>
| style="background:#FFFFB3" | [[Holocene]]
| End of [[ice age|recent glaciation]] and rise of modern [[civilization]]
| style="background:#FFFFB3" | 0.011430 ± 0.00013 <sup>9</sup>
|-
| style="background:#FFFF62" | [[Pleistocene]]
| Flourishing and then extinction of many large [[mammal]]s ([[Pleistocene megafauna]]); Evolution of fully modern [[human]]s
| style="background:#FFFF62" | 1.806 ± 0.005 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#FEEBAC" |[[Pliocene]]
| Intensification of present [[ice age]]. Cool and dry [[climate]]; [[Australopithecine]]s appear, many of the existing genera of mammals, and recent [[mollusc]]s appear
| style="background:#FEEBAC" | 5.332 ± 0.005 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#FFDE00" | [[Miocene]]
| Moderate climate; [[Orogeny|Mountain building]] in [[northern hemisphere]]; Modern [[mammal]] and [[bird]] families became recognizable. [[Equidae|Horses]] and [[mastodont]]s diverse. [[Grass]]es become ubiquitous. First [[hominoid]]s appear. <!-- for reference see the article: "Sahelanthropus tchadensis" -->
| style="background:#FFDE00" | 23.03 ± 0.05 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB300" | [[Paleogene]]<br><sup>3</sup>
| style="background:#EAC672" | [[Oligocene]]
| Warm climate; Rapid [[evolution]] and diversification of fauna, especially [[mammal]]s. Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of [[angiosperm]]s
| style="background:#EAC672" | 33.9±0.1 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#EAAD43" | [[Eocene]]
| Archaic [[mammal]]s (e.g. [[Creodont]]s, [[Condylarth]]s, [[Uintatheriidae|Uintatheres]], etc) flourish and continue to develop during the epoch. Appearance of several "modern" mammal families. Primitive [[Cetacea|whales]] diversify. First grasses. Reglaciation of [[Antarctica]]; start of current ice age.
| style="background:#EAAD43" | 55.8±0.2 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#EB9301" | [[Paleocene]]
| Climate tropical. Modern [[plant]]s; [[Mammal]]s diversify into a number of primitive lineages following the extinction of the dinosaurs. First large mammals (up to bear or small hippo size)
| style="background:#EB9301" | 65.5±0.3 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="8" style="background:#7FAD51" | [[Mesozoic]]
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background:#7FC31C" | [[Cretaceous]]
| style="background:#DEF197" | [[Late Cretaceous|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Flowering plant]]s appear, along with new types of insects. More modern [[teleost]] fish begin to appear. [[Ammonite]]s, [[Belemnoidea|belemnites]], [[rudist]]s, [[Echinoidea|echinoid]]s and [[Porifera|sponges]] all common. Many new types of [[dinosaur]]s (e.g. [[Tyrannosauridae|Tyrannosaurs]], [[Titanosauridae|Titanosaurs]], [[Hadrosauridae|duck bills]], and [[Ceratopsidae|horned dinosaurs]]) evolve on land, as do [[Eus
|
rie Sahara 0121.JPG|''Sahara of Algeria''
</gallery>
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Archeology of Algeria]]
* [[Communications in Algeria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Algeria]]
* [[List of Algeria-related topics]]
* [[List of cities in Algeria]]
* [[List of Algerians]]
* [[List of sovereign states]]
* [[Military of Algeria]]
* [[Transportation in Algeria|Transportation in Algeria]]
* ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' movie
* [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-1962)
* [[Algerian Civil War]] (1991-2002)
=== Directories ===
*[http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en Yellow Pages of Algeria]
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Algeria}}
'''Government'''
*[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia] official presidential site (in French and Arabic)
*[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site
*[http://www.algeria-us.org/ The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC]
'''News'''
*[http://allafrica.com/algeria/ allAfrica.com - ''Algeria''] news headline links
*[http://www.elkhabar.com/FrEn/?idc=52 El Khabar]
*[http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] business news
'''Overviews'''
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook - ''Algeria'']
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: ''Algeria''] data as of December 1993
* [http://www.exile.ru/2003-February-20/war_nerd.html Algeria: The Psychos Will Inherit the Earth] - an irreverent look at Algeria's military situation
'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}
'''Other'''
* [http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm Algeria Watch] human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French)
* [http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing] Analysis on the public referendum held [[29 September]] [[2005]] by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally
*[http://algerie.el-annabi.com all City of Algéria]
*[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-English Online Dictionary]
{{Africa}}
{{Mediterranean}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Algeria| ]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[af:Algerië]]
[[am:አልጄሪያ]]
[[an:Alcheria]]
[[ar:الجزائر]]
[[ast:Arxelia]]
[[bn:আলজেরিয়া]]
[[bs:Alžir]]
[[ca:Algèria]]
[[cs:Alžírsko]]
[[cy:Algeria]]
[[da:Algeriet]]
[[de:Algerien]]
[[el:Αλγερία]]
[[eo:Alĝerio]]
[[es:Argelia]]
[[et:Alžeeria]]
[[fa:الجزایر]]
[[fi:Algeria]]
[[fr:Algérie]]
[[gl:Alxeria - الجزائر]]
[[ha:Aljeriya]]
[[haw:ʻAlekelia]]
[[he:אלג'יריה]]
[[hi:अल्जीरिया]]
[[ht:Aljeri]]
[[ia:Algeria]]
[[id:Aljazair]]
[[io:Aljeria]]
[[is:Alsír]]
[[it:Algeria]]
[[ja:アルジェリア]]
[[ko:알제리]]
[[kw:Aljeri]]
[[la:Algeria]]
[[li:Algerieë]]
[[lt:Alžyras]]
[[lv:Alžīrija]]
[[mk:Алжир]]
[[ms:Algeria]]
[[na:Algeria]]
[[nds:Algerien]]
[[nl:Algerije]]
[[nn:Algerie]]
[[no:Algerie]]
[[pl:Algieria]]
[[pt:Argélia]]
[[rm:Algeria]]
[[ro:Algeria]]
[[ru:Алжир]]
[[sa:अल्जीरिया]]
[[scn:Algiria]]
[[simple:Algeria]]
[[sk:Alžírsko]]
[[sl:Alžirija]]
[[so:Aljeeriya]]
[[sq:Algjeria]]
[[sr:Алжир]]
[[sv:Algeriet]]
[[tg:Алҷазоир]]
[[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]]
[[tl:Algeria]]
[[tr:Cezayir]]
[[ur:الجزائر]]
[[wa:Aldjereye]]
[[yi:אַלזשיר]]
[[zh:阿尔及利亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Algeria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Characters in Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>359</id>
<revision>
<id>41302556</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:34:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bchampion</username>
<id>671891</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed inccorect info about etymology of "mooch" see discussion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel, [[Atlas Shrugged]].'''
{{spoiler}}
==Balph Eubank==
Called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people ''want'' to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the ''Looters''. Balph Eubank appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Ben Nealy==
A railroad contractor whom ''Dagny Taggart'' hires to replace the track on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged#Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and ''Ellis Wyatt'' to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.
==Bertram Scudder==
Editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on ''Hank Rearden'' called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Bertram Scudder appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Betty Pope==
A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with ''James Taggart'' that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 142 and 161.
==Brakeman==
An unnamed employee working on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] train. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Halley's Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. When Dagny points out that ''Richard Halley'' only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].
It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 113.
==Cherryl Brooks==
Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a "good" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel.
==Claude Slagenhop==
The president of political organization [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Friends of Global Progress]] (which is supported by ''Philip Rearden''), and one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Claude Slagenhop appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Cuffy Meigs==
A looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of ''Taggart Transcontinental,'' and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, he dresses in a military uniform. The "intellectual heir" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of ''Project X.''
==Dagny Taggart==
The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake ''Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart''). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know understand that she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Francisco, Hank Rearden and John Galt in order. John is the one who, because of the sum-total of his qualities, will become the choice of Dagny. Dagny appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161.
==Dan Conway==
The middle-aged president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148.
==Dick McNamara==
A contractor who finished the [[Things in Atlas
|
worked with CFC include
[[Danny Boyle]],
[[Tim Burton]],
[[Joel Coen]],
[[Neil Jordan]],
[[Stanley Kubrick]],
[[Nick Park]],
[[John Woo]]
and [[Robert Zemeckis]].
As of 2001, CFC was credited with work on over 140 films.
==Recent projects==
* ''[[The Affair of the Necklace]]''
* ''[[Blade 2]]''
* ''[[Cast Away]]''
* ''[[Chicken Run]]''
* ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]''
* ''[[The 51st State]]''
* ''[[Harry Potter]]''
* ''[[Mission: Impossible 2]]''
* ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''
* ''[[Pluto Nash]]''
* ''[[Resident Evil]]''
* ''[[Sexy Beast]]''
* ''[[What Lies Beneath]]''
==See also==
* [[Filmlight]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cfc.co.uk/ Computer Film Company homepage]
* [http://www.vfxhq.com/houses/cfc.html VFX HQ article]
* [http://us.imdb.com/List?special-effects-companies=The+Computer+Film+Company+%5Bgb%5D&&tv=on IMDB credits: Computer Film Company]
[[ja:Computer Film Company]]
[[Category:Special effects companies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catherine of Siena</title>
<id>7471</id>
<revision>
<id>41965357</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.83.249.102</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Domenico Beccafumi 026.jpg|thumb|200px|St. Catherine of Siena]]
'''Saint Catherine of Siena''' ([[Siena, Italy]], [[March 25]], [[1347]] &ndash; [[April 29]], [[1380]] in [[Rome]]) was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Tertiary or lay-affiliate of the Dominican Order. Catherine was the 23rd child out of 25 (her twin, the 24th, died at birth); her parents were Giacomo di Benincasa, a cloth-dyer, and his wife, Lapa Piagenti, daughter of a local poet. Catherine had no formal education. At the age of seven she consecrated her virginity to Christ; in her sixteenth year she took the habit of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Tertiaries. As a tertiary, Catherine lived at home rather than in a convent, and she practiced austerities there which a prioress would probably not have permitted. She is especially famous for [[fasting]], living for long periods of time on nothing but the [[Blessed Sacrament]]. Scholar Rudolph Bell uses her life as an example in his book ''Holy [[anorexia nervosa|Anorexia]]'' (1985).
In about [[1366]] she experienced what she described in her letters as a 'Mystical Marriage' with [[Jesus]], after which she began to tend the sick and serve the poor. In [[1370]] she received a series of visions of [[Hell]], [[Purgatory]], and [[Heaven]] after which she heard a command to leave her withdrawn life and enter the public life of the world. She began to write letters to men and women in authority, especially begging for [[peace]] between the republics and principalities of Italy and for the return of the [[papacy]] from [[Avignon]] to [[Rome]]. She had a detailed correspondence with [[Pope Gregory XI]], also asking him to reform the [[clergy]] and the administration of the [[Papal States]]. In June of [[1376]] she went to Avignon herself as ambassador of [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] to make peace with the Papal States, but was unsuccessful. She impressed the [[Pope]] so much, however, that he returned his administration to Rome in January of [[1377]]. During the [[Western Schism]] of [[1378]] she was an adherent of [[Pope Urban VI]], who summoned her to Rome where she lived until her death in 1380.
Her letters are considered one of the great works of early Tuscan literature. More than 300 letters have survived. Her major work is the ''Dialogue of divine providence''.
[[Pope Pius II]] [[canonization|canonized]] Catherine in [[1461]]. Her feast day is [[April 29]]. [[Pope Paul VI]] bestowed on her in 1970 the title of [[Doctor of the Church]], the first woman, with Saint [[Teresa of Ávila]], ever to receive this honor. In 1999 [[Pope John Paul II]] made her one of Europe's patron saints.
Her body is in Rome, her head in Siena and her foot in Venice.
Saint Catherine is also the patroness of the historically Catholic American sorority, [[Theta Phi Alpha]].
== See also ==
*[[Avignon Papacy]]
*[[Western Schism]]
*[[Relic]]s
== References ==
{{commons|Category:Saint Catherine of Siena}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Catherine+of+Siena+Saint | name=Catherine of Siena}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03447a.htm "St. Catherine of Siena"] by Edmund G. Gardner. [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908.
*[http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/CATSIENA.HTM Saint Catherine of Siena, Virgin] at [[EWTN]]
*[[Rudolph Bell]], ''Holy Anorexia'' (1985)
*[[Caroline Walker Bynum]], ''Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women'' (1987)[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/history/htm/h_faculty_profile_bynum.htm]
*[http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/cat/catp/ St Catherine of Siena] - Poems and Prayers
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8ltcb10.txt Letters of Catherine from Gutenberg]
*[http://st-catherines.net St. Catherine of Siena Catholic Church] in Great Falls, Virginia
{{catholic}}
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Dominican nuns]]
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<title>Charles Lyell</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/SnowflakePillow|SnowflakePillow]] ([[User talk:SnowflakePillow|talk]]) to last version by Ragesoss</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CharlesLyell.jpg|thumb|Charles Lyell]]
[[Image:Lyell Principles frontispiece.jpg|thumb|The frontispiece from ''Principles of Geology'']]
'''Sir Charles Lyell''' ([[November 14]], [[1797]] &ndash; [[February 22]], [[1875]]), British [[lawyer]], [[geologist]], and popularizer of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]].
Charles Lyell was born in [[Kinnordy]], [[Forfarshire]], [[Scotland]], the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles, was a botanist of minor repute and first exposed the younger Charles to the study of nature. Having attended [[Exeter College, Oxford]] ending in [[1816]], Lyell encountered [[geology]] as a serious profession under the wing of [[William Buckland]]. Upon graduation he took a professional detour into the law, but dabbled in geology. His first paper, "On a Recent Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire", was presented in [[1822]]. By [[1827]] he had abandoned the law and embarked on a long geological career that would result in the widespread acceptance of the ideas proposed by [[James Hutton]] a few decades before.
During the [[1840s]], he travelled to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], which resulted in his writing two popular travel-and-geology books: [[1845]]'s ''Travels in North America'' and ''A Second Visit to the United States'' (from [[1849]]).
He won the [[Copley Medal]] in 1858 and the [[Wollaston Medal]] in [[1866]].
Upon his death in 1875, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].
[[Lyell (lunar crater)|Lyell crater]] on the [[Moon]] and a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars]] were named in his honour.
==Career and Major Writings==
[[Image:Charles Lyell - Project Gutenberg eText 16935.jpg|frame|Charles Lyell]]
Virtually alone among leading British geologists of his era, Lyell supported himself by writing books about his scientific work. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in he 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at [[University College London]] in the 1830s, but from 1830 onward his books provided both a comfortable living and growing fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, and Lyell used almost every edition as an opportunity to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence. These frequent, substantial revisions added significant value to new editions of Lyell's books, and helped to ensure robust sales to both the scientific community and the general public.
''[[Principles of Geology]]'', Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830-33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist. This book was a major inspiration for Charles Darwin during his voyage on the ''Beagle'' where much of what Lyell proposed was able to be seen.
''[[Elements of Geology]]'' began as the fourth volume of the third edition of ''[[Principles of Geology|Principles]]'': A systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages. The material grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off into a single volume under the ''Elements'' title in 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled ''Student's Elements of Geology'' that fulfilled the original purpose.
''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the [[Quaternary Period]] of Earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions tha
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rgence of the capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries [http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm][http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/TCEH/1998_Draft/World_GDP/Estimating_World_GDP.html]. It has also been argued that a higher GDP per capita promotes a higher standard of living, including the adequate or improved availability of food, housing, clothing, health care, reduced working hours and freedom from work for children and the elderly. These are reduced or unavailable if the GDP per capita is too low, so that most people are living a marginal existence.
Economic growth is, however, not universally viewed as an unequivocal good. The downside of such growth is referred to by economists as the 'externalization of costs' (see [[externality]]). Among other things, these effects include pollution, the disruption of traditional living patterns and cultures, the spread of pathogens, wars over resources or market access, and the creation of underclasses.
In defense of capitalism, liberal philosopher [[Isaiah Berlin]] has claimed that all of these ills are neither unique to capitalism, nor are they its inevitable consequences. See also [[Criticism of capitalism#Sustainability|Sustainability]].
One of the key markers of entrepreneurial economies and 'growth' in a society is its economic mobility, defined as the existence of large changes in the make-up of its socio-economic strata. This is manifested as the occurrence of large fluctuations in the various [[decile]]s or [[quintiles]] of income and wealth among the population, and the existence of large changes over a person's lifetime in relation to their real earning power. In standard economics, a capitalist system provides more opportunities for an individual to rise faster in the world by entering new professions or establishing a business venture. The instability of economic strata is contrasted with traditional [[feudal]] or [[tribal]] societies, which are considered to have more stable wealth relationships, and with the [[egalitarianism]] that exists in socialist societies, which distribute more of their wealth in the form of social benefits and therefore reduce income mobility, particularly among those who own capital and wish to trade it.
However, the existence of large fluctuations in income deciles does not always represent income mobility - with individuals receiving regular wage increases over their working lives and then retiring, such fluctuations alone do not show that there is 'mobility' ''per se''. Moreover, it is argued by many labor economists that wage instability represents the transfer of risk to workers and particular sectors of the economy such as agriculture, and away from the holders of capital.
====Self-organization====
[[Image:f_hayek.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Friedrich Hayek]] advocated allowing an economy to [[self-organization|self-organize]], maintaining that government cannot access or coordinate the widespread distribution of information possessed by millions of individuals.]]
While a great deal of planning is undertaken among individual companies and other organisations in capitalist economies, few significant mechanisms for imposing overall direction are available to governments. There is also a scarcity of reliable predictive tools and foreknowledge of how an economy is likely to behave or perform more than a year or two into the future. While most transactions may be planned and agreed by the actors involved, many society-wide phenomena that emerge from the markets and its transactions are often not planned, predicted, approved or authorised by anyone. Nevertheless, such an economic system can organize itself into a complex system without an external guidance or planning mechanism. This phenomenon is called "[[self-organization]]." [[Friedrich Hayek]] coined the term "[[catallaxy]]" as a market where "spontaneous order" emerges when no centralized control source (government) overrides decisions of individuals pursuing their own ends. However, in all large-scale modern economies the State conducts a degree of [[planned economy|centralized economic planning]] (using such tools as allowing the country's [[central bank]] to set base [[interest rates]]), ostensibly as an attempt to improve efficiency, attenuate cyclical volatility, and further particular social goals.
Some economists use [[chaos theory]] to argue that it is impossible to make accurate long-term economic predictions. They view the decentralized nature of economic planning and development that occurs in capitalism as one of its greatest strengths, arguing that it permits many solutions to be tried, and that real-world competition generally finds a good solution to emerging challenges. This is opposed to the [[central planning]] approach to the running of a society, which often selects inappropriate solutions as a result of faulty forecasting. One possible example is the experience in Somalia where the previously regulated telecommunications industry is reported to be "thriving" now that, and reportedly because, the country lacks a government. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm]
Capitalist economies typically contain numerous companies, and people are free to enter into many different types of arrangement with each other. Such an economy reacts to technological change, new discoveries and other developments through continual readjustments in the relationships which exist among companies and individuals. In this way the economy's control mechanisms and how information flows through it evolve over time, and are characterised by a kind of "survival of the fittest" selection and evolution process which is not dissimilar to that exhibited in natural systems and their component relationships.
Ancient [[Rome]] and China under the [[Song dynasty]] are examples of societies that had some of the characteristics of capitalism, like no feudal [[fiefs]], (weak) property rights, economic growth, and for their times advanced technology. It is much debated why these societies did not have their own "industrial revolution" and thus achieve industrial capitalism in the modern sense. It has been suggested that these states formed monopolies in their parts of the world with very limited competition from other states. The ruling class then become complacent and the successful institutions were overturned in order to enrich certain special interest groups. Much innovation has historically taken place when there where many competing states, like in the city states of ancient [[Greece]] and [[renaissance]] [[Italy]].
Analysis of the networks of connections and arrangements in the economy has shown a degree of similarity to other networks such as phone systems or the Internet. [http://www.theyrule.net/] contains examples of networks of company board members. Networks of customer links and monetary flows exhibit similar characteristics.
==Which economies are "capitalist"?==
The eminent sociologist [[Max Weber]] described capitalism as being present "wherever the industrial provision for the needs of a human group is carried out by the [[free enterprise|method of enterprise]]". In his introduction to the 1920 edition of The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism he offered a broader definiton which included Marx's '[[antediluvian]] forms of mercantile and [[usury]] capital as well as any profit-making by opportunity (for example [[speculation]]) - not just by direct economic activity (Sayer 1996).
Some believe that it is inaccurate to call any or some of the major industrialized economies "capitalist" because of the level of government intervention. For example, some assert that the market in the United States of America is significantly less than &quot;free", and that therefore it is more appropriately termed a ''[[mixed economy]]'' that is merely skewed more toward capitalism than most national economies, rather than being a true representation of capitalism. Still others might say that the U.S. economy is capitalist, but the U.K. economy is a "mixed economy," or the Hong Kong economy is capitalist and the U.S. economy is mixed and so on, depending upon their perception of how much economic freedom exists in those locales. According to economic and business historian [[Robert Hessen]] of [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]:
:"a fully free economy (true [[laissez-faire]]) never has existed, but governmental authority over economic activity has sharply increased since the eighteenth century, and especially since the Great Depression...Today the United States, once the citadel of capitalism, is a "mixed economy" in which government bestows favors and imposes restrictions with no clear or consistent principle in mind." [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html]
A similar classification, associated largely with the [[Austrian school]] of economics, regards most present economic systems as a perversion of capitalism, sometimes called [[crony capitalism]], and envisages a de-cronied capitalist ideal. Similarly, some use the phrase "[[laissez-faire capitalism]]" to distinguish between "ordinary capitalism," believing that there is a difference. Others find the phrase "laissez-faire capitalism" redundant, pointing out that the common definition of capitalism explicitly refers to trade occurring in a "free market".
Many [[Marxist]]s, [[anarchists]], [[Greens]] and [[Anti-globalization|anti-globalist]]s agree that the governments in capitalist societies, that is to say societies where a capitalist class is the ruling class, are not serving in the role of protecting "the free market", but would go on to say that these governments are, in fact, acting to protect the owners of capital and corporations as their first pri
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h multiple rounded protuberances on her chest. They were formerly believed to be multiple breasts but are now known to have represented bull testes (''see right'').
=== Appellations ===
As [[Agrotora]], she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. Artemis was often associated with the local [[Aegina|Aeginian]] goddess, [[Aphaea]]. As [[Potnia|Potnia Theron]], she was the patron of wild animals; [[Homer]] used this title. As [[Kourotrophos]], she was the nurse of youths. As [[Locheia]], she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives. She was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on [[Mount Cynthus]] on [[Delos]]. She sometimes used the name [[Phoebe]], the feminine form of her brother, Apollo's, [[Phoebus]].
== Birth ==
In Greek mythology Artemis is the daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin sister of [[Apollo]]. [[Leto]] had to find a place where the sun had never shone to give birth to the two due to a curse set by [[Hera]], [[Zeus]]' wife. For this, [[Zeus]] rose an island that had been floating underwater and not yet touched by the sun. The island was [[Delos]], and [[Leto]] gave birth there. Artemis was born first and then assisted Leto in the birth of her brother. Artemis and [[Apollo]] were born greater than any of [[Hera]]'s children.
== Childhood ==
At three years old, Artemis asked her father, Zeus, while sitting on the god king's knee, to grant her several wishes. She asked for perpetual virginity, lop-eared hounds, does to lead her chariot, and [[nymph]]s as her hunting companions. He granted her wishes. All of her companions remained virgins, and she guarded her chastity very closely.
== Tales of Artemis and Men ==
[[Image:Adonis3.jpg|thumb|[[Adonis]].]]
=== Actaeon ===
She was once bathing nude in the woods when the Theban prince and hunter [[Actaeon]] stumbled across her. He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty. He was so stunned that he accidentally stepped on a twig, and Artemis noticed him. She was so disgusted at his stares that she changed him to a stag and set his own hounds to kill him. He was torn apart by the deadly hunting dogs, who never knew that the stag they were hunting was their own master. Alternatively, Actaeon boasted that he was a better hunter than she and Artemis turned him into a stag and he was eaten by his hounds.
=== Adonis ===
In some versions of the story of [[Adonis]], Artemis or [[Ares]] (her lover in this story) sent a wild boar to kill Adonis. This version is suspect because it implies that Artemis had lain with Ares and by virtually all accounts, she remained chaste throughout time.
=== Siproites ===
A Cretan, Siproites, saw Artemis bathing nude and was changed by her into a woman. (The complete story does not survive in any mythographer's works, but is mentioned offhand by [[Antoninus Liberalis]].)
=== Orion ===
After leaving Eos, [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] became a follower of Artemis. She eventually killed him, though the reasons given vary:
#Orion and Artemis were engaged. Her brother, [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] didn't believe it was appropriate for her to marry a mortal. Apollo convinced Orion to walk out into the water and then dared Artemis to try to hit the barely visible speck (actually Orion's head) with an arrow from the shore. She succeeded, killing him.
#Orion raped one of Artemis' female followers. She sent [[Scorpio]], a [[scorpion]], to kill him and both were placed in the stars as [[constellation]]s. This legend explains why the constellation Scorpio rises just after Orion begins to set -- the scorpion still chases him. Orion's dog became [[Sirius]], the dog-star.
#Artemis was in love with Orion. She was very happy with him and spent many of her days hunting with him. Apollo, her brother got jealous that she was paying more attention to Orion than him, so he came up with a plan to get rid of him. He sent a giant scorpion to kill Orion, but Artemis put him on an island where the scorpian could not get to him. Apollo challenged Artemis saying that she could not hit that rock way out in the distance. when Orions dead ody floated to the shore,Artemis weeped for days. She sent his body, and his hunting dog to the stars and they became the constellations Orion and the dog star Sirius. the Scorpian became the constellation Scorpio.
== Other stories ==
=== Callisto ===
[[Image:Tizian 015.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Tizian]]'s ''Diana and Callisto'']]Artemis killed any of her companions who lost their virginity, such as [[Maera]] and [[Callisto the Greek myth|Callisto]].
One of Artemis' companions, [[Callisto the Greek myth|Callisto]], lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis. Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear. Callisto's son, [[Arcas]], nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].
=== Agamemnon and Iphigenia ===
Artemis punished [[Agamemnon]] after he killed a sacred deer in a sacred grove and boasted he was a better hunter. On his way to [[Troy]] to participate in the [[Trojan War]], Agamemnon's ships were suddenly motionless as Artemis stopped the wind. An [[oracle]] named [[Calchis]] told Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice [[Iphigenia]], his daughter. According to some versions, he did so, but others claims that he sacrificed a deer in her place and Iphigenia was taken to [[Crimea]] to prepare others for sacrifice to Artemis.
=== Niobe ===
A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after stating he would get revenge. A grief-stricken Niobe fled to [[Mount Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she cried, or killed herself. Her tears made the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the 9th day after their death, when the gods themselves buried them.
=== Taygete ===
[[Zeus]] pursued [[Taygete]], one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]], who prayed to Artemis. The goddess turned Taygete into a doe but Zeus raped her when she was unconscious. She thus conceived [[Lacedaemon]], the mythical founder of [[Sparta]].
=== Otus and Ephialtes ===
[[Aloadae|Otus]] and [[Ephialtes]] were a pair of brothers and giants. At one point, they wanted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]]. They managed to kidnap [[Ares]] and hold him in a jar for thirteen months. He was only released when Artemis offered to sleep with Otus. This made Ephialtes envious and the pair fought. Artemis changed herself into a doe and jumped between them. The [[Aloadae]], not wanting her to get away, threw their spears and killed each other.
=== The Meleagrids ===
After the death of [[Meleager]], Artemis turned her grieving sisters, the [[Meleagrids]] into [[guineafowl]].
=== Chione ===
Artemis killed [[Chione]] for her pride and vanity.
=== Atalanta and Oeneus ===
Artemis saved the infant [[Atalanta]] from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters.
Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the [[Calydonian Boar]], which Artemis had sent to destroy [[Calydon]] because King [[Oeneus]] had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices.
=== Camilla ===
Queen [[Camilla]] was a follower of Artemis who was killed in battle by a man named Arruns. Soon after Camilla's death, a nymph in Artemis' train shot and killed the man with an arrow, avenging the dead huntress.
== Artemis in Neopaganism ==
Many [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], particularly ''Hellenistic'' [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], that worship Artemis today seem to omit many of the ancient myths. Those myths which are accepted by modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] seem to be interpreted rather abstractly, as mostly metaphor. Artemis is believed to be rather concerned with her follower's well being, but to reserve her boons to those who respect nature.
Artemis, in modern worship, is often seen as the goddess of wealth, magic, abundance, fertility, hunting, and longevity. While many who practice magic worship [[Hecate]] more favor Artemis for her supposed benevolence. Worship of Artemis may often include the burning of oils and incense, prayer, ritual nocturnal hunts, the burning of bread, and prostration. Artemis is thought to grant numerous boons and blessings on her followers, and is commonly worshipped by both men and women.
[[Artemis Fowl]] is a book series by the same name, referencing some of the details mentioned in this article.
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<title>Arbeit macht frei</title>
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alled an [[atomic orbital|orbital]]. The exact [[momentum]] and position of an electron cannot be simultaneously determined. This is a limitation described by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], which, in this instance, simply states that the more accurately we know a particle's position, the less accurately we can know its momentum, and vice versa.
The electron has [[spin (physics)|spin]] ½ and is a [[fermion]] (it obeys [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]]). In addition to its intrinsic angular momentum, an electron has a [[magnetic moment]] along its spin axis.
While most electrons are found in atoms, others move independently in matter, or together as an [[electron beam]] in a [[vacuum]]. In some [[superconductor]]s, electrons move in [[Cooper pair]]s, in which their motion is coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called [[phonon]]s. When electrons move, free of the nuclei of atoms, and there is a [[net flow]], this flow is called [[electricity]], or an [[electric current]].
A body has a static charge when the body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively-charged. When there are fewer electrons than [[proton]]s, the object is said to be positively-charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A [[macroscopic]] body can acquire charge through rubbing, i.e., the [[phenomena]] of [[triboelectricity]]. Electrons and [[positron]]s can [[electron-positron annihilation|annihilate]] each other and produce a pair of [[photon]]s. However, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called [[pair production]].
The electron is an [[elementary particle]] &mdash; it has no [[substructure]] (at least, experiments have not found any so far, and there is good reason to believe that there is not any). Hence, it is usually described as [[point]]-like, i.e., with no [[spatial]] extension. However, if one gets very near an electron, one notices that its properties ([[charge]] and [[mass]]) seem to change. This is an effect common to all elementary particles: The particle influences the [[vacuum fluctuation]]s in its vicinity, so that the properties one observes from far away are the sum of the bare properties and the vacuum effects (see [[renormalization]]).
There is a physical constant called the [[classical electron radius]], with a value of 2.8179&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>&minus;15</sup> [[Metre|m]]. Note that this is the radius that one could infer from its charge if the physics were only described by the [[classical electromagnetism|classical]] theory of [[electrodynamics]] and there were no [[quantum mechanics]] (hence, it is an outdated concept that nevertheless sometimes still proves useful in calculations).
The speed of an electron in a [[vacuum]] can approach, but never reach c, the [[speed of light]] in a [[vacuum]]. This is due to an effect of [[special relativity]]. The effects of [[special relativity]] are based on a quantity known as [[gamma]] or the [[Lorentz factor]]. Gamma is a function of v, the velocity of the particle, and c. The following is the formula for gamma:
:<math>\gamma = 1 / \sqrt{1 - (v^2/c^2)}</math>
The energy necessary to accelerate a particle is [[gamma]] minus one times the rest mass. For example, the [[linear accelerator]] at [[Stanford]] can [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/relativity.html accelerate] an electron to roughly 51&nbsp;GeV. This gives you a gamma of 100,000 given that the rest mass of an electron is 0.51&nbsp;MeV/c² (the [[relativistic mass]] of this fast electron is 100 000 times its rest mass). Solving the equation above for the speed of the electron gives a speed of:
:<math>\left(1-\frac {1} {2} \gamma ^{-2}\right)c</math> = 0.999&nbsp;999&nbsp;999&nbsp;95&nbsp;c.
(The formula applies for large &gamma;.)
===In the universe===
It is believed that the number of electrons existing in the known [[universe]] is at least 10<sup>79</sup>. This number amounts to a density of about one electron per [[cubic metre]] of space.
Based on the [[classical electron radius]] and assuming a dense [[sphere packing]], it can be calculated that the number of electrons that would fit in the [[observable universe]] is on the order of 10<sup>130</sup>. Of course, this number is even less meaningful than the classical electron radius itself.
===In industry===
[[Electron beam]]s are used in [[electron beam welding|welding]] as well as [[electron beam lithography|lithography]].
==In the laboratory==
===Early experiments===
The quantum or discrete nature of electron's charge was observed by [[Robert Millikan]] in the [[Oil-drop experiment]] of [[1909]].
===Usage===
[[Electron microscope]]s are used to magnify details up to 500,000 times. Quantum effects of electrons are used in [[Scanning tunneling microscope]] to study features at the atomic scale.
==In theory==
In relativistic [[quantum mechanics]], the electron is described by the [[Dirac Equation]]. [[Quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) models an electron as a charged particle surrounded by a sea of interacting [[virtual particles]], modifying the sea of [[virtual particles]] which makes up a vacuum. Although this theory involves difficult theoretical problems where calculations produce infinite terms, a practical (although mathematically dubious) method called [[renormalization]] was discovered whereby infinite terms can be cancelled to produce finite predictions about the electron. The correction of just over 0.1% to the predicted value of the electron's [[gyromagnetic ratio]] from exactly 2 (as predicted by Dirac's single particle model), and its extraordinarily precise agreement with the experimentally determined value, is viewed as one of the pinnacles of modern physics. There are now indications that [[string theory]] and its descendants may provide a model of the electron and other fundamental particles where the infinities in calculations do not appear, because the electron is no longer seen as a dimensionless point. At present, string theory is very much a 'work in progress' and lacks predictions analogous to those made by QED that can be experimentally verified.
In the [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]], it forms a doublet in SU(2) with the [[electron neutrino]], as they interact through the [[weak interaction]]. The electron has two more massive partners, with the same charge but different masses: the [[muon]] and the [[tau lepton]].
The [[antimatter]] counterpart of the electron is its antiparticle, the [[positron]]. The positron has the same amount of electrical charge as the electron, except that the charge is positive. It has the same mass and spin as the electron. When an electron and a positron meet, they may [[Annihilation|annihilate]] each other, giving rise to two [[Gamma ray|gamma-ray]] photons, each having an energy of 0.511 [[MeV]] (511 [[keV]]). See also [[Electron-positron annihilation]].
Electrons are also a key element in [[electromagnetism]], an approximate theory that is adequate for macroscopic systems, and for classical modelling of microscopic systems.
==History==
The electron as a unit of charge in electrochemistry was posited by [[G. Johnstone Stoney]] in [[1874]], who also coined usage of "electron" in [[1894]].
The discovery that the electron was a [[subatomic particle]] was made in [[1897]] by [[J.J. Thomson]] at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], while he was studying "[[cathode rays]]". Influenced by the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and the discovery of the [[X-ray]], he deduced that [[cathode ray tube|cathode ray]]s existed and were negatively charged "''particles''", which he called "''corpuscles''." He published his discovery in [[1897]].
The [[periodic law]] states that the chemical properties of elements largely repeat themselves periodically and is the foundation of the [[periodic table]] of elements. The law itself was initially explained by the [[atomic mass]] of the elements. However, as there were anomalies in the periodic table, efforts were made to find a better explanation for it. In [[1913]], [[Henry Moseley]] introduced the concept of the [[atomic number]] and explained the [[periodic law]] with the number of protons each element has. In the same year, [[Niels Bohr]] showed that electrons are the actual foundation of the table. In [[1916]], [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] explained the chemical bonding of elements by electronic interactions.
==See also==
* [[Standard model]]
* [[Subatomic particle]]
* [[Proton]]
* [[Positron]]
* [[Neutron]]
* [[Photoelectric Effect]]
* [[Lightning]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Cathode rays]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Fermion field]]
==External links==
* [http://www.aip.org/history/electron/ The Discovery of the Electron] from the American Institute of Physics History Center
* [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ Particle Data Group]
* Stoney, G. Johnstone, "''[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Stoney-1894.html Of the 'Electron,' or Atom of Electricity]''". Philosophical Magazine. Series 5, Volume 38, p. 418-420 October 1894.
* Eric Weisstein's World of Physics: [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Electron.html Electron]
==References ==
*{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 013805326X}}
*{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph | title=Modern Physics (4th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}
* Brumfiel, G. ([[6 January]] [[2005]]). Can electrons do the splits? In ''Nature, 433'', 11.
{{Elementary}}
[[Category:Ele
|
half a million. In 1988, the city was dealt a heavy blow by the loss-of-life suffered during an explosion and fire aboard one such rig, the [[Piper Alpha]].
==Population==
In 1396 the population was about 3,000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503; in 2001 it was 197,328.
==Sport==
[[Aberdeen Football Club]] was founded in 1903. Its major success was winning the [[European Cup Winners Cup]] in 1983 and three League Championships between 1980 and 1986, under the current [[Manchester United F.C.]] manager [[Alex Ferguson]]. The club's stadium is [[Pittodrie]] which holds the distinction of being Britain's first all-seater stadium.
Aberdeen F.C. holds the distinction of being the last team to have won the [[Scottish Premier League]] Championship outside the [[Old Firm]] and is the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies adding to their European Cup Winners Cup success by winning the [[European Super Cup]] also in 1983.
Well known footballers who have played for the club include [[Gordon Strachan]] (Current Celtic manager), [[Alex McLeish]] (Current Rangers manager) and club legend [[Willie Miller]]. [[Denis Law]], the joint top scorer for the Scotland national team was also born in the city, but spent his professional career playing for English and Italian clubs.
Aberdeen Golf Club was founded in 1815. It has two 18-hole courses at Balgownie, north of the River Don. There are other golf courses at Auchmill, Balnagask, Hazlehead and King's Links.
==Transport==
There are four main roads serving the city;
* [[A90 road|A90]] The main arterial route into the city from the South, linking Aberdeen to [[Edinburgh]], [[Dundee]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].
* [[A96 road|A96]] Links to [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] and [[Inverness]] and the North West.
* [[A93 road|A93]] The main route to the West, heading towards [[Royal Deeside]] and the [[Cairngorms]].
* [[A92 road|A92]] The original southerly road to Aberdeen prior to the building of the A90, now used as a tourist route, connecting the towns of [[Montrose, Angus|Montrose]], [[Arbroath]] and [[Brechin]] on the east coast.
The city's original ring road, Anderson Drive, which was built in the 1930s has long since been engulfed by the expansion of the city, and is inadequate for dealing with today's traffic. To this end, a new main bypass road, the Western Peripheral Route, is planned to divert through traffic away from the city centre. The road is due to open in 2010.
The city is well served by the national [[railway]] network. Aberdeen has regular rail services to [[Glasgow]] and Edinburgh as well as long distance trains to [[London]] via Edinburgh. It is possible to take the longest scheduled rail journey in the whole of the UK from Aberdeen. A daily service runs from Aberdeen to [[Penzance]] in [[Cornwall]], which is 722 miles (1,162 km) and twelve and three quarter hours away. Regular trains also run north westerly towards Inverness and north to [[Dyce]] for the airport.
Aberdeen also has an [[airport]] in the neighbouring town of Dyce, which is operated by [[BAA plc]]. As well as connecting the city to the rest of the UK, [[Aberdeen Airport]] (sometimes refererred to as ''Dyce Airport'') is the largest [[helicopter]] terminal in the world, serving the many North Sea oil installations. The [[IATA airport code]] for the airport is ABZ.
== Wards of the City of Aberdeen ==
[[Ashley, Aberdeen|Ashley]], [[Auchmill]], [[Bankhead and Stoneywood, Aberdeen|Bankhead and Stoneywood]], [[Berryden]], [[Broomhill, Aberdeen|Broomhill]], [[Bridge of Don]], [[Castlehill, Aberdeen|Castlehill]], [[Cults]], [[Cummings Park, Aberdeen|Cummings Park]], [[Danestone]], [[Donmouth]], [[Duthie]], [[Dyce]], [[Garthdee]], [[Gilcomston]], [[Hazelhead]], [[Hilton, Aberdeen|Hilton]], [[Holburn]], [[Jesmond, Aberdeen|Jesmond]], [[Kincorth]] East, [[Kincorth]] West, [[Kittybrewster]], [[Langstane]], [[Loirston]], [[Mannofield]], [[Mastrick]], [[Midstocket]], [[Murtle]], [[Newhills]], [[Oldmachar]], [[Peterculter]], [[Pittodrie]], [[Queen's Cross, Aberdeen|Queen's Cross]], [[St. Machar]], [[Seaton]], [[Sheddocksley]], [[Springhill, Aberdeen|Springhill]], [[Stockethill]], [[Summerhill, Aberdeen|Summerhill]], [[Sunnybank, Aberdeen|Sunnybank]], [[Torry]], [[Tullos]], [[Woodside, Aberdeen|Woodside]] and [[Tillydrone]]
== Twinned cities worldwide ==
Aberdeen is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world. These include:
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Regensburg]], [[Germany]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Norway}} - [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]]
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Belarus}} - [[Gomel]], [[Belarus]]
* {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} - [[Bulawayo]], [[Zimbabwe]]
|}
==See also==
*[[List of Aberdonians]]
*[[List of Bishops of Aberdeen]]
*[[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen]]
==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/acc/default.asp Aberdeen City Council]
*[http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/aberdeen.htm Aberdeen Dialect]
*[http://www.touchaberdeen.com/ Aberdeen Business portal]
{{oscoor gbx|NJ925065}}
{{Scottish Cities}}
[[Category:Aberdeen| ]]
[[Category:Scottish names]]
[[da:Aberdeen]]
[[de:Aberdeen]]
[[et:Aberdeen]]
[[es:Aberdeen]]
[[eo:Aberdeen]]
[[fa:ابردین]]
[[fr:Aberdeen]]
[[gl:Aberdeen, Escocia]]
[[ja:アバディーン (スコットランド)]]
[[mk:Абердин]]
[[nl:Aberdeen]]
[[no:Aberdeen]]
[[nn:Aberdeen]]
[[pl:Aberdeen (Szkocja)]]
[[pt:Aberdeen]]
[[ru:Эбердин (город)]]
[[sco:Aiberdeen]]
[[simple:Aberdeen]]
[[fi:Aberdeen]]
[[sv:Aberdeen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 23</title>
<id>1628</id>
<revision>
<id>42162744</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:58:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Fiction */ formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=23}}
|}
'''[[August 23]]''' is the 235th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (236th in leap years), with 130 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]] is executed.
*[[1328]] - [[Battle of Kassel]]: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers
*1328 - King [[Philip VI of France]] is crowned.
*[[1541]] - French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] lands near Quebec City in his third voyage to Canada.
*[[1566]] - Calvinists are granted rights in the Netherlands
*[[1614]] - The [[University of Groningen]] is established
*[[1617]] - In London, the first one-way street is established
*[[1651]] - [[Charles II of England]] enters [[Worcester]] and starts a battle.
*[[1784]] - [[Eastern Tennessee]] declares itself an independent state under the name of [[State of Franklin|Franklin]]; the step is rejected by Congress one year later
*[[1793]] - [[French Revolution]]: a [[levée en masse]] was decreed by the [[National Convention]].
*[[1799]] - [[Napoleon]] leaves [[Egypt]] for [[France]] en route to seize power
*[[1813]] - At the [[Battle of Grossbeeren]],the Prussians under [[Von Bulow]] repulse the French army.
*[[1821]] - [[Mexico]] gains its independence from [[Spain]]
*[[1833]] - [[Slavery]] abolished in the British colonies
*[[1839]] - The [[United Kingdom|UK]] captures [[Hong Kong]]
*[[1864]] - The Union Navy captures Fort Morgan, [[Alabama]], thus breaking [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] dominance of all ports on the [[Gulf of Mexico]]
*[[1866]] - [[Austro-Prussian War]] ends with the [[Treaty of Prague]]
*[[1889]] - First [[radio|wireless]] message from a ship to the shore received.
*[[1896]] - First Cry of the [[Philippine Revolution]] is made in Pugad Lawin ([[Quezon City]]), in the province of [[Manila]]
*[[1904]] - The [[tire chain|automobile tire chain]] is patented.
*[[1914]] - [[Japan]] declares war on [[Germany]] and bombs [[Qingdao]], [[China]].
*[[1924]] - The distance between [[Earth]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is the smallest since the 10th century.
*[[1927]] - [[Italy|Italian]] [[anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] are executed in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[1929]] - Arabs attack Jews in Israel
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a non-aggression treaty, the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. In a secret addition to the pact, [[Baltic states]], [[Finland]] and [[Poland]] are divided between the two nations.
*[[1940]] - World War II: The Germans start bombing [[London]].
*[[1942]] - World War II: Beginning of the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]
*[[1943]] - World War II: [[Kharkov]] liberated.
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Marseille]] liberated.
*1944 - World War II: [[Michael of Romania|King Michael of Romania]] dismisses the pro-[[Nazi]] government of [[Ion Antonescu|General Antonescu]]. Romania switches sides from the Axis to the Allies.
*1944 - A [[United States Air Force|US Army Air Force]] B-24 Liberator bomber crashes into a school in [[Freckleton]], [[England]] killing 61 people.
*1944 - World War II: [[Ion Antonescu]], prime minister of [[Romania]], is arrested and a new gouverment is established. [[Romania]] exits the war against [[Russia]] joining the [[Allies]].
*[[1947]] - The Maynard Midgets beat Lock Haven 16-7 to win the first-ever [[Little League]] World Series championship.
*[[1948]] - [[World Council of Churches]] is formed.
*[[1952]] - The [[Arab League]] goes into effect.
*[[1958]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[Second Taiwan Strait crisis]] begins with the [[People's Liberation Army]]'s bombardment of [[Quemoy]].
*[[1960]] - In [[Equatorial Guinea]], the world's largest [[frog]] (3.3 kg) is caught.
*[[1962]] - First live [[television]] connection between the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], via the [[Telstar]] satellite.
*[[1966]] - [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] takes the first photograph of
|
right" | 83,858
| align="right" | 8,169,929
| align="right" | 97.4
| [[Vienna]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Belgium]]
| align="right" | 30,510
| align="right" | 10,274,595
| align="right" | 336.8
| [[Brussels]]
|-
| {{flagicon|France}} [[France]]{{ref|France}}
| align="right" | 547,030
| align="right" | 59,765,983
| align="right" | 109.3
| [[Paris]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]
| align="right" | 357,021
| align="right" | 83,251,851
| align="right" | 233.2
| [[Berlin]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Liechtenstein}} [[Liechtenstein]]
| align="right" | 160
| align="right" | 32,842
| align="right" | 205.3
| [[Vaduz]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg]]
| align="right" | 2,586
| align="right" | 448,569
| align="right" | 173.5
| [[Luxembourg (city)|Luxembourg]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Monaco}} [[Monaco]]
| align="right" | 1.95
| align="right" | 31,987
| align="right" | 16,403.6
| [[Monaco]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]]{{ref|Netherlands}}
| align="right" | 41,526
| align="right" | 16,318,199
| align="right" | 393.0
| [[Amsterdam]], [[The Hague]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Switzerland}} [[Switzerland]]
| align="right" | 41,290
| align="right" | 7,301,994
| align="right" | 176.8
| [[Bern]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Western Asia]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Armenia}} [[Armenia]]{{ref|Armenia}}
| align="right" | 29,800
| align="right" | —
| align="right" | —
| [[Yerevan]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan]]{{ref|Azerbaijan}}
| align="right" | 39,730
| align="right" | 4,198,491
| align="right" | 105.7
| [[Baku]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]]{{ref|Cyprus}}
| align="right" | 5,995
| align="right" | 780,133
| align="right" | 130.1
| [[Nicosia|Nicosia (Lefkosa)]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]{{ref|Georgia}}
| align="right" | 49,240
| align="right" | 2,447,176
| align="right" | 49.7
| [[Tbilisi]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]{{ref|Turkey}}
| align="right" | 24,378
| align="right" | 11,044,932
| align="right" | 453.1
| [[Ankara]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Central Asia]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[Kazakhstan]]{{ref|Kazakhstan}}
| align="right" | 370,373
| align="right" | 1,285,174
| align="right" | 3.4
| [[Astana]]
|- style=" font-weight:bold; "
| Total
| align="right" | 10,431,299
| align="right" | 709,022,061
| align="right" | 68.0
|}
''Notes:''<br>
#<small>{{note|region}} Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]]. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 2, 6-8, 10-15) may be in [[Transcontinental nation|one or both of]] Europe and [[Asia]], [[Africa]], or [[Oceania]].<br>
#<small>{{note|Russia}} [[Russia]] is generally considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe (UN region) and Asia; population and area figures are for European portion only.<br>
#{{note|Crown}}–5. <small>[[Guernsey]], [[Isle of Man]], and [[Jersey]] are [[crown dependency|crown dependencies]] affiliated with the [[United Kingdom]].<br>
:6. <small>{{note|Portugal}} Figures for [[Portugal]] exclude the [[Madeira Islands]], west of [[Morocco]] in [[Africa]].<br>
:7. <small>{{note|Spain}} Figures for [[Spain]] exclude the [[Canary Islands]], west of Morocco in [[Africa]], and the [[exclave]]s of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], which are on the northwest of the African continent.<br>
:8. <small>{{note|France}} Figures for [[France]] include only [[metropolitan France]].<br>
:9. <small>{{note|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]] population for July 2004; [[Amsterdam]] is the official capital, while [[The Hague]] is the administrative seat.<br>
:10. <small>{{note|Armenia}} [[Armenia]] is sometimes considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia ([[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|as per UN categorisations/map]]) and Eastern Europe.<br>
:11. <small>{{note|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.<br>
:12. <small>{{note|Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Southern Europe; population and area figures are for ''[[de jure]]'' Greek-administered portion only.<br>
:13. <small>{{note|Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.<br>
:14. <small>{{note|Turkey}} [[Turkey]] is generally considered a transcontinental country Western Asia (UN region) and Southern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only, including all of [[Istanbul Province|Istanbul]].</small><br>
:15. <small>{{note|Kazakhstan}} [[Kazakhstan]] is sometimes considered a transcontinental country in Central Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.<br>
==Linguistic and cultural regions== <!--The section needs to be edited and improved.-->
The sub-division in several linguistic and cultural regions is much less subjective than the geographical sub-division, since they correspond to people's cultural connections. Traditionally, the following groups are recognized.
==== Germanic Europe ====
[[Germanic Europe]], where [[Germanic languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds more or less to north-western Europe and some parts of [[central Europe]]. The main religion of the region is [[Protestantism]], but the further south you go, you encounter more countries with a [[Roman Catholic Church |Catholic]] majority (particularly [[Bavaria]] and [[Austria]] but also [[Religion in Belgium|Belgium]]). This region consists of: [[England]] (a [[constituent country]] of the [[UK]]), [[Iceland]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Liechtenstein]], the [[Faroe Islands]], the [[German speaking part of Switzerland]], [[Flanders]] in [[Belgium]], the [[German-speaking part of Belgium]], the [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish-speaking]] [[municipalities of Finland|municipalities]] of Finland, and the [[South Tyrol]]/[[Alto-Adige]] part of Italy.
==== Latin Europe ====
[[Latin Europe]], where the [[Romance languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds more or less to south-western Europe, as well as [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] which are situated in [[Eastern Europe]]. The major religion is [[Roman Catholicism|Catholicism]], except in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]. This area consists of: [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], [[Wallonia]], [[Romandy]], [[Romansh]]-speaking Switzerland, and [[Italian language|Italian]]-speaking Switzerland.
==== Slavic Europe ====
[[Slavic Europe]], where [[Slavic languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds, more or less, to Central and Eastern Europe. The main religions are [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] and Catholicism, with large [[Islam|Muslim]] populations in some parts formerly ruled by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This area consists of: [[Belarus]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], the [[Czech Republic]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Ukraine]].
====Celtic Europe====
[[Celtic Europe]], where [[Celtic languages]] are spoken, or where they were previously spoken and the population still shares a Celtic heritage for non-linguistic reasons. The [[Celtic nations]] are: [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]] (within the United Kingdom), the [[Isle of Man]] (a [[Crown Dependency|British Crown dependency]]), [[Ireland]], and [[Brittany]] (within [[France]]). These are all nations where a [[Celtic Languages|Celtic language]] is spoken, or was spoken into modern times, and there is a degree of shared culture (see [[Pan Celticism]]). Sometimes considered Celtic nations are [[Galicia]] and [[Asturias]] (both autonomous communities of [[Spain]]), whose own Celtic language died out a millennium ago, and England where Celtic culture persists and Celtic dialect remains in many regional dialects (see [[Cumbric]]), although [[Southwestern Brythonic|England's Celtic languages]] died out as recently as the 18th century in Devon. The main religions are [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]], which are particularly mixed in [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Scotland]].
====Baltic Europe====
Baltic Europe, in the cultural sense, refers to those nations which speak [[Baltic languages]], and hence include [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]]. [[Estonia]], whose national language is part of the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] family, is not included in this grouping, even though it is a [[Baltic state]] geographically.
==== Others ====
Outside of these five main groups one can find:
* Greece, the only modern country in [[Hellenic Europe]]. This is where one can also consider the [[Greek Cypriot]] community. It is often incorrectly associated with the Latin countries, due to the geographical and perceived cultural ties to the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
* [[Albanian language]] is its own independent branch of the Indo-European language family with no close living relatives. There is no scholarly consensus over its origin. Some scholar
|
rmion]]ic particles with [[boson]]ic ones. Such a symmetry predicts the existence of '''supersymmetric particles''', abbreviated as '''[[sparticle]]s''', which include the [[slepton]]s, [[squark]]s, [[neutralino]]s and [[chargino]]s. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose [[spin (physics)|spin]] differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. Due to the [[supersymmetry breaking|breaking of supersymmetry]], the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that existing [[particle collider]]s would not be powerful enough to produce them. However, some physicists believe that sparticles will be detected when the [[Large Hadron Collider]] at [[CERN]] begins running.
=== String theory ===
{{main|string theory}}
According to [[string theory|string theorists]], each kind of fundamental particle corresponds to a different patterns of fundamental string. All strings are essentially the same, although they may be open (lines) or closed (loops). Different particles differ in the coordination of their strings. Modern string theories include [[supersymmetry]], making them [[superstring theory|superstring theories]].
One particular prediction of string theory is the existence of extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string. Another important prediction of string theory is the existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the [[graviton]]. By predicting [[gravity]], string theory unifies [[quantum mechanics]] with [[general relativity]], making it the first consistent theory of [[quantum gravity]].
One problem with string theory is that it predicts that the number of [[dimension]]s for [[spacetime]] much greater than 4 (the number of observed dimensions). These [[extra dimensions]] are supposedly [[compactification (physics)|compactified]] or rolled-up. Other related theories such as [[brane]] theories contain extended extra dimensions, which are hidden from us by our confinement to a brane.
=== Preon theory ===
{{main|preon}}
According to preon theory there are one or more orders of particles more fundamental than those (or most of those) found in the [[Standard Model]]. The most fundamental of these are normally called preons, which is derived from "pre-quarks". In essence, preon theory tries to do for the [[Standard Model]] what the Standard Model did for the [[particle zoo]] that came before it. Most models assume that almost everything in the Standard Model can be explained in terms of three to half a dozen more fundamental particles and the rules that govern their interactions. Interest in preons has waned since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980's.
== Links and References ==
=== Reference ===
* [[Brian Greene]], ''The Elegant Universe'', W.W.Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN 0-393-05858-1.
=== See also ===
* [[Subatomic particle]]
* [[Particle physics]]
* [[List of particles]]
== External links ==
* [[Brian Greene|Greene, Brian,]] "''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/part-flash.html Elementary particles]''". The Elegant Universe, [[Nova (series)|NOVA]] ([[PBS]])
*[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/standard_model.html particleadventure.org: The Standard Model], *[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/beyond_start.html Unsolved Mysteries. Beyond The Standard Model], *[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/quarknaming.html What is the World Made of? The Naming of Quarks]
* [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ University of California: Particle Data Group]
* [http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/chart.html particleadventure.org: Particle chart]
* [http://www.cerncourier.com/main/article/41/2/17 CERNCourier: Season of Higgs and melodrama]
* [http://plato.phy.ohiou.edu/~hicks/thplus.htm Pentaquark information page]
{{Elementary}}
[[Category:Subatomic particles]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[bg:Елементарна частица]]
[[cs:Elementární částice]]
[[da:Elementarpartikel]]
[[de:Elementarteilchen]]
[[el:Στοιχειώδες σωματίδιο]]
[[fr:Particule élémentaire]]
[[ko:기본입자]]
[[id:Partikel dasar]]
[[it:Particella elementare]]
[[he:חלקיק אלמנטרי]]
[[hu:Elemi részecske]]
[[lv:Elementārdaļiņas]]
[[nl:Elementair deeltje]]
[[ja:基本粒子]]
[[no:Elementærpartikkel]]
[[nn:Elementærpartikkel]]
[[pl:Cząstka elementarna]]
[[pt:Partícula elementar]]
[[ru:Элементарная частица]]
[[sk:Elementárna častica]]
[[sl:Osnovni delec]]
[[fi:Alkeishiukkanen]]
[[sv:Elementarpartikel]]
[[vi:Hạt sơ cấp]]
[[zh:基本粒子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flywheel energy storage</title>
<id>11275</id>
<revision>
<id>38668982</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T21:41:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brighterorange</username>
<id>219031</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Future improvements */ fix my blunder</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:G2 front2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''NASA G2 Flywheel''' ]]
'''Flywheel Energy Storage''' (FES) works by accelerating a rotor to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as inertial energy. Commercially available FES systems are used for small [[Uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power systems]]. The rotors normally operate at 4000 RPM or less and are made of metal. Advanced flywheels are made of high strength carbon-composite filaments that spin at speeds from 20,000-100,000 RPM in a vacuum enclosure. Magnetic bearings are necessary as speeds increase to reduce friction found in conventional mechanical bearings. Quick charging is done in less than 15 minutes. Long lifetimes of most flywheels, plus high energy (~ 130 Wh/kg) and high power are positive attributes. The round trip energy efficiency of flywheels can be as high as 90%. Since FES can store and release power quickly, they have found a niche providing pulsed power.
== Main components ==
[[Image:Flywheel 2004 sm.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Internal Flywheel Components''']]
A typical system consists of [[rotor]] suspended by [[bearing]]s inside a [[vacuum]] chamber to reduce [[friction]], connected to a combination [[electric motor]]/[[electric generator]]. On larger systems, the bearings are magnetic. The rotors are generally made of steel on smaller systems but large systems use high-tensile-strength fibers (such as [[carbon fiber]]s) embedded in [[epoxy]] [[resin]]s, or some other high-strength [[composite material]]. Energy is stored by using an electric motor to increase the speed of the spinning flywheel. The system releases its energy by using the [[momentum]] of the flywheel to power the motor/generator.
== Physical characteristics ==
[[Image:Nasarotor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Metal Flywheel Rotor''' ]]
Energy is stored in the rotor in proportion to its momentum, but the square of the angular momentum. The [[kinetic energy]] stored in a rotating flywheel is:
'''<math>KE=\frac{1}{2}\cdot I\cdot \omega^2</math>'''
Where
<math> \omega </math> = the [[angular velocity]] in [[radian|radians]] per [[second]].
<math> I </math> = the [[moment of inertia]] of the [[mass]] about the center of rotation.
The moment of inertia may also be written as the product of three terms.
<math> I=k\cdot M\cdot \R^2 </math>
Where
<math> k </math> = the inertial constant
<math> M </math> = the mass
<math> R </math> = the distance the center of mass is from the center of rotation
Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass from the center of rotation. Placing all the mass on the outside of the disk would provide for the biggest inertial constant.
<math> k = 1 </math>, wheel with all mass on the outer rim
<math> k =\frac{1}{2} </math>, uniformaly distributed mass (solid disk)
<math> k =\frac{2}{5} </math>, solid sphere
<math> k =\frac{2}{3} </math>, spherical shell
<math> k =\frac{1}{2} </math>, thin rectangular rod
A flywheel is more effective when its inertia is larger, as when its mass is located farther from the center of rotation either due to a more massive rim or due to a larger diameter. However, because increasing the rotational velocity of the flywheel results in a geometric increase in stored kinetic energy (rather than a linear growth when increasing the mass), modern research focuses on making flywheels spin as fast as possible.
== Applications ==
In the [[1950s]] flywheel-powered buses, known as [[gyrobus]]es, were used in [[Yverdon]], [[Switzerland]], and there is ongoing research to make flywheel systems that are smaller, lighter, cheaper, and have a greater capacity. It is hoped that flywheel systems can replace conventional chemical batteries for mobile applications, such as for electric vehicles. Proposed flywheel systems would eliminate many of the disadvantages of existing battery power systems, such as low capacity, long charge times, heavy weight, and short usable lifetimes. Flywheel systems have also been used experimentally in small [[electric locomotive]]s for shunting or [[switcher|switching]].
In the [[1980s]] Soviet engineer [[Nourbey Gulia]] had been working on flywheel energy storage. His work resulted in many original solutions for wheel suspension, sealing the vacuum chamber, rotation rate decline compensator and hydraulic transmission. However, the primary advance was the composite flywheel capable of rotation rates exceeding 40,000 rpm, running for up to a week when not loaded, and resistant to explosive destruction. Gulia's "super flywheels" were tightly wound of metal or plastic tape, which, in addition to tensile strength higher than that of molded steel, simply unwound inside the chamber, filling it and grinding to a stop. Gulia's first wheels were
|
g place in their home. Many plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature or his bizarre inventions. These alternated with plots based on Dogbert's [[megalomania]]cal ambitions. Later on, the location of most of the action moved to Dilbert's workplace at a large technology company, and the strip started to satirize [[Information Technology|IT]] workplace and company issues. The comic strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience.
''Dilbert'' portrays corporate culture as a [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]esque world of [[bureaucracy]] for its own sake and office politics that stand in the way of productivity, where employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and [[busy work]] praised. Much of the humor emerges as the audience sees the characters making obviously ridiculous decisions that are natural reactions to [[management|mismanagement]].
Themes explored include:
* Engineers' personal traits
** Lack of style
** Hopelessness in [[dating]]
** Attraction to tools and technological products
* [[Esotericism]]
[[Image:Dilbert-20050910.gif|thumb|198px|Announcement of changes in company password policy. From left: the [[Pointy-Haired Boss]], [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]], [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]], and [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]]]]
* [[incompetence|Incompetent]] and [[sadism|sadistic]] management
** Scheduling without reference to reality
** Failure to reward success or penalize laziness
** Penalising employees for failures caused by bad management
** [[Micromanagement]]
** Failure to improve others' morale, lowering it instead
** Failure to communicate objectives
** Handling of projects doomed to failure or cancellation
** Sadistic [[human resources|HR]] policies with flimsy (or purely [[evil]]) rationale
* [[Corporate]] bureaucracy
* Stupidity of the general public
** Susceptibility to [[advertising]]
** Susceptibility to [[peer pressure]]
** Gullibility in the face of obvious [[scam]]s
* [[Third world]] countries and [[outsourcing]] ([[Elbonia]])
** Dilapidation
** Bizarre [[culture|cultural]] habits
** Lack of understanding of [[capitalism]]
==Characters==
The main characters in Dilbert include:
; [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] : The main character in the strip, an electrical engineer. He understands engineering well and has good ideas, but has a poor social life.
:Dilbert is a stereotypical technically-minded single male. Neither attractive nor blessed with tremendous social graces, Dilbert is capable but ignored at work, and struggles with his romantic life. While he is frequently seen having dates with eligible women, the dates almost invariably end in disaster, usually in surreal and bizarre ways. Dilbert loves computers and technology and will spend much of his free time playing with such things.
:Dilbert is the strip's Everyman, albeit of a specific sort. Despite his intelligence, Dilbert is usually doomed to having events control him; he is generally powerless at work and too inept to improve his social standing.
:Dilbert is usually pictured wearing a white dress shirt, red and black striped tie, and black pants. Dilbert's tie, for reasons never really explained, curls upward, as if formed by a wire. It is alluded to in the strip that the tie curving up indicates the fact he has not had sex lately.
:Dilbert's unusual name was suggested to Adams by a co-worker; Adams later found that the name likely came from a cartoon character used by the United States Navy during World War II.
; [[Dogbert]] : Dilbert's pet [[dog]]. He is a [[megalomaniac]] intellectual, planning to one day conquer the world and enslave all humans. Once he succeeded, but got bored and quit. Often seen in high ranking consultant jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company. Dogbert also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting, and usually dull, customers to steal their money. However, despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams.
:Dogbert's canine nature was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common.
; [[Ratbert]] : A rat formerly used as a laboratory test animal. He usually gets all the lowest and most menial jobs, i.e. temp. Ratbert is tolerated, but never liked, by Dilbert.
; [[Catbert]] : The company's evil [[cat|feline]] Human Resources director. He derives sadistic pleasure from seeing employees worry about their jobs. Merely mentioning the term "layoffs" causes him to wag his tail in delight.
; [[List of minor characters in Dilbert#Bob, Dawn, and Rex, the Dinosaurs|Bob the dinosaur]] : A dinosaur who is the wedgie enforcer at the office. He was found after Dilbert realized that dinosaurs weren't extinct, they were just really good at hiding.
; [[Pointy-Haired Boss]] : The manager of Dilbert and the other engineers. He is hopelessly incompetent at management and does not understand the technical issue but always tries to disguise this, usually by talking in [[buzzword]]s he does not understand. The Pointy-Haired Boss's actual name is never used. In earlier strips the Boss was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager. Later he developed his signature "pointy hair". This transformation occurred between the strip of September 20 (or possibly September 26), 1991, and the strip of October 21, 1991.
:The Boss treats his employees alternately with disdain or neglect; he is almost wholly [[sociopathic]], using them to his own ends irrespective of the consequences to them. The Boss's level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs; his utter lack of ethics, however, is perfectly consistent. The Boss believes Sociopath means the employees think he majored in Sociology; in fact he has alternately been credited with majoring in Art History (to look at naked statues) and Anthropology. The latter claim was made by the Boss himself.
:Although he is often characterized by his minions as an "idiot", he alone among them has succeeded socially, by marrying and fathering children. Not unexpectedly, his son is much like him.
; [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]] : One of the oldest engineers. He hates work and avoids it whenever he can. He is often seen carrying a cup of [[coffee]]. Wally is even more socially inept than Dilbert, and reference to his lack of personal hygiene are not uncommon. Like the Pointy Haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work. Squat and balding, Wally is almost invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie. Adams has stated that Wally was based on a man who, due to a legal screw-up at work, could never be fired but would never get promoted. This man was able to then become very lazy as he would not be punished for doing a bad job and would get no benefit from working hard.
; [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]] : The company's most competent, and highest paid, engineer. Alice has a huge, triangular hairstyle. She is often frustrated at her work not getting proper recognition, which she believes (with some justification) is due to her gender. She also has a short, often violent temper, sometimes putting her "Fist of Death" to use, even against the Pointy Haired Boss. Alice originally depicted a series of female characters, like Ted the Generic guy, and appeared for a time as the current Alice with a somewhat more normal hair style before, like the Boss, she finally developed her signature triangular hair. Alice is claimed to be based upon a woman that Scott Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's 'pink suit, fluffy hair, and take-no-crap attitude.'
; [[Asok (Dilbert character)|Asok]] : Pronounced "Ah-shook." A young intern. He works very hard but does not always get proper recognition. Asok is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his illusions are frequent comic fodder. Asok is Indian, and graduated from the [[Indian Institute of Technology]] (IIT). He does not eat, at least, beef. The others, especially the Boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs. If Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored. If Asok's reported test scores and college accomplishments are correct, he is the smartest member of the engineering team.
; [[Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light]] : A minor [[demon]] who punishes people for small crimes by "darning them to heck" with his "pitchspoon", a parody of [[Satan]]. Ostensibly, Phil is eventually revealed to be the Pointy-Haired Boss's brother. Adams is inconsistent with his depictions of Phil; he sometimes has horns and sometimes does not, and sometimes carries a pitchfork rather than a spoon. Adams has stated that the inconsistency is because he sometimes forgets that Phil is not supposed to have a cape, or a pitchfork.
; [[Elbonia]]ns : People from a fictional [[Fourth World]] nation, used as a parody of outsourcing. Their culture is radically different from western culture, and their [[patriarchy]] often annoys Alice. Their country is covered in waist-deep mud which they keep wet using expensive bottled water as revealed in one strip.
{{seealso|List of minor characters in Dilbert}}
==''Dilbert'' in popular culture==
The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector has led to the character of Dilbert being used in many business magazines and publications (he has made several appearances on the cover of ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'').
The ''[[Toronto Star]]'', Montreal's ''[[La Presse]]'', the ''[[Indianapolis Star]]'', the ''[[Providence Journal]]'', the ''[[Washington
|
/2005/10/geneva-college-added-as-ninth-member.html Geneva makes move to NCAA Div. III]
{{Pittsburgh Universities}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Christian universities and colleges]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greater Poland</title>
<id>13083</id>
<revision>
<id>32531986</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T22:38:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evilboy</username>
<id>326497</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right"
|[[Image:Wlkp herb.jpg|center|100px|Greater Poland Voivodship modern coats of arms]]
|-
|<center>''[[Greater Poland Voivodship]]<br>modern coats of arms''</center>
|}
'''Greater Poland''' (also ''Great Poland''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Wielkopolska'', [[German language|German]]: ''Großpolen'', [[Latin]]: ''Polonia Maior'') is a historical region of [[Poland]]. It is located in western-central Poland, encompassing much of the area drained by the [[Warta river]] and its tributaries, including the [[Noteć|Noteć river]].
== Name of the region ==
Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) was the core of the early medieval Polish state, often called ''the cradle of Poland'', and at times was called simply ''Poland'' (Latin: ''Polonia''). The name of Greater Poland is mentioned first in the Latin form ''Polonia Maior'' in [[1257]], and in Polish form ''w Wielkej Polszcze'' in [[1449]]. The name of the region can be understood as ''Old Poland'', as opposed to ''New Poland'' ([[Lesser Poland]], Małopolska, Polonia Minor, a region in south-eastern Poland with [[Kraków]] as its capital) and in opposition to the whole [[Poland]] as a state and country. In its wide meaning, Greater Poland consists of all of the [[Greater Poland Voivodship]] and parts of the [[Lubusz Voivodship]], the [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship]] and the [[Łódź Voivodship]].
==Geography==
Greater Poland consists of two major geographic regions: the lake district, full of post-glacial lakes and hills in the north, and the rather flat plain in the south.
=== Major cities and towns ===
(population 2003)
*[[Poznań]] (581,200)
*[[Kalisz]] (106,500)
*[[Konin, Poland]] (83,600)
*[[Piła]] (76,800)
*[[Ostrow Wielkopolski]] (74,500)
*[[Gniezno]] (71,600)
*[[Leszno]] (63,500)
*[[Srem, Poland|Srem]] (31,000)
*[[Turek]] (30,700)
*[[Krotoszyn]] (29,100)
*[[Wrzesnia]] (28,900)
*[[Swarzedz]] (28,200)
*[[Jarocin]] (26,000)
*[[Koscian]] (24,500)
*[[Wągrowiec]] (24,500)
*[[Kolo]] (24,300)
*[[Lubon]] (23,800)
*[[Sroda Wielkopolska]] (22,200)
*[[Rawicz]] (21,700)
*[[Gostyn]] (20,800)
*[[Chodzież]] (20,500)
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
{{GreaterPoznanLists}}
[[Category:Regions of Poland]]
[[Category:Greater Poland| ]]
[[de:Großpolen (Landschaft)]]
[[pl:Wielkopolska]]
[[sv:Storpolen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gorillaz</title>
<id>13084</id>
<revision>
<id>42156906</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:53:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.164.220.191</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{copyedit}}
{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Gorillaz |
image = [[Image:Gorillaz_group.jpg|250px]] |
years_active = 1998&ndash;present |
country = [[United Kingdom]] |
music_genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Britpop]], [[Hip hop music|Hip-Hop]], [[Trip Hop]], [[Dub]] |
record_label = [[EMI]] |
current_members = 2D<br>Noodle<br>Russel<br>Murdoc|
}}
'''Gorillaz''' is a [[virtual band]], comprised of four fictional animated band members: 2D, Murdoc, fabian stockwin, Noodle and Russel. They play a variety of music styles – to quote one of their lyrics, they have recorded everything from "Rap, Hip-Hop, Punk, Ska, to Heavy Metal". The band was created by [[Damon Albarn]] from the Britpop band [[Blur]], and [[Jamie Hewlett]], the creator of the comic book ''[[Tank Girl]]''.
The band's first album, 2001's ''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'', sold over 3 million copies and earned them an entry in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as the Most Successful Virtual Band[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=57561]. Their second studio album, ''[[Demon Days]]'', released was in 2005 and included the hit singles "[[Feel Good Inc.]]", "[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]" and "[[Dare (song)|Dare]]".
==History==
===Formation===
[[Image:Gorilla2wh.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Hewlett's artwork in their early career was more detailed than the artwork that would come during the band's fame.]]
The people behind Gorillaz, [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]], formed in April 1998.{{fact}} They originally identified themselves under the name "Gorilla," and first song they recorded was "Ghost Train" (1998), later released as a [[B-side]] on their single "[[Rock the House]]" and "[[G-Sides]]".
===Phase One: Celebrity Take Down===
The band's first release was the [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]'', released in 2000. It was very well received in the [[UK]] underground music scene and generated a lot of [[Word of mouth|word-of-mouth]] advertising, as well as a large shroud of mystery over who was behind Gorillaz and what could be expected from the band in the months to come. Promo outlets circulated a promotional booklet to promote the backstory behind the band.
The band's official website, [http://www.gorillaz.com/ www.gorillaz.com], was a virtual representation of Kong Studios, the band's fictional studio and home. Inside, you could browse through each member's bedroom, their recording environment and even the hallways and bathrooms. Each room also had bonus surprises and games to play: for example, the lobby had a remix machine, the cafeteria contained the [[message board]] on the wall and [http://www.murdocswinnebago.com/ Murdoc's Winnebago] (accessible only by using the [[Enhanced CD|enhanced section]] of the [[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]] album) contained a voodoo doll of 2D. Each member also had his or her own computer which contained pictures, samples used in various Gorillaz songs, their favorite websites and their e-mail inboxes. Because of the nature of the site, an official fansite, [http://fans.gorillaz.com/ fans.gorillaz.com], was created to hold the standard band website information, including news, a discography and the band's touring schedules.
The band's first [[Single (music)|single]], "[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]", was released on [[March 5]] [[2001]]. It became a smash hit and put Gorillaz into the global spotlight. Due to this, the fictional band members' [[Hotmail]] accounts were abandoned (and later hacked) and the inboxes on the site were never updated. Later that same month, their first full-length album, the [[self-titled]] ''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'' was released, producing four singles: "Clint Eastwood", "[[19-2000]]", "[[Tomorrow Comes Today (single)|Tomorrow Comes Today]]", and "[[Rock the House]]".
Each of the singles' videos contained humorous and often ridiculous storylines and imagery, though "Clint Eastwood" and "19-2000" were the only singles to break through the [[United States|American]] music scene. "19-2000" became popular after being featured in both an [[Icebreaker (disambiguation)|Icebreakers]] commercial, as well as in EA Sports' FIFA 2001. Also the trumpets from the song "Rock the House" can be heard in various MTV shows. The only time the video for "Tomorrow Comes Today" was played in the States was when [[Toonami]] broadcast a "Midnight Run" special where they played animated music videos from Gorillaz, [[Daft Punk]], and [[Kenna]].
[[Image:Gorillaz_Phase_1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Gorillaz artwork by Hewlett during Phase One was very cartoonish.]]
Around this time, a half-hour [[Television|TV]] [[mockumentary]] entitled ''Charts Of Darkness'' was released. It follows [[Channel 4]] news reporter [[Krishnan Guru-Murthy]] attempting to track down Albarn and Hewlett after they were placed in an [[insane asylum]]. The special also interviews [[Rachel Stevens]] of [[S Club 7]] fame and a few of the band's voice talents, who had been given roles to play.
The end of the year brought the song "911", a collaboration between the Gorillaz and rap artists [[D12 (band)|D12]] (sans [[Eminem]]) and [[Terry Hall (singer)|Terry Hall]] about the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. Meanwhile ''[[G-Sides]]'', a compilation of the B-sides from the first three singles was released in [[Japan]] and quickly followed with international releases in early 2002. The new year also saw a complicated performance at the 2002 [[Brit Awards]], featuring the band in [[3D animation]], weaving in and out of each other on four large screens along with rap accompaniment by [[Phi Life Cypher]]. Finally, ''[[Laika Come Home]]'', a [[dub music|dub]] remix album, containing most of the tracks from ''Gorillaz'' reworked by [[Spacemonkeyz]], was released in June 2002. The single to follow, "[[Lil' Dub Chefin']]", contained an original track by the Spacemonkeyz titled "Spacemonkeyz Theme".
===Phase One Point Five===
In November 2002, a DVD titled ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'' was released. The DVD contains all five videos (including the abandoned video for "5/4"), the "Charts Of Darkness" documentary, the five Gorilla Bites (short vignettes), a tour of the website by the MEL 9000 server and much more. The DVD's menu was designed much like the band's website and depicts an abandoned Kong Studios.
Along with the November 2002 release of the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'', the band's website closed down almost completely. The fictional Kong Stud
|
Distributism===
* [http://www.traditioninaction.org/bkreviews/A_019br_DistribManifesto.htm A ''Distributist Manifesto'' strongly spiced with Communism]
* [http://www.mises.org/story/1062 What's Wrong With "Distributism": Mises Institute]
* [http://nudccw.org/vm/index.asp?art_id=14785 Trashing "Chesterbelloc"]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[de:Distributismus]]
[[pt:Distributismo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dehydroepiandrosterone</title>
<id>8807</id>
<revision>
<id>37889830</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T20:31:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.150.162.9|198.150.162.9]] ([[User talk:198.150.162.9|talk]]) to last version by Amitpandey</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"><tr><td>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#cccccc"> '''DHEA'''
<tr><td>'''Full name:'''</td><td>dehydroepiandrosterone</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Synonyms:'''</td><td>3ß-hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Empirical formula:'''</td><td>[[carbon|C]]<sub>19</sub>[[hydrogen|H]]<sub>28</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub></td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Molecular weight:'''</td><td>288.43</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''CAS No'''</td><td>53-43-0</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Melting point ([[kelvin|K]])'''</td><td>419 to 424 K</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Melting point ([[celsius|°C]])'''</td><td>146 to 151 °C</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">[[image:dehydroepiandrosterone.png|chemical structure of DHEA]]</td></tr>
</table>
</table>
'''Dehydroepiandrosterone''' ('''DHEA''') is a natural [[steroid]] [[hormone]] produced from [[cholesterol]] by the [[adrenal gland]]s found atop of the [[kidney]]s in the human body.
DHEA is also produced in the gonads, adipose tissue and the brain. DHEA is structurally similar to, and is a precursor of, [[androstenedione]], [[testosterone]] and [[estrogen]]. It is the most abundant hormone in the human body.
==DHEA-DHEAS==
'''Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate''' ('''DHEAS''') is the sulfated version of DHEA, - this conversion is reversibly catalyzed by sulfotransferase (SULT2A1) primarily in the adrenals, the liver, and small instestines. In blood, most DHEA is found as DHEAS with levels that are about 300 times higher than free DHEA. Orally ingested DHEA is converted to its sulfate when passing through intestines and liver. While DHEA levels reach their peak in the early morning hours, DHEAS levels show no diurnal variation. DHEAS is biologically active only after its sulfate group has been split and it becomes DHEA again.
From a practical point measurement of DHEAS is preferable to DHEA as levels are more stable.
==Production==
[[Image:DHEA1.png|frame|Production of DHEA from Cholesterol]]
DHEA is produced from cholesterol through two cytochrome P450 enzymes. Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by the enzyme P450 scc (side chain cleavage) and then another enzyme P450c17 (CYP17A) converts pregnenolone to 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone and then to DHEA. In humans DHEA is the dominant steroid hormone and precursor of all sex steroids. Humans produce DHEA in greater quantity than any other species. Even non-human primates have not much more than 10% the relative serum level of DHEA seen in humans. The fact that rodents produce so little DHEA makes the results of experiments conducted with these laboratory animals very controversial.
DHEA production is very high during fetal life by the fetal adrenal glands, declines after birth and remains low during childhood. Production begins around 6 years of age, increasing in quantity until peaking in early adulthood, around the age of 25, and declines afterwards to approximately 10% of peak levels by age 80. It is theorized by some that this decline may be due to reduced [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] supply to the adrenal glands as a result of age-related [[atherosclerosis]].
==Role of DHEA==
In a simple view DHEA can be understood as a [[prohormone]] for the [[sex steroid]]s. Its DHEAS variation may be looked at as buffer and reservoir. Its production in the brain suggests that is also has a role as a [[neuroactive steroid|neurosteroid]]. As most DHEA is produced by the [[zona reticularis]] of the adrenal, it is argued that there is a role in the immune and stress response. DHEA may have more biologic roles.
As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEAS/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]. Women with [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] tend to have normal or mildly elevated levels of DHEAS.
==Disputed effects of DHEA==
The significance of the hormone in health and disease is not fully established.
It is postulated that DHEA supplements are beneficial in the prevention of:
* [[cardiovascular disease]]
* [[diabetes]]
* [[hypercholesterolemia]]
* [[obesity]]
* [[multiple sclerosis]]
* [[Parkinson's disease]]
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]
* disorders of the [[immune system]]
* [[Clinical depression|depression]]
* [[osteoporosis]]
It is also commercially advertised that DHEA:
* helps decrease [[insulin resistance]]
* improves fat metabolism
* increases immune system function
* has anti-aging properties
* increases lean muscle mass
DHEA and DHEAS are readily available in the United States, but not in many other countries.
==Effects of DHEA==
* Supplementation with DHEA has been shown to decrease [[insulin resistance]]. ''(Kawano H, Yasue H, Kitagawa A, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation improves endothelial function and insulin sensitivity in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jul;88(7):3190-5.)''
* Long term supplementation has been shown to improve mood and relieve depression. ''(Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Roberts E, et al. Antidepressant and cognition-enhancing effects of DHEA in major depression. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1995 Dec 29;774:337-9)''
==Precautions==
Some assert that DHEA should not be supplemented outside specialist centres under careful observation of experts in the field of [[endocrinology]].
Side effects may include:
* extensive growth of body hair, or [[hirsutism]]
* male pattern baldness
==Contraindication==
As DHEAS and DHEA are converted to sex steroids, their use is contraindicated in patients with any cancer that is estrogen or testosterone dependent.
==Increasing endogenous DHEA production==
Regular exercise is known to increase the amount of DHEA in the body. ''(Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998 Oct;78(5):466-71), (Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001 Jul;85(1- 2):177-84), (J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2002 Apr;57(4):B158-65).'' [[Caloric restriction]] has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates ''(Exp Gerontol. 2003 Jan-Feb; 38(1-2):35-46).''
==Metabolites==
DHEA is converted to approximately 150 metabolites in the human body. One of these is 3-acetyl-7-oxo-dehydroepiandrosterone. Studies have shown that this metabolite appears to be responsible for some of the beneficial results that have been attributed to DHEA. This substance does not raise testosterone or estrogen levels. As a consequence, some individuals who do not wish to elevate their levels of sex hormones ingest this metabolite in pill form.
==See also==
[[Steroid hormone]]
==Further reading==
Nutrition through the Life Cycle, Judith E. Brown, ISBN 0-534-58986-3
==External links==
*[http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2004/mar2004_cover_dhea_01.htm ''The DHEA Debate: A critical review of experimental data''] (Published 2004)
*[http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/dhea.html ''DHEA: Ignore the Hype''] (Published 1996)
*[http://www.benbest.com/nutrceut/DHEA.html DHEA Hormone Replacement]
*[http://skepdic.com/dhea.html ''What the skeptic dictionary has to say on DHEA'']
[[Category:Androgens]]
[[fr:Déhydroépiandrostérone]]</text>
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<page>
<title>DHEA</title>
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<title>Dolphins</title>
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<page>
<title>Discrete Fourier transform</title>
<id>8811</id>
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<id>40563567</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:24:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Fourier transforms}}
In [[mathematics]], the '''discrete Fourier transform (DFT)''', sometimes called the '''finite Fourier transform''', is a [[Fourier transform]] widely employed
|
naire serves to distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of alcohol abuse.
==Blood tests==
Although there is no [[blood test]] specific for alcohol abuse or alcohol dependence (alcoholism), prolonged heavy alcohol consumption may lead to several abnormalities, including:
*[[Macrocytosis]] (enlarged [[Mean corpuscular volume|MCV]])<sup>1</sup>
*Elevated [[Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase|GGT]]<sup>2</sup>
*Moderate elevation of [[Aspartate transaminase|AST]] and [[Alanine transaminase|ALT]] and an AST:ALT ratio of 2:1.
*High [[carbohydrate-deficient transferrin]]<sup>2</sup>
==Treatments==
=== Medications ===
Although medications have been developed to assist in the treatment of alcoholism, the research has not yet demonstrated long term efficacy for any specific methods of treatment. Alcoholics do not typically experience craving, unlike individuals afflicted with opioid dependence. Of importance is that frequency and quantity of alcohol use are not related to alcoholism; that is, individuals can drink a great deal without necessarily being alcoholic, and alcoholics may drink minimally and/or infrequently. As described in Psychiatric Annals by Pagano et al (June 2005), "alcoholism is a chronic, often progressive disease that can be fatal without intervention and treatment.
=== Rationing ===
Rationing or other attempts to control use are inceasingly ineffective as [[pathological]] attachment to the drug develops. Use may continues despite serious adverse health, personal, work-related, and financial consequences. [[Comorbidity]], genetic, and psychosocial factors contribute to the risk of developing this disease." The lifetime prevalence of this condition was estimated in the mid-1990s at approximately 15% (DSM-IV-TR).
=== Detoxification ===
Treatments for alcohol dependence include [[detoxification]] programs run by medical institutions. These may involve stays for a number of weeks
in specialized [[hospital]] wards where drugs may be used to avoid [[withdrawal]] symptoms, which in severe cases may lead to [[death]].
=== Therapy ===
After detoxification, various forms of [[group therapy]] or [[psychotherapy]] can be used to deal with underlying psychological issues leading to alcohol dependence. Aversion therapies may be supported by drugs like [[Disulfiram]], which causes a strong and prompt [[hangover]] whenever alcohol is consumed. [[Naltrexone]] may improve compliance with abstinence planning. The standard pharmocopoeia of [[antidepressants]], anxiolytics, and other [[psychotropic]] drugs treat underlying [[mood disorder]]s, [[neurosis|neuroses]], and [[psychosis|psychoses]] associated with alcoholic symptoms.
In the mid-1930s, the mutual-help group-counselling approach to treatment began and has become very popular. [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] is possibly the best-known example of this movement. Other groups include [[LifeRing Secular Recovery]] and [[SMART Recovery]].
=== Prevention ===
Some programs attempt to help problem drinkers before they become dependents. These programs focus on harm-reduction and reducing alcohol intake as opposed to cold-turkey approaches. One such program is called [[Moderation Management]].
=== Nutritional therapy ===
Another treatment program is based on nutritional therapy. Many alcohol dependents have [[insulin]] resistance syndrome, a metabolic disorder where the body's difficulty in processing [[sugar]]s causes an unsteady supply to the blood stream. While the disorder can be treated by a [[hypoglycemic]] diet, this can affect behaviour and emotions, side-effects often seen among alcohol dependents in treatment. The metabolic aspects of such dependence are often overlooked, resulting in poor treatment outcomes. See: [http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au]
=== Return to normal drinking ===
Although it has long been argued that alcoholic dependents cannot learn to drink in moderation, research by the U.S. national Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) indicates that about 18% of such individuals in the US whose dependence began more than one year earlier are now drinking in moderation.
==Social impact==
[[Image:Daddydontdrink.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|A Soviet poster reading "Daddy, don't drink", referring to the massive alcohol abuse problem in Russia]]The social problems arising from alcohol abuse can include loss of employment, financial problems, marital conflict and divorce, convictions for crimes such as drunk driving or public disorder, loss of accommodation, and loss of respect from others who may see the problem as self-inflicted and easily avoided. Alcohol dependence affects not only the addicted but can profoundly impact the family members around them. Children of alcohol dependents can be affected even after they are grown; the behaviors commonly exhibited by such children are collectively known as [[Adult Children of Alcoholics Syndrome]]. [[Al-Anon/Alateen]], a group modelled after Alcoholics Anonymous, offers aid to friends and family members of alcohol dependents.
Many people incorrectly assume that once an alcohol dependent stops drinking, all is well. However, many people, especially members of Alcoholics Anonymous who have stopped drinking still refer to themselves as "alcoholics" or "recovering alcoholics."
==Social versus physical dependence==
Symptoms of a person's dependence on alcohol may include, but are not limited to, a feeling of necessity in regard to consumption of alcohol, or an inability to resist alcohol if offered. Though these symptoms often arise from a physical dependence on the substance, it is not uncommon for individuals, especially teenagers and adolescents between the ages of fifteen and twenty, to rely on alcohol as a means of social interaction. If a person cannot refuse alcohol in the presence of others, insists on drinking alcohol excessively for fear of alienation and neglect, or feels they cannot socially interact with others unless under the influence then this person is considered socially dependent on the substance.
These traits can be noticed in individuals with no history of alcohol consumption. Moving, for example as a student newly attending university, can lead to drinking in order to associate with others. Social dependence, though not physically threatening in early stages, can lead to physical dependence if the person cannot control their urges. "Urges" may be for sense of euphoria, brought on in those with a low tolerance to alcohol by about 2-3 standard drinks in a short period of time. Over time, the amount of alcohol needed to achieve the same affect increases as tolerance increases.
A persons "social dependence" is defined by the Prevention Research Institute from Kentucky (www.askpri.com) as a condition that a person experiences and re-experiences in a social setting. It reflects the habitual experiences one has as they enjoy "partying" with the same people.
==Politics and public health==
Because alcohol abuse affects society as a whole, governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism. The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies are working on alcohol action plans and programs.
Organisations working with alcohol abusers include:
* [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] (AA)
* [[IOGT International]] (IOGT)
* [[LifeRing Secular Recovery]] (LifeRing)
* [[Men For Sobriety]] (MFS)
* [[Moderation Management]] (MM)
* [[Rational Recovery]] (RR)
* [[Secular Organizations for Sobriety]] (SOS)
* [[SMART Recovery | Self-Management and Recovery Training]] (SMART)
* [[Women For Sobriety]] (WFS)
==Alcohol withdrawal==
There are several distinct but not mutually exclusive clinical [[alcohol withdrawal syndrome]]s caused by alcohol withdrawal:
* Tremulousness - "the shakes"
* Activation syndrome - characterized by tremulousness, agitation, rapid heart beat and [[high blood pressure]].
* [[Seizures]] - acute [[grand mal seizure]]s can occur in alcohol withdrawal in patients who have no history of seizure or any structural brain disease.
* [[Hallucinations]] - usually visual or tactile in alcoholics
* ''[[Delirium tremens]]'' - can be severe and often fatal.
Unlike withdrawal from [[opioid|opioids]] such as [[heroin]], which can be unpleasant but never fatal, alcohol withdrawal can kill (by uncontrolled convulsions or delirium tremens) if it is not properly managed. The pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal is based on the fact that alcohol, [[barbiturates]], and [[benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]] have remarkably similar effects on the brain and can be substituted for each other. Since benzodiazepines are the safest of the three classes of drugs, alcohol consumption is terminated and a long-acting benzodiazepine is substituted to block the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. The benzodiazepine dosage is then tapered slowly over a period of days or weeks.
==See also==
* [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
* [[Drunkenness]]
* ''[[Delirium tremens]]''
* [[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]]
* [[Beer]]
* [[Public house]]
* [[Beer belly]]
* [[Blind drunk]]
* [[List of famous deaths through alcohol]]
* [[List of fictional alcoholics]]
* [[Alcohol-related traffic crashes]]
* [[Alcohol tolerance]]
* [[Liver function tests]]
* [[Full blood count]]
*''[[Leaving Las Vegas]]'' (1995)
*''[[When a Man Loves a Woman]]'' (1994)
==External links==
* [http://counsellingresource.com/quizzes/alcohol-mast/index.html Online Screening Test for Alcohol Abuse]
* [http://atoz.iqhealth.com/HealthAnswers/encyclopedia/HTMLfiles/2790.html Alcohol dependence at iqhealth.com]
* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders/dis_details.php?disID=4 Mental Health Matters: Alcohol Addiction]
* [http://www.psychforums.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=152 Psych Forums: Alcohol Addiction Forum]
* [http://www.alkoholpolitik.ch: Independent private site
|
an [[tram]] network called the [http://www.comune.firenze.it/tramvia/tracciato2.htm TramVia] is currently under construction in the City.
{{section stub}}
==Economy and industry==
{{section stub}}
==Culture==
{{section stub}}
==Administration==
{{section stub}}
* Mayor: [[Leonardo Domenici]], elected [[June 13]], [[1999]]
==Twinning==
Florence maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. Also maintains sister-city relationship with [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].
===Sister cities===
*[[Dresden]], [[Germany]]
*[[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], [[Iran]]
*[[Kassel]], [[Germany]]
*[[Kyoto]], [[Japan]]
*[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[United States]]
==See also==
* [[Stendhal syndrome]]
* [[List of Florentine churches]]
* [[University of Florence]]
* [[Chancellor of Florence]]
* [[Historical states of Italy]]
* [[:Category:Natives of Florence|Natives of Florence]]
==Further reading==
* Ferdinand Schevill, ''History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance'' (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence
==External links==
{{commons|Firenze}}
* [http://www.comune.fi.it/inglese/ Official site (English version)]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Florence Wikitravel guide to Florence]
* [http://www.florenceandabroad.com/images/cartina.jpg Map of Florence]
* [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/italy/maps/florencemap.php Sectioned map of Florence]
* [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/florence/florence_italy.htm Florence Italy: Virtual travel in the city of Renaissance] (English/Italian)
* [http://www.fictionalcities.co.uk/florence.htm Novels set in Florence listed and reviewed]
* [http://www.uffizi.firenze.it/welcome.html Uffizi Gallery]
* [http://www.aboutflorence.com About Florence: a non commercial guide to Florence]
* [http://www.math.unifi.it/archimede Archimede's Garden]
* [http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it/ Crusca Academy]
* [http://www.firenze.net/ Events and art, Florence]
* [http://statistica.comune.fi.it/ Statistics on Florence]
* [http://www.flickr.com/groups/firenze/ FlorenceFlickr Group]
* [http://www3.telus.net/Quattrocento_Florence/ The Quattrocento Florence Project] chronicling Florence in the 15th century
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=florence,+italy&ll=43.775432,11.265621&spn=0.105505,0.328766&t=h&hl=en Satellite image from Google Maps]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=florence,+italy&t=h&hl=en&ll=43.773302,11.256233&spn=0.003602,0.0106&t=h Satellite image from Google Maps zoomed into the Duomo]
[[Category:Florence| ]]
[[Category:Towns in Tuscany]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Quotient group</title>
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<id>37670462</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T13:19:18Z</timestamp>
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<ip>86.121.0.143</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' and a [[normal subgroup]] ''N'' of ''G'', the '''quotient group''', or '''factor group''', of ''G'' over ''N'' is intuitively a group that "collapses" the normal subgroup ''N'' to the identity element. The quotient group is written ''G''/''N'' and is usually spoken in English as ''G'' mod ''N'' (''mod'' is short for [[modulo]]).
==The product of subsets of a group==
In the following discussion, we will use a binary operation on the ''subsets'' of ''G'': if two subsets ''S'' and ''T'' of ''G'' are given, we define their product as:
:<math>ST = \{ st : s \isin S {\rm~and~} t \isin T \}.</math>
This operation is [[associative]] and has as [[identity element]] the [[singleton]] {''e''}, where ''e'' is the identity element of ''G''. Thus, the set of all subsets of ''G'' forms a [[monoid]] under this operation.
In terms of this operation we can first explain what a quotient group is, and then explain what a normal subgroup is:
:''A quotient group of a group ''G'' is a [[Partition of a set|partition]] of ''G'' which is itself a group under this operation''.
It is fully determined by the subset containing ''e''. A [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'' is the set containing ''e'' in any such partition. The subsets in the partition are the [[coset]]s of this normal subgroup.
A subgroup ''N'' of a group ''G'' is normal if and only if the coset equality ''aN'' = ''Na'' holds for all ''a'' in ''G''. In terms of the binary operation on subsets defined above, a normal subgroup of ''G'' is a subgroup that commutes with every subset of ''G''.
==Definition==
We define the set ''G''/''N'' to be the set of all left cosets of ''N'' in ''G'', i.e.,
:<math>G/N = \{ aN : a \isin G \}.</math>
The group operation on ''G''/''N'' is the product of subsets defined above. In other words, for each ''aN'' and ''bN'' in ''G''/''N'', the product of ''aN'' and ''bN'' is (''aN'')(''bN''). For this operation to be closed, we must show that (''aN'')(''bN'') really is a left coset:
:(''aN'')(''bN'') = ''a''(''Nb'')''N'' = ''a''(''bN'')''N'' = (''ab'')''NN'' = (''ab'')''N''.
Note that we have already used the normality of ''N'' in this equation. Also note that because of the normality of ''N'', we could have chosen to define ''G''/''N'' as the set of right cosets of ''N'' in ''G''. Also note that because the operation is derived from the product of subsets of ''G'', the operation is [[well-defined]] (does not depend on the particular choice of representatives), associative and has identity element ''N''.
The inverse of an element ''aN'' of ''G''/''N'' is ''a''<sup>&minus;1</sup>''N''. This completes the proof that ''G''/''N'' is a group.
==Examples==
*Consider the group of [[integer]]s '''Z''' (under addition) and the subgroup 2'''Z''' consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup, because '''Z''' is [[abelian group|abelian]]. There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers; therefore, the quotient group '''Z'''/2'''Z''' is the cyclic group with two elements. This quotient group is isomorphic with the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that '''Z'''/2'''Z''' ''equals'' the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2.
[[Image:Normal subgroup illustration.png|right|thumb]]
*Consider the multiplicative abelian group ''G'' of [[complex number|complex]] twelfth [[root of unity|roots of unity]], which are points on the [[unit circle]], shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument. Consider its subgroup ''N'' made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls. This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue. One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements (the product of a red element with a blue element is red, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.). Thus, the quotient group ''G''/''N'' is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements.
*Consider the group of [[real number]]s '''R''' under addition, and the subgroup '''Z''' of integers. The cosets of '''Z''' in '''R''' are all sets of the form ''a'' + '''Z''', with 0 &le; ''a'' < 1 a real number. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The quotient group '''R'''/'''Z''' is isomorphic to the [[circle group]] S<sup>1</sup>, the group of [[complex number]]s of [[absolute value]] 1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the group of [[rotation]]s in 2D about the origin, i.e., the special [[orthogonal group]] SO(2). An isomorphism is given by ''f''(''a'' + '''Z''') = exp(2&pi;''ia'') (see [[Euler's identity]]).
*If ''G'' is the group of invertible 3&times;3 real [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], and ''N'' is the subgroup of 3&times;3 real matrices with [[determinant]] 1, then ''N'' is normal in ''G'' (since it is the [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of the determinant [[group homomorphism|homomorphism]]). The cosets of ''N'' are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence ''G''/''N'' is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.
*Consider the abelian group '''Z'''<sub>4</sub> = '''Z'''/4'''Z''' (that is, the set { 0, 1, 2, 3 } with addition [[Modular arithmetic|modulo]] 4), and its subgroup { 0, 2 }. The quotient group '''Z'''<sub>4</sub> / { 0, 2 } is { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } }. This is a group with identity element { 0, 2 }, and group operations such as
::{ 0, 2 } + { 1, 3 } = { 1, 3 }
:Both the subgroup { 0, 2 } and the quotient group { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } }, with their group operations induced by [[cyclic group]] '''Z'''<sub>4</sub>, are isomorphic with '''Z'''<sub>2</sub>.
==Properties==
Trivially, ''G / G'' is [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the [[Trivial (mathematics)|trivial group]] (the group with one element), and ''G /'' {e} is isomorphic to ''G''.
The [[group order|order]] of ''G / N'' is by definition equal to [''G'' : ''N''], the [[index of a subgroup|index]] of ''N'' in ''G''. If ''G'' is finite, the index is also equal to the order of ''G'' divided by the order of ''N''. Note that ''G / N'' may be finite, although both '
|
dsen, Daniel T. Potts, and Aage Westenholz. K&oslash;benhavn: Museum Tusculanum Press
*Quitout, Michel. 1997. ''Grammaire berb&egrave;re (rifain, tamazight, chleuh, kabyle)''. Paris and Montr&eacute;al: &Eacute;ditions l&rsquo;Harmattan
*R&ouml;ssler, Otto. 1958. "Die Sprache Numidiens". In ''Sybaris: Festschrift Hans Krahe zum 60. Geburtstag am 7. Feb. 1958, dargebracht von Freunden, Sch&uuml;lern und Kollegen''. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz
*Sadiqi, Fatima. 1997. ''Grammaire du berb&egrave;re''. Paris and Montr&eacute;al: &Eacute;ditions l&rsquo;Harmattan. ISBN 2-7384-5919-6
==External links==
*http://www.tamazight.biz Tamazight language
*[http://www.emazighen.com Emazighen]
*[http://www.amsiggel.com Amuddu n-Umsiggel - a philosophical Berber story]
*[http://www.tawiza.nl/content/awid.php?id=465&sid=2&andra=artikel Interview with Karl-G. Prasse (source)]
*[http://www.libyamazigh.org Libyamazigh] Page about Libyan culture with Tamazight language section.
*[http://www.geocities.com/lameens/tifinagh/index.html Writing Berber Languages]
*http://www.tifinagh.freeservers.com/custom.html
*http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html
*http://ennedi.free.fr/tifin.htm
*http://membres.lycos.fr/tawiza/TAWIZA56/Prasse.htm
*http://www.koeppe.de/html/e_berber.htm
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=6 Interview with Rachid Aadnani on the Amazigh issue]
*[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian Dardja Online Dictionary: contains many Tamazight terms]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Berber languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Algeria]]
[[Category:Languages of Morocco]]
[[ar:لغة أمازيغية]]
[[bg:Берберски езици]]
[[ca:Llengua berber]]
[[de:Berbersprachen]]
[[es:Dialectos bereberes]]
[[eo:Berberaj lingvoj]]
[[fr:Berbère]]
[[it:Lingua berbera]]
[[he:שפות ברבריות]]
[[la:Linguae Libycae]]
[[nl:Berbertalen]]
[[ja:ベルベル語]]
[[pt:Tamazight]]
[[ru:Берберские языки]]
[[sv:Berberspråk]]
[[wa:Amazir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bankruptcy</title>
<id>4695</id>
<revision>
<id>41478697</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:05:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to Monkeyman. Commercial link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bankrupt computer store 02.jpg|thumb|Notice of closure stuck on the door of a computer store the day after its parent company, Granville Technology Group Ltd, declared 'bankruptcy' (strictly, administration - see text) in the UK.]]
'''Bankruptcy''' is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their [[creditor]]s. A declared state of bankruptcy can be requested by creditors in an effort to recoup a portion of what they are owed; however, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the bankruptcy is initiated by the '''bankrupt''' individual or organization.
==Purpose==
The primary purpose of the laws of bankruptcy are: (1) to give an honest debtor a "fresh start" in life by relieving the [[debtor]] of most debts, and (2) to repay creditors in an orderly manner to the extent that the debtor has the means available for payment.
Bankruptcy allows debtors to resolve debts through the division of non-exempt assets among creditors. Additionally the declaration of bankruptcy allows debtors to be discharged of most of the financial obligations, after their non-exempt assets are distributed, even if their [[debt]]s have not been paid in full. During the pendency of a bankruptcy proceeding, the "[[debtor]]" is protected from extra-bankruptcy action by creditors by a legally imposed "[[stay]]."
==History==
This word is formed from the ancient [[Latin]] ''bancus'' (a ''bench'' or ''table''), and ''ruptus'' (broken). [[Bank]] originally signified a bench, which the first bankers had in the public places, in markets, fairs, etc. on which they tolled their money, wrote their [[bills of exchange]], etc. Hence, when a banker failed, he broke his bank, to advertise to the public that the person to whom the bank belonged was no longer in a condition to continue his business. As this practice was very frequent in [[Italy]], it is said the term bankrupt is derived from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''banco rotto'', broken bench (''see e.g. [[Ponte Vecchio]]''). Others rather choose to deduce the word from the [[French language|French]] ''banque'', ''table'', and ''route'', ''vestigium'', ''trace'', by metaphor from the sign left in the ground, of a table once fastened to it and now gone. On this principle they trace the origin of bankrupts from the [[economy of ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] ''mensarii'' or ''argentarii'', who had their ''tabernae'' or ''mensae'' in certain public places; and who, when they fled, or made off with the money that had been entrusted to them, left only the sign or shadow of their former station behind them.
==Bankruptcy fraud==
Bankruptcy [[fraud]] is a [[White collar crime|business crime]] of filing for bankruptcy with criminal intent, that is with the intention of evading payment for goods even though the buyer has funds that could be used to pay for them, or accepting payment for goods or services but not supplying them. Common types of bankruptcy fraud include [[petition mill]]s, false [[oath]], concealment of assets, and [[fraudulent conveyance]]. [[Multiple filings]] are not ''per se'' fraudulent; as with all things in the law, it depends on the circumstances. Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from ''strategic bankruptcy'', which is not a [[crime|criminal]] act (but may prejudice a judge against the filer if there is evidence that bankruptcy is being used strategically).
== Bankruptcy in Canada ==
{{main|Bankruptcy in Canada}}
Bankruptcy in Canada is set out by [[Canadian law|federal law]], in the [[Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act (Canada)|Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act]] and is applicable to businesses and individuals. The office of the [[Superintendent of Bankruptcy]], a [[federal government of Canada|federal agency]], is responsible for ensuring that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner. [[Trustee in bankruptcy|Trustees in bankruptcy]] administer bankruptcy estates.
===Duties of trustees===
Some of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:
* Prepare the bankruptcy documents that assign the person into bankruptcy.
* Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions
* Chair meetings of creditors
* Sell any non-exempt assets
* Perform counselling for the debtors.
* Object to the bankrupt's discharge.
===Creditors' meetings===
Creditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings. The [[trustee]] calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:
* To consider the affairs of the bankrupt
* To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof
* To appoint inspectors
* To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate.
===Consumer proposals - an alternative to personal bankruptcy===
In Canada a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy. A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.
A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthy payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors. Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases the creditors will accept the deal, because if they don’t, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, where the creditors will get even less money.
The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal. Once the proposal is accepted the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month, and the creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action. If the proposal is rejected, the debtor may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.
A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts of $75,000 or less (not including the mortgage on their principal residence). If debts are greater than $75,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the [[Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act (Canada)|Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act]].
The assistance of a Proposal Administrator is required. A Proposal Administrator is generally a licensed [[trustee]] in bankruptcy, although the [[Superintendent of Bankruptcy]], may appoint other people to serve as administrators.
According to the [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inbsf-osb.nsf/en/home Superintendent of Bankruptcy], in 2005 84,638 consumers filed a summary administration personal bankruptcy, and 16,554 individuals filed a consumer proposal.
===Bankruptcy reform===
ital
Bankruptcy reform legislation has been passed into law with [[Canadian Senate|Canadian Senate]] approval and [[Royal assent]] on [[November 25]], [[2005]]. The new law will not come into force until [[June 30]], [[2006]] at the earliest.
A summary and an analysis of the major changes are given in a link at the bottom of this page.
===Student loans in bankruptcy===
Prior to 1997, student loans were discharged in bankruptcy. In September 1997 the Bankruptcy & Insolvency Act was amended so that student loans were only discharged in a bankruptcy if they were more than two years old.
In 1998 the rules were changed again, increasing the time period from two years to ten years. Under bankruptcy reform (see above) student loans will be automatically discharged after 7 years (or 5 years with court approval). A history of changes to the treatment of student loans in bankruptcy can be found at [http://www.student-loan-bankruptcy.ca Student Loan Bankruptcy].
==Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom==
{{main|
|
so-called alpha and beta hemihydrates (which are more or less chemically identical).
The anhydrous form, called '''anhydrous calcium sulfate''' (sometimes [[anhydrite]]), is produced by further heating to above approximately 180°C (356°F) and has the chemical formula <nowiki>CaSO</nowiki><sub>4</sub>.
Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrated state.
==Occurrence==
[[Image:Gypsum Australia.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Gypsum from New South Wales, Australia]]
Gypsum occurs in nature as flattened and often [[Crystal twinning|twinned]] [[crystal]]s and transparent cleavable masses called [[selenite]]. It may also occur silky and fibrous, in which case it is commonly called ''satin spar''. Finally it may also be granular or quite compact. In hand-sized samples, it can be anywhere from transparent to opaque. A very fine-grained white or lightly-tinted variety of gypsum is called [[alabaster]], which is prized for ornamental work of various sorts. In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called [[desert rose]].
Gypsum is a very common mineral, with thick and extensive [[evaporite]] beds in association with [[sedimentary rock]]s. The largest deposits known occur in [[Stratum|strata]] from the [[Permian]] age. Gypsum is deposited in lake and sea water, as well as in [[hot spring]]s, from [[volcano|volcanic]] vapors, and sulfate solutions in veins. [[Hydrothermal]] [[anhydrite]] in veins is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near surface exposures. It is often associated with the minerals [[halite]] and [[sulfur]].
The word gypsum is derived from the [[aorist]] form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] verb ''&#956;&#945;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#973;&#969;'', "to cook", referring to the burnt or calcined mineral. Because the gypsum from the [[quarry|quarries]] of the [[Montmartre]] district of [[Paris]] has long furnished burnt gypsum used for various purposes, this material has been called plaster of Paris.
Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[England]], [[Canada]], and in [[New York]], [[Michigan]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], [[Colorado]], [[Utah]] and [[Nevada]] in the [[United States]]. There is also a large mine located at Plaster City, California in Imperial County.
A growing source of gypsum is from [[Flue gas desulfurization]] which scrubs the sulfur emissions from [[fossil fuel]] burning [[power stations]]. This is done by using finely ground [[limestone]] which reacts with the [[sulfur dioxide]] to produce high purity gypsum as a [[by-product]].
==Uses==
*Blackboard [[chalk]]
*[[Cement]]
*[[Drywall]]
*[[Plaster]], a construction material
*[[Dental mode|Dental modes]]
*[[Surgical cast|Surgical casts]]
*[[Paint filler]]
*[[Toothpaste]]
*[[Gesso]]
*Molds for [[Casting]] metals
*Agricultural [[soil amendment]]
*Solidifying earth ([[cast earth]] construction)
*[[Tofu]]coagulation
*Improving mineral content of [[brewing]] water
*Dietary [[calcium]] additives in [[breads]] and [[cereals]]
*[[Pharmaceuticals]]
See also: [[List of minerals]]
==External links==
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Gypsum.shtml WebMineral data]
*[http://www.mindat.org/min-1784.html Mineral Data]
== Place names ==
'''Gypsum''' is also the name of several towns in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*[[Gypsum, Kansas]]
*[[Gypsum, Ohio]]
*[[Gypsum, Colorado]]
==See also==
*[[lime (mineral)]] - related minerals
*[[United States Gypsum Corporation]] - largest producer of gypsum products in North America
*[[Acoustic cleaning|Acoustic cleaners, health and safety when cleaning gypsum Silos]]
[[category:Calcium minerals]]
[[Category:Sulfate minerals]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[bg:Гипс]]
[[de:Gips]]
[[et:Kips]]
[[el:Γύψος]]
[[es:Yeso]]
[[eo:Gipso]]
[[fr:Gypse]]
[[la:Gypsum]]
[[lt:Gipsas]]
[[hu:Gipsz]]
[[nl:Gips]]
[[ja:石膏]]
[[pl:Gips]]
[[ru:Гипс]]
[[sk:Sadrovec]]
[[sr:Гипс]]
[[fi:Kipsi]]
[[sv:Gips]]
[[zh:石膏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Growth factor</title>
<id>13041</id>
<revision>
<id>40487091</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:50:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delldot</username>
<id>476500</id>
</contributor>
<comment>major copy edit, move detailed info on [[fibroblast growth factor]] to new page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
'''Growth factor''' is a [[protein]] that acts as a signaling molecule between cells (like [[cytokine]]s and [[hormone]]s) that attaches to specific [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s on the surface of a target [[cell (biology)|cell]] and promotes differentiation and maturation of these cells.
==Growth factors and cytokines==
The term ''growth factor'' is sometimes used interchangeably among scientitsts with the term ''[[cytokine]].'' Historically, cytokines were associated with [[hematopoietic]] (blood forming) cells and [[immune system]] cells (e.g., lymphocytes and tissue cells from [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and [[lymph node]]s). For the [[circulatory system]] and [[bone marrow]] in which cells can occur in a liquid suspension and not bound up in solid [[tissue (biology)|tissue]], it makes sense for them to communicate by soluble, circulating protein [[molecule]]s. However, as different lines of research converged, it became clear that some of the same signaling proteins the hematopoietic and [[immune system]]s used were also being used by all sorts of other cells and tissues, during development and in the mature organism.
''Growth factor'' signifies a positive effect on cell growth and [[cellular differentiation]], but ''cytokine'' is a neutral term in regards to what it is being signaled. In this sense, some cytokines can be growth factors such as G-CSF and GM-CSF as listed below. However some cytokines are actually used as "death" signals, such as the [[FAS ligand]], which causes target lymphocytes to commit a form of suicide known as programmed [[cell death]] or ''[[apoptosis]]''.
==Types==
Individual growth factor proteins tend to occur as members of larger families of structurally and [[evolution]]arily related proteins. There are dozens and dozens of growth factor families such as TGF-beta ([[transforming growth factor]]), BMP ([[bone morphogenic protein]]), [[neurotrophin]]s (NGF, BDNF, and NT3), [[fibroblast growth factor]] (FGF), and so on.
Several well known growth factors are:
* [[granulocyte-colony stimulating factor]] (G-CSF)
* [[granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor]] (GM-CSF)
*[[nerve growth factor]] (NGF)
*[[neurotrophins]]
* [[platelet-derived growth factor]] (PDGF)
* [[erythropoietin]] (EPO)
* [[thrombopoietin]] (TPO)
* [[myostatin]] (GDF-8)
* [[Growth Differentiation factor-9]] (GDF9)
* [[basic fibroblast growth factor]] (bFGF or FGF2)
==Uses in medicine==
For the last two decades, growth factors have been increasingly used in
treatment of [[hematology|hematologic]] and [[oncology|oncologic]] diseases
like:
* [[neutropenia]]
* [[myelodysplastic syndrome]] (MDS)
* [[leukemia]]s
* [[aplastic anaemia]]
* [[bone marrow]] transplantation
== See also ==
* [[Signal transduction]]
* [[Receptor (biochemistry)]]
* [[Cytokine]]
* [[Angiogenesis]]
* [[Human Genome Organisation]]
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Growth factors|*]]
[[de:Wachstumsfaktor]]
[[es:factor de crecimiento]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gideon McDuck</title>
<id>13042</id>
<revision>
<id>28602874</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-17T16:59:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Supermorff</username>
<id>239586</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gideon McDuck''' is a [[fictional character]] and [[duck]] who appears in various [[Walt Disney]] comics. He was created by [[Romano Scarpa]], and made his first appearance in a story published on [[February 10]], [[1956]].
Gideon is presented as [[Scrooge McDuck]]'s younger brother, and mainly appears in [[Italy|Italian]] comic stories; in those stories, Gideon is the editor of the [[newspaper]] "The Cricket", the most credible newspaper in [[Duckburg]]. Gideon also has an antagonistic relationship with his brother Scrooge.
Gideon's existence doesn't agree with [[Carl Barks]]'s view of Scrooge as the last of [[The Clan McDuck|the Clan McDuck]]. Though [[Don Rosa]] hasn't used him in his family tree or his timelines, some fans have suggested that Gideon could be an [[illegitimate]] son of [[Fergus McDuck]], born somewhere between the death of Fergus' wife on [[1897]] (by Rosa's timelines) and Fergus' own death on [[1902]]. Additionally, by the same timeline, Gideon would have died sometime after [[1970]], probably having outlived Scrooge, though his exact dates of birth and death are still unknown. Under this theory, it still would leave Scrooge as the last legitimate McDuck.
Gideon is also a younger half-brother of [[Rumpus McFowl]], [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Hortense McDuck]].
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Gideon]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Gideon]]
[[it:Gedeone de Paperoni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giuseppe Peano</title>
<id>13043</id>
<revision>
<id>41805192</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:41:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fernando S. Aldado</username>
<id>832904</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giuseppe Peano.jpg|right|frame|Giuseppe Peano]]
'''Giuseppe Peano''' ([[August 27]], [[1858]],[[Spinetta]] ([[Piedmont]]) [[Italy]] &ndash; [[April 20]], [[1932]] [[Torino]]) was the leading [[Italy|Italian]] [[mathematician]] of his day, whose work is of exceptional [[philosopher|philosophical]] value. The author of
|
has worked.
*'''Ariel''' is mentioned as a type of variation on songs in the article on [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Ariel]]
[[fr:Ariel]]
[[he:אריאל (פירושונים)]]
[[ja:アリエル (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[nl:Ariël]]
[[pl:Ariel]]
[[ru:Ариэль]]
[[sl:Ariel]]
[[fi:Ariel]]
[[sv:Ariel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 30, Queens day</title>
<id>2255</id>
<revision>
<id>24815258</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T14:57:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Koninginnedag]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert the Bear</title>
<id>2256</id>
<revision>
<id>15900687</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-31T19:46:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed old article fragment from below the redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert I of Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apostolic Succession</title>
<id>2257</id>
<revision>
<id>42151318</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:55:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.222.238.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Apostolicity as episcopal continuity */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Christianity]], the doctrine of '''Apostolic Succession''' (or the belief that the Church is 'apostolic') maintains that the Christian Church today is the spiritual successor of the Church of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s. Different Christian [[religious denomination|denominations]] interpret this doctrine in different ways.
While in many churches it is seen as the basis for [[bishop|episcopacy]] in general, the case of St. Peter's apostolic succession as head of the church is also the basis for the specific claim of universal primacy, notably in the Catholic papacy (where it implies supreme authority) and the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] tradition (where it is a more symbolic precedence, not unlike the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]). In any event, all these communions recognize Apostolic succession as the determining factor of a particular group's legitimacy as a Christian church.
==Mainstream Christianity==
===Apostolicity as episcopal continuity===
The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] (including its Oriental and Eastern rites), [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]], Independent Anglican, [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] Churches hold that apostolic succession is maintained through the consecration of their [[bishop]]s in unbroken personal [[historic episcopate|succession back to the apostles]] but these Churches do not necessarily interpret this "succession" identically. In Catholic and Orthodox theology, the unbrokenness of apostolic succession is significant because of Jesus Christ's promise that the "gates of hell" (Matthew 16:18) would not prevail against the Church, and his promise that he himself would be with the apostles to "the end of the age" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:20). According to this interpretation, a complete disruption or end of such apostolic succession would mean that these promises were not kept as would an apostolic succession which, while formally intact, completely abandoned the teachings of the Apostles and their immediate successors; as, for example, if all the bishops of the world agreed to abrogate the [[Nicene Creed]] or to repudiate the [[Bible]].
Both Orthodox and Catholics believe that each of their teachings today is the same as or is in essential harmony with the teaching of the first apostles, although each might deny this about the other, at least where the teachings of each are in conflict. This form of the doctrine was formulated by [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] in the second century, in response to certain [[gnosticism|Gnostics]]. These Gnostics claimed that Christ or the Apostles passed on some teachings secretly, or that there were some secret apostles, and that they (the Gnostics) were passing on these otherwise secret teachings. Irenaeus responded that the identity of the original Apostles was well known, as was the main content of their teaching and the identity of the apostles' successors. Therefore, anyone teaching something contrary to what was known to be apostolic teaching was not, in any sense, a successor to the Apostles or to Christ.
Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and some Independent Catholic Churches (such recognition is not reciprocated by the Eastern Orthodox, who do not separate "valid" from "licit"). [[Pope Leo XIII]] clarified, in his [[1896]] [[Papal bull|bull]] that the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] church believes that the [[Anglican Church]]'s consecrations are invalid because of changes made to the rite of consecration under [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], thus denying that Anglicans participate in the apostolic succession; the [[Church of Sweden]]'s apostolic succession is seen as having been maintained, and following the establishment of the [[Porvoo Communion]] an increasing number of Anglicans will also be able to trace their succession through Swedish bishops as well as [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]] bishops, whose [[holy orders]] are recognized as valid by Rome and who, at least those of the Union of Utrecht, are in full communion with [[Archbishop of Canterbury|Canterbury]] since the Bonn Agreement of 1931. It should also be noted that since the issuance of "[[Apostolicae Curae]]", many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals emanating from the early Church.
In addition to a line of historic transmission, [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches additionally require that a hierarch maintain Orthodox Church doctrine, which they hold to be that of the Apostles, as well as communion with other Orthodox bishops. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] have permitted clergy ordained by Catholic and Anglican bishops to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy. However, this is a matter of [[Economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)|ekonomia]] and not recognition of Apostolic Succession, although in some cases, Catholic priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy have been received by "vesting" and have been allowed to function immediately within Orthodoxy as priests.
The [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognizes Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification (and that recognition is reciprocated).
Some [[Protestant]] churches, such as Anglicans (including those known in the U.S. as Episcopalians), the [[Church of Sweden]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of [[Latvia|Latvija]], do have Apostolic Succession (also known as the "[[historic episcopate]]"). Bishops in the [[United Methodist Church]] do not claim to be within the historic episcopate. Their succession derives from [[John Wesley]] who was an ordained priest of the Church of England, but not himself a bishop and therefore had no power to consecrate others. He justified his practice of ordaining "elders" ("presbyters") for Methodism by appealing to a perceived need and by citing a minority opinion among the early Church Fathers (and possible ancient precedent from the Church of Alexandria) which held that presbyters ("priests" or "elders") could, at least collectively, indeed ordain other such presbyters and even consecrate, or "set apart" bishops.
===Apostolicity as doctrinal continuity===
Most Protestant churches would deny that the apostolicity of the Church rests on an unbroken episcopacy. They generally hold that one important qualification of the apostles was that they were chosen directly by [[Jesus]] and that they witnessed the resurrected Christ. According to this understanding, the work of these twelve (and the Apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]), together with the prophets of the twelve tribes of Israel, provide the doctrinal foundation for the whole church of subsequent history through the Scriptures of the Bible. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is the only sense in which apostolic succession is meaningful, because it is in this sense only that men have fellowship with God in the truth (an extension of the [[Reformation]] doctrines of ''[[sola fide]]'' and ''[[sola scriptura]]''). The most meaningful ''apostolic succession'' for most Protestants, then, is the faithful succession of apostolic '''teaching'''.
It is worth noting, however, that some Protestant [[charismatic]] churches include "apostles" among the offices that should be evident into modern times in a true church, though they never trace an historical line of succession.
Those who hold to the importance of episcopal apostolic succession would counter the above by appealing to the [[New Testament]], which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession (from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to [[Timothy]] and [[Apostle Titus|Titus]], for example) and which states that Jesus gave the Apostles a "blank check" to lead the Church as they saw fit under the guidance of the Holy Spirit ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 18:18 and [[Acts]] Chapter 15,
|
the hands of Lyell and Hooker. They agreed on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on [[1 July]] of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. Darwin's infant son died and he was unable to attend.
The initial announcement of the theory gained little immediate attention. It was mentioned briefly in a few small reviews, but to most people it seemed much the same as other varieties of [[evolutionism|evolutionary thought]]. For the next thirteen months Darwin suffered from ill health and struggled to produce an abstract of his "big book on species". Receiving constant encouragement from his scientific friends, Darwin finally finished his abstract and Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]]. The title was agreed as ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'', and when the book went on sale to the trade on [[22 November]] [[1859]], the stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed. At the time "Evolutionism" implied creation without divine intervention, and Darwin avoided using the words "evolution" or "evolve", though the book ends by stating that "endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." The book only briefly alluded to the idea that human beings, too, would evolve in the same way as other organisms. Darwin wrote in deliberate understatement that "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."
===Reaction===
{{main|Reaction to Darwin's theory}}
[[image:Darwin_ape.jpg|thumb|left|A typical satire was the later caricature in ''Hornet'' magazine portraying Darwin as an ape.]]
Darwin's book set off a public controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of thousands of [[review]]s, [[essay|article]]s, [[satire]]s, [[parody|parodies]] and [[caricature]]s. Reviewers were quick to pick out the unstated implications of "men from monkeys", though a [[Unitarian]] review was favourable and ''[[The Times]]'' published a glowing review by Huxley which included swipes at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. Owen initially appeared neutral, but then wrote a review condemning the book.
The [[Church of England]] scientific establishment including Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] reacted against the book, though it was well received by a younger generation of professional naturalists. Then ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal [[Anglican]] theologians declared that miracles were irrational (and supported the ''Origin''), distracting attention away from Darwin.
The most famous confrontation took place at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] in [[Oxford]]. Professor [[John William Draper]] delivered a long lecture about Darwin and social progress, then [[Samuel Wilberforce]], the [[Bishop]] of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin and [[Thomas_Henry_Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] established himself as "Darwin's bulldog" &ndash; the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. The story is that on being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from [[monkey]]s on his grandfather's side or his grandmother's side, Huxley muttered: "The Lord has delivered him into my hands" and replied that he "would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood" (this is contested, see [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html Wilberforce and Huxley: A Legendary Encounter]). The story spread around the country: Huxley had said he would rather be an [[ape]] than a Bishop.
Many people felt that Darwin's view of nature destroyed the important distinction between man and beast. Darwin himself did not personally defend his theories in public, though he read eagerly about the continuing debates. He was frequently very ill, and mustered support through [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|letters and correspondence]]. A core circle of scientific friends &ndash; Huxley, Hooker, [[Charles Lyell]] and [[Asa Gray]] &ndash; actively pushed his work to the fore of the scientific and public stage, defending him against his many critics in this key scientific controversy of the era, and helping to gain him the honour of the [[Royal Society]]'s Copley Medal in 1864. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture. The book was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints. It became a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to "working men", and was hailed as the most controversial and discussed scientific book ever written.
===Further work until his death ===
{{main articles|[[Darwin from Orchids to Variation]], [[Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions]], and [[Darwin from Insectivorous plants to Worms]]}}
[[image:Charles Darwin 1880.jpg|frame|A classic image of Darwin in 1880, still researching and producing numerous books.]]
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his "big book" were still incomplete; humankind's descent from earlier animals, and the mechanism of [[sexual selection]] which could explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty as well as suggesting possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. His experiments, research and writing continued.
When Darwin's daughter fell ill he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to go with her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild [[orchid]]s. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. He was visited by a reverent [[Ernst Haeckel]] who had spread the gospel of ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]]. Even at Cambridge, students now supported his ideas. Huxley gave "working-men's lectures" to widen the audience, and Wallace remained a supporter but increasingly turned to [[spiritualism]]. ''Variation'' grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out humankind and sexual selection, but when printed was in huge demand.
The question of [[human evolution]] had been taken up by his supporters (and detractors) shortly after the publication of ''The Origin of Species'', but Darwin's own contribution to the subject came more than ten years later with the two-volume ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' published in 1871. In the second volume, Darwin introduced in full his concept of [[sexual selection]] to explain the evolution of human culture, the differences between the human sexes, and the differentiation of human [[race]]s, as well as the beautiful (and seemingly non-adaptive) plumage of birds. A year later Darwin published his last major work, ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', which focused on the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with to the behaviour of animals. He developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection, an approach which has been revived in the last two decades with the emergence of [[evolutionary psychology]]. As he concluded in ''Descent of Man'', Darwin felt that despite all of humankind's "noble qualities" and "exalted powers":
:''"Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."''
His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in five books on plants, and then his last book returned to the effect worms have on soil levels.
Darwin died in Downe, [[Kent]], England, on [[19 April]] [[1882]]. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, [[William Spottiswoode]] ([[President]] of the [[Royal Society]]) arranged for Darwin to be given a [[state funeral]] and buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].
== Religious views ==
{{main|Charles Darwin's views on religion}}
[[Image:Annie Darwin.jpg|frame|left|The 1851 death of Darwin's daughter, [[Anne Darwin|Annie]], was the final step in pushing an already doubting Darwin away from the idea of a beneficent God.]]
Charles Darwin came from a [[Nonconformist]] background. Though several members of his family were [[Freethought|Freethinkers]], openly lacking conventional religious beliefs, he did not initially doubt the literal truth of the Bible. He attended a [[Church of England]] school, then at Cambridge studied [[Anglican]] theology to become a clergyman and was fully convinced by [[William Paley]]'s [[teleological argument]] that design in nature proved the existence of God. However, his beliefs began to shift during his time on board [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. He questioned what he saw&mdash;wondering, for example, at beautiful deep-ocean creatures created where no one could see them, and shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs; he saw the latter as contradicting Paley's vision of beneficent design. While on the ''Beagle'' Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but had come to see the history in the [[Old Testament]] as be
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f the individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with n=1.5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (''under-correction,'' vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however: may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be reproduced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as ''Herschel's condition.'' All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account.
:'''(2)''' The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as ''[[Joseph von Fraunhofer|Fraunhofer]]'s condition.'' (4) After eliminating the aberration On the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is expressed by the ''[[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|Petzval]] equation,'' S1/r(n'-n) = 0, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring media, and S the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.
==Practical elimination of aberrations==
As [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] already claimed in [[1858]], there is no optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite
plane on another with pencils of finite aperture. A strict and general proof was given [[1926]] by [[Constantin Carathéodory|Carathéodory]].
But practical systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung'', p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., [[1905]], 4, Nos. 2 and 3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, ''Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik'', Leipzig and Berlin, [[1902]]). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice.
In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system). The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called ''zones,'' and the constructor endeavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, ''zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion,'' attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: ''corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of view w*.'' Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view.
The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. But the larger aperture will give the larger resolution . The following may be regarded as typical:
:(1) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are -- for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example -- high-power microscope objectives.
:(2) [[Wide angle lens|Largest field of view]]; necessary corrections are -- for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; examples -- photographic widest angle objectives and oculars.
:Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photographic objective: the [[portrait objective]] is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view.
:(3) [[Telephoto lens|Telescope objectives]] have small fields of view and aberrations on axis
are very important.Therefore zones will be kept as small as possible and design should emphasize simplicity.Because of this these lenses are the best for analytical computation.
==Chromatic or colour aberration==
In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see [[Lens (optics)]], and above, ''Monochromatic Aberration''). Since the index of refraction varies with the colour or wavelength of the light (see [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]]), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are ''chromatic differences'' of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ultimately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing screen of a camera, etc.), they cause a confusion, named chromatic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achromatism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be ''chromatically under-corrected'' when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be ''over-corrected.''
If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected -- in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted -- then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of reproduction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and consequently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given in Czapski-Eppenstein, ''Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente'' (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the system is said to be in ''stable achromatism.''
In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. cit. p. 170; A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, ''Die Bilderzeugung'', p. 340). In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the confusion caused by two ''zones'' in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (''vide supra'', ''Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point''); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is proportional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the ''relative aperture.'' (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)
Examples:
:'''(a)''' In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or reciprocals of the
|
=z</math> &nbsp; [[if and only if]] ''z'' is real
: <math>|z|=|\bar{z}|</math>
: <math>|z|^2 = z\bar{z}</math>
: <math>z^{-1} = \bar{z}|z|^{-2}</math> &nbsp; if ''z'' is non-zero.
The latter formula is the method of choice to compute the inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular coordinates.
That conjugation commutes with all the algebraic operations (and many functions; ''e.g.'' <math>\sin\bar z=\overline{\sin z}</math>) is rooted in the ambiguity in choice of ''i'' (&minus;1 has two square roots); note, however, that conjugation is not differentiable (see [[holomorphic]]).
===Complex number division===
Given a complex number (''a'' + ''bi'') which is to be divided by another complex number (''c'' + ''di'') whose magnitude is non-zero, there are two ways to do this; in either case it is the same as multiplying the first by the multiplicative inverse of the second. The first way has already been implied: to convert both complex numbers into exponential form, from which their quotient is easy to derive. The second way is to express the division as a fraction, then to multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This causes the denominator to simplify into a real number:
:<math> {a + bi \over c + di} = {(a + bi) (c - di) \over (c + di) (c - di)} = {(ac + bd) + (bc - ad) i \over c^2 + d^2} </math>
:::<math> = \left({ac + bd \over c^2 + d^2}\right) + i\left( {bc - ad \over c^2 + d^2} \right). </math>
===Matrix representation of complex numbers===
While usually not useful, alternative representations of complex fields can give some insight into their nature. One particularly elegant representation interprets every complex number as 2×2 [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] with [[real number|real]] entries which stretches and rotates the points of the plane. Every such matrix has the form
:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
a & -b \\
b & \;\; a
\end{pmatrix}
</math>
with real numbers ''a'' and ''b''. The sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form. Every non-zero such matrix is invertible, and its inverse is again of this form. Therefore, the matrices of this form are a field. In fact, this is exactly the field of complex numbers. Every such matrix can be written as
:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
a & -b \\
b & \;\; a
\end{pmatrix}
=
a \begin{pmatrix}
1 & \;\; 0 \\
0 & \;\; 1
\end{pmatrix}
+
b \begin{pmatrix}
0 & -1 \\
1 & \;\; 0
\end{pmatrix}
</math>
which suggests that we should identify the real number 1 with the matrix
:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
1 & \;\; 0 \\
0 & \;\; 1
\end{pmatrix}
</math>
and the imaginary unit ''i'' with
:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
0 & -1 \\
1 & \;\; 0
\end{pmatrix}
</math>
a counter-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees. Note that the square of this latter matrix is indeed equal to &minus;1.
The absolute value of a complex number expressed as a matrix is equal to the [[square root]] of the [[determinant]] of that matrix. If the matrix is viewed as a transformation of a plane, then the transformation rotates points through an angle equal to the argument of the complex number and scales by a factor equal to the complex number's absolute value. The conjugate of the complex number ''z'' corresponds to the transformation which rotates through the same angle as ''z'' but in the opposite direction, and scales in the same manner as ''z''; this can be described by the [[transpose]] of the matrix corresponding to ''z''.
If the matrix elements are themselves complex numbers, then the resulting algebra is that of the [[quaternions]]. In this way, the matrix representation can be seen as a way of expressing the [[Cayley-Dickson construction]] of algebras.
== Geometric interpretation of the operations on complex numbers==
[[Image:Complex numbers addition.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the sum of ''A'' and ''B''.]]
Choose a point in the plane which will be the origin, <math>0</math>. Given two points ''A'' and ''B'' in the plane, their ''sum'' is the point ''X'' in the plane such that the [[triangle]]s with vertices 0, ''A'', ''B'' and ''X'', ''B'', ''A'' are [[similarity_(mathematics)#Similar_triangles|similar]].
[[Image:Complex numbers multiplication.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the product of ''A'' and ''B''.]]
Choose in addition a point in the plane different from zero, which will be the unity, 1. Given two points ''A'' and ''B'' in the plane, their ''product'' is the point ''X'' in the plane such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, ''A'', and ''0'', ''B'', ''X'' are similar.
[[Image:Complex numbers conjugation.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the complex conjugate of ''A''.]]
Given a point ''A'' in the plane, its ''complex conjugate'' is a point ''X'' in the plane such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, ''A'' and 0, 1, ''X'' are [[mirror image]] of each other.
== Some properties ==
===Real vector space===
'''C''' is a two-dimensional real [[vector space]].
Unlike the reals, complex numbers cannot be ordered in any way that is compatible with its arithmetic operations: '''C''' cannot be turned into an [[ordered field]].
[[Linear_transformation#Definition_and_first_consequences|'''R'''-linear]] maps '''C''' &rarr; '''C''' have the general form
:<math>f(z)=az+b\overline{z}</math>
with complex coefficients ''a'' and ''b''. Only the first term is '''C'''-linear; also only the first term is [[Holomorphic function|holomorphic]]; the second term is real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]].
The function
:<math>f(z)=az\,</math>
corresponds to rotations combined with scaling, while the function
:<math>f(z)=b\overline{z}</math>
corresponds to reflections combined with scaling.
===Solutions of polynomial equations===
A ''root'' of the [[polynomial]] ''p'' is a complex number ''z'' such
that ''p''(''z'') = 0.
A most striking result is that all polynomials of
degree ''n'' with real or complex coefficients have exactly ''n''
complex roots (counting [[multiple roots of a polynomial|multiple roots]] according to their
multiplicity). This is known as the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]], and shows that the complex numbers are an [[algebraically closed field]].
Indeed, the complex number field is the [[algebraically closed field|algebraic closure]] of the real number field, and [[Cauchy]] constructed complex numbers in this way. It can be identified as the [[quotient ring]] of the [[polynomial]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''R'''[''X''] by the [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] generated by the polynomial ''X''<sup>2</sup> + 1:
:<math> \mathbb{C} = \mathbb{R}[ X ] / ( X^2 + 1). \,</math>
This is indeed a field because ''X''<sup>2</sup> + 1 is [[irreducible polynomial|irreducible]], hence generating a [[maximal ideal]], in '''R'''[''X'']. The image of ''X'' in this quotient ring becomes the imaginary unit ''i''.
===Algebraic characterization===
The field '''C''' is ([[up to]] field [[isomorphism]]) [[characterization (mathematics)|characterized]] by the following three facts:
* its [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] is 0
* its [[transcendence degree]] over the [[prime field]] is the [[cardinality of the continuum]]
* it is [[algebraically closed]]
Consequently, '''C''' contains many proper subfields which are isomorphic to '''C'''. Another consequence of this characterization is that the [[Galois group]] of '''C''' over the rational numbers is enormous, with cardinality equal to [[Beth two|that of the power set of the continuum]].
===Characterization as a topological field===
As noted above, the algebraic characterization of '''C''' fails to capture some of its most important properties. These properties, which underpin the foundations of [[complex analysis]], arise from the [[topology]] of '''C'''. The following properties characterize '''C''' as a [[topological ring|topological field]]:
*'''C''' is a field.
*'''C''' contains a subset <i>P</i> of nonzero elements satisfying:
**<i>P</i> is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses.
**If x and y are distinct elements of <i>P</i>, then either <i>x-y</i> or <i>y-x</i> is in <i>P</i>
**If <i>S</i> is any nonempty subset of <i>P</i>, then <i>S+P=x+P</i> for some <i>x</i> in '''C'''.
*'''C''' has a nontrivial involutive automorphism <i>x->x*</i>, fixing <i>P</i> and such that <i>xx*</i> is in <i>P</i> for any nonzero <i>x</i> in '''C'''.
Given these properties, one can then define a topology on '''C''' by taking the sets
*<math>B(x,p) = \{y | p - (y-x)(y-x)^*\in P\}</math>
as a [[base (topology)|base]], where <i>x</i> ranges over '''C''', and <i>p</i> ranges over <i>P</i>.
To see that these properties characterize '''C''' as a [[topological ring|topological field]], one notes that <i>P</i> &cup; {0} &cup; <i>-P</i> is an ordered [[Dedekind completion|Dedekind-complete]] field and thus can be identified with the [[real number]]s '''R''' by a unique field isomorphism. The last property is easily seen to imply that the [[Galois group]] over the real numbers is of order two, completing the characterization.
[[Lev Semenovich Pontryagin|Pontryagin]] has shown that the only [[connected space|connected]] [[locally compact]] [[topological ring|topological field]]s are '''R''' and '''C'''. This gives another characterization of '''C''' as a topological field, since '''C''' can be distinguished from '''R''' by noting the nonzero complex numbers are [[con
|
hleswig-Holstein]
<br>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<td align="left" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_sisley.jpg|left|Paintings by Sisley.]]</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_pissaro.jpg|center|Paintings by Pissarro]]</td>
<td align="right" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_morisot.jpg|right|Paintings by Berthe Morisot]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
{{commonscat|Impressionist paintings}}
{{Modernism}}
{{Westernart}}
[[Category:French art]]
[[Category:Impressionism|*Impressionism]]
[[bg:Импресионизъм]]
[[cs:Impresionismus]]
[[da:Impressionisme]]
[[de:Impressionismus]]
[[el:Ιμπρεσιονισμός]]
[[eo:Impresionismo]]
[[es:Impresionismo]]
[[et:Impressionism]]
[[fa:دریافتگری]]
[[fr:Impressionnisme]]
[[fy:Ympresjonisme]]
[[gl:Impresionismo]]
[[he:אימפרסיוניזם]]
[[hu:Impresszionizmus]]
[[it:Impressionismo]]
[[ja:印象派]]
[[ko:인상주의 (미술)]]
[[nl:Impressionisme]]
[[no:Impresjonisme]]
[[pl:Impresjonizm]]
[[pt:Impressionismo]]
[[ro:Impresionism]]
[[ru:Импрессионизм]]
[[scn:Mprissiunismu]]
[[sh:Impresionizam]]
[[sk:Impresionizmus]]
[[sl:Impresionizem]]
[[sr:Импресионизам]]
[[sv:Impressionism (konst)]]
[[tr:İzlenimcilik]]
[[uk:Імпресіонізм]]
[[zh:印象派（繪畫）]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet slang</title>
<id>15172</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42094134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Computerjoe</username>
<id>145799</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.72.35.66|207.72.35.66]] to last version by 2005</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses general features of Internet slang. For detailed usages, see [[List of Internet slang]].''
'''Internet slang''' is [[slang]] which [[Internet]] users have coined and promulgated. Such terms typically originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes: many use the same abbreviations in [[Texting language|text messages]]. The terms often appear in [[Minuscule|lower case]], with capitals often reserved for emphasis: The pronoun "I", for example, often appears simply as "i".
To avoid misapprehension and clarify the author's intent, [[netizen]]s may use [[emoticons]]. Emoticons (or smilies) such as <tt><nowiki>:)</nowiki></tt> may be used both genuinely and sarcastically; for example the <tt>:P</tt> emoticon, can express either genuine amusement and a sense of fun, or a negative sarcastic comment on something. Deciphering and understanding what was written ''per se'' versus the author's intent is part of the Internet's attraction and enjoyment. Like most [[jargon]], Internet slang aggrandizes author and reader, causing them to appear as having specialized knowledge of an already complex medium.
Internet slang perhaps has a higher learning curve than face-to-face slang, as face-to-face slang can often be deciphered from the context of the facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.
==Origins==
The vocabulary of Internet slang draws from many different sources &mdash; typically environments that placed value on brevity of communication. Some terms, such as ''[[Snafu|FUBAR]]'' have roots as far back as [[World War II]].[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/f/foo.html] Other terms come from more recent forms of communication, such as [[Teleprinter|TTY]] and [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]].
[[Chat]] [[acronyms]] originally developed on pre-Internet [[bulletin board system]]s. A handful (for example, ASAP, PO'ed) far pre-date computers. The [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] remains one of the most popular types of abbreviation in computing and [[Telecommunications|telecom]] terminology and slang. Similar systems have since come into use with users of text-messaging wireless telephones.
With the rise of [[Instant messenger|instant messaging]] services ([[ICQ]], [[America Online|AOL]], and [[MSN]], among others) the vocabulary has expanded dramatically.
Aside from instant messaging programs another realm full of online languages exists: the Internet gaming world. One of the most popular forms of video game slang has become known as H4X0R or as 13375P34K (in leetspeak). For parents today, learning the online language can play an important role in maintaining the online safety of children. An [http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/children/kidtalk.mspx article] produced by [[Microsoft]] may help parents begin to understand some of the things their kids say in-game. (Many of the more knowledgeable "[[online gamer]]s" consider this article unhelpful, especially for Microsoft's attempts to interpret 1337 speak.)
Note that the many "true" computer gurus, hackers and coders regard leetspeak as a pathetic trademark of a newbie or of a show-off. Gurus, hackers and coders almost always use leetspeak sarcastically. They label the use of leetspeak, excessive use of abbreviations, and incorrect spelling and grammar as rude, and they usually regard it as indicative of a [[script kiddie]], a computer programmer that steals and uses scripts without an understanding of the programming language, or someone who is just an idiot in general.
Users sometimes make up Internet abbreviations on the spot, therefore many of them can seem confusing, obscure, whimsical, or even nonsensical. This type of on-the-spot abbreviating leads to such things as: OTP (on the phone) or the less common, OPTD (outside petting the dog). Another feature common to Internet communication involves the truncation and morphing of words to forms that users can type more readily. Examples of this include:
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use "List of internet slang" article -->
*addy &mdash; "Address" (plural: "addys")
*pic &mdash; "Picture" ("pics", "pix" or "piccies" for plural)
*proggy &mdash; "Computer program"
*prolly &mdash; "Probably" (also "probs")
*sig &mdash; "Signature" (also "siggy")
*asl? &mdash; "Age/Sex/Location?" (a phrase often used in internet chat rooms)
The form "[[teh]]" offers a special case of this transformation. This originated as a corruption of "the", and often pops up spontaneously when typing fast. So common has it become, in fact, that it has made the jump to purposeful usage. Typically it occurs in situations where the writer presents as self-consciously enthusiastic, mimicking the less-grammatical Internet newbie: "That movie was teh suck!!", "The fight scene with all the Agent Smiths was TEH AWESOME", etc. It occurs most commonly in "teh suck", "teh lame," and "teh cool". [[Jeff K.]] of [[Something Awful]] popularized this sarcastic usage.
Similarly, netizens may use the word "liek" or "leik" as sarcastic misspellings of the word "like", as in "I LIEK PIE". It often implies an insult to one's intelligence and/or typing ability. "Liek" is also often used as a geeky way of typing the preposition ''like'', for example in the phrase ''"...and I was liek..."''.
Internet abbreviations evolve and change continually. Online games provide a good place to observe language variation in use. Often, people uninterested in computer programming do not understand the more classically "nerdy" phrases like "2B||!2B" (which means "to be, or not to be"), thus such usages become useless or appear only in minority [[Internet forum|forum]]s.
From the days of [[FidoNet|FIDO mail]] when many computers ran DOS we find <G> meaning "Grin", <BG> "Big Grin", <VBG> "Very Big Grin", and of course <VBSEG> "Very Big Shit-Eating Grin". Lower-case variants (<g> and so on) are also used.
==Usage notes==
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use "List of internet slang" article -->
*Common disclaimer phrases (sometimes called [[parenthesis (rhetoric)|"parentheticals"]]) also often contract into acronyms &mdash; they tend to occur at certain points in a sentence, which can facilitate decoding. This is a fraction of the [[List of Internet slang|full list]], but some of these disclaimers include:
** IMHO: in my humble opinion
** AFAIK: as far as I know
** IIRC: if I recall correctly
** YW: You're welcome
** OTOH: on the other hand
** [[IANAL]]: I am not a lawyer
** OMG: oh my god
** OMFG: oh my fucking god
** FTW: for the win
** BTW: by the way
** TRDMF: tear rolling down my face
** BRB: Be right back
** LOL: laugh out loud
** ROFL: rolling on floor laughing
** FWIW: for what it's worth
** LMAO: laughing my ass off
** LMPO: laughing my pussy/penis off
** BBQ: be back quick
** G2G ''or'' GTG: got to go
*The word [[newbie]] occurs almost exclusively to refer to all sorts of new users of an Internet forum or starters in a particular field of activity. It does not function as a pejorative term ''per se'', but can do so when combined with [[RTFM]], etc.
:"[[n00b]]" has much more derogatory implications than "newbie".
:"[[nub]]" has also been derrived from the word [[newbie]] and has negative implications as [[newbie]] does.
*Although Internet slang has a close relationship with [[leet|leetspeak]], only online gamers traditionally use leet, while much larger groups of Internet users commonly use Internet slang.
*The symbols < and >, ::(words):: or * * often enclose a user's facial expression, action, or other feeling that is difficult to express via other online methods. Thes
|
polytopes, and icosahedra are indeed the cells of the [[icosahedral 120-cell]], one of the ten non-convex regular polychora.
An icosahedron can also be called a [[Gyroelongated dipyramid|gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid]]. It can be decomposed into a [[gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid]] and a [[pentagonal pyramid]] or into a [[pentagonal antiprism]] and two equal [[pentagonal pyramid]]s.
The icosahedron can also be called a snub tetrahedron, as [[snubification]] of a regular tetrahedron gives a regular icosahedron. Alternatively, using the nomenclature for snub polyhedra that refers to a snub cube as a snub cuboctahedron (cuboctahedron = [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube) and a snub dodecahedron as a snub icosidodecahedron (icosidodecahedron = rectified dodecahedron), one may call the icosahedron the snub octahedron (octahedron = rectified tetrahedron).
===Icosahedron vs dodecahedron===
Despite appearances, when an icosahedron is inscribed in a [[sphere]], it occupies less of the sphere's volume (60.54%)
than a [[dodecahedron]] inscribed in the same sphere (66.49%).
== Natural forms and uses ==
Many [[virus]]es, e.g. [[herpes]] virus, have the shape of an icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical [[protein]] subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A '''regular''' polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral [[genome]].
In several [[roleplaying]] games, such as [[D&D]], the twenty-sided die (for short, [[Dice#Non-cubical dice|d20]]) plays a vital role in determining success or failure of an action. This die is in the form of a regular icosahedron.
The die inside of a [[Magic 8-Ball]] that has printed on it 20 answers to yes-no questions is a regular icosahedron.
If each edge of an icosahedron is replaced by a one [[ohm]] [[resistor]], the resistance between opposite vertices is 0.5 ohms, and that between adjacent vertices 11/30 ohms.
==See also==
*[[:Image:Icosahedron.gif|Spinning icosahedron]]
*[[Truncated icosahedron]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
*[http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/WWW/335/335Structure.html] A discussion of viral structure and the icosahedron
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] Many links
[[Category:Deltahedra]]
[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[ca:Icosàedre]]
[[da:Ikosaeder]]
[[de:Ikosaeder]]
[[es:Icosaedro]]
[[fr:Icosaèdre]]
[[it:Icosaedro]]
[[ja:&#27491;&#20108;&#21313;&#38754;&#20307;]]
[[ko:%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%B4%EC%8B%AD%EB%A9%B4%EC%B2%B4]]
[[nl:Icosaëder]]
[[pl:Dwudziesto&#347;cian foremny]]
[[pt:Icosaedro]]
[[ru:&#1048;&#1082;&#1086;&#1089;&#1072;&#1101;&#1076;&#1088;]]
[[sv:Ikosaeder]]
[[fi:Ikosaedri]]
[[zh:&#27491;&#20108;&#21313;&#38754;&#39636;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integer sequences</title>
<id>14969</id>
<revision>
<id>15912486</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T15:30:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Integer sequence]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Integer sequence]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor</title>
<id>14971</id>
<revision>
<id>20920157</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-13T12:37:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allen3</username>
<id>189417</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm link to deleted article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[industrial archaeology]] of [[Dartmoor]]''' covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, occurred on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them. Currently only a few industries are economically significant, yet all three will inevitably leave their own traces on the moor: china clay mining, farming and tourism. A good general guide to the commercial activities on Dartmoor at the end of the [[19th century]] is [[William Crossing]]'s ''The Dartmoor Worker''.
== Warrens ==
The significance of the term ''[[warren]]'' nowadays is not what it once was. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was a privileged place, and the creatures of the warren were protected by the king 'for his princely delight and pleasure'.
Until early in the [[20th century]], rabbits were kept on a commercial scale, both for their flesh and their fur. The evidence for this is plentiful as there are still extant a number of warrens which are manifestly man-made, and in place names such as Ditsworthy Warren and [[Warren House Inn]]. Also, whilst walking on Dartmoor near one of the many warrens, it is entirely possible that you might accidentally stumble into a [[weasel]]-trap, placed there originally to capture weasels and stoats attempting to get at the rabbits.
The subject of warrening on Dartmoor is addressed in [[Eden Phillpotts]]' story ''The River''.
== Peat-cutting ==
Peat-cutting for fuel occurred at some locations on Dartmoor until certainly the [[1970s]], usually for personal consumption. The right of [[Dartmoor commoners]] to cut peat for fuel is known as ''turbary''. These rights were conferred a long time ago, predating most written records. The area once known as the ''Turbary of Alberysheved'' between the [[River Teign]] and the headwaters of the [[River Bovey]] is mentioned in the Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor of [[1240]] (by 1609 the name of the area had changed to Turf Hill).
An attempt was made to commercialise the cutting of peat in [[1901]] at [[Rattle Brook Head]], however this quickly failed.
== Mining ==
In former times, lead, silver, tin and copper were mined extensively on Dartmoor. The most obvious evidence of mining to the casual visitor to Dartmoor are the remains of the old mine-house at [[Wheal Betsy]] which is alongside of the [[A386]] between [[Tavistock]] and [[Okehampton]]. The word ''Wheal'' has a particular meaning in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] being either a [[tin]] or a [[copper]] mine, however in the case of Wheal Betsy it was principally lead and silver which were mined.
Once widely practised by many miners across the moor, by the early 1900s only a few tinners remained, and mining had almost completely ceased twenty years later. Some of the more significant mines were [[Knock Mine]], [[Vitifer Mine]] and [[Hexworthy Mine]].
See also: [[Dartmoor tin-mining]]
== Farming ==
Farming has been practised on Dartmoor since time immemorial. The [[dry-stone wall]]s which separate fields and mark boundaries give an idea of the extent to which the landscape has been shaped by farming. There is little or no arable farming within the moor, mostly being given over to livestock farming on account of the thin and rocky soil. Some Dartmoor farms are remote in the extreme.
== Quarrying ==
Dartmoor granite has been used in many Devon and Cornish buildings. The prison at [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was built from granite taken from [[Walkhampton Common]]. When the horse tramroad from [[Plymouth]] to [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was completed in [[1823]], large quantities of granite were more easily transported. Millions of tons were used in the construction of the breakwater protecting [[Plymouth Sound]].
[[Category:Dartmoor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Idempotence</title>
<id>14972</id>
<revision>
<id>39696693</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:21:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Simetrical</username>
<id>158371</id>
</contributor>
<comment>No reason given for removing pronunciation. Also, bolded word and made it a noun per Wikipedia conventions.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the mathematical concept of idempotence|the related computing concept|Idempotence (computer science)}}
There are two main definitions of '''idempotence''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ˈaɪdɛmˌpotns/}}, like [[eye]]-dem-potent-s) in [[mathematics]].
*Given a [[binary operation]], an '''idempotent element''' (or simply an '''idempotent''') is something that when multiplied by (for a [[function (mathematics)|function]], composed with) itself, gives itself as a result. For example, the only two [[real number]]s which are idempotent under multiplication are 0 and 1.
*A [[unary operation]] (i.e., a function), is '''idempotent''' if, whenever it is applied twice to any element, it gives the same result as if it were applied once. For example, the [[greatest integer function]] is idempotent as a function from the set of real numbers to the set of [[integer]]s.
*The [[unary operation]] definition is a special case of the [[binary operation]] definition (see below).
== Formal definitions ==
===Binary operation===
If ''S'' is a set with a [[binary operation]] * on it, then an element ''s'' of ''S'' is said to be idempotent (with respect to *) if
:''s'' * ''s'' = ''s''.
In particular, any [[identity element]] is idempotent. If every element of ''S'' is idempotent, then the binary operation * is said to be idempotent. For example, the operations of [[union (set theory)|set union]] and [[intersection (set theory)|set intersection]] are both idempotent.
===Unary operation===
If ''f'' is a [[unary operation]], say ''f'' maps ''X'' to ''X'', then ''f'' is idempotent if, for all ''x'' in ''X'',
:''f''(''f''(''x'')) = ''f''(''x'').
In particular, the [[identity function]] is idempotent, and any [[constant function]] is idempotent as well.
Note that we may consider ''S'', the set of all functions from ''X'' to itself. Then ''f'' is idempotent in the unary s
|
ext>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical engineering</title>
<id>6038</id>
<revision>
<id>41743234</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:33:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robotje</username>
<id>100235</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ nl:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical [[engineering]]''' is the application of [[science]], in particular [[chemistry]], physics and mathematics, to the process of converting raw [[material]]s or [[chemical]]s into more useful or valuable forms.
Chemical Engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes for large-scale manufacture. '''Chemical engineers''' in this branch are usually employed under the title of '''process engineer'''. Following is an example that illustrates the process engineering part of chemical engineering:
:''The difference between chemical engineering and [[chemistry]] can be illustrated by considering the example of producing orange juice. A chemist working in the laboratory investigates and discovers a multitude of pathways to extract the juice of an orange. The simplest mechanism found is to cut the orange in half and squeeze the orange using a manual juicer. A more complicated approach found is to peel and then crush the orange and collect the juice. A company then commissions a chemical engineer to design a plant to manufacture several thousand tons of orange juice per year. The chemical engineer investigates all the available methods for making orange juice and evaluates them according to their economical viability. Even though the manual juicing method is simple, it is not economical to employ thousands of people to manually juice oranges. Thus another, cheaper method is used (possibly the 'peel and crush' technique). The easiest method of manufacture on a laboratory bench will not necessarily be the most economical method for a manufacturing plant.''
Chemical engineers are aiming for the most economical process. This means that the entire production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both simplify and complify "showcase" reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. On the other hand, reactions with a low yield can be recycled continuously, which would be complex, arduous work if done by hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 6-, or even 12-step evaporators to reuse the vaporization energy for an economic advantage. In contrast, a laboratory chemists evaporate samples in a single step, wasting the energy.
The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. [[distillation]] or [[filtration]]) are called [[unit operations]] and consist of [[chemical reaction]], [[mass transfer|mass-]], [[heat transfer|heat-]] and [[fluid dynamics|momentum-]] transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the purpose of [[chemical synthesis]] and/or [[separation of mixture|chemical separation]]. Some processes are a combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. [[reactive distillation]]).
Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are [[Conservation of mass]], [[Momentum|Conservation of momentum]] and [[Conservation of energy]]. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using [[Mass balance]]s and energy balances which apply these laws to whole plants, unit operations or discrete parts of equipment. In doing so, Chemical Engineers use principles of [[thermodynamics]], [[reaction kinetics]] and [[transport phenomena]]. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (such as Pro II and Hysys) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.
The modern discipline of chemical engineering encompasses much more than just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty [[chemical]]s. These products include high performance materials needed for [[aerospace]], [[automotive engineering|automotive]], [[biomedical engineering|biomedical]], [[electronics|electronic]], [[environmental engineering|environmental]] and [[military]] applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, [[Cloth|fabric]]s, [[adhesives]] and composites for vehicles, [[Biocompatibility|bio-compatible materials]] for implants and prosthetics, [[gel]]s for medical applications, [[pharmaceuticals]], and films with special dielectric, optical or [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with [[biology]] and [[biomedical engineering]]. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding biopolymers ([[proteins]]) and [[human genome project|mapping the human genome]].
==Related fields and topics==
Today, the field of chemical engineering is a diverse one, covering areas from [[biotechnology]] and [[nanotechnology]] to [[mineral processing]].
*[[Biochemical Engineering]]
*[[Biomedical Engineering]]
*[[Biotechnology]]
*[[Ceramic]]s
*[[Natural environment|Environment]]
*[[Fluid Dynamics]]
*[[heat transfer|Heat Transfer]]
*[[Mass transfer|Mass Transfer]]
*[[Materials science]]
*[[Microfluidics]]
*[[Nanotechnology]]
*[[Chemical reactor]]
*[[separation processes|Separation Processes]] (see also: [[Separation of mixture]])
**[[Membrane Processes]]
**[[Distillation Processes]]
**[[Crystallization Processes]]
*[[Thermodynamics]]
*[[particle technology|Particle Technology]]
*[[Polymer]]s
*[[process control|Process Control]]
*[[process design|Process Design]]
*[[Process Modeling|Process Modeling]]
*[[Pulp and Paper]]
== See also ==
* [[History of Chemical Engineering]]
* [[List of chemical engineering topics]]
* [[List of chemical engineers]]
== External links==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/indexzz.shtml Chemical Engineers' Resource Page]
*[http://dmoz.org/Business/Chemicals/Engineering/ Chemical Engineering sites (dmoz Open Directory Project)]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Technology/Chemical_Engineering/Software/ Chemical Engineering software (dmoz Open Directory Project)]
*[http://www.ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de/chem-eng.ac.html Academic Chemical Engineering Sites all over the World]
*[http://www.aiche.org/ American Institute of Chemical Engineers (USA)]
*[http://www.icheme.org Institution of Chemical Engineers (UK)]
*[http://www.ieaust.org.au Engineers Australia (AUS)]
*[http://www.interec.net/app/servlet/SkyServlet?handler=AreaChemical Job Search For Chemical Engineers]
[[Category:Chemical engineering]]
{{Technology-footer}}
[[af:Chemiese ingenieurswese]]
[[de:Chemieingenieurwesen]]
[[es:Ingeniería química]]
[[eo:Kemia inĝenierarto]]
[[fr:Génie des procédés]]
[[gl:Enxeñaría química]]
[[he:הנדסת כימיה]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan kimia]]
[[nl:Chemische technologie]]
[[ja:化学工学]]
[[pl:Inżynieria chemiczna]]
[[pt:Engenharia química]]
[[sv:Kemiteknik]]
[[th:วิศวกรรมเคมี]]
[[zh:化学工程]]
[[fi:Kemiantekniikka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catatonia/Paper Scissors Stone</title>
<id>6039</id>
<revision>
<id>15904204</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-26T12:28:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.176</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Paper Scissors Stone (album)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lists of companies</title>
<id>6040</id>
<revision>
<id>41198664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:57:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Choster</username>
<id>14064</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Related lists */ updated stock exchange list links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is an incomplete list of lists of [[corporation|companies]].
{{listdev}}
= By country =
==A==
*[[List of Afghan companies]]
*[[List of Albanian companies]]
*[[List of Algerian companies]]
*[[List of Andorran companies]]
*[[List of Angolan companies]]
*[[List of Argentine companies]]
*[[List of Australian companies]]
*[[List of Austrian companies]]
==B==
*[[List of Bahamian companies]]
*[[List of Bahraini companies]]
*[[List of Barbadian companies]]
*[[List of Belarusian companies]]
*[[List of Belgian companies]]
*[[List of Bolivian companies]]
*[[List of Brazilian companies]]
*[[List of British companies]]
*[[List of Bulgarian companies]]
*[[List of Burkina Faso companies]]
*[[List of Burundi companies]]
==C==
*[[List of Cambodian companies]]
*[[List of Cameroonian companies]]
*[[List of Canadian companies]]
*[[List of Cape Verdean companies]]
*[[List of Chadian companies]]
*[[List of Chilean companies]]
*[[List of Chinese companies]]
**[[List of companies in the People's Republic of China|List of companies in mainland China]]
**[[List of Hong Kong companies|List of companies in Hong Kong]]
**[[List of companies in Macau]]
**[[List of Taiwanese companies||List of companies in Taiwan]]
*[[List of Cote de Ivoire companies]]
*[[List of Colombian companies]]
*[[List of Costa Rican companies]]
*[[List of Cuban companies]]
*[[List of Cypriot companies]]
*[[List of Czech companies]]
==D==
*[[List of Danish companies]]
*[[List of Dominican companies]]
*[[List of Dubai companies]]
*[[List of Dutch companies]]
==E==
*[[List of Ecuadorean companies]]
*[[List of Egyptian companies]]
*[[List of Equatorial Guinean companies]]
*[[List of Estonian companies]]
*[[List of Ethiopian companies]]
==F==
*[[List of Faeroese companies]] ''Faeroe Islands''
*[[List of Filipino companies]]
*[[List of Finnish companies]]
*[[List of French companies]]
==G==
*[[
|
ommand file are executed in order, so if there are two "BEGIN" statements, the first is executed, then the second, and then the rest of the lines. BEGIN and END statements do ''not'' have to be located before and after (respectively) the other lines in the command file.
AWK was created as a broadbased replacement to [[C programming language|C]] algorithmic approaches developed to integrate text parsing methods.
==AWK commands==
AWK commands are the statement that is substituted for ''action'' in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of [[dynamically linked library|dynamically linked libraries]], which can also provide more functions.
For brevity, the enclosing curly braces ( ''{ }'' ) will be omitted from these examples.
===The ''print'' command===
The ''print'' command is used to output text. The simplest form of this command is
print
This displays the contents of the current line. In AWK, lines are broken down into ''fields'', and these can be displayed separately:
; <tt>print $1</tt>
: Displays the first field of the current line
; <tt>print $1, $3</tt>
: Displays the first and third fields of the current line, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character
Although these fields (''$X'') may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current line. A special case, ''$0'', refers to the entire line. In fact, the commands "<tt>print</tt>" and "<tt>print $0</tt>" are identical in functionality.
The ''print'' command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls:
print 3+2
print foobar(3)
print foobar(variable)
print sin(3-2)
Output may be sent to a file:
print "expression" > "file name"
===Variables, et cetera===
Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords. The operators ''+ - * /'' are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other, optionally with a space in between. String constants are [[delimited]] by double quotes. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using ''#'' as the first character on a line.
===User-defined functions===
In a format similar to [[C programming language|C]], function definitions consist of the keyword <tt>function</tt>, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example function:
function add_three(number, temp) {
temp = number + 3
return temp
}
This statement can be invoked as follows:
print add_three(36) # prints '''39'''
Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some [[whitespace]] in the argument list before the local variables, in order to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin.
==Sample applications==
===Hello World===
Here is the ubiquitous "[[Hello world program]]" program written in AWK:
BEGIN { print "Hello, world!"; exit }
===Print lines longer than 80 characters===
Print all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line.
length > 80
===Print a count of words===
Count words in the input, and print lines, words, and characters (like ''wc'')
{ w += NF; c += length}
END { print NR, w, c }
===Sum first column===
Sum first column of input
{ s += $1 }
END { print s }
===Calculate word frequencies===
Word frequency, (uses [[associative array]]s)
BEGIN { FS="[^a-zA-Z]+"}
{ for (i=1; i<=NF; i++)
words[tolower($i)]++
}
END { for (i in words)
print i, words[i]
}
==Self-contained AWK scripts==
As with many other programming languages, self-contained AWK script can be constructed using the so-called "[[shebang (Unix)|shebang]]" syntax.
For example, a UNIX command called <tt>hello.awk</tt> that prints the string "Hello, world!" may be built by going first creating a file named <tt>hello.awk</tt> containing the following lines:
#!/usr/bin/awk -f
BEGIN { print "Hello, world!"; exit }
==AWK versions and implementations==
AWK was originally written in [[1977]], and distributed with [[Version 7 Unix]].
In [[1985]] its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book ''The AWK Programming Language'',published [[1988]], and its implementation was made available in releases of [[UNIX System V]]. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes known as "new awk" or ''nawk''. This implementation was released under a [[free software license]] in [[1996]], and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan.
[[GNU]] awk, or ''gawk'', is another free software implementation. It was written before the original implementation became freely available, and is still widely used. Almost every [[Linux distribution]] comes with a recent version of ''gawk'' and ''gawk'' is widely recognized as the de-facto standard implementation in the [[Linux]] world.
xgawk is a SourceForge project based on ''gawk''. It extends ''gawk'' with dynamically loadable libraries.
mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a [[byte code]] interpreter.
Downloads and further information about these versions are available from the sites listed below.
==Digression==
* The bird emblematic of AWK (a.o. on ''The AWK Programming Language'' book cover) is the [[Auk]].
==Books==
* {{cite book
| author=[[Alfred V. Aho]], [[Brian W. Kernighan]], and [[Peter J. Weinberger]]
| publisher=Addison-Wesley
| year= 1988
| id=ISBN 0-201-07981-X
| url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/awkbook/
| title=The AWK Programming Language
}}. ''The book's webpage includes downloads of the original implementation of Awk and links to others.''
* {{cite book
| author=[[Arnold Robbins]]
| url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/awkprog3/index.html
| edition=Edition 3
| title=Effective awk Programming
}}. ''Arnold Robbins maintains the GNU Awk implementation of AWK for more than 10 years. The free GNU Awk manual was also published by O'Reilly in May 2001. Free download of this manual is possible through the following book references.''
* {{cite book
| author=[[Arnold Robbins]]
| url=http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/html_node/index.html
| edition=Edition 3
| title=GAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk
}}
* {{cite book
| title=sed & awk, Second Edition
| author=[[Dale Dougherty]], [[Arnold Robbins]]
|edition= Second Edition
| year = March 1997
| id=ISBN 1-56592-225-5
| url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/sed2/
| publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]]
}}
==External links==
*[news:comp.lang.awk comp.lang.awk] is a [[USENET]] [[newsgroup]] dedicated to AWK.
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/gawk.html GAWK (GNU awk) webpage]
*[http://freshmeat.net/projects/mawk/ ''mawk download site'']
*[http://clio.rice.edu/djgpp/win2k/gwk311b.zip DJGPP port of Gawk 3.11b as a downloadable 768KB zipfile]
*[https://sourceforge.net/projects/xmlgawk/ ''xgawk download site'']
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages|AWK]]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]
[[Category:Unix shells]]
[[Category:Unix software]]
[[ca:Awk]]
[[cs:AWK]]
[[de:Awk]]
[[es:AWK]]
[[fr:Awk]]
[[ko:AWK 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[hr:Awk]]
[[it:Awk]]
[[hu:Awk programozási nyelv]]
[[nl:AWK]]
[[ja:AWK]]
[[no:Awk]]
[[pl:Awk]]
[[pt:AWK]]
[[ru:AWK]]
[[sk:AWK (programovací jazyk)]]
[[tr:AWK]]
[[uk:Мова програмування AWK]]
[[zh:AWK]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alzheimers disease</title>
<id>1457</id>
<revision>
<id>15899938</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T16:47:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alzheimer's disease]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Augustus De Morgan</title>
<id>1458</id>
<revision>
<id>41716948</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:47:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalfxviv</username>
<id>851818</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* University education */ bypassed disambiguation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Augustus De Morgan''' ([[June 27]], [[1806]] – [[March 18]], [[1871]]) was an [[India|Indian-born]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] and [[logician]]. He formulated [[De Morgan's laws]] and was the first to introduce the term, and make rigorous the idea of [[mathematical induction]].{{rf|1|De_Morgan}} [[De Morgan (crater)|De Morgan crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him.
[[Image:AugustusDeMorgan.png|right|float|Augustus De Morgan]]
==Biography==
===Childhood===
Augustus De Morgan was born June 27, 1806{{rf|2|birthyear}} in Madura, [[Madras Presidency]], [[India]] (now [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India); His father was Col. De Morgan, who held various appointments in the service of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. His mother descended from [[James Dodson]], who computed a table of anti-logarithms, that is, t
|
1863 [[Norodom of Cambodia|King Norodom]] signed an agreement with the [[France|French]] to establish a protectorate over his kingdom. The country gradually came under French colonial domination. During [[World War II]], the [[Japan]]ese allowed the French government (based at [[Vichy]]) that collaborated with the Nazis to continue administering Cambodia and the other Indochinese territories, but they also fostered Khmer nationalism. Cambodia enjoyed a brief period of independence in [[1945]] before Allied troops restored French control. King [[Norodom Sihanouk]], who had been chosen by France to succeed [[Monivong of Cambodia|King Monivong]] in [[1941]], rapidly assumed a central political role as he sought to neutralize leftist and republican opponents and attempted to negotiate acceptable terms for independence from the French. Sihanouk's "royal crusade for independence" resulted in grudging French acquiescence to his demands for a transfer of sovereignty. A partial agreement was struck in October 1953. Sihanouk then declared that independence had been achieved and returned in triumph to [[Phnom Penh]].
==First administration of Sihanouk==
{{main|Cambodia under Sihanouk (1954-1970)}}
As a result of the Geneva Conference on Indochina, Cambodia was able to bring about the withdrawal of the [[Viet Minh]] troops from its territory and to withstand any residual impingement upon its sovereignty by external powers.
Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and [[Viet Cong]] (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew, the United States and [[South Vietnam]] became concerned, and in 1969, the United States began a fourteen month long series of bombing raids targeted at NVA/VC elements, contributing to destabilization. Prince Sinanouk tacitly supported the bombing. The United States claims that the bombing campaign took place no further than ten, and later twenty miles inside the Cambodian border, areas where the Cambodian population had been evicted by the NVA. {{ref|Davidson}} <!--Cite supports entire paragraph--> In October 40,000 North Vietnamese soldiers entered Central Cambodia with Sihanouk's approval. {{Ref|Encyclopedia}}
Throughout the 1960s, domestic Cambodian politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists including Paris-educated leaders such as [[Son Sen]], [[Ieng Sary]], and Saloth Sar (later known as [[Pol Pot]]), who led an [[insurgent|insurgency]] under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). Sihanouk called these insurgents the [[Khmer Rouge]], literally the "Red Khmer." But the 1966 national assembly elections showed a significant swing to the right, and Gen. [[Lon Nol]] formed a new government, which lasted until 1967. During 1968 and 1969, the insurgency worsened. In August 1969, Gen. Lon Nol formed a new government. Prince Sihanouk went abroad for medical reasons in January 1970.
==The Khmer Republic and the War==
{{main|Civil War in Cambodia}}
In March [[1970]], while Prince Sihanouk was absent, Gen. [[Lon Nol]] [[Cambodian coup of 1970|deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power]]. Son Ngoc Thanh announced his support for the new government. On [[October 9]], the Cambodian monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic.
Hanoi rejected the new republic's request for the withdrawal of NVA troops. 2,000-4,000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954 reentered Cambodia, backed by North Vietnamese soldiers. In response, the United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government's armed forces, which were engaged against both the CPK insurgents and NVA forces.
In April 1970, US President Nixon announced to the American public that US and South Vietnamese ground forces had entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA base areas in Cambodia (see [[Cambodian Incursion]]). The US had already been bombing Cambodia for well over a year by that point. Demonstrations took place across college campuses in the US, culminating in the death of four students at [[Kent State]], lending support in the US withdrawal from Vietnam.
Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed by US and South Vietnamese forces, containment of North Vietnamese forces proved elusive. The North Vietnamese moved deeper into Cambodia to avoid US and South Vietnamese raids. NVA units overran many Cambodian army positions while the CPK expanded their small-scale attacks on lines of communication.
The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity among its three principal figures: Lon Nol, Sihanouk's cousin [[Sirik Matak]], and National Assembly leader [[In Tam]]. Lon Nol remained in power in part because none of the others were prepared to take his place. In 1972, a constitution was adopted, a parliament elected, and Lon Nol became president. But disunity, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption weakened the civilian administration and army.
The Communist insurgency inside Cambodia continued to grow, with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. [[Pol Pot]] and [[Ieng Sary]] asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the [[Communist Party of Kampuchea]] forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1973, the CPK were fighting battles against government forces with little or no North Vietnamese troop support, and they controlled nearly 60% of Cambodia's territory and 25% of its population.
The government made three unsuccessful attempts to enter into negotiations with the insurgents, but by 1974, the CPK were operating openly as divisions, and some of the NVA combat forces had moved into South Vietnam. Lon Nol's control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in [[Phnom Penh]] and other cities.
On New Year's Day 1975, Communist troops launched an offensive which, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, collapsed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other CPK units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. [[Phnom Penh]] and other cities were subjected to daily rocket attacks causing thousands of civilian casualties. The Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17--5 days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.
==Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979)==
{{main|Democratic Kampuchea}}
Immediately after its victory, the CPK ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns, sending the complete urban population out into the countryside to work as farmers, as the CPK was trying to reshape society into a model that Pol Pot had conceived.
Thousands had been starving and dying of disease prior to the CPK takeover. Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation and its aftermath. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in newly created villages, which lacked food, agricultural implements, and medical care. Many who lived in cities had lost the skills necessary for survival in an agrarian environment. Thousands starved before the first harvest. Hunger and malnutrition--bordering on starvation--were constant during those years. Most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts were executed.
Within the CPK, the Paris-educated leadership--[[Pol Pot]], [[Ieng Sary]], [[Nuon Chea]], and [[Son Sen]]--were in control. A new constitution in January 1976 established Democratic Kampuchea as a Communist People's Republic, and a 250-member Assembly of the Representatives of the People of Kampuchea (PRA) was selected in March to choose the collective leadership of a State Presidium, the chairman of which became the head of state.
Prince Sihanouk resigned as head of state on April 4. On April 14, after its first session, the PRA announced that [[Khieu Samphan]] would chair the State Presidium for a 5-year term. It also picked a 15-member cabinet headed by Pol Pot as prime minister. Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest.
The new government sought to completely restructure Cambodian society. Remnants of the old society were abolished and religion, particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Catholicism]], was suppressed. Agriculture was collectivized, and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system.
Life in 'Democratic Kampuchea' was strict and brutal. In many areas of the country people were rounded up and executed for speaking a foreign language, wearing glasses, scavenging for food, and even crying for dead loved ones. Former businessmen and bureaucrats were ruthlessly hunted down and killed along with their entire families; the Khmer Rouge feared that they held beliefs that could lead them to oppose their regime. A few Khmer Rouge loyalists were even killed for failing to find enough 'counterrevolutionaires' to find and execute.
Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available, but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands died of starvation and disease (both under the CPK and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978). Some estimates of the dead range from 1 to 3 million, out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million. The CIA estimated 50,000-100,000 were executed from 1975 to 1979, mostly a
|
hem with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce.
* [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s capital theory, which equates [[capital intensity]] with the degree of [[roundaboutness]] of production processes.
* The Mises-Hayek [[business cycle]] theory, which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by [[monetary policy]] setting [[interest rate]]s inconsistent with individual time preferences.
* Hayek's concept of [[intertemporal equilibrium]]. ([[John Hicks]] took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in ''Value and Capital,'' a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after World War II.)
* Mises and Hayek's view of prices as permitting agents to make use of [[dispersed knowledge|dispersed tacit knowledge]].
* The [[time preference theory of interest]], which explains interest rates through [[intertemporal choice]] - the different time preferences of the borrower or lender - rather than as a price paid for a [[factor of production]].
* Stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions, rather than relying on "[[Homo economicus]]" or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions. The fact that perfect knowledge never exists, means that all economic activity implies risk.
* Seeing the entrepreneurs' role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks.
* The [[economic calculation debate]] between Austrian and [[Marxist]] economists, with the Austrians claiming that Marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production, and so [[socialism]] could not calculate best uses in the same way [[capitalism]] does.
== Major Austrian economists ==
{|
| valign="top" |
* [[Benjamin Anderson]]
* [[Gérard Bramoullé]]
* [[Walter Block]]
* [[Peter Boettke]]
* '''[[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'''
* [[Gene Callahan]]
* [[Tony Carilli]]
* [[Jean-Pierre Centi]]
* [[Christopher Coyne]]
* [[Thomas DiLorenzo]]
* [[Richard Ebeling]]
* [[Frank Fetter]]
* [[Jacques Garello]]
| <hspace width="40px"> |
| valign="top" |
* [[Roger Garrison]]
* [[David Gordon]]
* '''[[Friedrich Hayek]]'''
* [[Henry Hazlitt]]
* [[Gottfried von Haberler]]
* '''[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]'''
* [[Steven Horwitz]]
* [[Jorg Guido Hulsmann|Jörg Guido Hülsmann]]
* [[William Harold Hutt]]
* [[Israel Kirzner]]
* [[Ludwig Lachmann]]
* [[Don Lavoie]]
* [[Peter T. Leeson]]
* [[Henri Lepage]]
| <hspace width="40px"> |
| valign="top" |
* [[Peter Lewin]]
* [[Roderick Long]]
* [[Juan De Mariana]]
* '''[[Ludwig von Mises]]'''
* [[Margit von Mises]]
* [[Luis de Molina]]
* [[Oskar Morgenstern]]
* [[Fritz Machlup]]
* '''[[Carl Menger]]'''
* [[Gerald O'Driscoll]]
* [[Ernest C. Pasour]]
* [[Ralph Raico]]
| <hspace width="40px"> |
| valign="top" |
* [[George Reisman]]
* [[Mario Rizzo]]
* [[Llewellyn Rockwell]]
* '''[[Murray Rothbard]]'''
* [[Mark Thornton]]
* [[Joseph Salerno]]
* [[Pascal Salin]]
* [[Josef Síma]]
* [[Jesus Huerta de Soto]]
* [[Richard von Strigl]]
* [[Phillip Wicksteed]]
* [[Friedrich von Wieser]]
|}
== Other related economists ==
* [[Richard Cantillon]]
* [[Frederic Bastiat]] (precursor)
* [[Henry Hazlitt]] (introduced the Austrian School to the USA)
* [[School of Salamanca]] (Renaissance precursors)
* [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]]
* [[Louis Say]]
* [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
* [[Léon Walras]]
* [[Jules Dupuit]]
* [[Lionel Robbins]]
* [[Wilhelm Röpke]]
* [[Joseph Schumpeter]]
* [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|A.R.J. Turgot]]
== Critics ==
* [[Bryan Caplan]]
== Seminal works ==
* ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' by [[Carl Menger]]
* ''[[Capital and Interest]]'' by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]
* ''[[The Theory of Money and Credit]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Socialism (book)|Socialism]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Human Action]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'' by [[Murray Rothbard|Murray N. Rothbard]]
* ''[[Individualism and Economic Order]]'' by [[Friedrich Hayek]]
== See also ==
*[[Chicago school (economics)]]
*[[Classical liberalism]]
*[[Keynesian|Keynesian school]]
*[[Neoclassical economics|Neoclassical school]]
*[[Socialist economics|Socialist school]]
*[[Supply-side economics]]
*[[School of Salamanca#Economics|School of Salamanca (Renaissance pre-Austrians)]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.mises.org/etexts/austrian.asp What is Austrian Economics?] Austrian School as defined by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]].
*[http://www.mises.org The Mises Institute - A large selection of online books, video/audio, journal archives, and research on Austrian economics]
* [http://it.stlawu.edu/sdae Society for the Development of Austrian Economics] Largest professional organization of Austrian economists
*[http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/schools/austrian.htm Austrian School on newschool.edu] &ndash; compare Austrian versus other Schools
*[http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/bawerk/austrian The Austrian Economists by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk 1891]
*[http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/A%20Great%20Revolution%20in%20Economics.htm A Great Revolution in Economics - Vienna 1871 and after] by Houmanidis and Leen
* [http://austrianforum.com/ Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion about the Austrian school and libertarianism by economics students and professors
*[http://www.montpelerin.org/ The Mont Pelerin Society]
*[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/ihs/hsr/s97hsr.html#austrian The Origins of the Austrian School of Economics by John Moser]
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Schools_of_Thought/Austrian_School/ Austrian School] Directory of links from the Open Source Directory
*[http://www.againstpolitics.com/austrian_economics/ A list of academic critiques of Austrian economics]
*[http://austrianecon.com Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion message board concerning Austrian economic theory
* [[:fr:Pascal Salin|Pascal Salin]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Jacques Garello|Jacques Garello]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Jean-Pierre Centi|Jean-Pierre Centi]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Gérard Bramoullé|Gérard Bramoullé]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Henri Lepage|Henri Lepage]] (in French)
* [http://austrianeconomists.typepad.com/ The Austrian Economists]
* [http://austrianaddiction.rationalmind.net Austrian Addiction]
{{macroeconomics-footer}}
[[Category:Economic theories]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Austrian School|*]]
[[cs:Rakouská škola]]
[[da:Den østrigske skole]]
[[de:Österreichische Schule]]
[[et:Austria koolkond]]
[[es:Escuela Austríaca de Economía]]
[[eo:Aŭstria skolo de ekonomiko]]
[[fr:École autrichienne d’économie]]
[[he:האסכולה האוסטרית]]
[[is:Austurrísku hagfræðingarnir]]
[[nl:Oostenrijkse School]]
[[ja:オーストリア学派]]
[[pt:Escola austríaca]]
[[sk:Rakúska škola]]
[[fi:Itävaltalainen taloustiede]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abscess</title>
<id>1032</id>
<revision>
<id>38909172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T12:40:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew73</username>
<id>410511</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Perianal abscess */ wiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abszess.jpg|thumb|Abscess]]
An '''abscess''' is a collection of [[pus]] collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an [[infection|infectious]] process (usually caused by [[bacterium|bacteria]] or [[parasite]]s) or other foreign materials (e.g. splinters or bullet wounds). It is a [[immune system|defensive reaction]] of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.
The organisms or foreign materials that gain access to a part of tissue kill the local [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, release toxins and trigger an [[inflammation|inflammatory response]] by drawing huge amounts of [[white blood cell]]s to the area and increasing the regional [[blood]] flow. So, pus is a collection of local dead tissue cells, white blood cells, infecting organisms or foreign material and toxins released by both organisms and blood cells. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to build a barrier around the pus that limits the infected material from neighbouring structures.
==Manifestations==
The cardinal symptoms and signs of any kind of inflammatory process are redness, heat, swelling and pain. Abscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules ([[boil]]s) or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, [[brain abscess|brain]], kidneys and tonsils. Major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death ([[gangrene]]). Abscesses in most parts of the body rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated at the first suspicion of an abscess.
==Treatment==
The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, requiring surgical removal. [[Surgery|Surgical]] drainage of the abscess (e.g. [[Lancing (Surgical Procedure)|lancing]]) is usually indicated once the abscess has developed from a harder serous inflammation to a softer [[pus]] stage. As ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' [[bacteria]] is a common cause, an anti-Staphylococcus antibiotic such as [[Flucloxacillin]] or [[dicloxacillin]] is used . It is important to note that [[antibiotic]] therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective. In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk (such as the [[brain]]), surgery may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of the lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the [[respiratory tract]]. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for s
|
r French philosopher, took ''Matière et Mémoire'' as the basis of this theory on film anyway (ignoring ''l'illusion cinématographique''), and used it to explain his views in his ''Cinéma I & II'' (1983-1985).
Classical film theory took shape during the era of silent film. It emerged from the works of directors like [[Germaine Dulac]], [[Louis Delluc]], [[Jean Epstein]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], [[Lev Kuleshov]], [[Dziga Vertov]],[[ Paul Rotha]] and film critics like [[Rudolf Arnheim]], [[Béla Balázs]] and [[Siegfried Kracauer]]. It was not an academic discipline.
In the early 1950s the French film critic [[André Bazin]] helped to found the highly influential ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]''. Many of its young writers such as [[François Truffaut]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]] would go on to direct the films of the [[French New Wave]]. These writers were some of the first to take popular Hollywood cinema seriously as an artform. Their fascination with [[Western (genre)|Westerns]] and [[gangster film|gangster films]] effectively spawned [[Genre studies|genre theory]].
In the 1960s film theory took up residence in academe, importing concepts from established disciplines like [[psychoanalysis]], [[literary theory]] and [[linguistics]].
In the seventies the British journal [[Screen journal|Screen]] was very influential.
During the 1990s the digital revolution in image technologies has impacted on film theory in various ways. There has been a refocus onto celluloid film's ability to capture an indexical image of a moment in time by theorists like Mary Ann Doane, Philip Rosen and [[Laura Mulvey]]. There has also been a historical revisiting of early cinema screenings, practices and spectatorship modes by writers Tom Gunning, Miriam Hansen and Yuri Tsivian.
==Specific theories and styles of film==
*[[Apparatus Theory]]
*[[Art film]]
*[[Auteur theory]]
*[[Feminist film theory]]
*[[Formalist film theory]]
*[[Cyberpunk]]
*[[Film noir]]
*[[German Expressionism]]
*[[Horror film]]
*[[Italian neorealism]]
*[[Marxist film theory]]
*[[French New Wave|New Wave]]
*[[No Wave Cinema]]
*[[Psychoanalytical film theory]]
*[[Remodernist Film]]
*[[Romanticism]]
*[[Socialist realism]]
*[[Structuralist film theory]]
==Further readings==
*Dudley Andrew, ''Concepts in Film Theory'', Oxford, New York: oxford University Press, 1984
*Andre Bazin, ''What is Cinema?'' essays selected and translated by Hugh Gray, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1971
*Francesco Casetti, ''Theories of Cinema, 1945-1990'', Paperback Edition, University of Texas Press 1999
*[[Bill Nichols]], ''Representing Reality. Issues and Concepts in Documentary'', Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1991
*The Oxford Guide to Film Studies, Oxford University Press 1998
==See also==
*[[Fictional film]]
*[[Film journals and magazines]]
*[[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]]
[[Category:Film theory]]
[[de:Filmtheorie]]
[[mk:Филмска теорија]]
[[sl:Filmska teorija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of film techniques</title>
<id>10800</id>
<revision>
<id>39402998</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T22:54:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pigeongirl</username>
<id>924966</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Cinematic techniques}}
Provided in this '''list of film techniques''' is a categorised (and then alphabetised) list of techniques used in [[film]] ([[motion picture]]s).
==Camera view, angle, movement, shot==
*[[Aerial shot]]
*[[American shot]]
*[[Bird's eye shot]]
*[[Close up]]
*[[Crane shot]]
*[[Dolly shot]]
*[[Dutch angle]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[["Evangelion" shot]]
*[[Follow shot]]
*[[Forced perspective]]
*[[Video frame]]
*[[Freeze frame shot]]
*[[Full shot]]
*[[Head-on shot]]
*[[High-angle shot]]
*[[Long shot]]
*[[Low-angle shot]]
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Medium shot]]
*[[Pannning|Pan shot]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Reaction shot]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Shot (film)|Shot]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Tracking shot]]
*[[Two Shot]]
*[[Vertigo shot]]
*[[Whip pan]]
==Lighting technique and aesthetics==
*[[Background lighting]]
*[[Cameo lighting]]
*[[Fill light]]
*[[High-key lighting]]
*[[Key lighting]]
*[[Mood lighting]]
*[[Pool hall lighting]]
*[[Rembrandt lighting]]
*[[Stage lighting]]
*[[Soft light]]
==Editing and transitional devices==
*[[A Roll]]
*[[B Roll]]
*[[A and B editing]]
*[[Cross cutting]]
*[[Cutaway_(film)|Cutaway]]
*[[Cut in]]
*[[Cut out]]
*[[Dissolve (film)|Dissolve]]
*[[Film editing|Editing]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[[Fast cutting]]
*[[Hairy Arm]]
*[[Insert]]
*[[Keying]]
*[[L cut]] ("split edit")
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Film editing|Montage]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Screen direction]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Slow cutting]]
*[[Split screen (film)|Split screen]]
*[[SMPTE time code]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Wipe]]
**[[Clock wipe]]
**[[Heart wipe]]
**[[Matrix wipe]]
**[[Star wipe]]
==Special effects (FX)==
*[[3-D film]] for movie history
*[[3-D computer graphics]]
*[[Bluescreen]]/[[Chroma key]]
*[[Computer-generated imagery]]
*[[Digital compositing]]
*[[Optical effects]]
*[[Special effect|Special effects]]
*[[Stereoscopy]] for 3D technical details
*[[Stop trick]]
*[[Stop motion]]
==Other==
*[[Film stock]]
*[[Movie projector]]
*[[Widescreen]]
==See also==
*[[Motion picture terminology]]
*[[Costume Design]]
*[[Film crew]]
*[[List of movie-related topics]]
*[[List of video topics]]
[[de:Filmbegriffe]]
[[Category:Film techniques|*]]
[[category:Artistic techniques|Film technique]]</text>
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<title>Film directors</title>
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<timestamp>2005-08-14T13:57:09Z</timestamp>
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<username>The JPS</username>
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<comment>double redirect!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film director]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Film noir</title>
<id>10802</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:48:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
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<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bigcombo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This still from ''[[The Big Combo]]'' (1955) demonstrates the visual style of film noir at its most extreme. [[John Alton]], the film's [[cinematography|cinematographer]], created many of the iconic images of film noir.]]
'''Film noir''' is a [[film]] style and mood primarily associated with [[crime film]]s, that portrays its principal characters in a [[nihilism|nihilistic]] and [[existentialism|existentialist]] world. Film noir is primarily derived from the hard-boiled style of crime fiction of the [[Depression era]] (many films noir were adaptations of such novels) and the gritty style of 1930s horror fiction. Film noir is first clearly seen in films released in the early [[1940]]s. "Noirs" were historically made in [[black and white]], and had a dark, high-contrast [[style]] with roots in [[German Expressionism|German Expressionist]] cinematography.
The term ''film noir'' (French for "black film") was unknown to the filmmakers and actors while they were creating the classic films noir. Film noir was defined in retrospect by film historians and critics; many of the creators of film noir later professed to be unaware at the time of having created a distinctive type of film.
The use of the plural ''film noirs'' in English, is untrue to the French origin of the term. The plural form of ''film noir'' in French is ''films noirs''(although both "s" remain silent), which is sometimes used in English as is ''films noir''.
==Precursors==
Film noir is a result of a combination of genres and styles, with origins in painting and literature, as well as film.
The aesthetics of film noir are heavily influenced by [[German Expressionism]]. When [[Germany]] fell to [[Nazi]]sm, many important film artists were forced to emigrate (including [[Fritz Lang]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Robert Siodmak]]). They took with them techniques they developed (most importantly the dramatic lighting and the subjective, psychological point of view) and made some of the most famous films noirs in the USA. Concurrent with the development of German Expressionism were expressionistic gangster films in America in the [[1930s]], such as ''[[Little Caesar]]'' (1930), ''[[The Public Enemy]]'' (1931), ''[[Scarface (1932 movie)|Scarface]]'' (1932) and ''[[I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang]]'' (1932).
Other important influences came from French [[poetic realism]], with its themes of [[fatalism]], [[injustice]], and doomed heroes, and from [[Italian neorealism]], with its emphasis on [[wiktionary:authenticity|authenticity]]. Several later films noirs, such as ''[[Night and the City]]'' (1950) and ''[[Panic in the Streets]]'' (1950), adopted a neorealist approach of using on-location photography with non-professional extras. Additionally, some films noirs strove to depict comparatively ordinary or downtrodden people with unspectacular lives in a manner similar to neorealist films, such as ''[[The Lost Weekend]]'' and ''[[In a Lonely Place]]''.
In the United States, a major literary influence on film noir came from the [[hard-boiled]] school of [[detective fiction|detective]] and [[crime fiction]], featuring writers such as [[Dashiell Hammett]], [[Raymond Chandler]] and [[James M. Cain]], and popularized in [[pulp magazine]]s such as ''[[Black Mask]]''. Chandler's ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' and ''[[Murder My Sweet]]'' (based on ''[[Farewell, My Lovely]]'') and Hammett's ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' are notable f
|
erian/Chesterian/Elvirian
*Arnsbergian/Elvirian
*Pendleian
===Visean===
*Brigantian/St Genevieve/Gasperian/Chesterian
*Asbian/Meramecian
*Holkerian/Salem
*Arundian/Warsaw/Meramecian
*Chadian/Keokuk/Osagean/Osage
===Tournaisian (oldest)===
*Ivorian/Osagean/Osage
*Hastarian/Kinderhookian/Chautauquan/Chouteau
==Paleogeography==
The southern [[continent]]s remained tied together in the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]], which collided with North America-Europe ([[Laurussia]]) along the present line of eastern North America. In the same time frame, much of present eastern [[Eurasian plate]] welded itself to Europe along the line of the [[Ural mountains]]. Most of the [[Mesozoic]] supercontinent of [[Pangea]] was now assembled, although pieces of present east [[Asia]] still remained detached.
==Rocks and coal==
Carboniferous rocks in Europe and eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of [[limestone]], [[sandstone]], [[shale]] and coal beds. In North America, the early Carboniferous is largely marine limestone, which accounts for the division of the Carboniferous into two periods in North American schemes. The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the fuel for power generation during the [[Industrial Revolution]] and are still of great economic importance.
The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous primarily owe their existence to two factors. The first of these is the appearance of [[bark]] bearing trees (and in particular the [[evolution]] of the bark fiber [[lignin]]). The second is the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the [[Devonian]] period. This allowed for the development of extensive lowland [[swamp]]s and [[forest]]s in North America and Europe. It has been hypothesized that large quantities of [[wood]] were buried during this period because animals and decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] had not yet [[Evolution|evolved]] that could effectively digest the new lignin. It has also been observed that the extensive burial of organically produced [[carbon]] led to a buildup of surplus [[oxygen]] in the atmosphere resulting in concentrations up to 80% higher than today. The oxygen increase is implicated in increased [[wildfire]] activity, as well as the expression of gigantism in certain [[insect]]s and [[amphibia|amphibian]]s, whose size is constrained by [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] systems that are limited in their ability to diffuse oxygen.
In eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the Late Carboniferous. More diverse geology existed elsewhere of course. Marine life is especially rich in [[crinoids]] and other [[echinodermata|echinoderms]]. [[Brachiopoda|Brachiopods]] were abundant. [[Trilobites]] became quite uncommon. On land, large and diverse [[plant]] populations existed. Land [[vertebrata|vertebrates]] included large amphibians.
==Life==
One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the [[amniote]] egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain [[tetrapod]]s. The amniote egg allowed the ancestors of [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, and [[reptile]]s to reproduce on land by preventing the desiccation, or drying-out, of the [[embryo]] inside.
== See also ==
* ''[[Calamites]]'' - a tree-sized [[horsetail]] that was common in the Carboniferous
* Important Carboniferous [[Lagerstätten]]
** [[Hamilton Quarry]]; 320 mya; [[Kansas]], US
** [[Mazon Creek]]; 300 mya; [[Illinois]], US
== External links ==
* {{cite web
| publisher = International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
| title = Geologic Time Scale 2004
| url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/gts.htm
| accessdate = September 19
| accessyear = 2005
}}
{{Carboniferous Footer}}
[[Category:Carboniferous| ]]
[[ca:Carbonífer]]
[[cs:Karbon]]
[[cy:Carbonifferaidd]]
[[da:Kultiden]]
[[de:Karbon (Geologie)]]
[[es:Carbonífero]]
[[et:Karbon]]
[[fr:Carbonifère]]
[[he:קרבון]]
[[it:Carbonifero]]
[[ja:石炭紀]]
[[lt:Karbonas]]
[[nl:Carboon]]
[[no:Karbon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Karbon (okres)]]
[[pt:Carbonífero]]
[[ru:Каменноугольный период]]
[[sl:Karbon]]
[[sv:Karbon]]
[[zh:石炭纪]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Criminal law</title>
<id>5402</id>
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<id>40997065</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:38:34Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.41.241.254|217.41.241.254]] ([[User talk:217.41.241.254|talk]]) to last version by 203.198.237.30</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}}
'''Criminal law''' (also known as '''penal law''') is the body of [[statutory]] and [[common law]] that deals with [[crime]] and the legal [[punishment]] of criminal [[offense (law)|offense]]s. There are four theories of [[criminal justice]]: punishment, deterrence, incapacitation, and rehabilitation. It is believed that imposing sanctions for the crime, society can achieve justice and a peacable [[social order]]. This differs from [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] in that civil actions are disputes between two parties that are not of significant public concern.
The process begins, obviously, with an alleged crime. A [[complainant]] makes an accusation, which is investigated by the [[police]], acting as agents of the [[government]]. The police file a document, in most jurisdictions known as a [[complaint]], with a court in the appropriate jurisdiction. If the alleged offense is clasified as a [[felony]], the [[Constitution of the United States]] requires that the case be referred a [[grand jury]] for an [[indictment]]. An indictment is the official charging instrument accusing the defendant of criminal conduct.
The interests of the state are represented by a prosecuting attorney, while the interests of the defendant are represented by his or her defense attorney. While the specific process varies according to the local law, in virtually every jurisdiction the process culminates with a trial, followed by appeals to higher courts.
Criminal statutes spell out the exact circumstances which constitute a crime. These circumstances are known as ''the elements of the offense''. Unless all the elements are proven by the prosecuting authority, the defendant is not guilty of the offense. There are three kinds of elements: the act itself, the ''[[actus reus]]'', ''guilty act''; the requisite mental state, the ''[[mens rea]]'', ''guilty mind''; and the attendant circumstances. As an example, the common law definition of burglary was as follows: unlawful entry into a dwelling house at night with the intent to commit a felony therein. It is the duty of the prosecution, therefore, to prove not merely the act (the entry), and the mental state (the intent to commit a crime), but all the attendant circumstances (that it was a dwelling house, and that it was at night). Most modern criminal statutes have, among other changes, eliminated the "at night" element.
In defense, the accused could argue that he had no intent to commit a crime inside the house, that it occurred during the day, or that his entry was lawful. He could also, of course, argue that the incident never happened, or that someone else committed the offense.
Criminal law in most jurisdictions both in the [[common law|common]] and [[Napoleonic|civil law]] traditions is divided into two fields:
*[[Criminal procedure]] regulates the process for addressing violations of criminal law
*'''Substantive criminal law''' details the definition of, and punishments for, various crimes.
Criminal law distinguishes crimes from civil wrongs such as [[tort]] or breach of [[contract]]. Criminal law has been seen as a system of regulating the behavior of individuals and groups in relation to societal norms at large whereas civil law is aimed primarily at the relationship between private individuals and their rights and obligations under the law. Although many [[ancient history|ancient]] legal systems did not clearly define a distinction between criminal and civil law, in England there was little difference until the codification of criminal law occurred in the late nineteenth century. In most U.S. law schools, the basic course in criminal law is based upon the English common criminal law of [[1750]] (with some minor American modifications like the clarification of ''mens rea'' in the Model Penal Code).
==Quotes==
''A society should not be judged on how it treats its outstanding citizens but by how it treats its criminals.''....[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
==References==
*[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/18.2/farmer.html Lindsay Farmer, "Reconstructing the English Codification Debate: The Criminal Law Commissioners, 1833-45," ''Law and History Review,'' Volume 18 Number 2 Summer 2000]
*[[George P. Fletcher]], ''Basic Concepts of Criminal Law'' (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998).
*[[George P. Fletcher]], ''Rethinking Criminal Law'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
*[[Michael Gorr]] and [[Sterling Harwood]], eds., ''Controversies in Criminal Law'' (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
*[[Hyman Gross]], ''A Theory of Criminal Justice'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, reissue).
*[[H.L.A. Hart]], ''Punishment and Responsibility'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968).
*[[Sterling Harwood]], "Is Mercy Inherently Unjust?" in [[Michael Gorr]] and [[Sterling Harwood]], eds., ''Crime and Punishment: Philosphic Explorations'' (Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 1995).
*[[Jeffrie Murphy]] et al., ''Forgiveness and Mercy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
*[[K. J. M. Smith]], ''Lawyers, Legislators and Theorists: Developments in English Criminal Jurisprudence, 1800-1957'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998).
*[[Ernest van den Haag]], ''Punishing Criminals: Con
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as eventually defeated in [[307 BC]], Agathocles himself escaped back to Sicily and was able to negotiate a peace which maintained Syracuse as a stronghold of Greek power in Sicily.
===Pyrrhus of Epirus===
Between [[280 BC]] and [[275 BC]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] waged two major campaigns in an effort to protect and extend the influence of the Greeks in the western Mediterranean: one against the emerging power of the [[Roman Republic]] to defend the [[Greek colonies]] in southern Italy, the other against Carthage in a renewed attempt to wrest Sicily wholly from their control.
After winning a complete victory over Rome at Heraclea, and another complete yet very costly victory at Asculum, Pyrrhus was soon distracted by opportunities in mainland Greece which had recently been invaded by the [[Gauls]], and the Greeks of Sicily. Making a temporary peace with the Romans he left for Sicily and between 278-276 BC, defeated every Carthaginian force against him. Pyrrhus even managed to take Eryx, the strongest Carthaginian holdout. Yet at Lilybaeum, the Carthaginians were able to hold out against Pyrrhus, and the invader soon found that he was no longer welcome by the Greek Sicilians. Leaving once again for Italy, he fought the Romans once more to a draw. Not having the resources and manpower to continue, Pyrrhus left for Epirus. For Carthage, this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however, it meant capturing [[Tarentum]] and holding the entirety of Italy. The result was a shift in the balance of power in the western Mediterranean: the Greeks were effectively reduced to their toehold in Sicily, while Rome's growing strength and territorial ambitions brought it directly into conflict with Carthage for the first time.
===The Messanan Crisis===
When Agathocles died in [[288 BC]], a large company of Italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment. Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana. Naming themselves [[Mamertines]] (or "sons of Mars"), they became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside.
The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In [[265 BC]], [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], former general of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took action against them. Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. As a result, embassies were sent to both cities.
While the [[Roman Senate]] debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero; alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians.
Hiero's intervention had placed Carthage's military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the [[Strait of Messina]], and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests.
As a result, the Roman Assembly, although reluctant to ally with a band of mercenaries, sent an expeditionary force to return control of Messana to the Mamertines.
===The Punic Wars===
The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the [[Punic Wars]]. Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization.
*The [[First Punic War]] ([[264 BC]] to [[241 BC]])
*The [[Second Punic War]] ([[218 BC]] to [[201 BC]])
*The [[Third Punic War]] ([[149 BC]] to [[146 BC]])
Rome consistently triumphed over Carthage during the Punic Wars. The end of the Third Punic War resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by [[Scipio Aemilianus]]: Roman soldiers went from house to house, slaughtering the people of Carthage and enslaving any who survived. Carthage's harbor was burned and the city razed.
Between the first and the second Punic war, Carthage faced a major [[Mercenary War|mercenary revolt]]. During the mercenary revolt Rome was able to acquire [[Sardinia]].
It is disputed whether the Carthaginian farmland [[Salting the earth|was salted]] following the [[Battle of Carthage]].
==Roman Carthage==
[[Image:Follis-Domitius Alexander-carthage RIC 68.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Domitius Alexander]] on a [[follis]]. On the reverse, the personification of Carthage, his capital.]]
The site was too well-chosen to let it go to waste, however, and a new city grew up there, eventually becoming the second largest city in the western half of the [[Roman empire]]. By the late 2nd century, Carthage was the center of the Roman province of [[Africa Province, Roman Empire|Africa]], with a population of 500,000 people. It briefly became the capital of an usurper, [[Domitius Alexander]], in 308-311.
Carthage also became a centre of early [[Christianity]]. [[Tertullian]] rhetorically addresses the Roman governor with the fact that the Christians of Carthage that just yesterday were few in number, now "have filled every place among you&mdash;cities, islands, fortresses, towns, market-places, the very camp, tribes, companies, palaces, senate, forum; we have left nothing to you but the temples of your gods." (''[[Apologeticus]]'' written at Carthage, c. 197.) It is worth noting that Tertullian omits any mention of the surrounding countryside or its network of villas not unlike colonial [[hacienda]] society.
In the first of a string of rather poorly reported Councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than seventy bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was represented more and more by the bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the [[Donatist]] controversy, which [[Augustine of Hippo]] spent much time and parchment arguing against. In 397 at the [[Council at Carthage]], the [[Biblical canon]] for the western Church was confirmed.
The political fallout from the deep disaffection of African Christians was a crucial factor in the ease with which Carthage and the other centres were captured in the 5th century by [[Gaiseric]], king of the [[Vandals]], who defeated the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[general]] [[Bonifacius]] and made the city his capital. Gaiseric was considered a heretic too, an [[Arianism|Arian]], and though Arians commonly despised Catholic Christians, a mere promise of toleration might have caused the city's population to accept him. After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the 5th century, the Byzantines finally subdued the Vandals in the 6th century. Using Gaiseric's grandson's deposal by a distant cousin, [[Gelimer]], as a pretext, the Byzantines dispatched an army to conquer the Vandal kingdom. On Sunday, [[October 15]] [[533]], the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]], accompanied by his wife [[Antonina]], made his formal entry into Carthage, sparing it a sack and a [[massacre]].
During the emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'s reign, Carthage was made into an [[Exarchate]], as was [[Ravenna]] in [[Italy]]. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of Byzantium, all that remained of its power in the west. In the early 7th century, it was the Exarch of Carthage, [[Heraclius]] (of [[Armenians|Armenian]] origin), who overthrew Emperor [[Phocas]].
The Byzantine Exarchate was not, however, able to withstand the [[Arab]] conquerors of the 7th century. The first Arab assault on the Exarchate of Carthage was initiated from [[Egypt]] without much success in 647. A more protracted campaign lasted from 670-683. In 698 the [[Exarchate of Africa]] was finally overrun by the rising forces of [[Islam]], and Carthage itself was destroyed by the Arab invaders, to be replaced by [[Tunis]] as the major regional center. The destruction of the [[Exarchate of Africa]] marked a permanent end to Roman or Byzantine influence there, as the rising tide of Islam shattered the empire.
== Carthage in fiction ==
*''[[Hannibal's Children]]'', an [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel, about the Carthaginians.
*[[Gustave Flaubert]], ''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'', a novel on the mercenary wars in North Africa and around Carthage.
*[[Isaac Asimov]], ''[[The Dead Past]]'', a science fiction story in which Carthage is a scientific interest of one of the characters; concisely mentions all major facts about it.
* [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]] wrote the Timeline wars series of science fiction stories, which has several timelines where Carthage wins and enslaves other timelines.
*''[[Pride of Carthage]]'', a novel accounting Hannibal Barca's campaign against Rome, by [[David Anthony Durham]].
*''The Young Carthaginian'', a novel about the Carthaginians by [[G. A. Henty]].
==References==
#''[[Hannibal]]'s Campaigns''. Tony Bath. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble Books, 1981.
#''Late Carthaginian Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monuments in their Mediterranean Context''. Shelby Brown. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.
#''La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal.'' Gilbert et Colette Charles-Picard. Paris: Hachette, 1958.
#''La légende de Carthage''. Azedine Beschaouch. Paris: Gallimard, 1993.
#''Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia''. David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Kader, Heidi Slim. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.
#''The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, colonies and trade''. Maria Eugenia Aubet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
#''Itineraria Phoenicia''.Edward Lipinski. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 2004.
#Carthage is also the codename of the mysterious fifth sector in the French animation se
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experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident.
The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood.
== Huntley's addition ==
Huntley (Huntley, 1967) has claimed that it is sometimes productive to refine our concept of dimension. Two possible refinements are:
* The magnitude of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally distinct. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length unit ''L'', we may have <math>L_x</math> represent length in the ''x'' direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent.
* Mass as a measure of quantity is to be considered dimensionally distinct from mass as a measure of inertia.
As an example of the usefulness of the first refinement, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannon ball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component <math>V_y</math> and a horizontal velocity component <math>V_x</math>, assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then <math>V_x</math>, <math>V_y</math>, both dimensioned as <math>L/T</math>, ''R'', the distance travelled, having dimension ''L'', and ''g'' the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension <math>L/T^2</math>
With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range ''R'' may be written:
:<math>R \propto V_x^a\,V_y^b\,g^c\,</math>
Or dimensionally
:<math>L = (L/T)^{a+b} (L/T^2)^c\,</math>
from which we may deduce that <math>a+b+c=1</math> and <math>a+b+2c=0</math> which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental quantities ''L'' and ''T'' and four parameters, with one equation.
If, however, we use directed length dimensions, then <math>V_x</math> will be dimensioned as <math>L_x/T</math>, <math>V_y</math> as <math>L_y/T</math>, ''R'' as <math>L_x</math> and ''g'' as <math>L_y/T^2</math>. The dimensional equation becomes:
:<math>L_x = (L_x/T)^a\,(L_y/T)^b (L_y/T^2)^c\,</math>
and we may solve completely as <math>a=1</math>, <math>b=1</math> and <math>c=-1</math>. The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions seems apparent.
In a similar manner, it is sometimes found useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of quantity (substantial mass). For example, consider the derivation of [[Poiseuille's Law]]. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass we may choose as the relevant variables
* <math>\dot{m}</math> the mass flow rate with dimensions <math>M/T</math>
* <math>p_x</math> the pressure gradient along the pipe with dimensions <math>M/L^2T^2</math>
* <math>\rho</math> the density with dimensions <math>M/L^3</math>
* <math>\eta</math> the dynamic fluid viscosity with dimensions <math>M/LT</math>
* <math>r</math> the radius of the pipe with dimensions <math>L</math>
There are three fundamental variables so the above five equations will yield two dimensionless variables which we may take to be <math>\pi_1=\dot{m}/\eta r</math> and <math>\pi_2=p_x\rho r^5/\dot{m}^2</math> and we may express the dimensional equation as
:<math>C=\pi_1\pi_2^a=\left(\frac{\dot{m}}{\eta r}\right)\left(\frac{p_x\rho r^5}{\dot{m}^2}\right)^a</math>
where ''C'' and ''a'' are undetermined constants. If we draw a distinction between inertial mass with dimensions <math>M_i</math> and substantial mass with dimensions <math>M_s</math>, then mass flow rate and density will use substantial mass as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written:
:<math>C=\frac{p_x\rho r^4}{\eta \dot{m}}</math>
where now only ''C'' is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to <math>\pi/8</math> by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield [[Poiseuille's law]].
==Dimensionless constants==
The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the C in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the <math>\kappa</math> in the spring problems discussed above come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics, and often arises from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc.
== Orientational analysis ==
Huntley's addition has some serious drawbacks. It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables. It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, <math>L_x</math>, <math>L_y</math>, <math>L_z</math> symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: it is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries? Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's addition to real problems.
Angles are conventionally considered to be dimensionless variables, and so the use of angles as physical variables in dimensional analysis can give less meaningful results. As an example, consider the projectile problem mentioned above. Suppose that, instead of the x- and y-component of the initial velocity, we had chosen the magnitude of the velocity ''v'' and the angle <math>\theta</math> at which the projectile was fired. The angle is conventionally considered to be dimensionless, and the magnitude of a vector has no directional quality, so that no dimensionless variable can be composed of the four variables ''g'', ''v'', ''R'', and &theta;. Conventional analysis will correctly give the powers of g and v, but will give no information concerning the dimensionless angle &theta;.
Siano (Siano, 1985-I, 1985-II) has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using ''orientational symbols'' <math>1_x,\;1_y,\;1_z</math>to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol <math>1_0\,</math>. Thus, Huntley's <math>L_x</math> becomes <math>L\,1_x</math> with ''L''&nbsp; specifying the dimension of length, and <math>1_x</math> specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that <math>1_i^{-1}=1_i</math>, the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results:
:<math>
\begin{matrix}
&\mathbf{1_0}&\mathbf{1_x}&\mathbf{1_y}&\mathbf{1_z}\\
\mathbf{1_0}&1_0&1_x&1_y&1_z\\
\mathbf{1_x}&1_x&1_0&1_z&1_y\\
\mathbf{1_y}&1_y&1_z&1_0&1_x\\
\mathbf{1_z}&1_z&1_y&1_x&1_0
\end{matrix}
</math>
Note that the orientational symbols form a group (the [[Klein four-group]] or "viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem." Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the x-direction has the orientation of <math>1_x</math>. For angles, consider an angle &theta; that lies in the z plane. Form a right triangle in the z plane with &theta; being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation <math>1_x</math> and the side opposite ha
|
untry Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
[[Category:Geography by country|El Salvador]]
[[Category:Geography of El Salvador| ]]
[[es:Geografía de El Salvador]]
[[fr:Géographie du Salvador]]
[[pt:Geografia de El Salvador]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of El Salvador</title>
<id>9359</id>
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<comment>Dab. catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[El Salvador]]'s [[population]] numbers about 6.2 million; almost 90% is of mixed Amerindian and Spanish extraction. About 1% is indigenous; very few Indians have retained their customs and traditions. The low numbers of indigenous may be partly explained by La Matanza in 1932 which saw (estimates of) up to 30,000 peasants killed in a short period of time. Whilst they were not necessarily killed because they were indigenous, one of the identifying features of the peasants was their indigenous dress. Many authors note that since La Matanza the indigenous in El Salvador have been very reluctant to describe themselves as such (in census declarations for example) or to wear indigenous dress or be seen to be taking part in any culture/customs that might be understood as indigenous.
The country's people are largely [[Roman Catholic]] -- though [[Protestant]] groups are growing -- and Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The capital city of [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]] has about 1.3 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas.
'''Population:'''
6,122,515 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
38% (male 1,186,328; female 1,141,245)
<br>''15-64 years:''
57% (male 1,652,083; female 1,833,998)
<br>''65 years and over:''
5% (male 139,919; female 168,942) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.87% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
29.02 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
6.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
-4.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.9 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
29.22 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
69.74 years
<br>''male:''
66.14 years
<br>''female:''
73.52 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.38 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Salvadoran(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Salvadoran
'''Ethnic groups:'''
mestizo 90%, Amerindian 1%, white 9%
'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 86%
<br>''note:''
there is extensive activity by Protestant groups throughout the country; by the end of 1992, there were an estimated 1 million Protestant evangelicals in El Salvador
'''Languages:'''
Spanish, Nawat (among some Amerindians)
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 10 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
71.5%
<br>''male:''
73.5%
<br>''female:''
69.8% (1995 est.)
:''See also :'' [[El Salvador]]
[[Category:Salvadoran society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|El Salvador]]
[[es:Demografía de El Salvador]]
[[pt:Demografia de El Salvador]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Politics of El Salvador</title>
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<comment>/* Political Parties */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of El Salvador}}
[[El Salvador]] is a democratic republic governed by a [[President of El Salvador|president]] and an 84-member unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador|Legislative Assembly]]. The president is elected by [[suffrage|universal suffrage]] and serves for a 5-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly (called "deputies", or ''diputados)'', also elected by universal suffrage, serve for three-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.
The [[Salvadoran presidential election, 2004|most recent presidential election]], held on [[21 March]] [[2004]], resulted in the election of [[Antonio Saca|Tony Saca]] of the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] party with almost 58 percent of the vote, the highest in Salvadoran history. The turnout of 70 percent was also a record. The youthful Saca, who embraced pro-business and pro-U.S. policies, recovered ground lost in the [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1999|1999 Presidential election]], which ARENA had barely survived, and in the March [[2000]] legislative races, in which ARENA had been eclipsed as the largest single party by the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front]] and had retained overall control of the Assembly only by forging a coalition with a smaller party.
==Political Parties==
[[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] ARENA is El Salvador's leading political party. It was created in [[1982]] by Major [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]] and others from the right wing, including members of the military. His electoral fortunes were diminished by credible reports that he was involved in organized political violence. Following the [[1984]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1984|presidential election]], ARENA began reaching out to more moderate individuals and groups, particularly in the private sector. By [[1989]], ARENA had attracted the support of business groups, and [[Alfredo Cristiani]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1989|won the presidency]]. Despite sincere efforts at reform, [[José Napoleón Duarte]]'s PDC administration had failed to either end the insurgency or improve the economy. Allegations of corruption, poor relations with the private sector, and historically low prices for the nation's main agricultural exports also contributed to ARENA victories in the [[1988]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1988|legislative]] and [[1989]] presidential elections. The [[1989]]-[[1994]] Cristiani administration's successes in achieving a peace agreement to end the civil war and in improving the nation's economy helped ARENA, led by standard-bearer [[Armando Calderón Sol]], [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1994|keep both the presidency]] and a [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1994|working majority]] in the Legislative Assembly in the [[1994]] elections. ARENA's legislative position was weakened in the [[1997]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1997|elections]], but it recovered its strength, helped by divisions in the opposition, in time for another victory in the [[1999]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1999|presidential race]] that brought President [[Francisco Flores]] to office. In the March [[2000]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 2000|legislative]] and municipal elections, ARENA won 29 seats in the Legislative Assembly and 127 mayoral races.
In December [[1992]], the FMLN became a political party, composed of the political factions of the wartime guerrilla movement, and maintained a united front during the [[1994]] electoral campaign. The FMLN also came in second in the legislative assembly races. Internal political differences, however, among the FMLN's constituent parties led to the breakaway of two of the FMLN's original five factions after the [[1994]] elections. Despite the defections, the FMLN was able to consolidate its remaining factions and present itself as a viable option to ARENA in the [[1997]] elections. Divisions between "orthodox" and "reformist" wings of the FMLN crippled the party in the [[1999]] elections. In the March 2000 legislative and municipal elections, FMLN received 31 seats on the Legislative Assembly, which is three more than rival party ARENA. FMLN also won seventy seven mayorships and won 10 municipalities in coalition with other parties. The right wing of the [[National Conciliation Party]] (PCN), which ruled the country in alliance with the military from the [[1960s]] until [[1979]], maintain a small electoral base, and gained 10 seats in the March [[2000]] legislative election. Several smaller parties have in recent years fought for space in the political center with limited success. The PDC, which won more municipal elections in [[1994]] than did the FMLN, is now down to five seats in the Legislative Assembly and is no longer a significant electoral force.
==Compliance With the Peace Accords==
While most aspects of the accords have been largely implemented, important components such as judicial reform remain incomplete. The peace process set up under the Chapultepec Accords was monitored by the United Nations from [[1991]] until June [[1997]] when it closed its special monitoring mission in El Salvador.
==Human Rights==
During the 12-year civil war, human rights violations by both left- and right-wing forces were rampant. The accords established a Truth Commission under UN auspices to investigate the most serious cases. The commission reported its findings in [[1993]]. It recommended that those identified as human rights violators be removed from all government and military posts, as well as recommending judicial reforms. Thereafter, the Legislative Assembly granted amnesty for political crimes committed during the war. Among those freed as a result were the ESAF officers convicted in the November [[1989]] Jesuit murders and the FMLN ex-combatants held for the [[1991]] murde
|
nnerton-Dyer conjecture]]
=== P versus NP ===
The question is whether there are any problems for which a computer can verify a given solution quickly, but cannot find the solution quickly. This is generally considered the most important open question in [[computation|theoretical computer science]]. See [[complexity classes P and NP]] for a more complete discussion.
=== The Hodge conjecture ===
The [[Hodge conjecture]] is that for [[projective space|projective]] [[algebraic variety|algebraic varieties]], [[Hodge cycle]]s are rational [[linear combination]]s of [[algebraic cycle]]s.
=== The Poincaré conjecture ===
In [[topology]], a sphere with a two-dimensional surface is essentially characterized by the fact that it is [[simply connected]]. The [[Poincaré conjecture]] is that this is also true for spheres with three-dimensional surfaces. The question has been solved for all dimensions above three. Solving it for three is central to the problem of classifying 3-manifolds. A solution to this conjecture has been proposed by [[Grigori Perelman]]; while still not formally published, there does appear to be a growing consensus that the argument is largely correct.
=== The Riemann hypothesis ===
The [[Riemann hypothesis]] is that all nontrivial zeros of the [[Riemann zeta function]] have a real part of 1/2. A proof or disproof of this would have far-reaching implications in [[number theory]], especially for the distribution of [[prime number]]s. This was [[Hilbert's eighth problem]], and is still considered an important open problem a century later. [[Louis de Branges de Bourcia]], a French mathematician, claims to have the proof for the problem, unfortunately this proof has not yet been seriously analyzed.
=== Yang-Mills existence and mass gap ===
In physics, [[quantum Yang-Mills theory]] describes particles with positive mass having classical waves traveling at the speed of light. This is the [[mass gap]]. The problem is to establish the existence of the Yang-Mills theory and a mass gap.
=== Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness ===
The [[Navier-Stokes equations]] describe the movement of liquids and gases. Although they were found in the 19th century, they still are not well understood. The problem is to make progress toward a mathematical theory that will give us insight into these equations.
=== The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture ===
The [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]] deals with a certain type of equation, those defining [[elliptic curve]]s over the [[rational number]]s. The conjecture is that there is a simple way to tell whether such equations have a finite or infinite number of rational solutions. [[Hilbert's tenth problem]] dealt with a more general type of equation, and in that case it was proven that there is no way to decide whether a given equation even has any solutions.
== Other activities ==
Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute also supports mathematics via the awarding of
research fellowships (which range from two to five years, and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term
scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The Institute also has a yearly [[Clay Research Award]], recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the Institute also organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to postdoctoral level).
==Reference==
*Keith J. Devlin, ''The Millennium Problems: The Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time'', Basic Books (October, 2002), ISBN 0465017290.
==External links==
* [http://www.claymath.org The Clay Mathematics Institute]
* [http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems The Millennium Prize Problems]
* [http://www.qeden.com/ Millennium Problems Wiki]
[[Category:Mathematical institutes]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in mathematics]]
[[de:Millennium-Probleme]]
[[es:Clay Mathematics Institute]]
[[fr:Institut de mathématiques de Clay]]
[[ko:클레이 수학연구소]]
[[it:Premio Clay]]
[[ja:クレイ数学研究所]]
[[pt:Prémios Clay]]
[[zh:克雷數學研究所]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Cronos</title>
<id>7656</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cronus]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Centum</title>
<id>7658</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-08-22T18:48:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
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<comment>merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cerebral arteriovenous malformation</title>
<id>7659</id>
<revision>
<id>41940755</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:49:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Cerebral arteriovenous malformation |
ICD10 = Q28.2 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|747.81}} |
}}
A '''cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM)''' is a [[congenital disorder]] of [[blood vessel]]s within the [[human brain|brain]], characterized by tangle(s) of [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]]. While an [[arteriovenous malformation]] can occur elsewhere in the body, this article discusses malformations found in the brain.
==Symptoms==
The most frequently observed problems related to the mechanical and blood loss ([[ischemia |ischemic]]) effects of an AVM are [[headache]] and [[seizure]]. Moreover, AVMs in certain critical locations may stop the circulation of the [[cerebrospinal fluid]], causing accumulation of the fluid within the skull and giving rise to a clinical condition called [[hydrocephalus]].
Symptoms of bleeding within the brain ([[intracranial hemorrhage]]) include loss of consciousness, sudden and severe headache, nausea, vomiting, [[incontinence]], and blurred vision. A stiff neck can occur as the result of increased pressure within the skull and irritation of the meninges. Impairments caused by local brain tissue damage on the bleed site are possible, these can include seizure, [[hemiparesis]], a loss of touch sensation on one side of the body, or deficits in language processing ([[aphasia]]). A variety of other symptoms can accompany this type of [[cerebrovascular accident]].
Generally, intense headache, perhaps coincident with seizure or loss of bodily consciousness, is the first indication of a cerebral AVM. Estimates of the number of AVM-afflicted people in the United States range from 0.1% to 0.001% [http://www.nypneuro.org/healthinfo/stroke.html] [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/avms.htm] of the population.
==Diagnosis==
An AVM diagnosis is established by [[neuroimaging]] studies. A [[computed tomography]] scan of the head (head CT) is usually performed, this can reveal the site of the bleed. More detailed pictures of the tangle of blood vessels that compose an AVM can be obtained by using radioactive reagents injected into the blood stream, then observing these reagents using a [[fluoroscope]] or [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] (MRI). A spinal tap ([[lumbar puncture]]) can be used to examine spinal fluid for red blood cells; this condition is indicative of leakage of blood from the bleeding vessels into the [[subarachnoid space]]. The best images of an AVM are obtained through [[cerebral angiography]], which involves using a catheter, threaded though an artery, to deliver the reagent close to the site of the AVM.
==Pathophysiology==
While the cause of AVMs remains unknown, the main risk is [[intracranial hemorrhage]]. This risk is difficult to quantify. Approximately 70% of cases with cerebral AVM are discovered through symptoms caused by sudden bleeding, bleeding due to the fragility of abnormally structured brain vessels. However, some patients may remain asymptomatic or have minor complaints due to the local effects of the tangle of vessels. If a rupture or bleeding incident occurs, the blood may penetrate either into the brain tissue ([[cerebral hemorrhage]]) or into the [[subarachnoid space]]. This space is located between the sheaths ([[meninges]]) surrounding the brain ([[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]).
Once an AVM bleeds, the probability of rebleeding increases substantially.
AVMs that do not bleed may cause symptoms by either directly compressing the brain tissue or decreasing the blood flow to the neighbouring tissues and thus causing a lack of blood flow ([[ischemia]]). Both mechanical and ischemic factors cause a permanent and continuous loss of nerve cells ([[neuron]]s).
==Treatment==
The treatment in the case of sudden bleeding is focused on restoration of vital function. Anticonvulsant medications such as [[phenytoin]] are often used to control seizure; medications or procedures may be employed to relieve intracranial pressure. Eventually, curative treatment may be required to prevent recurrent hemorrhage.
Surgical removal of the blood vessels involved ([[craniotomy]]) is the preferred curative treatment for most types of AVM. While this surgery results in an immediate, complete removal of the AVM, risks exist.
Radiation treatment ([[radiosurgery]]) has been widely used on smaller AVMs with considerable success. The Gamma Knife, developed by Swedish physician [[Lars Leksell]], is one apparatus used in radiosurgery to precisely apply a controlled radiation dosage to the volume of the brain occupied by the AVM. While this treatment is [[non-invasive]], two
|
f Illinois Press; ISBN 0252029720 (1958; Hardcover, October 2004).
*Allen, James and Leonard, Glen M. (1976, 1992) ''The Story of the Latter-day Saints''; Deseret Book; ISBN 087579565X [http://deseretbook.com/store/product?product_id=100010682 Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com]
*Arrington, Leonard J. (1979). ''The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints''; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0252062361 (1979; Paperback, 1992)
*[[D. Michael Quinn|Quinn, D. Michael]] (1985), "LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890-1904," ''Dialogue'' 18.1 (Spring 1985): 9-105.
==External links==
*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ''[http://scriptures.lds.org/chchrono/contents Chronology of Church History]'' (LDS Church, 2000).
*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ''[http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/sunday%20school.htm/our%20heritage.htm Our Heritage: A Brief History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]'' (LDS Church, 1996).
==See also==
*[[Controversies regarding Mormonism]]
*[[Latter Day Saint Historians]]
*[[Faith-promoting history (LDS)]]
*[[Temperance organizations]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint history]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Christian eschatology</title>
<id>5943</id>
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{{mergefrom|Summary of Christian eschatological differences}}
{{Christian theology}}
'''Christian eschatology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|ἔσχατος}} [''eskhatos''] ''last'' and {{polytonic|λογία}} [''logia''] ''discourse'') is the study of [[Christianity|Christian]] beliefs concerning the final events and ultimate purposes of the world. In [[Christian theology]], [[eschatology]] is the study of the destiny of created things, especially of humankind and of the [[Church]], according to the purposes of [[God]].
==Last things==
The "last things" are important issues to Christian faith, although eschatology is a relatively recent development as a formal division of Christian theology.
[[Epistle to the Romans]] 8 (ESV):
:19 For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God.
:20 For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of him who subjected it, in hope
:21 that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God.
:22 For we know that the whole creation has been groaning together in the pains of childbirth until now.
:23 And not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies.
:24 For in this hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what he sees?
:25 But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience.
Christian eschatology concerns the [[afterlife]], the return of [[Jesus]], the [[End of the world (religion)|End of the World]], resurrection of the dead, the [[Last Judgment]], renewal of creation, [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]], and the consummation of all of God's purposes.
The term eschatology is often used in a more popular and narrower sense when comparing various interpretations of the [[Book of Revelation]] and other [[prophet]]ic parts of the [[Bible]], such as the [[Book of Daniel]] and various sayings of Jesus in the [[Gospels]], concerning the timing of what many Christians believe to be the imminent [[Second Coming|second coming of Christ]]. There are various controversies concerning the order of events leading to and following the return of Jesus and the religious significance of these events.
Some Christians, notably followers of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] but also members of other sects, regard most popular discussion of this topic to be fundamentally and dangerously false. Theologians from a number of traditions point out that the Book of Revelation was included late in the [[Biblical canon]], because of lingering questions regarding its usefulness. Many early teachers thought the Christian faith should be single-mindedly preoccupied with what is most transparently understood concerning [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]]. The book is not included in the liturgical readings of most traditions. Nevertheless, a great number of Christians consider the effort to understand the Book of Revelation (and other prophecies) to be one of the most important issues, if not the chief objective, of their Christian faith.
In many [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] dogmatic, mystical or folk traditions, in addition to the other doctrines and prophecies of the Bible, there are also traditional teachings, or writings of people granted gifts of prophecy or a special visitation by messengers from heaven, such as [[angel]]s, [[saints]], or Christ.
Nearly all traditions of Christianity believe that suffering, disease, injustice and death will continue until the second coming of Christ and the end of the world. The Christian hope will not be realized in this lifetime, and instead has the practical purpose of instructing the Christian to pray and work for a fuller measure of those blessings now. However, there are dissenting traditions, which teach it to be an ethical or moral principle that all suffering ought to be eliminated prior to Christ's return.
===Biblical passages on life after death===
[[Image:Michelangelo - Fresco of the Last Judgement.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Last Judgement - Fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] by [[Michelangelo]].]]
Most Christian traditions teach belief in life after death as a central and indispensable tenet of their faith. "All these people were still living by faith when they died. They did not receive the things promised; they only saw them and welcomed them from a distance. And they admitted that they were aliens and strangers on earth" ([[Epistle to the Hebrews|Heb]] 11:13). It is charged by some that this belief in an afterlife is an innovation of Christianity, perhaps by admixture with Greek philosophy.
Some books of the Bible appear to deny the existence of the afterlife. (The following quotes are from the new JPS translation.)
:[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 39:18 "For it is not Sheol that praises You, Not [the land of] Death that extols you; Nor do they who descend into the Pit hope for your grace. The living, only the living can give thanks to you."
:[[Psalms]] 6:6 "For there is no praise of You among the dead; in Sheol, who can acclaim you?" and Psalms 115:17 "The dead cannot praise the Lord, nor any who go down into silence."
:[[Book of Job|Job]] 7:7&ndash;10 "Consider that my life is but wind; I shall never see happiness again . . . As a cloud fades away, so whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up."
:[[Ecclesiastes]] 9:4&ndash;5 "For he who is reckoned among the living has something to look forward to&mdash;even a live dog is better than a dead lion&mdash;since the living know that they will die. But the dead know nothing; they have no more recompense, for even the memory of them has died."
Christian churches such as the [[Roman Catholic Church]] that accept the [[Deuterocanonical books]] as part of the Old Testament point to the [[2 Maccabees|second book of Maccabees]] as Old Testament justification for the belief in an afterlife. Second Maccabees 7 relates the [[martyr|martyrdom]] of a mother and her seven sons:
:Second Maccabees 7:7&ndash;11 "After the first brother had died in this way, they brought forward the second for their sport. [...] And when he was at his last breath, he said, 'You accursed wretch, you dismiss us from this present life, but the King of the universe will raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.' After him, the third was the victim of their sport. When it was demanded, he quickly put out his tongue and courageously stretched forth his hands, and said nobly, 'I got these from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again.'" (excerpted from website "Reading the Old Testament"; translation probably NRSV)
Within the accepted Protestant canon, it is only in the book of Daniel that a "modern" understanding of an afterlife appears. From a Christian point of view, this aforementioned proposed denial of the possibility of afterlife may be interpreted in a different manner: One might see it as a distinction between the "dead" and the "resurrected dead" rather than a denial of the afterlife. The "dead" would represent those who have died outside of God's grace, who by choice do or did not follow God, and thus are dead (spiritually and bodily). The ones who go to be with God, by their choice of faith or actions depending on the religion, would be the "resurrected dead," "living dead" or, simply, "living."
When the Sadducees were testing him, Christ explained this difference by pointing out that God is the God of the living, not of the dead, yet saying that God is the God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, three apparently dead people.
In [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:31&ndash;32, Jesus says, "But about the resurrection of the dead&mdash;have you not read what God said to you, 'I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? He is not the God of the dead but of the living." (NIV)
Looking at the above "contradictory to the afterlife" scriptures in this light, one might suggest the
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. See also: [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]].
==Reproduction==
[[Image:Baby bird learning to fly.jpg|thumb|250px|Baby bird unable to fly yet]]
Although most male birds have no external sex organs, the male does have two [[testicle|testes]] which become hundreds of times larger during the breeding season to produce [[sperm]]. The female's [[ovary|ovaries]] also become larger, although only the left ovary actually functions.
In the males of species without a [[phallus]] (see below), sperm is stored within the [[proctodeum]] compartment within the [[cloaca]] prior to copulation. During [[copulation]], the female moves her tail to the side and the male either mounts the female from behind or moves very close to her. He moves the opening of his cloaca, or vent, close to hers, so that the sperm can enter the female's cloaca, in what is referred to as a [[cloacal kiss]]. This can happen very fast, sometimes in less than one second.
The sperm is stored in the female's cloaca for anywhere from a week to a year, depending on the species of bird. Then, one by one, eggs will descend from the female's ovaries and become fertilized by the male's sperm, before being subsequently laid by the female. The eggs will then continue their development in the nest.
[[Image:Sea Gull 2.jpg|right|thumb|174px|A juvenile [[Laughing Gull]] on the beach at [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]].]]
Many [[waterfowl]] and some other birds, such as the ostrich and [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]], do possess a [[phallus]]. Except during copulation, it is hidden within the [[proctodeum]] compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The avian phallus differs from the [[mammal]]ian [[penis]] in several ways, most importantly in that it is purely a copulatory organ and is not used for expelling urine.
After the eggs hatch, parent birds provide varying degrees of care in terms of food and protection. [[Precocial]] birds can care for themselves independently within minutes of hatching; [[altricial]] hatchlings are helpless, blind, and naked, and require extended parental care. The [[chick]]s of many ground-nesting birds such as [[partridge]]s and [[wader]]s are often able to run virtually immediately after hatching; such birds are referred to as [[nidifugous]]. The young of hole-nesters, on the other hand, are often totally incapable of unassisted survival. The process whereby a chick acquires feathers until it can fly is called "fledging".
Some birds, such as pigeons, geese, and [[Red-crowned Crane]]s, remain with their mates for life (or for a long period) and may produce offspring on a regular basis.
==Mating systems and parental care==
<div style="float:right; clear:right; width:30%; margin:1em; padding:1em; border:1px solid #8888aa; background: #ffffff; font-size:80%">
Sources for this section include:
*Gowaty, Patricia Adair: Male Parental Care and Apparent Monogamy among Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia Sialis). ''The American Naturalist'' 121(2): 149-160 (1983).
*Ketterson, Ellen D. and Nolan, Val: Male Parental Behavior in Birds. ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics'' 25: 601-28 (1994).
*Zeveloff, Samuel and Boyce, Mark: Parental Investment and Mating Systems in Mammals. ''Evolution'' 34(5): 973-982 (1980).
</div>
The three mating systems that predominate among birds are polyandry, polygyny, and monogamy. [[Monogamy]] is seen in approximately 91% of all bird species. [[Polygyny]] constitutes 2% of all birds and [[polyandry]] is seen in less than 1%. Monogamous species of males and females pair for the breeding season. In some cases, the individuals may pair for life.
One reason for the high rate of monogamy among birds is the fact that male birds are just as adept at parental care as females. In most groups of animals, male parental care is rare, but in birds it is quite common; in fact, it is more extensive in birds than in any other vertebrate class. In birds, male care can be seen as important or essential to female fitness. "In one form of monogamy such as with [[obligate]] monogamy a female cannot rear a litter without the aid of a male" (Gowaty, 1983).
[[Image:Redwing_nest.jpg|left|thumb|350px|These [[redwing]] hatchlings are completely dependent on parental care.]]
The parental behavior most closely associated with monogamy is male [[incubation]]. Interestingly, male incubation is the most confining male parental behavior. It takes time and also may require physiological changes that interfere with continued mating. This extreme loss of mating opportunities leads to a reduction in reproductive success among incubating males. "This information then suggests that sexual selection may be less intense in taxa where males incubate, hypothetically because males allocate more effort to parental care and less to mating" (Ketterson and Nolan, 1994). In other words, in bird species in which male incubation is common, females tend to select mates on the basis of parental behaviors rather than physical appearance.
==Respiration==
Birds ventilate their lungs by means of crosscurrent flow: the air flows at a 90&deg; angle to the flow of blood in the lungs' capillaries. In addition to the lungs themselves, birds have posterior and anterior air sacs (typically nine) which control air flow through the lungs, but do not play a direct role in gas exchange. There are three distinct sets of organs involved in [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]]:
* the [[Anatomical terms of location|anterior]] [[air sac]]s ([[clavicle|interclavicular]], [[Neck|cervicals]], and anterior [[thoracic]]s),
* the [[lungs]], and
* the [[Anatomical terms of location|posterior]] air sacs (posterior thoracics and abdominals).
It takes a bird two full breaths to completely cycle the air from each inhalation through its lungs and out again. Air flows through the air sacs and lungs as follows:
* First inhalation: air flows through the [[trachea]], [[Bronchus|bronchi]], parabronchi (in the lung) and into the posterior air sacs.
* First exhalation: air flows from the posterior air sacs to the lungs.
* Second inhalation: air flows from the lungs to the anterior air sacs.
* Second exhalation: air flows from the anterior sacs back through the trachea and out of the body.
Since during inhalation ''and'' exhalation fresh air flows through the lungs in only one direction, there is no mixing of oxygen rich air and [[carbon dioxide]] rich air within the lungs as in mammals. Thus the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen in a bird's lungs is the same as the environment, and so birds have more efficient gas-exchange of both oxygen and carbon dioxide than do mammals.
Avian lungs do not have [[alveoli]], as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as [[parabronchi]], connected at either ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows through the honeycombed walls of the parabronchi and into air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are traded with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion.
A diaphragm is absent in birds; the entire body cavity acts as a [[bellows]] to move air through the lungs. The active phase of respiration in birds is exhalation, requiring effort of the musculature.
==Circulatory System==
Birds have [[four chambered heart]]s, just like humans, most mammals, and some [[crocodilian|reptiles]]. This adaptation allows for efficient neutrient dispersion throughout the body which provides birds with the energy they need to fly and lead highly active lives. Some birds have a heart rate of 1000 beats per minute, that is about 16.5 beats per second {{citation required}}.
==Other anatomy==
[[Image:Bird.parts.jpg|thumb|200px|Anatomy of a typical bird]]
Birds possess a ''ventriculus'', or [[gizzard]], that is composed of four muscular bands that act to rotate and crush food by shifting the food from one area to the next within the gizzard. Depending on the species, the gizzard may contain small pieces of grit or stone that the bird has swallowed to aid in the grinding process of [[digestion]]. For birds in captivity, only certain species of birds require grit in their diet for digestion. The use of gizzard stones is a similarity between birds and dinosaurs, which left gizzard stones called [[gastrolith]]s as [[trace fossil]]s.
Birds also have [[skeleton]]s possessing unique characteristics. ''See [[bird skeleton]].''
The region between the eye and bill on the side of a bird's head is called a ''lore''. This region is sometimes featherless, and the skin may be tinted (as in many species of the [[cormorant]] family).
==Birds and humans==
[[Image:penguinu.jpg|thumb|Chinstrap Penguin]][[image:iso_linnunpontto.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Birdbox]] is an artificial platform for birds to make a nest]]
Birds are an important food source for [[human]]s. The most commonly eaten species is the domestic [[chicken]] and its [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s, although [[goose|geese]], [[pheasant]]s, [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s, and [[duck]]s are also widely eaten. Other birds that have been utilized for food include [[emu]]s, [[ostrich]]es, [[pigeon]]s, [[grouse]], [[quail]]s, [[dove]]s, [[woodcock]]s, [[songbird]]s, and others, including small [[passerine]]s such as [[finch]]es. Birds grown for human consumption are refered to as [[Poultry]].
At one time [[swan]]s and [[flamingo]]s were delicacies of the rich and powerful, although these are generally protected now.
Many species have become extinct through over-hunting, such as the [[Passenger Pigeon]], and many others have become endangered or extinct through [[habitat destruction]], [[deforestation]] and intensive [[agriculture]] being common causes for declines.
Numerous species have come to depend on human activities for food and are widespread to the point of being pests. For example, the common pigeon or [[Rock Dove]] (''Columba livia'') thrives in urban areas around the world. In North America, introduced [[House Sparrow]]s, [[Commo
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the other hand, Genesis, in its present form, purports to give a record of beliefs prior to any surviving religious texts, describing the worship of other gods and local deities as a gradual development among the nations, who departed from original monotheism.
*The primary purpose of the book is not historical or legal, but to explain man's origins, and to describe man's relationship to God, and how man's relationship to man must be seen in that light.
*God created an eternal, unbreakable [[covenant]] with all mankind at the time of Noah; this is known as the [[Noachide covenant]]. This universal concern with all mankind is paralleled by a second covenant made to the descendants of [[Abraham]] in particular, through his son [[Isaac]], in which their descendants will be chosen to have a special destiny.
*The Jewish people are [[Chosen people|chosen to be in a special covenant]] with God; God says to Abraham "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great; and you shall be a blessing. I will bless them that bless you, and curse him that curses you; and in you shall all families of the earth be blessed". God often repeats the promise that Abraham's descendants shall be as numerous as the stars in heaven and as the sand on the seashore.
The article on [[Biblical cosmology]] discusses the Bible's view of the cosmos, much of which derives from descriptions in Genesis.
== Summary ==
===Creation===
{{main articles|[[Creation (theology)]] and [[Creation according to Genesis]]}}
The creation narrative in genesis can be split into two sections - the first section starts with an account of the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] of the [[universe]] by God, which occurs in six days, the second section is more human-oriented, and less concerned with explaining how the Earth, its creatures and its features came to exist as they are today.
Within the first section, on the first day God created light; on the second, the [[firmament of heaven]]; on the third, he separated water and land, and created plant life; on the fourth day he created the sun, moon, and stars; on the fifth day marine life and birds; on the sixth day land animals, and man and woman. On the seventh day, the [[Sabbath]], God rested, and sanctified the day.
Some may wonder whether it was this chapter of the Hebrew Bible that gives us our seven-day week, and may further speculate about the importance of the number seven. However, research into the origin of the [[week]] tells us that it was widely spread throughout the ancient world, so widely that apart from claims such as Genesis, its origins cannot be determined with certainty.
The second section of the creation narrative explains that the earth was lifeless, how God brought moisture to the soil and how man was formed from the dust ([[Adam and Eve|Adam]] translates from Hebrew to mean 'Red Earth').
=== Adam and Eve ===
God formed [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] out of earth ("adamah"), and set him in the [[Garden of Eden]], to watch over it. Adam is allowed to eat of all the fruit within it, except that of the "[[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]]." God then brings all the animals to Adam, to serve as company for him. Adam gives names to all the animals, but finds no comfort in his loneliness. God then puts him into a deep sleep, takes a rib from his side, and from it forms a woman (called later "Eve"), to be a companion.
Eve is convinced by a talking [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] to eat of the forbidden fruit. Eve wisely questions the serpent and hesitates to take a bite. But after she finds it pleasant, Eve offers the fruit to Adam to eat it as well (the "[[original sin]]" in traditional Christian interpretation). Adam asks no questions. He immediately takes a bite. As punishment the ground is cursed, the death sentence is imposed (although it takes some time to be fulfilled), and Adam and Eve are driven out of the garden. The entrance to the garden is then guarded by ''[[cherub]]im'' with a flaming sword.
Adam and Eve initially have two sons, [[Cain]] and [[Abel]]. There is a [[Chiastic structure]] in the first few verses relating Cain to Abel. Cain grows envious of the favor found by his brother before God, and slays him. The first murder is that of a brother. Cain is sentenced to wander over the earth as a fugitive. He finally settles in the [[Land of Nod|land of Nod]].
[[Enoch]], one of Cain's sons, builds the first city. Another descendant, Lamech, takes two wives. Lamech's sons are the first dwellers in tents and owners of herds, and they are the earliest inventors of musical instruments and workers in brass and iron. Cain's descendants know nothing about God.
Another son, [[Seth]], has in the meantime been born to Adam and Eve in place of the slain Abel. Seth's descendants never lose thought of God. The tenth in regular descent is [[Noah]]. Adam and Eve also have other sons and daughters. In line with most of the other biblical characters born before the flood whose ages are provided, Adam lived until the age of 930.
Note: the stories of Adam and Eve and Cain and Abel also appear in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== Noah and the great flood ===
In response to the wickedness of mankind, God decides to cleanse the world and start again. God selects one man's family, the family of [[Noah]], to survive the flood, as Noah is the most righteous man of his generation. God commands him to build a large ark, since the work of destruction is to be accomplished by means of a great flood. Noah obeys the command, entering the ark together with his family. Into this ark they bring a mating pair of each kind of animal and bird on Earth. Water bursts out of the ground and falls from the sky, and the world is flooded, destroying all living beings (just of the land, no reference to water animals) and saves those in the ark. When it has subsided, Noah's family leaves the ark, and God enters into a covenant with Noah and all his descendants, the entire human race. Noah plants a vineyard (ix. 20) and drinks of the produce. When, in a fit of intoxication, Noah is shamelessly treated by his son Ham, he curses the latter in the person of Ham's son Canaan, while his sons Shem and Japheth are blessed.
Chapter 10 reviews the peoples descended from Japheth, Ham, and Shem. The dispersion of humanity into separate races and nations is described in the story of the [[Tower of Babel]]. Humanity is dispersed by a "confusion of tongues," which God brought about when men attempted to build a tower that should reach up to heaven (xi. 1-9). A genealogy is given of Shem's descendants.
Note: the story of Noah also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== Abram and Sarai ===
Terah, who lives at [[Ur of the Chaldees]], has three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran's son is Lot. Nahor is married to Milcah, and Abram to Sarai, who has no children. God directs Abram to leave his home. Abram obeys, emigrating with his entire household and Lot, his brother's son, to the land of Canaan. Here God appears to him and promises that the land shall become the property of his descendants.
Abram is forced by a famine to leave the country and go to Egypt. The King of Egypt takes possession of the beautiful Sarai (whom Abram has misleadingly represented as his sister; she was in fact his half-sister). God smites the King with a disease, which the King recognizes as a sign from God; the King returns Sarai to Abram. Abram returns to Canaan, and separates from Lot in order to put an end to disputes about pasturage. He gives Lot the valley of the Jordan near Sodom. God again appears to Abram, and promises to him the whole country.
===Abram and Melchizedek===
Lot is taken prisoner by invading kings from the East during a war between Amraphel, King of Shinar, and Bera, King of Sodom, with their respective allies. Abram pursues the victors with his armed retainers. Returning with his warband after rescuing Lot and his clan, Abram is met by [[Melchizedek]], the king and high priest of Salem (Jerusalem), who blesses him, and in return Abram gives him a [[tithe]] of his booty, refusing his share of the same. After this exploit God again appears to Abram and promises him protection, a rich reward, and numerous progeny. These descendants will pass four hundred years in servitude in a strange land; but after God has judged their oppressors they shall leave the land of their affliction, and the fourth generation shall return to Canaan.
=== Hagar and Ishmael ===
Sarai is childless, so Sarai and Abram decide that they will produce an heir for Abram through his Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]]. Abram takes her as a concubine and has a child with her, [[Ishmael]]. God again appears to Abram, and enters into a personal covenant with him securing Abram's future: God promises him a numerous progeny, changes his name to "[[Abraham]]" and that of Sarai to "[[Sarah]]," and institutes the [[circumcision]] of all males as an eternal sign of the covenant.
=== Sodom and Gomorrah ===
God sends Abraham three [[angel]]s, whom Abraham receives hospitably. They announce to him that he will have a son within a year, although he and his wife are already very old. Abraham also hears that God's messengers intend to execute judgment upon the wicked inhabitants of [[Sodom]] and Gomorrah, whereupon he intercedes for the sinners, and endeavors to have their fate set aside. Two of the messengers go to Sodom, where they are hospitably received by Lot. The men of the city wish to have sexual relations with them. Having thus shown that they have deserved their fate, Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed by [[fire and brimstone|fire-and-brimstone]].
Only Lot and his two daughters are saved. Lot's [[incest]]uous relationship with his
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r his [[evolution|evolutionary]] theories. Huxley understandably excelled in the areas he took up professionally, for on his father's side were a number of noted men of [[science]], while on his mother's were people of [[literature|literary]] accomplishment.
Huxley was a lanky, delicately framed child who was gifted intellectually. His father was a professional [[herbalist]] as well as an author, so Aldous began his learning in his father's well-equipped [[botanical]] [[laboratory]], then continued in a school named Hillside, which his mother supervised for several years until she became terminally ill. From the age of nine, Aldous was then educated in the British [[boarding school]] system. He took readily to the handling of ideas.
His mother Julia died in [[1908]], when Aldous was only fourteen, and his sister Roberta died of an unrelated incident in the same month. Three years later Aldous suffered an illness ([[Keratitis|keratitis punctata]]) which seriously damaged his eyesight. His older brother Trev committed [[suicide]] in 1914. Aldous's near-[[blindness]] disqualified him from service in [[World War I]]. Once his eyesight recovered, he was able to read [[English literature]] at [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], where he was a member of the [[Cambridge Apostles]].
Maturing as a lean young man well over six feet in height, the cerebrotonic Huxley's initial interest in literature was primarily intellectual. While he was noted for his personal kindliness, only considerably later (some say under the influence of such friends as [[D.H. Lawrence]]) did he heartily embrace ''feelings'' as matters of importance in his evolving personal philosophy and literary expression.
Following his education at [[Balliol]], Huxley was financially indebted to his father and had to earn a living. For a short while in [[1918]], he was employed acquiring provisions at the [[Air Ministry]]. But never desiring a career in administration (or in business), Huxley's lack of inherited means propelled him into applied literary work.
Huxley had completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties. He wrote great novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on [[pacifism|pacifist]] themes (e.g. ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]''). Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]] and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''.
===Middle years===
Already a noted [[satire|satirist]] and social thinker, during [[World War I]], Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]], home of Lady [[Ottoline Morrell]]. Later, in ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]]) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. He married Maria Nys, whom he had met at Garsington. They had one child, Matthew, who grew up to be an [[epidemiologist]].
Huxley moved to [[Hollywood, California| Hollywood]], [[California]] in [[1937]] with his wife and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] and [[meditation|meditating]]. In Huxley's 1937 book ''Ends and Means'', most people in modern civilization agree that they want a world of 'liberty, peace, justice, and brotherly love', though they haven't been able to agree on how to achieve it. His book goes on to explore why the confusion or disagreement is there and what might be done about it.
In [[1938]] Huxley befriended [[J. Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a [[Vedantist]] in the circle of [[Swami]] [[Swami Prabhavananda | Prabhavananda]], and he also introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''The Perennial Philosophy'', which discussed teachings of the world's great mystics.
For most of his life since the illness in his teens which left Huxley nearly blind, his eyesight was poor (despite the partial recovery which had enabled him to study at Oxford). Around 1939 he heard of the [[Bates Method]] for [[Natural Vision Improvement]], and of a teacher (Margaret Corbett) who was able to teach him in the method. He claimed his sight improved dramatically as a result of using the method, then later wrote a book about it (The Art of Seeing) which was published in 1942 (US), 1943 (UK). He reported that for the first time in over 25 years, he was able to read without [[glasses|spectacles]] and without strain. He was a [[screenwriter]] for the [[1940]] production of [[Pride and Prejudice]].
===Later years===
After World War II Huxley applied for [[United States]] citizenship, but was denied because he would not say he would take up arms to defend America. He became a [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Thereafter, his works were strongly influenced by [[mysticism]] and his experiences with the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]] [[mescaline]], to which he was introduced by the psychiatrist [[Humphry Osmond]] in [[1953]]. His years on psychoactive drugs were described as a paradise, washed down with [[bourbon]], generally. He was a pioneer of self-directed psychedelic drug use in a search for enlightenment, famously taking 100 micrograms of [[LSD]] as he lay dying. Huxley's [[psychedelic]] [[Recreational drug use|drug]] experiences are described in the essays ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' (the title deriving from some lines in the book ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]'' by [[William Blake]]) and ''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]''. The title of the former became the inspiration for the naming of the [[Rock (music)|rock]] band, [[The Doors]]. Some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading among early [[hippies]].
Huxley's main interest was not in just ''anything'' vague, mysterious, or subjective, but in what is sometimes termed "higher mysticism"; he liked the term "[[perennial philosophy]]" that he used as the title of his noted book on the topic. During the 1950s, Huxley's interest in the related field of [[psychical research]] grew keener.
Huxley's wife, Maria, died of [[breast cancer]] in [[1955]], and in [[1956]] he remarried, to [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]], who was herself an author and who wrote a [[biography]] of Aldous. In [[1960]], Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer|throat cancer]]. In the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the utopian novel ''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'', and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" at the [[Esalen]] institute. In [[1959]] Huxley, who remained a [[British Citizen]], turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold_MacMillan#Government|Macmillan government]].
His ideas were foundational to the forming of the [[Human Potential Movement]]. He was also invited to speak at several prestigious American universities. At a speech given in [[1961]] at the California Medical School in [[San Francisco]], Huxley warned: "There will be in the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude and producing dictatorship without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless [[concentration camp]] for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it," an idea not dissimilar to his contemporary writer [[J. B. Priestley]]'s idea in [[The Magicians]].
Huxley's views on the proper roles of science and technology (as he portrayed these, say, in ''Island'') are akin to some other noted English and American thinkers of the twentieth century, such as [[Lewis Mumford]] and Huxley's friend [[Gerald Heard]] (and, in some ways, [[Buckminster Fuller]] and [[E.F. Schumacher]]). Clearly, these men found descendants in some significant movers of a younger generation, e.g., [[Stewart Brand]].
Via Gerald Heard, Huxley was introduced to the young [[Huston Smith]], who went on to become a prolific and famous scholar on the religions of man. The two friends acquianted Smith with Vedanta and meditative practice. Later, while Huxley was a guest professor at [[M.I.T.]], he made introductions between Smith and [[Timothy Leary]] that lead to epiphanies Smith covers in his later book, ''Cleansing of the Doors of Perception''.<sup>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591810086]</sup>
Amongst humanists, Huxley was considered an intellectual's intellectual. Although his financial circumstances had forced him to churn out articles and books, his thinking and ''best'' writing earned him an exalted esteem. His books were frequently on the required reading lists of English and modern philosophy courses in American colleges and universities. He was one of the twentieth-century thinkers honoured in the Scribners Publishing's "Leaders of Modern Thought" series (a volume of biography and literary criticism by Philip Thody, ''Aldous Huxley'').
===Death and afterwards===
On his deathbed, unable to speak, he made a written request to his wife for "[[LSD]], 100 [[microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|i.m.]]" She obliged, and he died peacefully the following morning, [[November 22]], [[1963]]. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of the [[Ireland|Irish]] author [[C. S. Lewis]].
In all of Huxley's mature writings, one finds an awareness that seems to bridge the gap between "[[The Two Cultures]]" &ndash; the [[sciences]] and the [[humanities]]. This gulf posed a potentially enormous problem, one that was recognized by other thinkers during Huxley's lifetime, such as [[C.P. Snow]]. The interest among professors of humanities and [[liberal arts]] in Huxley's work, both during the writer's lifetime and afterwards, rests on this consciousness on the part of the author, and of course on the artful and often humorous way in wh
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d_news]. Israel alleges that Hezbollah had been increasingly involved in training and arming [[Hamas]] (see section in this article: ''Hezbollah activities in the al-Aqsa Intifada''.) This claim has been strengthened by Nasrallah's own words. In 2001 Jordan arrested three Hezbollah members attempting to smuggle Katyusha rockets into the West Bank. Nasrallah responded that "it is a duty to send arms to Palestinians from any possible place."[http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/2004/0914lcard.htm][http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=5&article_id=6519] After Israel's assassination of Hamas leader Sheikh [[Ahmed Yassin]] Hezbollah attacked the IDF along the [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]][http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?article_ID=1315&categ_ID=2&edition_id=1]. Most recently, during Awwali's funeral, Nasrallah proclaimed that Awwali was "among the team that dedicated their lives in the last few years to help their brothers in occupied Palestine"[http://www.moqawama.org/archive/drep_2004/july/dr_0720.htm], which some take to refer to aiding Hamas. On [[February 9]], [[2005]] [[Palestinian Authority]] officials blamed Hezbollah of attempting to derail the recent truce between Israel and Palestine by offering increased funding and bonuses to the militant cells it operates in Israel and Palestine for any attack they carry out[http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=574&ncid=721&e=1&u=/nm/20050209/wl_nm/mideast_hizbollah_dc] [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=540&ncid=736&e=1&u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat].
====UN resolution 1559====
On [[September 2]], [[2004]], the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]], coauthored by France and the United States. Echoing the [[Taif Agreement]], the resolution "calls upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias." Lebanon is currently in violation of Resolution 1559 over its refusal to disband the military wing of Hezbollah. Syria was also in violation of the resolution until recently because of their military presence in Lebanon
On [[October 7]], [[2004]] the [[UN Secretary General]] [[Kofi Annan]] reported to the Security Council regarding the lack of compliance with Resolution 1559. Mr. Annan concluded his report by saying: "It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history." [http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=12147&Cr=lebanon&Cr1=]
The [[January 20]], [[2005]] UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated that "The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the [[Shab'a farms]] area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions. The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel’s withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978). The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council’s repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety." [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8299.doc.htm]
On [[January 28]], [[2005]] [[UN Security Council Resolution 1583]] called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its '''sole and effective''' authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it. [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8299.doc.htm]
On [[January 23]], [[2006]] The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts. In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the Council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=17263&Cr=middle&Cr1=leban].
====Hezbollah activities in the al-Aqsa Intifada====
''Main article'': [[al-Aqsa Intifada]]
In [[December 2001|December]] [[2001]] three Hezbollah operatives were caught in Jordan while attempting to smuggle [[Katyusha|BM-13 Katyusha]] rockets into the West Bank. Nasrallah responded that "It is a duty to send arms to Palestinians from any possible place."[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=5&article_id=6519]
During [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]], the [[Israeli Security Forces]] thwarted numerous [[suicide bombing]] attacks, some of which Israel claims were planned and funded by Hezbollah and were to have been carried out by [[Tanzim]] ([[Fatah]]'s armed wing) activists. Israeli officials accused Hezbollah of aiding [[Palestinian terrorism]] and participating in weapon smuggling (see also: [[Santorini]], [[Karin A]]).
On [[June 16]], [[2004]], two Palestinian girls — aged 14 and 15 — were arrested by the [[Israeli Defence Forces]] for plotting a suicide bombing. [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/439981.html] According to IDF statement, the two minors were recruited by [[Tanzim]] activists, and guided by Hezbollah. [http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&id=7&docid=32081.EN]
On [[June 23]], [[2004]], another allegedly Hezbollah-funded [[suicide bombing]] attack was foiled by the [[Israeli security forces]]. [http://www.maarivintl.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article&articleID=8960].
In [[February 2005|February]] [[2005]] the [[Palestinian Authority]] accused Hezbollah of attempting to derail the truce signed with Israel. Palestinian officials and former militants described how Hezbollah promised an increase in funding for any cell able to carry out a terrorist attack [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=540&ncid=736&e=1&u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat].
Since the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal, Hezbollah has continued fighting the [[IDF]] around the disputed 10 km²-[[Shebaa Farms]] area on the Lebanese-Syrian border. Although the UN regards Shebaa Farms — 14 farms on the western slope of Mount Hermon, near the village of Shebaa &mdash; as Syrian territory, Hezbollah considers the area a part of Lebanon. The Shebaa farms were taken by Israel from Syria during the [[Six-Day War|1967 war]]. Syria was asked to notify the UN that it considered the Shebaa farms to be part of Lebanon, but no official statement was ever sent. This has led some specialists to believe that Hezbollah’s attempt to recapture the area was a Syrian-backed pretext to keep Israel under military pressure. Some argue that Hezbollah is being used by Syria and Iran as a [[proxy]] against Israel. [http://www.merip.org/mero/mero042803.html]
====Hezbollah and the "Cedar Revolution"====
After the assassination of [[Rafik Hariri]] in February 2005 Hezbollah strongly supported Syria's presence through demonstrations. It opposed the [[cedar revolution]] which resulted in Syria's withdrawal. However Hezbollah won the biggest number of representatives in its history during the parliamentary elections of May 2005 and managed to join the [[Lebanese government of July 2005|government in July 2005]] in the name of national unity. Hezbollah still holds a large quantity of weapons and the subject remains extremely controversial in Lebanon.
====Hezbollah activities following the "Cedar Revolution"====
During the months following (Hezbollah's main backer) Syria's April 2005 withdrawal from Lebanon, international and domestic pressure has mounted on Hezbollah to dismantle its military wing and become solely a political party. On [[November 21]], [[2005]] Hezbollah launched a heavy attack along the entire border with Israel which was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of [[Al-Ghajar]][http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=648271&contrassID=1&subContrassID=5]. The attacked failed when an ambush by the IDF [[Paratroopers]] killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/objects/pages/PrintArticleEn.jhtml?itemNo=648771]. The IDF then responded with a heavy attack which destroyed Hezbollah's front line outposts and communication centers. The scope of the attack forced a rare request by Lebanon (whose army does not control southern Lebanon) for a cease-fire. Following the attack the UN Security Council denounced Hezbollah[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=16671&Cr=middle&Cr1=east]. Commentators have speculated that the attack was an attempt to draw Israel into renewed conflict in Lebanon, alleviating diplomatic pressure on it's backers Syria (which is under investigation for the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri) and Iran (which is under UN investigation regarding alleged violations of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]])[http://www.defense-update.com/2005/12/al-ghajar-village-flashpoint.html].
On [[December 27]], [[2005]] Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the northern Israeli city of [[Kiryat Shmona]] wounding three people[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051228/wl_nm/mideast_attack_dc_6]. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government "to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all s
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as written and performed by Gary Portnoy<ref>Gary Portnoy (2006). [http://www.garyportnoy.com/ Portnoy's personal site]</ref> with its famous refrain, "where everybody knows your name" that also became the show's [[tagline]].<ref>Lyrics on Demand (2006). [http://www.lyricsondemand.com/tvthemes/cheerslyrics.html Lyrics to the "''Cheers'' Theme"]</ref>
After premiering on [[September 30]], [[1982]], it was nearly cancelled during its first season when it ranked dead last in ratings.<ref>Blogcritics.org (January 22th, 2004) (2006). [http://blogcritics.org/archives/2004/01/22/210120.php Blog on the History of ''Cheers'']</ref><ref name="toastingcheers"><u>Toasting ''Cheers'': An Episode Guide to the 1982-1993 Comedy Series, with cast biographies and character profiles</u>. Bjorklund, Dennis A. 1997, McFarland & Company, Inc. Jefferson, North Carolina.</ref> However, ''Cheers'' eventually became one of the most [[Nielsen Ratings|popular television shows]] in the United States, earning a top-ten rating during seven of its eleven seasons and spending the bulk of its run on [[NBC]]'s [[Must See TV|Must See Thursday]] lineup. Its [[List of most-watched television episodes|widely watched]] [[series finale]] was broadcast on [[May 20]], [[1993]], and the show's 273 [[List of Cheers episodes|episodes]] have now entered into a long and successful [[Television syndication|syndication]] run. The show earned 26 [[Emmy Award]]s, out of a total of 117 nominations.<ref name="awards1">IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/awards Awards for ''Cheers'']</ref> The character [[Frasier Crane]] ([[Kelsey Grammer]]) later starred in his own successful [[List of television spin-offs|spin-off]], ''[[Frasier]]'', after ''Cheers'' ended.
==Cast==
[[Image:Cheers cast photo.jpg|thumb|right|270px|The main cast of ''Cheers'' after season 5<br>(from left to right): (top) [[John Ratzenberger]], [[Roger Rees]], [[Woody Harrelson]] (middle) [[Rhea Perlman]], [[Ted Danson]], [[Kirstie Alley]], [[George Wendt]] (bottom) [[Kelsey Grammer]], [[Bebe Neuwirth]].]]
:''For a full list of characters with articles, see [[:Category:Cheers characters|the individual character articles]]''
''Cheers'' maintained an [[ensemble cast]], keeping roughly the same set of characters for the entire run. Numerous secondary characters and love interests for these characters appeared intermittently to complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group.
The table below summarizes the main cast of ''Cheers''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Character
! Actor/Actress
! Position
! Other Jobs
|-
| [[Woody Boyd|Woodrow 'Woody' Boyd]]
| [[Woody Harrelson]]
| Assistant Bartender
| Actor
|-
| [[Diane Chambers]]
| [[Shelley Long]]
| Waitress
| Writer
|-
| [[Clifford Clavin]]
| [[John Ratzenberger]]
| Customer
| Mailman
|-
| [[Frasier Crane]]
| [[Kelsey Grammer]]
| Customer
| [[Psychiatrist]]
|-
| [[Rebecca Howe]]
| [[Kirstie Alley]]
| Manager/Waitress
| Businesswoman
|-
| [[Sam Malone]]
| [[Ted Danson]]
| Bartender/Owner
| [[Pitcher]]
|-
| [[Coach Ernie Pantusso|Ernie 'Coach' Pantusso]]
| [[Nicholas Colasanto]]
| Assistant Bartender
| Sam's [[Coach (sport)|coach]]
|-
| [[Norm Peterson]]
| [[George Wendt]]
| Customer
| [[Accountancy|Accountant]]
|-
| [[Lilith Sternin]]
| [[Bebe Neuwirth]]
| Customer
| [[Psychiatrist]]
|-
| [[Carla Tortelli]]
| [[Rhea Perlman]]
| Waitress
| [[Homemaker]]
|}
The character of Sam Malone was originally intended to be a retired [[American football]] player, but after casting Ted Danson, it was decided that a former [[relief pitcher]] for the [[Boston Red Sox]] would be more believable.<ref>TV1 (2006). [http://www.tv1.com.au/show.asp?id=17&content=trivia TV1 - ''Cheers'']</ref> The character of Cliff Clavin was created for John Ratzenberger after he auditioned for ''Cheers''. While chatting with producers afterward, he asked if they were going to include a "bar know-it-all", the part which he eventually played.<ref>Newport Under the Stars (2005)(2006). [http://newportunderthestars.com/newport/johnsbio.html John Ratzenberger's Newport Under the Stars]</ref> Alley joined the cast when Long left, and Harrelson joined when Colasanto died. [[Ted Danson]], [[George Wendt]], and [[Rhea Perlman]] were the only actors to appear in every episode of the series. [[Paul Willson]], who played the recurring [[barfly]] character of "Paul", made early appearances in the first season as "Glen", was credited as "Gregg", and also appeared in the show as a character named "Tom".<ref>IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0932750/bio Trivia for Paul Willson]</ref>
===Guest stars===
Although ''Cheers'' operated largely around that main ensemble cast, [[guest star|guest stars]] did occasionally supplement them. Notable repeat guests included [[Jay Thomas]] as [[Eddie LeBec]], [[Dan Hedaya]] as [[Nick Tortelli]], [[Jean Kasem]] as [[Loretta Tortelli]], and [[Roger Rees]] as [[Robin Colcord]]. Other celebrities guest starred in single episodes as themselves throughout the series. Some sports figures appeared on the show as former teammates of Sam's from the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] such as [[Luis Tiant]] and [[Wade Boggs]], while others appeared with no connection to ''Cheers'' such as [[Kevin McHale]] or [[Mike Ditka]]. Some television stars also made guest appearances such as [[Johnny Gilbert]], [[Alex Trebek]], [[Arsenio Hall]], and [[Johnny Carson]]. Some political figures even made appearances on ''Cheers'' such as then-[[Speaker of the House|Speaker]] [[Tip O'Neill]], [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[John Kerry]], and then-[[Governor#United States|Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] (all of whom represented Cheers' [[Massachusetts|home state]]). [[John Cleese]] won an Emmy for his guest appearance as "Dr. Simon Finch-Royce" in a fifth season episode "Simon Says".<ref>IMDb (2006). [http://imdb.com/title/tt0083399/guests Guest Stars for ''Cheers'']</ref>
==Production==
The concept for ''Cheers'' was the end result of a long consideration process. The original idea was a group of workers who interacted like a family, hoping to be similar to ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]''. They considered making an American version of the [[United Kingdom|British]] ''[[Fawlty Towers]]'' centered around a hotel or an inn. When the creators settled on a bar as their setting the show began to resemble the [[Radio programming|radio show]] ''[[Duffy's Tavern]]''. They liked the idea of a tavern as it provided a continuous stream of new people arriving, giving them a constant supply of characters. <ref name="toastingcheers"/>
After choosing a plot, the three had to choose a location. Early discussions centered around [[Barstow, California]], though they eventually turned to the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] and Boston. The Bull & Finch Pub in Boston that Cheers was styled after was originally chosen from a [[Telephone directory|phone book]]. When Glen Charles asked the owner to shoot initial [[Establishing shot|exterior]] and interior shots the owner agreed, charging 1[[United States Dollar|$]]. He has since gone on to make millions, licensing the pub's image and selling a variety of ''Cheers'' memorabilia, making the Bull & Finch the 42nd busiest outlet in the American food and beverage industry in [[1997]]. Ironically during Shelley Long's casting (who was in Boston at the time filming ''[[A Small Circle of Friends]]'') she remarked that the bar in the script resembled a bar she had come upon in Boston, which turned out to be the Bull & Finch.<ref name="toastingcheers"/>
Most ''Cheers'' episodes were shot before a live studio audience on Paramount Stage 25, generally on Tuesday nights. Scripts for a new episode were issued the Wednesday before for a [[read-through]], Friday was [[rehearsal]] day, and final scripts were issued on Monday. Nearly 100 crewmembers were involved in the shooting of a single episode. Burrows, who directed most episodes, insisted on shooting on [[film]] rather than [[videotape]]. He was also noted for using motion in his directorial style, trying to always keep characters moving rather than standing still.<ref name="toastingcheers"/>
===Crew===
The crew of ''Cheers'' numbered in the hundreds thus this section only provides a brief summary of the many crewmembers for the show. The three creators - [[James Burrows]], [[Glen Charles]], and [[Les Charles]] - stayed on throughout the series as executive producers.<ref>IMDb (2006). [http://imdb.com/title/tt0083399/fullcredits Full Cast and Crew]</ref> In fact, the two Charles brothers kept offices on Paramount's lot for the duration of ''Cheers'' run. However, in the final seasons they handed over much of the show to Burrows. Burrows is regarded as being a factor in the show's longevity, directing 243 of the episodes and supervising the show's production.<ref name="toastingcheers"/>
[[David Angell]] was also a part of the crew from the start, writing many ''Cheers'' episodes.{{ref label|fullcred|9|a}} The show was often noted for its writing<ref name="chardevelop">The Museum of Broadcast Communications (2006). </ref><ref name="toastingcheers"/> which most credit along with other production factors and the ensemble cast for ''Cheers'' success.
==Awards==
Over its eleven-season run, ''Cheers'' and its cast and crew earned many awards. Most notably, ''Cheers'' earned 117 [[Emmy Awards|Emmy]] nominations, edging out [[ER (TV series)|ER]] (115 [[as of 2005]]) for the most Emmy nominations for a single series.<ref>Emmy Awards (2005)(2006). [http://www.emmys.tv/downloads/ List of Emmy facts] [http://ww
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after the release of the second system before its death, several of which were developed at Fairchild before they sold it off.
A number of licensed versions were released in Europe, including the '''Luxor Video Entertainment System''' in Sweden, '''Adman Grandstand''' in the UK, and the '''Saba Videoplay''', '''Nordmende Teleplay''' and '''ITT Tele-Match Processor''', from Germany.
== Playing Channel F over the phone ==
By the use of some special circuitry, it is possible to turn voice into simple digital signals. In the 70s, it seems someone did just this to Channel F. The voice input could be connected to a phone line, and thus someone on a phone at the other end could make loud noises to trigger the button on a Channel F.
It appears this was employed in a TV show which aired as a locally produced show in many markets in the US (some say a human merely listened to the pows and pressed a controller button instead of a circuit doing it). There were also reports of the same kind of show airing in Australia. This show was usually called "TV Pow". It was organized as a call-in game show. A person would send a letter to say they wanted to be on the show, and the organizers would select contestants and arrange to call them during the show. The host would small talk with the contestant a while and prep them to play the game. When the host said "go", the output of a Channel F playing shooting gallery would be aired on the station. The voice of the contestant could be heard over the game, and the contestant could only activate the "fire" functionality of the game by saying a world loudly into the phone (the word "pow" was suggested and usually used).
Shooting Gallery was comprised of a target which would move down the far right-hand side of the screen at an even rate. Somewhere left of that target (it varied) would be the player's "gun". The gun looked exactly like the "bat" in Pong, although sometimes it would be turned at a 45 degree angle. When the player fired the "bullet" would come out perpendicular to the gun in the middle of the long sides.
To play TV Pow, the player would have to watch the target move down the screen on the TV station and say "pow" into the phone when he wanted to fire at the target. The system would then fire at the target. Once the target passed by the spot the gun was aimed at, the player could only wait until the target went off the bottom and came out at the top again for a fresh run.
Even in the days of all-analog production, there was significant lag in producing and transmitting a TV signal. The player would experience all this lag and it must have made playing the game somewhat more difficult.
=== Strategies ===
Perhaps due to this lag or perhaps just because most of the contestants were somewhat young and impatient, very often the player would throw any kind of ideas of timing out the window and just bark "pow pow pow pow pow" into the phone to fire as fast and as often as possible. It at times seemed like a kind of a speed contest, with the words from the fastest contestants running together.
== Technical specifications ==
* CPU chip: [[Fairchild F8]] operating at 1.79 [[megahertz|MHz]]
* RAM: 64 [[bytes]], 16 [[kilobytes]] VRAM
* Resolution: 128 &times; 64 [[pixel]]s, 102 &times; 58 pixels visible
* Colors: eight colors (four color max. per line)
* Audio: 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 1.5 kHz tones (can be modulated quickly to produce different tones)
* Input: two custom game controllers, hardwired to the console
* Output: [[RF modulator|RF modulated]] composite video signal, cord hardwired to console
== External links ==
* [http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=890 Fairchild Channel F at <code>OLD-COMPUTERS.COM</code>]
* [http://zappa.brainiac.com/cdyer/faqs/fairv2.htm Channel F FAQ from rec.games.video.classic]
* [http://www.linkcableoftime.com/consolemakers/fairchild.htm History of the companies behind the Channel F @ Link Cable of Time]
* [http://www.mess.org/ The MESS Project] (with Channel F [[emulator|emulation]])
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm The Dot Eaters article] with a history of the Channel F and games
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[de:Channel F]]
[[fr:Channel F]]
[[it:Fairchild Channel F]]
[[sv:Fairchild Channel F]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Collation</title>
<id>7489</id>
<revision>
<id>40299205</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T17:13:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.5.11.110</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alphabetical redirects here. For the alphabet, [[Alphabet|click here]]. For the meal, see [[collations]].''
In [[textual criticism]] and [[bibliography]], '''[[collation]]''' is the reading of two (or more) texts side-by-side in order to note their differences.
In [[printing]] and [[photocopying]], '''collation''' is the arrangement of pages in order when several copies of a document are [[bookbinding|bound]] after printing or copying.
'''Collation''' can also refer to the detailed [[bibliography|bibliographical description]] of a book or the comparison of the physical makeup of two copies of a book.
In [[library and information science]] and [[computer science]], '''collation''' is the assembly of written information into a standard order. In common usage, this is called '''alphabetisation''', though collation is not limited to ordering letters of the [[alphabet]]. Collating lists of words or names into alphabetical order is the basis of most office filing systems, library catalogues, and books of reference.
Collation differs from '''classification''' in that classification is concerned with arranging information into logical categories, while collation is concerned with the [[partial order]]ing of those categories.
Collation differs from a [[sort algorithm]] in that whereas sort algorithms decide which pairs of elements to compare, collation defines a [[total order]] '''&le;''' on pairs that the sort algorithm uses to determine when to swap the elements (usually a [[lexicographical order]]). In fact, sort algorithms are often implemented to take a collation as an input.
==Collation systems==
===Numerical sorting===
The simplest collation system is '''numerical sorting''': ordering numbers by their magnitude.
For example, the list of numbers ''4 · 17 · 3 · 5'' collates to ''3 · 4 · 5 · 17''.
While this might appear to work only for numbers, [[computer]]s can use this method for any textual information since computers internally use [[character set]]s which assign a numeric ''code point'' to each letter or [[glyph]].
For example, a computer using [[ASCII]] code (or any of its [[superset]]s such as [[Unicode]]) and numerical sorting would collate the list of characters ''a · b · C · d · $'' to ''$ · C · a · b · d''.
Why the curious "[[ASCIIbetical order]]"?
The numerical values that ASCII uses are ''$'' = 36, ''a'' = 97, ''b'' = 98, ''C'' = 67, and ''d'' = 100.
This style of collation is commonly used, often with the refinement of converting uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values, since most people do not expect capitalised words to jump the head of the list.
This system fails to properly sort numbers written as text because a human-readable number stored in a computer text string is a sequence of numeric codes for [[numeral]]s.
For example, ''156.1'' (a string) is represented by ASCII code as the five ordered numbers 49, 53, 54, 46, and 49; ''35.29'' corresponds to 51, 53, 46, 50, and 57; because 49 comes before 51, ''156.1'' comes before ''35.29''.
===Alphabetical sorting===
A more elaborate collation system is '''alphabetical sorting''', which orders words or names based on the conventional order of letters in an [[alphabet]] or [[abjad]] (most of which have a single conventional order).
Each ''n''th letter is compared with the ''n''th letter of other words in the list, starting at the first letter of each word and advancing to the second, third, fourth, and so on, until the order is established.
For example, the list of words ''foo · bar · bibble'' collates to ''bar · bibble · foo'' because (1) ''f'' comes after ''b'' so ''bar'' and ''bibble'' both precede ''foo'' and (2) ''a'' comes before ''i'' so ''bar'' precedes ''bibble''.
Numerical sorting on a computer and alphabetical sorting often produce the same ordering for [[English language|English]].
The difference between computer-style numerical sorting and true alphabetical sorting becomes obvious in languages using an extended [[Latin alphabet]].
For example, the thirty-letter alphabet of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] treats ''ñ'' as a basic letter following ''n'', and formerly treated ''ch'' and ''ll'' as basic letters following ''c'', ''l'', respectively. ''Ch'' and ''ll'' are still considered letters, but are alphabetized as digraphs. (The new alphabetization rule was issued by the [[Royal Spanish Academy]] in [[1994]].
On the other hand, the letter ''rr'' follows ''rqu'' as expected, both with and without the 1994 alphabetization rule.)
A numeric sort may order ''ñ'' incorrectly following ''z'' and treat ''ch'' as ''c + h'', also incorrect when using pre-1994 alphabetization.
Similar differences between computer numeric sorting and alphabetic sorting occur in [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''aa'' is ordered as ''å'' at the end of the alphabet), [[German language|German]] (''ß'' is ordered as ''s + s''; ''ä, ö, ü'' are ordered as ''a + e, o + e, u + e'' in phone books, but as ''o'' elsewhere, and behind ''o'' in Austria), [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] (''&#240;'' follows ''d''), English (''&#230;'' is ordered as ''a + e''), and many other languages.
Usually the [[space (punctuation)|space]]s or [[hyphen]]s between words are ignored.
See also [[Latin alphabet]
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ered just under 8 million.
For workers, an all-embracing recreational organization called ''[[Kraft durch Freude]]'' ("Strength through Joy") was set up. In Nazi Germany, even hobbies were regimented; all private clubs (whether they be for chess, soccer, or woodworking) were brought under the control of KdF and, in turn, the Nazi Party. The ''Kraft durch Freude'' organization provided vacation trips (skiing, swimming, concerts, ocean cruises, and so forth). With some 25 million members, KdF was the largest of the many organizations established by the Nazis.
== Specific measures ==
In a more specific sense, ''Gleichschaltung'' refers to the legal measures taken by the government during the first months following [[January 30]], [[1933]], when [[Adolf Hitler]] became [[Chancellor of Germany]]. In this sense, the term was used by the Nazis themselves.
#One day after the [[Reichstag fire]] on [[February 27]], [[1933]], the increasingly [[senility|senile]] [[Reichspräsident|President of Germany]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]], acting at Hitler's request, issued the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]. This decree suspended most [[human rights]] provided for by the 1919 [[constitution]] of the [[Weimar Republic]] and thus allowed for the arrest of political adversaries, mostly [[Communists]], and for general terrorizing by the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] to intimidate the voters before the upcoming election.
#In this atmosphere the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' general election of [[March 5]], [[1933]] took place. These yielded only a slim majority for Hitler's [[coalition government]] and no majority for Hitler's own [[Nazi party]].
#When the newly-elected ''Reichstag'' first convened on [[March 23]], [[1933]], (not including the Communist delegates, since their party had already been banned by that time) it passed the [[Enabling Act]] (''Ermächtigungsgesetz''), transferring all legislative powers to the Nazi government and, in effect, abolishing the remainder of the Weimar constitution as a whole. Soon afterwards the government banned the [[SPD|Social Democratic]] party, which had voted against the Act, while the other parties chose to dissolve themselves to avoid arrests and [[concentration camp]] imprisonment.
# The "First ''Gleichschaltung'' Law" (''Erstes Gleichschaltungsgesetz'') ([[March 31]], [[1933]]) gave the governments of the ''[[States of Germany | Länder]]'' the same legislative powers that the ''Reich'' government had received through the Enabling Act.
# A "Second ''Gleichschaltung'' Law" (''Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz'') ([[April 7]], [[1933]]) deployed one ''Reichsstatthalter'' ([[proconsul]]) in each [[state]], apart from [[Prussia]], which had already been under Nazi control since the ''[[Preußenschlag]]'' of [[July 20]], [[1932]]. These officers were supposed to act as local [[president]]s in each state, appointing the governments. For [[Prussia]], which comprised the vast majority of Germany anyway, Hitler reserved these rights for himself.
# The trade union association ADGB (''[[Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund]]'') was shattered on [[May 2]], [[1933]] (the day after [[Labor Day]]), when [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] and NSBO (''[[Nationalsozialistische Betriebszellenorganisation]]'') units occupied union facilities and ADGB leaders were imprisoned. Other important associations were forced to merge with the [[German Labor Front]] (''Deutsche Arbeitsfront'' (DAF)) in the following months.
# The ''Gesetz gegen die Neubildung von Parteien'' ("Law against the establishment of political parties") ([[July 14]], [[1933]]) forbade any creation of new political parties.
# The ''Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches'' ("Law concerning the reconstruction of the ''Reich''") ([[January 30]], [[1934]]) abandoned the concept of a federal republic. Instead, the political institutions of the ''Länder'' were practically abolished altogether, passing all powers to the central government. A law dated [[February 14]], [[1934]] dissolved the ''[[Reichsrat (Germany)|Reichsrat]]'', the representation of the ''Länder'' at the federal level.
# In the summer of 1934, Hitler instructed the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] to kill [[Ernst Röhm]] and other leaders of the Nazi party's [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], former Chancellor [[Kurt von Schleicher]] and several aides to former Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] in the so-called [[Night of the Long Knives]] ([[June 30]], [[1934]]/[[July 1]], [[1934]]). These measures received retrospective sanction in a special one-article [[Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defense]] ''(Gesetz über Maßnahmen der Staatsnotwehr)'' ([[July 3]], [[1934]]).
# At nine o'clock in the morning of [[August 2]], [[1934]], ''[[President of Germany|Reichspräsident]]'' [[Paul von Hindenburg]] died at the age of 86. Three hours before, the government had issued a law to take effect the day of his death; this prescribed that the office of the ''Reichspräsident'' should be [[merged|united]] with that of the ''Reichskanzler'' and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the ''"[[Führer]] und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler"'', as the law stated. Hitler henceforth demanded the use of that title. Thus the last [[separation of powers]] were abolished.
Thus, Hitler was then absolute dictator of Germany until his suicide in 1945.
== Legislation ==
* [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]
* [[Enabling Act]]
* [[Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defense]]
== See also ==
* [[Nazi Germany]]
* [[Adolf Hitler]]
* [[Totalitarianism]]
* [[Centre Party (Germany)]]
== Philology ==
This [[compound word]] is better comprehended by those who speak other languages by listing its predecessory uses in German. The word ''gleich'' in German means ''alike'', ''equal'', or ''the same''; ''schaltung'' means something like ''switching''. The word Gleichschaltung had two uses in German for physical, rather than political, meanings:
# A locking [[clutch]]; manual clutches on cars usually do not press the plates one against each other, so they lose about three percent of power; some race cars use locking clutches in which the driven plate travels at the same speed as that connected to the engine; hence it wears out faster.
# A certain means of wiring an [[alternating current]] [[electrical generator]], and AC electric motors, so that when the generator is made to turn at a given speed, or even turned a certain angle, each motor connected to it will also turn at that speed, or to the same angle. This is the meaning which is most commonly referred to explain this word: the political party is considered the generator, and every member of a professional group or society is considered a motor wired to it.
However because of the Nazi associations of the term, its use for these physical meanings has largely been abandoned after the war.
== Sources; further reading ==
* Karl Kroeschell, ''Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte 3 (seit 1650),'' 2nd ed. 1989, ISBN 3-531-22139-6
* Karl Kroeschell, ''Rechtsgeschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert,'' 1992, ISBN 3-8252-1681-0
* Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online: Die Errichtung des Einparteienstaats 1933, http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/einparteienstaat/index.html
[[Category:Nazism]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Gleichschaltung]]
[[el:Gleichschaltung]]
[[es:Gleichschaltung]]
[[fr:Gleichschaltung]]
[[he:גלייכשאלטונג]]
[[fi:Gleichschaltung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glagolitic</title>
<id>12214</id>
<revision>
<id>15909916</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Glagolitic alphabet]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Cantor</title>
<id>12215</id>
<revision>
<id>15909917</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Georg Cantor]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Georg Cantor</title>
<id>12216</id>
<revision>
<id>41327278</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:40:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Knucmo2</username>
<id>116082</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Life */ colloquialism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Georg_Cantor.jpg|thumb|222px|Georg Cantor|right]]
'''Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor''' ([[March 3]], [[1845]], [[St. Petersburg]] &ndash; [[January 6]], [[1918]], [[Halle]]) was a German mathematician who is best known as the creator of [[set theory]]. Cantor established the importance of [[one-to-one correspondence]] between sets, defined [[infinite set|infinite]] and [[well-order|well-ordered sets]], and proved that the [[real number]]s "are more numerous" than the [[natural number]]s. In fact, [[Cantor's theorem]] implies the existence of an "infinity of infinities." He defined the [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number|ordinal]] numbers, and their arithmetic. Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact of which he was well aware.
Cantor's work encountered [[Controversy over Cantor's theory|resistance]] from mathematical contemporaries such as [[Leopold Kronecker]] and [[Henri Poincaré]], and later from [[Hermann Weyl]] and [[L.E.J. Brouwer]]. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] raised [[philosophical objections to Cantor's theory|philosophical objections]]. His recurring bouts of depression from 1884 to the end of his life were once blamed on the hostile attitude of many of his contemporaries, but these bouts can now be seen as probable manifestations of a [[bipolar disorder]].
Nowada
|
vember 28|28 Nov.]], [[1775]]&nbsp; || &ndash; &nbsp;
| [[August 27|27 Aug.]], [[1783]])
|-
| 2. || [[William W. Burrows]] ||
| ([[12 July]], [[1798]] || &ndash;
| [[6 March|6 Mar.]], [[1804]])
|-
| 3. || [[Franklin Wharton]] ||
| ([[7 March|7 Mar.]], [[1804]] || &ndash;
| [[September 1|1 Sept.]], [[1818]])
|-
| 4. || [[Anthony Gale]] ||
| ([[3 March|3 Mar.]], [[1819]] || &ndash;
| [[8 October|8 Oct.]], [[1820]])
|-
| 5. || [[Archibald Henderson]] ||
| ([[October 17|17 Oct.]], [[1820]] || &ndash;
| [[January 6|6 Jan.]], [[1859]])
|-
| 6. || [[John Harris (USMC)|John Harris]] ||
| ([[January 7|7 Jan.]], [[1859]] || &ndash;
| [[1 May]], [[1864]])
|-
| 7. || [[Jacob Zeilin]] ||
| ([[10 June]], [[1864]] || &ndash;
| [[October 31|31 Oct.]], [[1876]])
|-
| 8. || [[Charles G. McCawley]] ||
| ([[November 1|1 Nov.]], [[1876]] || &ndash;
| [[January 29|29 Jan.]], [[1891]])
|-
| 9. || [[Charles Heywood]] ||
| ([[30 June]], [[1891]] || &ndash;
| [[October 2|2 Oct.]], [[1903]])
|-
| 10. || [[George F. Elliott]] ||
| ([[October 3|3 Oct.]], [[1903]] || &ndash;
| [[November 30|30 Nov.]], [[1910]])
|-
| 11. || [[William P. Biddle]] ||
| ([[February 3|3 Feb.]], [[1911]] || &ndash;
| [[February 24|24 Feb.]], [[1914]])
|-
| 12. || [[George Barnett]] ||
| ([[February 25|25 Feb.]], [[1914]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1920]])
|-
| 13. || [[John A. Lejeune]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1920]] || &ndash;
| [[4 March|4 Mar.]], [[1929]])
|-
| 14. || [[Wendall C. Neville]] ||
| ([[5 March|5 Mar.]], [[1929]] || &ndash;
| [[8 July]], [[1930]])
|-
| 15. || [[Ben H. Fuller]] ||
| ([[9 July]], [[1930]] || &ndash;
| [[February 28|28 Feb.]], [[1934]])
|-
| 16. || [[John H. Russell, Jr.]] ||
| ([[1 March|1 Mar.]], [[1934]] || &ndash;
| [[November 30|30 Nov.]], [[1936]])
|-
| 17. || [[Thomas Holcomb]] ||
| ([[December 1 | 1 Dec.]], [[1936]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1943]])
|-
| 18. || [[Alexander A. Vandegrift]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1944]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1947]])
|-
| 19. || [[Clifton B. Cates]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1948]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1951]])
|-
| 20. || [[Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr.]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1952]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1955]])
|-
| 21. || [[Randolph M. Pate]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1956]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1959]])
|-
| 22. || [[David M. Shoup]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1960]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1963]])
|-
| 23. || [[Wallace M. Greene, Jr.]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1964]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1967]])
|-
| 24. || [[Leonard F. Chapman, Jr.]] ||
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1968]] || &ndash;
| [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1971]])
|-
| 25. || [[Robert Everton Cushman, Jr.]] ||
| ([[January 1|1 Jan.]], [[1972]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1975]])
|-
| 26. || [[Louis H. Wilson, Jr.]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1975]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1979]])
|-
| 27. || [[Robert H. Barrow]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1979]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1983]])
|-
| 28. || [[Paul X. Kelley]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1983]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1987]])
|-
| 29. || [[Alfred M. Gray, Jr.]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1987]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1991]])
|-
| 30. || [[Carl E. Mundy, Jr.]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1991]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1995]])
|-
| 31. || [[Charles C. Krulak]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1995]] || &ndash;
| [[30 June]], [[1999]])
|-
| 32. || [[James L. Jones]] ||
| ([[1 July]], [[1999]] || &ndash;
| [[January 12|12 Jan.]], [[2003]])
|-
| 33. || [[Michael W. Hagee]] ||
| ([[January 13|13 Jan.]], [[2003]] || &ndash;
| [[as of 2005|present]])
|}
[[Category:Joint Chiefs of Staff]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps Commandants|*]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps generals|*]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps organization]]
[[de:Commandant of the Marine Corps]]
[[sl:Komandant Korpusa mornariške pehote Združenih držav Amerike]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>California Department of Transportation</title>
<id>7710</id>
<revision>
<id>41284583</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:27:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.139.54.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added Devils Slide tunnel project</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caltrans logo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caltrans logo]]
[[Image:Glendalefreeway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The soaring ramps in the stack interchanges favored by Caltrans often provide stunning views.]]
'''Caltrans''' (full name: '''California Department of Transportation''') is a [[government]] agency in the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. Its mission is to improve mobility across the state. Caltrans does more than manage the State highway system; it is also actively involved with [[public transportation]] systems in California.
For administrative purposes, Caltrans has divided the state of California into 12 districts supervised by district offices. Most districts cover multiple [[county|counties]]; District 12 ([[Orange County, California|Orange County]]) is the only district with one county. The largest districts are District 4 ([[San Francisco Bay Area]]) and District 7 ([[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] and [[Ventura County, California|Ventura]] counties).
Caltrans has a reputation for being both innovative and stubbornly idiosyncratic. In 1950, it developed the typeface family now used nationwide on road signs (though not its 2004 replacement, [[Clearview_(typeface)|Clearview]]). It pioneered [[Botts dots]] as a superior form of [[lane]] marking. It has frequently been criticized for proposing and often constructing ugly bridges and has several times been forced to redesign such structures in response to public outcry. It has long experimented with freeway-to-freeway stack [[Road junction|interchange]]s of increasing height and complexity. It was the last state highway department in the [[United States]] to number its [[freeway]] exits (the [[Cal-NExUS]] program), and one of the last to switch from dark green "button copy" signs to bright green reflective signs. In the 1990s, Caltrans aggressively added [[carpool lane]]s on freeways to reduce [[traffic congestion]].
Although state highways generally adhere to consistent minimum design standards throughout much of the state, there are some policy and construction differences between the northern and southern district offices. For example, [[Northern California]] [[carpool]] lanes are always directly adjacent to mainline traffic lanes and are restricted to carpools only during weekday commute hours, while [[Southern California]] carpool lanes are always separated from mainline lanes (except at designated entrance/exit areas) and most are restricted at all times.
Over the last several decades Caltrans has supervised extensive [[seismic retrofit|seismic retrofitting]] of structures throughout California, in addition to creating far more stringent design criteria for new constrution.
==History==
[[Image:US101-CA85construction2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Construction of the redesigned junction of [[U.S. Highway 101]] and [[California State Route 85]], in [[Mountain View, Santa Clara County, California|Mountain View]]. The new design also affects ramps at the Rengstorff Avenue and Shoreline Boulevard interchanges.]]
Caltrans was originally the Division of Highways of the Department of Public Works. It was reorganized into a separate department in 1973.
=== Important projects ===
Several important projects include [[Interstate 105 (California)|Interstate 105]], the reconstruction of the [[CA-91]]-[[CA-60]]-[[Interstate 215 (California)|I-215]] interchange, and the [[Devil's Slide]] tunnel scheduled to be completed in 2011.
==See also==
*[[FasTrak]]
*[[US Department of Transportation]]
*[[List of roads and highways]]
*[[List of California-related topics]]
*[[Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]] (CalTrans-related controversy)
{{SFBridges}}
==External links==
*[http://www.dot.ca.gov California Department of Transportation - Website]
[[Category:Transportation in California|Department of Transportation]]
[[Category:Government of California|Transportation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuation War</title>
<id>7712</id>
<revision>
<id>41836143</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:33:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dannycas</username>
<id>276893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Interim Peace */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}}
'''The Continuation War''' was fought between [[Finland]] and the [[Soviet Union]] during [[World War II]], from the [[Soviet]] bombing attacks on [[June 25]], [[1941]], to [[cease-fire]] [[September 4]], [[1944]] (on the Finnish side) and [[September 5]] (on the Soviet side). The [[United Kingdom]] declared war on Finland on [[December 6]], 1941, but did not participate actively. Material support from, and military cooperation with, [[Germany]] was critical for Finland's struggle with its larger neighbour. The war was formally concluded by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Paris peace treaty]] of [[1947]].
[[Image:Continuation-War-1941.png|right|thumb|300px|Relative strengths of Finnish, German and Soviet troops at the start of the Continuation War in June 1941.]]
The Continuation War (''jatkosota'' in [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]], ''Fortsättningskriget'' in [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]) is so named in Finland to make clear its relationship to the [[Winter War]] ([[November 30]], [[1939]], to [[March 12]], [[1940]]). Seen from a Russian perspective, it was merely one of the fronts of the [[Great Patriotic War]]. The
|
]]. It was later in 1869/70, when the organizers again approached Verdi, this time with the idea of writing an opera, that he again turned them down. They warned him they would ask [[Charles Gounod]] instead, but when they threatened to engage [[Richard Wagner]]'s services, Verdi begin to show some considerable interest, and agreements were signed in June 1870.
In fact, the two composers, who were the leaders of their respective schools of music, seemed to resent each other greatly. They never met. Verdi's comments on Wagner and his music are few and hardly benevolent ("He invariably chooses, unnecessarily, the untrodden path, attempting to fly where a rational person would walk with better results"), but at least one of them is kind: upon learning of Wagner's death, Verdi lamented: "Sad! Sad! Sad! ... a name that leaves a most powerful mark on the history of our art." Of Wagner's comments on Verdi, only one is well-known. After listening to Verdi's [[Requiem (Verdi)|Requiem]], the great German, prolific and eloquent in his comments on some other composers, said, "It would be best not to say anything."
''[[Aida]]'' premiered in Cairo in 1871 and was an instant success.
===Twilight===
During the following years Verdi worked on revising some of his earlier scores, most notably new versions of [[Don Carlos]], [[La forza del destino]], and [[Simon Boccanegra]].
[[Otello]], based on [[William Shakespeare]]'s play, with a libretto written by the younger composer of [[Mefistofele]], [[Arrigo Boito]], premiered in Milan in 1887. Its music is "continuous" and cannot easily be divided into separate "numbers" to be performed in concert. Although masterfully orchestrated, it lacks the melodic lustre so characteristic of Verdi's earlier, great, operas.
Verdi's last opera, [[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]], whose libretto, also by [[Boito]], was based on Shakespeare's [[The Merry Wives of Windsor|Merry Wives of Windsor]] and [[Victor Hugo]]'s subsequent translation, was an international success. The score is one of the supreme comic operas and shows Verdi's genius as a contrapuntist.
Verdi died in January 1901.
Many of his operas, especially the later ones from 1851 onwards are a staple of the [[List of famous operas|standard repertoire]].
==Verdi's role in the Risorgimento==
In the 1840s, the popularity of Verdi's music coincided with the [[Italian unification|Risorgimento]], the campaign for a unified Italian nation. The wild success of ''[[Nabucco]]'' in particular put Verdi's name and music in the minds of many Italians at the time. They perceived in Verdi's works a sadness that reflected their own unhappiness with the status quo, and a vibrant strain conjuring romantic visions of [[Italian unification]]. Verdi's songs were especially resonant in Milan, then under Austrian occupation.
In particular, ''Nabucco'''s "Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves", the tender lament of captives in Babylonia, was an immense success, and reportedly could be heard sung in the streets of Milan in 1843. Also known as ''Va' Pensiero'' from its first line, the song has been proposed from time to time as the Italian national anthem. It begins:
<table><tr>
<td width=50></td>
<td>
''Fly, thought, on wings of gold;''<br />
''go settle upon the slopes and the hills''<br />
''where the sweet airs of our''<br />
''native soil smell soft and mild!''<br />
...''Oh, my country, so lovely and lost!''<br />
''Oh remembrance so dear yet unhappy!''
</td>
<td width=50></td>
<td>
''Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate;''<br />
''va, ti posa sui clivi, sui colli''<br />
''ove olezzano tepide e molli''<br />
''l'aure dolci del suolo natal!''<br />
...''Oh, mia patria sì bella e perduta!''<br />
''Oh, membranza sì cara e fatal!''
</td>
</tr></table>
Full lyrics can be found here: [http://www.r-ds.com/opera/verdiana/lyrics.htm#Va,%20pensiero] and a recording ([[MP3]] format) here: [http://www.r-ds.com/domingo/Soundfiles/vapensiero.mp3].
[[Milan]] was still under Austrian occupation and was beginning to consider supporting [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]]'s effort in Italian reunification, as it afterwards did. Clandestine partisans started therefore plotting to have the then-King of [[Sardinia]] conquer Milan. Due to severe Austrian censorship, this campaign was given a codename: "Viva VERDI." Verdi was a secret acronym for '''''V'''ittorio '''E'''manuele '''R'''e '''D'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>'''I'''talia'', referring to Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy. This enabled nationalists to freely shout their support for Victor Emmanuel, while outsiders assumed they were fans of the composer. Giuseppe Verdi was aware of this use of his name and is supposed to have consented.
Other references to political events have been seen in Verdi's ''I Lombardi''.
==Style==
Verdi's predecessors who influenced his music were Rossini, Bellini, [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]] and, most notably, [[Gaetano Donizetti]] and [[Saverio Mercadante]]. With the possible exception of [[Otello]] and [[Aida]], he was free of Wagner's influence. Although respectful of Gounod, Verdi was careful not to learn anything from the Frenchman whom many of Verdi's contemporaries regarded as the greatest living composer. Some strains in [[Aida]] suggest at least a superficial familiarity with the works of the Russian composer [[Mikhail Glinka]], whom [[Franz Liszt]], after his tour of the Russian Empire as a pianist, popularized in Western Europe.
Throughout his career, Verdi refused to use the high C in his tenor arias, citing the fact that the opportunity to sing that particular note in front of an audience distracts the performer before and after the note comes on.
Although his [[orchestration]] is often masterful, Verdi relied heavily on his melodic gift as the ultimate instrument of musical expression. In fact, in many of his passages, and especially in his arias, the [[harmony]] is ascetic, with the entire orchestra occasionally sounding as if it were one large accompanying instrument - a giant-sized guitar playing chords. Some critics maintain he paid insufficient attention to the technical aspect of composition, lacking as he did schooling and refinement. Verdi himself once said, "Of all composers, past and present, I am the least learned." He hastened to add, however, "I mean that in all seriousness, and by learning I do not mean knowledge of music."
However, it would be incorrect to assume that Verdi underestimated the expressive power of the orchestra or failed to use it to its full capacity where necessary. Moreover, orchestral and [[contrapuntal]] innovation is characteristic of his style: for instance, the strings doing the rapid ascending scale in Monterone's scene in [[Rigoletto]] accentuate the drama, or, also in [[Rigoletto]], the choir humming six closely grouped notes backstage portray, very effectively, the brief ominous wails of the approaching tempest. Verdi's innovations are so distinctive that other composers do not use them; they remain, to this day, Verdi's signature tricks.
Verdi was one of the first composers who insisted on patiently seeking out plots to suit their particular talents. Working closely with his librettists and well aware that dramatic expression was his forte, he made certain that the initial work upon which the libretto was based was stripped of all "unnecessary" detail and "superfluous" participants, and only characters brimming with passion and scenes rich in drama remained.
==Verdi's operas==
*''[[Oberto|Oberto, Conte di San Bonifacio]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[Milan]], [[1839]]
*''[[Un Giorno di Regno]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1840]]
*''[[Nabucco]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1842]]
*''[[I Lombardi]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1843]]
*''[[Ernani]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1844]]
*''[[I due Foscari]]'' - [[Teatro Argentina]], [[Rome]], [[1844]]
*''[[Giovanna d'Arco]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1845]]
*''[[Alzira]]'' - [[Teatro San Carlo]], [[Naples]], [[1845]]
*''[[Attila]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[Venice]], [[1846]]
*''[[Macbeth]]'' - [[Teatro della Pergola]], [[Florence]], [[1847]]
*''[[I masnadieri]]'' - [[Her Majesty's Theatre]], [[London]], [[1847]]
* ''[[I Lombardi alla prima crociata|Jérusalem]]'' - [[Académie de musique|Académie Royale de Musique]], [[Paris]], [[1847]] (revised version of ''[[I Lombardi]]'')
*''[[Il corsaro]]'' - [[Teatro Grande]], [[Trieste]], [[1848]]
*''[[La battaglia di Legnano]]'' - [[Teatro Argentina]], [[Rome]], [[1849]]
*''[[Luisa Miller]]'' - [[Teatro San Carlo]], [[Naples]], [[1849]]
*''[[Stiffelio]]'' - [[Teatro Grande]], [[Trieste]], [[1850]]
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[Venice]],[[1851]]
*''[[Il trovatore]]'' - [[Tor di Nona|Teatro Apollo]], [[Rome]], [[1853]]
*''[[La traviata]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[1853]]
*''[[Les vêpres siciliennes]]'' - [[Opéra Garnier]], [[Paris]], [[1855]]
*''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' - [[Teatro La Fenice]], [[Venice]], [[1857]]
* ''[[Aroldo]]'' - [[Teatro Nuovo]], [[Rimini]], [[1857]] (revised version of ''[[Stiffelio]]'')
*''[[Un ballo in maschera]]'' - [[Tor di Nona|Teatro Apollo]], [[1859]]
*''[[La forza del destino]]'' - [[Mariinsky Theatre|Imperial Theater]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[1862]]
* [[Macbeth]] - [[Theâtre Lyric]], [[Paris]], [[1865]] (revised version)
*''[[Don Carlos]]'' - [[Opéra Garnier]] [[Paris]], [[1867]]
* [[La forza del destino]] - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[Milan]],[[1869]] (revised version)
*''[[Aida]]'' - [[Khedivial Opera House]] [[Cairo]], [[1871]]
* [[Don Carlo]] - ?, [[Naples]], [[1872]] - (revision of [[Don Carlos]])
*''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1881]] (revised 1857 version)
* [[Don Carlo]] - [[La Scala]], [[Milan]], [[1884]] (second revision, 4 Act
|
. [[Miracle of the Vistula]]. [[Treaty of Riga]].
* War against the Lithuanians: [[Polish-Lithuanian War]].
* [[Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia]].
* Uprisings in Wielkopolska and Silesia. [[Great Poland Uprising]], [[Silesian Uprisings]].
* [[July 15]], [[1920]] - Agrarian Reform.
* [[March 17]], [[1921]] - [[March Constitution]].
* 1921 - alliances with [[France]], [[Romania]].
* Election to Sejm and Senat - [[November]] [[1922]].
* President [[Gabriel Narutowicz]], and his assassination ([[December 16]], [[1922]]).
* 1924 - [[Wladyslaw Grabski]] Government. [[Bank Polski]]. Monetary reform.
* President Wojciechowski - [[December 20]], [[1922]], to [[Zamach majowy]].
* [[Coup of May]] - ''Zamach majowy'', 1926, May, Józef Piłsudski [[coup d'etat]] ([[May Coup]]). beginning of [[Sanacja]] government.
* [[Roman Dmowski]], [[Obóz Wielkiej Polski]] ([[4 December]] 1926), [[Endecja]].
* [[16 November]] [[1930]] - wybory brzeskie (elections
* [[25 July]] [[1932]] - [[Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with Soviet Union]]
* [[26 January]] [[1934]] - [[German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with Germany]]
* [[14 April]] [[1934]] - [[Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny]]
* [[23 April]] [[1935]] - [[April Constitution]]
* [[12 May]] [[1935]] - death of Józef Piłsudski
* [[Gdynia]], [[Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy]] (1936), [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski]]
* [[2 February]] [[1937]] - Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego
* [[2 January]] [[1939]] - death of Roman Dmowski
* [[31 March]] [[1939]] - military guarantees from United Kingdom and France
* [[23 August]] [[1939]] - [[non-aggression pact]] between Soviet Union and Germany: [[Ribbentrop-Molotow Pact]] with a secret [[military alliance]] protocol targeting Poland (among several other countries)
* [[25 August]] [[1939]] - alliance between Poland and United Kingdom
== World War II ==
[[Image:WWII Poland Invasion 1939-09-01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|German soldiers destroying Polish border checkpoint on 1 September ]]
The "[[Polish September Campaign]]" campaign began 1 September 1939, one week after the signing of the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and ended 6 October 1939, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying the entirety of Poland.
This first part of the [[Second World War]] put an end to the Second Polish Republic.
It was continued as [[Polish Government in Exile]].
== Politics and government ==
== Economy ==
** The destruction during WWI and War of 1920
** Struggle for Silesia
** post-war Crisis
** reconstruction
** Toll wars with Germany, Danzig and Czechoslovakia
** 4-years plan and 5-years plans
** Gdynia and the merchant navy
** COP, SOP, D&#261;browa, Silesia...
** Railway
** Export and import: what, where, how
** Great Crisis
** Kwiatkowski and Grabski
** Perspectives for the 1940's
== Demographics ==
** Demographic changes during the WWI (Russians leaving in 1915, Germans after 1918)
** Demography in relation to [[Silesian Uprisings]] and [[Greater Poland Uprising]]
** Minorities in Poland 1921-1931
** Belorussians and [[Poleszuk]]s
** Ukrainians, Ruthenians and the case of Ukrainian self-government
** German minority
** White Russians (not Belorussians!), Georgians, "Polak z wyboru" phenomenon (generals being a good example), other small groups
== Culture ==
== Geography and demographics ==
{{main|Voivodships of Poland}}
[[Image:Poland administrative division 1922 literki.png|thumb|right|295px|Polish voivodships 1922-1939]]
&nbsp;
{||style="empty-cells: show; border: solid 1px;border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;" border=1 width="500px"
|----- bgcolor="#efefef"
| colspan=6 align="center" | '''Polish voivodships in the interbellum <br>(data as per [[April 1]], [[1937]])'''
|- style="background:#efefef" align="center"
! [[car plates]]<br> (since 1937)
! Voivodship<Br> Separate city
! Capital
! Area<br>in 1000 km² (1930)
! Population <Br>in 1000 (1931)
|-
| 00-19
| align="left"| City of [[Warsaw]]
| align="left"| Warsaw
| 0,14
| 1179,5
|-
| 85-89
| align="left"| [[Warsaw Voivodship|warszawskie]]
| align="left"| [[Warsaw]]
| 31,7
| 2460,9
|-
| 20-24
| align="left"| [[Bialystok Voivodship|białostockie]]
| align="left"| [[Bialystok|Białystok]]
| 26,0
| 1263,3
|-
| 25-29
| align="left"| [[Kielce Voivodship|kieleckie]]
| align="left"| [[Kielce]]
| 22,2
| 2671,0
|-
| 30-34
| align="left"| [[Kraków Voivodship|krakowskie]]
| align="left"| [[Kraków]]
| 17,6
| 2300,1
|-
| 35-39
| align="left"| [[Lublin Voivodship|lubelskie]]
| align="left"| [[Lublin]]
| 26,6
| 2116,2
|-
| 40-44
| align="left"| [[Lwów Voivodship|lwowskie]]
| align="left"| [[Lwów]]
| 28,4
| 3126,3
|-
| 45-49
| align="left"| [[Łódź Voivodship|łódzkie]]
| align="left"| [[Łódź]]
| 20,4
| 2650,1
|-
| 50-54
| align="left"| [[Nowogródek Voivodship|nowogródzkie]]
| align="left"| [[Nowogródek]]
| 23,0
| 1057,2
|-
| 55-59
| align="left"| [[Polesie Voivodship|poleskie]]
| align="left"| [[Brest-Litovsk|Brześć nad Bugiem]]
| 36,7
| 1132,2
|-
| 60-64
| align="left"| [[Pomeranian Voivodship|pomorskie]]
| align="left"| [[Torun|Toruń]]
| 25,7
| 1884,4
|-
| 65-69
| align="left"| [[Poznan Voivodship|poznańskie]]
| align="left"| [[Poznan|Poznań]]
| 28,1
| 2339,6
|-
| 70-74
| align="left"| [[Stanislawow Voivodship|stanisławowskie]]
| align="left"| [[Stanislawow|Stanisławów]]
| 16,9
| 1480,3
|-
| 75-79 ?
| align="left"| [[Silesian Voivodship|śląskie]]
| align="left"| [[Katowice]]
| 5,1
| 1533,5
|-
| 80-84
| align="left"| [[Tarnopol Voivodship|tarnopolskie]]
| align="left"| [[Tarnopol]]
| 16,5
| 1600,4
|-
| 90-94
| align="left"| [[Wilno Voivodship|wileńskie]]
| align="left"| [[Wilno]]
| 29,0
| 1276,0
|-
| 95-99
| align="left"| [[Volhynian Voivodship|wołyńskie]]
| align="left"| [[Lutsk|Łuck]]
| 35,7
| 2085,6
|-
|}
<br clear="all" />
==See also==
* [[History of Poland (1939-1945)]]
*[[Polish culture in the Interbellum]]
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Poland]]
[[Category:History of Poland (1918–1939)]]
[[et:II Rzeczpospolita]]
[[he:היסטוריה של פולין: הרפובליקה השנייה]]
[[no:Andre polske republikk]]
[[pl:II Rzeczpospolita]]
[[pt:Segunda República Polaca]]
[[ro:A doua Republică Poloneză]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hedwig</title>
<id>14246</id>
<revision>
<id>30973163</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T22:14:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carioca</username>
<id>142035</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hedwig''' is a [[German language|German]] female given name. The name originates from old German (''hadu'' = battle, ''wig'' = fight). The [[Polish language|Polish]] version of the name is [[Jadwiga]].
Famous Hedwigs:
*[[Hedwig of Black Ruthenia]] (+ after [[1 December]] [[1405]]), [[Princess]] of [[Pomerania]], possible daughter of [[Towtiwil]], m. [[1397]]/[[1398]] [[Prince]] [[Barnim V of Pomerania]]
* Saint [[Jadwiga of Poland|Hedwig/Jadwiga]], Queen of [[Poland]]
* Saint [[Hedwig of Andechs]], Duchess of [[Silesia]]
* [[Hedy Lamarr]] (1913-2000), actress and communications innovator.
* [[Hedwig (Harry Potter)|Hedwig]], [[Harry Potter (character)|Harry Potter's]] messenger [[owl]] in the novels by [[J. K. Rowling]]
* The title character from the [[musical theater|musical]] and [[film]] ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]''
* [[Hedwig Village, Texas]], named for nearby Hedwig Road, built on land donated by [[Hedwig Jankowski Schroeder]], an [[Germany|German]] immigrant.
{{dab}}
[[cs:Hedvika]]
[[de:Hedwig]]
[[pl:Jadwiga]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hume Dam</title>
<id>14247</id>
<revision>
<id>34051741</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T01:36:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mdhowe</username>
<id>99425</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge with Lake Hume</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lake Hume]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hooligans</title>
<id>14248</id>
<revision>
<id>15911814</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-16T15:30:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.217</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hooliganism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMS Resolution</title>
<id>14251</id>
<revision>
<id>41050305</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:02:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Van de Velde, Resolution in a Gale.jpg|thumb|200px|''Resolution in a gale'' by [[Willem van de Velde, the younger]] depicts the second ''Resolution'' c. 1678]]
Twelve ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Resolution''''':
* The first [[Tredagh|''Resolution'']] was the ''Tredagh'', launched in [[1653]], of 66 cannon, renamed ''Resolution'' in [[1660]] and destroyed after grounding by a Dutch [[fireship]] in the [[St James's Day Battle]] on 4 August [[1666]].
* The second [[HMS Resolution (1667)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1667]], rebuilt [[1698]], and foundered in [[1703]].
* The third [[HMS Resolution (1705)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1705]] but run ashore to avoid capture in [[1707]].
* The fourth [[HMS Resolution (1708)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[
|
hristian]] bishops, [[Jewish]] authorities, [[Muslims]], [[Buddhists]], and other Christian denominations vary on the matter.
Condemnations of contraception are typically based on the belief that sex has both procreative and unitive aspects; and that to restrict the procreative aspect requires careful thought and should be practiced through [[natural family planning]] (NFP) methods such as the [[Billings ovulation method|Billings]] or sympto-thermal methods.
Religious approval is often based on the belief that the choice of contraceptive use lies with individual conscience, or is not significantly different from natural family planning to warrant condemnation; while other religious authorities view contraception from the angle of stewardship of the Earth, viewing overpopulation abatement as part of good stewardship and contraception (including limiting sexual activity) as serving this purpose.
Groups such as [[Planned Parenthood]], which advocate [[family planning]] and [[sexual education]], feel that religious opposition confounds attempts at public contraceptive education, which they see as a necessity to help prevent unwanted pregnancies or the spread of STDs. At the same time, religious opponents to contraceptive use often oppose public contraceptive education or the availability of contraceptives such as condoms at schools on the grounds that education in sexuality should remain a personal affair, or that sexual education programs should exclusively teach abstinence. Other religious groups do not oppose contraceptive education but believe that abstinence should be given a greater focus in such programs.
==Factors influencing condom use==
Most research has revealed, through survey, four factors which establish the minimal use of condoms: various encumbering beliefs, reduced sexual pleasure, adverse experiences, and fears related to gender and tensions. However, as new technology and beneficial studies come forth that combat these various factors, there is still a substantially low amount of individuals world-wide who practice [[safe sex]]. This noticeable gap has lead several investigators to analyze perhaps [[social]] factors becoming involved such as a residual [[social stigma]] attached to condoms. At the same time, anti-condom movements like [[barebacking]] are remarkable social trends of simple, yet unsafe, defiance of an unnecessary precaution.
In broad detail, social factors range from geographical location to race, and become as specified as methamphetamine versus non-drug users, so [[correlations]] within this research are not always strong and accurate, but it does establish that correlations do exist.
===Geographic location===
Several regions provide examples of social factors influencing the use of condoms within their populous. Two examples which contrast the effects of similar problems are [[South Africa]] and rural [[Lebanon]].
Unfortunately, South Africa has some of the highest [[HIV]] rates in the world, so there the statistics on condom use are being studied heavily. As of 2001, the 21-25 year age group has the peak rate of infection at 43.1% (Campbell & MacPhail 2001). These studies became more specified and it was discovered that despite all the information known today about HIV and the spread of infection, many [[young people]] of the study did not feel that they were in danger of contracting this disease. In fact, only 30% of people, males and females, felt they had any risk of contracting HIV at all. Of those that said they felt there was any chance of contracting HIV, only 12.9% thought there was a moderate chance, and 17.6% thought they had a good chance of [[infection]]. It seems that even though the youth of South Africa do have a relatively high level of knowledge concerning the [[risk factor]]s of getting HIV, many feel that is simply won't happen to them. Many of the factors found in South Africa apply to well [[developed countries]] of the world and these new findings hopefully will help shape future campaigns against decreased condom use in the future.
Another end of the spectrum are the rural areas of Lebanon in the [[Middle East]]. Generally, the use of condoms and other forms of [[contraceptives]] in the Middle East is low even though there is a growing awareness of [[sexually transmitted diseases]] and HIV/AIDS (Kulczycki, 2004). A study revealed that only twenty-four percent of the women in the regions ever used a condom. A household survey was also done on condom use which found that ninety-eight percent of women had indeed heard of contraceptive methods, but only eighty-five percent of the women had heard of condoms. Some things to keep in mind also are that women in this culture are not expected to have knowledge or express openly knowledge of contraceptives or even sexuality. Also some background that is needed on the group surveyed is that the marital [[fertility rate]] of the surveyed women were about five children per woman, and each of the women had a different level of education. About sixty-one percent had intermediate-level education, twenty percent had a primary education, and eighteen percent had trouble reading or could not read at all. This provides evidence that condom use varies dependant on social factors like the area’s cultural background and education.
It should be noted that largely the variances in geographical location are highly affected by culture and cultural beliefs, as well as class and race, but also have dynamic influences resounding from [[economic]] yield for the area, use and expansion of [[communication]], and other criteria. These social factors can again be examined in South Africa and rural Lebanon:
An example is that in South Africa, it was discovered (Campbell & MacPhail 2001) that condom availability is a problem for young adults. Although condoms are given away by local clinics, many participants stated that there are instances when they found themselves without condoms because they never know when they are going to need one. Thus, this higher economic region has properly developed health services; they are just not being properly utilized by the public.
Opposing in the lower economic region of rural Lebanon, another reason for the lack of condom use is that public health services and family planning services are very inadequately developed. A health service that is trying to help is the Lebanese Family Planning Association but their funding is very limited and recently they have not been able to increase its budget to promote more complete reproductive health service.
Despite these specific social factors contributing to the differences between these regions and others, most research has identified issues such as trust and gender power in relationships and others as socially relevant to almost all countries worldwide.
===Drug use===
The use of [[methamphetamines]] is shown to dramatically increase one’s desire to have sex, which can lead to pregnancy and/or the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Some injection drug users allege to have changed their sexual behavior since the [[AIDS pandemic]], but still a relatively few percentage (6%–44%) of injectors use condoms while averaging twelve partners per year.
[[Amphetamine]] use has been associated with stronger sexual excitement, longer duration of intercourse, and intensified [[orgasms]] among male injectors. A study showed that methamphetamine users entering treatment had three times the prevalence of HIV than other drug users.
Only 99 of 699 male Out-of-Treatment Injection Drug Users (OTIDUs) that took part in the study reported to have always used a condom. Of the 232 women OTIDUs, 22 claimed their male partner always used a condom. However, when the study was restricted to methamphetamine users only, these numbers dropped to a mere one third and one fourth of the above statistics, respectively.
From this research (Grant, Patterson, Semple, 2004), correlations can be drawn through profiling methamphetamine users against non users as specific relationships can be drawn. While not always, [[drug abuse]] will often identify a lower economic status as well as certain minority groups which could add other specific social factors that are need further research to make better correlations.
===Anti-condom trends===
Studies have shown [[baby boomer]]s are increasingly contracting sexually transmitted infections because they choose not to wear condoms. Many have been married and separated and now have random sexual partners (Watt, 2005). Since the women are no longer capable of conceiving children, they do not see the large risk in not protecting themselves, and thus the importance of a condom becomes minimal. Also, since many of them have just come out of a [[long term relationship]], they are starting over and they are too uncomfortable with their new partner to ask them to use a condom.
==Laws and policies restricting condoms==
{{expandsect}}
===Somalia===
In 2003 it became illegal under [[Islamic]] [[Sharia]] law to sell or use condoms in [[Somalia]]. The punishments for violating this law may include [[Flagellation|flogging]] <ref>"<cite>Islamic leaders say they have outlawed condoms in Somalia, where the vast majority of the population is Muslim.</cite>" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3340611.stm Somali Muslim group bans condoms]</ref>.
==Environmental impact==
While biodegradable, latex condoms have been known to have a negative impact on the environment if improperly disposed of. It is estimated that 61,000,000 to 100,000,000 condoms are improperly disposed of in Britain alone, often ending up in rivers, or the ocean. According to the Ocean Conservancy these condoms cover the [[coral reef]]s, and smothers [[sea grass]] and other bottom dwellers. The [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake this litter as food and eat
|
vic tribes likely found him an ideal analogy for [[Perun]], the supreme Slavic god of storms, thunder and lightning bolts. In many Slavic countries Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (Ilija Gromovik), who drives the heavens in chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of [[Perun]] in popular beliefs.
==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pa2/passover/elijah-the-prophet-elijah.html Elijah] Details various events in the life of Elijah and relates Elijah to the Passover/Pesach story.
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=E&search=Elijah ''Jewish Encyclopedia Entry on Elijah]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05381b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia Entry on Elijah'']
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-65 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages''] - Mentions (in passing) the story of Elijah being carried up to heaven in a flaming chariot as an inspiration for human flight
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_elijah.html ''Elijah'' by Rob Bradshaw] Extensive dictionary style article.
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[ca:Elies]]
[[cs:Elijáš]]
[[de:Elija]]
[[eo:Elija]]
[[fr:Élie]]
[[he:אליהו הנביא]]
[[nl:Elia (profeet)]]
[[ja:エリヤ]]
[[yi:אליהו הנביא]]
[[pl:Eliasz]]
[[ro:Ilie]]
[[ru:Илья (пророк)]]
[[sv:Elijah]]
[[zh:以利亞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expressive aphasia</title>
<id>9841</id>
<revision>
<id>41941227</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:52:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Expressive language disorder}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Expressive aphasia |
ICD10 = F80.1 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|315.31}} |
}}
'''Expressive aphasia''', known as '''Broca's aphasia''' in [[clinical neuropsychology]] and '''agrammatic aphasia''' in [[cognitive neuropsychology]], is an [[aphasia]] caused by damage to anterior regions of the [[brain]], including (but not limited to) the left inferior frontal region known as [[Broca's area]] ([[Brodmann area 44]] and [[Brodmann area 45]]).
[[image:surfacegyri.jpg|thumb|550px|Figure one illustrates significant language areas of the brain. In Broca's aphasia, the area typically lost is highlighted in blue. In Wernicke's aphasia, the area lost is highlighted in green.]]
Sufferers of this form of aphasia exhibit the common problem of '''agrammatism'''. For them, [[speech]] is difficult to initiate, nonfluent, labored, and halting. [[Intonation]] and stress patterns are deficient. [[Language]] is reduced to disjointed words and sentence construction is poor, omitting [[function word]]s and [[inflections]] ([[bound morpheme]]s). A person with expressive aphasia might say ''"Son ... University ... Smart ... Boy ... Good ... Good ... "''
For example, in the following passage, a Broca's aphasic patient is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery.
<blockquote>"Yes... ah... Monday... er... Dad and Peter H... (his own name), and Dad.... er... hospital... and ah... Wednesday... Wednesday, nine o'clock... and oh... Thursday... ten o'clock, ah doctors... two... an' doctors... and er... teeth... yah."<sup>1</sup>.
</blockquote>
[[Comprehension]] is usually preserved and patients who recover go on to say that they knew what they wanted to say but could not express themselves. Residual deficits will often be seen.
Expressive Aphasia is also a classification of non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia. Diagnosis is done on a case by case basis, as [[lesions]] often affect surrounding [[cortex]] and deficits are not well conserved between patients.
== See also ==
* [[Broca's area]]
* [[aphasia]]
* Compare with [[receptive aphasia|receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia)]].
==References==
<sup>1</sup>Goodglass, H. & Geschwind, N. (1976) Language disorders. In E. Carterette and M.P. Friedman (eds.) ''Handbook of Perception: Language and Speech. Vol II''. New York: Academic Press.
[[Category:Aphasia]]
{{psych-stub}}
{{med-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elisha</title>
<id>9842</id>
<revision>
<id>37038593</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T03:46:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.18.248.145</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Elisha''' ('''&#1488;&#1457;&#1500;&#1460;&#1497;&#1513;&#1473;&#1463;&#1506;''' "My [[Elohim|God]] is salvation", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Eli&#X161;a&#703;''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;&#276;lî&#X161;a&#703;''') was the son of Shaphat of [[Abel-meholah]]; he became the attendant and disciple of [[Elijah]] ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 19:16-19). His name first occurs in the command given to Elijah to [[anoint]] him as his successor (1 Kings 19:16).
On his way from [[Sinai]] to [[Damascus]], Elijah found Elisha ploughing with twelve yoke of [[oxen]]. He went over to him, threw his [[mantle]] over Elisha's shoulders, and at once adopted him as a son, investing him
with the [[prophet]]ic office (comp. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 9:61,62). Elisha accepted this call about four years before the death
of Israel's King [[Ahab]]. For the next seven or eight years Elisha became Elijah's close attendant until Elijah was taken up
into [[heaven]]. During all these years we hear nothing of Elisha
except in connection with the closing scenes of Elijah's life.
After Elijah, Elisha was accepted as the leader of the sons of
the prophets, and became noted in Israel. He possessed,
according to his own request, "a double portion" of Elijah's
spirit ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 2:9); and for sixty years (892-832 BC) held the office of "prophet in Israel" (2 Kings 5:8).
After Elijah's departure, Elisha returned to [[Jericho]], and
there healed the spring of water by casting [[salt]] into it (2
Kings 2:21). We next find him at [[Bethel]] (2:23), where, with the
sternness of his master, he curses the youths who have come out and ridiculed him as a prophet of [[God]]: "Go up, thou [[bald]] head." The youths mockingly tell Elisha to follow his master in a [[chariot]] to heaven, and make fun of his appearance. Elisha then pronounces a curse upon them, pleading God for retribution. The judgment is said to have at once taken effect: two she-[[bear]]s come out of the woods and kill 42 of the youths.
Elisha is next encountered in Scripture when he predicts a fall of [[rain]] when the army of [[Jehoram]] was faint from thirst (2 Kings 3:9-20). Other miracles Elisha accomplishes include multiplying the poor widow's cruse of oil (4:1-7), restoring to life the son of the woman of [[Shunem]] (4:18-37), and multiplying the twenty loaves of new [[barley]] into a sufficient supply for an hundred men (4:42-44). During the military incursions of [[Syria]] into [[Israel]], Elisha cures [[Naaman]] the Syrian of his [[leprosy]] (5:1-27), punishes his servant [[Gehazi]] for his falsehood and his greed, and recovers an axe lost in the waters of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]] (6:1-7). He administered the miracle at Dothan, half-way on the road between [[Samaria]] and [[Jezreel Valley|Jezreel]], and at the siege of [[Samaria]] by the king of Syria, Elisha prophesied about the terrible sufferings of the people of Samaria and their eventual relief (2 Kings 6:24-7:2).
Elisha then journeyed to [[Damascus]] and anointed [[Hazael]] king over Syria (2 Kings 8:7-15); thereafter he directs one of the sons of the prophets to anoint [[Jehu]], the son of [[Jehoshaphat]], king of Israel, instead of Ahab.
Years later, Elisha is found on his death-bed in his own house (2 Kings 13:14-19). [[Joash]], the grandson of Jehu, comes to mourn over his approaching departure, and utters the same words as those of Elisha when Elijah was taken away, indicating his value to him: "My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof."
After his death, a dead body was laid in Elisha's grave a year
after his burial. No sooner does it touch Elisha's remains
than the man "revived, and stood up on his feet" (2 Kings
13:20-21).
==In Islam==
In the [[Qur'an]] he is known as [[Al-Yasa]].
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[ca:Eliseu]]
[[de:Elischa]]
[[fr:Élisée]]
[[he:אלישע]]
[[nl:Elisa]]
[[fi:Elisa (profeetta)]]
[[sv:Elisha]]
[[zh:以利沙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ephesus</title>
<id>9843</id>
<revision>
<id>42149348</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:35:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chinawhitecotton</username>
<id>571336</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed POV and added link to camel wrestling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephesus''' ( [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Έφεσος''' see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: '''Efes''') was one of the great cities of the [[Ionia]]n Greeks in [[Asia Minor]], located in [[Lydia]] where the [[Cayster river]] flows into the [[Aegean Sea]] (in modern day [[Turkey]]). It was founded by colonists principally from [[Athens]]. The [[ruins]] of Ephesus are a major tourist attraction, especially for people travelling to Turkey by cruise ship via the port of [[Kusadasi]].
==Ancient Ephesus==
[[Image:Ac.artemisephesus.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Site of the [[Temple of Artemis]]]]
Ephesus is believed by many to be the Apasa (or ''Abasa'') mentioned in [[Hittites|Hittite]] sources as the capital of the kingdom of [[Arzawa]]. [[Mycenae]]an pottery has been found in excavations at the site. The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified by Greeks with [[Artemis]], was
|
, they steadily developed and now comprise over twenty five major collections and a number of smaller ones, encompassing a wide-range of disciplines. The collections include [[postage stamp|postage]] and [[revenue stamp]]s, [[postal stationery]], [[essay]]s, [[proof]]s, [[Cover (philately)|cover]]s and entries, '[[cinderella stamp]]' material, specimen issues, [[airmail]]s, some [[postal history]] materials, official and private [[Postal system|posts]], etc., for almost all countries and periods.
An extensive display of material from the collections is on exhibit and is probably the best permanent display of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world. Approximately 80,000 items on 6,000 sheets may be viewed in 1,000 display frames; 2,400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection. All other material, which covers the whole world, is available to students and researchers by appointment.
As well as these extensive collections, the subject literature is very actively acquired, and makes the British Library one of the world's prime philatelic [[research]] centres.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:P8120016.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Statue of Newton by [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] (after [[William Blake]]) at the British Library]] -->
== References ==
* {{cite web | title = Philatelic collections | url = http://www.bl.uk/collections/stamps.html | accessdate = April 4 | accessyear = 2005}}
* {{cite book | author = Sussex, John (editor) | title=Stamp World London 90, souvenir handbook | publisher = Stamp World Exhibitions | year = 1990 | id = ISBN 0-9515891-0-5 }}
== See also ==
* [[British Museum Reading Room]]
* [[National Library of Scotland]]
* [[National Library of Wales]]
* [[National Archives (UK)|National Archives]]
* [[National Sound Archive]]
* [[List of digital library projects]]
* [[British literature]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bl.uk The British Library homepage]
* [http://catalogue.bl.uk The British Library Catalogue]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/early/georgeiii.html The King's Library] contained within The British Library
* [http://www.bl.uk/gabriel/bibliotheca-universalis/index.html The 'Bibliotheca Universalis' homepage]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/treasures/diamond.html The World's Earliest Dated Printed Book]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/treasures/digitisation.html Turning the Pages], digitizations of a few important books, with explanations (Macromedia Shockwave format)
* [http://www.bl.uk/about/blact.html The British Library Act, 1972]
[[Category:Archives in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cultural and educational buildings in London]]
[[Category:Libraries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National libraries]]
[[Category:Camden]]
[[Category:British organisations]]
[[Category:Museums in London]]
[[Category:Public bodies and task forces of the United Kingdom government]]
[[de:British Library]]
[[fr:British Library]]
[[ja:大英図書館]]
[[nl:British Library]]
[[no:British Library]]
[[pt:Biblioteca Britânica]]
[[sv:British Library]]
[[zh:大英图书馆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brown University</title>
<id>4157</id>
<revision>
<id>41865415</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:53:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MementoVivere</username>
<id>72040</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ Can't start including every student organization. Left in the ones that are relevant to the student body as a whole</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name = Brown University
|latin_name = Universitas Brunensis
|image = [[Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|125px|Brown University Coat of Arms]]
|motto = ''In deo speramus''<br />([[Latin language|Latin]] for "In God we hope")
|established = 1764
|type = [[Private school|Private]]
|endowment = $2.01 billion
|president = [[Ruth J. Simmons]]
|staff =
|faculty = 628 full-time
|students = 7,595
|undergrad = 5,701
|postgrad = 1,894 (326 medical)
|city = [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]
|state = [[Rhode Island]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|campus = Urban<br />143 [[acre]]s (58 [[hectare]]s)
|free_label = Athletics
|free = [[Bear]]s [[Image:Brown bears logo.jpg|40px|]]<br />37 varsity teams
|colors = [[Seal brown]], [[cardinal (color)|cardinal red]], and [[white]]
|mascot = "Bruno" the Bear
|website = [http://www.brown.edu/ brown.edu]
}}
'''Brown University''' is an [[Ivy League]] university located in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]]. Founded in 1764 as Rhode Island College, it is the third-oldest institution of [[higher education]] in [[New England]] and the [[Colonial colleges|seventh-oldest]] in the [[United States]]. Brown was the first college in the nation to accept students of all religious affiliations.
The Brown "New Curriculum," instituted in 1969, eliminates distribution requirements and mandatory A/B/C [[grade (education)|grading]] (allowing any course to be taken on a "satisfactory/no credit" basis).
Brown has the oldest undergraduate engineering program in the Ivy League (1847) and the only undergraduate [[History of Mathematics]] department in the world. Brown was also one of the first institutions to emphasize [[computer science]] as well as [[media studies]], with its department in Modern Culture and Media, where students study [[Film production|film]], [[film criticism]], and [[critical theory]].
Since 2001, Brown's current and 18th [[president]] is [[Ruth J. Simmons]], the first [[African American]] president, and second female president, of an Ivy League institution, as well as the first permanent female president of Brown.
The school colors are [[seal brown]], [[cardinal (color)|cardinal red]], and [[white]]. Brown's mascot is the [[bear]] and the sports teams are called the Bears. The costumed bear mascot named "Bruno" makes appearances at athletic games. The use of a bear as the University's [[mascot]] dates back to 1904. People associated with the University are known as [[List of Brown University people|Brunonians]].
In the fall of 2004, [[billionaire]] [[Sidney Frank]], who could only afford to attend Brown for one year in his youth, donated an additional $100 million exclusively for financial aid&mdash;the largest gift in the university's history. Earlier that year, Frank had given $25 million for the construction of Sidney Frank Hall, the future home of Brown's fast-growing Department of Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Science, and Department of Linguistic Sciences. In September 2005, Frank made yet another donation of $5 million to aid Brown in providing free tuition for New Orleans students whose colleges had been rendered unusable by [[Hurricane Katrina]] just weeks earlier. His donations are one part of Brown's new capital campaign, dubbed "Boldly Brown", to raise $1.4 billion over the next three years, $600 million of which will go towards expanding the school's endowment. Brown parents also serve as large donors, and in 2004 gave more than any other group of non-alumni parents in the Ivy League and the second-most in the country (behind Duke).
== History ==
[[Image:Manning Chapel.jpg|frame|right|Hope College (left) was built in 1822, while Manning Hall (right) was built in 1834.]]
=== The founding of Brown ===
In 1763, [[James Manning]], a Baptist minister, was sent to [[Rhode Island]] by the Philadelphia Association of [[Baptist|Baptist Churches]] in order to found a college. At the same time, local [[Congregationalist|Congregationalists]], led by [[James Stiles]], were working toward a similar end. On [[March 3]], [[1764]], a charter was filed to create Rhode Island College in [[Warren, Rhode Island]], reflecting the work of both Stiles and Manning.
The charter had more than 60 signatories, including [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John]] and [[Nicholas Brown (Brown University)|Nicholas Brown]] of the Brown family, who would give the College its present day name. The college's mission, the charter stated, was to prepare students "for discharging the Offices of Life" by providing instruction "in the Vernacular Learned Languages, and in the liberal Arts and Sciences." {{ref|WalterCBrunson}} The charter's language has long been interpreted by the university as discouraging the founding of a [[business school]] or [[law school]]. Brown continues to be one of only two [[Ivy League business schools|Ivy League universities with neither a business school]] nor a law school (the other being Princeton).
The charter required that the makeup of the board of thirty-six trustees include twenty-two Baptists, five Friends, four Congregationalists, and five Episcopalians, and by twelve Fellows, of whom eight, including the President, should be Baptists "and the rest indifferently of any or all denominations." It specified that "into this liberal and catholic institution shall never be admitted any religious tests, but on the contrary, all the members hereof shall forever enjoy full, free, absolute, and uninterrupted liberty of conscience." The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica remarks that "At the time it was framed the charter was considered extraordinarily liberal" and that "the government has always been largely non-sectarian in spirit."{{ref|eb1911}}
James Manning, the minister sent to Rhode Island by the Baptists, was sworn in as the College's first president in 1765. Rhode Island College moved to its present location on College Hill, in the East Side of Providence, in 1770 and construction of the first building, The College Edifice, began. This building was renamed University Hall in 1823. The Brown family -- Nicholas, John, Joseph and [[Moses Brown|Moses]] -- were instrumental in the move to Providence, funding a
|
g]], were also heavily influenced by ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and its legacy.
With the launch of ''Dungeons & Dragons'''s [[Editions of Dungeons & Dragons|3rd Edition]], Wizards of the Coast made the [[d20 System]] available under the [[Open Gaming License]] (OGL) and [[d20 Trademark License]]. Under these licenses, authors are free to use the d20 System when writing their own games and game supplements. The OGL and d20 Trademark License are also responsible for making possible new versions of older games, such as ''Call of Cthulhu'', using the new system.
==Related products==
===Magazines===
In 1975, TSR began publishing ''The Strategic Review''. At the time, roleplaying games were still seen as a sub-genre of the wargaming industry, and the magazine was designed not only to support ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and TSR's other games, but also to cover wargaming in general. In short order, however, the popularity and growth of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' made it clear that the game had not only separated itself from its wargaming origins, but had launched an entirely new industry unto itself. The following year, after only seven issues, TSR cancelled ''The Strategic Review'' and replaced it in 1976 with ''[[Dragon (magazine)|The Dragon]]'' (later ''Dragon Magazine''). Although Dragon Magazine was originally designed to support the roleplaying industry in general, it has always been primarily a house organ for TSR's games with a particular focus on D&D. Most of the magazine's articles provide supplementary material for the game, including new races, classes, spells, traps, monsters, skills, and rules. Other articles will provide tips and suggestions for players and DMs. The magazine has also published a number of well-known, gamer-oriented comic strips over the years, including ''[[Wormy]]'', ''[[SnarfQuest]]'', ''[[Yamara]]'', ''[[Knights of the Dinner Table]]'', ''[[Nodwick]]'', and ''[[Dork Tower]]''.
In 1986, TSR launched a new magazine to complement ''Dragon''. ''[[Dungeon (magazine)|Dungeon Adventures]]'', published bimonthly, published nothing but [[Adventure (Dungeons & Dragons)|adventure modules]] for Dungeons Masters. While ''Dungeon'' now publishes other kinds of material as well, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' adventures remain its main focus.
Although many other magazines have partially or fully devoted themselves to supporting ''Dungeons & Dragons'', ''Dragon'' and ''Dungeon'' remain the only two official publications for the game. In 2002, Wizards of the Coast licensed the two magazines to [[Paizo Publishing]].
===Films and TV===
A popular ''[[Dungeons & Dragons (TV series)|Dungeons & Dragons]]'' [[animated television series]] was produced in [[1983]]. The cartoon was based upon the concept of a small group of young adults and children who get transported to a D&D-based fantasy realm by riding a magical roller coaster. When they arrive, they are given potent magical weapons and must survive against the chromatic dragon [[Tiamat (fiction)|Tiamat]] and a power-hungry nemesis called [[Venger]]. They are assisted, episode by episode, by a gnome-like ally Dungeon Master and a baby unicorn named "Uni".
A ''[[Dungeons & Dragons (film)|Dungeons & Dragons movie]]'' was released in 2000. ''[[Dungeons & Dragons 2: Wrath of the Dragon God]]'', a made-for-TV sequel, was first aired on the Sci-Fi Channel on October 8th, 2005, and is scheduled for release in February 2006 on DVD. (This sequel is also known by the alternate title ''Dungeons & Dragons 2: The Elemental Might''.)
In 2003, a computer animated motion picture entitled ''[[Scourge of Worlds: A Dungeons & Dragons Adventure]]'' was produced for [[DVD]], featuring the iconic characters (Regdar, Mialee, and Lidda) created for the 3rd Edition. This is an interactive movie that asks viewers to decide what actions the heroes should take at crucial points in the story, allowing hundreds of different story-telling combinations. A special edition was released later that included even more choices, two additional endings, the making of the Scourge of Worlds, and the original (linear) version of film.
===Computer and video games===
Fifty-three computer games and sixteen video games (ten for consoles, four for handheld devices, and two arcade games) had been released and sold under the ''D&D'' license [[as of 2004|as of October 2004]]. Almost half of these games were developed by [[Strategic Simulations, Inc.]] (SSI). Most, but not all, are [[computer role-playing games]] that use rules derived from some version of the ''D&D'' rules. Notable titles include
* ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Cartridge'', designed for the [[Intellivision]], was the first computer console game based on the ''D&D'' license.
* ''[[Pool of Radiance]]'' ([[1988]]) was the first ''D&D'' computer game. Designed by SSI, the same game engine would be used to develop ten more ''D&D'' games. It was followed by a sequel ''[[Pool of Radiance#Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor|Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor]]'', released in [[2001]] from [[Ubisoft]]
* ''[[Eye of the Beholder (computer game)|Eye of the Beholder]]'' ([[1990]]) was the first in a trilogy of popular games designed by [[Westwood Studios]] and published by SSI in the early [[1990s]].
* ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'', ([[1991]]-[[1997]]) was developed by [[Stormfront Studios]] and was the first graphical [[MMORPG]], paving the way for derivative games including ''[[Ultima Online]]'' and ''[[Everquest]]''. The game was a major hit, and the name and settings formed the basis for the ''Neverwinter Nights'' PC game (see below).
* ''[[Baldur's Gate series|Baldur's Gate]]'' ([[1998]]) was the first ''D&D'' computer game developed using [[Bioware]]'s Infinity Engine to be published by [[Interplay]]. It met with critical success and was followed by several more ''D&D'' games, including a sequel (''[[Baldur's Gate series#Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn |Baldur's Gate 2: Shadows of Amn]]''), similarly developed by Bioware with ''[[Icewind Dale series|Icewind Dale]]'', ''[[Icewind Dale II]]'' and ''[[Planescape: Torment]]'' developed by Interplay's [[Black Isle Studios]].
* ''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' ([[2002]]), also developed by BioWare, was the first faithful implementation of the 3rd Edition rules in a [[CRPG]]. The game included sophisticated design tools which allowed Dungeon Masters to design unique scenarios, or modules, much as they would for the tabletop game itself. Over 3000 of these user-created modules have been released onto the internet.
* ''[[The Temple of Elemental Evil (computer game)|The Temple of Elemental Evil]]'' ([[2003]]), developed by [[Troika Games]], was based on the 1985 [[Temple of Elemental Evil|module]] of the same name. The game used the ''v 3.5'' rules and implemented a true turn-based combat system that reproduced the core book rules more precisely than any other previous ''D&D'' [[CRPG]]. However, the game was plagued by incomplete/broken content and numerous bugs, making it an unpopular title.
* ''[[Dungeons & Dragons Online]]'' is an [[MMORPG]] based on the [[Eberron]] campaign setting. It is currently being developed by [[Turbine Inc|Turbine]]. The game is currently on the 'Head Start Event', and is scheduled for a February 28th 2006 release.
For a full list of licensed ''D&D'' computer and video games, see [[List of Dungeons & Dragons computer and video games]]. Many other CRPGs, including the numerous [[Roguelike]] games, [[MUD]]'s (Multi-User Dungeons) and [[MMORPG]]'s (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) are based on the D&D game. One popular example was the [[Wizardry]] series that was first released on the [[Apple II]] in the [[1980s]] and eventually became available on the [[Commodore 64]] and [[IBM PC]] under [[DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows]]
===Novels===
Several hundred [[novel]]s have been published based upon ''Dungeons & Dragons''.
* Fantasy Grand Master [[Andre Norton]]'s novel ''Quag Keep'', published in 1978, was set in [[Greyhawk]], making it the first novel to use a ''D&D'' campaign setting.
* Throughout the early 1980s, TSR printed several series of "[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]"-style novels under the [[Endless Quest]], [[Super Endless Quest]], [[Heart Quest Books]], and [[1 on 1 Adventure Gamebooks]] trademarks. Most of these books were based on ''D&D'', although some were based on other TSR role-playing games.
* The [[Dragonlance|Dragonlance Chronicles]] trilogy by [[Margaret Weis]] and [[Tracy Hickman]], published in 1984, were the first major novels published by TSR.
* ''D&D'' creator Gary Gygax's series of [[Gord the Rogue]] novels, published from 1985 to 1988, was set in his Greyhawk campaign setting.
* Author [[R. A. Salvatore]] wrote a number of books based in the [[Forgotten Realms]] campaign setting, including 17 that feature his famed character [[Drizzt Do'Urden]].
* From 2002 to 2004, a series of interlinking novels focusing upon the iconic characters of the 3rd Edition were published. These books were written by a variety of WotC authors under the pseudonym [[T.H. Lain]].
===Comics===
During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], [[DC Comics]] published several licensed ''D&D'' comics, including ''[[Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (comic)|Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]]'', ''[[Forgotten Realms (comic)|Forgotten Realms]]'', and ''[[Spelljammer (comic)|Spelljammer]]''.
After the release of the 3rd Edition, [[Kenzer & Company|KenzerCo]], better known for the popular gaming comic ''[[Knights of the Dinner Table]]'', secured the licensing rights to produce official ''D&D'' comics. Using the license, they produced a number of different mini-series. One notable mini-series for this comic line entitled ''Tempest's Gate'' was authored by Sean Smith. It featured memorable iconic chara
|
rvice]]. A brand typically includes a name, [[logo]], and other visual elements such as [[image]]s, fonts, color schemes, or [[symbol]]s. It also encompasses the [[set]] of [[expectation]]s associated with a product or service which typically arise in the minds of people. Such people include employees of the brand owner, people involved with distribution, sale or supply of the product or service, and ultimately [[consumer]]s.
In other contexts the term "brand" may be used where the legal term [[trademark]] is more appropriate.
==Concepts==
Some marketers distinguish the psychological aspect of a brand from the experiential aspect. The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points of contact with the brand and is known as the '''brand experience'''. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the '''brand image''', is a symbolic construct created within the minds of people and consists of all the information and expectations associated with a product or service. The unicist approach to brand building considers the conceptual structure of brands, businesses and people.
Marketers seek to develop or align the expectations comprising the brand experience through '''branding''', so that a brand carries the "promise" that a product or service has a certain quality or characteristic which make it special or unique. A brand image may be developed by attributing a "personality" to or associating an "image" with a product or service, whereby the personality or image is "branded" into the consciousness of consumers. A brand is therefore one of the most valuable elements in an [[advertising]] theme, as it demonstrates what the brand owner is able to offer in the [[marketplace]]. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is called [[brand management]]. You're creating the story.
A brand which is widely known in the marketplace acquires '''brand recognition'''. Where brand recognition builds up to a point where a brand enjoys a mass of positive sentiment in the marketplace, it is said to have achieved '''brand franchise'''. One goal in brand recognition is the identification of a brand without the name of the company present. [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] has been successful at branding with their particular script font (originally Walt Disney's signature, but later translated to go.com).
'''[[Brand equity]]''' measures the total value of the brand to the brand owner, and reflects the extent of brand franchise. The term '''brand name''' is often used interchangeably with "brand", although it is more correctly used to specifically denote written or spoken linguistic elements of a brand. In this context a "brand name" constitutes a type of [[trademark]], if the brand name exclusively identifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products or services. A brand owner may seek to protect [[proprietary]] rights in relation to a brand name through trademark registration.
The act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part of [[pop culture]]. Most products have some kind of brand identity, from common [[edible salt|table salt]] to [[designer]] clothes. In non-commercial contexts, the marketing of entities which supply ideas or promises rather than product and services (eg. [[political party |political parties]] or religious organizations) may also be known as "branding".
Consumers may look on branding as an important [[value added]] aspect of products or services, as it often serves to denote a certain attractive quality or characteristic. From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services also command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products has no associated branding (such as a [[generic]], store-branded product), people may often select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the quality of the brand or the reputation of the brand owner.
Advertising spokespersons have also become part of some brands, for example: [[Mr. Whipple]] of [[Charmin]] toilet tissue and [[Tony the Tiger]] of [[Kellogg Company | Kellogg]]&#8217;s.
==History==
Brands in the field of marketing originated in the [[19th century]] with the advent of packaged [[good (accounting) | goods]]. [[Industrialization | Industrialization]] moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized [[factory | factories]]. When shipping their items, the factories would literally [[Livestock_branding | brand]] their logo or insignia on the barrels used, which is where the term comes from.
These factories, generating mass-produced goods, needed to sell their products to a wider market, to a customer base familiar only with local goods. It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods manufacturers needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust in the non-local product.
Around [[1900]], [[James Walter Thompson]] published a house ad explaining trademark advertising. This was an early commercial explanation of what we now know as branding.
Many brands of that era, such as [[Uncle Ben's]] rice and [[Kellogg Company | Kellogg's]] breakfast cereal furnish illustrations of the problem. The manufacturers wanted their products to appear and feel as familiar as the local farmers' produce. From there, with the help of advertising, manufacturers quickly learned to associate other kinds of brand values, such as youthfulness, fun or luxury, with their products. This kickstarted the practice we now know as branding.
Modern branding practices are studied and analyzed at research institutes such as the [[Zyman Institute of Brand Science]] at the Goizueta Business School at Emory University.
[http://www.historyofbranding.com/ History of Branding]
==Examples of well known brand names==
''[[Business Week]]'' magazine publishes an annual "brand scorecard" of the [[100 Best Global Brands|top 100 most valuable brands worldwide]]. Some results from the [[2005]] survey, which contained 53 American, 37 European, 7 Japanese, and 3 South Korean brands, are listed below.
The European breakdown is as follows: 9 German, 8 French, 5 Swiss, 4.5 British, 4 Italian, 3.5 Dutch, 1 Finnish, 1 Spanish, and 1 Swedish
===United States Of America===
*[[American Express]] ([[credit card]])
*[[Apple Computer|Apple]] ([[computer]])
*[[Citi]] ([[banking]])
*[[Coca-Cola]] ([[soft drink]])
*[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] ([[entertainment]])
*[[Ford Motor Company]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[GE]] ([[household appliances]])
*[[Gillette]] ([[shaving]] accessories)
*[[Google]] ([[internet]])
*[[Heinz]] ([[food]])
*[[IBM]] ([[computer]])
*[[Intel]] ([[computer]])
*[[KFC]] ([[fast food]] [[restaurant]])
*[[Levi's]] ([[clothing]] retailer)
*[[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] ([[tobacco]])
*[[McDonald's Corporation|McDonald's]] ([[fast food]] [[restaurant]])
*[[Microsoft]] ([[software]])
*[[Nike,_Inc.|Nike]] ([[footwear]])
*[[Pepsi]] ([[soft drink]])
*[[Starbucks]] ([[coffee]])
*[[Harley Davidson]] ([[motorcycles]])
===Europe===
*[[BMW]] ([[automobile]]&mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[Volkswagen]] ([[automobile]]&mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[Mercedes-Benz]] ([[automobile]]&mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[UBS AG|UBS]] ([[banking]]&mdash;[[Switzerland]])
*[[HSBC]] ([[banking]]&mdash;[[United Kingdom|UK]])
*[[Jarlsberg]] ([[cheese]]&mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[Philips]] ([[electronics]]&mdash;[[Netherlands]])
*[[Nestlé]] (food&mdash;[[Switzerland]])
*[[IKEA]] ([[furniture]]&mdash;[[Sweden]])
*[[Ekornes]] ([[furniture]]&mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[MMA]] ([[insurance]] [[France]])
*[[Louis Vuitton]] ([[leather]] goods and luxury apparel&mdash;[[France]])
*[[Chanel]] (luxury apparel&mdash;[[France]])
*[[Gucci]] (luxury apparel&mdash;[[Italy]])
*[[Nokia]] ([[mobile phones]]&mdash;[[Finland]])
*[[Helly Hansen]] ([[Outdoor Gear]]&mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[BP]] ([[petrol]]&mdash;[[United Kingdom|UK]])
*[[SAP AG|SAP]] ([[software]]&mdash;[[Germany]])
===Japan===
*[[Canon (company)|Canon]] ([[photography]])
*[[Honda]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[Matsushita]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Nintendo]] ([[video games]])
*[[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[Sony]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Toyota]] ([[automobile]]s)
===South Korea===
*[[Hyundai]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[LG]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Samsung]] ([[electronics]] and [[mobile phones]])
== Criticisms of branding ==
Criticism has been leveled against the concept and implementation of brands, much of it associated with the "[[antiglobalization]]" movement. One of the better known criticisms of branding is found in [[Naomi Klein]]'s book, ''[[No Logo]].'' The book claims that corporations' brands serve as structures for corporations to hide behind, and that such global problems as sweatshop labor and environmental degradation have been permitted and exacerbated by branding.
Criticism of branding also comes from within corporations, with some employees becoming frustrated by being limited by overall brand strategies that restrict what they can say, how they say it, and what [[Pantone]] colour to say it in. Some shareholders also have concerns about the amount of money invested in branding.
Skepticism toward branding has also grown in parts of the marketing community since the end of the dotcom boom, though for a very different reason: in many ways, branding has failed to live up to its promise.
In addition, the value of the brand itself is hard to quantify because it is intangible in nature. In cases where this value is significant, it allows the company to manipulate its accounting reports around this issue.
== See also ==
*[[Logo]]
*[[Logo extraction puzzles]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:Branding]]
[[Category:Commerce]]
==Bibliography==
*Miller & M
|
* [[2002]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]] gives former [[New York City]] mayor [[Rudolph Giuliani]] an honorary [[knighthood]].
* [[2004]] - [[Travis Metcalfe]] from the [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]] discovers the universe's largest known [[diamond]], [[white dwarf]] [[star]] ''[[BPM 37093]]''.
==Births==
*[[1457]] - [[Mary of Burgundy]], daughter of [[Charles of Burgundy|Charles the Bold]] and wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1482]])
*[[1480]] - [[Girolamo Aleandro]], Italian Catholic cardinal (d. [[1542]])
*[[1599]] - [[Pope Alexander VII]] (d. [[1667]])
*[[1672]] - [[Étienne François Geoffroy]], French chemist (d. [[1731]])
*[[1743]] - [[Joseph Banks]], English botanist and naturalist (d. [[1820]])
*[[1768]] - [[Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier]], French marshal (d. [[1835]])
*[[1769]] - [[Ivan Krylov]], Russian fabulist (d. [[1844]])
*[[1805]] - [[Peter Gustav Dirichlet]], German mathematician (d. [[1859]])
*[[1873]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian bass (d. [[1938]])
*[[1884]] - [[Alfred Carlton Gilbert]], American athelete, inventor, and businessman (d. [[1961]])
*[[1885]] - [[Bess Truman]], [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. [[1982]])
*[[1892]] - [[Grant Wood]], American painter (d. [[1942]])
*[[1903]] - [[Georges Simenon]], Belgian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[Agostinho da Silva]], Portuguese philosopher (d. [[1994]])
*[[1910]] - [[William Shockley]], American physicist and eugenicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]])
*[[1911]] - [[Faiz Ahmed Faiz]], noted [[Urdu]] poet and first Asian [[Lenin Peace Prize]] winner, born in [[Sialkot]] [[Pakistan]]. (d. [[1984]])
*[[1913]] - [[George Barker (poet)|George Barker]], British poet (d. [[1991]])
*[[1915]] - [[Aung San]], Burmese Nationalist (d. [[1945]])
*[[1918]] - [[Patty Berg]], American golfer
*[[1919]] - [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]], American musician (d. [[1991]])
*1919 - [[Eddie Robinson (football coach)|Eddie Robinson]], American football coach
*[[1920]] - [[Eileen Farrell]], American opera soprano (d. [[2002]])
*[[1923]] - [[Michael Anthony Bilandic|Michael Bilandic]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[2002]])
*1923 - [[Yfrah Neaman]], Lebanese-born violinist (d. [[2003]])
*1923 - [[Chuck Yeager]], American pilot and NASA official
*[[1929]] - [[Omar Torrijos]], Panamanian ruler (d. [[1981]])
*[[1930]] - [[Ernst Fuchs (artist)|Ernst Fuchs]], Austrian artist
*[[1933]] - [[Paul Biya]], [[President of Cameroon]]
*1933 - [[Kim Novak]], American actress
*[[1934]] - [[George Segal]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Susan Oliver]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1938]] - [[Oliver Reed]], English actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1939]] - [[Serge and Beate Klarsfeld|Beate Klarsfeld]], German Holocaust investigator/Nazi hunters
*[[1941]] - [[Sigmar Polke]], German painter
*[[1942]] - [[Carol Lynley]], American actress
*1942 - [[Peter Tork]], American musician and actor ([[The Monkees]])
*[[1943]] - [[Geoff Edwards]], American game show host
*[[1944]] - [[Stockard Channing]], American actress
*1944 - [[Jerry Springer]], American television host
*1944 - [[Bo Svenson]], Swedish-born actor
*[[1946]] - [[Colin Matthews]], British composer
*[[1947]] - [[Mike Krzyzewski]], American basketball player and coach
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Gabriel]], English musician ([[Genesis (band)|Genesis]])
*[[1951]] - [[Greg Fulginiti]], American [[mastering]] engineer
*[[1951]] - [[David Naughton (actor)|David Naughton]], American actor and singer
*[[1954]] - [[Donnie Moore]], baseball player (d. [[1989]])
*[[1956]] - [[Peter Hook]], English bassist ([[Joy Division]] and [[New Order]])
*[[1958]] - [[Pernilla August]], Swedish actress
*[[1960]] - [[Pierluigi Collina]], Italian football referee
*1960 - [[Matt Salinger]], American actor
*1960 - [[Artur Yusupov]], Russian/German chess player
*[[1961]] - [[CEvin Key|cEvin Key]], musician
*1961 - [[Henry Rollins]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Aníbal Acevedo Vilá]], American politician
*[[1964]] - [[Mark Patton]], American actor
*[[1965]] - Stephan Fritzen, German writer
*[[1968]] - [[Kelly Hu]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Karoline Krüger]], Norwegian singer
*[[1971]] - [[Sonia]], British singer
*1971 - [[Mats Sundin]], Swedish hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Gus Hansen]], Danish professional poker player
*1974 - [[Robbie Williams]], English singer
*[[1975]] - [[Iván González]], Puerto Rican disc jockey and musician
*[[1977]] - [[Randy Moss]], American football player
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1130]] - [[Pope Honorius II]], Catholic Pope
*[[1219]] - [[Minamoto no Sanetomo]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1192]])
*[[1322]] - [[Andronicus II]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1260]])
*[[1539]] - [[Isabella d'Este]], Marquise of Mantua (b. [[1474]])
*[[1542]] - [[Catherine Howard]], queen of [[Henry VIII of England]] (executed) (b. [[1525]])
*[[1571]] - [[Benvenuto Cellini]], Italian artist (b. [[1500]])
*[[1585]] - [[Alfonso Salmeron]], Spanish Jesuit biblical scholar (b. [[1515]])
*[[1592]] - [[Jacopo Bassano]], Italian painter
*[[1600]] - [[Gian Paolo Lomazzo]], Italian painter (b. [[1538]])
*[[1602]] - [[Alexander Nowell]], English clergyman
*[[1608]] - [[Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski]], Lithuanian prince (b. [[1526]])
*[[1624]] - [[Stephen Gosson]], English satirist (b. [[1554]])
*[[1657]] - [[Miles Sindercombe]], attempted assassin of [[Oliver Cromwell]]
*[[1660]] - King [[Charles X of Sweden]] (b. [[1622]])
*[[1662]] - [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]] (b. [[1596]])
*[[1727]] - [[William Wotton]], English scholar (b. [[1666]])
*[[1728]] - [[Cotton Mather]], American Puritan minister (b. [[1663]])
*[[1732]] - [[Charles-René d'Hozier]], French historian (b. [[1640]])
*[[1787]] - [[Rudjer Josip Boscovich|Ru&#273;er Bo&#353;kovi&#263;]], Croatian scientist and diplomat (b. [[1711]])
*1787 - [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes]], French statesman and diplomat (b. [[1717]])
*[[1813]] - [[Samuel Ashe]], Governor of North Carolina (b. [[1725]])
*[[1845]] - [[Henrik Steffens]], Norwegian-German philosopher (b. [[1773]])
*[[1883]] - [[Richard Wagner]], German composer (b. [[1813]])
*[[1950]] - [[Rafael Sabatini]], Italian author (b. [[1875]])
*[[1951]] - [[Lloyd C. Douglas]], American author (b. [[1877]])
*[[1952]] - [[Josephine Tey]], English author (b. [[1896]])
*[[1964]] - [[Gerald Gardner]], British writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1968]] - [[Mae Marsh]], American actress (b. [[1895]])
*[[1976]] - [[Murtala Mohammed]], Nigerian military leader (b. [[1938]])
*1976 - [[Lily Pons]], French-born soprano (b. [[1904]])
*[[1989]] - [[Wayne Hays]], American politician (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[David Janssen]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1996]] - [[Martin Balsam]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[2000]] - [[James Cooke Brown]], American author and inventor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2002]] - [[Waylon Jennings]], American musician (b. [[1937]])
*[[2003]] - [[Kid Gavilan]], Cuban boxer (b. [[1926]])
*2003 - [[Axel Jensen]], Norwegian author (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Walt Rostow]], U.S. government official (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - [[Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev]], Chechen leader (b. [[1952]])
*[[2005]] - [[Nelson Briles]], baseball player (b. [[1943]])
*2005 - [[Lúcia Santos]], Carmelite nun (b. [[1907]])
*2005 - [[Maurice Trintignant]], French race car driver (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Andreas Katsulas]], American actor (b. [[1946]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=13 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060213.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/13 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 12]] - [[February 14]] - [[January 13]] - [[March 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:13 Februarie]]
[[an:13 de frebero]]
[[ar:13 فبراير]]
[[ast:13 de febreru]]
[[be:13 лютага]]
[[bg:13 февруари]]
[[bs:13. februar]]
[[ca:13 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 13]]
[[co:13 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:13. únor]]
[[csb:13 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 13]]
[[cy:13 Chwefror]]
[[da:13. februar]]
[[de:13. Februar]]
[[el:13 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:13-a de februaro]]
[[es:13 de febrero]]
[[et:13. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 13]]
[[fi:13. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:13. februar]]
[[fr:13 février]]
[[fy:13 febrewaris]]
[[ga:13 Feabhra]]
[[gl:13 de febreiro]]
[[he:13 בפברואר]]
[[hr:13. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 13]]
[[ia:13 de februario]]
[[id:13 Februari]]
[[ie:13 februar]]
[[io:13 di februaro]]
[[is:13. febrúar]]
[[it:13 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月13日]]
[[jv:13 Februari]]
[[ka:13 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 13일]]
[[ku:13'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:13 Februarii]]
[[lb:13. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 13]]
[[mk:13 февруари]]
[[ms:13 Februari]]
[[nap:13 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:13 februari]]
[[nn:13. februar]]
[[no:13. februar]]
[[oc:13 de febrièr]]
[[pam:Pebreru 13]]
[[pl:13 lutego]]
[[pt:13 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:13 februarie]]
[[ru:13 февраля]]
[[scn:13 di frivaru]]
[[sco:13 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 13.]]
[[simple:February 13]]
[[sk:13. február]]
[[sl:13. februar]]
[[sq:13 Shkurt]]
[[sr:13. фебруар]]
[[sv:13 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 13]]
[[th:13 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 13]]
[[tr:13 Şubat]]
[[tt:13. Febräl]]
[[uk:13 лютого]]
[[vi:13 tháng 2]]
[[wa:13 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 13]]
[[zh:2月13日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Founding Fathers</title>
<id>11171</id>
<revision>
<id>39681590</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T03:15:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.182.42.149</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Founders}}
'''Founding Fathers''' are persons instrumental in the establishment of an institution, usually a political institution, especially those connected to the origination of its ideals. The term is most often used in mo
|
' returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures-based wargaming. Supplements such as ''[[Battlesystem]]'' (1985 & 1989) and a new edition of ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'' (2001) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies. The ''[[Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures Game]]'' (2003) is sold as sets of plastic, randomly assorted, pre-painted miniatures that can be used as either part of a standard ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game or as a stand-alone [[collectible miniatures game]].
==Game History==
[[Image:Chainmail 3rd edition.jpg|thumb|175px|right|The cover to the game ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'', a ''Dungeons & Dragons'' predecessor.]]
===Influences===
The fantasy game ''Dungeons & Dragons,'' designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, evolved in the early 1970s from the ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'' system of [[wargaming]] rules by Gary Gygax and Jeff Perren. The game was influenced by [[mythology]], [[pulp magazine|pulp fiction]], and contemporary fantasy authors of the 1960s and 1970s.
The presence of [[halflings]], [[Elf (Dungeons & Dragons)|elves]], [[Dwarf (Dungeons & Dragons)|dwarves]], [[half-elf|half-elves]], [[Orc (Dungeons & Dragons)|orcs]], [[Dragon (Dungeons & Dragons)|dragons]] and the like often draw comparisons to the work of [[Tolkien|J.R.R. Tolkien]], although Gygax maintains that he was influenced very little by ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', stating that he included these elements as a marketing move to draw on the then-popularity of the work. Other influences, according to the 1977 edition of the ''Dungeon Master's Guide'', include the works of [[Robert E. Howard]], [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], [[A. Merritt]], [[H.P. Lovecraft]], [[Jack Vance]], [[Fritz Leiber]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Michael Moorcock]], [[Roger Zelazny]], and [[Poul Anderson]].
===Edition history===
{{main|Editions of Dungeons & Dragons}}
''Dungeons & Dragons'' has gone through several revisions. Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions.
The original '''''Dungeons and Dragons''''' was published in [[1974]] and was supplemented over the next two years with ''Greyhawk'', ''Blackmoor'', ''Eldritch Wizardry'', and ''Gods, Demi-Gods and Heroes''. Official and popular unofficial rule supplements were also published in the magazines [[The Strategic Review]] and its successor, [[Dragon Magazine]].
[[Image:D&d_Box1st.jpg|thumb|left|175px|The original ''Dungeons & Dragons'' set]]
In 1977, TSR released two new versions of the game: ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' and ''Dungeons & Dragons''.
'''''Dungeons & Dragons''''' was a simpler, sometimes "introductory", version of the game. In 1977 the ''Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set'', also referred to as the Second Edition, was published as a boxed set. This edition was revised in 1981, which also coincided with the release of an Expert Set to accompany the Basic Set. Between 1983 and 1985 the Third Edition was released in a series of five boxed sets, including the ''Basic Rules'', ''Expert Rules'', ''Companion Rules'', ''Master Rules'', and ''Immortal Rules''.
The ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game was revised again in 1991. This edition included the ''Dungeons & Dragons Game'' (an introductory boxed set) and the ''Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia'' (a hardback manual which included the material from the Basic, Expert, Companion, and Master sets). In 1994 the introductory boxed set was renamed the ''Classic Dungeons & Dragons Game''. In 1999 the introductory box set was revised and released as the ''Dungeons & Dragons Adventure Game''.
'''''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons''''' (or ''AD&D'') was a more complicated version of the game, designed to collect, revise, and expand on the rules from the original version and its supplements. Between 1977 and 1979, three hardcover rulebooks, commonly referred to as the "core rulebooks", were released: The ''[[Player's Handbook]]'' (PHB), the ''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]'' (DMG), and the ''[[Monster Manual]]'' (MM).
In 1989, ''AD&D'' was revised for a 2nd Edition (sometimes referred to as ''AD&D2'' or ''2nd Ed''). The game was once again published as three core rulebooks, incorporating the expansions and revisions which had been published in various supplements over the previous decade. The ''Monster Manual'' was replaced by the ''[[Monstrous Compendium]]'', a loose leaf-binder which was later replaced by the hardcover ''[[Monstrous Manual]]'' in 1993.
The release of ''AD&D2'' also corresponded with a policy change at TSR. An effort was made to remove aspects of the game which had attracted negative publicity. Character classes such as the assassin and monk were eliminated, heroic roleplaying and player teamwork were stressed, demons and devils were renamed tanar'ri and baatezu (respectively), and the product artwork became less racy. The target age of the game was also lowered, with most 2nd edition products being aimed primarily at teenagers. The Second Edition art and marketing were also modified to appeal more to female players.
In 1995, the core rulebooks were slightly revised and a series of ''Player's Option'' manuals were released as "optional core rulebooks". Although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition, this revision is seen by some fans as a distinct edition of the game and is sometimes referred to as ''AD&D 2.5''.
In 1997, a near-bankrupt TSR was bought by [[Wizards of the Coast]]. The new company almost immediately began designing a new version of the game, which would be released in 2000 as ''Dungeons & Dragons 3rd Edition'' (also referred to as ''D&D3'' or ''3E'' and not to be confused with the 1983 edition of the basic ''D&D'' game). The 3rd Edition was the largest revision of the ''D&D'' rules to date. 3rd edition also served as the basis for a broader role-playing system designed around 20-sided dice, called the [[d20 System]].
The 3rd Edition rules were more internally consistent and significantly less restrictive than previous editions of the game, allowing players much more flexibility in creating the characters they wanted to play. Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage players to further customize their characters. The new rules also standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat. 3rd Edition also introduced the concepts of "Prestige Classes" (high-level classes which characters can only enter upon meeting certain character-design prerequisites or fulfilling certain in-game goals) and expanded the idea of high-level campaigns with the ''Epic Level Handbook'' (a supplementary core rulebook).
In 2003, the 3rd Edition rules were revised as ''Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5'' (also known as Revised 3rd Edition or ''D&D3.5''). This release incorporated numerous minor rule changes and expanded the core rulebooks.
A wide variety of optional supplements have been published for every edition of ''D&D''. These supplements commonly include new rules, items, spells, and creatures. Other supplements include new adventures or detail entire fantasy worlds.
The various editions of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' have won many Origins Awards, including ''All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977'', ''Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989'' and ''Best Roleplaying Game of 2000'' for the three flagship editions of the game.
===Influence===
''Dungeons & Dragons'' was the first modern role-playing game, establishing many of the conventions which have dominated the genre. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a resolution mechanic, character record sheets, progressive character development, and game-master-centered group dynamics.
The elements which made up ''Dungeons & Dragons'' can be seen in many hobbies of the time, though they had existed previously. Character-based roleplaying, for example, can be seen in [[historical reenactment]] and [[improvisational theatre]]. Game world simulations had been well-developed in [[wargaming]]. Fantasy milieus specifically designed for gaming could be seen in [[Glorantha]]'s board games and M.A.R. Barker's [[Tekumel]], among others. Ultimately, however, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' represented a unique blending of these elements, creating its own niche and leading to the development of a multitude of role-playing games. [[Science fiction]], [[horror fiction|horror]], [[superhero]]es, [[cartoon]]s, [[western movie|westerns]], [[espionage|spies and espionage]], and many other fictional settings were adapted to role-playing games.
Over the years, many gamers have criticized various aspects of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' rules. In previous editions, clunky and inconsistent mechanics were often seen as inefficient and confusing. Trying to find solutions to these problems led to other game developers to expand on and modify aspects of the game. Within only months of ''Dungeons & Dragons'''s release, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games. The first arrivals to achieve lasting influence were [[RuneQuest]], released by [[Chaosium]] in 1976, and the science fiction role-playing game [[Traveller (role-playing game)|Traveller]], released by [[Game Designers Workshop]] in 1978. Some of the later systems include [[Chaosium]]'s ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'', ''[[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]]'' by [[Hero Games]], ''[[GURPS]]'' by [[Steve Jackson Games]] and ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]'' by [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]. These games also fed back into the genre's origin, miniatures wargames, with combat strategy games like ''[[Battletech]]'', ''[[Warhammer Fantasy Battles]]'' and ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]''. [[Collectable card games]], like [[Magic: The Gatherin
|
ideological and propaganda interest in defending the city which bore his name. During the [[Russian Civil War]] he played a prominent role in the Red defense of the city, then known as Tsaritsyn, from White forces. Also, the Red Army, at this stage of the war, was less capable of highly mobile operations than the German army. The prospect of combat inside a large urban area, which would be dominated by infantry and artillery, minimized the Red Army's disadvantages against the Germans.
==The battle opens ==
The start of Operation Blau had been planned for late May 1942. However, a number of German and [[Romania]]n units that were involved in Blau were then in the process of [[Siege of Sevastopol (1942)|besieging Sevastopol]] on the [[Crimea|Crimean Peninsula]]. Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for Blau several times, and the city did not fall until the end of June. A smaller action was taken in the meantime, pinching off a Soviet [[salient]] in the [[Second Battle of Kharkov]], which resulted in the pocketing of a large Soviet force on [[22 May]].
Blau finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on [[June 28]], [[1942]]. The German offensive started well. Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes, and started streaming eastward in disarray. Several attempts to form defensive lines failed when other German units [[flank|flanked]] Soviet defensive lines. Two major pockets were formed and destroyed, the first northeast of Kharkov on [[June 2]], a second around [[Millerovo]], [[Rostov Oblast]] a week later.
Meanwhile the 2nd [[Hungary|Hungarian]] Army and the 4th Panzer Army had launched an [[Battle of Voronezh (1942)|assault on Voronezh]], capturing the city on [[5 July]].
The initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened, and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south. A massive [[traffic jam]] resulted when the 4th Army and the 6th Army both required the few roads in the area. Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles. The delay was long, and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week. With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and re-assigned the 4th Panzer back to the attack on Stalingrad.
By the end of July the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]]. At this point the Germans established defensive lines using the Armies of their [[Italy|Italian]], Hungarian and Romanian allies. The 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad, and the 4th Panzer, now to their south, turned north to help take the city. To the south, Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed. Group A's forces were deployed far to the south and provided no support to Group B in the north.
Now German intentions became clear to the Soviet commanders: in July Soviet plans were developed for the defense in Stalingrad. Soviet troops still moving eastward before the Germans offensive were ordered into Stalingrad. The eastern border of Stalingrad was the broad Volga river, and over the river additional Soviet units were deployed. This combination of units became the newly formed 62nd Army under the command of [[Vasily Chuikov]]. Its mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs.
==The battle in the city==
[[Image:Streetfight_Stralingrad01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Urban warfare|Streetfighting]] inside Stalingrad]]
Stalin forbade civilians from leaving the city on the premise that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders. Civilians including women and children were put to work building [[trench]]works and protective fortifications. A massive German [[Aerial bombing|air bombardment]] on [[23 August]] caused a [[firestorm]], killing thousands of civilians and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Eighty percent of the living space in the city was destroyed. The burden of the initial fighting for the city proper fell on the 1077th [[Anti-aircraft]] regiment: a unit made up mainly of young women [[volunteer]]s who had no training on engaging ground targets. Despite this and with no support available from other Soviet units the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing panzers. The 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th's gunners "shot for shot" until all 37 AA batteries had been destroyed or overrun. <!-- Source 1) Beevors Stalingrad 2) http://stalingrad-info.com/stalingrad1942.htm --> By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga to the north of Stalingrad. Another advance to the river south of the city followed. In the initial phase the Soviet defence relied extensively on "Workers [[militia]]s" composed of workers not directly involved in war production. For a short period, [[Tank]]s continued to be produced and manned by volunteer crews of factory workers. They were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line, and legend has it that they were not even painted.
By [[1 September]], [[1942]], the Soviets could only supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga. Amid the debris of the now wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd Army formed defense lines, with strongpoints situated in houses and factories. Fighting in the city was fierce and desperate. Stalin's [[Order No. 227]] of [[July 27]] [[1942]] had decreed that all those who retreated or otherwise left their positions without orders to do so could be summarily shot. "Not a step back!" was the [[slogan]]. The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties. Soviet reinforcements were shipped across the river Volga from the eastern bank under constant bombardment by German artillery and planes. The life expectancy of a newly arrived Soviet private in the city dropped to less than twenty-four hours. German [[military doctrine]] was based on the principle of [[Combined arms|combined-arms team]]s and close co-operation by [[tank]]s,[[infantry]], [[Military engineer|engineers]], [[artillery]]; and [[Ground attack aircraft|ground-attack aircraft]]. To counter this, Soviet commanders adopted the simple expedient of always keeping the front lines as close together as physically possible. Chuikov called this tactic "hugging" the Germans. This tactic put the German infantry in the position of having to fight on their own or be endangered by their own supporting fire; it neutralized German close air support and weakened their artillery support. Bitter fighting raged for every street, every factory, every house, basement and staircase. The Germans, calling this unseen [[Urban warfare|urban warfare]] ''Rattenkrieg'' ("rat-war"), bitterly joked about having captured the kitchen but still fighting for the living-room.
Fighting on [[Mamayev Kurgan]], a prominent blood-soaked hill above the city, was particularly merciless. The height changed hands many times. During one Soviet counter-attack to recapture Mamayev Kurgan, the Soviets lost an entire division of 10,000 men in one day. At the Grain Elevator, a huge grain processing complex dominated by a single enormous silo, combat was so close that Soviet and German soldiers could hear each other breathe. Combat at the Grain Elevator went on for weeks until the German army reduced the position. In another part of the city, an [[apartment building]] defended by a Soviet [[platoon]] under the command of [[Yakov Pavlov]] was turned into an impenetrable [[fortress]]. The building, later called "[[Pavlov's House]]", oversaw a square in the city centre. The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows, and breached the walls in the basement for better communications.
[[Image:Stalingrad-a.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Soviet soldiers fighting in the ruins of Stalingrad, 1942]]
With no end to the fighting in sight, the Germans started transferring [[heavy artillery]] to the city, including several gigantic 600&nbsp;mm [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]]. The Germans made no effort to send a force across the Volga, allowing the Soviets to build up a large number of artillery batteries there. Soviet artillery on the Eastern bank of the Volga continued to place German positions under fire. The Soviet defenders used the resulting ruins as defensive positions. German tanks found movement difficult in the heaps of rubble up to eight meters high. If they still were able to move forward, they were taken under close-range Soviet [[anti-tank]] fire from building wrecks.
[[Soviet sniper]]s also successfully used the ruins to hide in. They inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans. The most successful sniper was only identified as "Zikan", being credited with 224 kills by [[November 20]], [[1942]]. [[Vasily Grigoryevich Zaitsev]] was credited with 149 kills during the battle.
For both Stalin and Hitler, the battle of Stalingrad became a prestige issue, in addition to the real strategic significance of the battle. The Soviet command moved the [[Red Army]]'s strategic reserves from the [[Moscow]] area to the lower Volga, and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region. The strain on both military commanders was immense: Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye, while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of [[eczema]] that required him to bandage his hands completely. The troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat.
In November, after three months of carnage and slow and costly advance, the Germans finally reached the river banks, capturing 90% of the ruined city and splitting the remaining Soviet forces into two narrow pockets. In addition, ice-floes on the Volga now prevented boats and tugs from supplying the Soviet defenders across the river. Nevertheless the fightin
|
&#720;a/}}
| <small> (MIS-sah own VEHS-sah) </small>
| ([[Media:missä on vessa.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast
| '''''kippis'''''
| {{IPA|/'kip&#720;is/}}
| (<small>KIP-pis)</small>
| ([[Media:kippis.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Do you speak English?
| '''''puhutteko englantia?'''''
| {{IPA|/'puhut&#720;eko '&#603;&#331;lantia/}}
| <small>(poo-hoot-teh-koh eng-lawn-ti-a)</small>
| ([[Media:puhutteko englantia.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't speak Finnish.
| '''''en puhu suomea'''''
| {{IPA|/'en pu-hu suo-mea/}}
| <small> (EN POO-hoo SUO-me-a) </small>
| ([[Media:en puhu suomea.ogg|listen]])
|-
| I don't know
| '''''en tiedä'''''
| {{IPA|/&#603;n 'ti&#603;dæ/}}
| <small> (en tee-eh-dah) </small>
| ([[Media:en tiedä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Frustration
| '''''perkele!'''''
|
| <small> (PER-ke-le) </small>
|
|-
|}
== [[French language|French]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Literal meaning
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|-
|French || '''''français''''' || {{IPA|/frɑ̃sɛ/}} ||<small>("fraw(n)-SAY")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|hello || '''''bonjour''''' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃ʒuʁ/}} ||<small>("boh(n)-JHURE")</small>
||good day
|-
|good-bye || '''''au revoir''''' || {{IPA|/o ʁ<sup>ə</sup>vwaʁ/}} ||<small>("oh-reh-VWAR")</small>
|| to the seeing-again
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|please || '''''s'il vous plaît''''' || {{IPA|/sil vu plɛ/}} ||<small>("seal voo PLAY"</small>)
|| if it pleases you
|-
|thank you || '''''merci''''' || {{IPA|/mɛʁsi/}} ||<small>("mare-SEE")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|you're welcome || '''''je vous en prie''''' || {{IPA|/ʒə vu zɑ̃ pʁi/}} || <small>("zhe voo zah(n) pree")</small>
|| I beg you of it
|-
|that one || '''''cela''''' || {{IPA|/səla/}} ||<small>("suh-LAH")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|this one || '''''ceci''''' || {{IPA|/səsi/}} ||<small>("suh-SEE")</small>
|-
|how much? || '''''combien''''' || {{IPA|/kɔ̃bjɛ̃/}} ||<small>("ko(n)m-BYEN")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|English || '''''anglais''''' || {{IPA|/ɑ̃glɛ/}} ||<small>("ah(n)-GLAY")</small>
|-
|yes || '''''oui''''' || {{IPA|/wi/}} ||<small>("wee")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|no || '''''non''''' || {{IPA|/nɔ̃/}} ||<small>("nah(n)")</small>
|-
|sorry || '''''pardon''''' <br> '''''excusez-moi''''' || {{IPA|/paʁdɔ̃/}} <br> {{IPA|/ɛkskyze mwa/}} ||<small>("pahr-DO(n)")</small> <br> <small>("ex-ku-zay-MWA")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|I don't understand || '''''Je ne comprends pas''''' || {{IPA|/ʒə nə cõpʁɑ̃ pa/}} ||<small>("zhe ne co(n)m-pro(n) PAH")</small>
|-
|where's the toilet? || '''''Où sont les toilettes?''''' || {{IPA|/u sɔ̃ lɛ twalɛt/}} ||<small>("ooh so(n) lay twa-LET)<sup>8</sup></small>
|| Where are the toilets?
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|generic toast || '''''Santé!''''' <br> '''''Tchin!''''' (familiar) || {{IPA|/sɑ̃te/}} <br> {{IPA|/ʧin/}} ||<small>("sahn-TAY") <br> ("tchin")</small>
|| ''Santé!'' = Health!
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''''Parlez-vous anglais?''''' || {{IPA|/paʁle vuzɑ̃glɛ/}} ||<small>("par-lay voo zah(n)-GLAY")</small>
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Excuse me, I don't speak French very well. || '''''Pardonnez-moi, mais je ne parle pas très bien français''''' || {{IPA|/paʁdɔne mwa mɛ ʒə nə paʁl<sup>ə</sup> pa trɛ bjɛ̃ frɑ̃sɛ/}} || <small> (par-dohn-ay MWAH may zheu neuh parl pah tray byen frahn-SAY) </small>
|| Pardon me, but I do no speak French very well.
|-
|}
== [[Frisian language|Frisian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
The translations provided following W: are in [[Frisian language|West Frisian]],
those following N: are in [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] (Mooring dialect).
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|-
|Frisian || W: ''Frysk'' <br> N: ''Friisk'' ||{{IPA|/fri.sk/}} <br>{{IPA|/fri:sk/}} || (freask) <br> (freask)
|-
|hello || W: ''a goeie'' <br> N: ''moin'' ||{{IPA|/ɑ gujə/}} <br>{{IPA|/mOIn/}} || (ah gooye) <br> (moin)
|-
|good-bye || W: ''oant sjen'' <br> N: ''adjiis'' ||{{IPA|/ɔnt ʃɛn/}} <br>{{IPA|/Adji:s/}} || (ont shen) <br> (a-jease)
|-
|please || W: ''asjeblyft'' <br> N: ''weesegödj'' ||{{IPA|/ɑʃəbli.ft/}} <br>{{IPA|/ve:z&gödj/}} || (ashebleaft) <br> (veisegud-y)
|-
|thank you || W: ''tige tank'' <br> N: ''foole tunk'' ||{{IPA|/'tiːɣə tɑnk/}} <br>{{IPA|/fo:l&tunk/}} || (teaghe tank) <br> (foughle toonk)
|-
|that one || W: ''dy'' <br> N: ''di'' ||{{IPA|/di/}} <br>{{IPA|/dI/}} || (dea) <br> (dih)
|-
|how much? || W: ''hoefolle?'' <br> N: ''hüfoole?'' ||{{IPA|/hufolə/}} <br>{{IPA|/h^fo:l&/}} || (who folle) <br> (huh foughle)
|-
|English || W: ''Ingelsk'' <br> N: ''Aingelsch'' ||{{IPA|/iŋəlsk/}} <br>{{IPA|/&j:ñ&lS/}} || (ingelsk) <br> (ayngelsh)
|-
|yes || W: ''ja'' <br> N: ''joo'' ||{{IPA|/ja/}} <br>{{IPA|/jo:/}} || (yaah) <br> (yo)
|-
|no || W: ''nee'' <br> N: ''nåån'' ||{{IPA|/ne/}} <br>{{IPA|/nO:n/}} || (nay) <br> (nawn)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || W: ''Wêr is hjir it húske?'' <br> N: ''Weer as heer et hüüschen?'' ||{{IPA|/Wɛːr ɪs jɪrət hy.skə/}} <br> {{IPA|/wI:R &s hI:r &t hy.S&n/}} || (where is yirret hewske) <br> (vere is heret hewshen)
|-
|generic toast || W: ''tsjoch'' <br> N: ''sünhäid'' ||{{IPA|/ʧoX/}} <br>{{IPA|/sönhEId/}} || (chokh) <br> (sun-heyd)
|-
|Do you speak English? || W: ''Kinne jo Ingelsk?'' <br> N: ''Koost dü Aingelsch?'' ||{{IPA|/kɪnə jo. ɪŋəlsk/}} <br>{{IPA|/ko:stö &jñ@lS/}} ||(kinne yo ingelsk?) <br> (coastuh ayngelsh)
|-
|I don't understand || W: ''Ik begryp it net'' <br> N: ''Ik begrip et ai'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk bəgri.pət nɛt/}} <br>{{IPA|/Ik b&grIp&t&j/}} || (ick begreapet net) <br> (ick begripet ay)
|-
|Sorry || W: ''Pardon'' <br> N: ''Fertrüt me'' ||{{IPA|/pədɔn/}} <br>{{IPA|/ftr^t me/}} ||(p'donn) <br> (f-trut meh)
|}
== [[Friulian language|Friulian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Friulian || ''furlan''
|-
|hello || ''mandi''
|-
|good-bye || ''a riviodisi''
|-
|please || ''par plasê''
|-
|thank you || ''graziis''
|-
|that one || ''chel'' (masculine) <br>''chê'' (feminine)
|-
|how much? ''trop?''
|-
|English || ''inglês''
|-
|yes || ''sì'' || /{{IPA|si}}/ ||(see)
|-
|no || ''no'' || /{{IPA|no}}/ || (no)
|-
|sorry || ''scuse'' <br> ''pardon''
|-
|I don't understand || ''no ai capît'' <br> ''no capissi''
|-
|I don't speak Friulian || ''jo no feveli il furlan''
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Dulà isal il bagn?''
|-
|generic toast || ''vive''<br> ''cincin'' <br> ''prosit''
|}
== [[Galician language|Galician]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Galician:
|''Galego''
|-
|hello:
|''Ola''
|-
|good-bye:
|''adeus''
|-
|please:
|''prégolle'', ''por favor''
|-
|thank you:
|''graciñas''; ''grazas''
|-
|sorry:
|''síntoo''
|-
|that one:
|''aquel'' (m.); ''aquela'' (f.)
|-
|how much?:
|''¿Canto custa?''; ''¿Canto é?''
|-
|yes:
|''si''
|{{IPA|/ˈsɪ/}}
|-
|no:
|''non''
|-
|I don't understand:
|''Non o entendo''
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''¿Onde está/queda o baño?''; ''¿Onde está/queda o lavado?''
|-
|generic toast:
|''¡Saúde!''
|-
|Do you speak English?:
|''¿Fala vostede inglés?'' (formal), ''¿Falas inglés?'' (informal)
|-
|-
|Do you speak Galician?:
|''¿Fala vostede galego?'' (formal), ''¿Falas galego?'' (informal)
|-
|}
== [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ([[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Literal meaning
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|-
|Georgian || ქართული || {{IPA|/kartʊli/}} || (''Kartuli'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Hello! || გამარჯობა! || {{IPA|/gamarʤoba/}} || (''Gamarjoba!'') || "victory"
|-
|How are you? || როგორა ხარ? || {{IPA|/rɔgɔra xar/}} || (''Rogora khar?'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Good, you? || კარგად, შენ? || {{IPA|/k'argad ʃɛn/}} || (''K'argad, shen?'') ||
|-
|Excuse me! || ბოდიში! || {{IPA|/bɔdɪʃɪ/}} || (''Bodishi!'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Please || თუ შეიძლება || {{IPA|/tʊ ʃɛɪʣlɛba/}} || (''Tu Sheidzleba'') || "if possible"
|-
|Welcome || კეთილი იყოს თქვენი მობრძანება! || {{IPA|/k'ɛtɪlɪ ɪqʼɔs tkvɛnɪ mɔbrʣanɛba/}} || (''Ke'tili iq'os tkveni mobrdzaneba!'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Thank you || გმადლობთ! || {{IPA|/gmadlɔbt/}} || (''Gmadlobt'') ||
|-
|You are welcome || არაფრის || {{IPA|/araprɪs/}} || (''Arapris'') || "for nothing"
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|English || ინგლისური || {{IPA|/ɪnglɪsʊrɪ/}} || (''Inglisuri'') ||
|-
|Do you speak English? || ინგლისური
|
written in the last decade of his life, making ''The Persians'' his earliest.
Aeschylus frequently travelled to [[Sicily]], where the [[tyrant]] of [[Gela]] was a patron. In [[458 BC]] he travelled there for the last time; according to traditional legend, Aeschylus was killed in [[456 BC]] when an [[eagle]] (or more likely a [[Lammergeier]]), mistaking the playwright's bald crown for a stone, dropped a [[tortoise]] on his head (though some accounts differ, claiming it was a stone dropped by an [[eagle]] or [[vulture]] that likely mistook his bald head for the egg of a [[flightless bird]]).
The inscription on his gravestone was written by himself before his death, and makes no mention of his [[theater|theatrical]] renown. He chose to commemorate his military achievements only. It read: -“ This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide, Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride; How tried his valor Marathon may tell, And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well.”
"In Greek:
"&#913;&#953;&#963;&#967;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#917;&#965;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#969;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#913;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#972;&#948;&#949; &#954;&#949;&#973;&#952;&#949;&#953; &#956;&#957;&#942;&#956;&#945;, &#960;&#949;&#960;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#959; &#915;&#941;&#955;&#945;&#962;.
&#913;&#955;&#954;&#942;&#957; &#948;' &#949;&#965;&#948;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957; &#956;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#952;&#974;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#940;&#955;&#963;&#959;&#962; &#945;&#957; &#949;&#943;&#960;&#959;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#946;&#945;&#952;&#965;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#964;&#942;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#924;&#942;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#949;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;"
==Works==
Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis, concentrating on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law and divine punishment in the [[Oresteia]] trilogy. Besides the literary merit of his work, Aeschylus' greatest contribution to the theater was the addition of a second actor to his scenes. Previously, the action took place between a single actor and the [[Greek chorus]]. This invention was only attributed to him by later tradition, however.
Aeschylus is known to have written about 90 plays, only 7 of which remain extant:
*''[[The Persians]]'' ([[472 BC]]) (''Persai'')
*''[[Seven Against Thebes]]'' ([[467 BC]]) (''Hepta epi Thebas'')
*''[[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|The Suppliants]]'' ([[463 BC]]?) (''Hiketides'')
*''[[Oresteia]]'' ([[458 BC]])
**''[[Agamemnon (play)|Agamemnon]]''
**''[[The Libation Bearers]]'' (''Choephori'')
**''[[The Eumenides]]''
In addition, the canon of Aeschylus' plays includes a seventh, ''[[Prometheus Bound]]''. Attributed to Aeschylus in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], it is generally considered by modern scholars to be the work of an unknown [[4th century BC]] playwright, quite possibly Ion, Aeschylus' son. Its language is much simpler than that which Aeschylus usually utilises, without nearly as much complex metaphor and imagery, and is closer to Sophocles' style (though it is not at all suggested that Sophocles is its author); its hostility to the figure of [[Zeus]] is completely at odds with the religious views of the other six plays.
In the early [[1990]]s fragments of another Aeschylean play, which had been mentioned in ancient sources, were discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a trilogy about the [[Trojan War]]. It had been lost for over 2,000 years.
==See also==
*[[Tragedy on screen]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/aeschylus/ Selected Poems of Aeschylus]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Aeschylus|name=Aeschylus}}
*Available by .pdf file at Textkit:
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/42/author_id/5/ ''The Suppliants'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/40/author_id/5/ ''The Persians'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/30/author_id/5/ ''Seven Against Thebes'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/6/author_id/5/ ''Agamemnon'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/50/author_id/5/ ''The Libation Bearers'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/13/author_id/5/ ''The Eumenides'']
* [http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aeschylus/ Plays by Aeschylus] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format
===Fragments===
*[http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/POxy/VExhibition/2161.htm Photo of a fragment of ''The Net-pullers'']
===''Prometheus Bound''===
*[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/28/author_id/5/ ''Prometheus Bound'']
[[Category:525 BC births|Aeschylus]]
[[Category:456 BC deaths|Aeschylus]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[an:Esquilo]]
[[de:Aischylos]]
[[el:Αισχύλος]]
[[es:Esquilo]]
[[eo:Esĥilo]]
[[fr:Eschyle]]
[[ko:아이스퀼로스]]
[[it:Eschilo]]
[[he:אייסכילוס]]
[[lt:Aischilas]]
[[lv:Aishils]]
[[hu:Aiszkhülosz]]
[[lb:Aischylos]]
[[nl:Aischylos]]
[[no:Aiskhylos]]
[[ja:アイスキュロス]]
[[pl:Ajschylos]]
[[pt:Ésquilo]]
[[ru:Эсхил]]
[[sk:Aischylos]]
[[sr:Есхил]]
[[fi:Aiskhylos]]
[[sv:Aischylos]]
[[uk:Есхіл]]
[[zh:埃斯库罗斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amber Road</title>
<id>2024</id>
<revision>
<id>40222568</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T01:37:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>restore ToC, cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Amber Road''' (in [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''Gintaro kelias''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Szlak Bursztynowy'', ''Jantarowy Szlak''; in [[German language|German]]: ''Bernsteinstraße''; in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Borostyán út'', in [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: ''Янтарный путь'') was an ancient [[trade route]] for the transfer of [[amber]]. As one of the waterways and ancient highways, for centuries the road led from [[Europe]] to [[Asia]] and back, and from northern Europe to the [[Mediterranean]].
A vital component of ornamental objects, [[amber]] was transported from the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] coasts overland by way of the [[Vistula]] and [[Dnieper river|Dnieper]] rivers to [[Italy]], [[Greece]], the [[Black Sea]], and [[Egypt]] long before the birth of [[Jesus]], and long after.
In [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast in [[Prussia]] through the land of the [[Boii]] (modern [[Bohemia]]) to the head of the [[Adriatic Sea]]. The Egyptian pharaoh [[Tutankhamun]] had Baltic amber among his burial goods, and amber was sent from the North Sea to the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] as an offering. From the [[Black Sea]], trade could continue to Asia along the [[Silk Road]], another ancient trade route.
The [[Prussian people|Prussian]] town of [[Truso]] on the Baltic, was one of the main trading places; Truso was near the town of [[Elblag|Elbląg]], near lake [[Druzno]], in the [[Masurian]] lake district.
In [[Scandinavia]] the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe.
==Overview of known amber roads by country==
===Poland===
The shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids [[alpine]] areas and led from the Baltic coastline (Estland) heading southwards to [[Bratislava]] down to Aquileia at the [[Adriatic]] coast. Another route led towards the [[Black Sea]] in Russia.
===Germany===
[[Image:German Amber Roads.gif|thumb|right|250px|Amber Roads in Germany.]]
Several roads connected the [[North Sea]] (Nordsee) and [[Baltic Sea|East Sea]] (Ostsee), especially the city of Ambur (now [[Hamburg]]) to the [[Brenner Pass]] ("Burner"-pass), proceeding southwards to [[Brindisi]] ''([[Brundisium]])'' in Italy and Ambracia (Greece). ''(See map at right)''
===Switzerland===
The Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city [[Bern]] (''Bernstein'' is the German for amber) and probably originating from the borders of the [[Rhône River]] and the [[Rhine]].
===Holland===
A small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Am(b)ersfoort and Am(b)erongen, and connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.
===Belgium===
A small section, led southwards from [[Antwerp]] and [[Bruges]] to the towns Braine-l’Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named "Brennia-Brenna" (Latin: “Burner”). The route have continued by following the [[Meuse River]].
===France===
Only a fragment at [[Ambares]] (near Bordeaux).
== External links ==
*[http://www.ciolek.com/OWTRAD/DATA/tmcZCEm0100.html OWTRAD-scientific description of the amber road in Poland]
*[http://www.ciolek.com/owtrad.html Old World Traditional Trade Routes (OWTRAD) Project]
*[http://www.amberroad.net/index.php?lg=de&ctid=2 Sketched summary of amber roads]
*[http://www.american.edu/TED/amber.htm Amber route along the river Elbe]
* [http://www.joannesrichter.homepage.t-online.de/Androgyn/SpellingTUI.pdf Joannes Richter - "Spelling Thee, U & I - Introducing into the art of amber trading & Initiation in the great Androgyne Religion"] (pdf file)
* [http://www.joannesrichter.homepage.t-online.de/Androgyn/Bernsteinrouten_BK.pdf Jo
|
ue is what is known as cocoa powder.
===Blending===
Chocolate liquor is blended with the butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couverture. The basic blends of ingredients, in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first, are as follows. (Note that since American chocolates have a lower percentage requirement of cocoa liquor for dark chocolate, some dark chocolate may have sugar as the top ingredient.)
#'''Plain dark chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla
#'''Milk chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla
#'''White chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla
Usually, an emulsifying agent such as [[Soybean|soya]] [[lecithin]] is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain [[Genetically modified organism|GMO]]-free (soya is a heavily genetically modified crop), sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. The texture is also heavy influenced by processing, specifically conching. The more expensive chocolates tend to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.
Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends based on the above formulas but varying proportions of the different constituents used.
The finest plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (solids + butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa. Inferior and mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Some chocolate makers opine that these "brand name" milk chocolate products can not be classed as couverture, or even as chocolate, because of the low or virtually non-existent cocoa content.
[[Image:Chocolate fountain.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Chocolate, with enough cocoa butter, flows gently over a [[chocolate fountain]] to serve [[fondue]].]]
===Conching===
:''See main article at [[Conching]].''
The penultimate process is called ''conching''. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept liquid by frictional heat. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect; hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.
===Tempering===
The final process is called ''tempering''. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process. Additionally, since cocoa butter exhibits a polymorphous crystal formation, care must be taken during tempering to insure the formation of the most stable of the possible crystal forms, so that the appearance of the chocolate does not degrade over time. These goals are achieved by careful manipulation of temperature during the crystallization of the chocolate. Firstly, the mass is cooled from about 45 °C (113 °F) to about 27 °C (80 °F). Agitation during cooling precipitates the formation of large quantities of small crystal "seed" which will serve as nucleii for the final crystallization of the chocolate. The chocolate is then rewarmed to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate unstable crystal forms and reduce the viscosity of the chocolate. The chocolate is then ready for use in molding or coating, after which it is allowed to cool.
Two typical ways of tempering chocolate are as follows:
*Working the melted chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seed"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature .
*Stiring solid chocolate into melted chocolate to "innoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystal (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to "seed" the melted chocolate).
===Storing===
Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 [[degrees Celsius]] (59 to 63 degrees [[Fahrenheit]]), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate should be stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped and then placed in proper storage areas with the correct humidity and temperatures.
===Chocolate and a vegan diet===
It can be difficult to identify [[vegan]] chocolate. Milk chocolate does not qualify because of the added milk, but even chocolate labelled as "dark" may contain milk ingredients. For example, [[Hershey's]] Special Dark contains milk. Unless the chocolate is specifically labelled as vegan, another complication for strict vegans is that the [[sugar]] used in a particular chocolate may have been processed with [[bone char]].
[http://www.worldpantry.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ProductDisplay?prmenbr=172832&prrfnbr=457241 Tropical source] is one vegan chocolate. Not only is it made with evaporated cane juice, but the chocolate is [[Fairtrade_labelling|fairly traded]] It is also "manufactured in one of the only chocolate factories in the world that has dedicated production equipment that is never used with dairy or gluten ingredients."<br>
[http://www.chocolatebar.com/ Endangered Species chocolate] is also a vegan chocolate with many different flavor combinations.
==Endnotes==
<references/>
==Chocolate in the media==
* ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'' (book, [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0067992/ movie])
* ''[[Chocolate (song)|Chocolate (song)]]'' (by [[Kylie Minogue]], [[Body Language (Kylie Minogue)|Body Language]] album)
* ''[[Chocolat]]'' (book)
* ''[[Chocolat (film)| Chocolat]]'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0241303/ movie])
* ''[[The Poisoned Chocolates Case]]'' (book)
* ''[[Like Water for Chocolate]]'' (book), ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0103994/ movie])
* ''[[Consuming Passions]]'' ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0094907/ movie])
* ''[[Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory]]''
*''Candyfreak: A Journey Through the Chocolate Underbelly of America (book)
==Significant chocolate makers==
<!-- DO NOT ADD your pet company or yourself unless that company is somehow significant! -->
Popular or historically significant chocolate makers include:
* [[Cadbury-Schweppes|Cadbury]]
* [[Callebaut]]
* [[Côte d'Or (brand)|Côte d'Or]]
* [[Dolfin]]
* [[Fazer]]
* [[Ferrero SpA]]
* [[Ghirardelli Chocolate Company|Ghirardelli]] (Ghirardelli developed the Broma process)
* [[Godiva (chocolatier)|Godiva]]
* [[Green & Black's]]
* [[Guittard]]
* [[Hershey's]]
* [[Kraft Foods]] ([[Milka]], [[Suchard]], [[Toblerone]], Côte d'Or, and many others)
* [[Lindt & Sprüngli]] (Sprüngli developed conching)
* [[Malley's Chocolates]]
* [[Michel Cluizel]]
* [[Mars Incorporated]] ([[M&M's]], [[Dove (chocolate)|Dove]])
* [[Nestlé]]
* [[Neuhaus]]
* [[Ritter Sport]]
* [[Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker]].
* [[Teuscher]]
* [[Valrhona]]
* [[Whitman's]]
* [[Whittaker's]]
* [[Whetstone]]
== See also ==
*[[Big Chocolate]]
*[[Chocolate and slavery]]
*''[[Chocolate City]]''
*[[Chocolate milk]]
*[[Kinder Egg]]
*[[Creme_Egg|Cadbury's Creme Egg]]
*[[Terry's Chocolate Orange]]
*[[US military chocolate]]
*[[Valentine's Day]]
*[[Christmas]]
*[[Easter]]
*[[Cocoa]]
*[[Candida krusei]]
*[[Fudge]]
==Further reading==
* ''The True History of Chocolate'', by Sophie D. Coe & Michael D. Coe, Thames & Hudson, 1996.
* ''Naked Chocolate'', by David Wolfe and Shazzie, Rawcreation, 2005.
* ''The Great Book of Chocolate'', by David Lebovitz, Ten Speed Press, 2004.
* ''The Chocolate Connoisseur'', by Chloe Doutre-Roussel, Piatkus, 2005.
* ''Green & Black's Chocolate Recipes'', by Kyle Cathie Limited, 2003.
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{wiktionarypar|chocolate}}
{{commons|Chocolate}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.british-chocolates.info British Chocolates]
*[http://www.chocolate.org Detailed drug information]
*[http://www.chokladkultur.se/english.htm Chocolate Culture]
*[http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/exploring_chocolate/ Exploring Chocolate]
*[http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Nov03/HotCocoa-Lee.bpf.html Cornell News on Cocoa]
*[http://www.avma.org/careforanimals/animatedjourneys/livingwithpets/poisoninfo.asp#Misc3 A Pet Owner's Guide to Poisons: Chocolate]
*[http://www.seventypercent.com/ Seventypercent.com]
*[http://www.academyofchocolate.org.uk/ UK Academy of Chocolate]
[[Category:Chocolate| ]]
<!-- moved categories to the chocolate category itself. Add any other ones there as well -->
[[af:Sjokolade]]
[[bg:Шоколад]]
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[[cy:Siocled]]
[[da:Chokolade]]
[[de:Schokolade]]
[[es:Chocolate]]
[[eo:Ĉokolado]]
[[eu:Txokolate]]
[[fr:Chocolat]]
[[ga:Seacláid]]
[[gl:Chocolate]]
[[ko:초콜릿]]
[[io:Chokolado]]
[[id:Cokelat]]
[[it:Cioccolato]]
[[he:שוקולד]]
[[lt:Šokoladas]]
[[nl:Chocolade]]
[[ja:チョコレート]]
[[no:Sjokolade]]
[[nn:Sjokolade]]
[[pl:Czekolada]]
[[pt:Chocolate]]
[[ru:Шоколад]]
[[simple:Chocolate]]
[[sl:Čokolada]]
[[sr:Чоколада]]
[[fi:Suklaa]]
[[sv:Choklad]]
[[tl:Tsokolate]]
[[ta:சாக்கலேட்]]
[[tr:Çikolata]]
[[zh:巧克力]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cetaceans</t
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e and European countries have been taking action for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism|Eco-anarchists]] or [[Green anarchism|Green anarchists]] believe in [[deep ecology]]. This is a worldview that embraces [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself.{{fact}}
Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[alienation|alienated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] &mdash; not just the state &mdash; would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies.
==Other branches and offshoots==
Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the Western social formet in the 1960s and 1970s a number new of movements and schools have appeared. Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above.
[[Image:Hakim Bey.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Hakim Bey]]]]
*'''Post-left anarchy''' - Post-left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. For more information, see [[Infoshop.org]]'s ''Anarchy After Leftism''<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html Infoshop.org - Anarchy After Leftism]</ref> section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.] ''See also:'' [[Post-left anarchy]]
*'''Post-structuralism''' - The term postanarchism was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. ''External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse''<ref>[http://www.postanarchism.org/ Post anarchist clearing house]</ref> ''See also'' [[Post-anarchism]]
*'''Insurrectionary anarchism''' - Insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including "Armed Joy" and "The Anarchist Tension". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as [[Willful Disobedience]] and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ''See also:'' [[Insurrectionary anarchism]]
*'''Small 'a' anarchism''' - '''Small 'a' anarchism''' is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]]. [[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]] offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun."[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796]
==Other issues==
*'''Conceptions of an anarchist society''' - Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state; many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the ''cause'' of chaos, violence, and war. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses violence to advance elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.''See also:'' [[Anarchism and Society]]
*'''Civil rights and cultural sovereignty''' - [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] was created as a forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[National anarchism]] is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views. Its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups (or [[races]]) from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved. It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators. The [[Zapatista]] movement of Chiapas, Mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities.
*'''Neocolonialism and Globalization''' - Nearly all anarchists oppose [[neocolonialism]] as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale, carried out through state institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions. Most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and/or [[cultural imperialism]] (which they may see as related). Many are active in the [[anti-globalization]] movement. Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use "globalization" to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene.
*'''Parallel structures''' - Many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state-supported institutions and "outposts," such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[infoshop]]s, educational systems such as home-schooling, neighborhood mediation/arbitration groups, and so on. The idea is to create the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, authoritarian one.
*'''Technology''' - Recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use the Internet to form on-line communities. [[Intellectual property]] is undermined and a gift-culture supported by [[file sharing|sharing music files]], [[open source]] programming, and the [[free software movement]]. These cyber-communities include the [[GNU]], [[Linux]], [[Indymedia]], and [[Wiki]]. <!-- ***NEEDS SOURCE THAT E-GOLD IS USED BY ANARCHISTS*** [[Public key cryptography]] has made anonymous digital currencies such as [[e-gold]] and [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. --> Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism. Some even think the
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or by neighbours keeping regional styles alive and distinct. The Donegal fiddle music has been influence by [[recorded music]] but this is thought by many players as having a positive effect on the music, varying the techniques used and broadening its repretoire tunes.
==References==
''The Companion to Irish Traditional Music'', Edited by Valley, F., Cork University Press, 1999
[[Category:Irish music]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dimensionless Number</title>
<id>7974</id>
<revision>
<id>15906006</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T02:41:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Hoevekamp</username>
<id>3</id>
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<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Dimensionless number]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dimensionless number]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Double-barreled shotgun</title>
<id>7975</id>
<revision>
<id>28613002</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-17T19:40:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>O^O</username>
<id>294506</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-barreled shotgun''' is a [[shotgun]] with two barrels, unlike single-barrelled shotguns capable of multiple shots such as [[pump action shotgun]]s or [[semi-automatic shotgun]]s. Most have two triggers, one for each barrel. When the shooter pulls both triggers together, both cartridges will fire, resulting in a wider spread of shot. Alternatively, a shooter can pull the triggers sequentially to fire two ordinary shotgun blasts in close succession. Usually, one of the barrels will have greater "choke" than the other, which is a more pronounced reduction of the inner radius of the barrel near the muzzle, giving a narrower spread of shot from that barrel. This enables the shooter to use the unchoked barrel for closer shots and the choked barrel for more distant shots, making the gun more versatile.
Although double-barrelled shotguns are capable of firing two shots in very rapid succession, they then require a time-consuming reload. (Although in recent years, automatic shot ejectors have been implemented into the design, reducing reloading to just sticking the shells in without having to pull the used shells out.) In general, the entire barrel is hinged to the stock and the cartridges are changed at the base of the barrel while the gun is in the open position. The double-barreled shotgun is therefore an excellent tool for many [[hunting]], pest control or home defense applications, but may be less useful for police force or military applications.
An "over and under" shotgun (or a [[Bock-type]] shotgun) is a type of double barreled shotgun in which the barrels sit one on top of the other (contrast with the "side by side" shotgun, in which the two barrels lie beside each other). The latter is the most classic archetypical image of what a shotgun should look like. "Over and under" shotguns often have only one trigger, which fires the two barrels successively. They are often used for sporting competitons such as [[trap shooting]] or [[Skeet shooting|skeet]], since for those sports, the barrels' difference in elevation is considered less of a problem than the difference in windage from side-by-side shotguns. Elaborately decorated, precision engineered over-and-under guns are among the most expensive of all [[firearms]], and were once a traditional present to statesmen.
"[[Sawn-off shotgun]]s" are usually made from double barreled shotguns. Unlike tube magazine shotguns (such as pump action or semi-automatic varieties), the double barrelled shotgun has no mechanism forward of the breech, so sawing off much of the barrel does not prevent it from operating. Consequently, [[criminal]]s who desire a more readily concealed firearm may saw off much of the barrels (and perhaps also the stock) to shorten the gun. The resulting weapon is much less powerful and quite inaccurate. Modifying a shotgun in this way is illegal in most [[jurisdiction]]s, and often the barrels are severely weakened by the modification making it more likely they will be blown apart by the shot. One commercial production version was the Ithaca firearms company Auto and Burglar gun, a double-barrelled shotgun pistol.
A related but rarer variant is a [[Drilling (firearm)|drilling]] (from the German "drei", meaning three), a firearm constructed with three barrels: usually two "side by side" shotgun barrels, and a single shot [[rifle]] barrel beneath them. This arrangement allows a hunter to hunt small game or fowl with a double-barrelled shotgun, but have a rifle shot instantly available if a longer range shot, or heavier game, is encountered. Drillings are mainly encountered in Central [[Europe]].
An even rarer type of gun is the [[Vierling (firearm)|vierling]], a firearm constructed with four barrels. It's basically a drilling with a second rifled barrel placed above the two "side by side" shotgun barrels. Once very popular, the drillings - and especially the vierlings - are very hard to find nowadays.
Double-barrelled rifles also exist, with hunters traditionally preferring them for dangerous game in Africa where the ability to fire two shots quickly, without reloading and without danger of the mechanism jamming, could be critical.
''See also:'' [[gun]]
[[Category:Shotguns]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dessert</title>
<id>7976</id>
<revision>
<id>41361671</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:27:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.163.101.14</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Meals}}
[[Image:desserts.jpg|right|frame|A selection of desserts]]
'''Dessert''' is a course that typically comes at the end of a dinner, usually consisting of sweet [[food]] but sometimes of a strongly flavored one, such as some [[cheese]]s. The word comes from the [[Old French]] ''desservir'', meaning "to clear the table". '''Dessert''' is most commonly used in [[Hiberno-English]], [[American English|American English]], [[Canadian English]], [[Australian English]] and in [[French language|French]]. '''Sweet''', '''pudding''' or '''afters''' would be more typical in other variants of [[Commonwealth English]] for this course.
Dessert as a standard part of a [[Western world|Western]] meal is a relatively recent development. Before the [[19th-century]] rise of the [[middle class]], and the [[mechanization]] of the [[sugar]] industry, sweets were a privilege of the [[aristocracy]], or a rare [[holiday]] treat. As sugar became cheaper and more readily available, the development and popularity of desserts spread accordingly.
Some cultures do not have a separate final sweet course but mix sweet and savoury dishes throughout the meal as in [[Chinese cuisine]], or reserve elaborate dessert concoctions for special occasions. Often, the dessert is seen as a separate meal or snack rather than a course, and may be eaten some time after the meal (usually in less formal settings). Some restaurants specialize in dessert.
==Common types of desserts==
*[[Biscuit]]s or [[cookie]]s
*[[Cake]]s
*[[Crumble]]s
*[[Custard]]s
*[[Fruit]]
*[[Gelatin dessert]]s
*[[Ice cream]]s
*[[Meringue]]s
*[[Pastries]]
*[[Pie]]s or [[tart]]s
*[[Pudding]]s
*[[Sorbet]]s
*[[Soufflé]]s
*[[Trifle]]s
[[Image:Mass food production.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Dessert made ''en masse'']]
{{cookbook}}
{{commonscat|Desserts}}
[[Category:Desserts| ]]
[[da:Dessert]]
[[de:Dessert]]
[[es:Postre]]
[[eo:Deserto]]
[[fr:Dessert]]
[[he:קינוח]]
[[nl:Dessert]]
[[ja:デザート]]
[[pt:Sobremesa]]
[[simple:Dessert]]
[[fi:Jälkiruoka]]
[[zh:甜品]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Non-independent areas</title>
<id>7977</id>
<revision>
<id>31056616</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T15:35:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"List of disputed or occupied territories" +"List of territorial disputes"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of territorial disputes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data Encryption Standard</title>
<id>7978</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41431864</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:13:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian</username>
<id>103917</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguating from [[John Gilmore]] to [[John Gilmore (advocate)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox Block Ciphers |
fullName = Data Encryption Standard |
image = Data Encryption Standard InfoBox Diagram.png |
caption = The Feistel function (F function) of DES |
yearPublished = 1975 (January 1977 as the standard) |
derivedFrom = [[Lucifer (cipher)]]|
derivedTo = [[Triple DES]], [[G-DES]], [[DES-X]], [[LOKI89]], [[ICE (cipher)|ICE]] |
designers = [[IBM]] |
blockSize = 64 bits |
keySize = 56 bits |
cipherStructure = [[Feistel network]] |
rounds = 16 |
cryptanalysis = DES is now considered insecure because a [[brute force attack]] is possible (see [[EFF DES cracker]]). [[As of 2004]], the best analytical attack is [[linear cryptanalysis]], which requires 2<sup>43</sup> [[known plaintext]]s and has a time complexity of 2<sup>39-43</sup> (Junod, 2001); under a [[chosen-plaintext]] assumption, the data complexity can be reduced by a factor of four (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000).
}}
The '''Data Encryption Standard''' ('''DES''') is a [[cipher]] (a method for [[encr
|
f [[catcher]] [[Carlton Fisk]], who provided one of baseball's most enduring moments in Game 6 of the [[1975 World Series]] against the Reds. Fisk also received an honorary [[World Series]] ring from the 2004 season during the ceremony. Facing Reds right-hander Pat Darcy in the 12th inning with the score knotted 6-6, Fisk launched a pitch down the left field line. It appeared to be heading foul, but Fisk, after initially appearing unsure of whether or not to continue running to first base, famously jumped and waved his arms as if to somehow will the ball fair. It ricocheted off the foul pole, winning the game for the Red Sox and sending the series to a seventh and deciding game the next night, which was won by Cincinnati.
==="Duffy's Cliff"===
From [[1912]] to [[1933]], there was a 10-foot (3 m)-high mound that formed an incline in front of the left field wall at Fenway park, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center field flag pole. As a result of the mound, a left fielder in Fenway Park had to play part of the territory running uphill (and back down). Boston's first star left fielder, [[Duffy Lewis]], mastered the skill so well that the area became known as "Duffy's Cliff".
The mound served two purposes: 1) it was a support for a high wall; and 2) it was built to compensate for the difference in grades between the field and the street on the other side of that wall. It also served as a spectator-friendly seating area during the dead-ball era when overflow crowds would sit on the mound behind ropes. It is often compared to the infamous left field "terrace" at [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati's]] [[Crosley Field]], but, in truth, the 15-degree all-grass incline there served an entirely different purpose: as an alternative to an all dirt warning track found in most other ballparks. It was a natural feature of the site on which Crosley Field and its predecessors were located; slightly less severe inclines were deliberately built in center and right fields to compensate.
As part of the [[1934]] remodeling of the ballpark, the bleachers and the wall itself, Red Sox owner [[Tom Yawkey]] arranged to flatten the ground along the base of the wall, so that Duffy's Cliff no longer existed, and thus became part of the lore of Fenway Park. Thus the base of the left field wall is several feet below the grade level of Lansdowne Street, accounting for the occasional rat that might spook the scoreboard operators. (''"The Fenway Project"'', ISBN 1579400914.)
For decades there was considerable debate about the true left field distance, which was posted as 315 feet (96 m). For years, Red Sox officials refused to remeasure the distance. Reportedly, the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' was able to sneak into Fenway Park and remeasure the line. When the paper's evidence was presented to the club in [[1995]], the line was finally remeasured by the Red Sox and truly restated at 310 feet (94.5 m). The companion 96 meters sign remained unchanged, until [[1998]], when it was finally corrected to 94.5 meters. A theory about the incorrect foul line distance is the former 315 ft (96 m) measurement came from the Duffy's Cliff days. That measurement likely included the severity of the incline, and when the mound was leveled, the distance was never corrected. A quick study of the geometry of "Duffy's Cliff" suggests that the theory has merit. Regardless of the posted distance, frustrated pitchers will always argue that "The Green Monster" is closer than the sign says.
===The ".406 Club" (formerly, "The 600 Club")===
In [[1983]] private suites were added to the roof behind home plate. In [[1988]], 610 stadium club seats enclosed in glass and named the "600 Club", were added above the home plate bandstand, replacing the existing press box. The press box was then added to the top of the 600 Club. The 1988 addition is largely credited with changing the air currents in Fenway Park to the detriment of hitters. In the 1980s, an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] professor published his scientific finding that the addition does, in fact, curtail home runs at Fenway Park, giving credence to that claim by players, coaches, and fans.
In 2002, the club renamed the club seats the ".406 Club" (in honor of [[Ted Williams]]' batting average in [[1941]]), six days after his death. (Williams is the last player to hit .400 or better in the major leagues.)
During the fall and winter of 2005-2006, as part of the continuing expansion efforts at Fenway Park, the existing .406 club is being rebuilt. Starting with the 2006 season, the second deck will feature two open-air levels: the bottom level will be the new "EMC Club" featuring 406 seats and [[concierge]] services, and above that, the State Street Pavilion Club, with 374 seats and a dedicated standing room area. The added seats will be wider than the current seats.
===Center field "triangle"===
There was once a smaller "triangle" at the left end of the bleachers, posted as 388 feet (118.3 m). The end of the bleachers form a right angle with "The Green Monster", and the flagpole stands within that little triangle. That is not the true power alley, but deep left-center. The true power alley distance is not posted. The foul line intersects with "The Green Monster" at a right angle, so the power alley could be estimated at 336 feet (102.4 m), assuming the power alley is 22.5 degrees away from the foul line as measured from home plate.
==="Canvas Alley"===
A phrase made popular by Boston television commentators, "Canvas Alley" is the open alley behind the first base line where the grounds crew sits. Contrary to the belief that it "houses" the tarp it does not. The tarp sits next to the camera pit which is next to the Red Sox dugout.
==Ground Rules==
*Foul poles, screen poles and screen on top of left field fence are outside playing field.
*A ball going through scoreboard, either on the bound or fly, is two bases.
*A fly ball striking left-center field wall to right of line behind flag pole is a home run.
*A fly ball striking wall or flag pole and bounding into bleachers is a home run.
*A fly ball striking line or right of same on wall in center is a home run.
*A fly ball striking wall left of line and bounding into bullpen is a home run.
*A ball sticking in the bullpen screen or bouncing into the bullpen is two bases.
*A batted or thrown ball remaining behind or under canvas or in tarp cylinder is two bases.
*A ball striking the top of the scoreboard in left field in the ladder below top of wall and bounding out of the park is two bases.
==Changes in Fenway Park==
In [[1946]], upper deck seats were installed; Fenway Park is essentially the first double-tiered ballpark in Boston since the [[South End Grounds]] of the [[1880s]].
In [[1947]], arc lights were installed at Fenway Park. The Boston Red Sox were the third to last team out of 16 major league teams to have lights in their home park.
In [[1976]], metric distances were added to the conventionally-stated distances because it was thought that the United States would adopt the metric system. Today, few [[United States|American]] ballparks have metric distances posted. Fenway Park retained the metric measurement until mid-season [[2002]], when they were painted over. Also, Fenway's first message board was added over the centerfield bleachers.
After Red Sox won the [[2004 World Series]], a new drainage system was installed on the field. The system, along with new sod, was installed to prevent the field from becoming too wet to play on during light to medium rains, and to reduce the time needed to dry the field adequately. Work on the field was completed only weeks prior to spring training.
===Proposed changes===
After the [[2005]] season, the Red Sox announced that they, in addition to their plans for the .406 Club area, would add 852 pavilion club seats, 745 pavilion box seats, and approximately 200 pavilion standing-room seats along the left- and right-field lines for the [[2006]] season, replacing approximately 1,300 seats.
The Red Sox plan to also add approximately 700 tickets for the [[2007]] season and 1,400 tickets for the [[2008]] season. In adding additional seating, the Red Sox plan to have 1,000 of the seats added over the three years be high-priced premium seats, to help deflate ticket costs and bring Fenway up to the MLB average of percentage of premium seating.
The Red Sox have also stated that at somepoint before the 2012 season ( Fenways 100th anniversery ) that they would like to replace the old wood seats in the grandstand section.
==Seating capacity==
Fenway Park currently holds more than 36,200 spectators. This number has increased over the years as seats have been added in what was once foul territory, throughout the upper decks, and, most recently, on top of "The Green Monster" and atop the right field roof. Some people have proposed increasing the [[seating capacity]] by up to 10,000 more seats through the expansion of the upper decks, while others have proposed razing the historic ballpark entirely and building a similar, but larger and more modern, scalable facility nearby.
To give some more fans the opportunity to visit a Red Sox game there is a Standing Room area, too. Such a ticket costs 20 dollars and the owner can stand wherever he wants behind the good seats.
==Other tenants==
Despite its relatively small size, Fenway Park's [[oblong|oblong-esque]] layout actually makes it a reasonably viable football facility. The [[National Football League|National Football League's]] [[Washington Redskins]] played at Fenway for four seasons, [[1933]] to [[1936]], as the Boston Redskins after playing their inaugural season in [[1932]] at [[Braves Field]] as the Boston Braves, and the [[American Football Lea
|
om their Pakistan-based "religious schools" and took control of the capital. We remained paralyzed while they moved to destroy moderate Muslim forces. While administration officials expressed concern of the Taliban's complete denial of rights for women, it was little more than lip service. Even modest support from the United States for moderate Muslim forces in Afghanistan and serious political pressure on Pakistan could have thwarted the takeover of this strategically important country by these militant extremists. The danger of the spread of fanaticism expressed by the newly independent republics of Central Asia was smugly ignored.{{fact}}
During the summer of 2001, Rohrabacher made a trip to [[Qatar]] that was paid for by the Islamic Institute and the Government of Qatar, according to Rohrabacher’s financial disclosure forms. While in Qatar, Rohrabacher, [[Grover Norquist]], and Khaled Saffuri met with [[Taliban]] Foreign Minister Mullah Wakil Ahmed Muttawakil. Wakil reportedly asked for help in increasing the amount of foreign aid sent by the [[United States]] to [[Afghanistan]], apparently in exchange for U.S. oil company [[UNOCAL]] being allowed to construct of an oil pipeline through Afghanistan. If Rohrabacher was conducting diplomacy, he was in violation of the [[Logan Act]], which prohibits citizens from doing so if not in an official capacity. Rohrabacher told wire service reporters who were present in [[Doha, Qatar]] at the time that he had discussed a “peace plan” with the Taliban. But Norquist, a close associate of Rohrabacher, said that the meeting happened accidently and that it included Rohrabacher yelling at them about blowing up the Buddhist statues" in Afganistan.[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11901]
The Taliban later announced in Kabul that it had rejected what it considered were unreasonable demands by the U.S. side. Rohrabacher’s staff would not answer questions about the Taliban talks. [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11901] After his diplomatic overtures were apparently rejected, Mr. Rohrabacher became one of the most fervent public opponents of the Taliban.{{fact}}
After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Mr.Rohrabacher claimed that the attacks were due to incompetence on the part of the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration. [http://www.ocweekly.com/ink/03/01/cover-moxley.php]
===Possible ethics violations===
On [[November 4]], [[2005]], The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that Rohrabacher "used his influence to open doors in Washington for a Hollywood producer pitching a television show after the producer paid him a $23,000 option on a screenplay." [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-rohrbacher4nov04,0,3476995.story?coll=la-home-headlines] The producer, Joseph Medawar, has since been indicted on fraud charges by the FBI and has plead not guilty. The question is whether the producer paid him the money for the screenplay or if the money was for the introductions to congressional and federal officials conducted by Rohrabacher. Rohrabacher claims that the introductions were done in good faith and were nothing that was not done regularly for legimate causes, and that the introductions have only become an issue because of Joseph Medawar's misdeeds.
===Links to Jack Abramoff===
Rohrabacher is also connected to indicted former lobbyist [[Jack Abramoff]], who has been charged with fraud in connection with his purchase of the [[SunCruz Casinos]]. Rohrabacher was listed as a financial reference for Abramoff. "I don't remember it, but I would certainly have been happy to give him a good recommendation," Rohrabacher said. "He's a very honest man."[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043001147_pf.html]
==Family==
In August of [[1997]] Rohrbacher married Orange County political operative (and fellow [[surfing|surfer]]), Rhonda Carmony. On [[April 27]], [[2004]], he and his wife became parents to triplets.
==Libertarian==
{{Unreferencedsect}}
Rohrabacher was an influencial activist in the radical [[anarcho-capitalist]] movement, starting from about [[1969]],[http://www.free-market.net/resources/fnn/2004spring/sek-iii-riggenbach.html] though he drifted towards the mainstream along with [[Charles Koch]], the billionare who helped fund his political campaigns.{{fact}}
He worked for awhile in the early 1970s as an editorial writer for ''The Register'' (today called ''[[The Orange County Register]]'') [[newspaper]] in [[Santa Ana, California]], then a conservative newspaper with a libertarian bent.[http://www.space.com/peopleinterviews/rohrabacher_profile_000519.html]
In addition to surfing, Rohrabacher is an amateur musician who in the late 1980s appeared, alongside Cox, to sing at the Orange County Press Club's musical lampooning annual political events.
In the late 1960s and early 70s, Rohrabacher was influenced by the [[anarcho-capitalist]] ideas of [[Robert LeFevre]], who had moved his Freedom School to [[Santa Ana, California]], renaming it [[Rampart College]]. [http://www.newswithviews.com/NWO/newworld29.htm] Rohrabacher would appear at various meetings and conferences, including the "Left-Right Festival of Mind Liberaton" in 1969. [http://www.blackcrayon.com/library/mll/history/]Rohrabacher would often play the four-string banjo and sing his original libertarian-themed songs, including "Individual Man": "I don't own nobody. Nobody does own me. I'm just an individual man, just want to be free..."{{fact}}
==External links==
*[http://rohrabacher.house.gov/ Official Web Site]
* {{bioguide link | id = R000409 | name = Dana Rohrabacher}}
* {{nndb name | id = 290/000040170 | name = Dana Rohrabacher}}
{{CA-FedRep}}
[[Category:1947 births|Rohrabacher, Dana]]
[[Category:Living people|Rohrabacher, Dana]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from California|Rohrabacher, Dana]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Deutsche Marine</title>
<id>8954</id>
<revision>
<id>15906885</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-31T01:25:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.109.148.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German Navy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DoD</title>
<id>8955</id>
<revision>
<id>29499902</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-28T17:27:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"DOD" +"United States Department of Defense"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[United States Department of Defense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DARPA</title>
<id>8956</id>
<revision>
<id>15906887</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-08T20:08:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paddu</username>
<id>6949</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{R from abbreviation}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</title>
<id>8957</id>
<revision>
<id>42121917</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:37:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>153.29.160.34</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''DARPA''') is an [[government agency|agency]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]] responsible for the development of new [[technology]] for use by the [[military of the United States|military]]. DARPA was responsible for funding development of many technologies which have had a major impact on the world, including [[computer networking]] (starting with the [[ARPANET]], which eventually grew into the [[Internet]]), as well as [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]], which was both the first [[hypertext]] system, and an important precursor to the contemporary ubiquitous [[graphical user interface]].
Its original name was simply '''Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''ARPA'''), but it was renamed DARPA (for Defense) on [[March 23]], [[1972]], then back to ARPA on [[February 22]], [[1993]], and then back to DARPA again on [[March 11]], [[1996]].
DARPA was established in 1958 in response to the Soviet launching of [[Sputnik I|Sputnik]], with the mission of keeping the US's military technology ahead of its enemies. DARPA is independent from other more conventional military R&D and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has around 240 personnel (about 140 technical) directly managing a $2 billion budget. These figures are "on average" since DARPA focuses on short-term (two to four-year) projects run by small, purpose-built teams.
==DARPA's Mission==
From [http://www.darpa.mil/body/pdf/BridgingTheGap_Feb_05.pdf DARPA's own introduction (pdf)]: "DARPA is a Defense Agency with a unique role within DoD. DARPA is not tied to a specific
operational mission: DARPA supplies technological options for the entire Department, and is designed to be the “technological engine” for transforming DoD.
Near-term needs and requirements generally drive the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force to focus on those needs at the expense of major change. Consequently, a large organization like DoD needs a place like DARPA whose only charter is radical innovation.
DARPA looks beyond today’s known needs and requirements. As military historians note, “None of the most important weapons transforming warfare in the 20th century – the airplane, tank, radar, jet engine, helicopter, electronic computer, not even the atomic bomb – owed its initial development t
|
di Diana'' (1334-37)
*''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' (''Amato'', 1341-42)
*''Corbaccio'' (around 1365, this date is disputed)
*''De mulieribus claris'' (1361, revised up to 1375)
*''[[The Decameron|The Decameron]]'' (1349-52, revised 1370-71)
*''Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta'' (1343-44)
*''Esposizioni sopra la Comedia di Dante'' (1373-74)
*''Filocolo'' (1336-39)
*''Filostrato'' (1335 or 1340)
*''Genealogia deorum gentilium libri'' (1360, revised up to 1374)
*''Ninfale fiesolano'' (within 1344-46, this date is disputed)
*''Rime'' (finished 1374)
*''Teseida delle nozze di Emilia'' (before 1341)
*''Trattatello in laude di Dante'' (1357, title revised to ''De origine vita studiis et moribus viri clarissimi Dantis Aligerii florentini poetae illustris et de operibus compositis ab eodem'')
*''Zibaldone Magliabechiano'' (within 1351-56)
For an exhaustive listing there is ''Giovanni Boccaccio: an Annotated Bibliography'' by J.P. Consoli.
==Further reading==
* ''On Famous Women,'' Latin text and English translation, 2001 ISBN 0-674-00347-0
* ''The Decameron'', ISBN 0451528662
* ''The Life of Dante'', ISBN 1843910063
* ''The Elegy of Lady Fiammetta'', ISBN 0226062767
==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Giovanni_Boccaccio|name=Giovanni Boccaccio}}
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/ Decameron Web] A project of the Department of Italian Studies at Brown University, this site has much of Boccaccio's writing both in the original Italian and in English translation.
{{Commons|Giovanni Boccaccio}}
[[Category:1313 births|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1375 deaths|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Natives of Florence|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian poets|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
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[[eo:Giovanni BOCCACCIO]]
[[fr:Boccace]]
[[hr:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
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[[he:ג'ובאני בוקאצ'ו]]
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[[ja:ジョヴァンニ・ボッカッチョ]]
[[no:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
[[pl:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
[[pt:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
[[ro:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
[[ru:Боккаччо, Джованни]]
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[[fi:Giovanni Boccaccio]]
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[[uk:Бокаччо Джованні]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Giuseppe Verdi</title>
<id>12958</id>
<revision>
<id>42106768</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vivaverdi</username>
<id>573321</id>
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<comment>/* Verdi's operas */ rev.links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the famous composer Giuseppe Verdi. For other meanings see [[Verdi (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Verdi.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Giuseppe Verdi, by [[Giovanni Boldini]], 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)]]
'''Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi''' ([[October 10]], [[1813]] – [[January 27]], [[1901]]) is to date the most influential composer of the 19th century's [[Italian School of Opera]]. His works are frequently performed in opera houses throughout the world and, transcending the boundaries of the genre, some of his themes have long since taken root in popular culture - such as [[La donna è mobile]], from [[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]]. Oftentimes scoffed at by the critics, in his lifetime and today, as catering to the tastes of the common folk, overly simple in chromatic texture and shamelessly melodramatic, Verdi’s masterpieces dominate the standard repertoire a century and a half after their composition.
==Biography==
===Early life===
Verdi was born on October 10, 1813 in [[Le Roncole]], a village near [[Busseto]] in the [[Duchy of Parma and Piacenza]] (now in the province of [[Parma]]). His father was an innkeeper. When he was still a child, Verdi's parents moved to Busseto from the province of [[Piacenza]], where the future composer's education was greatly facilitated by visits to the large library belonging to the local Jesuit school. Also in Busseto, Verdi received his first lessons in composition from [[Ferdinando Provesi]], who was in charge of the local philharmonic society.
Verdi went to Milan when he was twenty to continue his studies, but the Conservatory of Music rejected him, citing the fact that he was two years over the age limit. Verdi took private lessons in counterpoint while attending operatic performances in Milan, as well as lesser concerts of, specifically, Viennese music. Association with Milan's beaumonde convinced him he should pursue a career as a theatre composer.
Returning to Busseto, he became town music master and, in 1830, gave his first public performance at the home of [[Antonio Barezzi]], a local merchant and music lover who supported Verdi's musical ambitions in Milan and who invited him to be the music teacher of his daughter, Margherita. They married in 1836 and their two children died in infancy.
===Initial recognition===
The production of his first opera, ''[[Oberto]]'', by Milan's [[La Scala]], achieved a degree of success, after which [[Bartolomeo Merelli]], an impresario with La Scala, offered Verdi a contract for two more works.
While working on his second opera, ''[[Un giorno di regno]]'', Verdi's wife and children died. The opera was a flop and he fell into despair vowing to give up musical composition for ever. However, Merelli persuaded him to write ''[[Nabucco]]'' in 1842 and its opening performance made Verdi famous. Legend has it that it was the words of the famous "Va pensiero" chorus of the Hebrew slaves which inspired Verdi to begin writing again.
A large number of operas followed in the decade after 1843, a period which Verdi was to describe as his "galley years". These included ''[[I Lombardi alla prima crociata|I&nbsp;Lombardi]]'' (1843) and ''[[Ernani]]'' (1844)
For some, the most important and original among Verdi's early operas is ''[[Macbeth (opera)|Macbeth]]'' (1847). For the first time, Verdi attempted an operistic adaptation of a work by his favorite dramatist — [[William Shakespeare]] — and by creating an opera without a love story, he broke a basic convention in Italian 19th Century opera.
In 1847, ''I&nbsp;Lombardi'', revised and renamed ''Jerusalem'', was produced by the Paris Opera and, due to a number of Parisian conventions that had to be honored (including extensive ballets), became Verdi's first work in the French grand-opera style.
===Great master===
At the age of thirty-eight, Verdi began an affair with [[Giuseppina Strepponi]], a soprano in the twilight of her career. Their cohabitation before marriage was regarded as scandalous in some of the places they lived, but Verdi and Giuseppina married in 1859.
As the "galley years" were drawing to a close, Verdi created one of his greatest masterpieces, ''[[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]]'' which premiered in Venice in 1851. Based on a play by author [[Victor Hugo]], the libretto had to undergo substantive revisions in order to satisfy the epoch's censorship, and the composer was on the verge of giving it all up a number of times. The opera quickly became a great success.
[[Image:Peppina.jpg|thumbnail|100px|right|Giuseppina (Peppina) Strepponi.]]
With ''Rigoletto'' Verdi sets up his original idea of musical drama as a cocktail of heterogeneous elements embodying social and cultural complexity, and beginning from a distinctive mixture of comedy and tragedy. ''Rigoletto'''s musical range includes band-music such as the first scene or the song [[La donna è mobile]], Italian melody such as the famous quartet [[Bella figlia dell'amore]], chamber music such as the duet between Rigoletto and Sparafucile and powerful and concise [[declamatos]] often based on key-notes like the C and C# notes in Rigoletto and Monterone's upper register.
There followed the second and third of the three major operas of Verdi's "middle period": in 1853 ''[[Il Trovatore]]'' was produced in Rome and ''[[La traviata]]'' in Venice. The latter was based on [[Alexandre Dumas, fils]]' play ''[[The Lady of the Camellias]].''
Between 1855 and 1867 an outpouring of great Verdi operas were to follow, among them such repertory staples as ''[[Un ballo in maschera]]'' (1859), ''[[La forza del destino]]'' (commissioned by the Imperial Theatre of [[Saint Petersburg]] for 1861 but not performed until 1862), and a revised version of ''[[Macbeth (opera)|Macbeth]]'' (1865). Other somewhat less often performed include ''[[Les vêpres siciliennes]]'' (1855) and ''[[Don Carlos]]'' (1867), both commissioned by the Paris Opera and initially given in French. Today, these latter two operas are most often performed in Italian; and ''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' in 1857.
In 1869, Verdi composed a section for a Requiem Mass in memory of [[Gioacchino Rossini]]. Verdi proposed the Requiem to be a collection of sections composed by other Italian contemporaries of Rossini. The Requiem was compiled and completed, but it was not performed in Verdi's lifetime. Verdi later reworked and used the "Libera Me" section he composed for the Rossini Requiem as part of a complete [[Requiem (Verdi)|Requiem Mass]], honoring [[Alessandro Manzoni]], who died in 1873. The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan, on [[22 May]] [[1874]].
Verdi's grand opera, ''[[Aida]]'', is sometimes thought to have been commissioned for the celebration of the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, but, according to Budden (see below, volume 3), Verdi turned down the Khedive's invitation to write an "ode" for the new opera house he was planning to inaugurate as part of the canal opening festivities. The opera house actually opened with a production of [[Rigoletto
|
tion|NBA]] games have a huge fan base in China, partly because of the participation of [[Yao Ming]], who plays for the [[Houston Rockets]].
'''Golf''' - [[Golf]] is an emerging game in China, and is seen by some as a status symbol. Several retired [[Communist Party of China|CPC]] leaders are known to be keen golfers. A form of golf, involving hitting balls into holes in the ground with a stick, had been played in China for at least 700 years.
'''Martial Arts''' - Hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts, or ''[[Wushu]]'', have developed over the past two thousand years, many distinctive styles with their own sets of techniques and ideas. hundreds of different styles and schools of Wushu still exist in China, but generally they can be divided into a few distinct branches, including Northern and Southern [[Shaolin]]-style Wushu, as well as Buddhist, Daoist and Muslim styles. For more information see [[Chinese martial arts]].
'''Traditional Sports''' - Many traditional sports are still played. In [[Inner Mongolia]] traditional sports such as [[Mongolian-style wrestling]] and [[horse racing]] are popular. In [[Tibet]], archery and equestrian sports are a part of traditional festivals. [[Dragon boat racing]] occurs during the [[Duan Wu festival]].
=== Performance at international games ===
China has also done well in recent [[Olympic Games]], particularly the summer games, in 2004 China was second in the gold medal tally, and third in total medals with 63 (32 gold, 17 silver and 14 bronze). For details see [[China at the Olympics]]. [[Beijing]] is set to host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]]. In the [[Winter Olympics]], China has performed well in speed skating and figure skating. The [[Chinese national women's ice hockey team]] is highly ranked in world competitions.
==Science and technology==
[[Image:China (172).jpg|right|thumb|150px|Launch of the [[Long March rocket]].]]
{{main|Science and technology in China}}
After the [[Sino-Soviet split]], China started to develop its own indigenous nuclear deterrent and delivery systems. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program. This culminated in 1970 with the launching of [[Dong Fang Hong I]], the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite.
In 1992 the current "[[Project 921]]" manned spaceflight program was authorized. On [[19 November]] [[1999]], the unmanned ''[[Shenzhou 1]]'' was launched, the first test flight of the program. After three more tests, ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'' was launched on [[October 15]], [[2003]], using a [[Long March rocket|Long March 2F rocket]] and carrying [[Yang Liwei]], making the PRC the third country to put a human being into [[outer space|space]] through its own endeavors. The second mission, ''[[Shenzhou 6]]'' launched [[12 October]] [[2005]]. Some see [[Space program of China|China's space program]] as a response to the [[United States Air Force]]'s efforts to militarize space.
China is actively developing in fields such as [[biotechnology]], [[biomedicine]], [[information technology]], [[urban infrastructure]] and [[electronics]].
==Miscellaneous topics==
{{main|List of China-related topics}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[China]] article on China's [[civilization]]s
* [[Chinese law]] and [[law of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Communications in mainland China]], [[communications in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[communications in Macau|Macau]]
* [[Education in mainland China]], [[education in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[education in Macau|Macau]]
* [[National College Entrance Examination]]
* [[Environment of China]]
* [[Ethnic groups of China]]
* [[Superpower]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Police in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Railways in China]]
* [[Science and technology in China]]
* [[Transportation in mainland China]], [[Transport in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[Transportation in Macau|Macau]]
* [[Military history of China]]
* [[China and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[List of Chinese battles]]
* [[Scouting in China]]
{{col-end}}
==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|China}}
* Ross Terrill, <cite>The New Chinese Empire: And What It Means for the United States</cite>, Basic Books, hardcover, 400 pages, ISBN 0465084125
*Roads Murphey, <cite>East Asia: A New History</cite>, U. of Michigan Press: 1996.
==Notes==
# {{note|disp}} China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed [[Kashmir]] province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India.
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook 2002/2004]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm Background Note: China U.S. Department of State website]
==External links==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Government===
*[http://www.china.org.cn/english/index.htm China.org.cn] China's Official Gateway
*[http://www.gov.cn www.gov.cn] China's Government Portal
* [http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ Chinese Central, Provincial and City governments]
===News===
* [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/ China Digital Times]
*[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/home/index.html China Daily]
*[http://www.chinaonline.com/ China Online]
*[http://english.eastday.com/ Eastday] Shanghai-based
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/china HavenWorks - China News] news headline links
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/ People's Daily Online]
*[http://www.scmp.com/ South China Morning Post] Hong Kong-based
*[http://202.84.17.11/en/index.htm Xinhua] government news agency
*[http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/China Yahoo! News- Full Coverage: China] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1287798.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: China'']
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/asia_pacific/2004/china/default.stm BBC News - In Depth: Changing China] ongoing coverage
*[http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2005/eyeonchina/ CNN.com Specials - Eye on China] ongoing coverage
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook - ''China'']
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/0,7368,467721,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: China''] ongoing coverage
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html Library of Congress - ''Country Study: China''] data as of July 1987
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/red/ PBS Frontline - ''China in the Red''] documentary covering 1998-2001
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/chn-summary-eng Amnesty International Report 2004]
*[http://www.earlywarning.com/articles/by_region/china earlywarning - ''China''] ongoing coverage
===Directories===
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China/ Open Directory Project - ''China''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/China/ Yahoo! - ''China''] directory category
*[http://www.findouter.com/China/ China Findouter] directory category
{{col-2}}
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.mondophoto.net/asia/china/china.html Mondophoto.net] - 4200 Public Domain photos of China
* [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/ChinaVietnamCambodia/China/?nosplash=true China Pictures] - Photos from a backpacker's trip through China
* [http://www.discoverdalian.com Discover Dalian] - Historic photos of this former Colonial capital
===Other===
* [http://www.seoultrain.com "Seoul Train" documentary] A critically acclaimed PBS documentary on North Korean refugees ([[Incite Productions]])
* [http://china.notspecial.org/ The Opposite End of China (Xinjiang, China Blog)]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147/ Censorship in China]
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=225 Chinese Threat to American Leadership in Space]
* [http://www.arachina.com/ China International Travel Service OF Guilin - JP ]
* [http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/ China History Forum]
* [http://www.chinaorbit.com ChinaOrbit.com] general information
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/12/international/asia/12CHIN.html?tntemail1 Chinese politics]: New York Times June 12, 2003 (login is required)
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/1921/ Go Taikonauts!] Chinese citizen's page devoted to China's space program
* [http://www.cinaoggi.com/china-map/ Interactive Map of China]
* [http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/shenzhou_china_archive.html Space.com] articles on China's space activities
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=341 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power] February 11, 2005
* [http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryratings/china.htm Freedom House's 2004 country report on China]
*[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/EastAsian/ The East Asian Collection] University of Wisconsin Digital Collections - visual archive of 20th century East Asian cultural heritage. These consist of the ''Holmes Welch Collection'' (Welch was a China history/religion scholar), and ''The China in the 1930s Collection'' which includes military images of the Japanese invasion of China and the Sino-Japanese Conflict.)
*[http://www.danwei.org/ Media, advertising, and urban life in China.]
{{col-end}}
{{China ties}}
[[Category:Central Asian countries|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:Communist states|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:East Asian countries|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China|*]]
[[Category:Republics|China, People's Republic of]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-hoâ Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[be:Кітай]]
[[bs:Narodna Republika Kina]]
[[ca:República Popular de la Xina]]
[[cv:Китай]]
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[[cy:Gweriniaeth Pobl China]]
[[da:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[de:Volksrepublik China]]
[[el:Λαϊκή Δημοκρατία της Κίνας]]
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|
ample) was '''''monster curve'''''.
Fractals of many kinds were originally studied as [[mathematics|mathematical]] objects. '''Fractal geometry''' is the branch of mathematics which studies the properties and behavior of fractals. It describes many situations which cannot be explained easily by classical geometry, and has often been applied in [[science]], [[technology]], and [[computer-generated art]]. The conceptual roots of fractals can be traced to attempts to measure the size of objects for which traditional definitions based on [[Euclidean geometry]] or [[calculus]] fail.
==History==
[[Image:KochFlake.png|right|thumbnail|205px|A [[Koch snowflake]] is the union of infinitely many regions. The boundary of each region is a [[triangle]]. Each time new triangles are added (an [[iteration]]), the perimeter grows. It diverges to [[infinity]] with the number of iterations. The length of the Koch snowflake's boundary is infinite, while its area remains [[finite]].<!-- This is NOT merely a matter of "approaching infinity but never reaching it". The actual length of the boundary of the union is infinite. [[User:Michael Hardy]] -->]]
===Contributions from classical analysis===
Objects that are now called fractals were discovered and explored long before the word was coined. In 1525, the German Artist [[Albrecht Durer]] published ''[[The Painter's Manual]]'', in which one section is on "Tile Patterns formed by Pentagons". The [[Durer's Pentagon]] largely resembled the [[Sierpinski carpet]], but based on pentagons instead of squares.
As Mandelbrot himself pointed out the idea of "recursive self similarity" was originally developed by the philosopher [[Leibniz]] and he even worked many details. In 1872, [[Karl Weierstrass]] found an example of a function with the non-intuitive property that it is everywhere [[continuous function|continuous]] but nowhere [[differentiable]] — the graph of [[Weierstrass function|this function]] would now be called a fractal. In 1904, [[Helge von Koch]], dissatisfied with Weierstrass's very abstract and analytic definition, gave a more geometric definition of a similar function, which is now called the [[Koch snowflake]]. The idea of self-similar curves was taken further by [[Paul Pierre Lévy]] who, in his 1938 paper ''Plane or Space Curves and Surfaces Consisting of Parts Similar to the Whole'', described a new fractal curve, the [[Lévy C curve]].
[[Georg Cantor]] gave examples of [[subset]]s of the real line with unusual properties — these [[Cantor set]]s are also now recognised as fractals. Iterated functions in the [[complex plane]] had been investigated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Felix Klein]], [[Pierre Fatou]], and [[Gaston Julia]]. However, without the aid of modern computer graphics, they lacked the means to visualize the beauty of many of the objects that they had discovered.
===Aspects of set description===
In an attempt to understand objects such as Cantor sets, [[mathematician]]s such as [[Constantin Carathéodory]] and [[Felix Hausdorff]] generalised the intuitive concept of dimension to include non-[[integer]] values. This was part of the general movement in the first part of the twentieth century to create a [[descriptive set theory]]; that is, a continuation of the direction of Cantor's research that was able in some way to classify sets of points in [[Euclidean space]]. The definition of [[Hausdorff dimension]] is geometric in nature, although it is based technically on tools from [[mathematical analysis]]. This direction was taken up by [[Besicovitch]], amongst others; it is different in character from the logical investigations that made up much of the descriptive set theory of the 1920s and 1930s. Both of these fields were pursued for some time afterwards, but mainly by specialists.
===Mandelbrot's contributions===
In the 1960s, [[Benoît Mandelbrot]] started investigating self-similarity in papers such as ''[[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]''. This built on earlier work by [[Lewis Fry Richardson]]. Taking a highly visual approach, Mandelbrot recognised connections between these previously unrelated strands of mathematics. In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the word ''fractal'' to describe self-similar objects which had no clear dimension. He derived the word ''fractal'' from the [[Latin]] ''fractus'', meaning ''broken'' or ''irregular'', and not from the word ''fractional'', as is commonly believed. However, ''fractional'' itself is derived ultimately from ''fractus'' as well.
Once computer visualization was applied to fractal geometry, it presented a powerful visual argument for fractal geometry connecting far larger domains of mathematics and science than had previously been considered, particularly in the realm of [[non-linear dynamics]], [[chaos theory]] (though a few use the term ''xaos'' instead to differentiate between ordered non-linear behaviour and the common meaning of the word), and [[complexity]]. One example is plotting [[Newton's method]] as a fractal, showing how the boundaries between different solutions are fractal, and that the solutions themselves are [[strange attractor]]s. Fractal geometry was also used for [[data compression]] and for modelling complex organic and geological systems, for example the growth of trees or the development of river basins.
Harrison [http://math.berkeley.edu/~harrison/research/publications/] extended Newtonian [[calculus]] to [[fractal domain]]s, including the theorems of [[divergence theorem|Gauss]], [[Green's theorem|Green]], and [[Stokes' theorem|Stokes]].
===The fractional dimension of the boundary of the Koch snowflake===
The total length of a number, ''N'', of small steps, ''L'', is the product ''NL''. Applied to the boundary of the Koch snowflake this gives an infinite length in the limit where ''L'' is infinitely small. This is not satisfactory, as different Koch snowflakes do have different sizes. A solution is to measure, not in meter, m, nor in square meter, m<sup>2</sup>, but in some other power of a meter, m<sup>''x''</sup>. Now 4''N''(''L''/3)<sup>''x''</sup> = ''NL''<sup>''x''</sup>, because a three times shorter steplength requires four times as many steps, as is seen from the figure. Solving that equation gives ''x'' = (log 4)/(log 3) = 1.26186. So the unit of measurement of the boundary of the Koch snowflake is m<sup>1.26186</sup>.
==Definitions==
The most characteristic property of fractals is that they are generally irregular (not ''[[smooth function|smooth]]'') in shape, and thus are not objects definable by traditional [[geometry]]. That means that fractals tend to have significant detail, visible at any arbitrary scale; when there is self-similarity, this can occur because magnification simply shows similar pictures. Such sets are usually defined instead by [[recursion]].
For example, a normal [[Euclidean]] shape, such as a [[circle]], looks flatter and flatter as it is magnified. At infinite magnification it would be impossible to tell the difference between the circle and a straight line. Fractals do not exhibit this property. The conventional idea of [[curvature]], which represents the [[reciprocal]] of the [[radius]] of an approximating circle, cannot usefully apply because it scales away. Instead, with a fractal, increasing the magnification reveals more detail that was previously invisible.
The defining characteristics of fractals, while intuitively appealing, are remarkably hard to condense into a mathematically precise definition. Mandelbrot defined ''fractal'' as "a set for which the [[Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension]] strictly exceeds the [[topological dimension]]". For an entirely [[self-similar]] fractal, the Hausdorff dimension is equal to the [[Minkowski-Bouligand dimension]].
Problems with defining fractals include:
:*There is no precise meaning of "too irregular".
:*There is no single definition of "dimension".
:*There are many ways that an object can be self-similar.
:*Not every fractal is defined [[recursive]]ly.
==Categories of fractals==
<table style="float:right;width:130px;padding-left:20px">
<tr><td>[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x1.jpg|The whole Mandelbrot set]]
<tr><td>[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x6.jpg|Mandelbrot zoomed 6x]]
<tr><td>[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x100.jpg|Mandelbrot Zoomed 100x]]
<tr><td>[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x2000.jpg|Mandelbrot Zoomed 2000x ]] <small>Even 2000 times magnification of the Mandelbrot set uncovers fine detail resembling the full set.</small></table>
Fractals can be grouped into three broad categories. These categories are determined from how the fractal is defined or generated:
:* '''[[Iterated function system]]s''' &mdash; These have a fixed geometric replacement rule. [[Cantor set]], [[Sierpinski carpet]], [[Sierpinski gasket]], [[Peano curve]], [[Koch snowflake]], [[dragon curve|Harter-Heighway dragon curve]], [[T-Square (fractal)|T-Square]], [[Menger sponge]], are some examples of such fractals.
:* '''Escape-time fractals''' &mdash; Fractals defined by a [[recurrence]] relation at each point in a space (such as the complex plane). Examples of this type are the [[Mandelbrot set]], the [[Burning Ship fractal]] and the [[Lyapunov fractal]].
:* '''Random fractals''', generated by stochastic rather than deterministic processes, for example, [[fractal landscapes]], [[Lévy flight]] and the [[Brownian Tree]]. The latter yields so-called mass- or dendritic fractals, for example, [[Diffusion Limited Aggregation]] or [[Reaction Limited Aggregation]] clusters.
Fractals can also be classified according to their self-similarity. There are three types of self-similarity found in fractals:
:*Exact self-similarity &mdash; Th
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t]] expires.
[[Richard Stallman]] [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal/2003/08/msg00807.html said] about invariant sections on the [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal debian-legal] mailinglist:
:''"The goal of invariant sections, ever since the 80s when we first made the GNU Manifesto an invariant section in the Emacs Manual, was to make sure they could not be removed. Specifically, to make sure that distributors of Emacs that also distribute non-free software could not remove the statements of our philosophy, which they might think of doing because those statements criticize their actions."''
Ironically, this problem is reminiscent of [[BSD_license#The_UC_Berkeley_advertising_clause|GNU's problem with the 4 clause BSD license]].
===GPL incompatible in both directions===
The GNU FDL is incompatible in both directions with the GPL: that is GNU FDL material cannot be put into a GPL. Because of this, code samples are often [[dual_license|dual-licensed]] so that they may appear in documentation.
===Burdens when printing===
The GNU FDL requires that when printing out a document covered under this license you must also include: "this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies". This means that if you print out a copy of an article whose text is covered under the GNU FDL, you must also include a copyright notice and a physical printout of the GNU FDL which is a significantly large document in itself.
===Ideological tone===
The license involves a preamble, that some critics dislike because of its ideological tone.
===Length===
Some consider the license to be too long.
===Transparent formats===
The definition of a "transparent" format is complicated, and may be difficult to apply. For example, drawings are required to be in a format that allows them to be revised straightforwardly with "some widely available drawing editor." The definition of "widely available" may be difficult to interpret, and may change over time, since, e.g., the open-source [[Inkscape]] editor is rapidly maturing, but is still in a prerelease stage. This section, which was rewritten somewhat between versions 1.1 and 1.2 of the license, uses the terms "widely available" and "proprietary" inconsistently and without defining them. According to a strict interpretation of the license, the references to "generic text editors" could be interpreted as ruling out a format used by an open-source word-processor such as [[Abiword]]; according to a loose interpretation, however, [[Microsoft Word]] .doc format could qualify as transparent, since a subset of .doc files can be edited perfectly using [[OpenOffice.org]], and the format therefore is not one "that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors."
==History==
The FDL was released in draft form for feedback in late [[1999]]. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in [[March 2000]], and version 1.2 in [[November 2002]].
== Other free content licenses ==
Some of these were developed independently of the GNU FDL, while others were developed in response to perceived flaws in the GNU FDL.
* The [[Creative Commons]] "CC-by-sa" and "CC-nc-sa" licenses
* [[Design Science License]]
* [[Open Content License]]
* [[Open Publication License]]
== See also ==
* [[BSD license]]
* [[Copyright]]
* [[Copyleft]]
* [[Free software license]]
* [[GNU]]
* [[Open content]]
* [[Open source hardware]]
* [[Share-alike]]
* [[Software licensing]] <!-- should the above "alternatives" list be moved to [[software licensing]] ? -->
== External links ==
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Resources discussing the appropriateness of the GFDL:
*[http://www.fsf.org/licenses/fdl.html The GNU Free Documentation License]
*[http://people.debian.org/~srivasta/Position_Statement.xhtml Draft of Debian position statement about the GFDL]
*[http://home.twcny.rr.com/nerode/neroden/fdl.html Why You Shouldn't Use the GNU FDL]
*[[wikitravel:Wikitravel:Why_Wikitravel_isn%27t_GFDL|Why Wikitravel isn't GFDL]]: Problems with using the GFDL for short printed texts
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/ The Free Universal Encyclopedia And Learning Resource]
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[[wa:Licince di documintåcion libe di GNU]]
[[zh:GNU自由文档许可证]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Great Depression</title>
<id>11940</id>
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<revision>
<id>41937877</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Katefan0</username>
<id>133968</id>
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<comment>protected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
{{dablink|see also [[The Great Depression (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Dorothea Lange]]'s ''Migrant Mother'' depicts destitute pea pickers in California, centering on [[Florence Owens Thompson]], a mother of seven children, age twenty-nine, in [[Nipomo, California]], March 1936.]]
The '''Great Depression''' was a massive economic decline that started in 1929 and ended in the late 1930s. All countries were affected; worst hit were the most industrialized, including the [[United States]], Europe, and Japan. [[Cities in the great depression|Cities around the world]] were hit hard, especially those based on heavy industry. Rural areas likewise were hurt as prices for crops plunged. Mining and lumbering areas were perhaps the hardest hit because there was little alternative economic activity.
== Depression Statistics ==
Selected US economic statistics during the course of the Great Depression. These facts provide the basis for an understanding of the actions and debate that surround this period of economic turmoil.
{| class="wikitable"
!width="100%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |Statistic
!width="9%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1929
!width="6%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1933
!width="6%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1937
!width="5%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1939
!width="6%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1940
!width="3%" style="background:#eeeeee;" |1942
|-
|align="center"|Real Gross National Product (GNP) (1)
|align="center"|181.8
|align="center"|126.6
|align="center"|183.5
|align="center"|189.3
|align="center"|205.8
|align="center"|266.9
|-
|align="center"|Consumer Price Index (2)
|align="center"|73.3
|align="center"|22.9
|align="center"|61.4
|align="center"|59.4
|align="center"|59.9
|align="center"|69.7
|-
|align="center"|Index of Industrial Production (2)
|align="center"|59
|align="center"|37
|align="center"|12
|align="center"|59
|align="center"|67
|align="center"|205
|-
|align="center"|Money Supply (in billions)
|align="center"|26.4
|align="center"|19.8
|align="center"|29.6
|align="center"|36.2
|align="center"|42.2
|align="center"|62.8
|-
|align="center"|Unemployment (in millions)
|align="center"|1.6
|align="center"|12.8
|align="center"|7.7
|align="center"|9.5
|align="center"|8.1
|align="center"|2.7
|-
|align="center"|Unemployment (% of civilian work force)
|align="center"|9.6
|align="center"|39.05
|align="center"|14.3
|align="center"|17.2
|align="center"|14.6
|align="cente
|
er Christian colleges:
<blockquote>If you ask a student at non-fundamentalist evangelical schools like Wheaton in Illinois or Gordon in Wenham, Mass, what they think of Bob Jones, you will get looks of horror far worse than you'll get from secular kids — along with questions about whether Bob Jones really has separate pink and blue sidewalks for men and women. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/141/12.0.html]</blockquote> One college administrator has stated that the institution's unchanging ways are like "stroking the cat in the wrong direction." [http://www.kentucky.com/mld/kentucky/living/religion/12251675.htm]
While all these rules are based on the opinions of BJU, one rule directly mentions a specific company in relation to BJU dress code. According to BJU, students are prohibited from wearing any clothing displaying logos from [[Abercrombie & Fitch]] due to what BJU perceives as "antagonism to the name of Christ" and "wickedness" in their advertising.
====General rules====
*[[Curfew]] is at 10:25 pm and all lights must be out by 12 am. BJU say this curfew aids safety for students and also helps to ensure that they get some needed sleep while they are at college.
*Residence Hall Students are required to sign out when they leave campus, largely as a measure of safety. This rule does not apply to male students with Junior and Senior privileges, who are free to leave without signing out between the hours of 7 am and 7 pm.
*Unfiltered [[Wireless network|wireless internet access]] via computer, [[mobile phone]], or [[satellite phone]] is prohibited. However, the university provides [[Censorware|content-filtered]] [[Wireless campus|Wi-fi service for student use]]. The filter blocks pornography and other "objectionable content."
*Students are provided with an individual [[E-mail|email]] account which is filtered through the campus email system to prevent [[internet pornography|questionable content]]. BJU say this filtered email system is consistent with the practice of many major banks and other businesses.
*DVD/VCRs are not allowed in residence halls; [[DVD player]]s as part of computer systems cannot be used for watching films. [[Television]]s may be used only as monitors for [[video game console]]s.
*Students in [[residence halls]] are not allowed to watch any [[film]]s with a rating higher than a [[Motion Picture Association of America|G rating]] when visiting local homes and are forbidden from visiting [[Movie theater|cinemas]]. Additionally, students are not permitted to play, use, or own [[Computer and video games|video games]] that are rated [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|T, M, or Ao]], or that have any kind of [[profanity]], sensual or suggestive dress, rock music, blood and gore, or demonic themes.
*The University has strict rules regarding music: [[Country music|Country]], [[Jazz]], [[New Age music|New Age]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Rap]], and [[Contemporary Christian music]] are all off-limits to BJU students.
*Movie, music, and fashion posters are prohibited.
*Sexual relations between unmarried students, if discovered, is an expulsion offense.
*Possessing or distributing pornography is an expulsion offense. Some think that magazines of any kind showing any pictures of females are prohibited on the campus, but this rule does not exist.
*[[Weapon]]s of any kind must be stored by the University. [[Pistol]]s must have [[trigger lock]]s. No [[firework]]s are allowed at any time.
====Work====
* Students are permitted to work until 10:25 pm on weekdays and 12 am on weekends.
* Freshmen and sophomores are not permitted to use vehicles in order to [[Commuting|commute]] to and from work because parking on campus is limited.
* [[Solicitation]] by students in the Greenville area is forbidden. All students are required to have a retail license or permission from the [[Dean of Students]] to solicit services door to door.
====Male dress code====
*Men's hair is required to be traditionally styled with a conservative cut. Hair must not be colored or highlighted and is not permitted to be shaved, shelved, tangled or spiked.
*Sideburns may not reach past the lower opening of the ear. It is recommended that men be clean-shaven at all times.
*Men may not wear earrings, necklaces, or bracelets of any kind.
*No hats are allowed indoors except in the gymnasium.
*Tattoos and body piercings are forbidden.
*The University will not allow articles of any kind to display the logos of [[Abercrombie & Fitch]] and its subsidiary [[Hollister Co.|Hollister]]. These items may not be carried or displayed, even if the logos are hidden.
*Morning dress consists of the following: dress shirt (no denim or chambray) with tie, dress or ironed casual pants (no jeans, cargo, carpenter, or sloppy pants), dress or leather casual shoes. Sweaters should show shirt collar and tie knot. No sweatshirts are allowed.
*Afternoon dress will include a collared shirt (no crew necks), neat casual pants, dress or casual shoes (no slippers or sandals). Socks should be above the ankle, and sweatshirts or sweaters are permitted.
*Sunday dress requires a coat, tie, dress shirt, dress shoes, dress or dressier casual pants.
*Recreation and work dress may include jeans and t-shirts. Sleeveless athletic shirts may be worn during indoor activities only. Shorts may be worn at athletic facilities but not as spectators at sporting events. Socks are required at all times.
**BJU say the goal of these guidelines for dress is a neat and professional look for students while they are at school.
====Female dress code====
General and classroom dress for women consists of a [[dress]] or top and [[skirt]]. Pants are allowed for some recreational activities. Women may never wear [[shorts]] outside the residence halls and fitness center.
*Underwear
**Colored underwear should not be visible through outer clothing. For instance, a student should not pair a bright pink bra with a sheer white blouse.
**Underwear may not be exposed in public at any time.
**Guidelines for swimwear are that the suit must be one-piece and modest. There are no regulations about underwear beneath bathing costumes.
*Tops
**The middle area of the [[torso]] may never be exposed. Tops must be long enough to meet the top of the skirt or pants. BJU say this guideline encourages professionalism and modesty.
**Sleeveless tops and dresses may be worn with a [[blouse]], jacket, or sweater. In all other cases, sleeves are required. BJU say this rule is one of convenience rather than conviction, and further, that there is no rule about covering the arms.
**[[Cleavage (breasts)|Necklines]] are allowed to drop four fingers below the collarbone, but no more. BJU says the choice of "four fingers" is nothing more than a convenient measurement.
**Tops may be fitted, but not clingy.
*Skirts
**Hemlines, slits or other openings may never be higher than the bottom of the knee.
**Denim skirts are allowed for casual dress but not allowed in class or other professional events.
*Pants
**Loose-fitting pants may be worn between female residence halls, for the purpose of athletic events, and to local area residences.
**Loose-fitting jeans may be worn between women's residence halls and when participating in activities where such fabric is necessary, like ice-skating, white-water rafting and skiing.
*Ease
**All clothing, such as dresses, skirts, pants, and shirts, must fit correctly without clinging.
**There should be at least a 3/4-inch fold of fabric on both sides of the hips and bust. This "ease" may be measured by standing straight and pinching the loose fabric on both sides of the hips and bust line. However, there are no random inspections of this.
*Other
**Thin and transparent clothing is allowed when accompanied by appropriate clothing worn underneath.
**[[Hosiery|Hose]] are required for all professional activities, including church, recitals, and class.
**[[Shoe]]s like [[combat boot|combat]] or [[hiking boot]]s are not permitted.
**Feminine, neat, and orderly hairstyles are required. Masculine cuts should be avoided (although short hair is allowed).
**Tattoos are prohibited. A maximum of two matched sets of earrings are allowed, and they must be worn in the lobe of the ear. Any other body piercings are prohibited.
**Contrary to rumor, there is not a rule concerning female students' sleep attire.
**The policy regarding Abercrombie & Fitch as described in the male dress code section also applies to women.
==Political campaigns==
===2000 Election===
====Interracial Dating====
Over the years many [[governor|gubernatorial]] and [[president]]ial candidates have spoken at the school, including [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Jack Kemp]], [[Bob Dole]], and [[Alan Keyes]]. [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] tend to avoid the school, and on a national level, it is mainly [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] who appear there attempting to increase their popularity among people that have traditionally supported the [[Democratic party]], people like Southern white conservatives. (see [[Southern strategy]]).
On [[February 2]], [[2000]], [[George W. Bush]], while campaigning to become U.S. President, addressed the school's chapel service. Some disagreed with Bush's decision to speak at the controversial institution. Bush's speech did not include any mention of either the school's ban on interracial dating or its anti-Catholic teachings. Following the public outcry, the Bush campaign promptly released remarks declaring that Bush was neither anti-Catholic nor a racist, and that his brother [[Jeb Bush]] could not have dated his wife (who is [[Latina]]) if he had attended the school (although in fact he could have, since BJU did not view Latinos and Anglos as separate races). Bush also appeared before the press to deny that he either knew or approved of what he regarded as the school's int
|
Italian statistical services. He resigned in [[1932]] in protest at interference in his work by the fascist state.
==Later career==
*In [[1933]] Gini was elected vice president of the International Sociological Institute.
*In [[1934]] - president of the Italian [[Genetics]] and [[Eugenics]] Society.
*In [[1935]] - president of the International Federation of Eugenics Societies in Latin-language Countries.
*In [[1937]] - president of the Italian Sociological Society.
*In [[1941]] - president of the Italian Statistical Society.
*In [[1957]] he received the Gold Medal for outstanding service to the Italian School.
*In [[1962]] he was elected National Member of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]].
==Honours==
The following honorary degrees were conferred upon him:
*Economics by the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan (1932),
*Sociology by the University of Geneva (1934),
*Sciences by Harvard University (1936),
*Social Sciences by the University of Cordoba, Argentine (1963).
Corrado Gini died in the early hours of [[13 March]] [[1965]].
==Some publications==
* ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi'' ([[1908]])
* ''Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri'' ([[1914]])
* ''Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues'' ([[1924]])
* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione'' ([[1955]])
* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.2: Transvariazione'' ([[1960]])
==See also==
* [[Gini coefficient|Gini coefficient and Gini index]]
==External links==
* [http://www.metronjournal.it/storia/ginibio.htm Biography Of Corrado Gini at the ''Metron'', the statistics journal he founded].
* [http://www.eh.net/XIIICongress/Papers/Favero.pdf Paper on "Corrado Gini and Italian Statistics under Fascism" by Giovanni Favero June 2002]
[[Category:1884 births|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:1965 deaths|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:Italian sociologists|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:Statisticians|Gini, Corrado]]
[[de:Corrado Gini]]
[[es:Corrado Gini]]
[[fr:Corrado Gini]]
[[it:Corrado Gini]]
[[ja:コッラド・ジニ]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Crankshaft</title>
<id>7249</id>
<revision>
<id>41510991</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:25:14Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cshaft.gif|300px|thumb|Crankshaft, pistons, and flywheel]]
[[Image:Marine Crankshafts 8b03602r.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Continental engine]] marine crankshafts, 1942]]
:''For the comic strip about an old, curmudgeonly bus driver, see [[Crankshaft (comic strip)]].''
The '''crankshaft''', sometimes casually abbreviated to ''crank'', is that part of an [[engine]] which translates [[reciprocate|reciprocating]] [[linear]] [[piston]] motion into rotation. It typically connects to a [[flywheel]], to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the [[four stroke cycle]], and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the [[torsion (mechanics)|torsion]] vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders furthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
==Design==
Large engines are usually [[engine configuration|multicylinder]] to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a more complex crankshaft; but many small engines, such as those found in [[moped]]s or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston, simplifying crankshaft design. The crankshaft has a linear [[Axis of rotation|axis]] about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable [[plain bearing|bearings]] held in the engine block, the [[main bearing]]s. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder engine, it must be supported by several such bearings, not just one at each end; this was also a factor in the rise of [[V8]] engines with their shorter crankshafts, in preference to [[straight-8]] engines. High performance engines will often have more main bearings than their lower performance cousins, for this reason. In addition, to convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crank pins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the [[connecting rod]]s from each cylinder attach. The distance of the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the [[piston stroke]] measurement, and thus [[engine displacement]]; a common way to increase the power of an engine is to increase the stroke. This also increases the reciprocating vibration, however, limiting the high [[RPM]] capability of the engine; in compensation, it improves the low speed operation of the engine, as the longer intake stroke through smaller valve(s) results in greater turbulence and mixing of the intake charge. For this reason, even such high speed production engines as current [[Honda]] engines are classified as long-stroke, in that the stroke is larger than the diameter of the [[cylinder bore]]. In production [[V engine|V]] or [[flat engine|flat]] engines, neighboring connecting rods attach side by side to the same crank throw, simplifying crank design.
The configuration and number of pistons in relation to each other and the crank leads to [[straight engine|straight]], [[V engine|V]] or [[flat engine|flat]] engines. The same basic [[engine block]] can be used with different crankshafts, however, to alter the [[firing order]]; for instance, the 90 degree [[V6]] engine configuration, usually derived by using six cylinders of a [[V8]] engine with what is basically a shortened version of the V8 crankshaft, produces an engine with an [[V6#Odd and even firing|inherent pulsation in the power flow]] due to the "missing" two cylinders, often reduced by use of [[balance shaft]]s. The same engine, however, can be made to provide evenly spaced power pulses by using a crankshaft with an individual crank throw for each cylinder, spaced so that the pistons are actually phased 60 degrees apart, as in the [[GM 3800 engine]]. Similarly, while production V8 engines use 4 crank throws spaced 90 degrees apart, racing engines often use a "flat" crankshaft with throws spaced 180 degrees apart, accounting for the higher pitched, smoother sound of [[Indy Racing League|IRL]] engines compared to [[NASCAR]] engines, for example. In engines other than the flat configuration, it is necessary to provide [[counterweight]]s for the reciprocating mass of each piston and connecting rod; these are typically cast as part of the crankshaft, but occasionally are bolt-on pieces. This adds considerably to the weight of the crankshaft; crankshafts from [[Volkswagen]], [[Porsche]], and [[Corvair]] flat engines, lacking counterweights, are easily carried around by hand, compared to crankshafts for inline or V engines, which need to be handled and transported as heavy chunks of metal.
Many early aircraft engines (and a few in other applications) had the crankshaft fixed to the [[airframe]] and instead the cylinders rotated, known as a [[rotary engine]] design.
In the [[Wankel engine]], the rotors drive the eccentric shaft, which can be considered the equivalent of the crankshaft in a piston engine.
==Construction==
Crankshafts can be [[forge]]d or [[cast]] from either [[plain-carbon steel|mild steel]] or [[high strength steel]], or machined out of a single [[billet]] of forged steel. Mild steel is only used for engines in models or other such applications, where the engine runs but does not supply power. Cast crankshafts are usually found in production engines, with forged and billet crankshafts being more expensive but reliable for higher performance. The rough casting or forging is machined to size and shape, the holes are drilled, the main and connecting rod bearing journals are precision ground and [[case hardening|case hardened]], and the appropriate holes are threaded.
==Stress analysis of crankshaft==
The crankshaft is subjected to various forces but it needs to be checked in two positions.
Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in the cylinder is maximal. Secondly, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the crankpin needs to be checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is not the maximal pressure, but a fraction of maximal pressure.
== See also ==
* [[Crankset|bicycle crankset]]
* [[Crank (mechanism)]]
* [[Brace (tool)]]
* [[Controlled Combustion Engine]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mustangandfords.com/howto/29178/ Nicely detailed discussion of crankshaft features, from ''Mustang & Fords'' magazine, with many photographs]
*[http://pdmec4.mecc.unipd.it/~cos/DINAMOTO/twin%20motors/twin.html Animated representations of the vibrations characteristic of various two cylinder engine and crankshaft configurations]
*[http://www.babcox.com/editorial/ar/eb10330.htm Balancing engines]
[[category:engine technology]]
[[af:Krukas]]
[[da:Krumtapaksel]]
[[de:Kurbelwelle]]
[[es:Cigüeñal]]
[[fr:Vilebrequin (moteur)]]
[[nl:Krukas]]
[[pl:Wał korbowy]]
[[ru:Коленчатый вал]]
[[sv:Vevaxel]]
[[zh:曲轴]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>CNS</title>
<id>7250</id>
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<id>40377301</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T03:45:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flcelloguy</username>
<id>267668</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rm extraneous period</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CNS''' can refer to:
* [[Cybercast News Service|CNS News]]
* in [[air traffic cont
|
and alcohol addiction and is regarded as an experimental, rather than illegal, drug in some countries;
* [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] (Marijuana). Cannabis was placed into Schedule I by Congress in [[1970]] pursuant to the recommendation of Assistant Secretary of Health [[Roger O. Egeberg]]. [[Jon Gettman]] and other activists have argued that strict application of the "no currently accepted medical use" requirement would exclude from this schedule and place it in Schedule II, since it does have recognised medical uses in the U.S., notably to control nausea in those undergoing [[chemotherapy]]; see [[medical marijuana]]. In [[1988]], the DEA's own administrative law judge, [[Francis Young]], proposed moving marijuana into Schedule II, on the basis that marijuana is "one of the safest therapeutically active drugs known to man" <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup> and that a respectable minority of physicians supported its medical uses. The DEA refused to honor Young's ruling, and subsequent petitions to reschedule have been denied. In a January 17, [[2001]] letter to DEA Administrator [[Robert Bonner]] entitled ''Basis for the Recommendation for Maintaining Marijuana in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act'', [[David Satcher]], Assistant Secretary for Health and [[Surgeon General of the United States]] stated, "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Accordingly, HHS recommends that marijuana * * * continue to be subject to control under Schedule I of the CSA." See [[cannabis rescheduling in the United States]];
* [[Heroin]] (Diacetylmorphine), which is used in much of Europe as a potent pain reliever in terminal cancer patients. (It is about twice as strong, by weight, as morphine.) Some argue that the taboo surrounding heroin is what is keeping it in the Schedule I category;
* [[Ecstasy_(drug)|Ecstasy]] (MDMA), which continues to be used medically, notably in the treatment of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD). The [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] approved this PTSD use in [[2001]]. Medical recommendations were that because of its medical use it be placed in Schedule III, not Schedule I;
* [[Psilocybin]], a drug which was studied in an FDA-approved study for its potential use in the treatment of [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]];
* [[5-MeO-DIPT]];
* MDA ([[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine]]);
* [[LSD]];
* [[Mescaline]];
* [[Peyote]];
* [[Quaalude]];
* DOM [[2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine]]
===Schedule II drugs===
Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.''
These drugs are only available by [[medical prescription|prescription]], and distribution is carefully controlled and monitored by the DEA.
Drugs on this schedule include:
* [[Cocaine]] (used as a topical anaesthetic);
* [[Methylphenidate]] (Ritalin);
* Most pure opioid agonists: [[Pethidine|Pethidine (INN) or meperidine (USAN)]], [[fentanyl]], [[opium]], [[oxycodone]], or [[morphine]];
* Short-acting [[barbiturates]], such as secobarbital;
* [[Amphetamines]], except for injectable [[methamphetamine]]. Amphetamines were originally placed in Schedule III, but were moved to Schedule II in [[1971]]. Injectable methamphetamine has always been in Schedule II;
===Schedule III drugs===
Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.''
These drugs are available only by prescription, though control of wholesale distribution is somewhat less stringent than Schedule II drugs.
Drugs on this schedule include:
* [[Anabolic steroid]]s;
* Intermediate-acting [[barbiturates]], such as talbutal;
* [[Ketamine]], a drug that was originally developed as a milder substitute for PCP (primarily to be used as a human anesthetic) but has since become popular as a veterinary anesthetic;
* [[Paregoric]];
* Xyrem, a preparation of [[GHB]] used to treat [[narcolepsy]]. Xyrem is in Schedule III but with a restricted distribution system;
* [[Marinol]], a synthetic [[cannabinoid]] used to treat [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]] caused by [[chemotherapy]], as well as [[Appetite|appetite loss]] caused by [[AIDS]];
* [[Hydrocodone]] / [[Codeine]], when compounded with an [[NSAID]](e.g. Vicoprofen, when compounded with [[Ibuprofen]]) or with Acetaminophen (e.g. Vicodin / Tylenol 3);
* Rohypnol ([[Flunitrazepam]]). Flunitrazepam was placed in Schedule IV in [[1984]] and moved to Schedule III in [[1995]], but the DEA is considering moving it into Schedule I because of widespread non-medical use, and the fact that flunitrazepam is not approved by the FDA. It is best known as a [[rape#Acquaintance ("date") rape|date rape]] drug but is also fairly widely used in recreational ways. Flunitrazepam is already classified as a Schedule I drug in several states.
===Schedule IV drugs===
Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.''
Control measures are similar to Schedule III.
Drugs on this schedule include:
* [[Benzodiazepines]], such as [[alprazolam]] (Xanax), [[chlordiazepoxide]] (librium), and [[diazepam]] (Valium);
* Long-acting [[barbiturates]] such as phenobarbital;
* Some partial [[agonist]] opioid analgesics, such as [[propoxyphene]] (Darvon) and [[pentazocine]] (Talwin);
* Certain non-amphetamine stimulants, including [[pemoline]] and [[Modafinil]].
===Schedule V drugs===
Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.''
Schedule V drugs are sometimes available without a prescription.
Drugs on this schedule include:
*Cough suppressants containing small amounts of [[codeine]];
*Preparations containing small amounts of [[opium]] or [[Diphenoxylate]] (used to treat diarrhea);
*[[Pregabalin]], an anticonvulsant and pain modulator.
===Other provisions===
The federal law has only five schedules, but some states have added a "[[Schedule VI]]" to cover certain substances which are not "drugs" in the conventional sense, but are nonetheless abused recreationally; these include [[toluene]] (found in many types of paint, especially spray paint) and similar [[inhalants]] such as [[amyl nitrite]] (or [[poppers]]), [[butyl nitrite]], and [[nitrous oxide]] (found in many types of aerosol cans). Many state and local governments enforce age limits on the sale of products containing these substances.
Due to [[pseudoephedrine]] being widely used in the manufacture of [[methamphetamine]], the state of [[Oregon]] now requires a prescription for pharmacies to dispense any cold remedy containing pseudoephedrine. Likewise, the state of [[Iowa]] restricts sales of pseudoephedrine-containing products to licensed pharmacies and requires customers to show photo ID and sign a log book. This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the-counter, such as ''Sudafed'' and equivalent products.
Pharmaceuticals that require a prescription to be dispensed often are not covered under the [[Controlled Substances Act]]. This category includes medicines which should only be taken under a doctor's care, or which may have harmful interactions with other substances, but which are not known to be addictive and which are not used recreationally. These medications are used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions and to manage chronic conditions.
Drugs requiring prescriptions are sometimes also known as '''legend drugs''' because legislation requires labels with the legend, "Caution! Federal law prohibits dispensing without a prescription."
The term '''controlled drugs''' is sometimes used for scheduled drugs because of the additional controls placed on them (beyond the need for a prescription).
==References==
*[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm Controlled Substances Act - U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration] - Full text of the law, and interpretive text used as the basis of this article
*[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode21/usc_sup_01_21_10_13.html 21 USC, Chapter 13] (Cornell) - full text of the law
*[http://www.access.gpo.gov/uscode/title21/chapter13_.html 21 USC, Chapter 13] (GPO) - full text of the law
*[http://www.cato.org/pubs/handbook/hb108/hb108-17.pdf Cato Handbook for Congress].
*[http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/cover.htm Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971], International Narcotics Control Board.
*Fazey, Cindy: [http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm The UN Drug Policies and the Prospect for Change], Apr. 2003.
*[http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/ Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961], International Nar
|
nd to the wind, especially if the sand is fine, and dune formation proceeds in the direction towards which the predominant wind direction is blowing.
Dunes provide [[privacy]] and shelter from the [[wind]].
===Succession on coastal dunes===
[[Image:Studland fore dune.jpg|frame|The fore dune and first yellow dune at [[Studland]], [[England]]]]
As a dune forms, plant [[succession]] occurs. The conditions on an ''embryo dune'' are harsh, with [[salt spray]] from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry. Rotting sea weed brought in by storm waves adds enough nutrients to allow [[pioneer species]] to colonize dune. These pioneer species are [[marram grass]], [[sea wort grass]] and other sea grasses in England. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the fore dune, typically having deep roots which reach the [[water table]], [[root nodules]] that produce [[nitrogen]] compounds, and protected [[stoma]], reducing [[transpiration]]. The deep roots also bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a [[fore dune]] as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add [[nitrogen]] to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are [[heather]]s and [[gorse]]s. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heathers add [[humus]] to the soil, but have a [[pH]] of lower than 7, so make the soil slightly [[acidic]]. Heathers are usually replaced by [[conifer]]ous trees which can tolerate the low pH. Coniferous forests and [[heathland]] are common [[climax community|climax communities]] for sand dune systems.
Young dunes are called [[yellow dune]]s, dunes which have high humus content are called [[grey dune]]s. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes.
For the [[snow]] analogue to a sand dune see [[sastruga]].
==Sub-aqueous dunes==
Sub-Aqueous ([[underwater]]) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural [[Channel (geography)|channels]] such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered [[Canal|canals]] and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope.
These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in [[wavelength]] and height.
Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river [[flooding]].
== Longitudinal and transverse dunes ==
[[Image:Seif.gif|right|250px]]
Longitudinal dunes, also called Seif dunes, elongate parallel to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (900 ft) in height and 300 km (200 mi) in length.
Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of wind direction occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the development of a new wing and the overdevelopment of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then becomes dominant for a lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing. Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually it will be supplied with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow under both wind conditions, thus producing a seif dune. On a seif dune the slip face develops on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the slip face of a barchan faces the direction of movement. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans may be formed because the wind is unidirectional.
A transverse dune is horizontal to the prevailing wind, probably caused by a steady buildup of sand on an already existing minuscule mound.
==Lithified dunes==
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or eolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the hue of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in [[Zion National Park]].
A local slang term used for these consolidated dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the old west because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain purchase on the rock.
==Examples==
*The [[Kelso Dunes]], in the [[Mojave desert]] of [[California]].
===Sand dune plains===
:(large expanses of dunes)
*[[Great Sand Dunes National Park]]
*[[Mesquite Flat Dunes]], [[United States|USA]]
*[[Western Sahara]]
*[[White Sands National Monument]]
*[[Rig-e Jenn]] in the Central Desert of [[Iran]]
*The [[Great Sand Dunes]] of southwest [[Saskatchewan]]
*[[Southeastern Shore of Lake Michigan]]
*[[Imperial Sand Dunes]] near [[Brawley, California]]
*[[Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, Central Coast California, see Dunes Center, Guadalupe, CA]]
===Sand dune systems===
:(coastal dunes featuring succession)
*[[Studland]], [[Dorset]], [[England]]
*[[Murlough Sand Dunes]], [[Newcastle, County Down|Newcastle]], [[County Down|Co Down]], [[Northern Ireland]]
*[[Morfa Harlech Sand Dunes]], [[Snowdonia]], [[North West Wales]]
===External links===
*[http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Magilligan/Mag_intro.html Magilligan Dunes, Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.tec.army.mil/research/products/desert_guide/lpisheet/lpdunes1.htm Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Yosemite/Falls/9200/lnt_dune_hiking.html Treading Lightly: Minimum Impact Dune Hiking]
==See also==
{{commons|Dune}}
*[[Earth science]]
*[[List of landforms]]
*[[Singing Sand Dunes]]
*[[Dune (novel)]]
==References and external links==
* ''[[The Physics of Blown Sand]]'' ([[1941]]) by [[Ralph Bagnold]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
{{Link FA|it}}
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<page>
<title>David Lynch</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DAVID LYNCH (CannesPhotocall).jpg|right|200px|thumb|David Lynch at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] in [[2001 in film|2001]]]]
'''David Keith Lynch''' (born [[January 20]], [[1946]], in [[Missoula, Montana]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[filmmaker]].
Lynch's films are known for their elements of [[surrealism]], their nightmarish and [[dream]]like sequences, their stark and strange images, and their meticulously crafted audio. Most of his work explores the seedy underside of small-town U.S.A. (e.g. ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and the "[[Twin Peaks]]" television series) or sprawling metropolises (''[[Eraserhead]],'' ''[[Lost Highway]],'' ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]''). Due to his peculiar style and focus on the American psyche, producer [[Mel Brooks]] once called Lynch, "[[Jimmy Stewart]] from [[Mars]]."
Lynch is one of the few modern directors whose visual and verbal styles are instantly recognizable. Although never a box office giant or a consistent favorite of film critics, he has maintained a [[cult following]].
== Career ==
=== Early days ===
Lynch grew up an archetypal all-American boy. His father was a [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] research scientist. He was raised throughout the [[Pacific Northwest]]. He attained the rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]], and on his fifteenth birthday served as an usher at [[John F. Kennedy]]'s Presidential inauguration.
With the intention of becoming a painter, Lynch attended classes at [[Corcoran School of Art]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] while finishing high school. He enrolled in the [[School of the Museum of Fine Arts]] in Boston for one year before leaving for [[Europe]] with the plan to study with [[expressionism|expressionist]] painter [[Oskar Kokoschka]]. Though he had planned to stay for three years, Lynch returned to the US after 15 days.
=== Philadelphia and the short films===
In [[1966]], Lynch relocated to [[Philadelphia]], attended the [[Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts]] ([[PAFA]]) and made a series of complex mosaics in geometric shapes which he called ''Industrial Symphonies''. Here too he began working with film. His first [[short film]] ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Six Figures Getting Sick|Six Figures Getting Sick]]'' (1966), which he described as "57 seconds of growth and fire, and three seconds of vomit," was played on a loop at an art exhibit. It won the Academy’s annual film contest. This led to a commission from H. Barton Wasserman to do a film installation in his home. After a disastrous first attempt that resulted in a completely blurred, frameless print, Lynch created ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Alphabet|The Alphabet]]''.
In [[1970]], Lynch turned his attention away from visual art and focused primarily on film. He won a $5,000 grant from the [[American Film Institute]] to produce ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Grandmother|The Grandmother]]'', about a neglected boy who “grows” a grandmother from a [[seed]]. The 30-minute film exhibited many elements that would become Lynch trademarks, including unsettling sound and imagery and a focus on [[subconscious]] desires in
|
eaf and mixed forests]], with many [[endemic species]] of plants. The nine islands have a total area of 2,355 km². Their individual areas vary between 759 km² ([[São Miguel Island|São Miguel]]) and 17 [[square kilometre|km²]] ([[Corvo Island|Corvo]]). Three islands (São Miguel, Pico and Terceira) are bigger in size than [[Malta]] (composed of three different islands), São Miguel Island alone being twice as big.
The nine islands are divided into three groups:
* The Eastern Group (''Grupo Oriental'') of [[São Miguel Island|São Miguel]], [[Santa Maria Island|Santa Maria]] and [[Formigas Islets]]
* The Central Group (''Grupo Central'') of [[Terceira Island|Terceira]], [[Graciosa Island|Graciosa]], [[São Jorge]], [[Pico Island|Pico]] and [[Faial]]
* The Western Group (''Grupo Ocidental'') of [[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores]] and [[Corvo Island|Corvo]].
The islands were formed during the [[Tertiary]] period, in the Alpine phase. Their volcanic cones and craters reveal the volcanic origin of most islands. [[Pico Island|Pico]], a volcano that stands 2,351 metres high on the island of the same name, has the highest altitude in the Azores. The last volcano to erupt was the Capelinhos Volcano (''Vulcão dos Capelinhos'') in [[1957]], in western part of Faial island, increasing the size of that island. Santa Maria Island is the oldest Azorean island presenting several limestone and red clay extensions.
The Azores had a population of 238,767 in [[31 December]] [[2002]] and a population density of 106 persons/[[square kilometre|km²]].
==Demographics==
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! style="background:#efefef; text-align:center" colspan=4 |'''Azorean Islands by Population'''
|-
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" |'''Island'''
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" |Population<br>(2002)
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" |Main<br>City/Town
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" |Municipalities
|-
|[[São Miguel Island]]
| align=right | 130,154
| [[Ponta Delgada]]
| align=center | 6
|-
|[[Terceira Island]]
| align=right | 54,996
| [[Angra do Heroísmo]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Faial Island]]
| align=right | 14,934
| [[Horta]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Pico Island]]
| align=right | 14,579
| [[Madalena]]
| align=center | 3
|-
|[[São Jorge Island]]
| align=right | 9,522
| [[Velas]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Santa Maria Island]]
| align=right | 5,490
| [[Vila do Porto]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Graciosa Island]]
| align=right | 4,708
| [[Santa Cruz da Graciosa]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores Island]]
| align=right | 3,949
| [[Santa Cruz das Flores]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Corvo Island]]
| align=right | 435
| [[Vila do Corvo]]
| align=center | 1
|}
<br clear=all>
== See also ==
{{commons|The Azores}}
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of the Azores]]
* [[Madeira]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.drtacores.pt/index2.html Azores Tourism Board]
* [http://www.azores.com Azores.com]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/vitor107/sets/1259848/ Photos from AZORES]
[[Category:Azores Islands|Azores Islands]]
[[Category:Azores|Azores]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:Ridge volcanoes]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Volcanoes by region]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Portugal]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Atlantic Ocean]]
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<page>
<title>Acores</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<username>Dreamyshade</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Azores]]
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<page>
<title>Outback</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:19:09Z</timestamp>
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<username>Frances76</username>
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<comment>/* Medicine In The Outback */ -fix wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[image:Yalgoo Shire.jpg|thumb|right|350px|a [[Tourism|tourism]] sign post [[Yalgoo, Western Australia]]]]
The '''outback''' is the remote and usually semi-arid interior of [[Australia]], although the term colloquially can cover any lands outside of the main urban areas. The term outback is generally used to refer to locations that are comparatively more remote than those areas deemed "[[The Bush|the bush]]". The outback does not officially exist within any governmental frameworks or boundaries. Many local government shires do use the term to enhance tourist appeal for their own shire.
The marginally fertile parts are known as [[Rangeland]]s and have been traditionally used for [[domestic sheep|sheep]] or [[cattle]] farming, on [[sheep station]]s and [[cattle station]]s on [[pastoral lease]]s.
Along with agriculture, [[tourism]] and scattered [[mining]] are the main economic activities in this vast and sparsely settled area. Due to the size of the outback, the total value of mining and farming is considerable.
== Population ==
[[Image:Rural Australia Abandoned habitat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An abandoned settlement in the outback]]
Over 90% of the Australian population lives in urban settlements on the coastal fringes. Despite this, the outback and the history of its [[exploration]] and settlement provides Australians with a mythical backdrop, and stories of [[swagman|swagmen]], [[squatter]]s, outlaws such as [[Ned Kelly]] (though Ned Kelly spent virtually all his time in the relatively temperate [[Great Dividing Range]]) and so on are central to the national ethos of the country. The song [[Waltzing Matilda]], which is about swagmen and squatters, is a popular traditional Australian song.
There have been various attempts at creating settlements for [[Australian Aboriginals]] to live traditionally, with varied success. Often after becoming used to European influences and generational changes it is difficult for Aboriginals to live this kind of lifestyle.
==Medicine In The Outback==
Due to the wide expanses and remoteness of people when in the outback; a unique service by the name of [[Royal_Flying_Doctor_Service_of_Australia|The Flying Doctors]] was created. This service was created in [[1928]] in [[Cloncurry, Queensland]]. The aim of the service is to provide medical care, primary and emergency, to people who cannot reach a [[hospitals]] or [[general practitioner]]s. Consultations are carried out via radio or telephone and for serious situations, doctors are flown out to patients.
==Terminology==
Culturally, many urban Australians have had very generalised terms for the otherwise complex range of environments that exist within the inland sections of the continent. Regional terminology can be very specific to specific locations in each mainland state. Western Australians have for instance 'the goldfields' which usually designate [[Kalgoorlie]] and beyond.
"The Never-Never" is a term referring to remoter parts of the Australian outback. The outback can be also referred to as "back of beyond", "back o' Bourke" or "way out past Bumblefuck", although these terms are more frequently used when referring to something a long way from anywhere, or a long way away.
==Tourism==
[[Image:Outback.jpg|thumb|right|Flying over western [[New South Wales]]. Near the bottom of the picture, a squiggly line appears; apparently, a [[creek]] created by recent [[rain]].]]
There are many popular tourist attractions in the outback. These include:
*[[Alice Springs]]
*[[Uluru|Uluru (Ayers Rock)]]
*[[Coober Pedy]]
*[[Devils Marbles]]
*[[Katherine River|Katherine River Gorge]]
*[[Kings Canyon, Northern Territory|Kings Canyon (Watarrka)]]
*[[Kata Tjuta|The Olgas (Kata Tjuta)]]
*[[MacDonnell Ranges]]
*[[Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame]]
*[[Monkey Mia]]
*[[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]]
*[[Mount Augustus National Park]]
Organised travel to the outback is popular, although some Australian and international tourists travel in their own vehicles. Such a trip, particularly once off the few bitumen roads in the outback, requires considerable advance planning and a suitable vehicle (usually a [[four wheel drive]]). On remote routes considerable supplies and equipment may be required, this can included prearranged caches. Some trips cannot be undertaken safely with a single vehicle instead requiring a convoy approach. Deaths from tourists and locals becoming stranded on outback trips occur, and rescues for the ill-prepared are a regular occurrence.
==Historic==
The outback is also criss-crossed by numerous historic tracks, roads and highways, including:
[[Image:Gibb River Rd-1.jpg|right|500px]]
* [[Birdsville Track]]
* [[Burke Developmental Road]]
* [[Canning Stock Route]]
* [[Colson Track]]
* [[Connie Sue Highway]]
* [[French Line]]
* [[Gary Highway]]
* [[Gibb River Road]]
* [[Gunbarrel Highway]]
* [[K1 Line]]
* [[Kalumbu
|
n's home in those early frontier days, you shouted from afar, "Hello, the cabin!" to avoid being shot. The inhabitants would then shout back "Who'sh 'ere?" (who's there). As it got slurred together over time, the country folk came to be called Hoosiers.
Additionally, "Hussar" was a term used on the [[Kentucky]] frontier for people who were public nuisances. According to local tradition, hussars were hard drinking carousers. This theory carries the implication that a large share of such folks came from Indiana.
===Strongmen===
Indiana rivermen were so spectacularly successful in trouncing or "hushing" their adversaries in the brawling that was then common that they became known as "hushers."
Additionally, the poet [[James Whitcomb Riley]] facetiously suggested that the fierce brawling that took place in Indiana involved enough ear biting that the expression "Whose ear?" was common enough to be notable.
===Contract labor===
A contractor reportedly named Samuel Hoosier preferred to hire workers from Indiana during the construction of the [[McAlpine Locks and Dam|Louisville and Portland Canal]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]]. His employees became known as "Hoosier's men" and finally just "Hoosiers."
A similar story involves the [[National Road]], which got its start in Cumberland , Maryland, and slowly extended westward as the United States expanded (now called [[U.S. Highway 40|U.S. 40]]). It truly was a "national" road, in that it was "macadamized" ("macadam" is called "[[asphalt]]" today), quite an innovation for the nineteenth century. It was far ahead of its time, easily providing the best transportation route of its era. The road had reached [[Columbus, Ohio]], just about the time that Indiana was in its final stage as a territory.
As plans were made to extend the highway to [[Richmond, Indiana]], the call went out for laborers. Knowing that the federal government would pay "top dollar," workers for a contractor in the [[Indiana Territory]] reportedly named Robert Hoosier asked their boss if they could go work for this higher wage in the neighboring state of [[Ohio]] (Ohio attained statehood 13 years before Indiana did). Mr. Hoosier gave his consent, asking them to return to work for him when this section of the road was done.
Just as in the Sam Hoosier story, the crew of Indiana workers proved to be industrious, conscientious, and efficient. The Federal foreman referred to the group as "Hoosiers" meaning they were workers that Robert Hoosier had allowed to join the national work crew. It wasn't long before people along the National Road used the term to describe the folks living in the territory to the west.
===Americanized foreign language===
Jacob Piatt Dunn, Jr., Indiana historian and secretary of the Indiana Historical Society concluded that the term stemmed from the word "hoozer" from the Cumberland dialect of England, deriving from the Anglo-Saxon word "hoo" meaning high or hill. Immigrants from Cumberland, England settled in the Southern Appalachians and then migrated to the southern hills of Indiana, bringing the term with them.
===Military origin===
Another plausible explanation for "Hoosier" is that it sprang from [[Kosciusko County, Indiana|Kosciusko County]] in the northern part of the state. Indeed [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], a Polish noble who fought with [[George Washington]] in the [[Revolutionary War]], may have been the first "Hoosier." (This explanation was provided from research by Eugene Eoyang, professor at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]]).
Here again, "Hoosier" reflects the American penchant over the years of mispronouncing words and place names from other languages. and is a corruption of the Polish word, ''huzar'' or ''hussar'' (Hungarian ''hussar'', Russian ''hussar'', French ''hussard'') which before the [[15th century]], according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] meant "freebooter, freelance."
Then, in the second half of the 15th century, it acquired the meaning of "light horsemen." It is this sense that the term could be applied to the dashing, heroic light [[cavalry]] regiments who "fought with George Washington in the Revolutionary War." The military connotations of "hoosier" are strikingly reinforced in the Journal of the Kosciuszko Guards by [[William S. Hemphill]]. William S. Hemphill was born in 1832 and died in 1907.
There is no indication of the exact year in which the journal was written, but it was, presumably, sometime in the years following the end of the Civil War in 1865 and before his death in 1907. The word ''hoosier'' or ''hoosiers'' occurs frequently in the journal. Indeed, the Indiana regiment who fought in the Civil War named their camp "Hoosiertown."
Perhaps, the most telling anecdote is of a splendid [[Massachusetts]] regiment who disdained to soil their hands with the chore of moving a massive rock. So the regiment from Indiana, referred to as "Hoosiers," sets about the project. The soldiers from Massachusetts merely looked on. "A large, fine looking man," Hemphill recalls, "wearing a common soldier's blouse and slouch hat, on passing, had paused to watch the proceedings."
He began to berate the leader of the Massachusetts regiment, a second lieutenant. Abashed, the second lieutenant takes on airs, and threatens to teach the interloper some manners, but upon noticing that the "burley form of the Hoosier looked rather formidable, decided to appeal to Hemphill, who was in charge of the Indiana regiment."
"Sergeant," the second lieutenant said, "this is one of your men; arrest him and take him to your commanding officer. I will prefer charges against him and have him properly punished!" Hemphill took no action; as he reported later, because "I was full of laughter that I could make no answer."
When the interloping Hoosier realized how upset the second lieutenant was, he makes a pretty speech&mdash;if not an apology, then of polite remonstrance&mdash;;ending with these plainspoken words: "I guess the Sergeant will not arrest me, but if you wish to prefer charges against me, you can do so. I am Lieut. Col. George Humphrey, of the 12th Ind. Inf. at your service."
Hemphill adds: "It was a complete take down; and the Lieutenant's turn to apologize. The Hoosiers all joined in the laugh, and three cheers were given for Col. Humphrey; while the crest fallen Yankees quietly returned to their camp to wonder what kind of men the Hoosiers were anyhow."
===Humorists===
Humorist [[Dave Barry]] has suggested that it comes from "the sound pigs make when they sneeze." He had also speculated that, for all we know, it could be a Native American word meaning "sex with caribou," although many of his astute readers pointed out that there are no [[caribou]] in Indiana.
==Other uses==
In some areas, the word ''hoosier'' has a different connotation. In the [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] area of [[Missouri]] and [[Illinois]], a hoosier may be someone who is lower-class and white (like ''[[white trash]]'' and ''[[redneck]]'').
"[[Hoosier (furniture)|Hoosier]]" was also a brand name used by the [[Hoosier (furniture)|Hoosier Manufacturing Company]], and refers particularly to its kitchen cabinets, which are collectible antiques. The company also made tables and [[chair]]s. This furniture is much sought after in the antique world. Little is known about this furniture company, other than that it was based in [[New Castle, Indiana]], between [[1903]] and [[1935]].
''See also [[Hoosier Hysteria]].''
==External links==
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~alumni/fun/hoosier.html Article on the name "Hoosier" from the Indiana University Alumni Association]
*[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Hoosier Dictionary.com/Hoosier]
*[http://antiques.ozarkmerchants.com/keepitcountryantiques/washingtonpost_article.html Article: ''The Humble Hoosier'']
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/hoosier/docs/history/hoosier_name.htm Hoosier National Forest "What is a 'Hoosier'" Web page]
*[http://www.indwes.edu/Faculty/bcupp/Indiana/Hoosier/Hoosier.Barry.htm Article: ''Explanation of "Hoosiers"] by Dave Barry
[[de:Hoosier]]
[[Category:Indiana]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hilberts second problem</title>
<id>14261</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trovatore</username>
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<comment>fx dbl rd; R from misspelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of M.O.S. Technologies</title>
<id>14262</id>
<revision>
<id>15911828</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-07T01:06:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
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<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[MOS Technology]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Horner scheme</title>
<id>14263</id>
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<timestamp>2005-11-19T03:47:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcoetzee</username>
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<comment>Fix year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]] the '''Horner scheme''' or '''Horner algorithm''', named after [[William George Horner]], is an [[algorithm]] for the efficient ev
|
Usually oxygen is involved, but [[hydrogen]] burning in [[chlorine]] produces a flame as well, producing toxic [[hydrogen chloride]] (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many more, are [[fluorine]] and [[hydrogen]], or [[hydrazine]] and [[nitrogen tetroxide]]. Recent discoveries by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) of the [[United States]] also has found that [[gravity]] plays a role. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types. <ref> [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast12may_1.htm Spiral flames in microgravity], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]], 2000.</ref>
The glow of a flame is somewhat complex. [[Black-body radiation]] is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also [[photon]] emission by de-excited [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and [[infrared]] bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and chemical makeup for the [[emission spectra]]. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, it is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is somewhat cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.
The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on [[convection]], as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, such as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In [[microgravity]] or [[zero gravity]], such as an environment in [[outer space]], convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient. There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely one given is that the cause is the hypothesis that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. <ref> [http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/cfm/usml-1_results.htm CFM-1 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.</ref> Experiments by NASA in microgravity reveal that [[diffusion flame]]s in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidised after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behaved differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. <ref>[http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/lsp/lsp1_results.htm LSP-1 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.</ref> [[Premixed flame]]s in microgravity burn at a much slower rate and more efficiently than even a candle on Earth, and last much longer. <ref>[http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/lsp/lsp1_results.htm SOFBAL-2 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.</ref> These discoveries have potential applications in [[applied science]] and [[industry]], especially concerning [[fuel efficiency]].
[[Fire ecology]] is the study of the interaction of living things with fire.
==See also==
{{portal}}
[[Image:Lightmatter carbq.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[automobile|car]] on fire. Cars are sometimes set alight and abandoned in order for their owners to avoid paying for their removal.]]
* [[Explosion]], a different kind of combustion
* [[Rust]]
* [[Pyromania]]
* [[:Category:Fire|A list of articles relating to fire]]
* [[:Category:Fires|A list of articles relating to specific fires]]
* [[:Category:Firefighting|A list of articles relating to firefighting]]
==References==
===Citations===
<references/>
===General references===
*Dave Reay, (2005). ''Climate Change Begins at Home''. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403945780
==External links==
{{commons|Fire}}
* [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021122.html What exactly is fire?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3670017.stm Early human fire mastery revealed] [[BBC]] article on archeological discoveries
* [http://www.northmason.wednet.edu/NMHSonline/student_gallery/fire/pg19_candleflame.html Parts of a candle flame]
* [http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/cfm/cfm_index.htm Flames in microgravity]
* [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast12may_1.htm Spiral flames in microgravity]
* [http://www.moebuildingcontrol.co.uk moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering]
{{ArtificialLightSources}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fédération Internationale des Échecs</title>
<id>11146</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:45:01Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fédération Internationale des Échecs''' or '''World Chess Federation''' is an international organization that connects the various national [[chess]] federations around the world. It is usually referred to as '''FIDE''' (pronounced "fee day"), its [[French language|French]] [[acronym]]. FIDE was founded in [[Paris]], [[France]] on [[July 24]], [[1924]]. Its motto is ''Gens una sumus'', meaning "We are one people". Its current president (as of May 2004) is [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]], who also is president of [[Kalmykia]], a small republic within [[Russia]].
As well as organising the [[World Chess Championship]] and [[Chess Olympiad]], FIDE calculates [[Elo rating]]s of players, defines the [[rules of chess]], periodically publishes albums of the best [[chess problem]]s (the [[FIDE Album]]s), awards the titles of [[FIDE Master]], [[International Master]], [[International Grandmaster]], women's versions of those titles, a number of organisational titles including [[International Arbiter]], and Master and Grandmaster titles in problem and [[chess study|study]] composing and solving.
As well as the overall world championship, FIDE organises championships for women and juniors, regional championships, and the [[Chess Olympiad]]. It oversees few other tournaments, although other top-level events, almost without exception, respect FIDE rules and regulations.
==History==
In its early years, FIDE had little power. This was largely because the [[Soviet Union]] refused to join, as it saw chess and politics as being inextricably bound up, and FIDE was a non-political organisation. This changed, however, when incumbent world champion [[Alexander Alekhine]] died in 1946. FIDE stepped up to organise a tournament to find a replacement, and the Soviet Union, aware that this was a process it had to be involved with, joined.
From that initial 1948 tournament (won by [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]) to 1993, FIDE was the only body organising world chess championships. They were involved in controversies, however: in 1975, [[Bobby Fischer]] defaulted his title after FIDE refused to meet all his demands for his match with [[Anatoly Karpov]]. In 1984, FIDE president [[Florencio Campomanes]] called off the match between Karpov and [[Garry Kasparov]] without result. In 1993 reigning champion Kasparov and challenger [[Nigel Short]] (who had qualified through the FIDE system) broke away from FIDE to play their 1993 match under the auspices of the newly-formed [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). Since that time there have been two world championships - one held under FIDE's aegis, and the other under a variety of organisations'. Lately, FIDE's championships have consisted of a single knock-out tournament with games under quicker time controls, rather than the traditional series of long matches, a change which has also proved controversial.
The decision to hold the 2004 World Championship in [[Libya]] has proved controversial, as have aspects of FIDE's handling of the so-called Prague Agreement (a plan to reunite the two world championships, masterminded by [[Yasser Seirawan]]). FIDE has been criticised by the [[Association of Chess Professionals]] (ACP) as well as individual players.
Ilyumzhinov has himself proved a controversial figure, with question marks over the sources of the money he has donated to FIDE, and accusations against him that he has not paid promised prize money among other things.
In 1999, FIDE was recognised by the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC). Two years later, it introduced the IOC's anti-drugs rules to chess. FIDE has stated that it would like chess to become part of the [[Olympic Games]].
==FIDE Presidents==
* [[1924]] - [[1949]] [[Alexander Rueb]]
* 1949 - [[1970]] [[Folke Rogard]]
* 1970 - [[1978]] [[Max Euwe]]
* 1978 - [[1982]] [[Fridrik Olafsson]]
* 1982 - [[1995]] [[Florencio Campomanes]]
* 1995 - present ([[2005]]) [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]]
==See also==
* [[FIDE Federations]]
* [[International Correspondence Chess Federation]]
* [[United States Chess Federation]]
==External link==
*[http://www.fide.com/ The official FIDE website]
[[Category:Chess organizations]]
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]''
The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first [[Europe]]ans to arrive in the area, in the 16th century, and they established an isolated presence on the island of [[Timor]], while the surrounding islands came under [[Netherlands|Dutch]] control. The area became a colony in 1702 with the arrival of the first governor from [[Lisbon]]. In the 18th century, Holland gained a foothold on the western half of the island, and was formally given [[West Timor]] in 1859 with the [[Treaty of Lisbon]]. The definitive border was drawn by [[the Hague]] in 1916, and it remains the international boundary between the successor states East Timor and [[Indonesia]].
In late 1941 Portuguese Timor was briefly occupied by Dutch and Australian troops, who aimed to thwart a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] invasion of the island. The Portuguese Governor protested the invasion, and the Dutch forces returned to the Dutch side of the island. When the Japanese landed and drove the small Australian force out of Dili, the mountainous interior became the scene of a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign, known as [[Battle of Timor (1942-43)|Battle of Timor]], waged by [[Allied]] forces and Timorese volunteers against the Japanese. The struggle resulted in the deaths of between 40,000 and 70,000 Timorese. Following the end of the war, Portuguese control was reinstated.
The process of decolonisation in [[Portuguese Timor]] began in [[1974]], following the change of government in Portugal in the wake of the [[Carnation Revolution]].
Owing to political instability and more pressing concerns with decolonisation in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]], Portugal effectively abandoned East Timor, which [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared itself independent]] on [[November 28]], [[1975]]. Nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by [[Indonesia]]n forces before this could be internationally recognised.
Indonesia alleged that the popular East Timorese [[FRETILIN]] party, which received some vocal support from the [[People's Republic of China]], was communist. With the [[United States|American]] cause in [[South Vietnam]] lost and fearing a [[Communist]] domino effect in [[Southeast Asia]], the U.S., along with ally [[Australia]], did not object to the pro-Western Indonesian government's actions, despite Portugal being a [[NATO]] founding member.
The Indonesian invasion was launched over the western border on [[16 October]] [[1975]]. The day before the invasion of [[Dili]] and subsequent annexation, [[U.S. President]] [[Gerald Ford]] and [[US Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]] had met [[President]] [[Suharto]] in [[Jakarta]] where [[Ford]] made clear that "we will not press you on the issue." Several U.S. administrations up to and including that of [[Bill Clinton]] did not ban arms sales to the Indonesian government, though the latter did eventually end U.S. support of Suharto's regime. The territory was declared the 27th province of Indonesia in July [[1976]] as ''Timor Timur''. However, internationally its legal status was that of a "non-self governing territory under Portuguese administration."
The East Timorese [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] forces, known as the [[Falintil]] fought a very successful guerrilla campaign against the [[Indonesian]] forces from [[1975]] into [[1999]]. Their casualties were relatively light compared to those they inflicted upon the [[Indonesian]] [[military]]. However the [[Indonesian]]s generally took their frustrations out on the civilian population, often torturing and killing on the pretense that they were 'helping the rebels'.
Indonesian rule in East Timor was marked by extreme violence and brutality, two of the worst examples of this being the [[Dili massacre]] and the [[Liquiçá Church Massacre]]. during the invasion and 24-year occupation, 100,000 to 250,000 people were killed out of an initial population of about 600,000 at the time of the invasion. Following a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia, Portugal and the US, on [[August 30]], [[1999]], a [[United Nations]]-supervised popular [[referendum]] was held, the East Timorese voted for full independence from Indonesia, but violent clashes, instigated primarily by the Indonesian military, see [[Timor-Leste Scorched Earth|Scorched Earth Operation]], and aided by Timorese [[pro-Indonesia militia]]'s broke out soon afterwards. A peacekeeping force ([[INTERFET]], led by [[Australia]]) intervened to restore order. Militias fled across the border into Indonesia, from which they attempted sporadic raids, particularly along the [[New Zealand Army]]-held southern half of the main border. As these raids were repelled and international moral opinion forced Indonesia to withdraw tacit support, the militia dispersed. INTERFET was replaced by a UN force.
Independence was recognised by Portugal after a visit of [[Xanana Gusmão]] to [[Lisbon]] to choose the date. They decided [[May 20]], [[2002]], and East Timor joined the UN on [[September 27]] of that year.
See also: [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]]
See also: [[Liquiçá Church Massacre]] or [[Dili massacre]]
See also: [[Aitarak]]
See also: [[Karl Clark]] or [[Allen Williams]]
See also: [[Besi Merah Putih]]
See also: [[Eurico Guterres]]
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of East Timor]]''
The [[Head of state]] of the East Timorese [[republic]] is the [[president]], who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and whose role is largely symbolic, though he is able to veto some legislation. Following elections, the president appoints as [[prime minister]] the leader of the majority party or majority [[coalition]]. As [[head of government]] the prime minister presides over the Council of State or [[cabinet]].
The [[unicameral]] Timorese [[parliament]] is the [[National Parliament of East Timor|National Parliament]] or ''Parlamento Nacional'', whose members are elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The number of seats can vary from a minimum of 52 to a maximum of 65, though it exceptionally has 88 members at present, due to this being its first term of office. The East Timorese [[constitution]] was modelled on that of [[Portugal]]. The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions.
== Districts ==
''Main article: [[Districts of East Timor]]''
[[Image:East Timor districts numbered.png|right|240px|Map of the districts of East Timor, geographic order]]
East Timor is divided into 13 administrative districts:
#[[Lautem]]
#[[Baucau (district)|Baucau]]
#[[Viqueque (district)|Viqueque]]
#[[Manatuto (district)|Manatuto]]
#[[Dili (district)|Dili]]
#[[Aileu (district)|Aileu]]
#[[Manufahi]]
#[[Liquiçá (district)|Liquiçá]]
#[[Ermera]]
#[[Ainaro (district)|Ainaro]]
#[[Bobonaro]]
#[[Cova-Lima]]
#[[Oecussi-Ambeno]]
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of East Timor]]''
[[Image:CIA-TimorLeste.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Map of East Timor with cities]]
The island of [[Timor]] is part of the [[Malay archipelago]] and the largest and easternmost of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. To the north of the mountainous island are the [[Ombai Strait]] and [[Wetar Strait]], to the south the [[Timor Sea]] separates the island from [[Australia]], while to the west lies the [[Provinces of Indonesia|Indonesian Province]] of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. The highest point of East Timor is [[Mount Tatamailau]] at 2,963 m.
The local [[climate]] is tropical and generally hot and humid, characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons. The capital, largest city and main port is [[Dili]], and the second-largest city is the eastern town of [[Baucau]]. Dili has the only functioning international airport, though there is an airstrip in Baucau used for domestic flights.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of East Timor]]''
Prior to and during colonisation, Timor was best known for its [[sandalwood]]. In late [[1999]], about 70% of the economic [[infrastructure]] of East Timor was laid waste by [[Military of Indonesia|Indonesian troops]] and [[pro-Indonesia militia|anti-independence militias]], and 260,000 people fled westward. Over the next three years a massive international program led by the UN, manned by civilian advisers, 5,000 peacekeepers (8,000 at peak) and 1,300 police officers, led to substantial reconstruction in both urban and rural areas. By mid-2002, all but about 50,000 of the refugees had returned. This successful UN effort was headed by Special Representative of the [[UN_Secretary-General|Secretary-General]], [[Sérgio Vieira de Mello]], later to become [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]], who was killed in Baghdad in August 2003.
{{wikinews|East Timor - Australia problematic billion-dollar gas and oil accord}}
The country faces great challenges in continuing to rebuild the infrastructure and the strengthen the infant civil administration. One promising long-term project is the joint development with [[Australia]] of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] resources in the waters southeast of Timor, a location which became known as the [[Timor gap]] following the signing by Australia and Indonesia of the 'Timor Gap Treaty' when East Timor was still under Indonesian occupation. East Timor inherited no permanent maritime boundaries when it attained independence, and the Government of East Timor is seeking to negotiate a boundary with Australia halfway between it and Australia. As of May 2004, the Government of Australia wanted to establish the boundary at the end of the Australian [[continental shelf]]. Normally a maritime dispute such as this could be referred to the [[International Court of Justice]] or the [[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]] for an impartial decision. However, Australia withdrew from these organisations when it realised that East Timor might invoke these dispute resolution mechanisms. Many advocacy groups claimed that Australia delibe
|
otherapeutic drugs affect "younger" tumours (i.e. less differentiated) more effectively, because at a higher grade of differentiation, the propensity to growth usually decreases. Near the center of some solid tumours, cell division has effectively ceased, making them insensitive to chemotherapy. Another problem with solid tumours is the fact that the chemotherapeutic agent often does not reach the core of the tumour. Solutions to this problem include [[radiation therapy]] (both [[sealed source radiotherapy|brachytherapy]] and [[external beam radiotherapy|teletherapy]]) and [[surgery]].
==Types==
The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided in to: [[alkylating agent]]s, [[antimetabolite]]s, [[anthracycline]]s, plant [[alkaloid]]s, [[topoisomerase]] inhibitors, and antitumour agents. All of these drugs affect [[cell division]] or [[DNA]] synthesis and function in some way.
Some newer agents don't directly interfere with DNA. These include the new [[tyrosine kinase]] inhibitor ''[[imatinib|imatinib mesylate]]'' (Gleevec® or Glivec®), which directly targets a molecular abnormality in certain types of cancer ([[chronic myelogenous leukemia]], [[gastrointestinal stromal tumor]]s).
In addition, some drugs may be used which modulate tumour cell behaviour without directly attacking those cells. Hormone treatments fall into this category of adjuvant therapies.
Where available, [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]] codes are provided for the major categories.
===Alkylating agents ([[ATC_code_L01#L01A_Alkylating_agents|L01A]])===
''See main article: [[alkylating agent]]''
Alkylating agents are so named because of their ability to add alkyl groups to many [[electronegative]] groups under conditions present in cells.
===Anti-metabolites ([[ATC_code_L01#L01B_Antimetabolites|L01B]])===
''See main article: [[antimetabolite]]''
[[Anti-metabolite]]s masquerade as [[purine]] ((azathioprine, [[mercaptopurine]])) or [[pyrimidine]] - which become the building blocks of DNA. They prevent these substances becoming incorporated in to DNA during the "S" phase (of the [[cell cycle]]), stopping normal development and division. They also affect RNA synthesis. Due to their efficiency, these drugs are the most widely used cytostatics.
=== Plant alkaloids and terpenoids ([[ATC_code_L01#L01C_Plant_alkaloids_and_other_natural_products|L01C]]) ===
These [[alkaloid]]s are derived from [[plant]]s and block cell division by preventing [[microtubule]] function. Microtubules are vital for cell division and without them it can not occur. The main examples are [[vinca alkaloid]]s and [[taxane]]s.
==== Vinca alkaloids ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CA_Vinca_alkaloids_and_analogues|L01CA]]) ====
Vinca alkaloids bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulin into microtubules ([[M phase]] of the [[cell cycle]]). They are derived from the [[Madagascar periwinkle]], ''Catharanthus roseus'' (formerly known as ''Vinca rosea''). The vinca alkaloids include: -
* [[Vincristine]]
* [[Vinblastine]]
* [[Vinorelbine]]
* [[Vindesine]]
==== Podophyllotoxin ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CB_Podophyllotoxin_derivatives|L01CB]]) ====
[[Podophyllotoxin]] is a plant-derived compound used to produce two other cytostatic drugs, [[etoposide]] and [[teniposide]]. They prevent the cell from entering the [[G1 phase]] (the start of DNA replication) and the replication of DNA (the [[S phase]]). The exact mechanism of its action still has to be elucidated.
The substance has been primarily obtained from the [[American Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum peltatum''). Recently it has been discovered that a rare [[Himalayan Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum hexandrum'') contains it in a much greater quantity, but as the plant is endangered, its supply is limited. Studies have been conducted to isolate the genes involved in the substance's production, so that it could be obtained [[genetic engineering|recombinantively]].
==== Taxanes ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CD_Taxanes|L01CD]]) ====
Taxanes are derived from the [[Taxus|Pacific yew tree]], ''Taxus brevifolia''. Taxanes enhance stability of microtubules, preventing the separation of [[chromosome]]s during [[anaphase]]. Taxanes include: -
* [[Paclitaxel]]
* [[Docetaxel]]
===Topoisomerase inhibitors ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CB_Podophyllotoxin_derivatives|L01CB]] and [[ATC_code_L01#L01XX_Other_antineoplastic_agents|L01XX]]) ===
[[Topoisomerase]]s are essential [[enzyme]]s that maintain the [[topology]] of DNA. Inhibition of type I or type II topoisomerases interferes with both [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[DNA replication|replication]] of DNA by upsetting proper DNA [[supercoil]]ing.
* Some type I topoisomerase inhibitors include ''camptothecins'': [[irinotecan]] and [[topotecan]].
* Examples of type II inhibitors include [[amsacrine]], [[etoposide]], [[etoposide phosphate]], and [[teniposide]]. These are semisynthetic derivatives of [[epipodophyllotoxin]]s, alkaloids naturally occurring in the root of mayapple (''Podophyllum peltatum'').
===Antitumour antibiotics ([[ATC_code_L01#L01D_Cytotoxic_antibiotics_and_related_substances|L01D]])===
''See main article: [[antineoplastic]]''
The most important immunosuppressant from this group is [[dactinomycin]], which is used to in [[kidney transplantation]]s.
===Hormonal therapy===
Several malignancies respond to [[hormonal therapy]]. Strictly speaking, this is not chemotherapy. Cancer arising from certain tissues, including the mammary and prostate glands, may be inhibited or stimulated by appropriate changes in hormone balance.
* [[Steroid]]s (often [[dexamethasone]]) can inhibit tumour growth or the associated [[edema]] (tissue swelling), and may cause regression of lymph node malignancies.
* [[Prostate cancer]] is often sensitive to [[finasteride]], an agent that blocks the peripheral conversion of [[testosterone]] to [[dihydrotestosterone]].
* [[Breast cancer]] cells often highly express the [[estrogen]] and/or [[progesterone]] receptor. Inhibiting the production (with [[aromatase inhibitor]]s) or action (with [[tamoxifen]]) of these hormones can often be used as an adjunct to therapy.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH), such as [[goserelin]] possess a paradoxic negative feedback effect followed by inhibition of the release of FSH ([[follicle-stimulating hormone]]) and LH ([[luteinizing hormone]]), when given continuously.
Some other tumours are also [[hormone]] dependent, although the specific mechanism is still unclear.
==Dosage==
''Dosage'' of chemotherapy can be difficult: if the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, while at excessive doses the toxicity (side-effects, [[neutropenia]]) will be intolerable to the patient. This has led to the formation of detailed "dosing schemes" in most hospitals, which give guidance on the correct dose and adjustment in case of toxicity. In immunotherapy, they are in principle used in smaller dosages than in the treatment of malign diseases.
In most cases, the dose is adjusted for the patient's ''[[body surface area]]'', a composite measure of weight and height that mathematically approximates the body volume. The BSA is usually calculated with a mathematical formula or a [[nomogram]], rather than by direct measurement.
==Delivery==
Most chemotherapy is [[Route of administration|delivered]] [[intravenous]]ly, although there are a number of agents that can be administered orally (e.g. [[melphalan]] and [[gemcitabine]]). Depending on the patient, the cancer, the stage of cancer, the type of chemotherapy, and the dosage, IV chemotherapy may be given on either an [[inpatient]] or [[outpatient]] basis. For continuous, frequent or prolonged IV chemotherapy administration, various systems may be surgically inserted into the vasculature to maintain access. Commonly used systems are the [[Hickman line]], the [[Port-a-Cath]] or the [[PICC line]]. These have a lower infection risk, are much less prone to [[phlebitis]] or extravasation, and abolish the need for repeated insertion of peripheral cannulae.
==Treatment schemes==
There are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms.
''Combined modality chemotherapy'' is the use of drugs with other [[Cancer#Treatments|cancer treatments]], such as [[radiation therapy]] or [[surgery]]. Most cancers are now treated in this way. ''Combination chemotherapy'' is a similar practice which involves treating a patient with a number of different drugs simultaneously. The drugs differ in their mechanism and side effects. The biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent.
In ''neoadjuvant chemotherapy'' (''pre''operative treatment) initial chemotherapy is aimed for shrinking the primary tumour, thereby rendering local therapy (surgery or radiotherapy) less destructive or more effective.
''Adjuvant chemotherapy'' (''post''operative treatment) can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence. This can help reduce chances of resistance developing if the tumour does develop. It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells which have spread to other parts of the body. This is often effective as the newly growing tumours are fast-dividing, and therefore very susceptible.
''Palliative chemotherapy'' is given without curative intent, but simply to decrease tumor load and increase life expectancy. For these regimens, a better toxicity profile is generally expected.
Most chemotherapy regimens require that the patient is capable to undergo the treatment. [[Performance status]] is often used as a measure to determine whether a patient can receive chemotherapy, or whether dose reduction is required.
==Side-effects==
The treatment can be physically exhausting for the patient. Current chemotherapeutic tech
|
(number)|32]] = 2^5
|-
| '''54''' = 2^6 = 4^3 = 8^2
| five dozen and four
| [[64 (number)|64]] = 2^6 = 4^3 = 8^2
|-
| '''A8''' = 2^7
| ten dozen and eight = one small gross and eight
| [[128 (number)|128]] = 2^7
|-
| '''194''' = 2^8 = 4^4 = 4^^2 = 14^2
| one gross nine dozen and four
| [[256 (number)|256]] = 2^8 = 4^4 = 4^^2 = 16^2
|-
| '''368''' = 2^9 = 8^3
| three gross six dozen and eight
| [[512 (number)|512]] = 2^9 = 8^3
|-
| '''714''' = 2^A = 4^5
| seven gross one dozen and four
| [[1024 (number)|1,024]] = 2^10 = 4^5
|-
| '''1,228''' = 2^B
| one great gross two gross two dozen and eight
| [[2048 (number)|2,048]] = 2^11
|-
| '''2,454''' = 2^10 = 4^6 = 8^4 = 14^3 = 54^2
| two great gross four gross five dozen and four
| [[4096 (number)|4,096]] = 2^12 = 4^6 = 8^4 = 16^3 = 64^2
|}
==Fractions and irrational numbers==
Duodecimal [[fraction]]s are usually simple:
* 1/2 = 0.6
* 1/3 = 0.4
* 1/4 = 0.3
* 1/6 = 0.2
* 1/8 = 0.16
* 1/9 = 0.14
or complicated (A = ten, B = eleven)
* 1/5 = 0.24972497... recurring (easily rounded to 0.25)
* 1/7 = 0.186A35186A35... recurring (easily rounded to 0.187)
* 1/A = 0.124972497... recurring (rounded to 0.125)
* 1/B = 0.11111... recurring (rounded to 0.11)
* 1/11 = 0.0B0B... recurring (rounded to 0.0B)
As explained in [[recurring decimal]]s, whenever an [[irreducible fraction]] is written in “decimal” notation, in any base, the fraction can be expressed exactly (terminates) if and only if all the [[prime factor]]s of its denominator are also prime factors of the base. Thus, in base-ten (= 2&times;5) system, fractions whose denominators are made up solely of multiples of 2 and 5 terminate: ¹&#8260;<sub>8</sub> = ¹&#8260;<sub>(2&times;2&times;2)</sub>, ¹&#8260;<sub>20</sub> = ¹&#8260;<sub>(2&times;2&times;5)</sub>, and ¹&#8260;<sub>500</sub> (2<sup>2</sup>&times;5<sup>3</sup>) can be expressed exactly as 0.125, 0.05, and 0.002 respectively. ¹&#8260;<sub>3</sub> and ¹&#8260;<sub>7</sub>, however, recur (0.333... and 0.142857142857...). In the duodecimal (= 2&times;2&times;3) system, ¹&#8260;<sub>8</sub> is exact; ¹&#8260;<sub>20</sub> and ¹&#8260;<sub>500</sub> recur because they include 5 as a factor; ¹&#8260;<sub>3</sub> is exact; and ¹&#8260;<sub>7</sub> recurs, just as it does in decimal.
Arguably, factors of 3 are more commonly encountered in real-life [[division (mathematics)|division]] problems than factors of 5 (or would be, were it not for the decimal system having influenced most cultures). Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of [[recurring decimals]] is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used. Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations.
However, when recurring fractions do occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because [[12 (number)|12]] (twelve) is between two [[prime number]]s, [[11 (number)|11]] (eleven) and [[13 (number)|13]] (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to [[composite number]] [[9 (number)|9]]. Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period doesn't help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so [[rounding]], which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor [[3 (number)|3]] in its factorization, while only one out of every five contains the prime factor [[5 (number)|5]]. All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do not influence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base). Also, the prime factor [[2 (number)|2]] appears twice in the factorization of twelve, while only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are [[power of two|powers of two]] will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in dozenal than in decimal (e.g., 1/(2<sup>2</sup>) = 0.25 <SMALL>dec</SMALL> = 0.3 <SMALL>doz</SMALL>; 1/(2<sup>3</sup>) = 0.125 <SMALL>dec</SMALL> = 0.16 <SMALL>doz</SMALL>; 1/(2<sup>4</sup>) = 0.0625 <SMALL>dec</SMALL> = 0.09 <SMALL>doz</SMALL>; 1/(2<sup>5</sup>) = 0.03125 <SMALL>dec</SMALL> = 0.046 <SMALL>doz</SMALL>; etc.).
{|{{prettytable}}
| colspan="3" align="center" | Decimal base<br><SMALL>Prime factors of the base: <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Green">'''5'''</font></SMALL>
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Duodecimal / Dozenal base'''<br><SMALL>Prime factors of the base: <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font></SMALL>
|-
| align="center" | Fraction
| align="center" | <SMALL>Prime factors<br>of the denominator<SMALL>
| align="center" | Positional representation
| align="center" | Positional representation
| align="center" | <SMALL>Prime factors<br>of the denominator<SMALL>
| align="center" | Fraction
|-
| align="center" | 1/2
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| '''0.5'''
| '''0.6'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/2
|-
| align="center" | 1/3
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''3'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">3</font>3333333...
| '''0.4'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/3
|-
| align="center" | 1/4
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| '''0.25'''
| '''0.3'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/4
|-
| align="center" | 1/5
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''5'''</font>
| '''0.2'''
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">2497</font>24972497...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''5'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/5
|-
| align="center" | 1/6
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''3'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.1'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">6</font>6666666...
| '''0.2'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/6
|-
| align="center" | 1/7
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''7'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">142857</font>142857142857...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">186A35</font>186A35186A35...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''7'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/7
|-
| align="center" | 1/8
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| '''0.125'''
| '''0.16'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/8
|-
| align="center" | 1/9
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''3'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">1</font>1111111...
| '''0.14'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/9
|-
| align="center" | 1/10
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Green">'''5'''</font>
| '''0.1'''
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.1'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">2497</font>24972497...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''5'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/A
|-
| align="center" | 1/11
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''11'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">09</font>09090909...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">1</font>1111111...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''B'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/B
|-
| align="center" | 1/12
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:
|
duct/0815715013 Cohen, Stephen P. ''India: Emerging Power'' (2002)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0892819235 Daniélou, Alain. ''A Brief History of India'' (2003)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0385720742 Das, Gurcharan. ''India Unbound : The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age'' (2002)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802137970 Keay, John. ''India: A History'' (2001)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0781809444 Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. ''India: An Illustrated History'' (2003)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106344121 Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. ''A History of India.'' 3rd ed. (1998)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101360237 Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103421308 Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195612973 Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (1981)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140138366 Spear, Percival. ''The History of India'' Vol. 2 (1990)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520242254 Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195166787 Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' 6th ed. (1999)]
==See also==
* [[India]]
* [[Economy of India]]
* [[History of South Asia|History of the Indian Subcontinent]]
* [[Timeline of Indian history|Timeline of Indian History]]
* [[Economic history of India|Economic History of India]]
* [[Military history of India|Military History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]
* [[Indian Maritime History]]
* [[Indian mathematics|History of Indian Mathematics]]
* [[History of sex in India]]
* [[List of Indian Monarchs]]
* [[List of Indians]]
==External links==
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2005/04/27/sources-early-indian-history/ Sources of Early Indian History]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ A Tribute to Hinduism]
* [http://www.geographia.com/india/india02.htm/ A Concise History of India]
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/timeline/timeline.htm/ A Timeline of Indian History]
{{indian selected article}}
[[Category:History by country]]
[[Category:History of India|*]]
[[ar:تاريخ الهند]]
[[de:Geschichte Indiens]]
[[es:Historia de la India]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Inde]]
[[he:היסטוריה של הודו]]
[[lt:Indijos istorija]]
[[pl:Historia Indii]]
[[pt:História da Índia]]
[[ru:История Индии]]
[[fi:Intian historia]]
[[sv:Indiens historia]]
[[te:భారతదేశ చరిత్ర]]
[[zh:印度历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Highlander (film)</title>
<id>13891</id>
<revision>
<id>41805076</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:40:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.106.141.19</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Television and Animation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Highlander.jpg|frame|Connor MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]])]]
'''''Highlander''''' is a [[1986]] [[fantasy]] [[film|movie]] directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]] and starring [[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]], who plays ''[[Connor MacLeod]]'', the Highlander. Born in [[Glenfinnan]], in the [[Scottish Highlands]] in the 16th century, MacLeod is an [[immortality|Immortal]]. The original movie spawned three subsequent theatrical releases and two television series of relative success.
As the basic premise, an Immortal cannot die unless [[decapitation|decapitated]] &mdash; the original movie made no peremptory reference as to whether this would have to be done by another immortal in order to work; however the television show later clarified the issue by affirming that any decapitation would suffice to kill an Immortal, even if performed by a mortal or as a result of an accident. All Immortals are engaged in an ancient dispute, at the end of which only one Immortal will be left (thus the movie's catch phrase: ''"There can be only one''") and gain "The Prize." The original movie left many details to the imagination, with some filled out by the later movies and television series: in the original movie, there is no direct reference as to the fact that when the (yet unaware) Immortal receives his or her first fatal wound and "dies", that his or her age at that point is the apparent physical age at which he or she will stay forever. This concept was only formally clarified in the TV show. The original movie also explicitly says that no one knows exactly what "The Prize" is, although it is established that if an evil Immortal obtains it, Humankind would suffer "an eternity of darkness" &mdash; at the end of the original movie, when [[Connor MacLeod]] wins the Prize (according to that storyline), he obtains full mortality, and it is further hinted that the Prize may also consist of infinite knowledge.
Among the clearly established facts, Immortals cannot have children and they may not fight on "holy ground" (the concept of which was not clearly established by the original movie, but later agreed to be any place held holy by any human creed). Amidst the rules that were expanded or [[retcon]]ned by the TV show and the other movies are: the nature of "The Quickening," which in the original movie appears to be the "proximity premonition" between Immortals and a supernatural connection that each Immortal has to the very world, but is later said to be a transference of power and knowledge from a defeated Immortal to the victor of a battle (although this is indicated in the original movie, where the phenomenon resembles closely a transference of power of some kind).
Another key change made after the original movie was the existence of female Immortals: the original movie makes no reference to it, but it only shows male Immortals. Yet another aspect of the rules that was never touched originally, but was elaborated by the television series is the "no interference" rule, according to which, once two Immortals engage in combat, no other Immortal may interfere with it at any point.
The main difference is that the original movie depicts the end of the battle between the Immortals (later dubbed "The Game"), showing Connor MacLeod as the last remaining Immortal and winner of The Prize. Later movies and ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'' proposed a retcon, according to which the [[1985]] final battle between MacLeod and the Kurgan in [[New York City]] did indeed take place, but it would not have been the actual final battle; the Gathering had not happened (or at least, had not concluded) and the Game continues. In the original movie, the Gathering (described by Ramirez as follows: "<cite>when only a few of us are left, we will feel an irresistible pull towards a far away land, to fight for The Prize</cite>") had taken place in 1985, when approximately six Immortals were left alive; in [[New York City]], which can be considered to have been the "distant land;" since the east coast of the [[Americas|American continent]] would have been rather distant from the rest of the world up until relatively recent times.
The ''Highlander'' films and the [[television program|television series]] that was spun off from it have attracted a devoted following and led to the creation of a great deal of [[fan fiction]], much of it available on the [[Internet]].
Typical of the series is the use of [[flashback]]s from previous events in the Highlander's long life.
The phrase ''"There can be only one!"'' is used frequently in promoting the movies, resulting in "highlander" also being a generic phrase for computer programming solutions that involve exclusive access to a resource.
{{spoiler}}
== ''Highlander : There Can Be Only One'' ==
The first film of the series, originally called "Highlander: There Can Be Only One" was released on [[March 7]], [[1986]]. The film features a number of flashback scenes establishing [[Connor MacLeod]] of the Clan [[Clan MacLeod|MacLeod]]'s early history.
According to them he was born in the year [[1518]] ''"in the village of [[Glenfinnan]] on the shores of [[Loch Shiel]]"'' (historically this village is better known as the rally point where [[Bonnie Prince Charlie]]'s troops first concentrated on [[August 19]], [[1745]] See:[http://www.road-to-the-isles.org.uk/glenfinnan.html Glenfinnan]). In [[1536]], his [[clan]] was in conflict with the rival [[Clan Fraser]]. Connor had his first battles in the conflict. The Frasers had employed an experienced Immortal only known as The Kurgan ([[Clancy Brown]]), and he apparently recognized that Connor was a fellow Immortal, though even Connor had not discovered this yet. The Kurgan managed to mortally wound Connor in battle, but the MacLeods recovered the body before he could decapitate it. The MacLeods mourned Connor, but he revived shortly after his "death." Accusing him of [[witchcraft]], Connor's clansmen tortured him, and were about to execute him when his cousin Angus MacLeod ([[James Cosmo]]) gave him brief aid. He managed to escape with his life, but left in exile from his clan and birthplace.
Connor eventually settled in [[Jedburgh, Scotland]] where he married Heather MacDonald ([[Beatie Edney]]), his first wife, and received training as a [[blacksmith]] from her father. In [[1541]] he was located by a much older Immortal, who introduced himself as [[Juan Sanchez Villa-Lobos Ramirez]] ([[Sean Connery]]). Ramirez soon appointed himself Connor's tutor in the situation of being Immortal, their pursuit of the Prize, and the rules of this age-long "Game." He also explained that his own Spanish name was just his current alias. He adopted it while serving as Chief [[Metallurgy|Metallurgist]] for [[Charles V
|
elecommsHistory}}
Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. X.25 would be used for the first dial-in public access networks; such as [[Compuserve]] and [[Tymnet]]. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer [[e-mail|electronic mail]] capabilities and technical support to [[personal computer]] users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer [[online chat|real-time chat]] with its [[CB Simulator]]. In addition to this were the [[America Online]] (AOL) and [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]] dial in networks, and many [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] networks such as [[The WELL]] and [[FidoNet]]. [[FidoNet]] in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them [[hackers]] and [[radio amateurs]].
===UUCP===
:''See main articles at [[UUCP]] and [[Usenet]].''
In 1979, two students at [[Duke University]], [[Tom Truscott]] and [[Jim Ellis]], came up with the idea of using simple [[Bourne shell]] scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. Following public release of the software, the mesh of [[UUCP]] hosts forwarding on the [[Usenet]] news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, would also create gateways and links between [[Fidonet]] and dial-up [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections. By 1983 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.
==Merging the networks, and creating the Internet==
===TCP/IP===
{{main|Internet protocol suite}}
[[Image:IntFeb82.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Map of the TCP/IP test network, in January 1982]] With so many different network methods, something needed to unify them. [[Robert E. Kahn]] of [[ARPA]] and [[ARPANET]] recruited [[Vint Cerf]] of [[Stanford University]] to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common [[internetwork protocol]], and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the [[ARPANET]], the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits [[Hubert Zimmerman]] and [[Louis Pouzin]] (designer of the [[CYCLADES]] network) with important work on this design. {{ref|ABriefHistoryoftheInternet}}
With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. [[DARPA]] agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration of what had by then become [[TCP/IP]] occurred in July 1977. This new method quickly spread across the networks, and on January 1, 1983, [[TCP/IP]] protocols became the only approved protocol on the [[ARPANET]], replacing the earlier NCP protocol. {{ref|RFC801}}
===ARPANET to NSFNet===
:''See main articles at [[ARPANET]] and [[NSFNet]].''
After the [[ARPANET]] had been up and running for several years, [[ARPA]] looked for another agency to hand off the [[computer network|network]] to; [[ARPA]]'s primary business was funding cutting-edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the [[Defense Communications Agency]], also part of the [[Department of Defense]]. In 1984, the [[U.S. military]] portion of the [[ARPANet]] was broken off as a separate [[computer network|network]], the [[MILNET]].
The networks based around the [[ARPANET]] were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to [[military]] sites and [[universities]]. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] and [[Hewlett-Packard]], which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were.
Another branch of the [[U.S. government]], the [[National Science Foundation]], became heavily involved in internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In 1984 this resulted in the first [[Wide Area Network]] designed specifically to use [[TCP/IP]]. This grew into the [[NSFNet]] [[backbone]], established in 1986, and intended to connect and provide access to a number of [[Supercomputers|supercomputing]] centers established by the [[NSF]].
===The transition towards an Internet===
It was around this time when ARPANET began to merge with NSFNet, that the term Internet originated, {{ref|ComputerNetworks}} with, "an internet" meaning any network using [[TCP/IP]]. "The Internet" came to mean a global and large network using [[TCP/IP]], which at the time meant [[NSFNet]] and [[ARPANET]]. Previously "internet" and "internetwork" had been used interchangeably, and "internet protocol" had been used to refer to other networking systems such as [[Xerox Network Services]]. {{ref|TCP-IPDigest}}
As interest in wide spread networking grew, and new applications for it arrived, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. [[TCP/IP]]'s network agnostic approach led to it being easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS [[X.25]] network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, [[University College London]] replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS.
Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, then the most important of applications. Those sites which could only have intermittent connections would use UUCP or Fidonet, and rely on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple e-mail peering, such as allowing access to [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] sites via UUCP or e-mail.
==TCP/IP becomes worldwide==
===CERN, the European internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond===
In 1984 the move in [[Europe]] towards more widespread use of [[TCP/IP]] started, and [[CERNET]] was converted over to using it. The [[TCP/IP]] [[CERNET]] remained isolated from the rest of the Internet, forming a small internal internet.
In 1988 [[Daniel Karrenberg]], from the [[Amsterdam Mathematics Centre]], visited [[Ben Segal]], [[CERN]]'s TCP/IP Coordinator; looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with [[Len Bosack]] from the then still small company [[Cisco]] about [[TCP/IP]] routers, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to [[Cisco]] for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external [[TCP/IP]] connections. {{ref|InternetProtocolsatCERN}} This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens ([[RIPE]]), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a [[cooperative]] in [[Amsterdam]].
At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, adhoc networking to ARPA and in-between [[Australian]] colleges formed, based on various technologies such as [[X.25]] and [[UUCP|UUCPNet]]. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian colleges joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. [[AARNet]] was formed in 1989 by the [[Australian Vice-Chancellor's Committee]] and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.
In [[Asia]], having built a JUNET a UUCP based network in 1984 [[Japan]] followed on by connecting to NSFNet in 1989 and hosted the annual meeting of [[The Internet Society]], INET'92, in [[Kobe]]. [[Singapore]] developed TECHNET in 1990, and [[Thailand]] gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.{{ref|AsiaHist}}
===A digital divide===
:''See main articles at [[Digital divide]] and [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]].''
While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the internet, developing countries began to experience a [[Digital divide]] seperating them from the Internet. At the beginning of the 1990s African countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications. In 1996 a [[USAID]] funded project, the [http://www.usaid.gov/regions/afr/leland/chrono.htm Leland initative] , started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. 1997 saw [[Guinea]], [[Mozambique]], [[Madagascar]] and [[Rwanda]] gain [[Satellite earth station|satellite earth stations]], followed by [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Benin]] in 1998.
In 1991 China saw its first TCP/IP college network, [[Tsinghua University|Tsinghua University's]] TUNET. [[China]] went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the [[Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration]] and [[Stanford University|Stanford University's]] Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own Digital Divide, by implementing a country wide [[Internet censorship in mainland China|content filter]].{{ref|ChinaPCWorld}}
==Opening the network to commerce==
The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective. Everyone agreed that one company sending an invoice to another company was clearly commercial us
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y the Romans. After centuries of rivalry with Rome, Carthage finally fell in [[146 BC]]. Within little more than a century Egypt and Cyrene had become incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain was introduced into the land. Though [[Fezzan, Libya|Fezzan]] was occupied by them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable barrier. [[Nubia]] and Ethiopia were reached, but an expedition sent by the emperor [[Nero]] to discover the source of the Nile ended in failure. The utmost extent of mediterranean geographical knowledge of the continent is shown in the writings of [[Ptolemy]] (2nd century), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake reservoirs of the Nile, of trading posts along the shores of the [[Indian Ocean]] as far south as [[Rhapta]] in modern [[Tanzania]], and had heard of the river [[Niger]].
Interaction between Asia, Europe and North Africa during this period was significant, major effects include the spread of classical culture around the shores of the Mediterranean; the continual struggle between Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity throughout the region, and the cultural effects of the churches in Tunisia, Egypt and Ethiopia.
===Dark Age===
The classical era drew to a close with the invasion and conquest of Rome's African provinces by the [[Vandal]]s in the 5th century; although power passed back briefly in the following century to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. All of these topics are expounded upon in their respective articles.
=== Islamisation ===
In the 7th century occurred an event destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent. Beginning with an invasion of Egypt, a host of Arabs, believers in the new faith of [[Islam]], conquered the whole of North Africa from the Red Sea to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and continued into [[Spain]]. Throughout North Africa Christianity nearly disappeared, save in Egypt (where the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Church]] was allowed to continue), and Upper Nubia and Ethiopia, which were not subdued by the Muslims.
In the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries the Arabs in Africa were numerically weak, holding the countries they had conquered only by military superiority; but in the 11th century there was a great Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of [[Berber]] culture. Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and the Islamic religion thus became indelibly stamped on northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern seaboard, where Arabs, [[Iran|Persia]]ns and [[India]]ns planted flourishing colonies, such as [[Mombasa, Kenya|Mombasa]], [[Malindi, Kenya|Malindi]] and [[Sofala, Mozambique|Sofala]], playing a role, maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern seaboard. Until the 14th century, Europe and the Arabs of North Africa were both ignorant of these eastern cities and states.
The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the [[Caliphate|caliphs]] of [[Baghdad]], and the [[Aghlabite]] dynasty&mdash;founded by [[Aghlab]], one of [[Haroun al-Raschid]]'s generals, at the close of the 8th century&mdash;ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early in the 10th century the [[Fatimid]] dynasty established itself in Egypt, where [[Cairo]] had been founded AD 968, and from there ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties such as the [[Almoravides]] and [[Almohades]]. Eventually the [[Turkey|Turks]], who had conquered [[Constantinople]] in 1453, and had seized Egypt in 1517, established the regencies of [[Algeria]], Tunisia and [[Tripolitania|Tripoli]] (between 1519 and 1551), [[Morocco]] remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the [[Sharifan dynasty]], which had its beginnings at the end of the 13th century.
Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or [[Moors|Moorish]] culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the continent. This was rendered more easy by their use of the [[camel]] (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of Egypt), which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert. In this way [[Senegambia]] and the middle Niger regions fell under the influence of the Arabs and Berbers.
Islam also spread through the interior of [[West Africa]], as the religion of the [[mansa]]s of the [[Mali Empire]] (c. 1235-1400) and many rulers of the [[Songhai Empire]] (c. 1460-1591). Following the fabled 1324 [[hajj]] of [[Mansa Musa|Kankan Musa I]], [[Timbuktu]] became renowned as a center of Islamic scholarship as sub-Saharan Africa's first university. That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab traveller [[Ibn Battuta]], whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa ([[Kilwa]]) provided the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing Muslim cities on the east African seaboards.
Except along this seaboard, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest, stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of 10° North latitude, which barred their advance much as the Sahara had proved an obstacle to their predecessors. The rainforest cut them off from knowledge of the [[Guinea coast]] and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which was the last to come under Arab rule was that of Nubia, which had been controlled by Christians up to the 14th century.
For a time the Muslim conquests in South Europe had virtually made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in the 11th century of the [[Saracens]] from [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]] by the [[Normans]] was followed by descents of the conquerors on Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the African coastlands, and especially with Egypt, was developed by [[Venice, Italy|Venice]], [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and other cities of North Italy. By the end of the 15th century Spain had completely removed the Muslims, but even while the Moors were still in [[Granada]], [[Portugal]] was strong enough to carry the war into Africa. In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of [[Ceuta]] on the Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain acquired many ports in Algeria and Tunisia.
Portugal, however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at [[Battle of Alcazarquivir|al Kasr al Kebir]], the Moors being led by [[Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi|Abd el Malek I]] of the then recently established [[Saadi Dynasty]]. By that time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions. The [[Barbary states]], primarily from the example of the Moors expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of [[pirate]]s, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the 16th century to the third decade of the 19th century is largely made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual reprisals on the other. In [[Algiers]], [[Tunis]] and other cities were thousands of Christian slaves.
== History of Sub-Saharan Africa until 1500 A.D.==
===Medieval empires===
There were many great empires in Sub-saharan Africa over the past few millennia. These were mostly concentrated in West Africa where important trade routes and good agricultural land allowed extensive states to develop. These included the [[Mali Empire]], [[Oba of Benin]], the [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]], the [[Fulani Empire]], the [[Dahomey]], [[Oyo]], [[Aro confederacy]], the [[Ashanti Confederacy|Ashanti Empire]], and the [[Songhay]].
Also common in this region were loose federations of [[city states]] such as those of the [[Yoruba]] and [[Hausa people|Hausa]].
Further south empires were less common, but there were exceptions, most notably [[Great Zimbabwe]]. One region that did see considerable state formation due to its high population and agricultural surplus was the [[Great Lakes region (Africa)|Great Lakes region]] where states such as [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], and [[Buganda]] became strongly centralized.
[[Ethiopia]], closely linked with North Africa and the Middle East also had centralized rule for many millennia and the [[Axumite Kingdom]] which developed there has created a powerful regional trading empire (with trade routes going as far as [[India]]).
== European exploration and conquest ==
=== Portuguese ===
With the [[Battle of Ceuta]] Africa had ceased to belong solely to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was one, Prince [[Henry the Navigator|Henry "the Navigator,"]] son of King [[John I of Portugal|John I]], who was fired with the ambition to acquire for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his inspiration and direction was begun that series of voyages of exploration which resulted in the circumnavigation of Africa and the establishment of Portuguese sovereignty over large areas of the coastlands.
Portuguese ships rounded [[Cape Bojador]] in 1434, [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]] in 1445, and by 1480 the whole [[Guinea coast]] was known. In 1482 [[Diogo Cão]] discovered the mouth of the [[Congo River|Congo]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]] was rounded by [[Bartolomeu Dias]] in 1488, and in 1498 [[Vasco da Gama]], after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east coast, touched at [[Sofala]] and [[Malindi]], and went thence to [[India]]. Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the extreme south of the continent.
The Guinea coast, as the first discovered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous forts and trading stations were established, the
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y [[Fianna Fail]] members with bitterness for decades afterwards.
In addition, Free State troops, particularly in [[County Kerry]], where the guerrilla campaign was most bitter, began unofficial killings of captured Anti-Treaty fighters. Several high profile atrocities took place in the month of March 1923. The most notorious example of this occurred at Ballyseedy, where, in reprisal for the killing of five Free State soldiers with booby trap bomb at Knocknagoshel, 9 Republican prisoners were tied to a [[land mine|landmine]], which was exploded and the remaining survivors were then machine-gunned, with one of the prisoners Stephen Fuller, escaping to tell of the event afterwards. This was followed by series of similar killings of prisoners by Free State troops in [[Killarney]] and [[Cahersiveen]]. [[Image:Dickmulc.jpg|thumb|Richard Mulcahy - the Free State General who instituted the policy of executions of republican prisoners in reprisal for the murder of elected representatives.]]
The Anti-Treaty IRA were unable to maintain an effective guerrilla campaign, since the great majority of the Irish population did not support them. This was demonstrated in the [[elections]] immediately after the civil war, which [[Cumann na nGaedheal]], the Free State party, won easily (See [[Irish general election, 1923]] for the results). The [[Roman Catholic Church]] also supported the Free State, deeming it the lawful government of the country, denouncing the Anti-Treaty IRA and refusing to administer the [[Sacrament]]s to Anti-Treaty fighters. On October 10th 1922, The Catholic Bishops of Ireland issued a formal statement, describing the anti treaty campaign as,
''a system of murder and assassination of the National forces without any legitimate authority...the guerrilla warfare now being carried on [by] the Irregulars is without moral sanction and therefore the killing of National soldiers is murder before God, the seizing of public and private property is robbery, the breaking of roads, bridges and railways is criminal. All who in contravention of this teaching, participate in such crimes are guilty of grevious sins and may not be absolved in [[Confession]] nor admitted to the [[Holy Communion]] if they persist in such evil courses'' (Coogan, De Valera p344).
This stance would have influenced many Catholic Irish people at the time.
The lack of public support for the Anti-Treaty IRA, the determination of the government to defeat them and their lack of will also contributed to their defeat. By February 1923, republican leader [[Liam Deasy]] had already surrendered to Free State forces and called on other republicans to do the same. As the conflict petered out into a ''de facto'' victory for the pro-Treaty side, De Valera asked the IRA leadership to call a ceasefire, but they refused. Some historians suggest that the death of [[Liam Lynch]], the intransigent Republican leader, in a skirmish in the Knockmealdown mountains in [[County Waterford]] on April 10th, allowed the more pragmatic [[Frank Aiken]], who took over as IRA Chief of Staff, to call a halt to what seemed a futile struggle. Aiken's accession to IRA leadership was followed on the 30th of April by the declaration of a [[ceasefire]] on behalf off the anti-treaty forces. Aiken followed this on the 24th of May 1923 by an order to IRA volunteers to dump arms rather than surrender them or continue a fight which they were incapable of winning. Thousands of Anti-Treaty IRA members (including De Valera) were arrested by the Free State forces in the weeks after the end of the war, when they had dumped their arms and returned home.
===Attacks on Loyalists===
Although the cause of the civil war was the treaty, as the war developed the Irregulars sought to identify their actions with the traditional republican cause of the "men of no property" and the result was that the war also saw large Loyalist landowners, and some not very well-off Protestant [[Loyalists]], attacked and a large number of country estates occupied by small holders. Many, but not all of these people, had supported the Crown forces during the War of Independence. This support was often largely moral, but sometimes it took the form of actively assisting the British in the conflict. This made their situation post-independence difficult, and in the anarchy of the Civil War they became easy targets. Sometimes these attacks had sectarian overtones, although most anti-treaty IRA men made no distinction between Catholic and [[Protestant]] supporters of the Irish government. The Free State made efforts to protect Protestants and their property, most notably in [[County Louth]], where a special police force was set up specifically for this purpose. Controversy continues to this day about the extent of intimidation of Protestants at this time.
==Cost and results==
The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many senior figures, including Michael Collins. Both sides carried out brutal acts: the anti-treaty forces murdered TDs (MPs) and burned many historic homes (such as the famous Moore Hall in [[County Mayo|Mayo]], because its owner had become a senator); the government executed anti-treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. The pro-treaty National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed in total. As their forces retreated the Irregulars caused much destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence as a result. In addition, about 12,000 Republicans were [[internment|interned]] by the end of the Civil War, most of whom were not released until 1924. After Aiken called an end to the Anti-Treaty campaign, up to 8000 IRA prisoners went on [[hunger strike]] in protest at their continued detention.
However, it has also been argued that the Irish Civil War could have been far worse than it actually was. The numbers killed were relatively modest by the standards of other contemporary civil wars - for example in [[Russian Civil War|Russia]] and [[Spanish Civil War|Spain]]. Moreover, the new Police force, the [[Civic Guard]]s, was not involved which meant that it was possible for the Free State to establish an unarmed and politically neutral police service after the war. <!-- CG became Garda Síochána in August 1923 -->
The fact that the Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the issue of [[Northern Ireland]] was ignored and Ireland was spared what could have been a far bloodier civil war based on [[ethnic]] and [[sectarian]] lines over the future of Ireland's six north-eastern counties. In fact, because of the Irish Civil War, [[Northern Ireland]] was able to consolidate its existence and partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. Collins, up to the outbreak of the civil war and possibly until his death, had been planning to launch a clandestine guerrilla campaign against the Northern state and was funelling arms to the northern units of the IRA to this end. This may have led to open hostilities between north and south had the Irish Civil War not broken out. In the event, it was only after their defeat in the Civil War that anti-treaty Irish Republicans seriously considered whether to take armed action against British rule in Northern Ireland. The northern units of the IRA largely supported the Free State side in the civil war due to Collins's policies and over 1000 of them joined the new Free State's [[Irish Army]].
In [[1926]], having failed to persuade the majority of the anti-treaty side of accepting the new status quo as a basis for an evolving Republic, a large faction led by De Valera and Aiken left to resume constitutional politics and to found the [[Fianna Fáil]] party. [[Sinn Fein]] became a small, isolated poltical party. The IRA, then much more numerous and influential than Sinn Fein, remained associated with Fianna Fail (though not directly) until banned by De Valera in 1935.
[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|thumb|left|Eamon de Valera in the 1930s.]]
As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy, which continues to influence Irish politics to this day. The two largest political parties in the Republic are still Fianna Fáil and [[Fine Gael]], the descendants respectively of the anti-treaty and pro-treaty forces of 1922. Until the 1970s, almost all of Ireland's prominent politicians were veterans of the civil war, a fact which poisoned the relationship between Ireland's two biggest parties. Examples of Civil War veterans include: Eamon de Valera, Frank Aiken, [[Todd Andrews]], [[Sean Lemass]]{{fn|2}}, (Republican) and [[W.T. Cosgrave]], Richard Mulcahy and [[Kevin O'Higgins]]{{fn|3}} (Free State). Moreover, many of these men's sons and daughters also became politicians, meaning that the personal wounds of the civil war were felt over three generations. In the 1930s after Fianna Fail took power for the first time, it looked possible for a while that the Civil War might break out again between the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] and the pro-Free State [[Blueshirts]]. Fortunately, this crisis was averted and by the 1950s, political violence was no longer prominent in Southern Irish politics.
[[Image:WTCosgrave2.jpg|thumb|right|W.T. Cosgrave]]
However, the breakaway IRA continued (and continues in various forms) to exist. Up until the 1980s it still claimed to be the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Treaty of 1921. Some people, notably [[Michael McDowell]], claim that this attitude, which dates from the Civil War, still underpins the politics of the [[Provisional IRA]].
==Footnotes==
{{fnb|1}}In the 1996 film ''[[Michael Collins (film)|Michael Collins]]'', Eamon de Valera orders Collins' death. However, although de Valera was in the area at the time, he is not known to have been involved in the assassination.<br>
{{fnb|2}}Whose brother Noel,
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guishing feature of scientific propositions was their verifiability. This contrasted with the theory of [[Karl Popper]], also greatly influenced by Russell, who believed that their importance rested in the fact that they were ''potentially'' falsifiable.
It is worth noting that outside of his strictly philosophical pursuits, Russell was always fascinated by science, particularly [[physics]], and he even authored several popular science books, ''The ABC of Atoms'' (1923) and ''The ABC of Relativity'' (1925).
===Religion and theology===
Russell's ethical outlook and his personal [[courage]] in facing controversies were certainly informed by his [[religious]] upbringing, principally by his paternal grandmother, who instructed him with the [[Biblical]] injunction, "Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil" ([[Exodus]] 23:2), something he said influenced him throughout his life.
For most of his adult life, however, Russell thought it very unlikely that there was a [[god]], and he maintained that [[religion]] is little more than [[superstition]] and, despite any positive effects that religion might have, it is largely harmful to people. He believed religion and the religious outlook (he considered [[communism]] and other systematic [[ideologies]] to be species of religion) serve to impede knowledge, foster [[fear]] and dependency, and are responsible for much of the [[war]], oppression, and misery that have beset the world.
In his 1949 speech, "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?", Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an [[atheist]] or an [[agnostic]]:
{{Quotation|As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think that I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because, when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.|Bertrand Russell|Collected Papers, vol. 11, p. 91}}
Russell also made an influential analysis of the [[omphalos hypothesis]] enunciated by [[Philip Henry Gosse]]&mdash;that any argument suggesting that the world was created as if it were already in motion could just as easily make it a few minutes old as a few thousand years:
{{Quotation|There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that "remembered" a wholly unreal past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began five minutes ago.|Bertrand Russell|The Analysis of Mind'', 1921, pp. 159&ndash;60; ''cf.'' ''Philosophy'', Norton, 1927, p. 7, where Russell acknowledges Gosse's paternity of this anti-evolutionary argument.'' }}
As a young man, Russell had a decidedly religious bent, himself, as is evident in his early [[Platonism]]. He longed for [[eternal]] truths, as he makes clear in his famous essay, "A Free Man's Worship", widely regarded as a masterpiece in prose, but one that Russell came to dislike. While he rejected the [[supernatural]], he freely admitted that he yearned for a deeper meaning to life.
Russell's views on religion can be found in his popular book, ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]] and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects'' (ISBN 0671203231), whose title essay was a talk given [[March 6]], [[1927]] at Battersea Town Hall, under the auspices of the [[South London]] Branch of the [[National Secular Society]], UK. The speech was published later that year as a [[pamphlet]], which, along with other essays, was eventually published as a book. In the book, Russell considers a number of logical [[arguments for the existence of God]], including the [[first cause argument]], the [[natural-law argument]], the [[argument from design]], and moral arguments. He also goes into specifics about [[Christian theology]].
His final conclusion:
{{Quotation|Religion is based, I think, primarily and mainly upon fear. It is partly the terror of the unknown and partly, as I have said, the wish to feel that you have a kind of elder brother who will stand by you in all your troubles and disputes. ... A good world needs knowledge, kindliness, and courage; it does not need a regretful hankering after the past or a fettering of the free intelligence by the words uttered long ago by ignorant men.|Bertrand Russell|Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects}}
==Influence on philosophy==
It would be difficult to overstate Russell's influence on modern philosophy, especially in the [[English language|English]]-speaking world. While others were also influential, notably, Frege, Moore, and Wittgenstein, more than any other person, Russell made analysis the dominant approach to philosophy. Moreover, he is the founder or, at the very least, the prime mover of its major branches and themes, including several versions of the philosophy of language, formal logical analysis, and the philosophy of science. The various analytic movements throughout the last century all owe something to Russell's earlier works.
Russell's influence on individual philosophers is singular, and perhaps most notably in the case of [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], who was his student between [[1911]] and [[1914]]. It should also be observed that Wittgenstein exerted considerable influence on Russell, especially in leading him to conclude, much to his regret, that mathematical truths were trivial, tautological truths. Evidence of Russell's influence on Wittgenstein can be seen throughout the [[Tractatus]], which Russell was responsible for having published. Russell also helped to secure Wittgenstein's [[doctorate]] and a faculty position at [[Cambridge]], along with several fellowships along the way. However, as previously stated, he came to disagree with Wittgenstein's later linguistic and analytic approach to philosophy, while Wittgenstein came to think of Russell as "superficial and glib," particularly in his popular writings. Russell's influence is also evident in the work of [[A. J. Ayer]], [[Rudolph Carnap]], [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[W. V. Quine]], and a number of other philosophers and logicians.
Some see Russell's influence as mostly negative, primarily those who have been critical of Russell's emphasis on science and logic, the consequent diminishment of metaphysics, and of his insistence that ethics lies outside of philosophy. Russell's admirers and detractors are often more acquainted with his pronouncements on social and political matters, or what some (e.g., [[Ray Monk]]) have called his "[[journalism]]," than they are with his technical, philosophical work. Among non-philosophers, there is a marked tendency to conflate these matters, and to judge Russell the philosopher on what he himself would certainly consider to be his non-philosophical opinions. Russell often cautioned people to make this distinction.
Russell left a large assortment of writing. Since adolescence, Russell wrote about 3,000 words a day, in long hand, with relatively few corrections; his first draft nearly always was his last draft, even on the most complex, technical matters. His previously unpublished work is an immense treasure trove, and scholars are continuing to gain new insights into Russell's thought.
==Russell's activism==
Political and social [[activism]] occupied much of Russell's time for most of his long life, which makes his prodigious and seminal writing on a wide range of technical and non-technical subjects all the more remarkable.
Russell remained politically active to the end, writing and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes. Some maintain that during his last few years he gave his youthful followers too much license and that they used his name for some outlandish purposes that a more attentive Russell would not have approved. There is evidence to show that he became aware of this when he fired his private secretary, [[Ralph Schoenman]], then a young firebrand of the radical left.
===Pacifism, war and nuclear weapons===
While never a complete [[pacifism|pacifist]] (in 'The Ethics of War', an article published in 1915, Russell stated that colonial wars were legitimate where the side with the stronger culture could put the land to better use), Russell opposed British participation in [[World War I]]. As a result, he was first fined, then lost his professorship at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and was later imprisoned for six months. In 1943 Russell called his stance "relative political pacifism"&mdash;he held that war was always a great [[evil]], but in some particularly extreme circumstances (such as when [[Adolf Hitler]] threatened to take over Europe) it might be a lesser of multiple evils. In the years leading to [[World War II]], he supported the policy of [[appeasement]]; but by 1940 he acknowledged that in order to preserve democracy, [[Hitler]] had to be defeated.
Russell was a prominent opponent of nuclear weapons. On [[November 20]], [[1948]], in a public speech at [[Westminster School]], addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers by suggesting that a preemptive nuclear strike on the [[Soviet Union]] was justified. Russell argued that the threat of war between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] would enable the United States to force the Soviet Union to accept the [[Baruch Plan]] for international atomic energy control. (Earlier in the year he had written in the same vein to [[Walter W. Mar
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}} {{cite web
| last = Shafer | first = Nancy Imelda
| year = 2005
| title = ee cummings
| url = http://www.empirezine.com/spotlight/cummings/cummings.htm
| accessdate = 2005-04-17
}}
*{{note|Kennedy2}} p. 295, Kennedy (1980)
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<title>East River</title>
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<comment>It's a [[strait]], not an [[estuary]]; there's no fresh water source (as does the [[Hudson River]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the East River in [[New York City]]. For other uses, see [[East River (disambiguation)]].''
{{main|Geography and environment of New York City}}
[[Image:Waterways New York City Map Julius Schorzman.png|thumbnail|right|350px|'''New York City waterways:''' 1. [[Hudson River]], 2. [[East River]], 3. [[Long Island Sound]], 4. [[Newark Bay]], 5. [[Upper New York Bay]], 6. [[Lower New York Bay]], 7. [[Jamaica Bay]], 8. [[Atlantic Ocean]]]]
[[Image:Brooklyn_Manhattan_Williamsburg_Bridges.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Southern view of the Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Williamsburg bridges (front to back), seen from the East River.]]
[[Image:Wpdms terra east river.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|The East River is shown in red on a satellite photo of New York City]]
The '''East River''' is a tidal [[strait]] in [[New York City]] connecting [[Upper New York Bay]] on its south end to [[Long Island Sound]] on its north end. It separates [[Long Island]] (including the boroughs of [[Queens]] and [[Brooklyn]]) from the island of [[Manhattan]] and [[the Bronx]].
In reference to its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the ''Sound River''.
The river is spanned by eight [[bridge]]s, which from north to south are:
*[[Throgs Neck Bridge]]
*[[Bronx-Whitestone Bridge]]
*[[Hell Gate Bridge]]
*[[Triborough Bridge]]
*[[Roosevelt Island Bridge]] (east channel only)
*[[Queensboro Bridge]]
*[[Williamsburg Bridge]]
*[[Manhattan Bridge]]
*[[Brooklyn Bridge]].
Historically, the lower portion of the river (separating Manhattan from Brooklyn) was one of the busiest and most important channels in the world, particularly during the first three centuries of New York City's history. The [[Brooklyn Bridge]], opened in 1883, was the first bridge to span the river, replacing frequent ferry service. (Some passenger ferry service remains between Queens and Manhattan.)
A total of thirteen [[tunnel]]s run under the East River. Two of them, the [[Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel]] and [[Queens-Midtown Tunnel]], carry automobile traffic. One carries inter-city and commuter railroad traffic connecting to [[New York Penn Station]]. The remaining ten carry [[East River Subway Tunnels|subway traffic]].
The [[Bronx River]] drains into the East River in the northern section of the strait.
North of [[Ward's Island]], it is joined by the [[Bronx Kill]]. Along the east of Ward's Island, at approximately the strait's midpoint, it narrows into a channel called [[Hell Gate]], which is spanned by both the [[Triborough Bridge]] and the [[Hell Gate Bridge]]. On the south side of Ward's Island, it is joined by the [[Harlem River]].
[[Newtown Creek]] on Long Island drains into the East River, forming part of the boundary between Queens and Brooklyn.
The East River contains a number of [[island]]s, including:
*Upper section
**[[Riker's Island]]
**[[North Brother Island]]
**[[South Brother Island]]
*Lower Section
**[[Ward's Island]] and [[Randall's Island]] (joined by [[land reclamation|landfill]])
**[[Roosevelt Island]]
**[[U Thant Island]] (Belmont Island)
==See also==
*[[List of New York rivers]]
*[[Geography and environment of New York City]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eastrivernyc.org East River page from the Greater Astoria Historical Society]
*[http://www.licboathouse.org LIC Community Boathouse site for free paddling on the East River]
*[http://www.astoriawaterfront.org Western Queens waterfront information page]
{{New York City}}
[[category:East River|*]]
[[he:&#1504;&#1492;&#1512; &#1488;&#1497;&#1505;&#1496;]]
[[pt:Rio East]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Existentialism</title>
<id>9593</id>
<revision>
<id>42061765</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>A-moll9</username>
<id>805314</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Existentialism before 1970 */ Pensées was published posthumus, and therefor it is wrong to say he published it. (see the article on Pascal to verify)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{original research}}
'''Existentialism''' is a [[philosophical movement]] that views human [[existence]] as having a set of underlying themes and characteristics, such as anxiety, dread, freedom, awareness of death, and consciousness of existing. Existentialism is also an outlook, or a perspective, on life that pursues the question of the meaning of life or the meaning of existence. It is this question that is seen as being of paramount importance, above both scientific and other philosophical pursuits.
The Danish philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (1813-1855), the "father of existentialism," asserted that "truth is subjectivity": human beings can be understood only from the inside, in terms of their lived and experienced reality and dilemmas, not from the outside, in terms of a biological, psychological, or other scientific theory of human nature. Existentialism emphasizes action, freedom, and decision as fundamental to human existence and is fundamentally opposed to the [[rationalism|rationalist]] tradition and to [[positivism (philosophy)|positivism]]. That is, it argues against definitions of human beings either as primarily rational, knowing beings who relate to reality primarily as an object of [[knowledge]] or whose action can or ought to be regulated by rational principles, or as beings who can be defined in terms of their behavior as it looks to or is studied by others. More generally it rejects all of the Western rationalist definitions of Being in terms of a rational principle or essence or as the most general feature that all existing things share in common. Existentialism tends to view human beings as subjects in an indifferent, objective, often ambiguous, and "absurd" universe in which meaning is not provided by the natural order, but rather can be created, however provisionally and unstably, by human beings' actions and interpretations.
Human beings are exposed to or, to use the philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]]'s phrase, "thrown" into, existence. Existentialists consider being thrown into existence as prior to, and the horizon or context of, any other thoughts or ideas that humans have or definitions of themselves that they create. This is part of the meaning of the assertion of the philosopher [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], one of the founders of existentialism, "existence is prior to essence." Existentialism conceives of [[Being]] itself as something that can only be understood through and in relation to these basic characteristics of human existence.
In terms of the existence and relevance of God, there are three schools of existentialist thought: atheistic existentialism ([[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]), [[Christian existentialism]] ([[Kierkegaard]]) and a third school, agnostic existentialism, which proposes that whether God exists or not is irrelevant to the issue of human existence - God may or may not exist ([[Heidegger]]).
Although there are certain common tendencies among existentialist thinkers, there are major differences and disagreements among them, and not all of them even affiliate themselves with or accept the validity of the term "existentialism", which was coined by [[Gabriel Marcel]] and popularized especially by Sartre. In German the phrase ''Existenzphilosophie'' (philosophy of existence) is also used.
== Overview ==
Existentialism was inspired by the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] and the [[Germany|German]] philosophers [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Edmund Husserl]], and [[Martin Heidegger]]. It became popular in the mid-[[20th century]] through the works of the French writer-philosophers [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]] whose versions of existentialism are set out in a popular form in Sartre's [[1946]] ''L'Existentialisme est un humanisme'', translated as ''[[Existentialism is a Humanism]]''.
Kierkegaard, [[Karl Jaspers]], and [[Gabriel Marcel]] pursued theological versions of existentialism, most notably [[Christian existentialism]]. Other theological existentialists include [[Paul Tillich]], [[Miguel de Unamuno]], and [[Martin Buber]]. Moreover, one-time [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Nikolai Berdyaev]] developed a philosophy of Christian existentialism in his native [[Russia]], and later in [[France]], in the decades preceding [[World War II]].
[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] and [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] are also important influences on the development of existentialism (although not direct precursors) because the philosophies of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were written in response or opposition to Hegel and Schopenhauer, respectively.
==Major concepts in existentialism==
Existentialism differentiates itself from the modern Western rationalist tradition extending from [[Descartes]] to [[Husserl]] by rejecting the idea that the most certain and pr
|
regard was the formulation of the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]] by [[Motoo Kimura]].
===Heredity===
[[Image:DNA123.png|thumb|right|110px|A section of a DNA molecule]]
Gregor Mendel first proposed a gene-based theory of inheritance, discretizing the elements responsible for heritable traits into the fundamental units we now call genes, and laying out a mathematical framework for the segregation and inheritance of variants of a gene, which we now refer to as alleles.
Later research identified the molecule [[DNA]] as the genetic material, through which traits are passed from parent to offspring, and identified genes as discrete elements within DNA. Though largely faithfully maintained within organisms, DNA is both variable across individuals and subject to a process of change or [[mutation]].
Non-DNA based forms of heritable variation exist, which may change the way in which genes are expressed or maintained. The processes that produce these variations leave the genetic information intact and are often reversible. This is called [[epigenetic inheritance]] and may include phenomena such as [[DNA methylation]], [[prion]]s, and [[structural inheritance]]. Investigations continue into whether these mechanisms allow for the production of specific beneficial heritable variation in response to environmental signals. If this were shown to be the case, then some instances of evolution would lie outside of the typical Darwinian framework, which avoids any connection between environmental signals and the production of heritable variation.
Many organisms reproduce by [[sex|sexual reproduction]], which involves [[meiosis|meiotic]] [[recombination]] followed by independent [[Mendelian inheritance#Mendel.27s law of segregation|assortment]] of chromosomes and the joining of the gametes - usually egg and sperm.
===Mechanisms of evolution===
Evolution consists of two basic types of processes: those that introduce new genetic variation into a population, and those that affect the frequencies of existing variation. "Variation proposes and selection disposes." [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1151]
The mechanisms of evolution include mutation, linkage, heterozygosity, recombination, gene flow, population structure, drift, natural selection, and adaptation.
These mechanisms of evolution have all been observed in the present and in evidence of their existence in the past. Their study is being used to guide the development of new medicines and other health aids such as the current effort to prevent a [[H5N1]] (i.e. bird flu) pandemic. <ref>The use of evolutionary principles to guide disease diagnosis and drug development with respect to bird flu (i.e. H5N1 virus) [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no10/05-0644.htm]</ref>
====Mutation====
{{main|Mutation}}
The ultimate source of all genetic variation is mutations. They are permanent, transmissible changes to the [[genetic material]] (usually [[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) of a [[cell (biology)|cell]], and can be caused by "copying errors" in the genetic material during [[cell division]] and by exposure to [[Radioactive decay|radiation]], chemicals, or [[virus (biology)|viruses]]. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into ''germline mutations'' that occur in the [[gamete]]s and thus can be passed on to progeny, and ''somatic mutations'' that often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause [[cancer]].
[[image:dna-split.png|thumb|left|120px|Mutation occurs because of a small number of errors that occur during DNA replication]]
Mutations that are not affected by natural selection are called [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|neutral mutations]]. Their frequency in the population is governed entirely by genetic drift and gene flow. It is understood that a species' genome, in the absence of selection, undergoes a steady accumulation of neutral mutations. The [[probable mutation effect]] is the proposition that a gene that is not under selection will be destroyed by accumulated mutations. This is an aspect of [[genome degradation]].
Not all mutations are created equal; simple point mutations (substitutions), which comprise the vast majority of genetic variation, usually can only alter the function or level of expression of existing genes. [[Gene duplication]]s, which may occur via a number of mechanisms, are believed to be the major mechanism for the introduction of new genes; most genes belong to larger "families" of genes derived from a common ancestral gene (two genes from a species that are in the same family are dubbed "[[paralog]]s"). Finally, large chromosomal rearrangements (like the fusion of two chromosomes in the chimp/human common ancestor that produced human chromosome 2) almost invariably result in a speciation event.
====Linkage and heterozygosity====
Genetic variation cannot move perfectly freely through the population from one generation to the next. Deviations from a random distribution of alleles (a population where alleles are truly independently assorted and gametes randomly joined) may appear in the form of decreased [[heterozygosity]] - that is, the fraction of the population which has one copy of each allele. Low heterozygosity may result from [[inbreeding]] populations. High heterozygosity is usually a product of some forms of [[balancing selection]] (see below).
A second significant restraint on alleles appears in the form of genetic linkage, where alleles that are nearby on a chromosome tend to be propagated together. This tendency may be measured by comparing the co-occurrence of two alleles, usually quantified as [[linkage disequilibrium]] (LD). A set of alleles that are often co-propagated is called a [[haplotype]]. Strong haplotype blocks are associated with high LD, and can be a product of strong positive selection or rapid demographic changes.
====Recombination====
{{Main|Evolution of sex}}
This haplotype structure is the result of limited rates of recombination combined with drift or selection. It is the random assortment of chromosomes and meiotic recombination that allow mutations that have arisen on the same chromosome to be propagated in the population independently. This allows bad mutations to be purged and beneficial mutations to be retained more efficiently than in asexual populations.
Recombination is mildly mutagenic, which is one of the proposed reasons why it occurs with limited frequency. Recombination also breaks up gene combinations that have been successful in previous generations, and hence should be opposed by selection. However, recombination could be favoured by negative frequency-dependent selection (this is when rare variants increase in frequency) because it leads to more individuals with new and rare gene combinations being produced.
When alleles cannot be separated by recombination (for example in mammalian [[Y chromosome]]s), we see a reduction in [[effective population size]], known as the [[Hill Robertson effect]], and the successive establishment of bad mutations, known as [[Muller's ratchet]].
====Gene flow====
[[Gene flow]] (also called ''gene admixture'' or simply ''migration'') is introduction of variation into a population from an outside population. It is the only mechanism whereby two populations can become closer genetically while increasing their variation. Migration of one population into an area occupied by a second population can result in gene flow. Gene flow operates when geography and culture are not obstacles. When gene flow is impeded by non-geographic obstacles, the situation is termed [[reproductive isolation]] and is considered to be the hallmark of [[speciation]].
One source of genetic variation is [[gene transfer]], the movement of genetic material across species boundaries, which includes [[horizontal gene transfer]], [[antigenic shift]], and [[reassortment]]. Viruses can transfer genes between species [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:tpICVNWaTbgJ:non.fiction.org/lj/community/ref_courses/3484/enmicro.pdf+sex+evolution+%22Horizontal+gene+transfer%22+-human+Conjugation+RNA+DNA&hl=en]. Bacteria can incorporate genes from other dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can have [[plasmid]]s "set up residence separate from the host's genome" [http://www2.nau.edu/~bah/BIO471/Reader/Pennisi_2003.pdf].
"Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many [[gene]]s among diverse [[species]] including across the boundaries of [[phylogenetic]] 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes." [http://opbs.okstate.edu/~melcher/MG/MGW3/MG334.html]
Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research" therefore "biologists [should] use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use [the] metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes." [http://www.esalenctr.org/display/confpage.cfm?confid=10&pageid=105&pgtype=1]
"Using single [[gene]]s as [[phylogenetic marker]]s, it is difficult to trace organismal [[phylogeny]] in the presence of HGT [horizontal gene transfer]. Combining the simple [[coalescence]] model of [[cladogenesis]] with rare HGT [horizontal gene transfer] events suggest there was no single [[last common ancestor]] that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of [[life]]. Each contemporary [[molecule]] has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule [[cenancestor]]. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times." [http://web.uconn.edu/gogarten/articles/TIG2004_cladogenesis_paper.pdf]
====Population structure====
:''Main article [[Population genetics
|
>72</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>115</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>187</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>108</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>20</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>18</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>27</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>45</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>8</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1976-77'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''31'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''14'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''23'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''15'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>1976-77</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>Kansas City Blues</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>CHL</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>42</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>30</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>39</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>69</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>41</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1977-78'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''72'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''17'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''24'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''41'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''27'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-35'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1978-79'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''74'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''31'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''64'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''95'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''14'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-15'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''7'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1979-80'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''79'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''38'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''56'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''94'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''24'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''+3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''7'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1980-81'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''78'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''31'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''73'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''104'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''47'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''+9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''11'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''8'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''18'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1981-82'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''74'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''30'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''62'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''92'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''70'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''11'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''15'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''18'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1982-83'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''75'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''24'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''60'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''84'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''24'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''5'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1983-84'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''79'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''41'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''66'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''107'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''43'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''14'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''11'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''8'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1984-85'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''76'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''30'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''73'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''103'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''27'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1985-86'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''80'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''34'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''68'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''102'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''34'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''+10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''16'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''19'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''7'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''14'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''21'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''17'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1986-87'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''64'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''20'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''52'''</td>
|
ot;besieged for 18 years" &mdash; alluding to the [[Berlin Airlift]] and other events &mdash; but critics said he had tacitly accepted that [[East Berlin]] was part of the [[Eastern bloc|Soviet bloc]], despite the fact that all of Berlin was under four-power occupation and technically part of neither West nor East Germany.
Today there exist commemorative sites in Berlin, such as the John F. Kennedy German-American School Berlin, and the John F. Kennedy Institute for North American Studies of the [[Free University Berlin]].
==Background==
''See main article: [[History of Berlin]]''
Germany's capital, [[Berlin]], was deep within the area controlled after [[World War II]] by the [[Soviet]] army. Initially governed jointly in four sectors controlled respectively by the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]], tensions of the [[Cold War]] escalated until the Soviet forces implemented the [[Berlin Blockade]], which the Western allies relieved with the dramatic [[Berlin Airlift|airlift]].
Afterward, the sectors controlled by the [[NATO]] Allies became an effective [[exclave]] of [[West Germany]], completely surrounded by East Germany. From [[1952]], the border between East and West was closed everywhere but Berlin. Hundreds of thousands of East Germans [[defection|defected]] to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain which threatened East Germany with economic collapse.
In [[1961]] the East German government under [[Walter Ulbricht]] erected a barbed wire barrier around the Soviet sector of Berlin. Though it was officially called the '''''antifaschistischer Schutzwall''''' (anti-[[fascist]] protective barrier), it was universally known as the [[Berlin Wall]] and its primary purpose was to keep East German citizens from crossing to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, and buildings were demolished to create a "death zone" in view of East German guards armed with [[machine gun]]s. In [[1962]] the first attempted escape leading to a fatal shooting took the life of [[Peter Fechter]].
The West, including the United States, was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the wall. On [[July 25]], [[1961]], President Kennedy, with the April [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs fiasco]] yet fresh, broadcast a Presidential address. Kennedy insisted that America would defend West Berlin, asserting its [[Potsdam Agreement|Four-Power rights]], even while making it clear that challenging the Soviet presence in Germany was not possible.
=="Jelly doughnut" urban legend==
A common [[urban legend]] asserts that Kennedy made an embarrassing grammatical error by saying "Ich bin ein Berliner," referring to himself not as a citizen of [[Berlin]], but as a common pastry.
The legend stems from a play on words with ''[[Berliner (pastry)|Berliner]]'', the name given to a [[doughnut]] variant filled with jam or plum sauce that is thought to have originated in Berlin. While this "jelly doughnut" is indeed common to Berlin, it is only known as ''Pfannkuchen'' (pan cake) in the city and nearby regions. Other parts of Germany picked up the pastry under the name of ''Berliner Pfannkuchen'', shortened to ''Berliner''.
According to the legend, Kennedy should have said "Ich bin Berliner" to mean "I am a person from Berlin." By adding the [[indefinite article]] ''ein'', it is claimed, his statement implied he was a non-human Berliner, thus "I am a jelly doughnut." In the legend, the statement was followed by uproarious laughter. Those retelling the legend will often claim to know someone who knows a German who misunderstood the statement due to its grammatical error.
This urban legend is unknown in Germany, where Kennedy's speech is considered a landmark in the country's postwar history. The term "Berliner" for the pastry sounds strange to people in Berlin. Common [[souvenir]]s in Berlin depicting a doughnut covered with the inscription "Ich bin ein Berliner," which are often thought by American tourists to refer to this legend, represent little more than a play on words.
There is no grammatical error in Kennedy's statement; the indefinite article does not change its meaning. In [[German language|German]], statements of profession are often made without an article, thus "Ich bin Arzt" (I am a doctor). However, "Ich bin ein Arzt," while less common, is not a mistake. Conversely, with statements of origin "Ich bin ein Brandenburger" (I am from Brandenburg) is more common than "Ich bin Brandenburger"; however, both are correct. Although both forms may be used interchangeably, the article "ein" can be used as a form of emphasis: it implies "just one of many." As Kennedy did indeed stress the "ein", the usage was, according to German [[linguist]] [[Jürgen Eichhoff]] [http://urbanlegends.about.com/cs/historical/a/jfk_berliner_2.htm], "not only correct, but the one and only correct way of expressing in German what the President intended to say."
During the speech, Kennedy used the phrase twice. After he said it the first time, he was applauded, and added jokingly, "I appreciate my interpreter translating my German!" This statement was followed by laughter and applause. He also used the phrase to end his speech.
The origins of the legend are obscure, but it was perpetuated in [[1988]] when [[William J. Miller]] erroneously wrote in an [[April 30]]th ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article:
<blockquote>''What they did not know, but could easily have found out, was that such citizens never refer to themselves as "Berliners." They reserve that term for a favorite confection often munched at breakfast. So, while they understood and appreciated the sentiments behind the President's impassioned declaration, the residents tittered among themselves when he exclaimed, literally, "I am a jelly-filled doughnut."''</blockquote>
Although it has no basis in fact, the legend has since been repeated by other reputable media outlets, such as the [[BBC]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3167810.stm] and [[The Guardian]] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/story/0,16391,1566039,00.html], and in several books about Germany written by English-speaking authors.
Furthermore, the speech had been reviewed by journalist [[Robert Lochner]], who was educated in Germany, and had been practiced several times in front of numerous Germans, including Berlin Mayor [[Willy Brandt]]. The many video and audio recordings of the event show only enthusiastic applause following the statement. Kennedy did, however, pronounce the sentence with a strong [[Boston accent]], reading from his note "ish bin ein Bear''lee''ner," which he had written out phonetically.
== The phrase and the legend in fiction and popular culture==
The British music group [[Pop Will Eat Itself]] varied the phrase to "Ich bin ein Ausländer" ("I am a foreigner") as the title and chorus of a [[1994]] song expressing solidarity with immigrants and condemning anti-immigrant hate speech as inevitably stoking violence, insisting that "freedom of
expression doesn't make it all right."
In the [[X-Files]] episode "Schizogeny" Mulder erroneously tells a teen with the poster "Ich bin ein Ausländer" that when Kennedy made the statement "Ich bin ein Berliner" he was was saying "I am a cocktail sausage" leading to the response "Who's Kennedy?".
The phrase is also alluded to in an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled "Little Girl in the Big Ten." [[Lisa Simpson]] is reluctant to enroll in a [[gymnastics]] school in order to help her pass her [[physical education]] class at Springfield Elementary. However, after having been inspired by a vision of President Kennedy while knocked unconscious, she awakes to claim "Ich bin ein Gymnast!". [[Homer Simpson]] then remarks that she must have dreamed about [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] again. Also, in another episode of the series, [[Abraham Simpson]] has a flashback in which he hears John F. Kennedy say the phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner," prompting Abraham to yell "He's a [[Nazi]]!" shortly before tackling Kennedy. Throughout the series, [[Joe Quimby|Mayor "Diamond Joe" Quimby]], a caricature of the Kennedys, uses variations of the phrase multiple times when addressing large crowds ("Ich bin ein Springfield Swap Meet patron!"). During one episode, when German investors purchased the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, Mayor Quimby said: "Ich bin ein Springfielder" during the opening ceremony speech.
British comedian [[Eddie Izzard]] talks about John Kennedy's "I am a doughnut" speech in his stand-up act "[[Dress to Kill]]".
In [[Terry Pratchett]]'s book ''[[Monstrous Regiment (novel)|Monstrous Regiment]]'' (p. 328 of the hardcover), [[Samuel Vimes]] makes a speech in which he says "Ze chzy Brogocia proztfik!", intending this to mean "I am a citizen of [[Borogravia]]!". What he actually says is "I am a cherry pancake!".
The legend also appears in ''[[Berlin Game]],'' the first book in [[Len Deighton]]'s ''Game, Set, Match'' [[trilogy]].
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.jfklibrary.org/j062663.htm Text and audio of Kennedy's speech]
*[http://www.copperas.com/jfk/berliner.htm Pundits: Jelly Doughnuts for Brains?]
*[http://www.serve.com/shea/germusa/jfkberl.htm A German teacher's article on the phrase]
*[http://urbanlegends.about.com/cs/historical/a/jfk_berliner_2.htm About.com article]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/09/interviews/hosseini/ A Berliner recalls hearing the statem
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tes and helping to popularize amateur "wireless." In 1909, he founded the Wireless Association of America, which had 10,000 members within a year. The same year he also founded [[Modern Electrics]], the world's first magazine about electronics. In 1912, Gernsback said that he estimated 400,000 people in the U.S. were involved in [[amateur radio]].
He held 80 patents by the time he died.
See also:
* [[Science fiction editors]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hugogernsback.com/ ''Forecast'' -- posthumous issues and other material about Hugo Gernsback]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rescue/sfeature/wireless.html PBS Rescue at Sea], which contains information about Gernsback's role in early amateur radio
[[Category:1884 births|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Magazine publishers (people)|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:People from Luxembourg|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[cs:Hugo Gernsback]]
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[[eo:Hugo GERNSBACK]]
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[[ja:ヒューゴー・ガーンズバック]]
[[lb:Hugo Gernsback]]
[[nl:Hugo Gernsback]]
[[ru:Гернсбек, Хьюго]]
[[sv:Hugo Gernsback]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of computing hardware</title>
<id>13636</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41752973</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:20:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.226.192.200</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{history of computing}}
'''Computing hardware''' has been an essential component of the process of calculation and [[data storage]] since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared. The earliest computing hardware was probably some form of [[tally stick]]; later recording devices include the [[Phoenicia]]n [[clay]] shapes which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, in containers. These seem to have been used by the [[merchant]]s, [[accountant]]s, and [[government official]]s of the time.
Devices to aid computation have evolved from simple recording and counting devices through the [[abacus]], the [[slide rule]], and more recent electronic [[computers]]. Even today, an experienced [[abacus]] user using a device designed hundreds of years ago can sometimes complete basic calculations more quickly than an unskilled person using an electronic [[calculator]] &mdash; though for more complex calculations, computers out-perform even the most skilled human.
This article presents the major developments in the '''history of computing hardware''' and attempts to put them in context. For a detailed timeline of events, see the [[Timeline of computing|computing timeline]] article. The [[history of computing]] article is a related overview and treats methods intended for pen and paper, with or without the aid of tables.
== Earliest devices ==
[[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|framed|[[China|Chinese]] and others frustrated with counting on their fingers invented the [[Abacus]].]]
Humanity has used devices to aid in computation for millennia. One example is a device for establishing [[equality (mathematics)|equality]] by [[weight]]: the classic [[Weighing scale|scales]], later used to symbolize equality in justice. Another is simple [[enumeration]]: the checkered cloths of the counting houses served as simple [[data structures]] for enumerating stacks of coins, by weight. A more arithmetic-oriented machine is the [[abacus]]. One of the earliest machines of this type was the [[Chinese abacus]].
== First mechanical calculators ==
[[Image:Gears large.jpg|left|thumb|100px|[[Gears]] are at the heart of mechanical devices like the [[Curta calculator]].]]
In 1623 [[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first mechanical calculator and thus became the father of the computing era. Since his machine used techniques such as cogs and gears first developed for clocks, it was also called a 'calculating clock'. It was put to practical use by his friend [[Johannes Kepler]], who revolutionized astronomy.
Machines by [[Blaise Pascal]] (the [[Pascaline]], 1642) and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]] (1671) followed. Around 1820, [[Charles Xavier Thomas]] created the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer, that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. It was mainly based on Leibniz's work. Mechanical calculators, like the base-ten [[addiator]], the [[comptometer]], the [[Monroe calculator|Monroe]], the [[Curta]] and the [[Addo-X]] remained in use until the 1970s.
[[Image:Mechanical-Calculator.png|thumb|right|Mechanical calculator from 1914]]
[[Leibniz]] also described the [[binary numeral system]], a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including [[Charles Babbage]]'s machines of the 1800s and even [[ENIAC]] of 1945) were based on the harder-to-implement decimal system.
[[Image:Pocket slide rule.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[slide rule]], a basic mechanical calculator, facilitates multiplication and division.]]
[[John Napier]] noted that [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]] of numbers can be performed by [[addition]] and [[subtraction]], respectively, of [[logarithms]] of those numbers. Since these [[real number]]s can be represented as [[distance]]s or [[interval (mathematics)|intervals]] on a line, the [[slide rule]] allowed multiplication and division operations to be carried significantly faster than was previously possible. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically inclined professional workers, until the invention of the [[pocket calculator]]. The engineers in the [[Apollo program]] to send a man to the [[moon]] made many of their calculations on slide rules, which were accurate to 3 or 4 [[significant figure]]s.
While producing the first logarithmic tables Napier needed to perform many multiplications and it was at this point that he designed [[Napier's bones]].
==1801: punched card technology ==
In [[1801]], [[Joseph Marie Jacquard|Joseph-Marie Jacquard]] developed a [[loom]] in which the pattern being woven was controlled by [[punched cards]]. The series of cards could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark point in programmability.
[[Image:Hollerith.jpg|right|framed|[[Herman Hollerith]] invented a tabulating machine using [[punch cards]] in the [[1880s]].]]
In [[1833]], [[Charles Babbage]] moved on from developing his [[difference engine]] to developing a more complete design, the [[analytical engine]] which would draw directly on Jacquard's punch cards for its programming.
In [[1890]] the [[United States Census Bureau]] used [[punch card]]s and sorting machines designed by [[Herman Hollerith]] to handle the flood of data from the decennial [[census]] mandated by the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of [[International Business Machines|IBM]]. IBM developed punch card technology into a powerful tool for business data processing and produced an extensive line of specialized [[unit record equipment]]. By [[1950]] the IBM card had become ubiquitous in industry and government. The warning printed on most cards, "Do not fold, spindle or mutilate," became a motto for the post-[[World War II]] era.
[[Leslie Comrie]]'s articles on punch card methods and [[W.J. Eckert]]'s publication of ''Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation'' in [[1940]], described techniques which were sufficiently advanced to solve differential equations, perform multiplication and division using floating point representations, all on punched cards and [[plug-board]]s similar to those used by telephone operators. The [[Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau]], [[Columbia University]] performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in [[computing]].
In many computer installations, punched cards were used until (and after) the end of the [[1970s]]. For example, science and engineering students at many universities around the world would submit their programming assignments to the local computer centre in the form of a stack of cards, one card per program line, and then had to wait for the program to be queued for processing, compiled, and executed. In due course a printout of any results, marked with the submitter's identification, would be placed in an output tray outside the computer center. In many cases these results would comprise solely a printout of error messages regarding program syntax ''etc.'', necessitating another [[Code and fix|edit-compile-run cycle]].
Punched cards are still used and manufactured in the current century, and their distinctive dimensions (and 80-column capacity) can still be recognised in forms, records, and programs around the world.
== 1835&ndash;1900s: first programmable machines ==
The defining feature of a "[[Turing machine|universal computer]]" is [[computer programming|programmability]], which allows the computer to emulate any other calculating machine by changing a stored sequence of instructions.
In [[1835]] [[Charles Babbage]] described his [[analytical engine]]. It was the plan of a general-purpose programmable computer, employing punch cards for input and a steam engine for power. One crucial invention was to use gears for the function served by the beads of an abacus. In a real sense, computers all contain automatic abacuses (technically called the [[ALU]] or [[floating-point unit]]).
His initial idea was to use punch-cards to control a machine that could calculate and print logarithmic tables with huge precision (a specific purpose machine). B
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*[[Marian exiles]]
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*[[Baptists]]
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**[[Church of North India]]
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== External links ==
*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org Anglican Communion] - The official site of the Anglican Communion.
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/ What it means to be an Anglican: Official CofE site]
*[http://www.anglicansonline.org Anglicans Online] - An unofficial site of the Anglican Communion. One of the biggest resources of Anglicanism in the world.
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/pc/ Anglican historical texts]
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/anglicanism.htm Anglicanism: ReligionFacts.com] - Articles on Anglican history, ritual, and organisation, plus an image gallery of people and places.
*[http://www.anglicanpeacemaker.org.uk/ Anglican Pacifist Fellowship] - The official site of the Anglican Church's peace movement.
{{Anglican Churches}}
[[Category:Anglicanism|*]]
[[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
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[[es:Anglicanismo]]
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[[fr:Anglicanisme]]
[[ko:성공회]]
[[ia:Anglicanismo]]
[[it:Anglicanesimo]]
[[he:אנגליקניות]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[ja:聖公会]]
[[no:Den anglikanske kirke]]
[[pl:Anglikanizm]]
[[ru:Англиканская церковь]]
[[fi:Anglikaanikirkko]]
[[scn:Chiesa Anglicana]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]]
[[vi:Anh giáo]]
[[zh:聖公會]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Airplane (disambiguation)</title>
<id>1215</id>
<revision>
<id>40510443</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T02:28:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revisions for style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''airplane''' typically refers to any [[fixed-wing aircraft]], also known internationally as ''aeroplane''.
'''Airplane''' has several additional meanings:
* ''[[Airplane!]]'', a 1980 American comedy film
* [[Jefferson Airplane]], often referred to as "Airplane", an American rock music band
{{Wiktionarypar2|aeroplane|airplane}}
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Athens</title>
<id>1216</id>
<revision>
<id>41947106</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:37:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.9.28.30</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 20th century architecture in Athens */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about the capital of Greece. For other uses see [[Athens (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Town GR
|name = Athens
|name_local = Αθήνα
|image_coa =
|image_map = GreeceAttica.png
|periph = [[Attica]]
|prefec = [[Athens Prefecture|Athens]]
|province =
|population = 745,514
|population_as_of = 2001
|population_ref = [http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1100_SAP_1_monimos2001.htm source]
|pop_dens = 19,133
|area = 39.0
|elevation = 70
|lat_deg = 38
|lat_min = 0
|lat_hem = N
|lon_deg = 23
|lon_min = 43
|lon_hem = E
|postal_code = 10x xx, 11x xx, 120 xx
|area_code = 210
|licence = Y, Z
|mayor = Theodoros Mpehrakis
|website = [http://www.cityofathens.gr www.cityofathens.gr]
}}
'''Athens''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αθήνα ''Athína'' [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/a'θina/}}) is the [[capital]] of [[Greece]] and one of the most famous cities in the world. Modern Athens is a large and cosmopolitan city; Ancient Athens was a powerful [[city-state]] and renowned centre of learning. It was named after its goddess from ancient Greek mythology, [[Athena]]. Athens is located at {{coor dm|38|00|N|23|43|E|}} (38.00°, 23.72°).
The metropolitan area of Athens is home to some 3.9 million people. Currently the city (metropolitan area) is growing northwards and eastwards across [[Attica]] (Greater Athens). Athens is the dominant centre of economic, cultural, and political life in Greece today.
Ancient Athens has often been called the cradle of [[Western civilization]] due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the 4th and 5th centuries BC. This heritage has left it with a number of ancient buildings, monuments and artworks, the most famous being the [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis]], widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Classical Greek art and architecture. Many of these cultural landmarks were renovated for the [[2004 Olympic Games]].
[[image:ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Parthenon]] seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west]]
==Name==
{{nameWikt}}
In [[ancient Greek|ancient]] [[Greek language|Greek]], the name of Athens was '''{{Polytonic|&#7944;θ&#8134;ναι}}'''-''Athenai'', plural of {{Polytonic|&#7944;θηνά}}-''Athene'', the Greek name of the Goddess [[Athena]]. The city's name was used in the plural like those of {{Polytonic|Θ&#8134;βαι}}-''Thebai'' ([[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]) and {{Polytonic|Μυκ&#8134;ναι}}-''Mykenai'' ([[Mycenae]]) because it consisted of several parts. In the [[19th century]], this name was formally re-adopted as the city's name. Since the official abandonment of [[Katharevousa]] Greek in the [[1970s]], however, the popular form ''Athínai'' has become the city's official name. See also a list of [[Names of European cities in different languages#A|alternative names]] for Athens.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Athens]]''
[[Image:Map Athens MKL1888.png|thumb|1888 German map of Athens]]
Athens was the leading city in Greece during the greatest period of Greek civilization during the [[1st millennium BC]]. During the "Golden Age" of Greece (roughly [[500 BC]] to [[300 BC]]) it was the world's leading cultural, commercial and intellectual center, and indeed it is in the ideas and practices of ancient Athens that what we now call "Western civilization" has its origins. In 431 B.C, Athens went to war with another city-state, Sparta. Due to its losses during a plague, Athens was defeated by Sparta, and its walls were pulled down.
The schools of philosophy were closed in AD [[529]] by the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]], which disapproved of the schools' [[Paganism|pagan]] thinking. During the Byzantine era, Athens gradually lost a great deal of status and, by the time of the [[Crusades]], it was already reduced to a provincial town. It faced a crushing blow between the 13th and 15th centuries, when the city was fought over by the Greek Byzantines and the 'French' and Italian [[Crusaders]]. In [[1458]] the city fell to the [[Ottoman Empire]] under Sultan [[Mehmed II|Mehmet II the Conqueror]]. As the Emperor entered the city, he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a [[firman]] (imperial decree) that Athens' ruins not be disturbed, on pain of death. The [[Parthenon]] was in fact converted into a [[mosque]] and therefore preserved.
Despite the Sultan's good intentions to preserve Athens as a model Ottoman provincial capital, the city's population went into decline and conditions worsened as the Ottoman Empire declined from the late 17th Century. As time went by, the Ottoman administration slackened its care for Athens' old buildings; the Parthenon/Mosque was used as a warehouse for ammunition during the Venetian siege of Athens in [[1687]], and consequently the temple was severely damaged when a Venetian [[projectile|shell]] targeted the site and set off several casks of gunpowder stored inside the Parthenon/Mosque.
The Ottoman Empire relinquished control of Athens after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. The city was inhabited by just around 5,000 people at the time it was adopted as the capital of the newly established Kingdom of Greece on [[18 September]] [[1834]]. During the next few decades the city was rebuilt into a modern city adhering mainly to the [[neoclassical architecture|Neoclassic style]]. In [[1896]] Athens became the first host city of the revived [[1896 Summer Olympics]].The next large expansion occurred in the [[1920s]] when suburbs were created to house Greek refugees from [[Asia Minor]]. During [[World War II]] the city was occupied by [[Germany]] and fared badly in the war's later years. After the war the city started to grow again, this time into a concrete jungle, seeing the near total destruction of its Neoclassical heritage.
==Location and setting==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ZAPPION.jpg|thumb|left|The Zappion; a conference centre designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] in 1870, is surrounded by extensive gardens]] -->
[[Image:Mk01n101.jpg|thumbnail|The Academy, designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] and completed in 1885, is flanked by the National Library and the University of Athens.]]
Along with its numerous suburbs, Athens has a population of about 3.9 million representing approximately one third of the total population of Greece. Athens grew rapidly in the years following [[World War II]] until ca. 1980 and suffered from overcrowding and traffic congestion. Greek entry into the [[EEC]] in [[1981]] brought new, unprecedented investment into the city along with problems of increasingly worsening industrial congestion and air pollution. Throughout the 1990s the city's authorities undertook a series of decisive measures in order to combat the smog which used to form over the city, particularly during the hottest days of the year. Even though Athens is considered the most polluted capital in Europe, those m
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rotesters were helped along by policemen, who took the opportunity to go on strike for higher wages. Finally the government gave into the protesters demands and revoked the water contract. It was an unprecedented moment of unity for the Bolivian social movements against neoliberal reform. <sup>[[#Footnotes|1]]-[[#Footnotes|2]]</sup>
During [[February 2003]], four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and widespread corruption inside the government mounted again in a police revolt that nearly toppled the government of President Sánchez de Lozada; several days of unrest left more than 30 persons dead. The government stayed in power but remained unpopular. Widespread protests broke out in October and revealed deep dissatisfaction with the government. Approximately 80 people died during the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from office on [[October 17]]. In a constitutional transfer of power, Vice President [[Carlos Mesa]] assumed the Presidency and promised to hold a binding referendum on the export of Bolivian natural gas. The referendum took place on [[July 18]], and the electorate voted overwhelmingly in favor of development of the nation's [[hydrocarbon]] resources. Mesa planned to detail the government's development plans in legislation to be introduced to Congress. Mesa enjoyed popularity with the Bolivian public, but he faced the same difficulties &mdash; social divisions, a radical opposition committed to extra-parliamentary action, and an ongoing fiscal deficit &mdash; as the previous administration.
On [[June 6]], [[2005]], President [[Carlos Mesa]] was forced to enter his resignation as over 80,000 protestors surrounded the presidential palace and [[Congress of Bolivia|congress]] demanding nationalization of the gas industry. The indigenous protestors argued that indigenous communities, two thirds of Bolivia's population, were not adequately represented in government. Consequently, the ''campesinos'' and indigenous population, angered by the inequitable dividends paid by the multinational petroleum companies, set up roadblocks throughout the country and placed all the major cities under siege. With Carlos Mesa stranded in the Palace of Plaza Murillo, the congress and senate closed, protestors roamed through the streets of La Paz threatening to drive the "corbateros" (those clothed in suits and ties) from the country.
A civil war was averted when, on [[June 9]], 157 members of congress converged on the Casa de La Libertad in [[Sucre]] and nominated [[Eduardo Rodríguez]], then serving as President of the Supreme Court, to the Presidency of the Republic. President Rodriguez, to avert a civil war, promised to hold new [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|national elections]] in [[December 2005]].
''See also: [[Bolivian Gas War]]''
===Evo Morales, Movement toward Socialism ===
The [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 Bolivian presidential election]] was held on [[December 18]], [[2005]]. The two main candidates were [[Evo Morales|Juan Evo Morales Ayma]] of the [[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]] (MAS) Party, and [[Jorge Quiroga]], leader of the [[Democratic and Social Power]] (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|Acción Democrática Nacionalista]] (ADN) Party.
Morales won the election with 54 percent of the votes, an [[absolute majority]]. He was sworn in on [[January 22]] [[2006]] for a five-year term. For the first time since the Spanish Conquest in the early 1500's, Bolivia, a nation with a majority indigenous population, has an indigenous leader, and Morales has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over.
His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the U.S. drug war in South America and its heavy emphasis on coca crop eradication. The US-led "Plan Dignidad" (dignity plan), which seeks to reduce coca production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for coca leaves and promote export of such products as the [[coca tea drink]].
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Bolivia]]''
[[Image:Central La Paz Bolivia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Paz]] is the political capital of Bolivia.]]
The [[1967]] constitution, amended in [[1994]], provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]], whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of Bolivia|Supreme Court]] and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes.
Bolivia's nine [[Departments of Bolivia|departments]] received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors, known as prefects, on [[18 December]] [[2005]]. [[:Category:Cities in Bolivia|Bolivian cities and town]]s are governed by directly elected [[mayor]]s and councils. Municipal elections were held on [[5 December]] [[2004]], with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services.
The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. Elected president [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] resigned in [[October 2003]], and was substituted by vice-president [[Carlos Mesa]]. Mesa was in turn replaced by chief justice of the Supreme Court [[Eduardo Rodríguez]] in [[June 2005]]. Six months later, on December 18, 2005, the Socialist indigenous leader, Evo Morales, was elected president, to the general dismay of the United States government.
Legislative Branch: The ''Congreso Nacional'' ([[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]]) has [[Bicameralism|two chambers]]. The ''[[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia|Cámara de Diputados]]'' ([[Chamber of Deputies]]) has 130 members, elected to five-year terms by proportional representation. The ''[[Senate of Bolivia|Cámara de Senadores]]'' ([[Senate|Chamber of Senators]]) has 27 members (three per department), elected to five-year terms by proportional representation.
== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Bolivia]]''
Bolivia is divided into nine [[department]]s, or ''departamentos'':
* [[Chuquisaca Department|Chuquisaca]] ([[Sucre]])
* [[Cochabamba Department|Cochabamba]] ([[Cochabamba]])
* [[Beni Department|Beni]] ([[Trinidad, Bolivia|Trinidad]])
* [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]] ([[La Paz]])
* [[Oruro Department|Oruro]] ([[Oruro]])
* [[Pando Department|Pando]] ([[Cobija]])
* [[Potosí Department|Potosí]] ([[Potosí]])
* [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]] ([[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]])
* [[Tarija Department|Tarija]] ([[Tarija]])
Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or ''provincias'', cantons, or ''cantones'', and municipalities, or ''municipalidades'', which handle local affairs.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Bl-map.png|right|framed|Map of Bolivia]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Bolivia]]''
Bolivia is a landlocked nation. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay river. The west of Bolivia is situated in the [[Andes]] mountain range, with the highest peak, [[Nevado del Sajama]] at 6,542 [[metre]]s (21,463&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The west of the country is formed by a highland plateau, the [[Altiplano]]. The east of the country is lowland, and covered by the Amazonian [[rainforest]]s. [[Lake Titicaca]] is located on the border between Bolivia and [[Peru]]. In the west, in the department of Potosí, lies the [[Salar de Uyuni]], the world's largest salt flats.
Major cities are [[La Paz]], [[Santa Cruz, Bolivia|Santa Cruz de la Sierra]] and [[Cochabamba, Bolivia|Cochabamba]].
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bolivia]]''
Bolivia remains the poorest country in South America, in part, due to high corruption levels.
Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled [[USD]] $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% a year and inflation is expected to be between 3% and 4% in [[2002]] (it was under 1% in [[2001]]).
Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past two decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in silver prices during the early 1980’s which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining industries. The second major economic blow came from the end of the Cold War in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a “democratic” regime in power through financial support. The third economic blow came from the U.S. sponsored eradication of the Bolivian coca crop which was used in 80% of the worlds’ cocaine production at its peak. Along with the reduction in the coca crop came a huge loss of income to the Bolivian economy, particularly the peasant classes.
Since [[1985]], the Government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating poverty. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. The most important structural changes
|
ablink">''"Elvis" redirects here. For other persons and things named Elvis, see [[Elvis (disambiguation)]]''.</span>
{{Infobox Celebrity |
name = Elvis Presley |
image = ElvisPresley-OneNight.jpg |
caption = Elvis Presley's ''One Night Only'' |
birth_date = [[January 8]], [[1935]] |
birth_place = [[Tupelo, Mississippi]], [[USA]] |
death_date = [[August 16]], [[1977]] |
death_place = [[Memphis, Tennessee]], [[USA]] |
occupation = [[Singer]], song producer and [[actor]]
|}}
<!-- Please see Trivia section for details on Elvis' middle name. If you dispute the factuality of that section and his middle name, please discuss it on the talk page before making changes to the article. -->
'''Elvis Aaron Presley''' ([[January 8]], [[1935]] – [[August 16]], [[1977]]), also known as '''"The King of Rock 'n' Roll"''' was an [[United States|American]] [[singer]], song producer and [[actor]].
Elvis remains a popular and enigmatic star and his legend has only grown stronger since his early death at age 42. During an active recording career that spanned more than two decades, Presley set and broke many records for both concert attendance and sales. Some of those records have since been matched and/or broken by other artists, but some of his records will probably remain unbroken and/or unmatched forever. He has had more than 120 singles in the US top 40, across various musical genres, with over 20 reaching number one. Elvis' ongoing worldwide popularity has culminated in his global sales reaching an estimated one billion records to date[http://www.elvis.com/elvisology/elvis_overview.asp].
==An American Phenomenon==
According to ''Rolling Stone'' magazine "it was Elvis who made rock 'n' roll the international language of pop." A [[PBS]] documentary once described Presley as "an American music giant of the 20th century who singlehandedly changed the course of music and culture in the mid-1950s." [http://www.pbs.org/americanrootsmusic/pbs_arm_saa_elvispresley.html]. His recordings, dance moves, attitude and clothing came to be seen as embodiments of rock and roll. His music was heavily influenced by African-Americans who could not gain national attention because of their race. Presley sang both hard driving [[Rockabilly|rockabilly]] and [[Rock and Roll|rock and roll]] dance songs and [[ballad]]s, laying a commercial foundation upon which other rock and roll musicians would build. [[African American|African-American]] performers like [[Little Richard]] and [[Chuck Berry]] came to national prominence after Presley's acceptance among mass audiences of [[White race|white]] teenagers, even though his music was strongly influenced by some of those same African-American musicians. Singers like [[Jerry Lee Lewis]], the [[Everly Brothers]], [[Buddy Holly]], [[Roy Orbison]] and others immediately followed in his wake, leading [[John Lennon]] to observe later, "Before Elvis, there was nothing."
[[Image:Elvis-MississippiAlabamaFair1956.jpg|thumb|300px|Elvis Presley at the Mississippi-Alabama State Fair, 1956]]
Teenagers came to Presley's concerts in unprecedented numbers. When he performed at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair in 1956 a hundred [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]smen surrounded the stage to control crowds of excited fans. When municipal politicians began denying permits for Presley appearances teens piled into cars and traveled elsewhere to see him perform. It seemed as if the more adults tried to stop it, the more teenagers across North America insisted on having what they wanted. When adult programmers announced they would not play Presley's music on their radio stations (some because [[God]] told them it was sexually suggestive [[Devil]] music, others saying it was Southern "[[nigger]]" music) the economic power of that generation became evident when they tuned in any radio station playing Elvis records. In an industry already shifting to all-music formats in reaction to [[television]], profit-conscious radio station owners learned hard lessons when sponsors bought advertising time on new rock and roll stations reaching enormous markets at night with [[clear channel]] signals from [[Mediumwave|AM]] broadcasts.
During the 1950s post-[[World War II|WWII]] economic boom in the United States, many parents were able to give their teenaged children much higher weekly [[allowance]]s, signalling a shift in the buying power and purchasing habits of teens. During the 1940s [[Bobby soxer|bobby soxer]]s had idolized [[Frank Sinatra]] but the buyers of his records were mostly between the ages of eighteen and twenty-two. Presley triggered a juggernaut of demand for his records by near-teens and early teens aged ten and up.
Presley's overwhelming appeal was to girls. Many boys adopted his look to attract them. Along with Elvis' ''[[ducktail]]'' haircut, the demand for black slacks and loose, open-necked shirts resulted in new lines of clothing for teenaged boys. In 1956 America, birthday and Christmas gifts were often music or even Elvis related. A girl might get a pink portable 45 rpm record player for her bedroom. Meanwhile American teenagers began buying newly available portable [[transistor radio]]s [http://www.medill.northwestern.edu/medill/inside/medill_voices/how_transistor_radios_and_web_and_newspapers_and_hifi_radio_are_alike.html] and listened to [[rock 'n' roll]] on them (helping to propel that fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units sold in 1955 to 5,000,000 units by the end of 1958). Teens were asserting more independence and Elvis Presley became a national symbol of their parents' consternation.
Presley's impact on the American youth consumer market was noted on the front page of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' on December 31, 1956 when future [[Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting|Pulitzer Prize]]-winning business journalist [[Louis M. Kohlmeier]] wrote, "Elvis Presley today is a business," and reported on the singer's record and merchandise sales (this may have been the first time a journalist described an entertainer as a business). Half a century later, historian Ian Brailsford ([[University of Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]) commented, "The phenomenal success of Elvis Presley in 1956 convinced many doubters of the financial opportunities existing in the youth market." [http://www.kingston.ac.uk/cusp/Lectures/Brailsfordpaper.doc]
===Birth & Childhood===
Elvis Aron Presley was born in a two-room house in [[Tupelo, Mississippi|East Tupelo]], [[Mississippi]] to Vernon Elvis Presley and [[Gladys Love Smith]]. His twin brother, Jesse Garon, was [[stillbirth|stillborn]]. Elvis was given the middle name of Aron, with only one A, so he would always be a part of his brother Jesse Garon. Aron/Garon. The surname Presley was Anglicized from the German Pressler during the Civil War. His ancestor Johann Valentin Pressler emigrated to North America in 1710. Pressler first settled in New York, but later moved to the South. He was of mostly [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3559331.stm] and [[English people|English]] descent; the family also has [[Native American]], [[German people|German]], [[South African]] and [[Jewish Americans|Jewish]] (from a great-grandmother of Gladys) roots.
Elvis Presley was raised both in East Tupelo and later in Memphis, Tennessee, where his family moved when he was 13. In 1949 the family moved to Lauderdale Courts public housing development which was near musical and cultural influences like Beale Street, Ellis Auditorium and the Popular Tunes record store along with the Sun Studio about a mile away.
Elvis took up the guitar and practiced in the basement laundry room at Lauderdale Courts. He played gigs in the malls and courtyards of the Courts with other musicians who lived there. After high school he worked at Precision Tool Company, then drove a truck for the Crown Electric Company.
===The Sun recordings===
{{main|Elvis Presley's Sun recordings}}
In the summer of [[1953]], Presley paid $4 to record the first of two double-sided demo [[Cellulose acetate|acetate]]s at [[Sun Records|Sun Studios]], "My Happiness" and "That's When Your Heartaches Begin" which were popular [[ballad]]s at the time. According to the official Presley website, Elvis reportedly gave it to his mother as a much-belated birthday present. [[Sun Records]] founder [[Sam Phillips]] and assistant Marion Keisker heard the discs and called him in June [[1954 in music|1954]] to fill in for a missing ballad singer. Although that session was not productive, Sam Phillips put Elvis together with local musicians [[Scotty Moore]] and [[Bill Black]] to see what might develop. During a rehearsal break on [[July 5]], [[1954]], Elvis began singing a [[blues]] song written by [[Arthur Crudup]] called "[[That's All Right]]". Phillips liked the resulting record and released it as a 78RPM single backed with Elvis' hopped-up version of [[Bill Monroe]]'s [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] song "[[Blue Moon Of Kentucky]]." Memphis radio station [[WHBQ]] began airing it two days later, the record became a local hit and Elvis began a regular touring schedule which expanded his fame beyond Tennessee.
[[Country music]] star [[Hank Snow]] arranged to have Presley perform at [[Nashville|Nashville's]] ''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'' and his performance was received well by the audience. Nonetheless, one of the show's executives was far from impressed and hinted that Presley should give up his music. However, since that time many singers ([[Garth Brooks]] among them) have commented that one of the greatest thrills of playing the Opry is that they played on the same stage as Presley.
He continued to tour the [[U.S. South]]. On [[October 16]], [[1954]], he made his first appearance on ''[[Louisiana Hayride]]'', a radio broadcast of live country music in [[Shrev
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the net result is a continuously decreasing and more diffused set of pollution sources. At the same time, no particular operator is ever forced to spend money without a return of value from commercial sale of assets.
== References ==
*Berresheim, H.; Wine, P.H. and Davies D.D., (1995). Sulfur in the Atmopshere. In Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmophere, ed. H.B. Singh. Van Nostran Rheingold.
*Brimblecombe, P (1996). Air Composition and Chemistry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45366-6
*Rodhe, H., et. Al. “The Global Distribution of Acidifying Wet Deposition.” Environmental Science & Technology. v. 36 no. 20 (October 15 2005) p. 4382-8.
* Seinfeld, John H.; Pandis, Spyros N (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics - From Air Pollution to Climate Change. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-17816-0
== See also ==
*[[List of environment topics]]
[[Category:Environmental chemistry]]
[[Category:Precipitation]]
[[Category:Causes of extinction]]
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[[da:Sur nedbør]]
[[de:Saurer Regen]]
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[[es:Lluvia ácida]]
[[fr:Pluie acide]]
[[gl:Choiva ácida]]
[[id:Hujan asam]]
[[he:גשם חומצי]]
[[ms:Hujan asid]]
[[nl:Zure regen]]
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[[pl:Kwaśny deszcz]]
[[pt:Chuva ácida]]
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[[uk:Злива]]
[[zh:酸雨]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aborigines</title>
<id>3264</id>
<revision>
<id>15901623</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-15T03:31:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CJLL Wright</username>
<id>259138</id>
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<comment>change redirect from [[Indigenous peoples]] to [[Aborigine]] disambig page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aborigine]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Acephali</title>
<id>3266</id>
<revision>
<id>35200469</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T23:01:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
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<comment>added template-wiktionary</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
"'''Acephali'''" (from the [[Greek language]] ''a-'', "without," and ''kephale'', "head") is a term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in particular to a strict [[monophysite]] sect that separated itself, in the end of the [[5th century]], from the rule of [[Peter III of Alexandria|Peter Mongus]], the [[patriarch]] of [[Alexandria]], and remained "without king or bishop" till they were reconciled by [[Markos II of Alexandria|Mark II]] ([[799]] - [[819]]).
The term is also used to denote ''clerici vagantes'', ''i.e.'' clergy without title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow. Certain persons in [[England]] during the reign of King [[Henry I of England]] were called Acephali because they had no lands by virtue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord.
The name is also given to certain legendary races described by ancient naturalists and
geographers as having no heads, their mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified with [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Blemmyae]].
:''(from an old encyclopedia)''
[[de:Akephalie]]
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<page>
<title>Anthony Stewart Head</title>
<id>3268</id>
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<id>41700911</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:46:51Z</timestamp>
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<ip>24.136.99.194</ip>
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<comment>minor edits</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Rogh.jpg|thumb|Anthony Head playing the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] from [[BBC]]'s ''[[Little Britain]]'']] -->
'''Anthony Stewart Head''' (born [[20 February]], [[1954]]) is an [[England|English]] [[actor]] in [[theatre]], [[television]] and [[film]]s but most widely known for his role as [[Rupert Giles]] in the [[United States|American]] television drama series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'', the role of [[Frank N Furter]] in the London revival of ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'', and a series of [[coffee]] [[advertising|commercials]] in [[Britain]] and the [[United States|US]]. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], outside of ''Buffy'', he is more commonly credited simply as '''Anthony Head''', or occasionally '''Tony Head'''.
Born in [[Camden Town]], [[London]]; his father was Seafield Head, the founder of '''Verity Films''', and his mother was the actress Helen Shingler. His older brother is actor and singer, [[Murray Head]].
Anthony was educated at the [[London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art]] (LAMDA). His first role was in the musical ''[[Godspell]]''; this led to roles in television on both [[BBC]] and [[ITV]], one of his earliest being in the series ''[[Enemy at the Door]]'' (ITV, 1978 - 1980) and then a series of twelve coffee commercials with [[Sharon Maughan]] for [[Nescafé]] ''Gold Blend'' (re-edited to include the US brand name, [[Taster's Choice]]), which was what brought him fame.
Success on the stage and a number of brief appearances on American TV such as the short-lived ''[[VR-5]]'' led to accepting the role of [[Rupert Giles]] in ''Buffy'' in 1997, for which he lived full-time in the United States during the late 1990s and early 2000s, although his family continued to live in the UK.
In 2002, he returned to Britain and co-starred in the [[BBC Two]] television series ''[[Manchild]]'', concerning four fifty-something men who spend all of their time talking about sex. He also appeared in guest roles in various other dramas, such as ''[[Silent Witness]]'', ''[[Murder Investigation Team]]'', and ''[[Spooks]]''.
He also stars as the Prime Minister in popular BBC comedy sketch show ''[[Little Britain]]'' since 2003, and guest starred in several episodes of the 2004 series of popular drama ''[[Monarch of the Glen]]''.
Outside of television work, he has released an [[album (music)|album]] of songs with musician [[George Sarah]] entitled ''Music for Elevators''. Early in his career he provided vocals for some of the tracks on the [[Chris de Burgh]] album ''The Getaway'' and the reading from [[The Tempest]] on ''Don't Pay The Ferryman''.
He appeared in a special webcast version of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' in a story called ''[[Death Comes to Time]]'' in which he plays the [[Time Lord]] Valentine, and guest starred in the ''[[Excelis Rising|Excelis Trilogy]]'', a series of audio adventures produced by [[Big Finish Productions]].
He has been confirmed as guest-starring in an episode of the 2006 season of the television series of ''Doctor Who'', playing Mr. Finch in the story tenatively titled ''[[School Reunion (Doctor Who)|School Reunion]]''. He has recently appeared in an episode of '''Hotel Babylon''', a BBC drama set in a hotel, in which he played a suicidal man who recovers and lands a music deal.
There is persistent talk of Head starring in a ''Buffy'' spin-off series for the BBC entitled ''[[Ripper (television)|Ripper]]'', but so far nothing has come of this.
He is currently filming a pilot for a new show entitled, "Him and us" for American TV channel, [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]].
==External links==
* [http://www.anthonyhead.org/ Official website]
* {{imdb name|id=372117|name=Anthony Stewart Head}}
* [http://www.buffyguide.com/players/giles.shtml Biographies of Giles and Head] at "Buffyguide"
* [http://www.anthonyhead.net/ Coming soon] New Anthony Head site
[[Category:1954 births|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:British actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:English actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:Buffy the Vampire Slayer cast and crew|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
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<page>
<title>Anthony Clement of Saxony</title>
<id>3269</id>
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<id>39567078</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T09:21:45Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthony Clement of Saxony''', '''''HM Anton Clemens Theodor Maria Joseph Johann Evangelista Johann Nepomuk Franz Xaver Aloys Januar King of Saxony''''', ([[December 27]], [[1755]] - [[June 6]], [[1836]]) was the son of [[Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony]] and Maria Antonia of Bavaria, and succeed his brother [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] as King of Saxony in 1827.
In 1781, he married Maria Carolina Princess of [[Savoy]] & [[Sardinia]] (1764-1782) and, after widowing, he remarried in 1787 to Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria (1767-1827), daughter of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]. Four children were born from the second marriage, but none arrived to be two years-old.
He was succeeded by his nephew, [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] |
title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
years= 1827&ndash;1836|
after= [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|Frederick Augustus II]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]
[[Category:1755 births]]
[[Category:1836 deaths]]
[[de:Anton (Sachsen)]]
[[nl:Anton van Saksen]]
[[ru:Антон благосклонный]]
[[zh:安东 (萨克森)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert, Duke of Saxony</title>
<id>3270</id>
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<id>39393909</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:52:49Z</timestamp>
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<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Several rulers of Saxony bore
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red from the collective.
* [[Inspector Gadget]].
* [[Geordi La Forge]] from ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', who was born blind and uses optical implants combined with a removable unit called a VISOR, to see. In the films, the VISOR was replaced with permanent optical implants, and later by regenerated biological eyes.
* [[Jean-Luc Picard]] from ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', whose natural [[heart]] was irreparably damaged in a bar fight when he was younger and replaced with an [[artificial heart]], which was later replaced twice due to due defect or damage. However, the artificial heart is not a major part of his identity and is seldom mentioned, so that most viewers would not consider him a cyborg. He is also at one point briefly conscripted into the Borg (see above).
* A cyborg secret agent was featured in the "''Fumble on the One''" episode of ''[[Misfits of Science|The Misfits of Science]]''.
* [[Adam (Buffyverse)|Adam]] in the series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'', who is part human, part demon and part robot.
* In ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' the [[Evangelion (mecha)|Evangelion]] [[mecha]] are not robots but clones of aliens outfitted with cybernetics to allow their human pilots (or a backup computer, as in the Mass Production Eva series) to control them.
* ''[[Cyborg (film)|Cyborg]]'', a film featuring [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], tells the story of a post-apocalyptic Earth due to a nuclear disaster, and has a female cyborg as a central character.
==In Computer and Video Games==
* [[Gray Fox (Metal Gear)|Gray Fox]], the cyborg [[ninja]] in ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]''.
*The [[Strogg]], a race of cybernetic warriors from the first person shooters ''[[Quake II]]'', ''[[Quake 4]]'' and the upcoming ''[[Enemy Territory: Quake Wars]]''.
* [[Cyrax]], [[Sektor]], and [[Smoke (Mortal Kombat character)|Smoke]], fighters in the fighting video game series ''[[Mortal Kombat]]''.
* N. Gin of the ''[[Crash Bandicoot]]'' video game series.
* [[Bunnie Rabbot]] in the ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)|Saturday morning TV series]] and [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie)|US comic series]].
* In ''[[Final Fantasy Legend III]]'' characters could shift between [[life|organic]], [[cybernetic]] and [[robotic]] states by eating meat or installing parts.
* The [[Combine (Half-Life 2)|Combine]] from ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' use [[transhuman]] cyborgs and biomechanical "synths" as their main weapons.
* Many characters from [[Deus Ex]]
* [[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]] and the [[SPARTAN II]] [[supersoldier]]s from the ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' and ''[[Halo 2]]''.
*The [[player character]]s as well as some monsters in the ''[[System Shock]]'' games.
*[[Grobyc]], a cybernetic assassin in ''[[Chrono Cross]]''. He will joint the player's party after being defeated.
*[[Megaman.EXE]] from the ''[[Megaman Battle Network]]'' series, aka Hub Hikari (Hikari Saito), brother to Lan. He was born human, but converted into a [[NetNavi]] form by Yuiichiro Hikari, due to his human body having the incurable HBD ailment. This would make him a data-based cyborg, as opposed to the standard machine/organic composite.
==Other==
* Metro Man, mascot for [[Metro North Railroad]].
* ''Oil-Fired Stanley Price'' -- in the [[filk]] of that title by [[Zander Nyrond]].
* The [[Phyrexians]], from [[Magic: The Gathering]].
==See also==
* [[Robots in literature]]
* [[Archive of fictional things]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Fictional cyborgs| {{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caesar salad</title>
<id>6880</id>
<revision>
<id>41241861</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T00:35:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hamster Sandwich</username>
<id>330868</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix para.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Caesar salad''' is a traditional [[salad]] often prepared tableside. It is sometimes termed the "king" of salads.
==History==
Caesar salad was invented in [[1924]] by [[Caesar Cardini]] or one of his associates. Cardini was an [[Italian]] [[restaurateur]] and [[chef]] in [[Tijuana]], [[Mexico]], living in [[San Diego]] but working in Tijuana to avoid the restrictions of [[Prohibition]]. There are several stories about the specifics of the salad's creation, none of which can be confirmed. The most common is that it resulted from a [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]] rush depleting the kitchen's supplies, and Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of a table-side tossing. Another is that it was created for a group of [[Hollywood]] stars after a long weekend party.
Most stories say that Cardini had to whip something up from what he had left in his kitchen, and the Caesar salad was the result. The ''[[Hotel César]]'' still exists in downtown Tijuana, where the original dish is still served.
A Caesar salad is generally made from the following ingredients:
* [[romaine lettuce]]
* [[crouton]]s
* [[lemon]] juice
* [[olive oil]]
* [[Parmesan cheese]]
* raw, [[coddling|coddled]] or hard-boiled [[Egg (food)|egg yolks]]
* fresh-ground [[black pepper]]
* [[Worcestershire sauce]]
The original Caesar salad [[recipe]] did not contain [[anchovy|anchovies]]; the slight anchovy flavor came from [[Worcestershire sauce]]. Most modern recipes now include anchovies as chopped fillets or in paste form.
[[Julia Child]], in her book, "From Julia Child's Kitchen," describes how she ate a Caesar's salad at Cardini's restaurant as a child in 1924, and many years later she sought out Cardini's daughter, Rosa Cardini, in order to discover the original recipe. Rosa Cardini's recipe differs from those that appear in the links below. In particular, the [[lettuce]] is served whole on the plate. It is meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers. It calls for coddled eggs but no [[anchovies]].
Some recipes include one or more of [[Culinary mustard|mustard]], [[avocado]], [[tomato]], [[bacon]] bits, [[garlic]] cloves, or [[anchovy|anchovies]]. Many restaurants offer a more substantial salad by topping a Caesar salad with grilled [[chicken]], grilled salmon or [[shrimp]].
The Cardini family licensed the original recipe early on, and bottled Cardini Caesar salad dressing is still available, sans anchovies. Many other bottled versions are sold now, as well, including [[Morgan's]] and [[Newman's Own]].
== Raw egg and salmonella ==
Many people are concerned about the safety of Caesar salads due to the potential risk of infection by [[salmonella]] bacteria often found in raw eggs. The original recipe incorporated a raw egg, and later versions used briefly-cooked [[coddled egg]]s. Even a switch to chopped, hard-boiled eggs has not prevented sporadic outbreaks of salmonella from restaurant-made Caesar salads. Today, many recipes omit the egg and produce a Caesar [[vinaigrette]].
== Caesar salad humor ==
Riffing on the popular idea that Caesar salad was invented by or for [[Julius Caesar]], the Canadian comedy duo of [[Wayne and Shuster|Johnny Wayne]] and [[Wayne and Shuster|Frank Shuster]] (both now deceased) did at least two versions of a sketch in which Caesar's chef (played by Shuster) prepares the ingredients of a modern Caesar salad, and says, "You shall name this salad, Caesar". After a moment of pondering, Caesar (played by Wayne) replies (in one version of the sketch), "I name it... ''[[coleslaw]]''." Brutus offers his knife to the cook when the cook disparages the new name.
Another joke, an atrocious [[pun]] is set up by bandits invading Julius Caesar's birthday party seeking lettuce. Caesar shows them a truly beautiful salad. The bandit chief replies, "We come to seize your salad, not to praise it!"
In the video game ''[[Civilization IV]]'', Julius Caesar greets the player with the statement "Welcome to Rome, (player name). Care for some salad? I made it myself."
In an episode of the [[television series]] ''[[Bewitched]]'', Esmeralda (played by [[Alice Ghostley]]) attempts to use magic to make a Caesar salad and accidentally conjures Julius Caesar.
In the movie ''[[Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', the eponymous characters' history teacher claims that the only thing they've learned in his class is that "Caesar... was a salad dressing dude."
== See also ==
* [[List of foods named after people]]
== External links ==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://textism.com/article/626 Salad (Caesar)] - A classic recipe, also notable in making use of the phrase ".&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;à la Pete Townshend (without all the booze and deafness, of course)."
* [http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/cooking/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_14245,00.html Alton Brown's version] - [[Alton Brown]] (of the cooking show ''[[Good Eats]]'') provides this recipe that attempts to be true to the original.
* [http://www.descubrebajacalifornia.com/ruta_gastronomica/ensaladas.htm Ensalada César] at the [[Baja California]] tourism site (in Spanish).
[[Category:Salads]]
[[Category:Eponymous foods]]
[[Category:Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Tijuana]]
[[fr:Salade César]]
[[he:סלט קיסר]]
[[ja:シーザーサラダ]]
[[nl:Caesarsalade]]
[[sv:Caesarsallad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cecilia Beaux</title>
<id>6881</id>
<revision>
<id>41219522</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:43:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deb</username>
<id>1219</id>
</contributor>
<comment>DOB</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cecilia Beaux''' ([[May 1]], [[1855]]&ndash;-[[September 7]],[[1942]]) was an [[United States|American]] society [[portraitist]], in the nature of [[John Singer Sargent]].
She was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], she received the bulk of her art training at the Academie Julien in [[Paris]]. During her ti
|
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Network Computing Devices<br>
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Network Definition Language<br>
Network Device Interface Specification<br>
Network extensible Window System<br>
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[[Network Information Service]] '''DONE'''<br>
Network Information System '''DONE'''<br>
networking<br>
network interface card<br>
network interface controller<br>
network layer<br>
network management<br>
network meltdown<br>
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network number<br>
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Network Operations Center<br>
network redirector<br>
network segment<br>
Network Solutions, Inc.<br>
Network Termination<br>
network, the<br>
Network Time Protocol<br>
network transparency<br>
NetX<br>
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NEW Programming language<br>
[[NeWS]] '''DONE'''<br>
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Nondeterministic Turing Machine<br>
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Non-Maintainer Upload<br>
Non-Maskable Interrupt<br>
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Non Return to Zero Inverted<br>
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Non-Uniform Memory Access<br>
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Non-Uniform Rational B Spline<br>
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Novell, Inc.<br>
Novell NetWare<br>
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[[no-write allocation]] '''DONE'''<br>
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:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/O - Q</title>
<id>11332</id>
<revision>
<id>40683224</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T07:15:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link EuLisp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- '''O - Q''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]
O<br>
O2<br>
Oaklisp<br>
OAP<br>
OATH<br>
Ob-<br>
OBDC<br>
OBE<br>
[[Oberon programming language|Oberon]] '''DONE'''<br>
Oberon-2<br>
Oberon-V<br>
[[The International Obfuscated C Code Contest|Obfuscated C Contest]] '''DONE'''<br>
obi-wan error<br>
OBJ<br>
OBJ0<br>
OBJ2<br>
OBJ3<br>
object<br>
ObjectBroker<br>
ObjectCenter<br>
Object CHILL<br>
object code<br>
Object Compatibility Standard<br>
[[Object Database Management Group]] '''DONE'''<br>
Object Data Management Group (see above)<br>
Objecteering<br>
object identifier<br>
Objectionable-C<br>
[[Objective C]] '''DONE'''<br>
Objective CAML<br>
Objective PASCAL<br>
Object Linking and Embedding<br>
Object Lisp<br>
ObjectLOGO<br>
Object Management Group<br>
Object management system<br>
Object Modelling Technique<br>
Object Oberon<br>
object-orientation<br>
object-oriented<br>
object-oriented analysis<br>
[[object-oriented database]] '''DONE'''<br>
object-oriented design<br>
Object-Oriented Fortran<br>
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Object-Oriented Pascal<br>
object-oriented programming<br>
object-oriented programming language<br>
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[[Object Pascal]]<br>
Object Request Broker<br>
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ODT<br>
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off-by-one error<br>
Office<br>
Office By Example<br>
Office Workstations Limited<br>
off-line<br>
off-line world<br>
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off the trolley<br>
ogg (done)<br>
OHCI<br>
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ohnosecond<br>
OIC<br>
OID<br>
-oid<br>
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OM
|
sentatives to meet, and suggested that the Pope should preside over the meeting. Of course, during the [[Thirty Years' War]] ([[1618]]–[[1648]]), this was not acceptable to the Protestant nations. He also said that armies should be abolished and called for a world court. Though his call to abolish [[army | armies]] was not taken seriously, Emeric Cruce does deserve his place in history through his foresight that international organizations are crucial to solve international disputes.
The statesmen of the time believed no nation could escape war, so they prepared for it.
[[Henry IV of France|King Henry IV's]] Chief Minister, the [[Maximilien de Bethune, duc de Sully |Duke of Sully]], proposed the founding of an alliance of the European nations that was to meet to arbitrate issues and wage war not between themselves but collectively on the Ottoman Turks, and he called it the Grand Design, but was never established.
After [[World War I]], the nations of the world decided to form an international body. [[United States|U.S.]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]] came up with the idea of a "[[League of Nations]]". However, due to political wrangling in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Congress]], the [[United States]] did not join the [[League of Nations]], which was one of the causes of its demise.
When [[World War II]] broke out, the [[League of Nations]] was finished. Yet at the same time, the [[United Nations]] was being formed. On [[January 1]], 1942, [[United States|US]] President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued the "[[Declaration by United Nations]]" on behalf of 26 nations who had pledged to fight against the [[Axis powers]]. Even before the end of the war, representatives of 50 nations met in [[San Francisco]] to draw up the charter for an international body to replace the [[League of Nations]]. On [[October 24]], 1945, the [[United Nations]] officially came into existence, setting a basis for much international law to follow.
Modern international law is often affirmed as the product of modern European civilization.
The seafaring principalities of [[India]] established legal rules for ocean navigation and regional commerce.
The Greek system of independent [[city-state]]s bore a close resemblance to contemporary nation-state system. The [[Aetolian League|Aetolian]] and [[Achaean League|Achaean]] leagues of the [[3rd century BC]] represented early organisational efforts at international cooperation and facilitated the development of arbitration as a dispute settlement technique.
== International legal theory ==
=== Natural law ===
The intellectual seeds of modern international law germinated in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries, when the influence of the [[Catholic Church]] in international affairs gradually weakened. Many early international legal theorists were concerned with [[axiomatic]] truths thought to be reposed in [[natural law]]. Among the early natural law writers, [[Francisco de Vitoria]], [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] professor of [[theology]] at the University of [[Salamanca]], examined the question of [[just war]] and Spanish authority in the [[Americas]]. He did so while [[Spain]] was at the height of its power, after the violent Spanish conquest of [[Peru]] in [[1536]].
=== Eclectic school ===
Central in the development of modern international law was [[Hugo Grotius]] a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[theologian]], [[humanism|humanist]] and [[jurist]]. In his principal work ''De jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres'' ("Three Books on the Law of War and Peace"; [[1625]]), Grotius claimed that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on [[morality]] and [[Divine retribution|divine justice]]. Much of Grotius's content drew from the [[Bible]] and from classical history ([[just war]] theory of [[Augustine of Hippo]]. Drawing also from domestic [[contract law]], he also noted that relations between polities were governed by ''[[jus gentium]]'', the law of peoples, which had been established by the consent of the community of nations. (See ''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'').
The fundamental facets of the Grotian or [[eclectic]] school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became definitive to international law in Europe. These principals were recognised in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] and became the foundation for the treaties of [[Treaty of Osnabrück|Osnabrück]] and [[Treaty of Münster|Münster]].
Another eclectic thinker, [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Christian von Wolff]], contended that the foundation for international community should come as a world superstate (''civitas maxima''), having authority over the component member states. This view was rejected by the [[Swiss]] diplomat [[Emmerich de Vattel]], who favoured a rationale of equality of states as articulated by [[18th century]] natural law. Vattel suggested in his major work ''Le droit des gens'' that the law of nations was comprised of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other.
=== Legal positivism ===
The early positive school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. Among the early positivists was [[Alberico Gentilis]], a professor of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] at [[Oxford]] who used historical examples to posit that positive law (''jus voluntarium'') was determined by general consent. Another professor at Oxford, [[Richard Zouche]], published the first manual of international law in [[1650]].
In the [[18th century]] [[legal positivism]] became popular and found its way into international legal philosophy. The principal figure among 18th century positivists was [[Cornelius van Bynkershoek]], a celebrated Dutch jurist who asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states. A second positivist, [[John Jacob Moser]] was a prolific German scholar who emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. A contemporary German scholar, [[Georg Friedrich von Martens]], published the first systematic manual on positive international law, ''Precis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe''.
The growth of [[nationalism]] and [[Hegelian]] philosophy in the [[19th century]] pushed natural law farther from the legal realm. [[Commercial law]] became nationalised into [[private international law]], distinct from public international law. Positivism narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring [[rationality]] to [[morality]] and [[ethic]]s. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]] marked formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe.
==Branches of international law==
* [[International criminal law]]
* The law pertaining to [[use of force]]
* [[International humanitarian law]]
* [[Law of the sea]]
* [[Diplomatic law]]
* [[Consular law]]
* [[Law of state responsibility]]
* [[International environmental law]]
== Notes and references ==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|1}}Higgins R, ''Problems and process : international law and how we use it'' (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1994) at 16.
#{{note|2}}Greig, D. W., ''International Law'', 2nd edn (Butterworths: London, 1976)
</div>
==See also==
*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Labour Organization]]
*[[Hans Kelsen]]
*[[Saskia Sassen]]
*[[Sources of international law]]
*[[UNIDROIT]]
*[[United Nations]]
*[[List of treaties]]
*[[List of international public law topics]]
''Related topics'': [[international community]], [[world government]], [[nationality]], [[terrorism]], [[environmental agreements]], [[international auxiliary language]], [[state]], [[territorial integrity]], [[Non-Intervention]].
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Labor]]
[[af:Internasionalereg]]
[[bs:Međunarodno pravo]]
[[de:Völkerrecht]]
[[eo:Internacia juro]]
[[es:derecho internacional]]
[[fr:Droit international public]]
[[he:משפט בינלאומי]]
[[ja:国際法]]
[[ka:საერთაშორისო სამართალი]]
[[nl:Internationaal recht]]
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[[pl:Prawo międzynarodowe]]
[[pt:Direito internacional]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>International organization</title>
<id>14832</id>
<revision>
<id>42118288</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.109.89.215</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Global organizations */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the political science journal, see: [[International Organization]]''
An '''international organization''' is an [[organization]] of international scope or character. There are two main types of international organizations:
*international [[intergovernmental]] organizations (IGOs), whose members are [[sovereign states]] or other intergovernmental organizations (like the [[European Union]] and the [[WTO]]).
* and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs), which are private organizations.
Generally and correctly used, the term international organization is used to mean international governmental organizations only. It is in this sense that the term is used in the remainder of this article.
==Legal nature==
Legally speaking, an international organization must be established by a [[treaty]] providing it with [[legal entity|legal recognition]]. International organizations so established are [[subject of international law|subjects of international law]], capable of entering into agreements among themselves or with states. Thus international organizations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupings of states, such as the [[G-8]] and the [[G-77]], neith
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==Biographical sources==
Almost nothing is known about Euclid outside of what is presented in ''Elements'' and his few other surviving books. What little biographical information we do have comes largely from commentaries by [[Proclus]] and [[Pappus of Alexandria]]: he was active at the [[Library of Alexandria|great library in Alexandria]] and may have studied at [[Plato]]'s [[Academe]] in [[Greece]], but his exact lifespan and place of birth are unknown.
In the [[Middle Ages]], writers sometimes referred to him as ''[[Euclid of Megara]]'', confusing him with a Greek [[Socrates|Socratic]] [[philosopher]] who lived approximately one century earlier.
== References ==
* Bulmer-Thomas, Ivor (1971). "Euclid". ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography.''
* Heath, Thomas L. (1956). ''The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements'', Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60088-2.
* Heath, Thomas L. (1981). ''A History of Greek Mathematics'', 2 Vols. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24073-8 / ISBN 0-486-24074-6.
* Kline, Morris (1980). ''Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502754-X.
== External links ==
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/euclid.html Euclid's elements], with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Euclid.html Euclid entry] at the [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/index.html MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]
* [http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/e8ebf8aa9507bdc9.html Library search at WorldCat] for ''The Medieval Latin translation of the Data of Euclid'' by [[Shuntaro Ito]]
* [http://www.eucliduniversity.org Euclid University] for ''The only accredited university actually named after Euclid''
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</page>
<page>
<title>Errol Morris</title>
<id>9332</id>
<revision>
<id>42004863</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:10:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbsrock</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Errol morris.jpg|thumb|200px|Errol Morris]]
'''Errol Morris''' (born [[February 5]], [[1948]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Academy Award]] winning [[documentary film]] director. In 2003'' [[The Guardian]]'' listed him as number seven in their [http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/page/0,11456,1082823,00.html list] of the world's 40 best directors.
==Early life and education==
Morris was born in [[Hewlett, New York]]. In [[1950]], when he was 2 years old, Morris' father died of a heart attack. His mother, a [[Julliard]] graduate, supported Morris and his brothers as a music teacher. In the 10th grade Morris enrolled at the Putney School, a boarding school in Vermont. He began playing the cello, spending a summer in [[France]] studying music under the acclaimed [[Nadia Boulanger]], who was the principal teacher of [[Philip Glass]], who would in turn score ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'', ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' and ''[[The Fog of War]]''. Describing Morris as a teenager, Mark Singer wrote that he "read with a passion the forty-odd 'Oz' books, watched a lot of television, and on a regular basis went with a doting but not quite right maiden aunt ('I guess you'd have to say that Aunt Roz was somewhat demented') to Saturday matinees, where he saw stuff like ''This Island Earth'' and ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'' - horror movies that, viewed again thirty years later, still seem scary to him." <ref>Predilections by Mark Singer ''The New Yorker'' February 2, 1989 "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref>
As an undergrad Morris attended the [[University of Wisconsin]], graduating in [[1969]] with a [[B.A.]] in history. For a brief time Morris held small jobs, first as a cable television salesman and then as a term-paper writer. His unorthodox approach to applying for grad school included, "trying to get accepted at different graduate schools just by showing up on their doorstep." Having unsuccessfully approached both the [[University of Oxford]] and [[Harvard University]], Morris was able to talk his way into [[Princeton University]], where he began studying the history of science, a topic in which he had "absolutely no background." His concentration was on the history of physics, and he was bored and unsuccessful in the prerequisite physics classes he had to take. This, together with his antagonistic relationship with his advisor ("'You won't even look through my telescope.' And his response was 'Errol, it's not a telescope, it's a kaleidoscope.'" <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref>) ensured that his stay at Princeton would be short. He left Princeton in [[1972]], enrolling at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] as a Ph.D. candidate in [[philosophy]]. At Berkeley Morris once again found that he was not well-suited for his subject. "Berkeley was just a world of pedants. It was truly shocking. I spent two or three years in the philosophy program. I have very bad feelings about it," he later said <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref>. He became a regular at the Pacific Film Archive, as Tom Luddy, the director of the archive at the time, later remembered: "He was a [[film noir]] nut. He claimed we weren't showing the real film noir. So I challenged him to write the program notes. Then, there was his habit of sneaking into the films and denying that he was sneaking in. I told him if he was sneaking in he should at least admit he was doing it." <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref>
Losing interest in his studies, Morris visited Plainfield, Wisconson in [[1975]]. While there, he conducted multiple interviews with [[Ed Gein]], the famous [[serial killer]] that ''[[Psycho]]'''s [[Norman Bates]] is based on. He later made plans with [[Germany|German]] [[film director|director]] [[Werner Herzog]], who Tom Luddy had introduced to Morris, to return in the summer of 1975 to secretly open the grave of Gein's mother to test their theory that Gein himself had already dug her up. Herzog arrived on schedule, but Morris had second thoughts and was not there. Herzog did not open the grave. Morris later returned to Plainfield, this time staying for almost a year, conducting hundreds of hours of interviews. Although he had plans of either writing a book or making a film (which he would call ''Digging up the Past''), Morris never completed his Ed Gein project. In the fall of [[1976]], Werner Herzog visited Plainfield again, this time to use the scenery for some shots in his film ''[[Stroszek]]''. After the shooting finished, Herzog handed Morris an envelope full of cash. Morris walked over to the motel window and tossed the envelope out the window into a parking lot. Herzog went out to the parking lot and brought the money back, again offering it to Morris, saying, "Please don't do that again." <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref> Morris accepted the $2,000 and used it to take a trip to Vernon, [[Florida]]. Vernon was nicknamed Nub City because its residents participated in a particularly morbid form of insurance fraud where they deliberately amputate a limb in order to collect the insurance money. "In the hierarchy of nubbiedom, the supremely rewarding self-sacrifice was the loss of a right leg and a left arm, because, so the theory went, 'afterward, you could still write your name and still have a foot to press the gas pedal of your Cadillac.'" <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref> Morris second documentary would be about the town and bear its name, although it makes no mention of Vernon, Florida as Nub City, but instead explores other idiosychracies of the town's residents. Morris made this omission because of the death threats he recieved while doing research; the town's residents were afraid that Morris would reveal their secret.
After spending two weeks in Vernon, Morris returned to Berkeley and began working on a fictional script that he called ''Nub City''. After a few unproductive months, he happened to read a headline in the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' that read, "450 DEAD PETS GOING TO NAPA VALLEY." Morris left for Napa Valley and began working on the film that would become his first feature, ''[[Gates of Heaven]]''. In [[1978]] when the film permiered at Berkeley, Werner Herzog cooked and publicly ate his shoe. Les Blank made a short documentary about the event, titled ''[[Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe]]''. According to Herzog, the shoe-eating spectacle was meant to encourage Morris: "You are going to make a film. And the day I am going to see the film in a theatre I will eat the shoes I am wearing," he claims to have said. Tom Luddy, the director of the archive, has a slightly different version, in which Her
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951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]
:'''[[Presidents' Trophy|Presidents' Trophies]]''': 4 - [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]], [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]]
:'''One of the NHL's [[Original Six|Original Six franchises]]''', along with the [[Boston Bruins]], [[Chicago Blackhawks]], [[Montreal Canadiens]], [[New York Rangers]], and [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].
== Franchise history ==
===1925 to 1949===
When the [[Western Canada Hockey League|Western Hockey League]] folded after the [[1925-26 WHL season]], a deal was made so that two of the most successful of the teams in that league, the [[1924-25 WCHL season|1925]] [[Stanley Cup]] champion [[Victoria Cougars]], and the [[Portland Rosebuds]] (to become the [[Chicago Blackhawks]]) would jump to the NHL. The Victoria Cougars were originally called the [[Victoria Aristocrats]] and belonged to the [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association]], which folded and then merged with the [[Western Canada Hockey League]] for the [[1924-25 WCHL season]]. Since no arena in the Motor City was ready at the time, the newly-renamed Detroit Cougars played their first season in [[Windsor, Ontario]]. For the [[1927-28 NHL season|1927-28]] season, the Cougars moved into the new [[Detroit Olympia]], which would be their home rink until [[December 15]], [[1978-79 NHL season|1979]]. This was also the first season behind the bench for [[Jack Adams]], who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager.
The Cougars made the [[playoff]]s for the first time in [[1928-29 NHL season|1929]] with [[Carson Cooper]] leading the team in scoring. The Cougars were outscored 7-2 in the two-game series with the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].
In 1930 the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, usually finishing near the bottom of the standings. When [[James Norris Sr.]] bought the team in [[1932-33 NHL season|1932]] the team was renamed the Detroit Red Wings. Earlier in the century, Norris had played on one of hockey's early powers, the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association, nicknamed the "Winged Wheelers." Because of the team’s location in Detroit, the Motor City, Norris transformed the MAAA logo into the first version of the Red Wings logo as we know it today. He also gave Adams a year on his job on probation and a handshake. Their first year with the current name they won their first playoff series in the NHL, over the now-defunct [[Montreal Maroons]]. They lost in the semi-finals against the [[New York Rangers]].
In [[1933-34 NHL season|1934]] the Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with [[John Sorrell]] scoring 21 goals over 47 games and [[Larry Aurie]] leading the team in scoring. However, the [[Chicago Blackhawks]] had an easy time with Detroit in the finals, winning the best of 5 series in four games.
[[Image:DetroitCougars.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Cougars logo (1927)]]
[[image:detroitredwingslogo1932.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Red Wings logo (1931-1933)]]
[[image:detroitredwingslogo40s.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Red Wings logo (1934-1947)]]
The Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], defeating Toronto in four games. [[Marty Barry]] led the team in scoring and [[Ebbie Goodfellow]] was one of the top defensemen in the league. Detroit repeated its championship season in [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], winning over the Rangers in the full five games.
The Wings struggled and finished last the following season. They regrouped and made the playoffs again the following year, and made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s. In [[1940-41 NHL season|1941]] they were swept by the [[Boston Bruins]], in [[1941-42 NHL season|1942]] they blew a three-game lead against Toronto to lose the finals, but in [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], with [[Syd Howe]] and [[Mud Bruneteau]] scoring 20 goals apiece, Detroit won their third Cup by sweeping the Bruins. They remained a solid team through the rest of the decade, making the playoffs every year, and reaching the finals three more times.
In [[1946-47 NHL season|1946]], one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings. [[Gordie Howe]], a right-winger from [[Floral, Saskatchewan]], only scored seven goals and 22 points in his first season; and wouldn't reach his prime for a few more years. It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager. He'd coached the last 15 years without a contract.
By his second season, Howe was paired with [[Sid Abel]] and [[Ted Lindsay]] to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history--the "Production Line." Linday's 33 goals propelled the Wings to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the Maple Leafs. Detroit reached the Finals again the following season, only to be swept again by Toronto.
===1950 to 1979===
The Wings returned to the top in [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], with [[Pete Babando]] scoring the game winner in double overtime of game 7 to beat the Rangers in the Finals.
After being upset by the [[Montreal Canadiens]] in the [[1950-51 NHL season|1951]] semifinals, Detroit won its fifth Cup in [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second-year goalie [[Terry Sawchuk]]. Abel left the Wings for Chicago following the season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by [[Alex Delvecchio]].
The 1952 playoffs featured the start of a Red Wings tradition - the [[octopus]] throw. The owner of a local fish market threw one from the stands and onto the ice. The eight legs were symbolic of the eight playoff wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. They swept both of their opponents that year. 1952 also saw the passing of [[James Norris Sr.]], with his daughter Margurite becoming President and Governor of the Red Wings.
Following another playoff upset in [[1952-53 NHL season|1953]] at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back to back Stanley Cups in [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]] (over Montreal, when Habs defenseman [[Doug Harvey]] redirected a [[Tony Leswick]] shot into his own net) and [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]] (also over Montreal in seven games). Also during 1955 off-season, Margurite Norris was forced to turn the team over to younger brother [[Bruce Norris|Bruce]]. Detroit and Montreal once again met in the [[1955-56 NHL season|1956]] finals, but this time the Canadiens won the cup, their first of five in a row.
In [[1956-57 NHL season|1957]] Ted Lindsay, who scored 30 goals and led the league in assists that year, helped start the [[NHL Players Association|NHLPA]] and was promptly traded. The Wings lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Bruins. In [[1958-59 NHL season|1959]] the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years.
Within a couple of years, Detroit was rejeuvenated and made the Finals for four of the next six years between [[1960-61 NHL season|1961]] and [[1965-66 NHL season|1966]]. However, despite having Howe, Delvecchio, [[Norm Ullman]] and [[Parker MacDonald]] being consistent goal scorers, and Sawchuk and later [[Roger Crozier]] between the pipes, the Wings came away empty-handed.
Adams was fired as general manager in [[1963]]. By the late 1960s, the Wings started to flounder and entered a funk that they wouldn't get out of for almost 20 years. Between [[1966-67 NHL season|1967]] and [[1982-83 NHL season|1983]], Detroit only made the playoffs twice, winning one series.
The legendary Gordie Howe retired in 1971. Howe returned to pro hockey shorty after to play with his two sons Mark and Marty Howe. (Mark would later join the Red Wings at the end of his career)Detroit lost Howe to the upstart [[World Hockey Association]] in [[1972-73 WHA season|1972]]. Through the decade, with [[Mickey Redmond]] having two 50-goal seasons and [[Marcel Dionne]] starting to reach his prime (which he didn't attain until he was traded to the [[Los Angeles Kings]]), a lack of defensive and goaltending ability continually hampered the Wings.
===1980 to 1989===
During the [[1979-80 NHL season]], the Wings left the Olympia for [[Joe Louis Arena]]. In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to [[Mike Ilitch]], founder of [[Little Caesars|Little Caesars Pizza]].
In [[1983 NHL Entry Draft|1983]] the Wings drafted a center from [[Cranbrook, British Columbia]] named [[Steve Yzerman]]. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year, and started the Wings' climb back to the top. That season, with [[John Ogrodnick]] scoring 42 times and [[Ivan Boldirev]] and [[Ron Duguay]] also with 30-goal seasons, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years.
By [[1986-87 NHL season|1987]], with Yzerman joined by [[Petr Klima]], [[Adam Oates]], [[Gerard Gallant]], [[Defenceman (hockey)|defenseman]] [[Darren Veitch]] and new head coach [[Jacques Demers]], the Wings made it to the semifinals for the first time in the modern era, losing in five games to the powerhouse [[Edmonton Oilers]]. They repeated the performance in [[1987-88 NHL season|1988]] with a similar result.
In [[1988-89 NHL season|1989]], Yzerman scored a career-best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Blackhawks. The following season Yzerman knotted 62 goals but the team didn't even make the playoffs. Demers was fired, and the Red Wings haven't missed the playoffs since. Yzerman was joined by [[Sergei Fedorov]] (who defected from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]) and [[Enforcer (hockey)|enforcer]] [[Bob Probert]], two of the most familiar faces of the Wings in the 1990s. In 1992 the team acquired [[Ray Sheppard]], who had a career-best 52 goals two years later; and top defenseman [[Paul
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