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[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]]. Both city and church were captured by the [[Khwarezmians]] in [[1244]].
The [[Franciscan]] friars renovated it further in [[1555]], as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. A fire severely damaged the structure again in [[1808]], causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Edicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Edicule's exterior were rebuilt in [[1809]]–[[1810]] by architect Komminos of [[Mytilene]] in the then current Turkish [[Baroque]] style. The fire did not reach the interior of the Edicule, and the marble decoration of the Tomb dates mainly to the 1555 restoration. The current dome dates from [[1870]]. Extensive modern renovations began in [[1959]], including a restoration of the dome from [[1994]]–[[1997]]. The cladding of red marble applied to the Edicule by Komminos has deteriorated badly and is detaching from the underlying structure; since [[1947]] it has been held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]]. No plans have been agreed upon for its rennovation.
===Status quo===
Since the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable ''[[firman]]'' from the ''[[Sublime Porte]]'' at a particular time, often through outright bribery. In 1767, weary of the squabbling and the violence that often accompanied it, the ''Porte'' issued a ''firman'' that divided the church among the claimants. This was confirmed in 1852 with another ''firman'' that made the arrangement permanent, establishing a ''[[status quo]]'' of territorial division among the communities.
The primary custodians are the [[Greek Orthodox]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church| Armenian Apostolic]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] churches. In the 19th century, the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures within and around the building. Times and places of worship for each community are strictly regulated in common areas.
Establishment of the ''status quo'' did not halt the violence, which continues to break out every so often even in modern times. On a hot summer day in 2002, the Coptic monk who is stationed on the roof to express Coptic claims to the Ethiopian territory there moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians, and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fracas.[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/129/52.0.html]
<div style="float:left;width:200px;">
[[Image:Holy sepulchre ladder.jpg|thumb|180px|none|The immovable ladder. Detail from photograph of main entrance above, taken in 2005.]]
[[Image:Holy sepulchre ladder 1890s.png|thumb|180px|none|The ladder in 1892.]]
</div>
In another incident in 2004 during Orthodox celebrations of the [[Feast of the Cross|Exaltation of the Holy Cross]], a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1314466,00.html]
Under the ''status quo'', no part of what is designated as common territory may be so much as rearranged without consent from all commuities. This often leads to the neglect of badly needed repairs when the communities cannot come to an agreement among themselves about the final shape of a project. Just such a disagreement has delayed the renovation of the ''edicule'', where the need is now dire but where also any change in the structure might result in a change to the ''status quo'' disagreeable to one or more of the communities.
A less grave sign of this state of affairs is located on a window ledge over the church's entrance. A wooden ladder was placed there sometime before 1852, when the ''status quo'' defined both the doors and the window ledges as common ground. The ladder remains there to this day, in almost exactly the same position it can be seen to occupy in century-old photographs and engravings.
None of the communities control the main entrance. For centuries, two neutral neighbouring Muslim families appointed by [[Saladin]], the Nuseibeh and Joudeh families, were the custodians of the key to the single door, which is unlocked at set times in cooperation with one of the communities on a rotating schedule. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death. On [[June 20]], [[1999]], the communities agreed to install a new exit door in the church. There was never any report of this door being completed.
==Modern arrangement of the church==
[[Image:Holy_sepulchre.jpg|thumb|The Stone of the Anointing, believed to be the place where Jesus' body was prepared for burial. It is the 13<sup>th</sup> Station of the Cross.]][[Image:Anastasia Rotonda sketch 1.png|thumb|Floor Plan Sketch]]The entrance to the church is through a single door in the south [[transept]]. The key to the entrance is held by the Muslim Nuseibeh family who were entrusted with guardianship by Saladin in 1192 to keep the peace between the various Christian factions. After periods of tension between the Nuseibeh family and the Ottoman authorities in the 18th century, the Ottoman authorities appointed the Joudeh family to assist the Nuseibeh's in their task. Today, the Joudeh family still assists the Nuseibeh's by bringing the key of the church to a member of the Nuseibeh family who unlocks and locks the door on a daily basis.
Just inside the entrance is the Stone of Anointing, believed to be the spot where Jesus' body was prepared for burial. To the left, or west, is the [[Rotunda (architecture)|Rotunda]] of the Anastasis beneath the larger of the church's two domes, in the center of which is the Educule of the Holy Sepulchre itself. Under the ''status quo'' the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the [[Divine Liturgy]] or [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the [[Holy Saturday]] ceremony of the [[Holy Fire]] celebrated by the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]]. To its rear, within a chapel constructed of iron latticework upon a stone base semicircular in plan, lies the altar used by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Orthodox]]. Beyond that to the rear of the Rotunda is a very rough hewn chapel believed to be the tomb of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] in which the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays. To the right of the sepulchre on the southeastern side of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.
On the east side opposite the Rotunda is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox [[catholicon]]. The second, smaller dome sits directly over the center of the transept crossing of the [[Choir (disambiguation)|choir]] where the ''compas'', an [[omphalos]] once thought to be the center of the world, is situated. East of this is a large [[iconostasis]] demarcating the Greek Orthodox sanctuary before which is set the Patriarchal throne and a throne for visiting episcopal celebrants. On the south side of the altar via the [[ambulatory]] is a stairway climbing to the Chapel of [[Calvary]], or Golgotha, believed to be the site of Jesus' crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The main altar there belongs to the Greek Orthodox, while the Roman Catholics have an altar to the side. Further to the east in the ambulatory are the stairs descending to the Chapel of St. Helena, belonging to the Armenians. From there, another set of stairs leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the [[True Cross]] was found.
==Authenticity==
As noted above, both Eusebius and Socrates Scholasticus record that the tomb of Jesus was originally a site of veneration for the Christian community in Jerusalem and its location remembered by that community even when the site was covered by Hadrian's temple. Eusebius in particular notes that the uncovering of the tomb "''afforded to all who came to witness the sight, a clear and visible proof of the wonders of which that spot had once been the scene''" (''Life of Constantine'', Chapter XXVIII [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-29.htm#P7655_3169703]).
Archaeologist Martin Biddle of [[Oxford University]] has theorized that this "clear and visible proof" might have been [[graffiti]] to the effect of "This is the Tomb of Christ", scratched in the rock by Christian pilgrims before the construction of the Roman temple. Similar ancient graffiti are still visible in the [[Catacomb]]s of Rome, indicating the tombs of especially venerated saints, or even (to give a modern, secular example) scratched on tombstones in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] to direct [[Doors]] fans to the grave of [[Jim Morrison]].
From the time of its original construction in 335, and despite numerous renovations, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has been venerated as the authentic site of Jesus's crucifixion and burial.
[[Image:Anastasia Rotonda 4th century floor plan 2.png|thumb|right|Floor plan of the site in IV Century]]
In the [[nineteenth century]], a number of scholars disputed the identification of the Church with the actual site of
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.M. Kornbluth''' may refer to [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]] (1923 - 1958), a [[science fiction]] [[author]], or to C.M. Kornbluth, a [[V.F.D.#Members|V.F.D member]] in [[Lemony Snicket]]'s [[children's books]].
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<page>
<title>Coprophagia</title>
<id>7720</id>
<revision>
<id>41270373</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:58:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Woer$</username>
<id>804429</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Coprophagia''' is the consumption of [[feces]], from the Greek ''copros'' (feces) and ''phagein'' (eat). Many [[animal]] species have evolved to practice coprophagia; other
species do not normally consume feces but may do so under unusual conditions. Only in rare cases is it practiced by humans.
== Evolved coprophagia ==
[[Image:Dscn3200-2-butterflies.jpg|thumb|right|Two [[Butterfly|butterflies]] feed on a small lump of [[feces]] lying on a rock.]]
[[Coprophagous insect]]s consume and redigest the feces of large animals; these feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food. ([[Herbivore]] digestive systems are especially inefficient.) Many species exist, the most famous probably being the [[scarab]], sacred in [[ancient Egypt]], and the most ubiquitous being the [[fly]].
[[Pig]]s, like the above insects, will eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semidigested matter. In certain cultures it was common for poor families to collect [[horse]] feces to feed their pigs. Pigs are also known to eat their own feces and even human feces as well. However, domesticated pigs should not be allowed to eat any sort of feces, as this contributes to the risk of [[parasite]] infection. [[Muslims]] cite this behavior as a prime reason why they do not eat [[pork]].
[[Rabbit]]s, [[cavies]] ([[guinea pig]]s) and related species do not have the complicated [[ruminant]] digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft [[caecal pellet]]s of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not re-eaten.
Young [[elephant]]s eat the feces of their mother to obtain the necessary [[bacteria]] for the proper digestion of the vegetation found on the savannah. When they are born, their [[intestine]]s do not contain these bacteria. Without them, these elephants would be unable to get any nutritional value from plants.
Hamsters eat their own droppings; this is thought to be a source of [[vitamin]]s B and K, produced by bacteria in the gut. [[Ape]]s have been observed eating [[horse]] droppings for the [[salt]]. [[Monkeys]] have been observed to eat elephant droppings.
== Theories on Dogs ==
Coprophagia is a behavior sometimes observed, with considerable disgust, by [[dog]] owners. Hofmeister, Cumming, and Dhein (2001) write that this behavior in animals has not been well-researched, and they are (as of this writing) preparing a study. In a preliminary online paper, they write that there are various theories explaining why animals consume other animals' feces. According to various theories&mdash;none proven or disproven&mdash;dogs might do this:
*To get attention from their owners.
*From anxiety, stress, or having been punished for bad behaviors.
*From boredom.
*In an attempt to clean up in crowded conditions.
*When dogs observe their owners picking up feces, and imitate this behavior ([[allelomimetic behavior]]). This is highly improbable because the behaviour has also been observed in environments where owners never picked up the dog's (or other) feces.
*Because puppies taste everything and discover that feces are edible and, perhaps, tasty, especially when fed a high fat content diet.
*Because dogs are, by nature, scavengers, and this is within the range of scavenger behavior.
*To prevent the scent from attracting predators, especially mother dogs eating their offsprings' feces.
*Because the texture and temperature of fresh feces approximates that of regurgitated food, which is how canine mothers in the wild would provide solid food.
*Because of the protein content of the feces (particularly cat feces), or over-feeding, leading to large concentrations of undigested matter in the feces.
*Due to assorted health problems, including:
**Pancreatitis
**Intestinal infections
**Food allergies, creating mal-absorption
*Because they are hungry, such as when eating routines are changed, food is withheld, or nutrients aren't properly absorbed.
Another theory proposes that carnivores sometimes eat the feces of their prey in order to ingest and exude scents which camouflage their own.
Several companies produce food additives that can be added to the troublesome animal's food to make its feces taste excessively bad.
== Humans ==
Coprophagia is extremely uncommon in humans. It is generally thought to be the result of the [[paraphilia]] known as [[coprophilia]], although it is only diagnosable in extreme cases where it disturbs one's functioning. Consuming other people's feces carries the risk of contracting diseases spread through fecal matter, such as [[hepatitis]]. Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, pneumonia, and influenza vaccinations are generally recommended for those who engage in this practice[http://www.manscat.com/forum/showthread.php?t=61]. Consuming one's own feces potentially involves risk, as the bowel bacteria and eggs of [[parasitic worm]]s are not safe to ingest. Similar risk can apply to related [[sexual practice]]s, such as [[anilingus]] (often referred to as rimming or a rim job) or inserting an object into the mouth that has recently been in the anus (see [[ass to mouth]]). The practice of coprophagia in humans is depicted in [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]'s [[1976]] film ''[[Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma]]'', in [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]]' [[1972]] film ''[[Pink Flamingos]]'' starring [[Divine (Glen Milstead)|Divine]] and in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s [[1973]] novel ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]''.
Lewin (2001) reports that "... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a remedy for bacterial dysentery; its efficacy (probably attributable to the antibiotic subtilisin from ''Bacillus subtilis'') was confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II."
==References==
* {{cite journal | author = Lewin, Ralph A.
| title = "More on Merde"
| journal = Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
| year = 2001
| volume = 44
| issue = 4
| pages = 594-607 }}
* {{Citepaper | Author = Hofmeister, Erik, Melinda Cumming, and Cheryl Dhein
| Title = Owner Documentation of Coprophagia in the Canine
| PublishYear = 2001
| URL = http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/pets/_archive/study.htm }}. Accessed November 17, 2005.
* {{cite journal | author = Wise, T.N., and R.L. Goldberg
| title = "Escalation of a fetish: coprophagia in a nonpsychotic adult of normal intelligence"
| journal = J. Sex Marital Ther.
| year = 1995
| volume = 21
| issue = 4
| pages = 272-5 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.metrokc.gov/lars/animal/Educate/cassidy/dog/dog15.htm King County, Washington, Animal Control Section. "Eating His Own or Other Animal Feces."]
* [http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=166 Why Does My Dog Eat Feces?] - Theresa A. Fuess, Ph.D, College of Vet Medicine
* [http://home.gci.net/~divs/behavior/coprophagia.html Coprophagia in the Canine] - Erik Hofmeister; Melinda Cumming, DVM PhD; Cheryl Dhein, DVM, MS, DACVIM; Douglas Island Veterinary Service; detailed preliminary results of study of behavior and prevention in dogs
*[http://www.hssv.org/BEHAVIOR/dog_stool.htm Santa Clara County Humane Society guidelines for curing coprophagia in dogs]
*[http://ratguide.com/care/behavior/coprophagy.php Rat care guide]
[[Category:Dog health]]
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]
[[Category:Dog training and behavior]]
[[Category:Taboo activities]]
[[Category:Pica]]
[[de:Koprophagie]]
[[eo:Koprofagio]]
[[nl:Coprofagie]]
[[pl:Koprofagia]]
[[pt:Coprofagia]]
[[ru:Копрофагия]]
[[sv:Koprofag]]</text>
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<page>
<title>C. L. Moore</title>
<id>7721</id>
<revision>
<id>41253980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:17:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RandomCritic</username>
<id>838239</id>
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<comment>spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Catherine Lucille Moore''' ([[January 24]], [[1911]] &ndash; [[April 4]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] [[writer]]. She was one of the first women to write in the genre, and paved the way for many other female writers in [[speculative fiction]].
She was born on [[January 24]], [[1911]] in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. She was chronically ill as a child and spent much of her time reading literature of the fantastic. She left college during [[The Great Depression]] to work as a secretary at the Fletcher Trust Company in Indianapolis. Her first stories appeared in [[pulp magazines]] in the [[1930s]], including two significant series in ''[[Weird Tales]]''. One series concerns the rogue and adventurer, [[Northwest Smith]], and his wanderings through the [[Solar System]]; the other is a short [[fantasy]] series about [[Jirel of Joiry]] (one of the first female protagonists in [[sword-and-sorcery]] fiction). The most famous of the Northwest Smith stories is [[Shambleau]], which marked Moore’s first professional sa
|
rrounded by Arabic (as in [[Blida]]) to adopt Arabic, while Arabic speakers surrounded by Berber (as in Sikh ou Meddour near [[Tizi-Ouzou]]) tended to adopt Berber. In 1952, André Basset estimated that about a third of Algeria's population spoke Berber. The Algerian census of 1966 found 2,297,997 out of 12,096,347 Algerians, or 19%, to speak "Berber." In 1980, [[Salem Chaker]] estimated that "in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language" (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9). According to the Ethnologue, more recent estimates include (by deduction from its Algerian Arabic figures) 17% (1991) and 29% (Hunter 1996). The actual figures it gives for Berber languages, however, only add up to about 4 million, under 15%. Most of these are accounted for by two dialects:
**[[Kabyle]]: 2.5 million (1995), or 8% of the population - or "up to" 6 million (1998), which would be more like 20%.
**[[Chaouia]]: 1.4 million (1993), thus 5% of the population.
*'''[[Tunisia]]''': Basset (1952) estimated about 1%, as did Penchoen (1968). According to the Ethnologue, there are only 26,000 speakers (1998) of a Berber language it calls "Djerbi" in Tunisia, all in the south around [[Djerba]] and [[Matmata]]. The more northerly enclave of [[Sened]] apparently no longer speaks Berber. This would make 0.3% of the population.
*'''[[Libya]]''': According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its combined Libyan Arabic and Egyptian Arabic figures) the non-Arabic-speaking population, most of which would be Berber, is estimated at 4% (1991, 1996). However, the individual language figures it gives add up to 162,000, ie about 3%. This is mostly accounted for by two languages:
**[[Nafusi]] in Jabal Nafusa: 141,000 (1998).
**[[Tahaggart Tamahaq]] of [[Ghat]]: 17,000 (Johnstone 1993).
*'''[[Egypt]]''': The oasis of [[Siwa]] near the Libyan border speaks a Berber language; according to the Ethnologue, there are 5,000 speakers there (1995). Its population in [[1907]] was 3884 (according to the [[1911]] [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]); the claimed lack of increase seems surprising.
*'''[[Mauritania]]''': According to the Ethnologue, only 200-300 speakers of [[Zenaga]] remain (1998). It also mentions [[Tamasheq]], but does not provide a population figure for it. Most non-Arabic speakers in Mauritania speak [[Niger-Congo languages]].
*'''[[Mali]]''': The Ethnologue counts 440,000 [[Tuareg]]s (1991) speaking:
::[[Tamasheq]]: 250,000
::[[Tamajaq]]: 190,000
*'''[[Niger]]''': The Ethnologue counts 720,000 [[Tuareg]] (1998) speaking:
::[[Tawallamat Tamajaq]]: 450,000
::[[Tayart Tamajeq]]: 250,000
::[[Tahaggart Tamahaq]]: 20,000
*'''[[Burkina Faso]]''': The Ethnologue counts 20,000 - 30,000 [[Tuareg]] ([[SIL International|SIL]] 1991), speaking [[Kidal Tamasheq]].
*'''[[Nigeria]]''': The Ethnologue notes the presence of "few" [[Tuareg]], speaking [[Tawallamat Tamajaq]].
*'''[[France]]''': The Ethnologue lists 537,000 speakers for [[Kabyle]], 150,000 for [[Middle Atlas Tamazight]], and no figures for [[Tachelhit]] and [[Tarifit]]. For the rest of Europe, it has no figures.
*'''[[Ceuta]]''' and '''[[Melilla]]''': A majority of [[Melilla]]'s 80,000 inhabitants, and a minority of [[Ceuta]]'s inhabitants, speak Berber[http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/berber/an/i1/i1.html#1].
*'''[[Israel]]''': A few thousand elderly [[Moroccan]]-born Israelis use [[Judeo-Berber]] dialects.
Thus, judging by the not necessarily reliable Ethnologue, the total number of speakers of Berber languages in the [[Maghreb]] proper appears to lie anywhere between 14 and 20 million, depending on which estimate is accepted; if we take Basset's estimate, it could be as high as 25 million. The vast majority are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria. The [[Tuareg]] of the [[Sahel]] add another million or so.
==Grammar==
The Berber languages have two [[grammatical case|cases]] of the [[noun]], organized ergatively: one is unmarked, while the other serves for the subject of a transitive verb and the object of a preposition, among other contexts. The former is often called ''état libre'', the latter ''état d'annexion'' or ''état construit''. Berber nouns also have two [[gender]]s, masculine (unmarked) and feminine (marked with reflexes of the prefix ''t-''). These are illustrated (in Latin transcription) for the noun ''amghar'' "old man, sheikh":
{|
|-
|
| colspan="2" | masculine
| colspan="2" | feminine
|-
| || default || agent || default || agent
|-
| singular || ''amghar'' || ''umghar'' || ''tamghart'' || ''temghart''
|-
| plural || ''imgharen'' || ''imgharen'' || ''timgharin'' || ''temgharin''
|}
==Subclassification==
Subclassification of the Berber languages is made difficult by their mutual closeness; [[Maarten Kossmann]] (1999) describes it as two [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]], [[Northern Berber languages|Northern Berber]] and [[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]], and a few peripheral languages, spoken in isolated pockets largely surrounded by [[Arabic language|Arabic]], that fall outside these continua, namely [[Zenaga]] and the [[Libya]]n and [[Egypt]]ian varieties. Within Northern Berber, however, he recognizes a break in the continuum between [[Zenati languages]] and their non-Zenati neighbors; and in the east, he recognizes a division between [[Ghadames]] and [[Awjila]] on the one hand and [[El-Foqaha]], [[Siwa]], and Djebel [[Nefusa]] on the other. The implied tree is:
*[[Nefusa-Siwa languages]]
*[[Ghadames-Awjila languages]]
*[[Northern Berber languages]]
**[[Zenati languages]] (including [[Tarifit language|Tarifit]])
**[[Kabyle language]]
**[[Moroccan Atlas languages]] (including [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]] and [[Central Atlas Tamazight language|Tamazight]])
*[[Tuareg languages]]
*[[Zenaga language]]
There is so little data available on [[Guanche language|Guanche]] that any classification is necessarily uncertain; however, it is almost universally acknowledged as Berber on the basis of the surviving glosses. Much the same can be said of the language, sometimes called "[[Numidian]]", used in the Libyan or Libyco-Berber inscriptions around the turn of the Common Era, whose alphabet is the ancestor of [[Tifinagh]].
The Ethnologue, mostly following Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), subdivides it somewhat differently:
*[[Guanche language|Guanche]]
*[[Eastern Berber languages]]
**[[Siwi language|Siwa]]
**[[Awjila-Sokna languages]]
*[[Northern Berber languages]]
**[[Zenati languages]]
**[[Kabyle language]]
**[[Chenoua language]]
**[[Moroccan Atlas languages]]
*[[Tamasheq languages]]
**[[Northern Tamasheq languages]]
**[[Southern Tamasheq languages]]
*[[Zenaga language]]
==See also==
*[[Arsène Roux]]
*[[Karl Prasse]]
*[[Henri Basset]]
*[[Berber]]
*[[Tifinagh]] alphabet
==References==
*Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971. ''A Reference Grammar of Tamazight (Middle Atlas Berber)''. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, The University of Michigan
*Basset, Andr&eacute;. 1952. ''La langue berb&egrave;re''. Handbook of African Languages 1, ser. ed. Daryll Forde. London: Oxford University Press
*Chaker, Salem. 1995. ''Linguistique berb&egrave;re: &Eacute;tudes de syntaxe et de diachronie''. M. S.&mdash;Ussun amazi&#611; 8, ser. ed. Salem Chaker. Paris and Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters
*Dallet, Jean-Marie. 1982. ''Dictionnaire kabyle&ndash;fran&ccedil;ais, parler des At Mangellet, Alg&eacute;rie''. &Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&ndash;Sahara 1, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&rsquo;&eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*[[Charles de Foucauld|de Foucauld, Charles Eug&egrave;ne]]. 1951. ''Dictionnaire touareg&ndash;fran&ccedil;ais, dialecte de l&rsquo;Ahaggar''. 4 vols. [Paris]: Imprimerie nationale de France
*Delheure, Jean. 1984. ''A&#487;raw n yiwalen: tum&#7827;abt t-tfransist, Dictionnaire mozabite&ndash;fran&ccedil;ais, langue berb&egrave;re parl&eacute;e du Mzab, Sahara septentrional, Alg&eacute;rie''. &Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&ndash;Sahara 2, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&rsquo;&eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;. 1987. ''Agerraw n iwalen: teggargrent&ndash;ta&#7771;umit, Dictionnaire ouargli&ndash;fran&ccedil;ais, langue parl&eacute;e &agrave; Oaurgla et Ngoussa, oasis du Sahara septentrinal, Alg&eacute;rie''. &Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&ndash;Sahara 5, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&rsquo;&eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*Kossmann, Maarten G. 1999. ''Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berb&egrave;re''. Grammatische Analysen afrikaniscker Sprachen 12, ser. eds. Wilhelm J. G. M&ouml;hlig, and Bernd Heine. K&ouml;ln: R&uuml;diger K&ouml;ppe Verlag
*Kossmann, Maarten G., and Hendrikus Joseph Stroomer. 1997. "Berber Phonology". In ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa (Including the Caucasus)'', edited by Alan S. Kaye. 2 vols. Vol. 1. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 461&ndash;475
*Na&iuml;t-Zerrad, Kamal. 1998. ''Dictionarrie des racines berb&egrave;res (formes attest&eacute;es)''. Paris and Leuven: Centre de Recherche Berb&egrave;re and Uitgeverij Peeters
*Prasse, Karl-Gottfried, Ghub&#259;yd &#259;gg-&#258;l&#259;w&#382;&#601;li, and Gh&#259;bd&#601;wan &#601;g-Mux&#259;mm&#259;d. 1998. ''As&#259;gg&#259;lalaf: T&#259;ma&#7827;&#601;q&ndash;T&#259;fr&#259;sist &mdash; Lexique touareg&ndash;fran&ccedil;ais''. 2nd ed. Carl Niebuhr Institute Publications 24, ser. eds. Paul John Fran
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tion has been closely scrutinized since the election. Critics have argued that the Governor of Florida, Jeb Bush (Brother of George W. Bush) and the Secretary of State of Florida, Katherine Harris, did play a part in ensuring that the state was in the red column of the Republicans come election day. Several irregularities are thought to have favored Bush; others may have given Gore an edge. Irregularities favoring Bush included the notorious Palm Beach "butterfly ballots", which were alleged to have produced an unexpectedly large number of votes for [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]] candidate [[Pat Buchanan]], and a purge of some 50,000 alleged felons from the Florida voting rolls that included some voters who were again eligible to vote under Florida law. Many Bush supporters, however, believed that an unfair advantage was given to Gore when all major news networks, early on, prematurely projected Gore as the winner of Florida's 25 electoral votes at 7:52 PM Eastern Time. This happened before the polls closed in 10 Florida counties in the heavily Republican western panhandle which are in the Central Time Zone, and thus closed at 7 PM Central Time (8 PM Eastern). Some have thought that this depressed the pro-Bush vote in that area. [http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/02/02/cnn.report/cnn.pdf] During the numerous recounts (which made the phrase "hanging chads" infamous in the American vocabulary), there were also allegations of both pro-Bush and pro-Gore tampering by low-level operatives in the controversial counties. [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2000/11/26/230955.shtml] It is unclear what effect, if any, this may have had. And while the Gore camp fought (with some success) to keep overseas absentee votes out in counties thought to be pro-Bush, Bush operatives similarly (albeit while drawing less attention to their efforts) prevented the counting of overseas absentee votes in strong Democratic counties. Both sides contended that the votes were cast after Election Day, and since many of the envelopes did not have cancelled stamps, it was not clear when the votes were cast. Reports later surfaced that many overseas voters attempted to vote only after learning of the closeness of the Florida vote.
Some commentators still see such irregularities, and the legal maneuvering around the recounts as casting doubt on the legitimacy of the vote; as a matter of law, however, the issue was settled, albeit controversially again, when the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] accepted Florida's electoral delegation, only after a challenge to the Florida electors was presented in the congressional chambers on [[January 6]], [[2001]] by members of the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. Member after member went up decrying the lack of a senator who would be willing to co-sponsor the challenge without any effect. They thus failed to bring the challenge to a debate.
Concern about the possible disenfranchisement of voters in the Florida vote led to widespread calls for electoral reform in the United States, and ultimately to the passage of the [[Help America Vote Act]], which authorized the [[United States federal government]] to provide funds to the states to replace their mechanical voting equipment with [[electronic voting]] equipment. However, this has led to new controversies, because of the security weaknesses of the computer systems, the lack of paper-based methods of secure verification, and the necessity to rely on the trustworthiness of the manufacturers whose employees also count those votes.
Although Gore won the nationwide popular vote by more than 500,000 votes, he lost the election by five electoral votes (with one D.C. elector, pledged to Gore, casting a blank ballot to protest the District's lack of representation in Congress).
[[Image:Al Gore on Futurama.JPG|thumb|[[Recurring_characters_of_Futurama#Al_Gore|Al Gore]] on [[Futurama]].]]
Joe Lieberman later criticized Al Gore for adopting a populist theme during their 2000 campaign. Lieberman said he objected to Gore's "people vs. the powerful" message, believing it was not the best strategy for Democrats to use to recapture the White House.[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28519]
While running for president in 2000, Al Gore was used as a voice actor for the television show ''[[Futurama]]'' (for which his daughter, Kristin, was a writer). He played [[Recurring characters of Futurama#Al Gore|himself]] again in another episode after the campaign was over.
==Private citizen==
===Professor Gore===
[[Image:Goreharvard2.jpg|right|200px|thumb|left|Al Gore re-emerges in 2001 as a visiting professor with a [[beard]].]]
Following his election loss, Gore accepted visiting [[professor]]ships at [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism|Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism]], [[Middle Tennessee State University]], [[University of California Los Angeles]], and [[Fisk University]]. In late 2001, Al Gore became a Senior Advisor to [[Google|Google]] and Vice Chairman of [[Los Angeles]]-based financial firm [[Metropolitan West Financial LLC]].
===Blasting Bush===
On [[September 23]], 2002, Gore spoke in [[San Francisco]] to The [[Commonwealth Club]] and made a controversial speech blasting Bush on the Iraq war [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002-09-23-gore_x.htm] Although he admitted Saddam was a potential danger saying: "We know that [Saddam] has stored secret supplies of biological and chemical weapons throughout his country. Iraq's search for weapons of mass destruction has proven impossible to deter and we should assume that it will continue for as long as Saddam is in power"[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html] He also spoke against rushing to war with Iraq, advising caution and saying that Iraq was a diversion from fighting Al-Qaeda and terrorism in Afghanistan and elsewhere: "I don't think that we should allow anything to diminish our focus on avenging the 3,000 Americans who were murdered and dismantling the network of terrorists who we know to be responsible for it. The fact that we don't know where they are should not cause us to focus instead on some other enemy whose location may be easier to identify."
Following the [[November 5]], [[2002]], midterm elections Gore re-emerged into the public eye with a 14-city book tour and a well-orchestrated "full Gore" media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches. On [[September 23]], Gore delivered a speech on the impending [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War with Iraq]] and the [[War on Terrorism]] that generated a fair amount of commentary. Less than two weeks later, on October 2, he made a speech on Bush's handling of the economy to the [[Brookings Institution]]. Also, during this time period Gore guest starred on several programs such as [[The Late Show with David Letterman]] and [[Saturday Night Live]] (with legendary rock band [[Phish]]), appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office.
[[Image:Goresnl.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Al Gore hosting ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' along side ''[[The West Wing (television)|West Wing]]'' stars [[Martin Sheen]] and [[John Spencer (actor)|John Spencer]].]]
In 2003 Gore joined the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]]. On the political front, Gore kept his promise of staying involved in public debate when he offered his criticism and advice to the [[Bush Administration]] on key topics such as the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Occupation of Iraq]], [[USA Patriot Act]], and [[natural environment|environmental]] issues, most notably [[global warming]]. Gore also continued to visit campuses across the nation lecturing on issues such as [[race]], [[media]], and [[democracy]].
On [[April 10]], [[2004]], Gore met with the [[9-11 Commission]] in private to give his testimony on what his administration did to prevent terror attacks. In a statement after the three-hour session, the commission said he was candid and forthcoming, and it thanked him for his "continued cooperation."
In the summer of 2004, Gore teamed up with [[MoveOn.org]], to promote the new science fiction film, [[The Day After Tomorrow|''The Day After Tomorrow'']]. Although Gore said the movie was a far-fetched example of global warming, he said the movie would escalate public debate on the issue.
On [[April 27]], [[2005]], Gore gave an hour-long speech lambasting the GOP's effort to do away with the legislative [[filibuster]]. In response to Senate Majority Leader [[Bill Frist]], who for weeks had repeated threats to impose the "[[nuclear option]]" if [[Senate]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] did not stop blocking judicial nominees via the filibuster, Gore said, "Their grand design is an all-powerful executive using a weakened [[legislature]] to fashion a compliant judiciary in its own image. The Senate has confirmed 205 or over 95% of President Bush's nominees. Democrats have held up only 10 nominees, less than 5%. Compare that with the 60 Clinton nominees who were blocked by Republican obstruction between 1995 and 2000. What is involved here is a power grab," Gore said. Gore also took aim at what he called "religious zealots" who claim special knowledge of [[god (monotheism)|God's]] will in [[American politics]]. He went on to say, "They even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith. How dare they!" This was Gore's first major policy speech of 2005 and also the first one since the defeat of Democratic hopeful John Kerry in late 2004.
In May 2005, Gore was awarded a lifetime achievement award for three decades of contributions to the Internet. The [[Webby Awards]], which are widely hailed as the ''[[Oscars]]'' of the web, "wanted t
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al research]]
* [[statistical inference]]
* [[summary statistics]]
* [[data mining]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[de:Deskriptive Statistik]]
[[fr:Statistique descriptive]]
[[it:Statistica descrittiva]]
[[pl:Statystyka opisowa]]
[[pt:Estatística descritiva]]
[[su:Statistik deskriptif]]
[[zh:描述统计学]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Discrete probability distribution</title>
<id>8188</id>
<revision>
<id>31276176</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T02:19:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>"cumulative" and "density" contradict each other!! "Density" is LOCAL; otherwise it would not be called "density".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[probability distribution]] is called '''discrete''', if it is fully characterized by a [[probability mass function]]. Thus, the distribution of a [[random variable]] ''X'' is discrete, and ''X'' is then called a '''discrete random variable''', if
:<math>\sum_u \Pr(X=u) = 1\qquad\qquad\qquad(1)</math>
as ''u'' runs through the set of all possible values of ''X''.
If a random variable is discrete, then the [[set]] of all values that it can assume with nonzero probability is [[finite]] or [[countably infinite]], because the sum of uncountably many positive [[real number]]s (which is the smallest upper bound of the set of all finite partial sums) always diverges to infinity.
In the cases most often considered, this set of possible values is a topologically discrete set in the sense that all its points are [[isolated point]]s. But there are discrete random variables for which this countable set is [[dense set|dense]] on the real line.
The [[Poisson distribution]], the [[Bernoulli distribution]], the [[binomial distribution]], the [[geometric distribution]], and the [[negative binomial distribution]] are among the most well-known discrete probability distributions.
==Alternative description==
Equivalently to the above, a discrete random variable can be defined as a random variable whose [[cumulative distribution function]] (cdf) increases only by [[jump discontinuity|jump discontinuities]] &mdash; that is, its cdf increases only where it "jumps" to a higher value, and is constant between those jumps. The points where jumps occur are precisely the values which the random variable may take. The number of such jumps may be finite or [[countably infinite]]. The set of locations of such jumps need not be topologically discrete; for example, the cdf might jump at each [[rational number]].
==Representation in terms of indicator functions==
For a discrete random variable ''X'', let ''u''<sub>0</sub>, ''u''<sub>1</sub>, ... be the values it can assume with non-zero probability. Denote
:<math>\Omega_i=\{\omega: X(\omega)=u_i\},\, i=0, 1, 2, \dots</math>
These are disjoint sets, and by formula (1)
:<math>\Pr\left(\bigcup_i \Omega_i\right)=\sum_i \Pr(\Omega_i)=\sum_i\Pr(X=u_i)=1.</math>
It follows that the probability that ''X'' assumes any value except for ''u''<sub>0</sub>, ''u''<sub>1</sub>, ... is zero, and thus one can write ''X'' as
:<math>X=\sum_i \alpha_i 1_{\Omega_i}</math>
except on a set of probability zero, where <math>\alpha_i=\Pr(X=u_i)</math> and <math>1_A</math> is the [[indicator function]] of ''A''. This may serve as an alternative definition of discrete random variables.
[[Category:Probability theory]]
[[nl:Discrete stochastische variabele]]
[[pt:Variável aleatória discreta]]
[[su:Variabel random diskrit]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Demographic statistics</title>
<id>8189</id>
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<timestamp>2005-10-12T09:15:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzuuzz</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ dud link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Among the kinds of data that national leaders need are the '''[[Demography|demographic]] statistics''' of their population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy.
A useful summary of such data is the [[population pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
Another summary is called the [[life table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population.
== See also ==
* [[Applied statistics]]
==External links==
<!--
* See for example, the statistical report on [http://www.t.mt/home/cos/cospubs/demography/1997/index.htm Malta]
-->
* [http://www.statcan.ca/english/kits/animat/pyone.htm Population pyramid]
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~drl/lifetable.htm Life Table]
[[Category:Population]]
[[su:Statistika démografi]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Detective fiction</title>
<id>8192</id>
<revision>
<id>41765267</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:11:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.240.229.3</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Books */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Detective fiction''' is a branch of [[crime fiction]] that centres upon the investigation of a crime, usually [[murder]], by a [[detective]], either professional or amateur. It is closely related to [[mystery fiction]] but generally contains more of a puzzle element that must be solved, generally by a single protagonist, either male or female.
A common feature of detective fiction is an investigator who is unmarried, with some source of income other than a regular job, and who generally has some pleasing eccentricities or striking characteristics. He or she frequently has a less intelligent assistant, or [[Foil (literature)|foil]], who is asked to make apparently irrelevant inquiries and acts as an [[audience surrogate]] for the explanation of the mystery at the end of the story.
== Whodunit? ==
The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel is the [[whodunit]] (or ''whodunnit''), where great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the events of the crime and of the subsequent investigation in such a manner as to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are revealed.
Early archetypes of these stories were the three Auguste Dupin tales by [[Edgar Allan Poe]]: "[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]]" ([[1841]]), "[[The Mystery of Marie Roget]]" ([[1843]]), and "[[The Purloined Letter]]" ([[1844]]). Poe's detective stories have been described as ratiocinative tales (citation needed). In stories such as these, the primary concern of the plot is ascertaining truth, and the usual means of obtaining the truth is through a complex and mysterious process combining intuitive logic, astute observation, and perspicacious inference. As a consequence, the crime itself sometimes becomes secondary to the efforts taken to solve it. "The Mystery of Marie Roget" is particularly interesting, as it is a barely fictionalized analysis of the circumstances of the real-life discovery of the body of a young woman named Mary Cecilia Rogers, in which Poe expounds his theory of what actually happened. The style of the analysis, with its attention to [[Forensic pathology|forensic]] detail, makes it a precursor if not the inspiration of the stories about the most famous of all fictional detectives, [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s [[Sherlock Holmes]], who in turn set the style for many others in later years, including Holmesian [[pastiche]]s such as [[August Derleth]]'s [[Solar Pons]].
Another early archetype of the whodunit is found as a sub-plot in the vast novel ''[[Bleak House]]'' (1853) by [[Charles Dickens]]. The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan force. Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the culprit.
Dickens's protégé, [[Wilkie Collins]] ([[1824]]-[[1889]]), is credited with the first great mystery novel, ''[[The Woman in White]]''. He is sometimes referred to as the "grandfather of English detective fiction." His novel ''[[The Moonstone]]'' (1868) was described by [[T. S. Eliot]] as "the first and greatest of English detective novels" and by [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] as "probably the very finest detective story ever written". Although technically preceded by [[Charles Felix]]'s ''[[The Notting Hill Mystery]]'' ([[1865]]), ''The Moonstone'' can claim to have established the genre with several classic features of the twentieth-century detective story:
* A country house robbery
* An '[[inside job]]'
* A celebrated investigator
* Bungling local constabulary
* Detective enquiries
* False suspects
* The 'least likely suspect'
* A rudimentary 'locked room' murder
* A reconstruction of the crime
* A final twist in the plot
Some readers have suggested even earlier prototypes for the whodunit, most notably the Old Testament story of [[Susanna and the Elders]] (Daniel 13; in the [[Protest
|
, and to many other hardware manufacturers. In the later case it was sold as [[MS-DOS]].
[[Digital Research]] produced a compatible variant known as "[[DR-DOS]]", which was eventually taken over (after a buyout of Digital Research) by [[Novell]]. This became "[[OpenDOS]]" for a while after the relevant division of Novell was sold to [[Caldera International]], now called [[SCO Group|SCO]]. Later, the embedded division of Caldera was "spun off" as Lineo (later renamed Embedix), who in turn sold DR-DOS to a start-up called Device Logics, who now seem to call themselves DRDOS, Inc.
There is also a [[free software|free]] alternative named "[[FreeDOS]]".
DOS was one of the first operating systems for the ''PC compatible'' platform, and the first on that platform to gain widespread use (it was still widespread more than 10 years later). This was a quick and messy affair (the variant MS-DOS, sometimes colloquially referred to as ''Messy DOS'', was developed from [[QDOS]], which literally meant "Quick and Dirty Operating System").
[[IBM-PC]]s were only distributed with PC-DOS, whereas [[PC compatible]] computers from nearly all other manufacturers were distributed with MS-DOS. For the early years of this operating system family, PC-DOS was almost identical to MS-DOS. More recently, free versions of DOS such as [[FreeDOS]] and [[OpenDOS]] have started to appear.
Early versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] were little more than a graphical [[Operating system shell|shell]] for DOS, and later versions of Windows were tightly integrated with MS-DOS. It is also possible to run DOS programs under [[OS/2]] and [[Linux]] using virtual-machine emulators.
Because of the long existence and ubiquity of DOS in the world of the PC-compatible platform (DOS compatible programs were made well into the 90's), DOS was often considered to be the native [[operating system]] of the ''PC compatible'' platform.
==Accessing hardware under DOS==
The operating system offered a [[hardware abstraction layer]] that although adequate for developing character-based applications was woefully inadequate for accessing most of the [[computer hardware|hardware]] (such as the graphics hardware). This led to application programmers accessing the hardware directly. The result of this was that each application would have to have a set of [[device driver]]s written for it to use the various types of hardware on offer (different [[computer printer|printer]]s, etc.), and when some new hardware was released, the hardware manufacturers would have to make sure that device drivers for their hardware for the popular applications became available.
==DOS and other PC operating systems==
<!-- Could someone please explain which branches of the Windows family (eg. NT) fits where in relation to DOS -->
Early versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] were "shell-type" programs that ran under DOS. Later versions were launched under DOS but "extended" it by going into protected mode. Still later versions of MS Windows ran independently of DOS but included much of the old code such that it could run in [[virtual machine]]s under the new OS and the latest versions of MS Windows are continually dropping ever more of the DOS ancestry. [[Windows Me]] was the last Microsoft OS to run on DOS; operating systems in the [[Windows NT]] line (including the post-NT 4.0 versions, such as [[Windows 2000]] and [[Windows XP]], which aren't marketed as "Windows NT") are not based on DOS.
Under [[Linux]] (running on [[x86]]-based systems) it's possible to run copies of DOS and many of its clones under ''[[dosemu]]'' (a Linux native virtual machine program for running [[real mode]] programs). There are a number of other emulators for running DOS and/or DOS-based software under various versions of UNIX, even on non-x86 platforms; one such emulator is [[DOSBox]].
<!-- What about OS/2? -->
==Reserved device names under DOS==
There are reserved device names in DOS that cannot be used as filenames regardless of extension; these restrictions also affect several Windows versions, in some cases causing crashes and security vulnerabilities.
A partial list of these reserved names is: AUX, COM, COM0, COM1, COM2, COM3, ..., COM8, COM9, CON, LPT1, LPT2, and PRN.
The NUL filename is special, it redirects to a null file. It could be said that is equivalent to UNIX's [[/dev/null]], but there are some differences, as it does not exactly behave like its UNIX cousin. Is best suited for being used on batch files, for redirecting unneeded output. Naming a file as NUL, regardless of extension, could cause unpredictable behavior on most programs. Some of them complain, saying that NUL is a DOS reserved filename, others, "save" the file (but as NUL represents a null file, whatever the program saved is lost), and others will hang or leave the computer in an inconsistent state, and a [[reboot]] may be needed.
==Drive naming scheme==
Under Microsoft's DOS [[operating system]] and its derivatives drives are referred to by identifying letters. Standard practice is to reserve "A" and "B" for floppy drives. On systems with only one floppy drive DOS permitted the use of both letters for one drive, and displayed prompts to swap disks. This allowed for copying from floppy to floppy (this wasn't a very fast method though as it generally ended up asking for disk swaps far more often than really needed) or having a program run from one floppy whilst having its data on another. Hard drives were originally assigned the letters "C" and "D", but as support for more hard drives became available this developed into assigning the [[primary partition]]s on each drive (DOS only allowed a single active primary partition per drive even though the partitioning system allowed for more) letters first, then making a second pass over the drives to allocate letters to logical drives in the [[extended partition]]s. Letters for [[CD-ROM]]s, [[RAM disk]]s and other things were allocated after the hard drive partitions. This was often done simply in the order the drivers were loaded, although many drivers could be specifically instructed to take a different letter. Network drives were usually given letters much further on in the alphabet by the network driver software so that they were generally out of the way of this system.
Because these letters were used directly by normal applications (unlike the /dev/* names in [[Unix-like]] operating systems), the addition of an additional hard drive could be disruptive to applications, which then required reconfiguration or even reinstallation. This was especially true if there were logical drives in an extended partition on the original hard drive and the new hard drive had a primary partition, as it would then cause the logical drives on the first hard drive to change letters. However, even if the new hard drive had only logical drives in an extended partition it would still disrupt the letters of [[RAM disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives. This disruptive system persisted through the 9x versions of Windows but NT adopts a slightly different system. It uses the traditional rules when first installing but after that it tries to preserve the letters of existing drives.
==DOS emulators==
Under [[Linux]] it is possible to run copies of DOS and many of its clones under ''[[dosemu]]'', a Linux-native [[virtual machine]] for running [[real mode]] programs. There are a number of other [[Emulator|emulators]] for running DOS under various versions of UNIX, even on non-[[x86]] platforms.
==Trivia==
*Dos is also the [[spanish language|spanish]] word for the number [[2]]. Coincidentally, DOS runs on a binary computer system in which binary refers to a system of digits using 2 possible values.
==See also==
*[[disk operating system]]
*[[X86 DOS Comparison]]
*[[DOSBox]]
*[[List of DOS commands]]
==External links==
*[http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ak621/DOS/DOS-Head.html Richard Bonner's DOS website]
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/gamedemos Game demos by ID Software for DOS]
*[http://purl.oclc.org/net/Batfiles/ Batfiles: The DOS batch file programming handbook and tutorial]
*[http://www.nukesoft.co.uk/msdos/ ''MS-DOS Reference''] &mdash; Not just for [[MS-DOS]] but also for other DOSses on the [[PC compatible|PC]] platform.
*[http://www.acad.humberc.on.ca/~frig8279/osessay/dos/history ''A Brief Timeline of DOS'']
*[http://www.dosemu.org/ Linux/dosemu]
*[http://www.oldos.org/ Old Os] &mdash; Information and downloads for DOS users (including some freeware utilities)
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/ralf/pub/WWW/files.html ''Ralf Brown's Interrupt List'']
*[http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_mac_vs_pc.html Umberto Eco - The Holy War: Mac vs. DOS]
*[http://www.16bitos.com ''16bitos.com - Comprehensive DOS version resource'']
*[http://www.freedos.org FreeDOS (can be downloaded)]
*[http://www.drdos.net DR-DOS]
*[http://www.ibm.com/software/os/dos/ PC-DOS]
*[http://extdos.siteburg.com ExtDOS]
[[Category:Disk operating systems|*DOS]]
[[Category:DOS on IBM PC compatibles|*DOS]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]
[[bs:DOS]]
[[cs:DOS]]
[[da:DOS]]
[[de:Disk Operating System]]
[[es:DOS]]
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[[fr:Disk Operating System]]
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[[ko:도스]]
[[lt:DOS]]
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[[nl:DOS (besturingssysteem)]]
[[nn:DOS]]
[[no:DOS]]
[[pl:DOS]]
[[ro:DOS]]
[[ru:DOS (операционная система)]]
[[simple:Disk Operating System]]
[[sk:DOS]]
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[[zh:DOS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diogo Cão</title>
<id>8148</id>
<revision>
<id>41415780</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:18:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.131.76.177</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caopillar.JPG|thumb|100px|right|The pillar bearing the arms of Portugal erected by Cão at Cape St. Mar
|
angelical Christians. This survey found evangelicals to be a subset of the [[Born again]]s.
Although evangelicals are currently seen as being on the [[Christian Right]] in the United States, there are those in the center and [[Christian Left]] as well. In other countries there is no particular political stance associated with evangelicals. Many evangelicals have little practical interest in politics.
==Demographics==
A 1992 survey (Green) showed that in the United States and Canada evangelicals make up both the largest and the most active group of Christians (surpassing both Catholics and Mainline or non-Evangelical Protestant groups).
On a worldwide scale evangelical Churches are (together with [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]) the most rapidly growing Christian churches. The two are even beginning to overlap, in a movement sometimes called [[Transformationalism]].
==References==
*Bebbington, David. ''Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s''. Unwin Hyman (London), 1989.
*Green, John, Guth, James, et.al. ''Akron Survey of Religion and Politics in America'' 1992. As quoted in Noll, Mark. ''Scandal of the Evangelical Mind''. Eerdmans, 1994.
==See also==
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Protestantism]]
*[[Orthodoxy]]
*[[Evangelism]]
*[[Mission (Christian)|Mission]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (A defense of Christianity)
*[[Christian right]]
*[[Christian left]]
*[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]
''See the under Protestantism in the [[List of Christian denominations#Protestantism|List of Christian denominations]].''
===Movements===
*[[Charismatic|Charismatic movement]]
*[[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenism]]
*[[Confessing Movement]]
*[[Christian fundamentalism|Fundamentalism]]
*[[Neo-evangelicalism]]
*[[Paleo-Orthodoxy]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Transformationalism]]
*[[Pietism]]
*[[Evangelical left]]
===Contrasting Movements===
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]
*[[Neo-Lutheranism]]
*[[High Church]]
===List of evangelicals: historical figures, scholars, authors, educators, leaders===
{{main|List of famous Evangelical Christians}}
===Publications===
*''[[Christianity Today]]''
*''[[Lark News]]'' online newsletter satirizing evangelicalism
*''[[Sojourners]]''
===Seminaries and Theological Colleges===
*[http://www.africanbiblecolleges.com/ African Bible College] (Malawi; Uganda)
*[[Asbury Theological Seminary]] (Kentucky)
*[[Covenant Theological Seminary]] (Missouri)
*[[Dallas Theological Seminary]] (Texas)
*[http://www.denverseminary.edu/ Denver Seminary] (Colorado)
*[[Fuller Theological Seminary]] (California)
*[[Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary]] (Massachusetts)
*[http://www.mbts.edu/ Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary] (Missouri)
*[[Moore Theological College]] (Sydney, Australia)
*[[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Louisiana)
*[[Reformed Theological Seminary]] (Mississippi; Florida; North Carolina)
*[[Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (North Carolina)
*[[Southern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Kentucky)
*[[Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Texas)
*[http://www.tbs.edu/ Toronto Baptist Seminary] (Toronto, Canada)
*[[Trinity Evangelical Divinity School]] (Illinios)
*[[Westminster Seminary California]] (California)
*[[Westminster Theological Seminary]] (Pennsylvania)
*[[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]] (Illinois)
===Regional Groups===
*[[Evangelical Fellowship of Canada]]
*[[Evangelical Movement of Wales]]
*[[National Association of Evangelicals]]
*[[Sydney Anglicans]] (''the Diocese of [[Sydney]] is an influential evangelical group within the [[Anglican]] communion'')
==External links==
<!-- N.B. Please do not include links simply because they refer to Evangelicals. As in all of Wikipedia, external links are for further research. -->
'''Evangelical [[apologetics]]/theology:'''
*[http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=pages/articles.jsp&pagetitle=Articles Apologetics.com -articles]
*[http://www.christian-thinktank.com Christian Thinktank]
*[http://www.carm.org/apologetics.htm The Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]
*[http://lionofjudah.tribulationforces.com/ Lion of Judah Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.leaderu.com/menus/theology.html Probe Ministries -Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.rbc.org/rtb/ Reasons to Believe]
*[http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/resource.html Apologetics Information Ministry]
*[http://hisdefense.org/Links/Authors/tabid/297/Default.aspx Academy of Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.str.org/ Stand to Reason]
*[http://www.ses.edu/journal/ Christian Apologetic Journal]
*[http://www.eternalministries.org Eternal Ministries]
'''Research on Evangelicals:'''
*[http://www.barna.org/ Barna Research Group]
*[http://pewforum.org/publications/surveys/green-full.pdf 2004 American Religious Landscape Report PDF at ''The Pew Forum on Religion in American Life]
*[http://www.wheaton.edu/isae/ Institute for the Study of American Evangelicalism], Wheaton College
*[http://www.methodist.org.uk/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.content&cmid=693 Evangelicals in Methodism: Mainstream, Marginal or Misunderstood?] (British perspective)
'''Associations:'''
*[http://www.nae.net National Association of Evangelicals] (United States)
*[http://www.worldevangelical.org World Evangelical Alliance] has a list of evangelical organizations from many nations.
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism| ]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[de:Evangelikal]]
[[es:Evangelicalismo]]
[[fr:Églises évangéliques]]
[[ja:福音派]]
[[pl:Ewangelikalizm]]
[[pt:Igreja evangélica]]
[[sk:Evanjelikálne hnutie]]
[[vi:Phong trào Tin Lành]]
[[zh:福音神學]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Euphonium</title>
<id>10371</id>
<revision>
<id>41574124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:07:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Erekrose</username>
<id>52045</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ Added bullets</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''euphonium''' is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced [[brass instrument]]. It derives its name from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''euphonion'', meaning "beautiful-sounding" or "sweet-voiced". A person who plays euphonium is sometimes called an ''euphoniumist''.
== Construction and general characteristics ==
Like the other conical-bore instruments, the [[cornet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[French horn]], and [[tuba]], the euphonium's tubing gradually increases in diameter throughout its length, giving it a distinct warm, rich sound.
Current models have three or four valves, which are usually [[piston valve|piston valves]], though [[rotary valve|rotary valved]] models do exist. At least three of the instrument’s valves are usually fingered with the right hand. Some earlier designs even had up to six valves to adress the inevitable [[Intonation_%28music%29|intonation]] problems with valve combinations. Currently though, the most common approach (besides ignoring the issue) is a [[Brass_instrument#Valves|compensation system]], sometimes accompanied by a trigger device for the main tuning slide.
The euphonium's fundamental pitch is concert B-flat (Bb); in the United States, music for the instrument is usually written in the [[bass clef]] without transposition, though treble-clef euphonium parts, transposing down a major ninth, are commonly found in concert band music for the sake of students who have recently switched from the trumpet. In the brass band tradition, especially in the United Kingdom, euphonium music is always written in Bb [[treble clef]], transposing down a major ninth. In continental European music, parts for the euphonium are sometimes written in the [[bass clef]] but a major second higher than sounding.
The range of the euphonium is quite extensive; the true (non-pedal) range goes from E-natural (three valves) or B-natural (fourth valves¹) below the bass clef up to F six ledger lines above the bass clef or even higher in professional hands, though fourth ledger line Bb is a normal limit for younger players. With the use of pedal tones (the fundamentals of the instrument's harmonic series), the range goes a further octave down, almost to the bottom of the [[piano]] keyboard.
A truly characteristic euphonium sound is elusive and varies geographically. Nearly all players would agree that an ideal sound is dark, rich, warm, and velvety, with virtually no hardness to it. On the other hand, European players, especially British ones, generally use a faster, more constant vibrato and a more veiled tone, whereas Americans tend to prefer a more straightforward, open sound with slower and less frequent vibrato. This also has to do with the different models preferred by British and American players. It is important to note that while the finger technique of the euphonium is no different from that of the [[trumpet]], [[French horn]], or [[tuba]], it is very difficult for beginning players to approach this characteristic warm sound, and thus the euphonium is considered one of the more difficult Western instruments for children to learn.
¹NB: B-natural below the bass clef is playable only if the 4th valve is compensating; otherwise the lowest non-pedal tone available is C below the bass clef. Again, see the article on [[brass instrument|brass instruments]].
[[Image:EuphoniumAndTuba wb.jpg|thumb|left|Euphonium and tuba comparison]]
=== Common valve configurations ===
If there is a fourth valve, it is tuned to the interval of a fourth, serving to bridge the gap between the fundamental and the first harmonic on the [[Harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]]. It can be used instead of the valve combination one and three, also offering advanced players alternative fingerings to avoid intonation problems.
Basic four valve instruments are built in an '''in-line c
|
[[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F. C. Baur]] and the [[Tübingen School]] of historical criticism of texts in the 19th century.
==History==
[[Image:Codex claromontanus greek.jpg|left|thumb|Romans 7.4&ndash;7 from the [[Greek language|Greek]] text of the [[Codex Claromontanus]].]]
It was probably written at [[Corinth]] or possibly in nearby Cenchrea. Phoebe (16:1) of Cenchrea, the Aegean port of Corinth, conveyed it to [[Rome]], and Gaius of Corinth entertained the [[Twelve Apostles#Other apostles|Apostle]] [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] at the time of his writing it (16:23; [[1 Corinthians|1 Cor]] 1:14), and Erastus was chamberlain of the city, that is, of Corinth ([[2 Timothy|2 Tim]] 4:20).
The precise time at which it was written is not mentioned in the epistle, but it was obviously written when the collection for Jerusalem had been assembled and Paul was about to "go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints", that is,
at the close of his second visit to [[Greece]], during the winter preceding his last visit to that city (Rom 15:25; cf. [[Acts]] 19:21; 20:2, 3, 16; 1 Cor 16:1&ndash;4) early in AD 58.
Probably, [[Christianity]] was planted in Rome by some of those who had been at [[Jerusalem]] on the day of [[Pentecost]] (Acts 2:10). At this time the [[Jew]]s were very numerous in Rome, and their [[synagogue]]s were probably resorted to by Romans also, who in this way became acquainted with the story of [[Jesus]] as reported among the Jews. Thus a church composed of both Jews and [[Gentile]]s was formed at Rome. Many of the brethren went out to meet Paul on his approach to Rome. There are evidences that Christians were then in Rome in considerable numbers, and had probably more than one place of meeting (Rom 16:14, 15).
Many arguments found in Romans have been articulated in earlier letters, particularly Galatians and the letters to the church at Corinth.
==Purposes of writing==
The purposes of the apostle in writing were fourfold and are articulated in the second half of chapter 15.
# Paul asks for prayers in his coming journey to Jerusalem and that the offering collected from the Gentile churches would be accepted there.
# Paul is planning to come to Rome from Jerusalem and spend some time there before moving on to Spain. He hopes the Roman church will support his mission to Spain.
#In that Paul has never been to Rome, he writes the letter to outline his gospel so that his teaching will not be confused by that of "false teachers".
# Paul is aware that there is some conflict between Gentile and Jewish Christians in the Roman church, and he writes to address those concerns (chapters thirteen and the first half of fourteen). While the Roman church was founded by Jewish Christians, the exile of Jews from Rome in AD 49 by Claudius resulted in Gentile Christians taking leadership positions. Upon the return of Jewish Christians after Claudius's death in AD 54, tensions resulted over the keeping of Jewish food laws and observance of Jewish holy days.
==Content==
The main theme of the letter is the gospel of Jesus Christ (1:16&ndash;17). Paul argues that all humanity is guilty and accountable to God for [[sin]] and that it is only through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ that humanity can attain salvation. God is therefore both just and the one who justifies. In response to God's free, sovereign and graceful action of salvation, we can be justified by faith. Paul uses the example of Abraham to demonstrate that it is by faith not works that mankind can be seen as righteous before God.
===[[Assurance (theology)|Assurance of salvation]]===
In chapters five through eight, Paul argues that believers can be [[Assurance|assured]] of their [[hope]] in [[salvation]], that believers have been freed from the bondage of sin and the dominion and bondage of the [[Law]]. Paul states that, through [[baptism]], the faithful have been joined with Jesus and freed from sin. Believers can celebrate in that assurance of salvation. In chapters nine through eleven, Paul addresses the faithfulness of [[God]] to [[Israel]], wherein he says that God has been faithful to His promise but "not all who are descended from Israel are Israel". Paul argues of God's freedom to choose who He will or will not save, but also concludes the section by saying that after a full measure of Gentiles have been saved, all Israel will be saved.
===The gospel transforms believers===
In chapter twelve through the first part of chapter fifteen, Paul outlines how the gospel transforms believers and the behaviour that results from such a transformation. In this section of the letter, Paul addresses the tension between those who wish to observe Jewish traditions and those who do not. The concluding verses contain a description of his travel plans and personal greetings salutations. One-third of the twenty-one Christians identified in the greetings are women, an indication that women played an important role in the early church at Rome.
==General Characterisation==
Paul sometimes uses a style of writing common in his time called a "diatribe". He appears to be responding to a "heckler", and the letter is structured as a series of arguments. The letter is addressed to the church at Rome which consisted of both Gentile and Jewish Christians. In the flow of the letter, Paul shifts his arguments, sometimes addressing the Jewish members of the church, sometimes the Gentile membership, and sometimes the church as a whole.
== Protestant treatment of the text ==
Paul's letter to Rome is a rich, textured articulation of the gospel from which many of the doctrines of the church have made their foundation.
[[Martin Luther]] described Romans as "the chief book of the New Testament . . . it deserves to be known by heart, word for word, by every Christian."
The "Romans Road" refers to a set of scriptures from the book of Romans that Christian evangelists use to present a clear and simple case for personal salvation for each person. They are:
Romans 3:23
"For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God."
Romans 6:23a
"The wages of sin is death."
Romans 6:23b
"But the gift of God is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."
Romans 5:8
"God demonstrates His own love for us, in that while we were yet sinners Christ died for us!"
Romans 10:9, 10
"If you confess with your mouth Jesus as Lord, and believe in your heart that God raised Jesus from the dead, you shall be saved; for with the heart man believes, resulting in righteousness, and with the mouth he confesses, resulting in salvation."
Romans 10:13
"Whoever will call on the name of the Lord will be saved!"
The Book of Romans has been at the forefront of several major movements in Protestantism. Martin Luther's lectures on Romans in 1515-16 were probably the crucial moment in which he developed his criticism of Catholicism which led to the 95 Theses of 1517, signalling the start of the Protestant Reformation. In 1738, while reading Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans, John Wesley famously felt his heart "strangely warmed", a conversion experience which is often seen as the beginning of Methodism. In 1919, [[Karl Barth]]'s commentary on Romans was the publication which is widely seen as the beginning of neo-orthodoxy.
== Catholic treatment of the text ==
Catholics accept the necessity of faith for salvation, but point to Rom 2:5&ndash;11 for the necessity of living a virtuous life as well:
"God . . . will repay everyone according to his works: eternal life to those who seek glory, honor, and immortality through perseverance in good works, but wrath and fury to those who selfishly disobey the truth and obey wickedness. Yes, affliction and distress will come upon every human being who does evil, Jew first and then Greek. But there will be glory, honor, and peace for everyone who does good, Jew first and then Greek. There is no partiality with God."
==External links==
Online translations of [[Epistle to the Romans]]:
*{{biblegateway||Romans}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/romans.html Early Christian Writings]: ''Epistle to the Romans''
Related articles:
*[http://www.romansroad.com/id49.htm The "Roman road"]
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-04.htm A Wesleyan Interpretation of Romans 5-8] by Jerry McCant
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13156a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Romans from the Biblical Resource Database]
*[[Primacy of Simon Peter]]
----
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<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]]
|}
</center>
[[category:New Testament books|Romans]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Römer]]
[[es:Epístola a los Romanos]]
[[fr:Épître aux Romains]]
[[ko:로마인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Roma]]
[[ia:Epistola al Romanos]]
[[hu:Pál levele a rómaiakhoz]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Romeinen]]
[[nds:Römerbreef]]
[[ja:ローマ人への手紙]]
[[pl:List do Rzymian]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Romanos]]
[[ru:Послание к Римлянам]]
[[scn:Littra a li Rumani]]
[[fi:Kirje roomalaisille]]
[[sv:Romarbrevet]]
[[zh:羅馬書]]
[[no:Paulus' brev til romerne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eleanor of Aquitaine</title>
<id>9962</id>
<revision>
<id>41949684</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:56:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bletch</username>
<id>93062</id>
</contributor>
<m
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earliest being São Jorge da Mina ([[Elmina]]), begun in 1482. The chief commodities dealt in were [[slavery|slaves]], [[gold]], [[ivory]] and [[spice]]s. The discovery of [[The Americas|America]] (1492) was followed by a great development of the [[African slave trade|slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively confined to Muslim Africa. The lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of [[Alluvial deposit|alluvial]] gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea coast. [[England|English]] mariners went there as early as 1553, and they were followed by Spaniards, [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[France|French]], [[Denmark|Danish]] and other adventurers. Much of [[Senegambia]] was made known as a result of quests during the 16th century for the "hills of gold" in [[Bambuk]] and the fabled wealth of [[Timbuktu]], but the middle [[Niger]] was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in the 17th century from Portugal to the Netherlands and from the Dutch in the 18th and 19th centuries to France and Britain. The whole coast from [[Senegal]] to [[Lagos]] was dotted with forts and "factories" of rival powers, and this international patchwork persisted into the 20th century though all the hinterland had become either French or British territory.
Southward from the mouth of the [[Congo River|Congo]] to the inhospitable region of [[Damaraland]] (in what is present-day [[Namibia]]), the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, acquired influence over the Bantu inhabitants, and in the early part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity was largely adopted in the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo Empire]]. An incursion of cannibalistic tribes from the interior later in the same century broke the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity was transferred to a great extent farther south, São Paulo de Loanda (present-day [[Luanda]]) being founded in 1576. Before [[Angola]]n independence, the sovereignty of Portugal over this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, had been once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640-1648, when the Dutch held the seaports.
Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited regions of [[South Africa]], the Portuguese no sooner discovered than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples between Sofala and [[Cape Guardafui]]. By 1520 all these Muslim [[sultan]]ates had been seized by Portugal, [[Mocambique|Moçambique]] being chosen as the chief city of her East African possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to the coastlands. The lower and middle [[Zambezi]] valley was explored (16th and 17th centuries), and here the Portuguese found semi-assimilated Bantu tribes, who had been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modern [[Zimbabwe]]) known to them as the kingdom or empire of [[Monomotapa]], where gold had been worked by the natives from about the 12th century, and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century. Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the 17th century, and in the middle of the 18th century ceased with the abandonment of the forts in the [[Manica]] district.
At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a strong influence in Ethiopia also. In the ruler of Ethiopia (to whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined they had found the legendary Christian king, [[Prester John]], and when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the Christian religion was imminent by the victories of the sultan [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under [[Cristóvão da Gama]] during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favor of Ethiopia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] travelled to Ethiopia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the Ethiopians to Roman [[Catholicism]] they acquired an extensive knowledge of the country. [[Pedro Paez]] in 1605 and, 20 years later, [[Jeronimo Lobo|Jerónimo Lobo]], both visited the sources of the [[Blue Nile]]. In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were expelled from the Ethiopian dominions. At this time Portuguese influence on the [[Zanzibar]] coast faded before the power of the Arabs of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], and by 1730 no point on the east coast north of [[Cape Delgado]] was held by Portugal.
It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to India, and mariners of other nations who followed in their wake used [[Table Bay]] only as a convenient spot wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the beginning of the 17th century the bay was much resorted to for this purpose, chiefly by British and Dutch vessels.
In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two officers of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], on their own initiative, took possession of Table Bay in the name of King [[James I of England|James]], fearing otherwise that British ships would be "frustrated of watering but by license." Their action was not approved in [[London]] and the proclamation they issued remained without effect. The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the British. On the advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the [[Dutch East India Company|Netherlands East India Company]], in 1651, sent out a fleet of three small vessels under [[Jan van Riebeeck]] which reached Table Bay on the [[April 6]], [[1652]] when, 164 years after its discovery, the first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa. The Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and Britain was content to seize the island of [[Saint Helena]] as her half-way house to the East. Until the Dutch landed, the southern tip of Africa was inhabited by a sparse Khoisan speaking culture including both [[Bushmen]] (hunter-gatherers) and [[Khoi]] (herders). The Khoi have in the past been referred to by Europeans "Hottentots". Bushmen have at times been called "San," but this term is generally considered offensive as it is Khoikhoi word meaning "outsider." Europeans found it a paradise for their temperate crop suites.
In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the most westerly outpost of the [[Netherlands East Indies|Dutch East Indies]]. Nevertheless, despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers, the Dutch colonists, including Huguenots who had fled France, gradually spread northward, stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow.
During the 18th century the [[Slavery|slave trade]] reached its highest development, the trade in gold, ivory, [[gum]] and spices being small in comparison.
[[Image:Africamap1812.jpg|right|thumb|400px|An 1812 map of Africa by Arrowsmith and Lewis]]
=== 19th Century European explorers ===
''See also: [[Colonization of Africa]], [[Scramble for Africa]]''
Although the [[Napoleonic Wars]] distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to regain direct control over that country, followed in 1811 by the establishment under [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] of an almost independent state, and the extension of Egyptian rule over the eastern [[Sudan]] (from 1820 onward). In South Africa the struggle with [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 [[Cape Colony]], which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent, the most notable being the occupation of Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent additions to the knowledge of the Nile. The city of [[Zanzibar, Tanzania|Zanzibar]], on the island of that name, founded in 1832 by [[Seyyid Said]] of Muscat, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery in 1840-1848, by the missionaries [[Johann Ludwig Krapf]] and [[Johann Rebmann]], of the snow-clad mountains of [[Kilimanjaro]] and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further knowledge.
At this period, the middle of the 19th century, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Their work, largely beneficent, was being conducted in regions and among peoples little known, and in many instances missionaries turned explorers and became pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was [[David Livingstone]], who had been engaged since 1840 in missionary work north of the [[Orange River|Orange]]. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached [[Lake Ngami]], and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from west to east, making known the great waterways of th
|
chwarzenegger (1984)]]
The 6'2" Schwarzenegger's breakthrough film was ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982), and this was cemented by a sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984). As an actor, he is best-known as the title character of director [[James Cameron]]'s android thriller ''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984). Schwarzenegger's acting ability (described by one critic as having an emotional range that "stretches from A almost to B") has long been the butt of many jokes; he retains a strong Austrian accent in his speech even in roles which do not call for such an accent. However, few of the fans of his work seem to care. He also made a mark for injecting his films with a droll, often self-deprecating sense of humor, setting him apart from more serious action heroes such as [[Sylvester Stallone]], his most prominent contemporary. (As an aside, his alternative-universe comedy/thriller ''[[Last Action Hero]]'' featured a poster of the movie ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' which, in that alternate universe had Sylvester Stallone as its star; a similar in-joke in ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'' suggested that the two actors might one day co-star, something which has yet to come to pass).
[[Image:predator.gif|thumb|180px|left|''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', starring Schwarzenegger (1987)]]
Following his arrival as a Hollywood superstar, he made a number of commercially successful films: ''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985), ''[[Raw Deal (1986 movie)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986), ''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987), and ''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988). In ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'' (1987), another commercially successful film, Schwarzenegger led a cast which included future [[Minnesota]] [[List of Governors of Minnesota|Governor]] [[Jesse Ventura]] (Ventura also appears in ''Running Man'') and future [[Kentucky]] [[List of Governors of Kentucky|Gubernatorial]] Candidate [[Sonny Landham]]. ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'', (1988) a comedy with [[Danny DeVito]], was a change of pace. ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990), at that time the most expensive film ever, netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the gross, and was a widely praised, thought-provoking science-fiction script behind his usual violent action. ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990) was another comedy.
Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a [[1990]] episode of the [[TV series]] ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'', entitled "[[List of Tales from the Crypt episodes#Season 2 (1990)|The Switch]]", and then with the [[1992]] [[telemovie]] ''[[Christmas in Connecticut]]''. He has not directed since.
Schwarzenegger's critical and commercial high-water mark was ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991). His next film project, the self-aware action comedy ''[[Last Action Hero]],'' (1993), had the misfortune to be released opposite ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and suffered accordingly. Schwarzenegger's career never again achieved quite the same prominence, his aura of box-office invincibility suffering. ''[[True Lies]]'' (1994) was a popular sendup of spy films, and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with director [[James Cameron]], whose own career had taken off with ''[[The Terminator]]''. Shortly thereafter came ''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'', which brought Schwarzenegger his second [[Golden Globe]] nomination, this time for Best Actor - Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the popular, albeit by-the-numbers ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'' (1996), and ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman & Robin]]'' (1997), his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Although ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman & Robin]]'' was a famous disaster, Schwarzenegger emerged largely unscathed. Several film projects were announced with Schwarzenegger attached to star including the remake of ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'', a new film of ''[[I Am Legend]]'' and a World War II film scripted by [[Quentin Tarantino]] that would have seen Schwarzenegger finally play an Austrian. Instead he returned with ''[[End of Days]]'' (1999) - an unsuccessful and atypically dark attempt to broaden his acting range - ''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000) and ''[[Collateral Damage]]'' (2002), none of which came close to recapturing his former prominence. He starred in the popularly received ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003) His last film appearance to date was a cameo appearance in the 2004 remake of ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'', notable for featuring him onscreen with action star [[Jackie Chan]] for the first time.
===Filmography===
*''[[Brutal Deluxe]]'' (2008/2009)
*''[[The Kid & I]]'' (2005)
*''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Rundown]]'' (2003) (cameo)
*''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003)
*''[[Collateral Damage (movie)|Collateral Damage]]'' (2002)
*''[[Dr. Dolittle 2]]'' (2001) (voice)
*''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000)
*''[[End of Days]]'' (1999)
*''[[Batman & Robin]]'' (1997)
*''[[Eraser (1996 film)|Eraser]]'' (1996)
*''[[Jingle All the Way]]'' (1996)
*''[[Beretta's Island]]'' (1994)
*''[[True Lies]]'' (1994)
*''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'' (1994)
*''[[Last Action Hero]]'' (1993)
*''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991)
*''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990)
*''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990)
*''[[Twins (film)|Twins]]'' (1988)
*''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988)
*''[[Predator (film)|Predator]]'' (1987)
*''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987)
*''[[Raw Deal (1986 film)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986)
*''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'' (1985)
*''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985)
*''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984)
*''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984)
*''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Jayne Mansfield Story]]'' (1980)
*''[[The Villain]]'' (1979)
*''[[Scavenger Hunt]]'' (1979)
*''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977)
*''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976)
*''[[Happy Anniversary and Goodbye]]'' (1974)
*''[[The Long Goodbye (film)|The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973)
*''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970)
==Political career==
[[Image:Arnoldandson.jpg|thumb|200px|Schwarzenegger and son Patrick at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]] in December 2002.]]
===Political affiliation===
Schwarzenegger is a registered [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], unusual among the often heavily [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] community. He describes himself as fiscally conservative and socially moderate (i.e. he is [[pro-choice]] and supports [[stem cell]] research.) Schwarzenegger backed Republican President [[Ronald Reagan]] (another movie star turned politician) while Reagan was in office, and campaigned for [[George H.W. Bush]] in 1988. However, he chastised fellow Republicans during the impeachment of [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998. Sensing an opportunity to affect the outcome of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential race]], Schwarzenegger campaigned in Ohio for Republican [[George W. Bush]] in the closing days of the campaign.
In an interview on [[October 29]], [[2002]], with [[MSNBC]]'s [[Chris Matthews]] at [[Chapman University]], Schwarzenegger explained why he is a Republican:
:"Well, I think because a lot of people don't know why I'm a Republican, I came first of all from a socialistic country which is Austria and when I came over here in 1968 with the [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|presidential elections]] coming up in November, I came over in October, I heard a lot of the press conferences from both of the candidates [[Hubert Humphrey|Humphrey]] and [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]], and Humphrey was talking about more government is the solution, protectionism, and everything he said about government involvement sounded to me more like [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Austrian socialism]].
:Then when I heard Nixon talk about it, he said open up the borders, the consumers should be represented there ultimately and strengthen the military and get the government off our backs. I said to myself, what is this guy's party affiliation? I didn't know anything at that point. So I asked my friend, what is Nixon? He's a Republican. And I said, I am a Republican. That's how I became a Republican."
Regarding a run for public office, in 1999, he told ''Talk'' magazine that "I think about it many times." He also said, "The possibility is there because I feel it inside. I feel there are a lot of people standing still and not doing enough. And there's a vacuum."
===Venturing into politics===
Schwarzenegger was appointed Chairman of the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]] in the administration of [[George H. W. Bush]] from 1990 to 1993. During that time, Schwarzenegger traveled across the U.S. promoting physical fitness to kids and lobbying all 50 governors in support of school fitness programs. "He would hit sometimes two or three governors in a day in his own airplane, at his own expense, somewhere around $4,000 an hour," said George Otott, his chief of staff at the time. "When he walked in, it wasn't about the governor, it was about Arnold," said Otott, a retired Marine. "He has what we in the military call a ''command presence''. He becomes the number one attention-getter."
He later served as Chairman for the California ''Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports'' under Governor [[Pete Wilson]]. Schwarzenegger scored his first real political success on [[November 5]], [[2002]], when [[California]]ns approved his personally crafted and sponsored [[California Proposition 49 (2002)|Proposition 49]], the "After School Education and Safety Program Act of 2002", an initiative to make state grants available for after-school programs.
===2003 California recall===
For years, Schwarze
|
a.html Listeria and pregnancy], from the American Pregnancy Association. Retrieved 28 February 2006.</ref>
Some studies claim to show that cheeses including Cheddar, Mozzarella, Swiss and American can help to prevent [[tooth decay]].<ref>National Dairy Council. [http://www.nationaldairycouncil.org/NationalDairyCouncil/Nutrition/Products/cheesePage6.htm Specific Health Benefits of Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.</ref> Several mechanisms for this protection have been proposed:
* The calcium, protein, and phosphorus in cheese may act to protect [[tooth enamel]].
* Cheese increases saliva flow, washing away acids and sugars.
* Cheese may have an antibacterial effect in the mouth.
Cheese is often avoided by those who are [[lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]], but ripened cheeses like [[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]] contain only about 5% of the [[lactose]] found in whole [[milk]], and aged cheeses contain almost none.<ref>[http://www.ilovecheese.com/lactose_intolerant_faqs.asp Lactose Intolerance FAQs] from the American Dairy Association. Retrieved October 15, 2005.</ref> Some people suffer reactions to [[amines]] found in cheese, particularly [[histamine]] and [[tyramine]]. Some aged cheeses contain significant concentrations of these amines, which can trigger symptoms mimicking an [[allergic reaction]]: [[headache]]s, [[rash]]es, and [[blood pressure]] elevations.
==Making cheese==
:''Main article: [[Home cheesemaking]]''
===Curdling===
The only strictly required step in making any sort of cheese is separating the milk into solid [[curd]]s and liquid [[whey]]. Usually this is done by acidifying the milk and adding [[rennet]]. The acidification is accomplished directly by the addition of an acid like [[vinegar]] in a few cases ([[paneer]], [[queso fresco]]), but usually starter [[bacteria]] are employed instead. These starter bacteria convert [[milk sugar]]s into [[lactic acid]]. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the ''[[Lactococci]]'', ''[[Lactobacilli]]'', or ''[[Streptococci]]'' families. [[Cheeses of Switzerland|Swiss]] starter cultures also include ''[[Propionibacter shermani]]'', which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving [[Swiss cheese]] or [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] its holes.
Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity, but most cheeses also use [[rennet]]. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery [[gel]] compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It also allows curdling at a lower acidity&mdash;important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. In general, softer, smaller, fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, longer-aged varieties.
===Curd processing===
At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd.
Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of 35°C&ndash;55°C (100°F&ndash;130°F). This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with [[thermophilic]] starter bacteria which survive this step&mdash;either [[lactobacilli]] or [[Streptococcus salivarius|streptococci]].
[[Edible salt|Salt]] has a number of roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms up a cheese’s texture in an interaction with its [[protein]]s. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds.
A number of other techniques can be employed to influence the cheese's final texture and flavor. Some examples:
*Stretching: ([[Mozzarella]], [[Provolone (cheese)|Provolone]]) The curd is stretched and kneaded in hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body.
*Cheddaring: ([[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]], other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or ''milled'') for a long period of time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.
*Washing: ([[Edam (cheese)|Edam]], [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]], [[Colby cheese|Colby]]) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.
Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture &mdash; the molds are designed to allow water to escape &mdash; and unifies the curds into a single solid body.
===Aging===
A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties, rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed&mdash;[[cheese curds]] are eaten on their own&mdash;but usually cheeses are left to rest under carefully controlled conditions. This aging period (also called ripening, or, from the [[French language|French]], ''affinage'') can last from a few days to several years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform its texture and intensify its flavor. This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of [[casein]] [[proteins]] and [[butterfat|milkfat]] into a complex mix of [[amino acid]]s, [[amine]]s, and [[fatty acid]]s.
[[Image:Vacherin_du_haut_Doubs.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Vacherin du Haut-Doubs cheese, a French cheese with a white ''Penicillium'' mold rind.]]Some cheeses have additional bacteria or [[mold]]s intentionally introduced to them before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the air of the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages.
For the [[blue cheese]]s ([[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]], [[Stilton (cheese)|Stilton]], [[Gorgonzola (cheese)|Gorgonzola]]), ''[[Penicillium]]'' mold is introduced to the curd before molding. During aging, the blue molds (''[[Penicillium roqueforti|P. roqueforti]]'' or ''[[Penicillium glaucum|P. glaucum]]'' ) grow in the small fissures in the cheese, imparting a sharp flavor and aroma. The same molds are also grown on the surface of some aged [[goat cheese]]s. The soft cheeses [[Brie (cheese)|Brie]] and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]], among others, get a surface growth of other ''Penicillium'' species, white-colored ''[[Penicillium candida|P. candidum]]'' or ''[[Penicillium camemberti|P. camemberti]]''. The surface mold contributes to the interior texture and flavor of these small cheeses.
Some cheeses are periodically washed in a saltwater [[brine]] during their ripening. Not only does the brine carry flavors into the cheese (it might be seasoned with [[spice]]s or [[wine]]), but the salty environment may nurture the growth of the ''[[Brevibacterium linens]]'' bacteria, which can impart a very pronounced odor ([[Limburger cheese|Limburger]]) and interesting flavor. The same bacteria can also have some impact on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]]. Large populations of these "smear bacteria" show up as a sticky orange-red layer on some brine-washed cheeses.
==Cheese in language==
Throughout the history of the [[English language]], the word ''cheese'' has been ''chese'' (in [[Middle English]]) and ''cīese'' or ''cēse'' (in [[Old English]]). Similar words are shared by other [[West Germanic languages]] &mdash; [[Frisian language|Frisian]] ''tsiis'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''kaas'', [[German language|German]] ''Käse'', [[Old High German]] ''chāsi'' &mdash; all of which probably come from the reconstructed West-Germanic root ''*kasjus'', which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin. The [[Latin]] word ''caseus'' &mdash; from which are derived the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''queso'', [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''queijo'', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''caş'' and [[Italian language|Italian]] ''cacio'' &mdash; and the [[Celtic languages|Celtic root]] which gives the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''cáis'' and the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''caws'' are also related. This whole group of words is probably derived from the [[proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] root ''*kwat-'', which means "to ferment, become sour".
When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to be used: ''formaticum'', from ''caseus formatus'', or "molded cheese". It is from this word that we get the [[French language|French]] ''fromage'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''formaggio'', [[Breton language|Breton]] ''fourmaj'' and [[Provençal language|Provençal]] ''furmo''. ''Cheese'' itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or "formed". ''[[Head cheese]]'' uses the word in this sense.
In modern English [[slang]], something "cheesy" is [[kitsch]], cheap, inauthentic, or of poor quality. One can also be "cheesed off"&mdash; unhappy or annoyed. Such negative connotations might derive from a ripe cheese's sometimes-unpleasant odor. Almost certainly the odor explains the use of "cutting the cheese" as a [[euphemism]] for [[flatulence]]. A more upbeat slang use is seen in "the big cheese", an expression referring to the most important person in a group, the "big shot" or "head honcho". This u
|
eters was 13, the famous African-American activist and NAACP field secretary [[William Pickens]] visited the family and left a signed copy of his book ''Bursting Bonds''. During the [[Second World War]], Peters' father was imprisoned by the Nazis for refusing to obey their totalitarian regime. The Peters world map stands as an interesting and controversial attempt to use cartographic imagery for progressive causes.
==On the screen==
The "Peters projection map" was featured in the television drama, ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' (season 2, episode 16), in which the (fictitious) "Organisation of Cartographers for Social Equality" is given access to the [[White House Press Secretary]] due to [[Big Block of Cheese Day]]. Dr. John Fallow (actor [[John Billingsley]]) explains why the [[President of the United States]] of America should champion the use of this map in schools, because it correctly represents the size of the countries and therefore gives due prominence to countries in less developed parts of the world that are otherwise under-estimated because "size matters". Peters map sales were greatly increased by the appearance on the show.
The map is also a favorite of military strategist [[Thomas Barnett]], who has included it in his presentations of "The Brief" which have aired on [[C-SPAN]] in the United States.
==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Dymaxion map]]
*[[Map projection]]
*[[Mercator projection]]
*[[Nautical chart]]
*[[Robinson projection]]
*[[Transverse Mercator projection]]
==External links==
* http://www.petersmap.com
* [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1124880.cms The Size of the Matter] - An article in the [[Times of India]] on why the Gall-Peters projection should be more widely used.
* http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa030201a.htm - A critique of the importance of the Gall-Peters projection.
[[Category:Cartographic projections]]
[[de:Peters-Projektion]]
[[es:Proyección de Peters]]
[[pl:Odwzorowanie walcowe równopowierzchniowe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gram Parsons</title>
<id>12991</id>
<revision>
<id>41827505</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:24:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.12.80.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram parsons.jpg|thumb|Gram Parsons, wearing his [[Nudie suit]] on the lot of A&M records]]
'''Gram Parsons''' ([[November 5]], [[1946]] &ndash; [[September 19]], [[1973]]) was an American [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[guitarist]] and [[pianist]] born '''Ingram Cecil Connor, III'''. A solo artist as well as a member of both [[The Byrds]] and [[The Flying Burrito Brothers]], he is best known for a series of recordings which anticipate the so-called [[country rock]] and [[alt-country]] movements of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Wary of labels, Parsons described his records as "Cosmic American Music". He died of a drug overdose at the age of 26.
==Biography==
===1946-1968===
Parsons was born Ingram Cecil Connor, III in [[Winter Haven, Florida]], the grandson of [[citrus]] fruit baron John Snively, with extensive properties both there and in [[Waycross, Georgia]], where he was raised. A sister, Avis, soon followed. Despite all the material advantages of old Southern money, he was surrounded by a dysfunctional family in which [[alcoholism]] was rife. His father, "Coon Dog" Connor, suffered mood swings and abruptly committed [[suicide]] shortly before [[Christmas Day]] [[1958]]. His wife, Avis, subsequently married a pseudo-grifter named Robert Parsons, whose [[surname]] was adopted by young Ingram, the elder Parsons going as far to have new birth certificates drawn up for his stepson and stepdaughter. Henceforth he would be known as Gram Parsons. For a time, the family found a stability of sorts until Avis rapidly descended into alcoholism, leading to her [[death]] from [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]].
As his family disintegrated around him, Gram developed strong musical interests. While barely in his teens, he played in [[rock and roll]] cover bands such as the Pacers and the Legends, headlining in clubs owned by his stepfather. By the age of 16 he graduated to [[folk music]], and in [[1963]] teamed with his first professional outfit, the Shilohs. Heavily influenced by [[the Kingston Trio]], the band played [[Hootenanny|hootenannies]], [[coffee house|coffee houses]] and [[high school]] auditoriums. Forays into [[New York City]]'s [[Greenwich Village]] included appearances at the [[Bitter End]].
After the band folded he attended [[Harvard University]], studying theology but departing after a semester. Despite being from the [[U.S. Southern States|South]], he first became serious about [[country music]] during his time in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. In [[1966]], he and others from the Boston folk scene formed the [[International Submarine Band]]. The band relocated to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] the following year, and in [[1968]] released the album ''[[Safe at Home]]'', which contains one of his best-known songs, "Luxury Liner," as well as an early version of "Do You Know How It Feels", which he would reprise on the first [[Flying Burrito Brothers]] album. Of course, young Parsons had already moved on to bigger things by the time of the album's release.
===1968-1970===
By 1968, Parsons had come to the attention of [[Chris Hillman]] of [[The Byrds]] who, depleted by the firing of [[David Crosby]] and the departure of [[Michael Clarke (musician)|Michael Clarke]], were seeking new members. Originally conceived as a history of twentieth-century music, beginning with traditional [[country music|country]], taking in [[jazz]], [[rhythm and blues|R&B]], and [[rock and roll|rock]], and ending with the most advanced (for the time) form of electronic wizardry, ''[[Sweetheart of the Rodeo]]'' was their only album with Parsons as a member. As recording plans were made, Gram- originally hired as a jazz pianist- persuaded the Byrds to leave [[Los Angeles]] and record the album in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. Along the way [[Roger McGuinn|McGuinn's]] plan was jettisoned in favor of a full-fledged country and western project, and included Parsons' songs such as "One Hundred Years from Now" and "Hickory Wind," along with compositions by [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Merle Haggard]]. However, due to contractual issues, most of Parsons's vocals were removed from the final product. Parsons left the band after refusing to play in [[apartheid]]-ridden [[South Africa]], and during this period he became friendly with [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]] of [[the Rolling Stones]].
Returning to Los Angeles, Parsons was soon joined by Hillman (both as rhythm guitarists), and the two formed the Flying Burrito Brothers with bassist [[Chris Ethridge]] and [[pedal steel]] player [[Sneaky Pete Kleinow]]. Their [[1969]] album ''[[The Gilded Palace Of Sin]]'' was a modernized version of the [[Bakersfield sound|Bakersfield]] style of country music made popular by [[Buck Owens]], and the band appeared on the album cover wearing [[Nudie suit|Nudie suits]] emblazoned with all sorts of hippie accoutrements. Along with the Parsons-Hillman originals "Christine's Tune" and "Hot Burrito #2" were versions of the [[soul music]] classics "The Dark End of the Street" and "Do Right Woman", the latter featuring David Crosby on high harmony. Though not a commercial success, ''Gilded'' was acclaimed by [[rock critic]] [[Robert Christgau]] as "an ominous, obsessive, tongue-in-cheek country-rock synthesis, absorbing rural and urban, traditional and contemporary, at point of impact." Recorded without a permanent drummer, the group soon added Michael Clarke on drums. After recording the non-album single "The Train Song", which also flopped, bassist Ethridge departed and was replaced by [[Bernie Leadon]], whose joining on lead guitar moved Hillman back to bass.
By this time, Parsons's own use of [[recreational drug use|drugs]] had increased to the extent that the recording of the followup, 1970's ''[[Burrito Deluxe]]'', was slow and acrimonious, and it was no surprise that Parsons was frequently absent from the sessions. The album is considered less inspired than its predecessor, but it is notable for the Parsons-Hillman-Leadon song "Older Guys" and for its take on Jagger and Richards's "Wild Horses" -- the first recording released of this famous song.
The group attempted a follow-up full of unique interpretations of country standards, including "Six Days on the Road" and "Sing Me Back Home". However, after the failure of ''Burrito Deluxe'', these plans were shelved. Parsons soon left the group, who limped on through two more LPs.
===1970-1972===
The remainder of [[1970]] was largely wasted by Parsons, and his penchant for [[cocaine]], [[heroin]] and other indulgences resulted in the abandonment of sessions for what was to have been a solo record for [[A&M Records|A&M]], after which Gram returned to hanging out with the Stones, first in [[London]] and later [[France]], during the recording of ''Exile on Main Street'', allegedly appearing amongst the faceless, boozy choir that inhabits various songs.
===1972-1973===
Parsons returned to the US for a one-off concert with the Burritos, and at Hillman's instigation went to hear [[Emmylou Harris]] sing in a small club in [[Washington, D.C]]. They became friends and, within a year, he asked her to join him in Los Angeles for another attempt to record his first solo album. ''[[GP (album)|GP]]'', 1973, utilized the guitar-playing of [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Ricky Nelson]] sideman [[James Burton]], and featured Parsons songs such as "Big Mouth Blue
|
]] provides for strong presidency within the framework of a [[separation of powers]]. The executive is personified in the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire|president]], elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the [[armed forces]], may negotiate and ratify certain [[treaty|treaties]], and may submit a bill to a national [[referendum]] or to the [[National Assembly]]. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the [[senate]] interim successor to the president.
The unicameral National Assembly is composed of 175 members elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term concurrently with the president. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation.
The judicial system culminates in the [[Supreme Court]]. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses.
==[[Executive branch]]==
'''Principal Government Officials'''<br>
'''chief of state:'''<br>
[[President of Côte d'Ivoire|President]] [[Laurent Gbagbo]] (since [[October 26]], [[2000]])<br>
''note'' - took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. [[Robert Guéï]] who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on [[25 December]] [[1999]], following a military coup against the government of former President [[Henri Konan Bédié]].
'''head of government:'''<br>
[[Prime Minister]] [[Seydou Diarra]] (since [[January 25]], [[2003]])<br>
''note'' - appointed as transitional Prime Minister by President Gbagbo as part of a French brokered peace plan.
<br>''cabinet:'' Council of Ministers appointed by the president
<br>''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held [[26 October]] [[26]], 2000 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
<br>''election results:''
Laurent Gbagbo elected president; percent of vote - Laurent Gbagbo 59.4%, Robert Guéï 32.7%, [[Francis Wodie]] 5.7%, other 2.2%
==[[Legislative branch]]==
Unicameral National Assembly or ''Assemblée Nationale'' (225 seats; members are elected in single- and multi-district elections by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
elections last held [[10 December]] [[2000]] with [[by-election]]s on [[14 January]] [[2001]] (next to be held NA 2005)
<br>''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - FPI 96, PDCI-RDA 94, RDR 5, PIT 4, other 2, independents 22, vacant 2
<br>''note:''
a Senate is scheduled to be created in the next full election in 2005
==[[Judicial branch]]==
Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members.
==[[Political parties]] and leaders==
''Main article: [[List of political parties in Côte d'Ivoire]]''
* [[Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire]]-African Democratic Rally or PDCI-RDA [Aime Henri Konan BÉDIÉ]
* [[Ivorian Popular Front]] or FPI [Laurent GBAGBO]
* [[Ivorian Workers' Party]] or PIT [Francis WODIE]
* [[Rally of the Republicans]] or RDR [Alassane OUATTARA]
* [[Union for Democracy and Peace]] or UDPCI [leader NA]
* over 20 smaller parties
==International organization participation==
[[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Conseil de l'Entente|Entente]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
==Foreign relations==
''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Côte d'Ivoire]]''
'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Pascal Dago KOKORA
<br>''chancery:''
3421 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
<br>''telephone:'' [1] (202) 797-0300
<br>''FAX:'' [1] (202) 462-9444
'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Aubrey HOOKS
<br>''embassy:''
5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan
<br>''mailing address:'' B. P. 1712, Abidjan 01
<br>''telephone:'' [225] 20 21 09 79
<br>''FAX:'' [225] 20 22 32 59
==Flag description==
The [[flag of Côte d'Ivoire]] features three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; similar to the [[flag of Ireland]], which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the [[flag of Italy]], which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the [[flag of France]].
==See also==
* [[Military of Côte d'Ivoire]]
==External links and references==
* [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[fr:Politique de la Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
<id>5568</id>
<revision>
<id>38982526</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:55:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article describes the '''Economy of [[Côte d'Ivoire]]'''''
----
The Ivorian economy is largely [[market]] based and depends heavily on the [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector. Almost 70% of the Ivorian people are engaged in some form of agricultural activity. Côte d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of [[coffee]], [[cocoa]] beans, and [[palm oil]]. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products and to weather conditions. Despite attempts by the [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire|government]] to diversify the economy, it is still largely dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 68% of the population.
The economy performed poorly in the [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], and high [[population growth]] coupled with economic decline resulted in a steady fall in [[living standards]]. [[Measures of national income and output|Gross national product per capita]], now rising again, was about [[USD|U.S.]] $727 in [[1996]]. (It was substantially higher two decades ago.) After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in [[1994]], due to the devaluation of the [[CFA franc]] and improved prices for [[cocoa]] and [[coffee]], growth in nontraditional primary exports such as [[pineapple]]s and [[rubber]], limited trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and [[France]]. The 50% [[devaluation]] of Franc Zone currencies on [[12 January]] 1994 caused a one-time jump in the [[inflation]] rate to 26% in 1994, but the rate fell sharply in 1996-[[1999]]. Moreover, government adherence to donor-mandated reforms led to a jump in growth to 5% annually in 1996-99. A majority of the population remains dependent on smallholder [[cash crop]] production. Principal exports are cocoa, coffee, and [[forestry|tropical wood]]s. Principal U.S. exports are [[rice]] and [[wheat]], [[plastic]] materials and [[resin]]s, [[Kraft process|Kraft paper]], agricultural chemicals, [[telecommunications]], and oil and gas equipment. Principal U.S. imports are [[cocoa]] and cocoa products, [[petroleum]], rubber, and coffee.
== Foreign Direct Investment Statistics ==
[[Foreign direct investment]] (FDI) plays a key role in the Ivorian economy, accounting for between 40% and 45% of total capital in Ivorian firms. France is overwhelmingly the most important foreign investor. In recent years, French investment has accounted for about one-quarter of the total capital in Ivorian enterprises, and between 55% and 60% of the total stock of foreign investment capital.
== Infrastructure ==
By [[developing country]] standards, Côte d'Ivoire has an outstanding [[infrastructure]]. There is a network of more than 8,000 miles of paved roads; modern telecommunications services, including a public [[data communication]]s network; [[cellular phone]]s and [[Internet]] access; two active [[port]]s, one of which, [[Abidjan]], is the most [[Europe]]an in [[West Africa]]; [[Foreign Direct Investment|rail]] links-in the process of being upgraded-both within the country and to [[Burkina Faso]]; regular air service within the region and to and from Europe; and [[real estate]] developments for commercial, industrial, retail, and residential use. Côte d'Ivoire's location and connections to neighboring countries makes it a preferred platform from which Europeans conduct West African business operations. The city of [[Abidjan]] is one of the most modern and liveable cities in the regi
|
uing object as the ''ground'' of change, or the arena where change occurs, as it were. To get back to the Theseus, the question is: Has the Theseus merely changed ''a lot'', or is the Theseus gone, being replaced by a new ship?
One may say, "Sure, it's just a refurbished Theseus, greatly changed to be sure, but still the Theseus". If one thinks in this manner, then consider what happens when the story is extended further. Suppose someone buys all the planks, masts and whatever that is stored in the warehouse, and out of all of those materials, and absolutely no others, he builds a ship according to the same plans that were used to build the ship, christened "the Theseus". And this ship, called ''S3'', is launched and sits on the other side of the harbor where ''S2'' is. Is ''S3'' the same as ''S1''? In other words, is this recently-constructed ship, the same ship as the ship originally called the "Theseus", considering that ''S3'' was built out of the ''same materials'', and according to the ''same plans'' as ''S1''.
One could take this concept even further by not only the properties but also it's subject matter of the "ship". What if instead the warehoused planks, masts, and other materials were used to build something completely different from a ship, like a house. The same materials and supplies are being used; yet they have taken on a new form. This relates to the concept of recreation vs. destruction.
Inevitably, the problem arises: How can one ever say that both ''S2'' ''and'' ''S3'' are the same ship as ''S1'', the original Theseus? This is because if they were both the same as ''S1'', then they would have to be the same as each other. This follows from [[Transitive relation|transitivity]], which states that if ''x'' = ''y'' and ''x'' = ''z'', then ''y'' = ''z''. With ''S2'' and ''S3'' being clearly different ships, sitting on opposite sides of the harbor, three choices present themselves:
* ''S2'' is the same ship as ''S1'';
* ''S3'' is the same ship as ''S1''; or
* ''neither'' is the same ship as ''S1'', and ''S1'' has ceased to exist.
How does one then decide which is the correct answer in this case? It is difficult to tell. Whenever one makes an identity claim (i.e. a claim which states that two things are the same), one almost always use ''two different descriptions''. Sometimes, one may say, "''x'' = ''x''", like "I am myself", but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative. The interesting identity claims are claims where two different descriptions are used for one and the same thing. As an example, take these two descriptions: "the [[Morning Star]]", and "the [[Evening Star]]". Sometimes, one can look in the sky just before dawn, and see a very bright point of light &mdash; that has been called "the Morning Star". And then also, one can look in the sky just after sunset, and see a very similar point &mdash; that has been called "the Evening Star". The Morning Star is, in fact, identical to the Evening Star &mdash; both are the [[planet]], [[planet Venus|Venus]]. As such, they are "two" things, only in description, but in actuality, are one and the same thing under two different descriptions.
It is a similar case with ''S1'', ''S2'', and ''S3'', those being three different abbreviations, standing for the following descriptions:
* "''S1''", referring to the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened "the Theseus";
* "''S2''", referring to the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks; and
* "''S3''", referring to the ship which sits in the harbor, recently constructed out of the old planks.
When one, therefore, ask a question like, "Is ''S2'' the same as ''S1''?", one can be understood to mean this: "Is the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks, ''the same ship'' as the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened "the Theseus"?" Do those two descriptions refer to the same thing, or do they not?
Philosophers are not interested in the "Ship of Theseus" problem ''per se'', but to a more basic problem which is this: How does one decide that ''X'' is the same as ''Y'', where ''X'' describes something at one time, and ''Y'' describes another thing at a later time? This is called the "problem of identity over time", or alternatively, the "problem of change".
== Leibniz's solution ==
The German philosopher, [[Gottfried Leibniz]], came up with what is now called [[Leibniz's law]] (see [[Identity of indiscernibles]]) that may have some bearing on the question. Leibniz's law states:
: ''X'' is the same as ''Y'' if, and only if, ''X'' and ''Y'' have all the same properties and relations; thus, whatever is true of ''X'' is also true of ''Y'', and vice-versa.
Applying Leibniz's Law to the Ship of Theseus problem, ''S2'' is the same as ''S1'' if, and only if, ''S2'' and ''S1'' have all the same properties and relations. ''Does'' the ship now in the harbor have all the same properties and relations as the ship that was in the harbor fifty years ago? One might be tempted to say, "Clearly not! They have ''lots'' of different properties. So they can't be the same ship." Does that sound convincing? To answer this question, let us consider the property, "contains mast #1". Mast #1 is one of the masts that the original Ship of Theseus had. ''S1'' definitely had this property, but ''S2'' is not so equipped, but has mast #2, instead. It follows that ''S2'' must therefore be different from ''S1''.
Many philosophers strongly oppose this view. For if this argument works, then ''any'' property that has changed from the last time we looked at a thing would mean that the thing does not exist anymore, and there is a new thing in its place. Every little change in every little property would mean the whole thing is destroyed. Suppose we look at ''S1'' just a couple of years after it was built. If just one plank has been replaced, will we say that the ship is a different ship? Many philosophers would say surely not, as would common sense. But the ship that is floating on the ocean for a couple of years ''does'' have different properties from the original. Leibniz's Law would have us say that it is a different ship. One might see all this and conclude, "Well, Leibniz's Law must not be a law at all, but a false claim! ''X'' and ''Y'' do not need to have all the same properties to be the same thing."
Leibniz's Law ''can'' be saved, by saying: Properties are to be described as occurring at particular times, i.e. they are ''indexed to times''. A property that is described as at a particular time is said to be "temporally-indexed". For example, we can say that ''S1'' has mast #1 ''in 600 BC''. If we say what time the ship has the mast, then we have indexed the property of having the mast to that time. We say the ship ''has'' the mast then, using the word, "has", tenselessly. That means we do not say that it, ''at present'', has the mast, but rather, we say it "has" the mast in 600 BC. We are not claiming that the ship has the mast at any ''other'' time; just at ''that'' time. But if it were a later time, say 550 BC, ''that very same ship'' could "have" mast #1 ''in 600 BC'', considering that we are talking about a tenseless "have". That is, it always has the same properties, but the properties are of the form ''P''-at-''T''. This gives us a way to save Leibniz's Law from the objection we gave, but at the same time, brings up the issue of whether ''change'' really occurs. After all, we defined "change" as something having one property at one time, and not at some later time. By this solution though, any given object always has all the properties throughout time, and the properties are merely temporally-specific.
Putting this in plain English, ''S1'' ''now'' has the property that it ''will'' have mast #2; and S2 ''now'' has the property that it ''did'' have mast #1. We can then say that ''S1'' and ''S2'' have all the same ''[[temporal]]ly-[[index]]ed [[properties]]''. According to Leibniz's Law, therefore, they would be the same ship.
One might also say, through the same sorts of [[contortion]]s that ''S1'' and ''S3'' ''might'' have the same temporally-indexed properties. It then follows from Leibniz's Law that ''they instead'' would be the same ship.
Can Leibniz's Law help us decide whether it is ''S2'' or ''S3'' that is the same as the original Theseus? Perhaps not by itself. Leibniz's Law says that some ships are the same, just in case, they have all the same properties and relations &mdash; or, rather, the same ''temporally-indexed'' properties and relations. How then is one to decide that they have all the same temporally-indexed properties and relations? Leibniz's Law seems to offer little or no help when it comes to that decision.
== Pragmatic solution ==
One popular solution to the problem of the Ship of Theseus is to say that the meaning of "same" depends on what purpose the word is being used for. If, supposing it turns out that the original Ship of Theseus, ''S1'', was actually stolen property, and the rightful owner demands its return, should the police give him ''S2'' or ''S3''? Instead of figuring out which ship, if either, is the "same", and then declaring that it should be returned, the pragmatic solution is to figure out which ship should be returned, and then declare that it is the "same". The current owner of ''S2'' could argue that the original owner did not pay for any of the labor or materials of ''S2'', but did provide at least the materials for ''S3''. Thus, the original owner should not be entitled to ''S2'', but rather, some or all
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ery.html Polygamy, slavery and Qur'anic sexual ethics]
==References==
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</page>
<page>
<title>Central Plaza, Hong Kong</title>
<id>7017</id>
<revision>
<id>36872140</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T00:39:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:central_plaza1.jpg|thumb|200px|Central Plaza by day in April [[2003]].]]
[[image:central-plaza3.jpg|thumb|200px|Vertical shot of Central Plaza (April 2003).]]
[[image:central-plaza2.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Another angle of Central Plaza (April 2003).]]
'''Central Plaza''' (中環廣場), located in [[Wan Chai]], is the second tallest [[skyscraper]] in [[Hong Kong]]. With a height of 374 m, Central Plaza is only surpassed by [[International Finance Centre|2 IFC]] (420 m) in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]]. It used to be the tallest building in [[Asia]] from [[1992]] to [[1996]], until the [[Shun Hing Square]] in [[Shenzhen]], [[People's Republic of China]], was built. The 78-storey building was completed in August [[1992]]. The building surpassed the [[Bank of China Tower]] as the tallest building in Hong Kong until the completion of 2 IFC.
Central Plaza was also the tallest [[reinforced concrete]] building in the world, until it was surpassed by [[CITIC Plaza]], [[Guangzhou]]. The building uses a triangular [[floor plan]]. On the top of the tower is a four-bar neon clock that indicates the time by displaying different colors in 15 minute intervals, blinking at the change of the quarter.
An [[anemometer]] is installed on the tip of the building's mast; the anemometer sits at 378 metres above sea level. The mast has a height of 102m. It also houses the world's highest [[church]]--[[Community Church Hong Kong]].
== Current tenants ==
*[[Chevron Corporaton|Chevron]] (Caltex) 41/42nd Floor
*[[Community Church Hong Kong]] 69/F & 75/F (Apex)
*[[ExxonMobil]] (23rd Floor)
*[[Sun Microsystems]] (66th Floor)
{{sect-stub}}
==See also==
* [[Bank of China Tower]]
* [[The Center, Hong Kong]]
* [[Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings]]
==External links==
* [http://courses.arch.hku.hk/IntgBuildTech/cases/centplaz/centplaz.htm Architectural study of the building]
* [http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?c7 Hong Kong's skyscrapers in comparison]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=120372 The Central Plaza at emporis.com]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&ll=22.280112,114.173098&spn=0.003575,0.005667&t=k&hl=en Satellite view of the site]
{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Wan Chai North]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers over 350 meters]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Caravaggio</title>
<id>7018</id>
<revision>
<id>41617357</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:26:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Bild-Ottavio Leoni, Caravaggio.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Caravaggio painted by [[Ottavio Leoni]] around 1621.]]
'''Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio''' ([[29 September]] [[1571]] – [[18 July]] [[1610]]) was an [[Italian people|Italian]] [[artist]] active in [[Rome]], [[Naples]], [[Malta]] and [[Sicily]] between [[1593]] and [[1610]]. He is commonly placed in the [[Baroque]] school, on which he had a formative influence.
Even in his own lifetime Caravaggio was enigmatic, fascinating, and dangerous. He burst upon the Rome art scene in 1600, and never afterwards lacked commissions or patrons, yet handled his success atrociously. The earliest published notice on him, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle some three years previously, tells how "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him."{{ref|earliest_published}} In [[1606]] he killed another young man in a brawl and fled Rome with a price on his head. In Malta in [[1608]] he was involved in another brawl, and yet another in Naples in 1609, possibly a deliberate attempt on his life by unidentified enemies. By the next year, after a career of little more than a decade, he was dead.
Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome in the decades of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and paintings were needed to fill them. The [[Counter-Reformation]] Church was searching for an authentic religious art with which to counter the threat of Protestantism, and for this task the artificial conventions of [[Mannerism]], which had ruled art for almost a century, no longer seemed adequate. Caravaggio's novelty was a radical [[Naturalism (art)|naturalism]] which combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, approach to [[chiaroscuro]], the use of light and shadow. In Caravaggio's hands this new style was the vehicle for authentic and moving spirituality.
Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was almost completely forgotten in the centuries after his death, and it was only in the last few decades of the 20th century that he has been rediscovered. Yet despite this his influence on the common style which eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism, the new [[Baroque]], was profound. Andre Berne-Joffroy, [[Paul Valery]]’s secretary, said of him: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting."{{ref|Berne_Joffroy}}
==Biography==
===Early life (1571-1592)===
[[Image:Caravaggio-Crucifixion of Peter.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[Crucifixion of St. Peter (Caravaggio)|The Crucifixion of Saint Peter]]'', [[1601]]. Oil on canvas, 230 x 175 cm. [[Cerasi Chapel]], [[Santa Maria del Popolo]], [[Rome]].]]
Caravaggio’s father, Fermo Merisi, was a household administrator and architect-decorator to Francesco Sforza, Marchese of [[Caravaggio (BG)|Caravaggio]], a town some thirty kilometers from [[Milan]]. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a propertied family of the same district. None of the Merisi children — Michelangelo was Lucia's eldest — are listed on the baptismal records from Caravaggio, and all were probably born in Milan, where the Marchese had his court and where their father lived. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan. Caravaggio’s father died there in [[1577]]. It is assumed, but not certain, that he grew up in Caravaggio; it is equally possible that some of his childhood may have passed in Milan, where it appears his family kept up connections with the Sforzas and with the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas and destined to play a major role in Caravaggio's later life.{{ref|early_life}}
In 1584 he was apprenticed for four years to the painter Simone Peterzano of Milan, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of [[Titian]]. Caravaggio appears to have stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio area after his apprenticeship ended, but it is possible that he visited [[Venice]] and saw the works of [[Giorgione]], whom he was later accused of aping, as well as those of his teacher’s master, [[Titian]]. Certainly he would have become familiar with the art treasures of Milan, including [[Leonardo]]’s ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|Last Supper]]'', and with the regional Lombard art, "modest and unflashy ... down to earth ... unrhetorical,"{{ref|modest_and_unflashy}} closer to the [[Naturalism (art)|naturalism]] of Germany than to the stylised formality and grandeur of the Roman [[Mannerist]] style.
===Rome (1592-1600)===
[[Image:Fanciullo_con_canestro_di_frutta_(Caravaggio).jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy with a Basket of Fruit]]'', c. 1593. Oil on canvas, 67 x 53 cm. [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]].]]
In mid-1592 he arrived in Rome, “naked and extremely needy ... without fixed address and without provision ... short of money.”{{ref|naked_and_extremely_needy}} A few months later he was doing hack-work for the highly successful [[Giuseppe Cesari]], Cavaliere d’Arpino, [[Pope Clement VIII]]’s favourite painter, “painting flowers and fruit”{{ref|flowers_and_fruit}} in the cavaliere’s factory-like workshop. Known works from this period include a small ''[[Boy Peeling Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy Peeling a Fruit]]'' (his earliest known painting), a ''[[Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy with a Basket of Fruit]]'', and the ''[[Young Sick Bacchus (Caravaggio)|Young Sick Bacchus]]'', a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with d’Arpino. All three demonstrate the physical particularity — one aspect of his realism — for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy’s produce has been analysed by a professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to "... a large fig leaf with a prominent fungal scorch lesion resembling [[anthracnose]] (''Glomerella cingulata'')."{{ref|professor_of_horticulture}} Allied with this type of realism is another, the psychological: the boy is clearly a little bored posing with the heavy basket, but amused and compliant; his bared shoulder is treated with such physical desire tha
|
s small reservoir is possible. In all cases, the mechanical tension in the membrane has an effect on the rate of exchange. In some cells, usually having a smooth shape, the membrane tension and area are interrelated by elastic and dynamical mechanical properties, and the time-dependent interrelation is sometimes called homeostasis, area regulation or tension regulation.
==Transport across membranes==
As a lipid bilayer, the cell membrane is [[Semipermeable membrane|semi-permeable]]. This means that only some molecules can pass unhindered in or out of the cell. These molecules are either small or [[lipophilic]]. Other molecules can pass in or out of the cell, if there are specific transport molecules.
Depending on the molecule, transport occurs by different mechanisms, which can be separated into those that do not consume energy in the form of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] (passive transport) and those that do (active transport).
===Passive transport===
{{main|Passive transport}}
Passive transport is a means of moving different chemical substances across membranes through [[diffusion]] of [[hydrophobic]] (non-polar) and small polar molecules, or facilitated diffusion of polar and ionic molecules, which relies on a [[transport protein]] to provide a channel or bind to specific molecules. This spontaneous process decreases free energy, and increases [[entropy]] in a system. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve any chemical energy ([[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]).
===Active transport===
{{main|Active transport}}
Typically moves molecules against their [[electrochemical gradient]], a process that would be [[entropy|entropically]] unfavorable were it not [[stoichiometry|stoichiometrically]] coupled with the hydrolysis of ATP. This coupling can be either primary or secondary. In the primary active transport, transporters that move molecules against their electrical/chemical gradient, hydrolyze ATP. In the secondary active transport, transporters use energy derived from transport of another molecule in the direction of their gradient, to move other molecules in the direction against their gradient. This can be either [[symport]] (in the same direction) or [[antiport]] (in the opposite direction).
Examples include:
#The usual cases of [[molecular exchanger]]s, [[Molecular transporter|transporters]] and [[transmembrane ATPase|pumps]]
#[[endocytosis]] and [[exocytosis]], where molecules packaged in membrane [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s are either imported or exported respectively, can be thought of as active transport.
==External links==
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/lipids_membranes.shtml Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.westernblotting.org/protocol%20membrane%20extraction.htm Cell membrane protein extraction protocol]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/tension.html Membrane homeostasis, tension regulation, mechanosensitive membrane exchange and membrane traffic]
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[[pl:Błona komórkowa]]
[[pt:Membrana plasmática]]
[[simple:Cell membrane]]
[[sk:Cytoplazmatická membrána]]
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<page>
<title>Christian mythology</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian mythology''' is a body of stories that explains or symbolizes Christian beliefs. A '''Christian ''[[Mythology|myth]]''''' is a religious story that Christians consider to have deep explanatory or symbolic significance. Christian mythology can also be taken to refer to the entire mythos surrounding the Christian religious system, including the various narratives of both the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]s.
Christian [[mythology]], without addressing any issues of core beliefs of [[Christianity]], includes the body of [[legend]]ary stories that have accumulated around [[New Testament]] figures and elaborates upon the lives of the [[Saint]]s, to emphasize, explain, or embody Christian beliefs. The legendary details of the career of [[Pontius Pilate]] are prime examples of Christian mythology. Many of the common themes in [[hagiography|hagiographies]] are among the conventions of Christian mythography.
These stories include many that do not come from [[Biblical canon|canonical Christian texts]] and still do illustrate [[Christianity|Christian]] themes. Other stories that are intended to foster Christian values, or address specifically Christian spiritual traditions, may be included in Christian mythology. These stories are considered by some Christian journalists, theologians, and academics (see citations below) to constitute a body of ''Christian mythology.'' Stories which were once taken as true but are no longer accepted by most Christians are most easily identified as Christian mythology, such as the tale of [[Saint George]] or [[Saint Valentine]].
{{TOCleft}}
==Origins of Christian mythology==
The origins of many aspects of Christian mythology are found in earlier mythical constructs and religious belief systems from which it emerged and had contact with as it developed. It is generally accepted that initially Christianity emerged as a [[Judaism|Jewish]] sect in the 1st century, developing into a number distinct divisions constituting the early Christian movement of this period. Early Christian theologians such as [[Origen]] synthesised elements of Greek philosophy, especially [[Platonism]]. Some contend that Christianity was strongly influenced by the mystery religions of the Greco-Roman world and the Near East in which it developed, including [[Gnosticism]], the Nasseni, [[Essenes]],[[Therapeutae]], [[Dionysus]],[[Mithraism]].
According to [[Martin A. Larson]], in ''The Story of Christian Origins'' (1977), Mithraism and Christianity is derived from the same sources: the savior cult of [[Osiris]]. It is known that many followers of developing Gnosticism, for example ([[Valentinius]]}, were also Christians and taught a synthesis of the two belief systems. Many scholars, such as Professor Barry Powell, argue that the cult of the [[Dionysus]] myth played a significant influencing role in the development of Christian mythology.
==Adoption and Spread of Christian mythology==
Works such as the epic poem [[Beowulf]] (c. 700-1000 CE) and other works of the period, show that the actual adoption of a Christian beliefs was a very slow and gradual process, as they permeated society, existing as a combination of both [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] beliefs through the centuries.
==Theological and academic studies==
In theological and academic studies, describing a story as ''myth'' sometimes, but not necessarily, implies falsehood. A true story can also be symbolic and explanatory. However, in common usage a ''myth'' is a story that is not true. Therefore to describe Bible stories and deeply held beliefs as 'myth' is frequently taken as an attack on those sources and on the beliefs which are based on them.
Many Christian scholars have adopted the terminology, and employ it without the connotation of disbelief (although almost always to distinguish their treatment of a story as a source of Christian belief, in contrast to literal history). In such a case the term ''myth'' may be applied to many Christian stories, including Biblical narrative. For most people the categorisation of a story they believe to be true as ''myth'' is taken as attack on that story, and frequently as an attack on Christianity.
==Selection of stories==
A selection of such stories with mythic content might include:
* Stories from the [[apocrypha]]l books.
* Traditional stories such as that of [[Abgarus of Edessa]].
* Stories about the [[Holy Grail]].
* Elaborations or amendments to Biblical tales, such as the tales of [[Salomé]], the [[Magi|Three Wise Men]], or St. [[Dismas]].
* Names and biographical details supplied for unnamed Biblical characters: see ''[[List of names for the Biblical nameless]]''
* Literary treatments of traditional Biblical lore, such as ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' and ''[[Paradise Regained]]'' by [[John Milton]]
* Literary treatments of themes from Christian [[Christian theology|theology]] or [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] such as the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]]
* Tales of saints ([[hagiography|hagiographies]]) whose historicity is doubtful, like [[Saint Christopher]] or St. [[Catherine of Alexandria]]
* [[Miracle|Miraculous]] stories of saints such as are found in [[Jacobus de Voragine]]'s ''[[Golden Legend]]''.
* The legends of [[King Arthur]] and other tales of [[Middle Ages|medieval]] chivalry, especially the [[Quest]] for the [[Holy Grail]].
* Legendary history of the Christian [[church]]es, such as the tales from the [[Crusades]] or the [[paladin]]s of [[Charlemagne]] in mediaeval [[romance (genre)|romance]].
* Stories about [[angel|angels]], [[guardian angel|guardian angels]], [[devil|devils]], and tales of making pacts with [[Satan|the Devil]] (see e.g. [[Faust]]).
==Narrative fictions==
Narrative fictions with Christian content may fall within the category of Christian mythology. A case in point is the historical and can
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pretation to probably Hopkins' most studied poem and one which he called his best.[http://www.bartleby.com/122/1000.html#12]
During his lifetime, Hopkins published few poems. It was only through the efforts of Robert Bridges that his works were seen. Despite Hopkins burning all his poems on entering the priesthood, he had already sent some to Bridges who, with a few other friends, was the only person to see many of them for some years. After Hopkins' death they were distributed to a wider audience, mostly fellow poets, and in [[1918]] Bridges, by then [[poet laureate]], published a collected edition.
==Bibliography of Poems==
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/4.html The Wreck of the Deutschland]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/7.html God's Grandeur]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/34.html As Kingfishers Catch Fire]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/13.html Pied Beauty] (a [[curtal sonnet]])
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/40.html Carrion Comfort]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/12.html The Windhover: To Christ our Lord]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/31.html Spring and Fall, To a Young Child]
* [http://www.poemhunter.com/p/m/poem.asp?poet=3161&poem=28028 The Habit of Perfection]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/11.html The Sea and the Skylark]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/33.html Inversnaid]
'''Audio'''
*Catholic singer-songwriter Sean O'Leary (b.1953) has produced a collection of contemporary settings of Hopkins' poems titled ''The Alchemist: Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations'' [48 page booklet with accompanying double album - 2CD - 120 minutes], ISBN 0-9550649-0-2, 2005. The 22 poems include: The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, Spring, The Windhover, Felix Randal, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'.
*Richard Austin reads Hopkins' poetry in BACK TO BEAUTY'S GIVER [Audio book- CD], ISBN 0-9548188-0-6, 2003. 27 poems, including: The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, The Windhover, Pied Beauty and Binsley Poplars, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.org/ Gerard Manley Hopkins Society]
* [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] - Free Audio Recording of [http://librivox.org/short-poetry-collection-001/ As Kingfishers Catch Fire].
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/ Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations]
* [http://hopkinsquarterly.com/ The Hopkins Quarterly]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/ Online texts of Hopkins Poems: First Edition (1918)]
* [http://www.dundee.ac.uk/english/wics/gmh/framconc.htm Web Concordance of Hopkins Poems]
* [http://www.richard.austin.sh/ Readings of Hopkins' Poetry]
* [http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/hopkins/gmhov.html The Victorian Web - Gerard Manley Hopkins - An Overview]
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/audio/06_56.mp3 That Nature Is A Heraclitean Fire - Excerpt - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3)]
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/audio/05_56.mp3 The Wreck Of The Deutschland - Verse 1 - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3)]
*[http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/ 8 Song Samples from Musical Adaptations of Hopkins' Poetry]
[[Category:1844 births|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]
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<title>Grading a climb</title>
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<title>Gravitational wave</title>
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<title>Gamma-ray Astronomy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gamma-ray astronomy]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Geometric isomerism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cis-2-butene.PNG|right|frame|Cis-2-butene]][[Image:Trans-2-butene.PNG|right|frame|Trans-2-butene]]
In [[chemistry]], '''geometric isomerism''' or '''cis-trans isomerism''' is a form of [[stereoisomerism]] and describes the orientation of [[functional group|functional groups]] at the ends of a [[chemical bond|bond]] around which no rotation is possible. Such bonds are typically [[double bond]]s, but they can also be part of a ring structure which prevents rotation.
According to [[IUPAC]] the term "geometric isomerism" is an obsolete synonym of "cis-trans isomerism" and its use is strongly discouraged. Sometimes the term "geometric isomerism" has been used as a synonym of stereoisomerism, i.e. [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]] being considered to be geometric isomers. This, however, is not consistent with current standard chemical nomenclature. The exact term for stereoisomers that are not [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]] is [[diastereomer]]s.
There are two forms of a geometric isomer, the ''[[cis]]'' and ''[[trans]]'' versions. The form in which the [[substituent|substituent groups]] are on the same side of the bond that doesn't allow rotation is called ''cis''; the form in which the substituents are on opposite sides of the bond is called ''trans''. An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying cis-trans isomerism is [[2-butene]].
'''Cis isomers''' and '''trans isomers''' of a substance have different physical properties. ''Trans'' isomers generally have higher [[boiling point]]s and lower [[density|densities]]. This is because the ''trans'' isomers molecules can line up and fit together better than the ''cis'' form. Two isomers with very different properties are [[maleic acid]] and [[fumaric acid]]. The names are two [[trivial name]]s for 2-butenedioic acid and repectively the cis and trans isomer.
[[Alicyclic compound]]s can also display cis-trans isomerism. As an example of a geometric isomer due to a ring structure, consider 1,2-dichlorocyclohexane:
{|
|[[image:trnC6H10Cl2.png]] || [[image:cisC6H10Cl2.png]]
|- align="center"
| trans-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane || cis-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane
|}
==E/Z notation==
The trans/cis system for naming isomers breaks down when there are more than two different substituents on a double bond. The E/Z notation can then be used. '''Z''' (from the German ''zusammen'') means ''together'' and corresponds to the term ''cis''; '''E''' (from the German ''entgegen'') means ''opposite'' and corresponds to the term ''trans''.
Whether a molecular configuration is designated E or Z is determined by the [[Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules]]. For each of the two atoms in the double bond, individually determine which of the two substituents is of a higher priority. If both of the substituents of higher priority are on the same side, the arrangement is ''Z''; if they are on opposite sides the arrangement is ''E''.
An example of a compound named in this manner is (Z)-1-bromo-1,2-dichloroethene.
==External links==
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05983.pdf The IUPAC definition of "stereoisomerism"]
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/G02620.pdf The IUPAC definition of "geometric isomerism"]
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/C01093.pdf The IUPAC definition of "cis-trans isomers"]
[[Category:Stereochemistry]]
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<page>
<title>Grímnismál</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Grímnismál''''' (''Sayings of Grímnir'') is one of the [[Norse mythology|mythological]] poems of the [[Poetic Edda]]. It is preserved in the [[Codex Regius]] manuscript and the [[AM 748 I 4to]] fragment. It is spoken through the voice of ''Grímnir'', one of the many guises of the god [[Odin]], who is (through an error) tortured by King Geirröth. This was to prove a fatal mistake since Odin caused him to fall upon his own sword.
The work starts out with a lengthy prose section describing the circumstances leading up to Grímnir's [[monologue]], which comprises 54 stanzas of poetic verse. The last bit of the poem is also prose, a brief description of Geirröth's dem
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ra-fugue behaviour. For example, someone being charged with a crime whilst in a fugue may have serious consequences.
==In general and popular culture==
Non-psychologists more commonly use the term "fugue state" to refer to the state of mind attained by a gifted [[musician]] (or other [[artist]]) or [[athlete]] where the person attains a high degree of focus and attention to their art or actions. This is also a dissociation from one's surroundings, to concentrate on the work at hand, and frequently euphoria or a mild "high". Other names for the same basic concept include:
* The mental state called "[[Flow (psychology)|flow]]".
* Being ''in the zone''.
* [[Hyperfocus]]
==In fiction==
* ''[[Nurse Betty]]'': a [[2000 in film|2000]] [[comedy film]] depicting a waitress who experiences a fugue state from the stress of murder.
* The main character in ''[[Lost Highway]]'' can also be described as going through a fugue dissociative state.
* In the end of [[David Eddings]]' novel [[Regina's Song]], Twink's psychological breakdown is described as a fugue state.
*[[Siegfried Schtauffen]], a main character in the ''Soul'' series of [[fighting games]], goes through a dissociative fugue state following the unintentional murder of his father. He convinces himself that it was not he who killed his father, and does not recall the truth until [[Soul Calibur mystical weapons|Soul Edge]] is sealed for the first time.
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Abnormal psychology]]
[[nl:Dissociatieve fugue]]
[[pl:Fuga (psychiatria)]]
[[ru:Диссоциативная фуга]]</text>
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<title>Frames per second</title>
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<title>First-Person Shooter</title>
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<page>
<title>Force</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[force (disambiguation)]].''
In [[physics]], a '''force''' is an external [[cause]] responsible for any change of a [[physical system]]. For instance, a person holding a dog by a rope is experiencing the force applied by the rope on their hand, and the cause for its pulling forward is the force exercised by the rope. The [[kinetic]] expression of this change is, according to [[Newton's second law]], [[acceleration]], but non-kinetic expressions such as [[deformation]] can also occur. The [[SI]] unit for force is the [[newton]].
==Elementary concepts==
Force in its most primitive definition can be thought of as ''that which when acting alone causes an object to [[accelerate]]''. In a practical sense forces can be divided into two groups: [[contact]] forces and [[field (physics)|field]] forces. Contact forces require the physical contact of one object with another, such as a hammer striking a nail or the force exerted by a gas under pressure - gas produced by exploding gunpowder forces a heavy ball out of a cannon. Field forces on the other hand need no physical medium of contact. [[Gravity]] and [[magnetism]] are examples of such forces. However, fundamentally, all forces are field forces. The force of the hammer striking the nail in the previous example turns out to be a clash of the electric forces in both hammer and nail. Nevertheless it is appropriate in some cases to maintain these two classifications for ease of understanding.
==Quantitative definition==
In physics models, the ''point-like'' system is used, where objects are represented as one-dimensional points at their [[centre of mass]]. The only change the system can experience is a change of its [[momentum]] (its [[velocity]]). Since the rise of the [[atomic theory]], any physical system has been considered in [[classical physics]] as composed of point-like systems called [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s. Therefore, all forces can be defined by their [[causality |effect]]; that is, by the change of [[movement]] they induce on point-like systems. This change of movement can be quantified by the [[acceleration]] (the [[derivative]] of [[velocity]]). The discovery by [[Isaac Newton]] that a given force will induce an acceleration in [[inverse proportion]] to a quantity called the ''[[mass]] of [[inertia]]'' or ''[[inertial mass]]'' which is independent of the speed of the system is [[Newton's Laws |Newton's second law]]. This law allows us to predict the effect of a force on any point-like system whose mass is known. It is usually written as:
:'''F''' = d'''p'''/dt = ''d''(''m''&middot;'''v''')/dt = ''m''&middot;'''a''' (in the case where ''m'' does not depend on ''t'')
where
:'''F''' is the force (a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] quantity),
:'''p''' is the momentum,
:''t'' is the time,
:'''v''' is the velocity,
:''m'' is the mass, and
:'''a'''=d&sup2;'''x'''/dt&sup2; is the acceleration, the second derivative with respect to ''t'' of the position vector '''x'''.
If the mass ''m'' is measured in [[kilogram]]s and the [[acceleration]] '''a''' is measured in [[metre per second squared|metres per second squared]], then the unit of force is kilogram × metre/second squared. This unit is called the [[newton]]: 1 N = 1 kg x 1 m/s&sup2;.
This equation is a system of three second-order [[differential equation]]s with respect to the three-[[dimension]]al position vector which is an unknown [[function (mathematics)|function]] of time. This equation can be solved if '''F''' is a known function of '''x''' and some of its derivatives and if the mass ''m'' is known. Morevover the [[boundary condition]]s are required; for example, the values of the position vector and '''x''' and the velocity '''v''' at the starting time, say ''t''=0.
Of course, this formula is only useful if one knows the numerical values of '''F''' and ''m''. The definition above is an [[implicit]] definition, arrived at as follows. One defines a reference system (one [[litre]] of [[water]]) and a reference force (the [[gravity |gravitational]] force applied by the [[Earth]] on it at the altitude of [[Paris]]). One takes Newton's second law for granted (one [[postulate]]s that it is true) and measures the acceleration induced by the reference force on the reference system. This gives us a mass unit (1 kg) and a force unit (the older unit of 1 [[kilogram-force]] = 9.81 N). Once this is done, one can measure any force by the acceleration it induces on the reference system and measure the inertial mass of any system by measuring the acceleration induced on this system by the reference force.
Force is often considered a fundamental quantity in physics, but there are more fundamental quantities, such as [[momentum]] ('''''p''''' = mass '''m''' x [[velocity]] '''v'''). [[Energy]], measured in [[joule]]s, is still less fundamental than force and momentum, because it is defined as work, and work is defined in terms of force. The two most fundamental theories of nature - [[quantum electrodynamics]] and [[general relativity]] - do not contain the concept of force at all.
Although not the most fundamental ''quantity'' in physics, force is an important basic mathematical concept from which other concepts, such as [[Mechanical work|work]] and [[pressure]] (measured in [[pascal]]s), are derived. Force is sometimes confused with [[stress (physics)|stress]].
==Types of force==
There are four known [[fundamental force]]s in nature.
*[[strong nuclear force|Nuclear forces]] acting between subatomic particles
*[[Electromagnetism|Electromagnetic forces]] between electric charges
*[[weak nuclear force|Weak forces]] arising from radioactive decay
*[[Gravitational force]]s between masses
[[Quantum field theory]] accurately models the first three fundamental forces, but does not model [[quantum gravity]]. Quantum gravity on a large scale ''can'', however, be described by [[general relativity]].
The four fundamental forces describe every observable phenomenon including the many other forces observed such as: [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb's force]] (the force between [[electrical charge]]s), [[gravity|gravitational force]] (force between [[mass]]es), [[magnetic field|magnetic force]], [[friction]]al forces, [[impact force]], and [[tension (mechanics)|tension]], to name a few.
Forces can also be classified into [[Conservative force|conservative forces]] and nonconservative forces. Conservative forces are equivalent to the [[gradient]] of a [[potential]], and include [[gravity]], [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] force, and [[Hooke's law|spring]] force. Nonconservative forces include [[friction]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]].
==Properties of force==
Because momentum is a vector, then force, being its time derivative, is also a vector - it has [[magnitude]] and [[direction]].
Forces can be added together using the [[parallelogram of force]]. When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the ''resultant'', is the [[vector addition|vector sum]] of the original forces. This is called the principle of [[superposition]]. The magnitude of the resultant varies from zero to the sum of the magnitudes of the t
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si (2003). ''Ayahuasca: The Visionary and Healing Powers of the Vine of the Soul''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street. ISBN 0892811315
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<title>Alfonso Leng</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-biography}}
'''Alfonso Leng''' ([[February 11]], [[1894]] &ndash; [[November 11]], [[1974]]) was a composer of [[European classical music|classical music]]. He was born in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Chile]].
{{composer-stub}}
[[Category:1894 births|Leng, Alfonso]]
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<page>
<title>Abbe number</title>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abbe-diagram.png|right|thumb|380px|An Abbe diagram plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram.]]
In [[physics]] and [[optics]], the '''Abbe number''', also known as the '''V-number''' or '''constringence''' of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] (variation of [[refractive index]] with wavelength). It is named for [[Ernst Abbe]] ([[1840]]-[[1905]]), the German physicist who defined it.
The Abbe number ''V'' of a material is defined as:
:<math>V = \frac{ n_D - 1 }{ n_F - n_C }</math>
where ''n''<sub>D</sub>, ''n''<sub>F</sub> and ''n''<sub>C</sub> are the [[refractive index|refractive indices]] of the material at the wavelengths of the [[Fraunhofer lines|Fraunhofer]] D-, F- and C- [[spectral line]]s (589.2 [[Nanometre|nm]], 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). Low dispersion materials have high values of ''V''.
Abbe numbers are used to classify [[glass]]es. For example, [[flint glass]]es have ''V''<50 and [[Crown glass (optics)|crown glass]]es have ''V'' >50. Typical values of ''V'' range from around 20 for very dense flint glasses, up to 65 for very light crown glass, and up to 85 for [[fluorite|fluor]]-crown glass. Abbe numbers are only a useful measure of dispersion for visible light, and for other wavelengths, or for higher precision work, the [[dispersion (optics)|group velocity dispersion]] is used.
Alternate definitions of the Abbe number are used in some contexts. The value ''V''<sub>d</sub> is given by:
:<math> V_d = \frac{n_d-1}{ n_F - n_C }</math>
which defines the Abbe number with respect to the yellow Fraunhofer d (or D<sub>3</sub>) [[helium]] line at 587.6 nm wavelength. It can also be defined at the blue [[iron]] e-line at 438.4 nm:
:<math> V_e = \frac{n_e-1}{ n_{F'} - n_{C'}}</math>
where F' and C' are the blue and red [[cadmium]] lines at 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm, respectively.
An '''Abbe diagram''' is produced by plotting the Abbe number ''V''<sub>d</sub> of a material versus its refractive index ''n''<sub>d</sub>. Glasses can then be categorised by their composition and position on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the [[Schott Glass]] catalogue, or a 6-digit [[glass code]].
Abbe numbers are used to calculate the necessary [[focal length]]s of achromatic doublet [[lens (optics)|lenses]] to minimize [[chromatic aberration]].
==See also==
*[[Abbe prism]]
*[[Abbe refractometer]]
[[Category:Dimensionless numbers]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[de:Abbesche Zahl]]
[[it:Numero di Abbe]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12483;&#12505;&#25968;]]
[[pl:Liczba Abbego]]
[[sl:Abbejevo &#353;tevilo]]
[[zh:&#38463;&#36125;&#25968;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ACN</title>
<id>2331</id>
<revision>
<id>39159911</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T02:42:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matthew hk</username>
<id>727505</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ACN''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
*'''''[[ACN Inc.]]''''', one of the world’s largest direct selling telecommunications company.
*the stock symbol of '''''[[Accenture]]''''' Ltd.
*the [[ISO 639-3|ISO/DIS 639-3]] code for the '''''[[Achang]]''''' language of China.
*'''''[[African Cup of Nations]]''''' - main international football competition for [[Confederation of African Football|CAF]] nations
*'''''[[Ante Christum Natum]]''''', the [[Latin]] equivalent of '"[[Anno Domini|B.C.]]"', seldom used in English.
*'''''[[Armored Core|Armored Core: Nexus]]''''', a game published by From Software for the [[PlayStation 2]]
*the [[National Rail]] code for [[Achnasheen railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|ACN|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|IV22|2EE}}; {{Brldb prim|ACN|live departures and arrivals}}.
*'''''[[Architecture for Control Networks]]''''', a network protocol for theatical control being developed by [[ESTA (Entertainment Services and Technology Association)]].
*'''''[[Allegiance Chat Network]]''''' or ACN for short, a network of themed chatrooms operated since 2000, starting with the [[Final Fantasy Allegiance]] (known as the [[FFA]] for short), other rooms operated by the [[ACN]] was [[Korins Tower]] a [[dragonball]] z themed room.
* the commonly used abbreviation for [[Australian Company Number]]
* common abbreviation to '''''[[Acrylonitrile]]''''', a precursor monomer in the manufacture of synthetic polymers.
* '''American Collectibles Network''', a American television network now known as [[Jewelry Television]].
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AD (disambiguation)</title>
<id>2332</id>
<revision>
<id>40500191</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:31:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El jefe</username>
<id>957865</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar3|AD|ad-|ad}}
'''AD''', '''Ad''' or '''ad''' may stand for:
*[[.ad]], the ccTLD (Internet Top Level Domain) for Andorra
**AD, the 2-letter ISO 3166-1 country code for [[Andorra]]
*[[Advertisement|'''Ad'''vertisement]]
*[[Assistant director]]
*[[Alzheimer's disease]]
*[[Artium Doctor]] (Doctor of Arts)
*[[Art director]]
*''Media''
**[[Arrested Development (TV Series)]], a Fox Network TV program
**[[Algemeen Dagblad]], a Dutch newspaper.
**[[AD]], [[Utopia (online game)]] slang for Animate Dead (Spell)
*''History''
**Civilization of [['Ad]], mentioned in the Quran.
*''Language''
**[[Anno Domini]], Latin for "In the Year of the Lord". This year is AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}.
**[[Anno Diocletiani]]
**[[Wiktionary:ad-|ad-]] prefix
**ad for advertisement, see [[Advertising]]
**The word 'ad' is Latin for "at" or "to" in some phrases taken from Latin.
*''Military''
**[[Air defence]]
**[[Destroyer Tender]] a US Navy hull classification symbol
**The [[Air Department]] of the British Admiralty
*''Science and Technology''
**[[Automatic differentiation]] in numeric computer programming
**[[Axiom of determinacy]] in set theory
** Ricardo Carezani's theory of [[Autodynamics]] in physics
**[[Audio Deck]]
**[[Audio description|Audio Description]], a narration track for blind and visually impaired viewers of e.g. TV and film
**[[Auto Desk]]
**[[Administrative domain]]
**the Association of American Railroads reporting mark AD for [[Norfolk, Franklin and Danville Railway]]
** Microsoft's [[Active Directory]]
** the IATA code for [[Air Paradise]]
** In economics, AD is usually used to represent [[Aggregate demand]] or aggregate expenditure.
** In recording, AD (or A/D) refers to an [[Analog-to-digital converter]].
{{2LCdisambig}}
[[cs:AD]]
[[da:AD]]
[[de:AD]]
[[eo:Ad]]
[[fr:AD]]
[[ko:AD]]
[[id:AD]]
[[it:Ad]]
[[nl:AD]]
[[ja:AD]]
[[sl:AD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ablative case</title>
<id>2333</id>
<revision>
<id>40082650</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:23:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pjetër Bogdani</username>
<id>719346</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added albanian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}
''For the physical process, see [[ablation]]. For the science fiction concept, see [[ablative armor]].''
In [[linguistics]], the '''ablative case''' is a [[declension|noun case]] found in several languages, including [[Latin]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Sanskrit]] and the [[Finno-Ugric languages]].
The Latin ablative combines the functions of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] ablative (indicating "from"), [[instrumental case|instrumental]] (indicating "with" or "by"), and [[locative case|locative]] (indicating "in") cases, which merged together in the development of Latin. From these original meanings several others developed, including the ablative of cause (indicating "caused by"), the ablative of time and means (indicating "at the time of", deriving from
|
anti-Semites: "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define anti-Semitism. The United States Department of State defines anti-Semitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."
In 2005, the [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC), a body of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed working definition: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm humanity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'."
The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of anti-Semitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be anti-Semitic, depending on the context (see [[#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|anti-Zionism]] below). [http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf]
==Earliest Antisemitism==
The earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars. Professor Peter Schafer of the Freie University of Berlin has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the Greek retelling of ancient Egyptian prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, Schafer suggests that anti-Semitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone". The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the Diaspora has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the University of Durham. The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in ''Flaccus'', in which thousands of Jews died. In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as misanthropes. Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not anti-Judaism unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone. Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians. The 150 BCE suppression of Jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians, as recounted in [[1 Maccabees]], then qualifies as anti-Judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by Bohak. There are other examples of [[History of anti-Semitism#Ancient animosity towards Jews|ancient animosity towards Jews]] that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of anti-semitism.
==Religious Antisemitism==
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}
===Anti-Judaism in the New Testament===
The New Testament is a collection of 'books' written by various authors. Most of this collection was written by the end of the first century. The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of Jesus, and all but two books (Luke and Acts) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as anti-Semitic, or have been used for anti-Semitic purposes, most notably:
:Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: "''I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father. They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God.''" ([[Book of John|John]] 8:37-39, 44-47, [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]])
:[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "''You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it.''" ([[Book of Acts|Acts]] 7:51-53, RSV)
:"''Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie -- behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you.''" ([[Revelation]] 3:9, RSV).
Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from Moses and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. Deut 9:13-14; 31:27-29; 32:5, 20-21; 2 Kings 17:13-14; Is 1:4; Hos 1:9; 10:9). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (Mk 8:33). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by anti-Semites.
Drawing from the Jewish prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34), the [[New Testament]] taught that with the death of Jesus a [[new covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by Moses (Heb 8:7-13; Lk 22:20). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice circumcision and observe dietary laws, which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first Gentile Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (Acts 11:3; 15:1ff; 16:3).
The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple Judas Iscariot (Mk 14:43-46), the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate along with Roman forces (Jn 19:11; Acts 4:27) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (Acts 13:27); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control.
After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in Jerusalem as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning (Acts 7:58). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (Acts 8:3; Gal 1:13-14; 1 Tim 1:13). After his conversion, Saul is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities (2 Cor 11:24), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., Acts 25:6-7). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (2 Cor 11:26; Acts 16:19ff; 19:23ff). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (Rom 8:35;1 Cor 4:11ff; Gal 3:4; 2 Thess 1:5; Heb 10:32; 1 Pet 4:16; Rev 20:4).
===Early Christianity===
A number of early and influential Church works -- such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of church father [[Cyprian]] -- are strongly anti-Jewish.
During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm said] <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.</blockquote>
Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established Roman Catholic Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enf
|
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]]
=== Regional: Africa ===
*[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]]
=== Regional: America ===
*[[American Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities]]
=== Regional: Europe ===
*[[European Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[European Convention on Torture]]
*[[European Social Charter]]
== See also ==
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[International Criminal Court]] (established in 2002)
[[Category:Human rights instruments]][[Category:International law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian Removal</title>
<id>15080</id>
<revision>
<id>40718230</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:12:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevin Myers</username>
<id>103151</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Indian Removal''' was a [[nineteenth century]] policy of the government of the [[United States]] that sought to relocate [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] (or "Native American") tribes living east of the [[Mississippi River]] to lands west of the river. In the decades following the [[American Revolution]], the desire for more land by the rapidly increasing population of the United States resulted in numerous treaties in which lands were purchased from Native Americans. Eventually, the U.S. government began encouraging Indian tribes to sell their land by offering them land in the [[Western United States|West]], outside the boundaries of the then-existing U.S. states, where the tribes could resettle. This process was accelerated with the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] of [[1830]], which provided funds for President [[Andrew Jackson]] to conduct land-exchange ("removal") treaties. An estimated 100,000 American Indians eventually relocated in the West as a result of this policy, most of them emigrating during the 1830s, settling in what was known as the "[[Indian territory]]."{{fn|1}}
Contrary to some modern misconceptions (and misrepresentations), the Removal Act did not order the forced removal of any Native Americans, nor did President Jackson ever publicly advocate forced removal. In theory, Indian Removal was supposed to be voluntary, and many American Indians did indeed remain in the East. In practice, however, the Jackson administration put great pressure on tribal leaders to sign removal treaties. This pressure created bitter divisions within American Indian nations, as different tribal leaders advocated different responses to the question of removal. Sometimes, U.S. government officials ignored tribal leaders who resisted signing removal treaties and dealt with those who favored removal. The [[Treaty of New Echota]], for example, was signed by a faction of prominent [[Cherokee]]s leaders, but not by the elected tribal leadership. The terms of the treaty were aggressively enforced by President [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the unintentional deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees (mostly from disease) on the [[Trail of Tears]]. The [[Choctaw]] tribe also suffered greatly from disease during removal.{{fn|2}}
The suffering which resulted from Indian Removal was aggravated by poor administration, inadequate measures taken to provide for the emigrants, and failure to protect Indian legal rights before and after emigration. Most American Indians reluctantly but peacefully complied with the terms of the removal treaties, often with bitter resignation. Some groups, however, went to war to resist the implementation of removal treaties. This resulted in two short wars (the [[Black Hawk War]] of 1832 and the [[Second Creek War]] of 1836), as well as the long and costly [[Second Seminole War]] (1835-1842).
==Background==
Since the presidency of [[Thomas Jefferson]], America's policy had been to allow Indians to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilated]] or "civilized." They were to settle in one place, farm the land, divide communal land into private property, and adopt democracy.
==Indian Removal in the South==
In 1830, the so-called "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]" &mdash; the [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee]] &mdash; were still living east of the Mississippi. They were called "civilized" because many tribesmen had adopted various aspects of [[European-American]] culture, including [[Christianity]]. The Cherokees had a system of writing their own language, developed by [[Sequoyah]], and published a newspaper in Cherokee and English.
In spite of this [[acculturation]], the position of the tribes was not secure. Some felt the presence of the tribes was a threat to peace and security, since many Native Americans had fought against the United States in previous wars, often armed by foreign nations such as Great Britain and Spain. Other white settlers and land speculators simply desired the land that was occupied by the tribes.
Accordingly, governments of the various U.S. states desired that all tribal lands within their boundaries be placed under state jurisdiction. In [[1830]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] passed a law which prohibited whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831 without a license from the state. This law was written to justify removing white missionaries who were helping the Indians resist removal. Missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]] urged the Cherokee Nation to take their case to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]]. The [[John Marshall|Marshall court]] ruled that while Indian tribes were not sovereign nations (''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'', [[1831]]), state laws had no force on tribal lands (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', [[1832]]). President Andrew Jackson is often quoted as having responded to the court by defiantly proclaiming, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably did not say this, although he was criticized (then and since) for making no effort to protect the tribes from state governments.{{fn|3}}
Andrew Jackson and other candidates of the new [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] had made Indian Removal a major goal in the campaign of [[1828]]. In 1830, Congress passed the [[Indian Removal Act]] and President Jackson signed it into law. The Removal Act provided for the government to negotiate removal treaties with the various tribes. The [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] with the Choctaw was the first such removal treaty implemented; while around 7,000 Choctaws ultimately stayed in Mississippi, about 14,000 moved along the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]]. Other treaties, like the dubious [[Treaty of New Echota]] with the Cherokee, followed, resulting in the [[Trail of Tears]].
As a result, the five tribes were resettled in the new [[Indian Territory]] in modern-day [[Oklahoma]] and parts of [[Kansas]]. Some Indians eluded removal, while those who lived on individually owned land (rather than tribal domains) were not subject to removal. Those who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups including the Eastern Band Cherokee, based in [[North Carolina]].
In 1835, the Seminoles refused to leave [[Florida]], leading to the [[Second Seminole War]]. The most important leader in the war was [[Osceola]], who led the Seminoles in their fight against removal. Hiding in the [[Everglades]] of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in many battles. In 1837, Osceola was tricked into capture when he came to negotiate peace during a truce. He died in prison. The Seminoles continued to fight. Some traveled deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. The Second Seminole War ended in 1842, when the United States won.
In [[1835]], almost 15,000 [[Creek people|Creeks]] were forcibly moved from [[Alabama]] and Georgia to the [[Canadian River]] Indian Territory.
The majority of the Chickasaw tribe was deported to Indian Territory in the 1830s.
<big>'''Southern Removals'''</font><br>
{| class="wikitable"
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Nation
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Population east of the Mississippi before removal treaty
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Removal treaty<br>(year signed)
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Years of major emigration
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Total number emigrated or forcibly removed
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Number stayed in Southeast
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Deaths during removal
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Deaths from warfare
|-
|[[Choctaw]]
|19,554 {{fn|(a)}}
|[[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek|Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)]]
|1831-1836
|12,500
|7,000 {{fn|(b)}}
|2,000-4,000+ ([[Cholera]])
|n/a
|-
|[[Creek (people)|Creek]]
|22,700 + 900 black slaves {{fn|(c)}}
|[[Treaty of Cusseta|Cusseta (1832)]]
|1834-1837
|19,600 {{fn|(d)}}
|?
|3,500 (disease after removal){{fn|(e)}}
|? ([[Second Creek War]])
|-
|[[Chickasaw]]
| 4,914 + 1,156 black slaves
|[[Treaty of Pontotoc Creek|Pontotoc Creek (1832)]]
|1837-1847
|over 4,000
|hundreds
|a few from disease
|n/a
|-
|[[Cherokee]]
|21,500 <br>+ 2,000 black slaves
|[[Treaty of New Echota|New Echota(1835)]]
|1836-1838
|20,000 + 2,000 slaves
|1,000
|2,000-8,000
|n/a
|-
|[[Seminole]]
|5,000 + fugitive slaves
|[[Treaty of Payne's Landing|Payne's Landing (1832)]]
|1832-1842
|2,833 {{fn|(f)}}
|250-500 {{fn|(g)}}
|
|700 ([[Second Seminole War]])
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
''Many figures have been rounded.''<
|
; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English.
Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] and [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]), three commercial [[television network]]s, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's film industry]] has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''. According to [[Reporters Without Borders]] in 2005, Australia is in 31st position on a list of countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind [[New Zealand]] (9th) and the [[United Kingdom]] (28th) but ahead of the [[United States]]. This ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia. Most Australian [[Publishing|print media]] in particular is under the control of either [[News Corporation]] or [[John Fairfax Holdings]].
[[Image:Aussie rules wikipedia.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Australian rules football]] was developed in [[Melbourne]], Australia and is played at amateur and professional levels.]]
[[Sport in Australia|Sport]] is an important part of Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|d}}. At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in [[cricket]], [[field hockey|hockey]], [[netball]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], and performs well in [[cycling]] and [[swimming]]. Australia has participated in every summer [[Olympic Games]] of the modern era, and every [[Commonwealth Games]]. Australia has hosted the [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] Summer Olympics, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. In [[2004]], it collected 49 Olympic medals (17 gold, 16 silver and 16 bronze). Australia has also hosted the [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]] and [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]] Commonwealth Games, and will host the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]]. [[Australian rules football]] is the most popular national sport; players gain some international prominence through [[International rules football|International Rules]] which is an annual meeting between the Australian code and Irish Gaelic Football. However, [[Rugby League]] is more popular than Australian Rules in New South Wales and Queensland. The [[Australian Open]] is one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tennis tournaments, held in [[Melbourne]] each January. The F1 [[Australian Grand Prix]] is also held in Melbourne, usually towards the end of March each year. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and élite athletes is common in Australia.
Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.{{ref|AFC}}
== See also ==
{{Template:Australian Topics}}
==References==
<!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary-->
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|Baker}}Sidney J. Baker, ''The Australian Language'', second edition, 1966.
#{{note|Gillespie2002}}Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. ''Radiocarbon'' 44:455-472
#{{note|Smith1980}}Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra
#{{note|Tatz1999}}Tatz, C. (1999). ''[http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/rsrch/rsrch_dp/genocide.htm Genocide in Australia]'', AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra
#{{note|wind2001}} Windschuttle, K. (2001). ''[http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/sept01/keith.htm# The Fabrication of Aboriginal History]'', The New Criterion Vol. 20, No. 1, September 20.
#{{note|smh2002}} Sheehan, P. (2002). ''[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/24/1037697982065.html Our history, not rewritten but put right]'', The Sydney Morning Herald, November 25.
#{{note|Bean1941}}Bean, C. Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase], First World War Official Histories 11th Edition.
#{{note|AEC}}Australian Electoral Commission (2000). [http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/when/referendums/1999_report/index.htm 1999 Referendum Reports and Statistics]
#{{note|PL1997}}Parliamentary Library (1997). [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General]
#{{note|AGov2005}}{{note_label|AGov2005|8|a}}Australian Government. (2005). [http://www.budget.gov.au/ Budget 2005-2006]
#{{note|DEH}}Department of the Environment and Heritage. [http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html About Biodiversity]
#{{note|Macfarlane1998}}Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). [http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_oct98/bu_1098_2.pdf Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century]. ''Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin'', October
#{{note|Parham2002}}Parham, D. (2002). [http://www.pc.gov.au/research/confproc/mrrag/mrrag.pdf Microeconomic reforms and the revival in Australia’s growth in productivity and living standards]. ''Conference of Economists'', Adelaide, [[1 October]]
#{{note|ABS6202}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Australia. Cat#6202
#{{note|ABS2005}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|a}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|b}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|c}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|d}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument Year Book Australia 2005]
#{{note|DFAT}} Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). ''Advancing the National Interest'', [http://www.dfat.gov.au/ani/appendix_one.pdf Appenidix 1]
#{{note|ABS}} Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/68180154bf128d91ca2569d000164365?OpenDocument Population Growth - Australia’s Population Growth]
#{{note|DIMIA}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (2005). [http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy]<br>
#{{note|ABS2001|}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2001 Census, [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/7dd97c937216e32fca256bbe008371f0!OpenDocument A Snapshot of Australia]
#{{note|PoA2005}}Parliament of Australia, Senate (2005). [http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ctte/expats03/ Inquiry into Australian Expatriates]
#{{note|DIMIA2}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (1995). [http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?]
#{{note|NCLSattsurvey}} [http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance], National Church Life Survey, Media release, [[28 February]] [[2004]]
#{{note|AFC}}Australian Film Commission. What are Australians Watching?, [http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/freetv.html Free-to-Air, 1999-2004 TV]
</div>
== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-01-17|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg|}}
{{sisterlinks|Australia}}
*[http://wikitravel.org/en/Australia Wikitravel guide to Australia]
*[http://www.gov.au/ Australian Government Entry Portal]
*[http://www.australia.gov.au/ Commonwealth Government Online]
*[http://www.immi.gov.au/ Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA)]
*[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/index.html Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT): Country Information]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.000000,133.000000&spn=38.871300,61.703613&t=h&hl=en Satellite images of Australia] (Google Maps)
*[http://www.nla.gov.au/ National Library of Australia]
*[http://www.nma.gov.au/ National Museum of Australia]
*[http://www.australia.com/ Official Australia Tourism Website]
*[http://www.bom.gov.au/ Bureau of Meteorology]
*[http://www.m2006.com.au/ Official website of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games]
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|
irst to make disco music in France with her song "J'attendrai" which was a big hit there as well as in Canada and Japan in [[1976]]. She also released many other disco hits between [[1975]] and [[1981]], including "Monday, Tuesday... Laissez-moi danser" in [[1979]], translated the same year as "Let Me Dance Tonight" for the USA, where she was their "French diva" since her late-[[1978]] performance at the [[Carnegie Hall]]). Soon after [[Dalida]]'s pioneering French disco work, other French artists recorded disco: [[Claude François]], in [[1976]] with his song "Cette année-là" (a cover of [[The Four Seasons]]' disco hit "December 1963 (Oh what a night)"), then the famous "yé-yé" French pop singer [[Sheila]], with her group [[B. Devotion]], who even had a hit in the USA (a rarity for French artists) with the song "Spacer" in [[1979]]. Many other European artists also recorded disco music.
==Popular disco artists==
[[Image:Saturday night fever.jpg|thumb|left|Saturday Night Fever]]
The most popular disco artists of the 1970s include [[The Bee Gees]], [[A Taste of Honey (band)|A Taste of Honey]], [[Cerrone]], [[ABBA]], [[Chic]], [[Sister Sledge]], [[The Jacksons]], [[Claudja Barry]], [[Linda Clifford]], [[Teri DeSario]], [[Donna Summer]], [[Grace Jones]], [[Stephanie Mills]], [[Carol Williams]], [[Sylvester James|Sylvester]], [[Gloria Gaynor]], [[Boney M]], [[Village People]], [[K.C. and the Sunshine Band]], [[Vicki Sue Robinson]], [[MFSB]], [[Loleatta Holloway]], [[France Joli]], [[Evelyn King|Evelyn 'Champagne' King]], [[Yvonne Elliman]], [[Tavares (music group)|Tavares]], [[Salsoul Orchestra]], [[Phyllis Hyman]], [[The Emotions]], [[Thelma Houston]], [[Cheryl Lynn]], [[The Trammps]], [[Love and Kisses]], [[Barry White]], [[Silver Convention]], [[Kool & the Gang]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Dalida]], and [[Machine (disco artist)]]. However, many disco fans would agree that, "for every chart hit pounded into the public's consciousness, fifty far superior tracks from all over the world were being played at some hard-to-find basement club" (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). There appeared many non-disco artists, which included [[The Eagles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Kiss (band)|KISS]], [[The Grateful Dead]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]], [[Barry Manilow]], [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Isaac Hayes]], [[Leif Garrett]], [[Toto (band)|Toto]], [[Chaka Khan]], [[The Beach Boys]], [[Billy Preston]], [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]], [[Electric Light Orchestra]], [[The Pointer Sisters]], [[Elton John]], [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], [[Bette Midler]], [[Prince]], [[Helen Reddy]], [[Carly Simon]], [[Diana Ross]], [[Earth, Wind and Fire]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]] (with the bass guitar riffs emulating those of Chic in their hit ''[[Another One Bites The Dust]]''), [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]], [[Bryan Adams]], as well as veteran entertainers such as [[Paul Anka]], [[Ann-Margret]], [[Charo]], [[Frankie Avalon]], [[Engelbert Humperdinck]], [[Ethel Merman]], [[Wayne Newton]], [[Barbra Streisand]], [[Andy Williams]], and [[Frank Sinatra]].
Many disco novelty songs sold well and were popular. [[Rick Dees]], at the time a radio DJ in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], recorded what is considered to be one of the most popular parodies of all time, ''[[Disco Duck]]''.
==DJs and producers==
Disco music diverged from the [[rock (music)|rock]] of the [[1960s]], elevating music from the raw sound of 4-piece [[garage bands]] to refined music composed by producers who contracted local [[symphony]] and [[philharmonic]] [[orchestras]] and session musicians. For the first time in three decades, orchestral music became the preeminent sound in the popular-music scene. Top disco music producers included [[Patrick Adams]], [[Biddu]], [[Cerrone]], [[Alec R. Costandinos]], [[John Davis]], [[Gregg Diamond]], [[Kenneth Gamble]], [[Norman Harris]], [[Leon Huff]], [[Sylvester Levay]], [[Ian Levine]], [[Mike Lewis]], [[Van McCoy]], [[Meco Monardo]], [[Tom Moulton]], [[Boris Midney]], [[Vincent Montana Jr]], [[Randy Muller]], [[Freddie Perren]], [[Laurin Rinder]], [[Richie Rome]], [[Warren Schatz]], [[Harold Wheeler]], and [[Michael Zager]], whose roles involved every aspect of production, from composing the arrangements to conducting the 50- to 100-member orchestras from [[Los_Angeles (orchestra)|Los Angeles]] to [[New_York (orchestra)|New York]], from [[Chicago (orchestra)|Chicago]] to [[Philadelphia (orchestra)|Philadelphia]], from [[Detroit (orchestra)|Detroit]] to [[Miami (orchestra)|Miami]], from [[London (orchestra)|London]] to [[Berlin (orchestra)|Berlin]], from [[Vancouver (orchestra)|Vancouver]] to [[Montreal (orchestra)|Montreal]], from to [[Paris (orchestra)|Paris]] to [[Milan (orchestra)|Milan]].
With as many as 64 [[sound_recording|track]]s of vocals and instruments to be compiled into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with [[orchestral build]]s and [[break (music)|break]]s, the mixing engineers became an important fixture in the production process, and, as a result, were most influential in developing the "sound" of the recording through the [[disco mix]]. Record sales were often dependent on, though not guaranteed by, floor play in clubs. Notable DJs include [[Jim Burgess]], [[Walter Gibbons]], [[John "Jellybean" Benitez]], [[Rick Gianatos]], [[Francis Grasso]] (Sanctuary), [[Larry Levan]] (Paradise Garage), [[Ian Levine]] (Heaven), John Luongo, and [[David Mancuso]] (The Loft).
==Instrumentation==
Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm [[guitar]] (most often played in "chicken-scratch" style, usually through a [[wah-wah]] or [[phaser]]), [[bass guitar|bass]], [[piano]] and electroacoustic keyboards (most important: the [[Fender-Rhodes]] and [[Wurlitzer]] electric pianos and the [[Hohner Clavinet]]), [[harp]], [[synthesizer|string synth]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[cello]], [[trumpet]], [[saxophone]], [[trombone]], [[clarinet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[Horn (instrument)|French horn]], [[tuba]], [[English horn]], [[oboe]], [[flute]], [[piccolo]], and [[drums]], [[timpani]], as well a [[drum kit]]. [[Electronic drum]]s were making a debut during this era, with Simmons and [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] [[sound module|drum modules]] appearing as pioneers in electronic percussion. Most disco songs have a steady [[four-on-the-floor (music)|four-on-the-floor]] beat (sometimes using a 16-beat pattern on the [[hi-hat]] cymbal, or an eight-beat pattern with an open hi-hat on the "off" beat) and a heavy, syncopated bassline.
In general, the difference between a disco, or any dance song, and a rock or popular song is that in dance music the bass hits "[[four to the floor]]", at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure), whereas in rock the bass hits on one and three and lets the snare take the lead on two and four. (Michaels, 1990) Disco is further characterized by a sixteenth note division of the quarter notes established by the bass as shown in the second drum pattern below, after a typical rock drum pattern:
[[Image:Characteristic rock and disco drum patterns.PNG|550px|Characteristic rock and disco drum patterns]]
This sixteenth note pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar (lead guitar parts are rare), and may be implied rather than explicitly present, often involving [[syncopation]]. As a simpler example, bass lines often use the following rhythm:
[[Image:Characteristic disco bass rhythm.PNG|550px|Characteristic disco bass rhythm]]
The orchestral sound usually known as "disco sound" relies heavily on strings and horns playing linear phrases, in unison with the soaring, often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills, while electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars create the background "pad" sound defining the harmony progression. Typically, a "[[wall of sound]]" results. There are however more minimalistic flavors of disco with reduced, transparent instrumentation, pioneered by [[Chic]].
==Format==
At first, [[single (music)|singles]] were released on 7-inch [[45 (number)|45]]-[[rpm]] records, 45s, which were shorter in length and of poorer sound quality than [[12-inch single]]s. [[Motown Records]] was the first to market these through their "Eye-Cue" label, but these and other 12-inch singles were the length of the original 45s until Scepter/Wand released the first 12-inch extended-version single in 1976: [[Jesse Green]]'s "Nice and Slow" b/w [[Sweet Music]]'s "I Get Lifted" (engineered by [[Tom Moulton]]). The single was packaged in collectable picture sleeves, a relatively new concept at the time. 12-Inch singles became commercially available after the first crossover, [[Tavares (music group)|Tavares]]' "Heaven Must Be Missing an Angel." 12-Inch singles allowed longer dance time and [[musical form|formal]] possibilities. (Jones and Kantonen, 1999)
==Backlash in U.S. and UK==
The popularity of the film ''Saturday Night Fever'' prompted the major record labels to mass-produce hits, however, as some perceived, turning the genre from something vital and edgy into a safe "product" homogenized for the mass audience. Though disco music had several years of popularity, an American anti-disco sentiment was festering, marked by an impatient return to rock (loudly encouraged by worried rock radio stations). Disco music and dancing fads were depicted as not only silly (witness [[Frank Zappa]]'s satirical song [[Sheik Yerbouti|"Dancin' Fool"]]), but [[effeminate]].
In Britain, however, during the same year as the first American anti-disco demonstration (see [[Disco#Rock vs. Disco|below]]), ''The Young Nationalist'' publication of the [[far-right]] [[British National Party]] reported that
|
e swampy valley of the [[Nor' Loch]] to the north. The resulting [[crag and tail]] landform now forms the Castle Rock, and the narrow steep sided ridge which the Royal Mile follows. The ridge declines in height over a mile, meeting general ground level at Holyrood.
This formed a natural [[fortress]], and recent excavations at the castle (described in ''Excavations within Edinburgh Castle'' by Stephen T. Driscoll & Peter Yeoman, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph Series no.12 1997) found material dating back to the Late Bronze Age, as long ago as 850 BCE.
The map co-ordinates of the centre of Edinburgh are approximately {{coor dm|55|57|N|3|11|W|}}.
[[Image:Princes Street Gardens.jpg|thumb|left|Looking east across part of Princes Street Gardens, the monument to Sir [[Walter Scott]] is prominent in the background to the left. The Balmoral Hotel (formerly the [[North British Railway|North British Hotel]]) is in the centre, with the North Bridge to its right above [[Waverley station]].]]
===Areas of the Centre===
The historic centre of Edinburgh is divided into two by the broad green swath of [[Princes Street Gardens]]. To the south the view is dominated by [[Edinburgh Castle]], perched atop the extinct volcanic crag, and the long sweep of the [[Old Town, Edinburgh|Old Town]] trailing after it along the ridge. To the north lies [[Princes Street]] and the [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]]. The gardens were begun in 1816 on marshland which had once been the Nor' Loch.
To the immediate west of the castle lies the financial district, housing insurance and banking buildings. Probably the most eyecatching building is the huge circular sandstone building that is the Edinburgh International Conference Centre.
===Old Town===
[[Image:OldTownEdinburgh.jpg|thumb|right|Street scene in the '''Old Town''']]
[[Image:Scotland - Edinburgh - Old Town.jpg|thumb|right|The Old Town view across Princes Street Gardens]]
{{main|Old Town, Edinburgh}}
The Old Town has preserved its [[medieval]] plan and many [[Reformation]]-era buildings. One end is closed by the castle and the main artery, known as the [[Royal Mile]]), leads away from it; minor streets (called ''closes'' or ''wynds'') lead downhill on either side of the main spine in a herringbone pattern. Large squares mark the location of markets or surround major public buildings such as [[St Giles Cathedral]] and the Law Courts. Other notable places of interest nearby include the Royal Museum of Scotland, Surgeons' Hall, the Royal Festival Theatre, and the [[University of Edinburgh]]. The street layout, typical of the old quarters of many northern European cities, is made especially picturesque in Edinburgh, where the castle perches on top of a rocky crag, the remnants of a dormant volcano, and the main street runs down the crest of a ridge from it.
The topography for the city is known as "crag and tail" and was created during the [[ice age]] when receding glaciers scored across the land pushing soft soil aside but being split by harder crags of volcaninc rock. The hilltop crag was the earliest part of the city to develop, becoming fortified and eventually developing into the current [[Edinburgh Castle]]. The rest of the city grew slowly down the tail of land from the [[Castle Rock]]. This was an easily defended spot with marshland on the south and a loch, the [[Nor Loch]], on the north. Access up the main road to the settlement therefore was restricted by means of various gates and a [[City Wall]] (now mostly gone).
Due to the space restrictions imposed by the narrowness of the "tail" the Old Town became home to some of the earliest "high rise" residential buildings. Multi-story dwellings were the norm from the 1500s onwards. During the 1700s the Old Town had a population of about 80,000 residents. However, in more modern times it had declined dramatically to just 4,000 residents. There are currently approximately 20,000 residents in the various parts of the Old Town. As the population was for a long time reluctant to build outside the defensive wall, the need for housing grew and hence the buildings became higher and higher. However, many of these buildings were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1824. They were then rebuilt on the original foundations. This led to changes in the ground level and the creation of many passages and vaults under the Old Town.
On [[December 7]], [[2002]], another [[Edinburgh Cowgate fire, 2002|major fire]] in the Old Town engulfed part of the Cowgate. It destroyed the famous comedy club, The Gilded Balloon, and much of the [[University of Edinburgh School of Informatics|Informatics department]] of the [[University of Edinburgh]], including the comprehensive AI ([[Artificial intelligence]]) library.
===New Town===
[[Image:Edinburgh from the Illustrated London News 1868.jpg|thumb|A panorama of Edinburgh published by the ''[[Illustrated London News]]'' in 1868. The grid pattern of New Town appears in the foreground. [[Edinburgh Castle]] is on the hill centre right, and the [[Royal Mile]] can be traced leading down from it to the [[Palace of Holyroodhouse]]. The hill at the top left is [[Arthur's Seat]].]]
{{main|New Town, Edinburgh}}
The New Town was an 18th century solution to the problem of an increasingly crowded Old Town. The city had remained incredibly compact, confined to the ridge running down from the castle. In 1766 a competition to design the New Town was won by [[James Craig (architect)|James Craig]], a 22-year old architect. The plan that was built created a rigid, ordered grid, which fitted well with [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] ideas of rationality. The principal street was to be George Street, which follows the natural ridge to the north of the Old Town. Either side of it are the other main streets of [[Princes Street]] and Queen Street. Princes Street has since become the main shopping street in Edinburgh, and few [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] buildings survive on it. Linking these streets were a series of perpendicular streets. At the east and west ends are St. Andrew's Square and Charlotte Square respectively. The latter was designed by [[Robert Adam]] and is often considered one of the finest Georgian squares in Britain. [[Bute House]], the official residence of the [[First Minister of Scotland]], is on the north side of Charlotte Square.
Sitting in the valley between the Old and New Towns was the Nor' Loch, which had been both the city's water supply and place for dumping sewerage. By the 1820s it was drained. Some plans show that a canal was intended, but [[Princes Street Gardens]] are what was created. Excess soil from the construction of the buildings was dumped into the valley, creating what is now [[Mound (Edinburgh)|The Mound]]. In the mid-19th century the [[National Gallery of Scotland]] and [[Royal Scottish Academy Building]] were built on The Mound, and tunnels to [[Waverley station|Waverley Station]] driven through it.
The New Town was so successful that it was extended greatly. The grid pattern was not maintained, but rather a more picturesque layout was created.
==Leith==
{{main|Leith}}
Leith is the port of Edinburgh. It still retains a separate identity from Edinburgh, and it was a matter of great resentment when in 1920 Leith was merged into Edinburgh. Even today the parliamentary seat is known as 'Edinburgh North ''and'' Leith'. With the redevelopment of Leith, Edinburgh has gained the business of a number of cruise liner companies who now provide cruises to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. Leith also boasts the [[Royal Yacht Britannia]], berthed behind the [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]] shopping centre.
See also: [[Granton]], [[Newhaven, Edinburgh|Newhaven]]
==Viewpoints==
[[Image:Edinburgh-scottm.600px.jpg|thumbnail|View of Edinburgh from the [[Scott Monument]] on Princes Street, showing [[Waverley Station]] in the foreground and [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]] beyond.]]
The varied [[topography]] of the city includes several summits which command sweeping views over Edinburgh.
To the southeast of central Edinburgh stands the eminence known as [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]], overlooking Holyroodhouse and the Old Town beside it. The crag is a collection of side vents of the main volcano on which Edinburgh is built. The volcano slipped and tipped sideways, leaving these vents as the highest points for miles around. Arthur's Seat is now part of [[Holyrood Park]], originally owned by the monarch and part of the grounds of the [[Palace of Holyroodhouse]]. It contains Britain's largest concentration of [[geology|geological]] [[Site of Special Scientific Interest|SSSIs]], as well as providing the people of Edinburgh with spectacular views of and from Arthur's Seat and somewhere to relax after a long day in the city.
To the northeast, overlooking the New Town, is [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]]. It is topped by an assortment of buildings and monuments: two observatories, [[Nelson's Monument]] (a tower dedicated to Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]]), the old [[Royal High School]] (once almost the home of a devolved Parliament), and the unfinished [[National Monument, Edinburgh|National Monument]], which is modelled on the [[Parthenon]] from the Athenian [[Acropolis]] and is nicknamed "Edinburgh's Disgrace". The nickname of the city, "Athens of the North", also hails from this monument. Calton Hill plays host to the [[Beltane]] Festival on [[May 1]].
The Royal Observatory rests on Blackford Hill, the third and Southernmost viewpoint of the city.
[[Image:Edinburgh wiki.jpg|thumb|400px|center]]
==Sports==
Edinburgh has two professional [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs: [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] and [[Heart of Midlothian F.C.|Heart of Midlothian]]. They are known locally as Hibs and Hearts. Both teams play in the [[Scottish Premier League]]: Hibernian at [[Easter Road S
|
methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing the [[infrastructure]] for [[administration]], [[justice]], [[transport]], [[communication]], [[social welfare]] etc., claiming support from [[deity|deities]], providing benefits to [[elites]], holding [[election]]s for important posts within the state, limiting the power of the state through [[law]]s and [[constitution]]s (see also [[Bill of Rights]]) and appealing to [[nationalism]]. Different political ideologies hold different ideas on what the government should or should not do.
===Territory===
The modern standard unit of [[territory]] is a [[country]]. In addition to the meaning used above, the word [[state]] can refer either to a government or to its territory. Within a territory, [[subnational entity|subnational entities]] may have [[local government]]s which do not have the full power of a national government (for example, they will generally lack the authority to declare war or carry out diplomatic negotiations).
ĀİĪ Ǔ çÄņ èÀł
==Size of government==
''Main articles: [[government ownership]], [[government spending]]''
The scale to which government should exist and operate in the world is a matter of debate. Government spending in [[developed countries]] varies considerably but generally makes up between about 30% and 70% of their [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. One major exception is the United States, where central government spending takes up less than 20% of GDP.
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[Conspiracy theories]]
* [[Democracy]]
* [[Bipartidism]]
* [[government ownership]]
* [[government simulation]]
* [[Minority government]]
* [[Political corruption]]
* [[Premier]]
* [[Statesman]]
===Relevant lists===
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[List of fictional governments]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[bn:সরকার]]
[[bs:Vlada]]
[[ca:Govern]]
[[da:Regering]]
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[[eo:Registaro]]
[[fr:Gouvernement]]
[[he:ממשלה]]
[[hi:सरकार]]
[[id:Pemerintah]]
[[is:Ríkisstjórn]]
[[it:Governo]]
[[ja:政府]]
[[ko:정부]]
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[[zh:政府]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Coleman</title>
<id>12230</id>
<revision>
<id>41023163</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:31:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sjakkalle</username>
<id>203358</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.13.68.206|71.13.68.206]] ([[User talk:71.13.68.206|talk]]) to last version by Thoughtfix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryColeman.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Gary Coleman]]
'''Gary Wayne Coleman''' (born [[February 8]], [[1968]], in [[Zion, Illinois|Zion]], [[Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]].
==Acting career==
Coleman is most famous for the role of Arnold Jackson on ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]'', an American [[sitcom]] which ran on [[NBC]] from [[1978]] to [[1985]] and then switched to [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]. He was particularly famous for his [[catch phrase]], "Whatchoo talkin' 'bout, Willis?", delivered to his character's older brother Willis Jackson ([[Todd Bridges]]).
Coleman was born with a [[congenital]] [[kidney]] disease causing [[nephritis]] (an autoimmune destruction of the kidney), which halted his growth at an early age, leading to a notably small stature (4' 8") which became his most distinguishing feature. Coleman has had two kidney [[transplant]]s, one in [[1973]] and one in [[1984]], and requires constant [[dialysis]].
During the run of the show Coleman was a popular figure, starring in a number of feature films and [[Television movie|made-for-TV movies]] including ''On the Right Track'', and ''The Kid With the Broken Halo''. ''The Kid With the Broken Halo'' eventually served as the basis for the [[Hanna-Barbera]] produced animated series ''The Gary Coleman Show'' from [[1982]].
At the height of his fame on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', Coleman earned $70,000 per episode. As he grew older, however, he fell from public favor. After the cancellation of ''Diff'rent Strokes'', his acting career declined sharply.
In [[1997]], Gary did voice work for the ''[[The Curse of Monkey Island]]'' the third installment in the monkey island series of comedy adventure games developed by [[LucasArts]]
In [[2004]], Coleman played a supporting role in the controversial [[computer game]] ''[[Postal²]]'' by [[Running With Scissors, Inc.]]
He recently made an appearance in [[John Cena]]'s video, "Bad, Bad Man".
==Legal struggles==
Coleman famously sued his parents and manager over misappropriation of his $8.3 million trust fund, and won a $1,280,000 ruling on [[February 23]], [[1993]]. The basis for the lawsuit was that using the trust fund, his parents had accumulated $770,000 for themselves, leaving Gary only $220,000. He briefly owned a [[Computer and video games|video game]] arcade in Fisherman's Village in [[Marina del Rey]], near [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], [[California]] from 1993 to [[1994]]. Despite this, Coleman filed for [[bankruptcy]] in [[1999]].
Coleman appeared in court on [[November 2]], [[2000]], charged with assault. He was ordered to pay bus driver Tracy Fields $1,665 for hospital bills resulting from a fight. Fields had attempted to get Coleman's autograph while he was shopping for a [[bulletproof vest]] in a California mall.[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,3385,00.html] Coleman said he felt "threatened by her insistence" and punched her in the head.
==Political career==
Coleman was a candidate for [[Governor of California|governor]] in the [[2003 California recall|2003 California recall election]]. This campaign was sponsored by the free newsweekly the ''[[East Bay Express]]'' as a satirical comment on the recall. After [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] announced his candidacy, Coleman stated that he would be voting for Schwarzenegger. Coleman placed [[Results of the 2003 California recall|8th in a field of 135 candidates]], receiving 14,242 votes.
Since the recall elections, Coleman has been starring in television and radio [[commercials]] in the [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] market for a short term loan company called "Cash Call".
==Miscellaneous==
Coleman is a [[Rail transport modelling|model railroader]].
He is sometimes confused with [[Emmanuel Lewis]], star of the [[1980s]] sitcom ''[[Webster (sitcom)|Webster]]'', considered a knock-off of Coleman's earlier success.
He resides in [[Utah]], relocating from California in 2005.
===''Avenue Q'' character===
Gary Coleman is also a character (not an actor) in the hit [[2003]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]], ''[[Avenue Q]]'', which won the 2004 [[Tony Award]]. In the musical, Coleman is portrayed by actress Natalie Venetia Belcon. The character is loosely based on Coleman himself, or more specifically, on the public perception of him as a [[child star]] who lost everything. The character works as the [[building superintendent|superintendent]] of the apartment complex where the musical takes place. In the introductory song, "It Sucks to be Me", he states: "I'm Gary Coleman from TV's ''Diff'rent Strokes''. I made a lot of money that got stolen by my folks. Now I'm broke and I'm the butt of everyone's jokes&mdash;but I'm here, the superintendent, of Avenue Q!" At various times when the Gary Coleman character speaks, theme music reminiscent of an 80s sitcom interrupts the usual Broadway-style music.
===Later media appearances===
In June [[2005]], ''[[VH-1]]'' named Gary Coleman [[No. 1]] on its list of the Top 100 Child Stars Ever.
In [[2001]], he was employed as a shopping mall security guard in the Los Angeles area. A video of him trying to stop a vehicle from entering a compound while the driver (obviously a member of the [[paparazzi]]) ridiculed him made the rounds on various late night talk shows. He also cameoed on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' as himself (in security guard mode). [[Dave Chappelle]] is going to release a skit on ''[[Chappelle's Show]]'' involving him as a midget security (obviously on his knees and a dummy for other shots), based on Coleman's troubled security experience and a possibly upcoming catchphrase, "Whatchu talkin' about, Bitch?".
Coleman occasionally is able to cash in on his [[camp]] value to members of [[Generation X]], by appearing in cameo roles in film and TV. As with [[Day-Glo]], [[Rubik's Cube]], [[Valley girl]]s, [[Care Bears]], [[Mr. T]], the ''[[Smurfs]]'' and other artifacts from the early [[1980s]], Coleman's popularity coincided with the childhood of a particularly productive demographic of internet users, and he is, as of 2005, a minor [[cult following|cult]] figure.
He has also appeared in [[WWE]] superstar [[John Cena]]'s music video for "Bad Bad Man" in which he appeared as himself
In late 2005, Coleman opened an ice cream shop in Cheyenne, Wyoming called Short Stuff's frozen treats. He is already making plans to expand his business and hopes that he will be taken seriously in the business world.
==Filmography==
*''On the Right Track'' ([[1981]])
*''Jimmy the Kid'' ([[1982]])
*''[[Party]]'' ([[1994]]) (short subject) (also [[associate producer]])
*''[[S.F.W.]]'' (1994) (cameo)
*''[[Fox Hunt]]'' ([[1996]])
*''Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's'' ([[1997]]) (documentary)
*''[[Dirty Work]]'' ([[1998]]) (cameo)
*''The Flunky'' ([[2000]])
*''Shafted!'' (2000)
*''Frank McKlusky, C.I.'' ([[2002]]) (cameo)
*''[[Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star]]'' ([[2003]]) (cameo)
*''Chasing the Edge'' ([[2004]]) (short subject)
*''Save Virgil'' (2004) (short subject)
*''A Christmas Too Many'' ([[2005]])
Upcoming:
*''Ch
|
o represent character information. At the time ASCII was introduced, many computers dealt with eight-bit groups ([[byte]]s or, more specifically, [[octet (computing)|octet]]s) as the smallest unit of information; the eighth bit was commonly used as a [[parity bit]] for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions. Machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero, though some systems such as [[Prime computer|Prime]] machines running [[PRIMOS]] set the eighth bit of ASCII characters to one.
ASCII only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences; aside from reserving a few control codes for line-oriented formatting, it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the [[markup language]]s.
==History==
ASCII developed from [[Telegraphy|telegraphic codes]] and first entered commercial use as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by [[AT&T|Bell]] data services. The [[Bell System]] had previously planned to use a six-bit code, derived from [[Fieldata]], that added punctuation and lower-case letters to the earlier five-bit [[Baudot code|Baudot]] teleprinter code, but was persuaded instead to join the [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages, and took many features from [[Morse code]]; however, unlike Morse code, Baudot used constant-length codes. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the '[[escape sequence]]'.
The American Standards Association (ASA, later to become [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) first published ASCII as a standard in 1963. ASCII-1963 lacked the lowercase letters, and had an up-arrow (&#8593;) instead of the caret (^) and a left-arrow (&#8592;) instead of the underscore (_). The 1967 version added the lowercase letters, changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ACK and ESC from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area.
ASCII was subsequently updated and published as ANSI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.
Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII. These encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, even though ASCII is strictly defined only by the ASA/ANSI standards:
* The [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] published editions of its ASCII clone, ECMA-6, in 1965, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1983, and 1991. The 1991 edition is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.<ref>ECMA International (December 1991). [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-006.pdf Standard ECMA-6: 7-bit Coded Character Set, 6th edition.] Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref>
* The [[International Organization for Standardization]] published its version, ISO 646 (later [[ISO/IEC 646]]) in 1967, 1972, 1983, and 1991. ISO 646:1972, in particular, established a set of country-specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non-English letters. ISO/IEC 646:1991 International Reference Version is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.
* The [[International Telecommunication Union]] published its version of ANSI X3.4-1986, [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector|ITU-T]] Recommendation T.50, in 1992. In the early 1970s, under the name CCITT, the same organization published a version as CCITT Recommendation V.3.
* [[DIN]] published a version of ASCII as DIN 66003 in 1974.
* The [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] published a version in 1969 as RFC 20, and established the Internet's standard version, based on ANSI X3.4-1986, with the publication of RFC 1345 in 1992.
* [[IBM]]'s version of ANSI X3.4-1986 is published in IBM technical literature as [[code page 367]].
ASCII has also become embedded in its probable replacement, [[Unicode]], as the 'lowest' 128 characters. Some observers consider ASCII the most "successful" software standard ever promulgated.
==ASCII control characters==
ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printer]]s) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key often found in the top left corner of common [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s.
Code 127 (all seven bits on), another special character, equates to "delete" or "rubout". Though its function resembles that of other control characters, the designers of ASCII used this pattern so that it could "erase" a section of [[punched tape|paper tape]] (a popular storage medium until the 1980s) by punching all possible holes at a particular character position, thus effectively replacing any previous information. Since Code 0 (null,all bits off) was also ignored it was possible to leave gaps and then make corrections by blanking characters before or after the gap and then entering new characters in the gap.
Many of the ASCII control codes serve (or served) to mark data packets, or to control a data transmission protocol (e.g. ENQuiry [effectively, "any stations out there?"], ACKnowledge, Negative AcKnowledge, Start Of Header, Start of TeXt, End of TeXt, etc). ESCape and SUBstitute permit a communications protocol to, for instance, mark binary data so that if it contains codes with the same pattern as a protocol character, the recipient will process the code as data.
The designers of ASCII intended the separator characters ("Record Separator", etc.) for use with magnetic tape systems.
Two of the device control characters, commonly interpreted as [[XON]] and [[XOFF]], generally function as [[flow control]] characters to throttle data flow to a slow device (such as a printer) from a fast device (such as a computer) - so data does not overrun and get lost.
Early users of ASCII adopted some of the control codes to represent "meta information" such as end-of-line, start/end of a data element, and so on. These assignments often conflict, so part of the effort in converting data from one format to another involves making the correct meta information transformations. For example, the character(s) representing end-of-line ("[[newline]]") in text data files/streams vary from [[operating system]] to operating system. When moving files from one system to another, the conversion process must recognize these characters as end-of-line markers and handle them appropriately.
Today, ASCII users use the control characters less and less—with the exception of "carriage return" and/or "line feed". Modern markup languages, modern communication protocols, the move from text-based to graphical devices, and the demise of teleprinters, punch-cards, and paper tapes have rendered most of the control characters obsolete.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!style="width: 5.5em"|Binary
!style="width: 2.5em"|Oct
!style="width: 2.5em"|Dec
!style="width: 2.5em"|Hex
!style="width: 2.5em"|Abbr
!style="width: 2.5em"|PR{{ref 1}}
!style="width: 2.5em"|CS{{ref 2}}
!Description
|-
|0000&nbsp;0000
|000
|0
|00
|NUL
|<big>&#9216;</big>
|^@
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Null character]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;0001
|001
|1
|01
|SOH
|<big>&#9217;</big>
|^A
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Header
|-
|0000&nbsp;0010
|002
|2
|02
|STX
|<big>&#9218;</big>
|^B
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Text
|-
|0000&nbsp;0011
|003
|3
|03
|ETX
|<big>&#9219;</big>
|^C
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Text
|-
|0000&nbsp;0100
|004
|4
|04
|EOT
|<big>&#9220;</big>
|^D
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[End-of-transmission character|End of Transmission]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;0101
|005
|5
|05
|ENQ
|<big>&#9221;</big>
|^E
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Enquiry
|-
|0000&nbsp;0110
|006
|6
|06
|ACK
|<big>&#9222;</big>
|^F
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Acknowledgment
|-
|0000&nbsp;0111
|007
|7
|07
|BEL
|<big>&#9223;</big>
|^G
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Bell character|Bell]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;1000
|010
|8
|08
|BS
|<big>&#9224;</big>
|^H
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Backspace]]{{ref 3}}{{ref 7}}
|-
|0000&nbsp;1001
|011
|9
|09
|HT
|<big>&#9225;</big>
|^I
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Horizontal [[Tab]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;1010
|012
|10
|0A
|LF
|<big>&#9226;</big>
|^J
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Line feed]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;1011
|013
|11
|0B
|VT
|<big>&#9227;</big>
|^K
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Vertical Tab
|-
|0000&nbsp;1100
|014
|12
|0C
|FF
|<big>&#9228;</big>
|^L
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Form feed]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;1101
|015
|13
|0D
|CR
|<big>&#9229;</big>
|^M
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Carriage return]]{{ref 6}}
|-
|0000&nbsp;1110
|016
|
of the War was [[religion]]. When Charles became King in 1625 his [[Arminian]] style of Anglicanism and French Catholic wife seemed to herald a slide back toward Catholicism and [[popery]]. Additionally, he did not get along with Parliament, and unproductive sessions in the 1620s resulted in the closure of Parliament for 11 years. However, following the Scottish invasion in 1640 Charles was forced to call Parliament to raise money for an army. Parliament was furious and wanted its grievances addressed. The [[Petition of Right]], pushed through by [[John Pym]], forced Charles to agree that the English people had rights and liberties and that he had been undermining them. Charles attempted to arrest Pym and five others in February 1642 after they attempted to impeach the [[Queen Consort|Queen]], claiming she had been attempting to control Charles and impose a French style tyranny on them.
The King and his family left [[London]] in May 1642 and the raising of the royal standard at [[Nottingham]] started war. Charles's side were called the [[Cavaliers]]; Parliament's side were the [[Roundheads]]. In spite of initial successes, Charles's defeat was assured by 1644, when Pym signed an agreement with the Scots. Charles was defeated and captured at [[Marston Moor]] in 1647, but he fled to the [[Isle of Wight]] and enlisted the help of the Scots, as Parliament had reneged on their agreement. However, his hopes came to naught when the Roundheads defeated them at [[Naseby]].
===English Commonwealth===
Pym had since died and the [[Grandee]]s in the [[New Model Army]] and Parliament, including [[Oliver Cromwell]], reluctantly came to the conclusion that they would have to kill Charles. He was found guilty by [[List of regicides of Charles I|fifty nine Commissioners]] (Judges) of high treason and executed. With the abolition of the [[Monarchy]] Britain entered a period known as the [[English Commonwealth]], Government by a [[Council of State]] with a [[Rump Parliament]] as the legislator. Real power rested with the Grandees of the New Model Army and in 1653 Oliver Cromwell became [[Lord Protector]]. After Cromwell died in 1658 his son [[Richard Cromwell]] inherited the title but not the power. After a short return of the Commonwealth, the [[English Interregnum|Interregnum]] came to an end with the [[English Restoration|restoration]] of the Monarchy under Charles’ son King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].
===Act of Union===
The [[Act of Union 1707]] united the parliaments of the Kingdoms of England and [[Scotland]] to create a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]]. Subsequently, the [[Act of Union 1800]] united the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]].
Having gone through a political revolution 100 years early, [[Great Britain]] entered the 18th century in a stronger position than her continental rivals who were still controlled by absolute monarchs.
==The French Revolution==
''Main article: [[French Revolution]]''
[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The storming of the Bastille]]
By the late 18th century France's finances were in disarray. Lavish royal expenditure and costly wars, such as the [[France in the American Revolutionary War|French intervention]] in the [[American war of Independence]], had bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] was persuaded to convene the [[Estates-General of 1789|Estates-General]], a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The members of the Estates-General assembled in [[Versaille]] in May 1789, but the debate as to which voting system should be used soon became an impasse. Come June, the third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] and swore an [[Tennis Court Oath|oath]] not to dissolve until France had a [[constitution]] and created, in July, the [[National Constituent Assembly]]. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the [[Bastille]] prison on [[14 July]].
At the time the assembly wanted to create a [[constitutional monarchy]], and over the following two years passed various laws including the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]], the [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The abolition of feudalism|abolition of feudalism]], and a [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy|fundamental change]] in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king went along with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognised and bought back to Paris. On [[12 January]] 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was executed.
On [[20 September]] [[1792]] the [[National Convention]] abolished the monarchy and declared France a [[republic]]. Due to the emergency of [[French Revolutionary Wars|war]] the National Convention created the [[Committee of Public Safety]], controlled by the [[Jacobin]] [[Robespierre]], to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre the committee initiated the [[Reign of Terror]], during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the [[Revolutionary Tribunal]], often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary [[Revolt in the Vendée|insurrections]] were brutally suppressed. The [[regime]] was overthrown in the coup of [[9 Thermidor]] ([[27 July]] [[1794]]) and executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies.
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 he returned from Egypt and on [[18 Brumaire]] ([[9 November]]) overthrew the government, replacing it with the [[French Consulate|Consulate]], in which he was First Consul. On [[2 December]] [[1804]], after a failed assassination plot he crowned himself [[First French Empire|Emperor]].
In 1805 Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria ([[Third Coalition]]), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time failure to lure the superior British fleet away from the [[English Channel]], ending in a decisive French defeat at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] on [[21 October]] put an end to hopes of an invasion of Britain. On [[2 December]] Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], forcing Austria’s [[Treaty of Pressburg|withdrawal from the coalition]] and dissolving the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
In 1806 a [[Fourth Coalition]] was set up, on [[14 October]] Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt]], marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on [[14 June]] [[1807]] at [[Battle of Friedland|Freidland]], the [[Treaties of Tilsit]] divided Europe between France and Russia and created the [[Duchy of Warsaw]].On [[12 June]] [[1812]] Napoleon [[Napoleon's Invasion of Russia|invaded Russia]] with a [[La Grande Armée|Grande Armée]] on nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at [[Battle of Smolensk (1812)|Smolensk]] and [[Battle of Borodino|Borodino]] Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian Army, he was forced to withdraw, on the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign.
By 1813 the tide had began to turn from Napoleon, having been defeated by a [[Sixth Coalition|seven nation army]] at [[Battle of Leipzig]] in October 1813. He was forced to abdicate after the [[Six Days Campaign]] and the occupation of Paris, under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the Island of [[Elba]]. He returned to France on [[1 March]] [[1815]] (see [[Hundred Days]]), raised an army, but was comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] on [[18 June]].
==Congress of Vienna==
{{main|Congress of Vienna}}
The Congress of Vienna was a conference between ambassadors from the major powers in Europe. It was held in Vienna from [[1 October]] [[1814]], to [[9 June]] [[1815]]. The discussions continued despite Napoleon's return and the Congress's Final Act was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo. The Congress was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the [[Treaty of Paris]] in May 1814.
The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed in 1795 - 1810, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]) and Prussia, which acquired [[Westphalia]] and the northern [[Rhineland]]. Germany was consolidated from the ~300 states of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (dissolved in 1806) into 39 states. These states were formed into a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia and Austria.
Poland was again divided by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The [[Polish Kingdom]] became part of Russia, while western Poland became Prussian and southern Poland was made Austrian. Only the [[Republic of Cracow]] stayed independant until 1846.
Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. Norway was transferred from Denmark to Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg d
|
usness')
# [[Prakaranapāda]] ('Exposition')
# [[Jñānaprasthāna]] ('Foundations of Knowledge')
== See also ==
* [[Shastra]]
* [[Sutta Pitaka]]
* [[Vinaya Pitaka]]
* [[Pratitya-samutpada]]
== References ==
* ''Buddhist Psychology'', [[Caroline Rhys Davids]], ([[London]], [[1900]])
* "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins", by Professor Takakusu, in ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', [[1905]].
* Collett Cox, ''Abhidhamma'' in ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', Robert E. Buswell, Ed., McMillan USA, New York, NY, 2004. ISBN 0028659104.
== External links ==
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/abhidham.htm BuddhaNet - description of the Abhidhamma]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/abhidh01.htm BuddhaNet - Abhidhamma articles]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/abhidhamma/index.html Access to Insight - description of the Abhidhamma]
* [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/abhiman.html Online excerpt of a well-known book about the Abhidhamma]
[[Category:Abhidhamma Pitaka|*]]
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[[vi:A-tì-đạt-ma]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Abhorrers</title>
<id>2739</id>
<revision>
<id>36080268</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T12:05:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{England-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abhorrers''', the name given in [[1679]] to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King [[Charles II of England]] to assemble [[English Parliament|Parliament]].
Feeling against [[Roman Catholic]]s, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the [[Exclusion Bill]] had been passed by the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]], and the popularity of [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], was very great.
To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in [[July]] [[1679]], and in the following October had [[prorogue]]d its successor without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was opposed by Sir [[George Jeffreys]] and [[Francis Wythens]], who presented addresses expressing ''abhorrence'' of the ''Petitioners,'' and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over [[England]]," says [[Roger North]]; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the [[Petitioner]]s. It is said that the terms [[Whig]] and [[Tory]] were first applied to English political parties in consequence of this dispute.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[sv:Abhorrers]][[Category:History of England]]
{{England-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abiathar</title>
<id>2740</id>
<revision>
<id>36778536</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T11:50:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jacopo86</username>
<id>819124</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+ interwiki it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abiathar ''' (Heb. Ebyathar, ''the [divine] father is pre-eminent''), in the [[Bible]], son of [[Achimelech]] or Ahijah, priest at [[Nob]], the fourth in descent from [[Eli]]. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre, he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (1 Sam. xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion of [[Absalom]] (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35, xx. 25). In 1 Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon. In 1 Kings i. 7, 19, 25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 ''Abiathar, the son of [[Achimelech]]'' should be read, with the Syriac, for ''Achimelech, the son of Abiathar.'' For a similar confusion see [[Gospel of Mark]] ii. 26.
When his father was slain with the priests of Nob, he escaped, and bearing with him the [[ephod]], he joined David, who was then in the cave of [[Adullam]] (1 Sam. 22:20-23; 23:6). He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader (1 Sam. 30:7).
When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed high priest (1 Chr. 15:11; 1 Kings 2:26) and the "king's companion" (1 Chr. 27:34). Meanwhile Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made high priest.
These appointments continued in force till the end of David's reign (1 Kings 4:4). Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar (1 Sam. 2:30-36; 1 Kings 1:19; 2:26, 27).
Zadok now became sole high priest. In Mark 2:26, reference is made to an occurrence in "the days of Abiathar the high priest." But from 1 Sam. 22, we learn explicitly that this event took place when Achimelech, the father of Abiathar, was high priest. The apparent discrepancy is satisfactorily explained by interpreting the words in Mark as referring to the life-time of Abiathar, and not to the term of his holding the office of high priest. It is not implied in Mark that he was actual high priest at the time referred to. Others, however, think that the loaves belonged to Abiathar, who was at that time (Lev. 24:9) a priest, and that he either himself gave them to David, or persuaded his father to give them.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[it:Abiathar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abigail</title>
<id>2741</id>
<revision>
<id>40008333</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:26:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.248.225.6|212.248.225.6]] to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abigail''' ('''&#1488;&#1458;&#1489;&#1460;&#1497;&#1490;&#1463;&#1497;&#1460;&#1500;''' / '''&#1488;&#1458;&#1489;&#1460;&#1497;&#1490;&#1464;&#1497;&#1460;&#1500;''' "her Father's joy or, fountain of joy" ;leader of/is dance/, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avigáyil''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;&#258;&#7687;î&#7713;áyil''' / '''&#702;&#258;&#7687;î&#7713;&#257;yil'''), once Abigal ({{bibleverse|Samuel|2|3:3|HE}}), is a female character in the [[Bible]]. She is described as the wife of [[Nabal|Nabal the Carmelite]], whose life she saves when David wishes to kill him. On his death she became the 3rd wife of [[David]] ({{bibleverse|Samuel|1|25|HE}}). By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Chileab, in the [[Septuagint]] as Daluyah, and in {{bibleverse|Chronicles|1|3:1|HE}} as [[Daniel (son of David)|Daniel]].
* The name Abigail was also borne by a sister of David ({{bibleverse|Samuel|2|17:25|HE}}; {{bibleverse|Chronicles|1|2:16|HE}} and following).
* From the former (self-styled ''handmaid'' {{bibleverse|Samuel|1|25:25|HE}} and following) is derived the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail, the ''waiting gentlewoman,'' in [[Beaumont and Fletcher]]'s ''Scornful Lady'').
==References==
{{1911}}
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[da:Abigail]]
[[de:Abigail]]
[[eo:Abigail]]
[[he:אביגיל]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abila</title>
<id>2742</id>
<revision>
<id>15901135</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-23T16:22:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Saga City</username>
<id>138511</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abilene (biblical)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Abhidharma</title>
<id>2744</id>
<revision>
<id>19916828</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-30T12:14:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nat Krause</username>
<id>40885</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abhidhamma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Azad Kashmir</title>
<id>2745</id>
<revision>
<id>40171715</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T18:42:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Splash</username>
<id>285145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.7.163.7|86.7.163.7]] ([[User talk:86.7.163.7|talk]]) to last version by Gnikhil</comment>
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| colspan="2" style="margin-left: inherit; background:#4F7942; color:#ffffff;text-align:center; font-size: medium;" |'''Azad Kashmir'''
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| align="center" width="140px" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"| Azad Kashmir Govt flag
| align="center" width="140px" style="border-bottom:3px soli
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wey decimala klasifiko]]
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<page>
<title>Dukkha</title>
<id>8702</id>
<revision>
<id>36500194</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T14:04:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>198.110.181.160</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}
'''Dukkha''' ([[Pāli|P&#257;li]]; [[Sanskrit]]: du&#7717;kha) is a central concept in [[Buddhism]], the word roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including sorrow, [[suffering]], affliction, [[pain]], [[anxiety]], dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, and aversion. The term is probably derived from du&#7717;stha, "standing badly," "unsteady," "uneasy." ''Dukkha'' is the focus of the [[Four Noble Truths]], including the first:
:''All of life involves dukkha.''
The other three Noble Truths explain the source of ''dukkha'', the means of eliminating it, and the method of executing its cessation. This method is known as the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. [[Gautama Buddha|Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha]] repeatedly stated that the ''only'' purpose of Buddhism is to seek the cessation of ''dukkha'', by understanding the Four Noble Truths and acting accordingly.
The Buddha discussed three kinds of dukkha.
* Dukkha-dukkha (pain of pain) is the obvious sufferings of physical pain, illness, old age, death, the loss of a loved one.
* Viparinama-dukkha (pain of alteration) is suffering caused by change: violated expectations, the failure of happy moments to last.
* Sankhara-dukkha (pain of formation) is a subtle form of suffering inherent in the nature of conditioned things, including the [[Skandha|skandhas]], the factors constituting the human mind. It denotes the experience that all formations (sankhara) are impermanent - thus it explains the qualities which make the mind as fluctuating and impermanent entities. It is therefore also a gateway to [[anatta]].
''Dukkha'' is also listed among the [[three marks of existence]].
== External links ==
* At ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]:''
** ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dukkha.html entry on Dukkha]''
[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
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[[vi:Khổ (Phật giáo)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Darwin Awards</title>
<id>8703</id>
<revision>
<id>42061054</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:12:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmt2m</username>
<id>544508</id>
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<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles pencil.118.gif|right|thumb|[[Charles Darwin]], the father of evolution]]A '''Darwin Award''' is an honour given to people who supposedly help to improve the [[human]] [[gene pool]] by "removing themselves from it in a spectacularly [[stupidity|stupid]] manner." The prizes are named in honour of the [[evolution]]ary [[theory|theorist]] [[Charles Darwin]], are awarded over the [[World Wide Web]], and are frequently distributed via [[email]]. There is no monetary or material prize associated with the Darwin Award, only infamous recognition.
To take the premise of the award seriously is to suppose that stupidity, or rather the kind of stupidity that leads to self-inflicted death, is at least partially determined by [[genetics]].
To qualify, one must die in an extraordinarily idiotic manner, such as juggling hand grenades ([[Croatia]], [[2001]]), jumping out of a plane to film skydivers while not wearing a parachute oneself ([[North Carolina]], [[1987]]), cutting off ones own head with a chainsaw in a macho-contest ([[Poland]], [[1996]]), using a lighter to illuminate a fuel tank to make sure it contains nothing flammable ([[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]], [[2002]]), or heating a [[lava lamp]] on top of a stove. While most Darwin winners receive the award posthumously, self-sterilization is sufficient for the award.
Honorable Mentions go to those who, though not deficient in stupidity, failed to remove themselves from the gene pool. Their foolish and dangerous acts are worth mentioning, if only to keep others from standing near them at their next attempt. Some of these include a man chasing a beer can and getting hit by a truck ([[Texas]], [[2002]]), people petting sharks during their feeding frenzy on a dead whale ([[Australia]], [[2001]]), and two people getting burned while trying to set fire to an arcade machine (unknown area, [[2002]]).
Personal Accounts go to stories that fit most of the requirements for a Darwin Award or Honorable Mention, but cannot be independently verified for several reasons. This can be because the submitted incident was witnessed by (or happened to) the submitter and was not witnessed by members of the general public. It also applies to submissions by medical professionals about the people that they have crossed paths with in the line of duty; due to the legal and occupational protections in place to ensure the privacy of patients, the details that are necessary for such a submission to be classified as an Honorable Mention or Darwin Award cannot be provided. [http://www.darwinawards.com/slush/200503/pending20050313-031332.html]
Some of the stories, such as that of the [[JATO Rocket Car]], have been shown to be fictitious [http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/darwin04.asp].
While lists of Darwin Awards have been circulating via email for some time, the awards were popularized by webmistress and author [[Wendy Northcutt]], a.k.a. Darwin. Her site, darwinawards.com, is by far the best known of the Darwin Award sites.
== Rules ==
=== Requirements ===
According to Wendy Northcutt, the five requirements for a Darwin are
*Inability to reproduce - Nominee must be dead or sterile.
:A disputed issue, due to age, [[cloning]], donation of [[gamete|reproductive cells]], and celibacy. Should the elderly be allowed to win, their death having no impact on the gene pool? The general rule of thumb is that if the candidate no longer has the physical wherewithal to breed with a mate on an otherwise uninhabited <!--"Deserted" implies previous occupation, suggesting the possibility of special equipment remaining on the island.-->island, they are out of the gene pool. However, one living man won a Darwin Award without losing his genitals because he had superglued himself to rhino buttocks and gotten sprayed with feces, so supposedly no female would have any interest in him. A marginal case is women whose stupidity imprisons them long enough for breeding to be improbable.
*Excellence - Astounding misapplication of judgment.
:The candidate's idiocy must be unique and sensational. A number of commonly stupid activities (such as someone who goes to bed with a lit cigarette in their mouth or someone who drinks alcohol to death) are specifically excluded from consideration, unlike someone who asks a friend to shoot him with cigarette butts ([[Woodbine, New Jersey]], [[2002]]).
*Self-Selection - Cause of one's own demise.
:A hapless bystander being hit by an [[anvil]] dropped from a skyscraper has suffered from bad luck. But if you are hit by the anvil you rigged above your own balcony to kill [[pigeon]]s, then you are eligible for a Darwin Award.
:There is no award for taking someone else out of the gene pool in an extraordinarily stupid manner (even if the bystander did have some genes in common with the idiot). Thus, the [[Camden, New Jersey]] man who ran over a [[nun]] while smoking [[crack cocaine]] and driving with his feet at the same time will never be given an award. However, the [[Virginia]] [[murderer]] who wrote a gloating letter of confession to the prosecutor's office "to show you how stupid y'all are" after his acquittal is eligible. Generally if others are harmed or endangered in the course of the action, the nominee is disqualified (though exceptions exist); this renders, for example, most drunk drivers ineligible, even if they were not disqualified by lack of excellence.
*Maturity - Capable of sound judgment.
:The nominee must be at least middle/late teen years of age and free of [[mental retardation|mental handicap]]s. However, some very rare Darwins like the thirteen-year-old girl who sniffs bug spray to her death ([[New Zealand]], 2001) have been on the site, though this is not permitted anymore.
*Veracity - The event must be verified. (See [[Darwin Awards#Urban legends|urban legends]])
:The story must be backed up by reliable sources i.e. reputable newspaper articles, confirmed television reports, and/or responsible eyewitnesses.
Also, the nominee must have been ''discovered'' in the year of nomination. For example, if the winner of a hide-and-seek contest five years ago disappeared, he must be nominated within one year of his skeleton being discovered in a well.
=== Not Darwins ===
The following have been specifically stated as not making one eligible for a Darwin as they are too common (meaning that for fairness an excessive number of awards would need to be given) or violate the above criteria in other ways.
*Sliding along an electric wire
*Smoking in an [[oxygen tent]]
*Being hit by a [[train]] or [[automobile]] (except in cases of truly extreme stupidity, such as stepping in front of a bus to throw a brick at it to show one's dislike for the driver)
*Pressurized or liquid-filled containers in the oven
*Climbing into zoo cages (although one award was given for placing a garland around a tiger's neck as part of a New Years celebr
|
quot;
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Third Epistle of John|3 John]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Jude]]
[[de:Brief des Judas]]
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[[pl:List Judy]]
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[[zh:犹大书]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Exeter</title>
<id>9691</id>
<revision>
<id>41605600</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: simple</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|City of Exeter
|-
|align=center|[[Image:Exeter - Devon dot.png|115px|Devon]]
|align=center|[[Image:DevonExeter.png|150px|Exeter]]<br />''Shown within [[Devon]]''
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Geography
|-
|width="45%"|Status:||City
|-
|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[South West England]]
|-
|Admin. County:||[[Devon]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:<br />- Total||[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 303rd]]<br />[[1 E7 m²|47.03]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
|-
|Admin. HQ:||Exeter
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||18UC
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:<br>- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br>- [[Density]]||[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 177th]]<br>115,200<br>2,450 / km&sup2;
|-
|Ethnicity:||97.6% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Arms-exeter.jpg|200px|Arms of Exeter City Council]]<br />Exeter City Council<br />http://www.exeter.gov.uk
|-
|[[Local_government_in_England#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader & Cabinet
|-
|Executive:||All party
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Ben Bradshaw]]
|}
The [[city status in the United Kingdom|city]] of '''Exeter''' is the [[county town]] of [[Devon]], in [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. It is located at {{coor dms|50|43|25|N|3|31|39|W|}}. In the [[2001]] census its population was recorded at 111,066. The city's motto, ''[[Semper fidelis]]'', was suggested by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
==Situation==
Until the construction of main road by-passes in the [[twentieth century]], Exeter was the lowest bridging point of the [[River Exe]], and therefore developed as an administrative and route centre. From [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] times until the [[nineteenth century]], the [[diocese]] of Exeter covered the whole of the counties of [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]], and civil administration and services tended to follow the lines of the ecclesiastical. Exeter was also a port: the limit of tides of the River Exe lies below Exeter, and the small town of [[Topsham, Devon|Topsham]] on the estuary (nowadays within the city limits) developed as a port for the city, but goods were transported to the city's [[quays]] in [[lighter (barge)|lighters]]. Eventually a ship canal was constructed so that ocean-going vessels could reach the city's quays, and this remained in regular use until ships increased in size with the development of [[steam power]]. It is still used for leisure boating.
==Economy==
The city provides strong industries and services to a sizable area. The [[Met Office]], the main [[weather]] forecasting organisation for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the most significant in the world, relocated from [[Bracknell]] in Berkshire to Exeter in early [[2004]]. It is one of the three largest employers in the area (the others being the [[University of Exeter]] and Devon [[County Council]]), providing a welcome boost to the local [[economics|economy]].
On [[June 26]], 2004, Exeter was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status.
In June [[2005]] it was singled out among towns with populations between 5,000 and 150,000 as the worst "clone town" in [[Great Britain]]. By "clone town" the [[New Economics Foundation]] meant "a place that has had the individuality of its [[high street]] shops replaced by a monochrome strip of [[Chain store|global and national chains]]"; by the foundation's metric Exeter is the town most easily "mistaken for dozens of other bland town centres across the country." Exeter's High Street had only one independent shop at the time of the survey (a tobacconist), and the least varied selection of shop types, with "little more than clothing retailers, a few
electronics shops and some stationery or bookstores" instead of the independence and diversity seen in towns such as [[Hebden Bridge]], [[Peebles]], and [[Lewes]]. Many local residents feel that this was a superficial judgement, and that the Foundation's researchers seem not to have looked very hard; while Exeter's independent shops do mostly eschew the High Street (a characterless example of quick post-war reconstruction following the [[1942]] bombing), there are plenty of them in the more interesting roads immediately connecting to it, as a recent survey by the [[Royal Town Planning Institute]] confirms.
==History==
The [[Latin]] name for Exeter, ''Isca Dumnoniorum '' ("Isca of the [[Dumnones]]"), suggests that the city was originally a [[Celt]]ic [[oppidum]], or town, on the banks on the River [[Exe]] prior to the foundation of the [[Roman Britain|Roman city]] in c. AD [[50]]. Such early towns, or proto-cities, had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' ("Commentaries on the Gallic Wars") and it is not improbable that they existed in neighbouring [[Britain]] as well. Isca is clearly a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] generic noun and the Romans felt the need to label the city Isca Dumnoniorum, or the Isca of the Dumnonii, in order to distinguish it from such settlements as [[Isca Silurum]] (modern Caerleon-on-Usk in Monmouthshire).
Isca Dumnoniorum was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in England. Significant parts of the Roman wall remain, though the present visible structure was largely built on the orders of [[Alfred the Great]] to protect the far west of his kingdom following the Viking occupation of [[876]]. Most of its route can be traced on foot. There is a substantial [[Roman baths]] complex that was excavated in the 1970s.[http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba65/feat2.shtml], but because of its proximity to the cathedral, it has not been practicable to retain the excavation for public view. Exeter was also the southern starting point for the [[Fosse Way]] [[Roman road]].
In [[876]] Exeter was attacked and captured by the Danes. King Alfred drove them out the next year.
The city was again besieged by the Danes in [[894]] however they were not able to take the city, and soon abandoned the siege.
In [[1067]] the city rebelled against [[William the Conqueror]] who promptly marched West to besiege the city. The city submitted only after an 18-day siege. Part of the capitulation agreement was that all the nobles in the city would be confirmed in their positions as long as a castle was built.
Exeter was held against King Stephen by [[Baldwin de Redvers]] in [[1140]] and submitted only after a three month siege when the supplies of fresh water ran out.
In [[1537]], the city was made a [[county corporate]]. The Livery Dole [[Almshouse]]s and [[Chapel]] at [[Heavitree]] were founded in March [[1591]] and finished in [[1594]]. They can still be seen today in the street which bears the name ''Livery Dole''.
Exeter was at first a [[Parliamentary]] town in the [[English Civil War]] in the largely Royalist South West, but it was captured by the [[Cavaliers|Royalists]] on the 4th of September 1643 and it remained in their control until near the end of the war.
Early in the English [[Industrial revolution]], Exeter's industry developed on the basis of locally available agricultural products, since the city's location on a fast-flowing river gave it ready access to [[water power]]. However when [[steam power]] replaced water in the nineteenth century, Exeter was too far from sources of coal (or iron) to develop further. As a result the city declined in relative importance, and was spared the rapid [[nineteenth century]] development that changed many historic European cities.
Exeter was bombed by the [[Germany|German]] [[Luftwaffe]] during [[World War II|WWII]], in a [[1942]] raid that formed part of the [[Baedeker Blitz]]. Forty [[acre]]s (160,000 m&sup2;) of the city, particularly adjacent to its central High Street and Sidwell Street, were levelled by [[incendiary weapon|incendiary bombing]]. Many historic buildings were destroyed, and others, including [[Exeter Cathedral]], damaged. The city was rebuilt in the 1950s in an attempt to preserve its ancient heritage, though many feel that the post-war reconstruction was weak and failed to conserve partly-damaged structures that could have been saved, as well as making too many concessions to motor traffic. Currently, despite some local opposition, one rebuilt street, Princesshay, is being redeveloped again in a more modern style. Previously regarded as second only to [[Bath]] as an architectural site in southern England, Exeter is now a city with some beautiful buildings rather than a beautiful city. As a result, although there is a significant [[tourist]] trade, Exeter is not dominated by tourism.
==Politics and administration==
Exeter forms a single [[Exeter_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29|parliamentary constituency]]. It
|
the book of [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], Malachi urges the people to remain steadfast to the wives of their youth.
Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God&#8217;s justice. He reminds them that God is just, exhorting them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi quickly goes on to point out that the people have not been faithful. In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full [[tithe]] to the Lord. The result of these shortcomings is that the people come to believe that no good comes out of serving God.
Malachi assures the faithful among his audience that in the [[eschatology|eschaton]], the differences between those who served God faithfully and those who did not will become clear. The book concludes by calling upon the teachings of [[Moses]] and by promising that [[Elijah]] will return prior to the [[Last Judgement|Day of the Lord]]. The [[Gospel|New Testament Gospel]] writers adopt this image in identifying [[John the Baptist]] with the prophet [[Elijah]] ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:13, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 17:12, and especially [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:13-14).
==Themes==
The book of Malachi consists of three chapters in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and four chapters in English. The [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the [[Bible]] supplies headings for the book as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
|-
! Verse Reference !! Heading
|-
| 1:1 || (Superscription)
|-
| 1:2-2:9 || Israel Preferred to [[Edom]]
|-
| 2:10-17 || The Covenant Profaned by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
|-
| 3:1-7 || The Coming Messenger
|-
| 3:8-15 || Do Not Rob God
|-
| 4:1-5 || The Great Day of the Lord
|-
| (3:19-24 in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) ||
|}
It must be noted that the majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles. According to this schema, the book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and the various groups within the [[Israelite]] community. In the course of the book&#8217;s three or four chapters, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is vindicated while those who do not adhere to the law of [[Moses]] are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty or a covenant &#8211; one of the major themes throughout the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]]. Implicit in the prophet&#8217;s condemnation of Israel&#8217;s religious practices is a call to keep [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&#8217;s statutes.
The book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Bible. Malachi appeals to the story of the rivalry between [[Jacob]] and [[Esau]] and of [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&#8217;s preference for Jacob contained in [[Genesis]] 25-28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob ([[Israel]]), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God&#8217;s chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (eg. [[Leviticus]] 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which [[Ezra]] vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of [[Jew|Jewish]] wives (a practice which [[Ezra]] promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, &#8220;For I hate divorce, says the Lord . . .&#8221; (2:16).
In many places throughout the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]] &#8211; particularly the book of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] &#8211; [[Israel]] is figured as [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&#8217;s wife or bride. Malachi&#8217;s discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could very well be urging his audience not to break faith with [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] (the God of [[Israel]]) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that, since the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] were questioning [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&#8217;s love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might be tempted to adopt foreign gods. William LaSor suggests that, because the restoration to the land of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the [[messiah|messianic age]] which had been prophesied, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.
Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who &#8220;is like refiner&#8217;s fire and like fullers&#8217; soap . . .&#8221; (3:2). Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute &#8211; that is, failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] request the people to &#8220;Bring the full tithe . . . [and] see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing&#8221; (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord&#8217;s statutes will not only allow the people to avoid God&#8217;s wrath, but will also lead to God&#8217;s blessing. In the sixth dispute, the people of [[Israel]] illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. Malachi has them say &#8220;&#8217;It is vain to serve God . . . Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape&#8217;&#8221; (3:14-15). Once again, Malachi has [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.
In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to &#8220;Remember the teaching of my servant [[Moses]], that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at [[Horeb]] for all [[Israel]]&#8221; (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the [[Last Judgment|Day of the Lord]], Malachi declares that [[Elijah]] (who &#8220;ascended in a whirlwind into heaven . . . [,]&#8221; 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God&#8217;s ways.
Primarily because of its [[messiah|messianic]] promise, the book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the [[Christian]] [[New Testament]]. What follows is a brief comparison between the book of Malachi and the [[New Testament]] texts which refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84-88).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Use of the book of Malachi in the [[New Testament]] ([[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]])
|-
! Malachi !! New Testament
|-
| "Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau" (1:2-3)|| "'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'" ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 9:13)
|-
| "And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?" (1:6) || "Why do you call me "Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?" ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 6:46)
|-
| "the Lord's table" (1:7, 12) || "the table of the Lord" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 10:21)
|-
| "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) || "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" ([[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] 1:12)
|-
| || "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 15:4)
|-
| "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7-8) || "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 23:3)
|-
| "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) || "yet for us there is one God, the Father," ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 8:6)
|-
| "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me," (3:1) || ""See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way;" ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 1:2)
|-
| || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:10, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 7:27)
|-
| "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) || "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 6:17)
|-
| "and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver," (3:3) || "so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . ." ([[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] 1:7)
|-
| "against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages," (3:5) || "Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud," ([[Epistle of James|James]] 5:4)
|-
| "Return to me, and I will return to you," (3:7) || "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" ([[Epistle of James|James]] 4:8)
|-
| "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (3:20, 4:2) || "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will br
|
jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]]]
In [[1747]], [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], the founder of what is known today as Afghanistan, established his rule. A [[Pashtun]], Durrani was elected king in the first [[Loya Jirga]] after the assassination of the Persian ruler [[Nadir Shah]] at Khabushan in the same year. Throughout his reign, Durrani consolidated chieftainships, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south. With the exception of a 9-month period in 1929, all of Afghanistan's rulers until the 1978 Marxist coup were from Durrani's Pashtun tribal confederation, and all were members of that tribe's [[Mohammadzai]] clan after [[1818]].
==European influence in Afghanistan (1826-1919)==
''Main article: [[European influence in Afghanistan]]''
[[Image:AbdurRahmanKhan-A.JPG|thumb|left|Amir Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Dost Mohammed Khan]] gained control in Kabul. Collision between the expanding [[British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire]]s significantly influenced Afghanistan during the [[19th century]] in what was termed "[[The Great Game]]." British concern over Russian advances in [[Central Asia]] and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars. The [[first Anglo-Afghan War|first]] ([[1839]]-[[1842]]) resulted in the destruction of a British army; it's remembered as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule. The [[second Anglo-Afghan war]] ([[1878]]-[[1880]]) was sparked by Amir [[Shir Ali Khan of Afghanistan|Shir Ali]]'s refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This conflict brought [[Amir Abdur Rahman]] to the Afghan throne. During his reign ([[1880]]-[[1901]]), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan. The British retained effective control over [[Kabul]]'s foreign affairs.
Afghanistan remained neutral during [[World War I]], despite [[Germany|German]] encouragement of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of [[British India]]. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, however.
[[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]], Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in [[1919]], possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the [[Third Anglo-Afghan war]] with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the [[Treaty of Rawalpindi]] in [[August]] [[1919]]. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate [[August 19]] as their [[Independence Day]].
==Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war (1919-1929)==
''Main article: [[Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war]]''
King [[Amanullah Khan|Amanullah]] ([[1919]]-[[1929]]) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a [[1927]] tour of [[Europe]] and [[Turkey]]--during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by [[Ataturk]]--introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional [[Muslim]] [[veil]] for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January [[1929]] after [[Kabul]] fell to forces led by [[Bacha-i-Saqao]], a [[Tajiks|Tajik]] brigand.
==Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah (1929-1973)==
''Main article: [[Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah]]''
Prince [[Mohammed Nadir Khan]], a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and, with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King Nadir Shah. He began consolidating power and regenerating the country. He reversed the reforms of [[Amanullah Khan]] in favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation. In [[1933]], however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a [[Kabul]] student.
[[Mohammad Zahir Shah]], Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until [[1946]] Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle [[Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan]], who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. In [[1946]] another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister. He began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. In [[1953]] he was replaced as Prime Minister by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] and a more hostile one towards [[Pakistan]]. However dispute with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and he was asked to resign in [[1963]]. From [[1963]] until [[1973]] Zahir Shah took a more active role.
In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the [[Khalq]] (Masses) faction headed by [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] and [[Hafizullah Amin]] and supported by elements within the military, and the [[Parcham]] (Banner) faction led by [[Babrak Karmal]]. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society.
==Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan (1973-1978)==
''Main article: [[Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan]]''
Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime Minister [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Zahir Shah fled the country eventually finding refuge in [[Italy]]. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.
As disillusionment set in, on April 27, [[1978]], the PDPA initiated a bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of his family. [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]], Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, strongly supported by the USSR.
==Soviet intervention in Afghanistan (1978-1992)==
{{main|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan}}
The PDPA, as a pro-communist socialist party, implemented a socialist agenda which included decrees abolishing usury, banning forced marriages, state recognition of women&#8217;s rights to vote, replacing religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist ones, banning tribal courts, and land reform. Men were obliged to cut their beards, women couldn't wear a [[burqa]], and mosque visiting was forbidden. The PDPA invited the [[Soviet Union]] to assist in modernising its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas). The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals, schools and mine for water wells; they also trained and equipped the Afghan army.
These reforms and the PDPA's monopoly on power were met with a large backlash, partly led by members of the traditional establishment. Many groups were formed in an attempt to reverse the dependence on the Soviet Union, some resorting to violent means and sabotage of the country's industry and infrastructure. The government responded with a heavy handed military intervention and arrested, exiled and executed many [[mujahedin]] "holy Muslim warriors".
In 1979 the Afghan army was overwhelmed with the number of incidents, and the Soviet Union sent troops to crush the uprising, install a pro-Moscow government, and support the new government. On [[December 25]], [[1979]] the Soviet army entered [[Kabul]]. This was the starting point of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]], which ended only in 1989 with a full withdrawal of Soviet troops under the [[Geneva accords]] reached in [[1988 ]] between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
For over nine years the Soviet Army conducted miliary operations against the Afghan mujahedin rebels. The [[United States|American]] [[CIA]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] assisted in the financing of the resistance because of their anti-communist stance, and, in the case of Saudi Arabia, because of their [[Islamist]] inclinations.
[[Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Osama bin Laden]] was a prominent mujahideen organizer and financier; his [[Maktab al-Khadamat]] (MAK) ''(Office of Order)'' funnelled money, arms, and Muslim fighters from around the world into Afghanistan, with the assistance and support of the American, [[Pakistan]]i, and Saudi governments. In 1988, bin Laden broke away from the MAK with some of its more militant members to form [[Al-Qaida]], in order to expand the anti-Sovie
|
test genius who ever lived". Or it would do, if he knew ''how'' it worked. Following his master's rewriting of history, he becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] - and possibly [[dictator]], as the television commentator observes that [[election]]s have been abolished.
*Legionary Baldricus, [[Roman Army|soldier]] under Centurion Blacaddicus in the [[Roman Britain]] section of ''Blackadder:Back & Forth''. Part of the forces defending [[Hadrian's Wall]]. He is apparently [[bilingual]] (although it's possible he's a local conscript and doesn't really understand [[Latin]]). He wears his helmet back to front, and was presumably killed by the attacking "[[Scotland|Scots]]" (although they would actually have been [[Picts]]).
One of the six [[Ravens]] at the [[Tower of London]] is named Baldrick, presumably in response to the [[Blackadder]] series.
[[Category:Blackadder characters|Baldrick]]
[[Category:Fictional British people]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bastarnae</title>
<id>4342</id>
<revision>
<id>38053530</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T21:31:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.244.192.9</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bastarnae''' were a Germanic tribe (according to Tacitus), or, possibly, a Celtic tribe (according to Livy) in the first millennium BC. When they appear in the historical sources, they were settled in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Bukovina]]. They appeared on the lower [[Danube]] about [[200 BC]], and were used by [[Philip V of Macedon]] against his [[Thracian]] neighbours. Defeated by the Thracians, the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their number settled on [[Peuce]] (hence called Peucini), an island in the [[Danube]].
Their main body occupied the country between the eastern [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] and the [[Danube]]. As allies of King [[Perseus of Macedonia]] and of [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates the Great]], and lastly on their own account, they had hostile relations with the Romans. In the time of [[Augustus]], the Romans defeated the Bastarnae and made a peace. This peace however was disturbed by a series of incursions by the Bastarnae against the nearby Roman provinces. After a time, the Bastarnae gave way to the [[Goths]], with whom they seem to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor [[Probus]] to the right bank of the Danube.
[[Polybius]] and the authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; the Romans originally used German as a geographical rather than ethnic classification, leading to the confusion of the Bastarnae with Germans. See "Atlas of Ancient History", p50 by Colin McEvedy for a discussion of this point. [[Strabo]] claims ignorance of their origins; [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] expressly declares their German origin but says that the race was degraded by intermarriage with [[Sarmatians]].
The theory that they were a [[Germanic tribe]] considers them to have been among the first [[East Germanic]] tribes to have emigrated from [[Scandinavia]] (possibly as early as the [[8th century BC]][http://www.arild-hauge.com/folkevan.htm]). Reaching the Danube in ca. 200 BC. they were among the first Germanic tribes to come into contact with the ancient world and the [[Slavs]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[de:Bastarnen]]
[[ru:Бастарны]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bavarian</title>
<id>4343</id>
<revision>
<id>40970525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:49:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.141.226.190</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bavarian''' can either
* when used as an [[adjective]], refer to the [[Germany|German]] state of '''[[Bavaria]]'''; or
* refer to the '''Bavarian or [[Austro-Bavarian]] [[language]]''', a group of closely related [[dialect]]s spoken in parts of Bavaria, most of [[Austria]] and the [[South Tyrol]].
* [[Bavarian cream]] - a custard sauce.
In [[German language|German]], the two usages are distinguished orthographically, with ''bay(e)risch'' referring to the state and ''bairisch'' referring to the language.
{{disambig}}
----
''Note to Wikipedia editors: It is recommended that links are set directly either to [[Bavaria]] or [[Austro-Bavarian]] in order to avoid confusion.''</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boson</title>
<id>4344</id>
<revision>
<id>40086742</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T01:02:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.143.24.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed "ceteris parabis" to "ceteris paribus."</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:{{dablink|For other uses of this term, see [[boson (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[physics]], '''bosons''', named after [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], are particles which form [[identical particles|totally-symmetric composite quantum states]]. Bosons obey [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] and are also the only particles in which any number can share the same [[quantum state]]. The [[spin-statistics theorem]] identify bosons as having integer [[spin (physics)|spin]].
==Boson properties==
All [[elementary particle]]s are either [[bosons]] or [[fermion]]s. The [[spin-statistics theorem]] identifies the structural properties that differentiate fermions and bosons. Fermions have an odd number of energy bearing unit particles of matter in the structure of the particle, and bosons have an even number of energy bearing unit particles of matter in the structure of the particle.
[[Gauge boson]]s are [[particle physics|elementary]] particles which act as the carriers of the [[fundamental force]]s such as the W vector bosons of the [[weak nuclear force|weak force]], the [[gluon]]s of the [[strong force]], the photons of the [[electromagnetic force]], and (in theory) the [[graviton]] of the [[gravity|gravitational force]].
Particles composed of a number of other particles (such as [[proton]]s or [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]) can be either fermions or bosons, depending on their total spin. Hence, many nuclei are in fact bosons. So even though the main three massive subatomic particles i.e. the proton, neutron, and electron are all fermions, some atoms and their isotopes are bosons due to the fact that [[spin quantum number|spin]] can either be spin-up or spin-down which cancels for each pair of even numbered unit particle of matter structures designated as bosons, but there is a net energy rotation or net "spin" for fermions which are odd numbered unit particle of matter structures.
An example of how different atoms are either fermions or bosons:
Both the neutron and the proton have 9 energy units, so that alone, each is a fermion having a total of an odd number of unit particles. However, in helium-4 there are two protons and two neutrons, therefore, the nucleus is made up of four particles of 9 energy units each making 36 energy units total making the helium-4 nucleus a boson. Adding the two electrons around a helium-4 nucleus each with spin-up and spin-down making a pair of energy units still makes an even number of energy units in the entire atom making a total of 38. Therefore, the entire helium-4 atom is a boson even though it is made up of individual fermions i.e. the proton, neutron and electron. On the other hand, an isotope of helium, the helium-3 atom is a fermion because it contains two protons and one neutron of 9 energy units each making 27 in total in the nucleus and adding the two electrons still makes an odd number 29.
While fermions obey the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]: "''no more than one fermion can occupy a single quantum state''", there is no exclusion property for bosons, which are free to (and indeed, ''ceteris paribus'', ''tend'' to) crowd into the same [[quantum state]].
This explains the spectrum of [[black-body]] radiation and the operation of [[laser]]s, the properties of [[superfluid]] [[helium|helium-4]] and recent formation of [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s, a particular [[state of matter]].
It is important to note that Bose-Einstein condensation occurs only at ultralow temperature. There is nothing exotic about bosons otherwise. At any reasonable temperatures, both the boson and fermion particles behave as [[classical particle]]s, i.e. [[particle in a box]], and follow the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]].
Examples of bosons:
* [[Helium-4]] atoms
* [[Sodium-23]] atoms
* Any nuclei with integer spins
* [[photon]]s, which mediate the electromagnetic force
* [[W and Z bosons]], which mediate the weak nuclear force
* [[gluon]]s
* [[Higgs boson]]s
* [[phonon]]s
==See also==
* [[Bosonic field]]
* [[Bose gas]]
* [[Identical particles]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Parastatistics]]
* [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]]
* [[Superconductivity]]
==References==
* Sakurai, J.J. (1994). ''Modern Quantum Mechanics'' (Revised Edition), pp 361-363. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 0-201-53929-2.
{{Elementary}}
[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Bosons]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[ca:Bosó]]
[[cs:Boson]]
[[de:Boson]]
[[el:Μποζόνιο]]
[[es:Bosón]]
[[eo:Bosono]]
[[fr:Boson]]
[[gl:Bosón]]
[[ko:보존]]
[[id:Boson]]
[[it:Bosone]]
[[he:בוזון]]
[[la:Boson]]
[[hu:Bozon]]
[[nl:Boson]]
[[ja:ボース粒子]]
[[pl:Bozon]]
[[pt:Bóson]]
[[ru:Бозон]]
[[sk:Bozón]]
[[sl:Bozon]]
[[fi:Bosoni]]
[[sv:Boson]]
[[vi:Boson]]
[[tr:Bozon]]
[[zh:玻色子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bohemia</title>
<id>4345</id>
<revision>
<id>41860738</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:07:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.166.136.42</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boh-map.png|thumb|right|300px|Bohemia.]]
:''This article is about t
|
e him the other sheet he was writing and asked him: "Which one do you think is the better?" "But... they are completely alike..." said the embarrassed impresario. "Well... you know... it was easier for me to write another one than to get off the bed and search and pick the first one and then come back to bed..."
Rossini himself was very happy to describe his virtues: here is what he told about his way of composing overtures:
:Wait until the evening before opening night. Nothing primes inspiration more than necessity, whether it be the presence of a copyist waiting for your work or the prodding of an impresario tearing his hair. In my time, all the impresarios of Italy were bald at 30. . . .
: I wrote the overture of Otello in a small room of the Palazzo Barbaja, where the baldest and rudest of directors had shut me in.
: I wrote the overture of the Gazza Ladra the day before the opening night under the roof of the Scala Theatre, where I had been imprisoned by the director and secured by four stagehands.
: For the Barbiere, I did better: I did not even compose an overture, I just took one already destined for an opera called Elisabetta. Public was very pleased.
His music is associated with the names of the greatest singers in lyrical drama, such as Tamburini, Mario, Rubini, Delle Sedie, Albani, Grisi, Patti and [[Christina Nilsson]]. [[Marietta Alboni]] was one of his pupils.
Shortly after Rossini's death, [[Giuseppe Verdi]] suggested that all Italian musicians should assemble a [[Requiem]] in honor of the master opera composer and conductor and began the effort by submitting the "Libera me." Until the next year a Requiem for Rossini was compiled; however, this work was never performed at Verdi's lifetime. [[Helmuth Rilling]] premiered the complete ''[[Messa per Rossini]]'' [[1988]] in [[Stuttgart]].
==Works of Gioacchino Rossini==
===Opera===
*''La cambiale di matrimonio'' - 1810
*''L'equivoco stravagante'' - 1811
*''Demetrio e Polibio'' - 1812
*''L'inganno felice'' - 1812
*''Ciro in Babilonia'' (or ''La caduta di Baldassare'') - 1812
*''[[La scala di seta]]'' - 1812
*''[[La pietra del paragone]]'' - 1812
*''[[L'occasione fa il ladro]]'' (or ''Il cambio della valigia'') - 1812
*''[[Il Signor Bruschino]]'' (or ''Il figlio per azzardo'') - 1813
*''[[Tancredi]]'' - 1813
*''[[L'italiana in Algeri]]'' - 1813
*''[[Aureliano in Palmira]]'' - 1813
*''[[Il turco in Italia]]'' - 1814
*''[[Sigismondo]]'' - 1814
*''[[Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra]]'' - 1815
*''[[Torvaldo e Dorliska]]'' - 1815
*''[[Almaviva]]'' (or ''L'inutile precauzione'' or ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (''[[The Barber of Seville]]'')) - 1816
*''[[La gazzetta]]'' (or ''Il matrimonio per concorso'') - 1816
*''[[Otello (Rossini)|Otello]]'' (or ''Il moro di Venezia'') - 1816
*''[[La Cenerentola]]'' (''Cinderella'', or ''La bontà in trionfo'') - 1817
*''[[La gazza ladra]]'' (or ''The Thieving Magpie'') - 1817
*''[[Armida (Rossini)|Armida]]'' - 1817
*''[[Adelaide di Borgogna]]'' or ''Ottone, re d'Italia'' - 1817
*''[[Mosè in Egitto]]'' - 1818
*''[[Adina (Rossini)|Adina]]'' or ''Il califfo di Bagdad'' - 1818
*''[[Ricciardo e Zoraide]]'' - 1818
*''[[Ermione]]'' - 1819
*''[[Eduardo e Cristina]]'' - 1819
*''[[La donna del lago]]'' - 1819
*''[[Bianca e Falliero]]'' (or ''Il consiglio dei tre'') - 1819
*''[[Maometto secondo]]'' - 1820
*''[[Matilde Shabran]]'' (''Matilde di Shabran'', or ''Bellezza e Cuor di Ferro'') - 1821
*''[[Zelmira]]'' - 1822
*''[[Semiramide]]'' - 1823
*''[[Il viaggio a Reims]]'' (or ''L'albergo del giglio d'oro'') - 1825
*''[[La siège de Corinthe]]'' - 1826 (a revision of ''Maometto secondo'')
*''[[Moïse et Pharaon]]'' (or ''Le passage de la Mer Rouge'') - 1827 (a revision of ''Mosè in Egitto'')
*''[[Le Comte Ory]]'' - 1828
*''[[William Tell (opera)|Guillaume Tell]]'' (''William Tell'') - 1829
===Other works===
*''Il pianto d'Armonia sulla morte d’Orfeo''
*''Petite Messe Solennelle''
*''[[Stabat Mater]]''
*''[[Cats Duet]]'' (attr.)
*''[[Bassoon concerto]]''
*''[[Messa di Gloria]]''
*''[[Giovanna D'arco]]'' -1832 (cantata)
*''Péchés de vieillesse'' [http://www.rossinigesellschaft.de/data/pdvd.html List and text of the songs on the website of the ''German Rossini Society'']
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=William Tell2.ogg|title=William Tell Overture|description=Sodero's band performs part 2 of the overture in 1914|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Rossini%2C+Gioacchino&queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Rossini cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* [http://www.classiccat.net/rossini_g/ The Rossini page at Classic Cat - the free classical music directory]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Rossini|name=Gioacchino Rossini}}
{{commons|Gioacchino Rossini}}
[[Category:Leap day births|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:1792 births|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:1868 deaths|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Natives of Pesaro|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Anti-Wagnerites|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Romanticism]]
[[ar:جييواتشينو روسيني]]
[[da:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[de:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[es:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[eo:Gioacchino ROSSINI]]
[[fr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[hr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[it:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[he:ג'ואקינו רוסיני]]
[[nl:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[ja:ジョアッキーノ・アントニオ・ロッシーニ]]
[[no:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[pl:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[pt:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[ru:Россини, Джоаккино Антонио]]
[[sl:Gioacchino Antonio Rossini]]
[[fi:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[sv:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[tr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[zh:吉奥阿基诺·罗西尼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gibberish</title>
<id>12407</id>
<revision>
<id>41502955</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:25:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.56.233.64</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added the ASDF internal link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gibberish''' is a [[generic]] term in [[English language|English]] for talking that sounds like [[speech]] but has no actual meaning (like "the mave's rint is slanphed up"). This meaning has also been extended to meaningless text (such as "ichiuseekskerasff").
== Gibberish language game ==
{{main|Gibberish (language game)}}
"Gibberish" is also used to refer to a group of similar [[Language game (linguistics)|language games]]. In general, these all work by adding a [[code]] [[syllable]] after the [[Syllable onset|onset]]. For example, in [[Ubbi dubbi|Ubbi Dubbi]], the code syllable is ''-ub-'', and "How are you?" would be said as ''Hubow ubare yubou?'' Such language games in the Gibberish family are not unique to English-speaking countries, for example there is one spoken in [[Sweden]] called Allspråket and one in [[Germany]] called Lef-Sprache. Another version of it is used in Hungary, called "Madárnyelv (Bird's language), and adds "Vv" or "Vrg" before the syllables, where "V" is the vowel of the syllable. In the United Kingdom, gibberish follows a similar pattern to most, but is ultimately different. For example "How are you?" would be said as "Haragow aragar yoragou?"
==Origin of the term==
There are a couple of possible theories of origin for the term "gibberish". One says that the basis is in the old [[word]] "gibber" which is allied to "jabber". However, "gibberish" was in use before the word "gibber", therefore making this a dubious theory. A better explanation says the word comes from [[Geber]], the name of an [[Arab]]ian [[alchemy|alchemist]] in the [[11th century]]. He invented a strange [[terminology]] so that his works could not be understood by others; more importantly, he could not be accused of [[heresy]], which was punishable by death. "Gibberish" in its modern sense was certainly used by [[1811]].
Despite the intelligent purpose behind the creation of the term, "gibberish" today is used as a derogatory term to suggest something has no merit (i.e. "that's a lot of gibberish") rather than the (supposedly) more accurate use, which would be akin to "that sounds like a lot of encrypted information," which nobody says. Common usage dictates that gibberish means unintelligent, meaningless, uninformed, or worse, when in fact, the opposite is true. Often enough to be considered, the term happens usually to be aimed at [[politician]]s, [[public speaker]]s and "[[pseudo-intellectual]]s" (depending on the point of view).
==See also==
*[[Nonsense]]
*[[Gobbledygook]]
*[[Gibberish (language game)]]
*[[Jabberwocky]]
*[[Language game (linguistics)|Language game]]
*[[Pig Latin]]
*[[Simlish]]
*[[Asdf]]
==External links==
*[http://thinkzone.wlonk.com/Gibber/Gibber.htm Gibberish generator based on statistical distribution of characters of a text]
*[http://www.gibberish.nl Gibberish, a dutch band that fuses all sorts of musical styles]
[[Category:Language games]]
[[Category:Gibberish language]]
[[he:ג'יבריש]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnaeus Julius Agricola</title>
<id>12408</id>
<revision>
<id>37946369</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T03:19:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>220.239.42.10</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gnaeus Julius Agricola''' ([[July 13]] [[40]] - [[August 23]], [[93]]) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of [[Roman Britain|Britain]].
Agricola was born in [[Frejus|Forum Julii]], [[Gallia Narbonensis]] (modern southern France), as the son
|
-->
* [http://www.getbig.com/ GetBig.com]
*[http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001401/36//bodybuilding_craze_teens.html Bodybuilding in Teens Becoming Excessive and Dangerous] Daily News Central Health
* [http://www.juiceduk.com Juiced UK] United Kingdom bodybuilding community
[[Category:Bodybuilding|*]]
[[ar:كمال أجسام]]
[[da:Bodybuilding]]
[[de:Bodybuilding]]
[[es:Fisicoculturismo]]
[[fr:Culturisme]]
[[it:Bodybuilding]]
[[ms:Bina badan]]
[[nl:Bodybuilding]]
[[ja:ボディビル]]
[[pl:Kulturystyka]]
[[pt:Culturismo]]
[[ru:Бодибилдинг]]
[[fi:Kehonrakennus]]
[[sv:Bodybuilding]]
[[zh:健美]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biological warfare</title>
<id>4361</id>
<revision>
<id>42001766</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.49.175.90|203.49.175.90]] ([[User talk:203.49.175.90|talk]]) to last version by 217.88.56.201</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{WMD}}
'''Biological warfare''', also known as '''germ warfare''', is the use of any [[organism]] ([[bacteria]], [[virus (biology)|virus]] or other disease-causing organism) or [[toxin]] found in nature, as a [[weapon]] of [[war]]. It is meant to incapacitate or kill an adversary. It may also be defined as the employment of biological agents to produce casualties in man or animals and damage to plants or material; or defense against such employment.
The creation and stockpiling of biological weapons is outlawed by the 1972 [[Biological Weapons Convention]], signed by over 100 states, because a successful attack could conceivably result in thousands, possibly even millions, of deaths and could cause severe disruptions to societies and economies. Oddly enough, the convention prohibits only creation and storage, but not usage, of these weapons. However, the consensus among military analysts is that, except in the context of [[bioterrorism]], biological warfare is militarily of little use.
The main problem is that a biological warfare attack would take days to implement, and therefore, unlike a [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] or [[chemical warfare|chemical]] attack, would not immediately stop an advancing army.
As a strategic weapon, biological warfare is again militarily problematic, because unless it is used to poison enemy civilian towns, it is difficult to prevent the attack from spreading, either to allies or to the attacker, and a biological warfare attack invites immediate massive retaliation, usually in the same form.
== History ==
The use of [[biological agent]]s is not new, but before the 20th century, biological warfare took three main forms:
* deliberate [[poison]]ing of [[food]] and [[water]] with infectious material
* use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system
* use of biologically inoculated fabrics
Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. During the 6th Century B.C., the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] poisoned enemy wells with a [[fungus]] that would make the enemy delusional. In [[184 BC]], [[Hannibal|Hannibal of Carthage]] had clay pots filled with poisonous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of [[Pergamon|Pergamene]] ships.
Historical accounts from medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, by Mongols, Turks and other groups, to infect enemy water supplies. Prior to the [[bubonic plague]] epidemic known as the [[Black Death]], [[Mongol]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] armies were reported to have catapulted diseased corpses into besieged cities.
<div style="clear: both"></div>
{{history of war}}
During the [[Middle Ages]], victims of the [[bubonic plague]] were used for biological attacks, often by flinging their corpses and excrement over castle walls using [[catapult]]s. The last known incident of using plague corpses for biological warfare occurred in [[1710]], when [[Russia]]n forces attacked the [[Sweden|Swedes]] by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of [[Reval]] (Tallinn).
The [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] population was decimated after contact with the [[Old World]] due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. The [[British army]] at least once used [[smallpox]] as a weapon, when they gave contaminated blankets to the [[Lenape]] during [[Pontiac's War]]. It is suspected but not confirmed that biological warfare was used against the Indians at other times as well.
Native peoples in [[Aptos, California|Aptos]] gave [[Spain|Spaniards]] gifts of freshly cut flowers wrapped in leaves of [[poison oak]].
During the [[United States Civil War]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman|General Sherman]] reported that [[Confederate]] forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water.
Use of such weapons was banned in international law by the [[Geneva Protocol]] of [[1925]]. The [[1972]] [[Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention]] extended the ban to almost all production, storage and transport. However, the [[Soviet Union]] continued research and production of offensive biological weapons in a program called [[biopreparat]], despite having signed the [[Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention]]. The [[United States]] was unaware of the program until [[Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov]], the first deputy director of [[biopreparat]] defected in 1992. It is, however, believed that since the signing of the convention the number of countries capable of producing such weapons has increased.
During the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)]] and [[World War II]], [[Unit 731]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] conducted [[human experimentation]] on thousands, mostly [[China|Chinese]]. In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. This employment was largely viewed as ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems. However, new information has surfaced within the last decade, which alleges a more active Japanese usage. For example, firsthand accounts testify the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of plagued foodstuffs, such as dumplings and vegetables. There are also reports of contaminated water supplies. Such estimates report over 580,000 victims, largely due to plague and cholera outbreaks. In addition, repeated seasonal outbreaks after the conclusion of the war bring the death toll much higher.
In response to suspected biological weapons development in Germany and Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada initiated a BW development program in 1941 that resulted in the weaponization of anthrax, brucellosis, and botulinum toxin. The center for U.S. military BW research was Fort Detrick, Maryland. Some biological and chemical weapons research was also conducted at "Dugway Proving Grounds" in Utah. Research carried out in the [[United Kingdom]] during [[World War II]] left [[Gruinard island]] in [[Scotland]] contaminated with [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] for the next 48 years.
When biological and chemical weapons become too old, they sometimes need to be disposed of. Many N.A.T.O nations use the U.S. chemical weapons disposal facility on the tiny [[Johnston Atoll]] located in the middle of the Pacific.
Considerable research on the topic was performed by the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]] (see [[Biopreparat]]), and probably other major nations throughout the [[Cold War]] era, though it is generally believed that such weapons were never used. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). Their accusation is substantiated by Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman in 'The United States and Biological Warfare: secrets of the early Cold War and Korea' (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1998). In [[1972]], the U.S. signed the [[Biological Weapons Convention|Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention]], which banned "development, production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research." By [[1996]], 137 countries had signed the treaty.
In [[1986]], the U.S. government spent US$42 million on research for developing defenses against infectious diseases and toxins, ten times more money than was spent in [[1981]]. The money went to 24 U.S. universities in hopes of developing strains on [[anthrax disease|anthrax]], [[Rift Valley fever]], [[Japanese encephalitis]], [[tularemia]], [[shigella]], [[botulin]], and [[Q fever]]. When the Biology Department at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] voted to refuse [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] funds for biotech research, the Reagan administration forced it to reverse its decision by threatening to cut off other funds.
There have been reports that the [[United States Army]] has been developing weapons-grade anthrax spores at [[Dugway Proving Ground]], a chemical and biological defense testing facility in [[Utah]], since at least as early as [[1992]]. Under the BWC, nations are permitted to develop small amounts of BW agents for the purpose of defensive research. The United States maintains a stated national policy of never using biological weapons under any circumstances since November 1969 [[President Nixon]].
Today, several countries have or are developing biological warfare programmes. According to the U.S. [[Department of Defense]], more than ten countries are suspected to have continuing biological warfare programs, including [[Russia]], [[Israel]], [[China]], [[Iran]], [[Libya]], [[Syria]] and [[North Korea]]. Offensive programs in Iraq were disbanded after the first Gulf War.
''references for this section include (''
|
led the book of Moses, and of Matthew 24, called Joseph Smith&#8212;Matthew; (2) Joseph Smith&#8217;s translation of some Egyptian papyrus that he acquired in 1835 (and subsequently lost, although some pages were purportedly rediscovered in 1967), called the "Book of Abraham"; (3) an excerpt from ''The Documentary History of the Church'' containing a letter written by Joseph Smith in 1838, called Joseph Smith&#8212;History; and (4) an excerpt of another of Joseph Smith's letters called the ''[[Articles of Faith]]'', thirteen statements of belief and doctrine.
Latter-day Saints believe literally in the principle of revelation from God to his children. Individual members are entitled to divine revelation for confirmation of truths, gaining knowledge or wisdom, and meeting personal challenges. Parents are entitled to revelation for raising their families. Divine revelation for the direction of the entire Church comes from God to the president of the Church, who is viewed by Latter-day Saints as a prophet in the same sense as Abraham, Moses, Peter and other biblical leaders.
''See also:'' [http://scriptures.lds.org Scriptures online].
== Chapels ==
Weekly worship services, including Sacrament Meetings, are held on [[Sunday]]s, in [http://www.mormon.org/question/worship/1,8578,797-1,00.html meetinghouses] , also referred to as "chapels" or "stake centers", although the Chapel is actually only one component of the meetinghouse, where weekly worship services and other meetings are held. All people, regardless of belief or standing in the church are welcome to attend. The [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|Sacrament]], similar to Communion or the [[Eucharist]] in other churches, is offered weekly. Latter-day Saints generally come together in meetinghouses throughout the week (except Mondays, which are reserved for family time) for various activities.
=== Sunday Services ===
[[congregation (worship)|Congregations]] for Sunday services are grouped geographically, with larger (~200 to ~400 people) congregations known as [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards]], and smaller (2 through ~200 people) congregations known as branches.
Sunday services consist of a three-hour block of time divided into three segments.
The primary Sunday service is Sacrament Meeting, which is slightly more than an hour in length, and attended by the combined congregation. The primary purpose of Sacrament Meeting is the blessing and passing of the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|Sacrament]]--consecrated bread and water in remembrance of the body and blood of Christ--to <!--baptized (unbaptized children also partake of the sacrament and even non-members are not barred from participating)--> members of the Church. After the Sacrament, the service usually consists of two or three "talks" (lay sermons) prepared and delivered by members of the congregation. [[Hymn]]s (accompanied by [[piano]] or [[Organ (music)|organ]]) are sung throughout the service, as a form of worship through music.
During the other two segments, the congregation divides into smaller groups based on age and/or gender. The church publishes manuals for each type of class, usually including a teacher's manual as well as a student booklet for youth and adult classes.
Sunday School classes are grouped by age and sometimes by background. The most common adult Sunday School class is "Gospel Doctrine," which meets each week and consists of a teacher presenting a gospel message drawn from the Scriptures, with participation from class members. A second adult class that meets most weeks is "Gospel Essentials," designed for new members and non-members who are interested in learning more about the Church (often referred to as investigators). Additional adult classes are held at various times, depending on the specific needs of each congregation. These classes include topics such as "Family Relations," "Family History," "Teacher Preparation" and "Temple Preparation." Youth Sunday School classes are divided by age (12-13, 14-15, 16-18). These classes are sometimes combined if class sizes are small.
In addition to Sacrament Meeting and Sunday School, a third block of meetings is held where attendance is based on age and sex. Men and boys from the age of 12 attend priesthood classes, women attend Relief Society, and girls ages 12-18 attend Young Women. The Young Women group is further divided into Beehive (ages 12-13), Mia Maid (ages 14-15), and Laurel (ages 16-18) classes. Although all men and boys meet together briefly at the beginning of the hour for a prayer, hymn, and announcements, they then separate into classes. The men separate by priesthood office to attend [[Elder (Mormonism)|Elder's]] [[Quorum (Mormonism)|Quorum]] or [[High priest (Mormonism)|High Priest's]] Group, the latter usually being older men and/or those who have held leadership positions in the Church. Youth are likewise divided into priesthood quorums: [[Deacon (Mormonism)|Deacons]] (ages 12-13), [[Teacher (Mormonism)|Teachers]] (ages 14-15), and [[Priest (Mormonism)|Priests]] (ages 16-18). Classes may be combined if the class sizes are small.
Children younger than 12 attend Primary, which spans the two time blocks described above. Primary is divided into two large groups: Senior Primary (ages 8-12) and Junior Primary (ages 4-7); young children from 18 months to 3 years of age attend nursery class. Primary classes generally consist of all the children who were born in the same year. Usually one half of the Primary meets in separate classes while the other half meets together in sharing and singing time, and at the end of the hour, the two are reversed.
Women usually attend wearing skirts or dresses, while men wear suits or dress shirts (preferably white) and ties. However, this dress code is not required; people in different attire are also welcome.
=== Seminary ===
[[High school]] students attend [[Seminary#Youth seminaries|Seminary]], which is usually scheduled for before or after school hours. In some areas with large LDS populations, provisions are made by the high school which allow students to attend Seminary (off-campus) during the school day. The provision, however, is considered Release Time, not a school-recognized class. No credit is awarded by the school, nor is any grade or achievement listed on the school's official transcript. Attendance at Seminary is voluntary, although this does help when applying to [[Brigham Young University]]. Seminary programs are administered by the [[Church Educational System]].
=== Young Men's/Young Women's ===
Young men and women, aged 12 to 18, often have a weekly meeting (previously referred to as ''Mutual'' short for ''Mutual Improvement Association'' sometimes known as "MIA") which can involve an activity, service project, or instruction. Classes and [[Quorum (Mormonism)|quorums]] partition off after an opening of a sung hymn, a prayer, and any announcements of upcoming events. The separate groups will have various wholesome activities to participate in, planned both by their leaders and the youth themselves. They can range anywhere from playing a sport or game, crafting, cooking, or service. Usually the young men participate in [[Boy Scouts of America]], grouped by age. One week a month, all the Young Women classes will have a combined activity, as do the Young Men quorums. Another week, the Young Men and Women will have an activity as a combined group.
=== Home, Family, and Personal Enrichment ===
Four times a year the adult women (members of the Church's Relief Society) attend a Home, Family, and Personal Enrichment meeting, where they may choose between various classes being offered, participate in a service project, or attend a social event. In addition, Enrichment activities are offered (weekly, monthly, or as determined by ward Relief Society leaders) for women with similar needs and interests.
=== Other ===
In addition to these regularly scheduled meetings, additional meetings are frequently held at the meetinghouse. Popular activities are basketball, family history conferences, youth conferences, youth dances and various personal improvement classes. Church members may also reserve the building for personal use, such as wedding receptions, funerals, etc.
==Temples==
{{main|Temple (Mormonism)}}
In addition to Sunday worship, some faithful members of the church may participate in ordinances in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]], including baptisms for the dead, [[Endowment (Mormonism)|endowments]], and eternal marriage. Adult members who receive their endowments in the temple also receive the [[Temple garment (Mormonism)|temple garment]], which they wear under their daily clothing. The LDS church considers the temple ordinances exceptionally sacred. As such, they do not publicly release the details of the temple proceedings and expect that members also do not discuss them outside the temple. This is true of the significance of the temple garment as well.
==Other practices==
Practices more or less distinctive to Latter-day Saints include following the [[Word of Wisdom]] (caring for one's body by eating healthy foods; abstaining from [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[tobacco]], [[tea]] and [[coffee]], and illicit drugs; and eating meat sparingly), [[tithe|tithing]] (donating 10 percent of one's income to the church, which is voluntary but required in order to remain in good standing with the church.) chastity, modesty in dress and behavior, lay leadership, [[Family Home Evening]]s (families are encouraged to meet weekly for prayer and other activities - typically on Monday), and home and visiting teaching (members regularly visit one another in their homes for prayer and study). [[Tattoo]]s and [[body piercing]]s (except for one pair of [[earrings]] for women) are strongly discouraged. Church members are encouraged to marry and have ch
|
, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Heraclitus]], [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Max Stirner]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] |
influenced = [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Muhammad Iqbal|Iqbal]], [[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze]], [[Albert Camus|Camus]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Georges Bataille|Bataille]], [[Ayn Rand|Rand]] |
notable_ideas = Apollonian-Dionysian Duality, Eternal Recurrence, Will to Power, Nihilism, Herd Instinct, Overman, Attack on Christianity, Master-Slave Morality |
}}
'''Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:{{IPA|[ˈnitʃə], [ˈnitʃi]}}) ([[October 15]], [[1844]] &ndash; [[August 25]], [[1900]]) was a German [[philosopher]], whose critiques of contemporary culture, religion, and philosophy centered around a basic question regarding the [[Goodness and value theory|foundation of values and morality]]. Beyond the unique themes dealt with in his works, Nietzsche's powerful style and subtle approach are distinguishing features of his writings. Although largely overlooked during his short working life, which ended with a mental collapse at the age of 44, Nietzsche received recognition during the second half of the 20th century as a highly significant figure in modern philosophy. His influence was particularly noted throughout the 20th century by many [[existentialism|existentialist]], [[Phenomenology|phenomenological]] and [[postmodernism|postmodern]] philosophers.
== Life ==
=== Youth (1844&ndash;1869) ===
Friedrich Nietzsche was born on [[October 15]] [[1844]], in the small town of [[Röcken]], near [[Leipzig]], within what was then the [[Prussia|Prussian]] province of [[Saxony]]. His name comes from King [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]], on whose 49th birthday Nietzsche was born. Nietzsche's parents were Carl Ludwig (1813-1849), a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[pastor]] and former teacher, and Franziska (1826-1897). His sister, [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche|Elisabeth]], was born in 1846, followed by his brother Ludwig Joseph in 1848. After the death of their father in 1849 and the young brother in 1850, the family moved to [[Naumburg]], where they lived with his maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters under the guardianship of a local [[magistrate]], Bernhard Dächsel.
After the death of his grandmother in 1856, the family was able to afford their own house. During this time, the young Nietzsche attended a boys' school and later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, both of whom came from respected families. In 1854, he began to attend a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] preparatory school, but after demonstrating particular talents in [[music]] and language, he was admitted to the internationally recognized [[Pforta|Schulpforta]], where he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with [[Paul Deussen]] and [[Carl von Gersdorff]]. He also found time to work on [[Poetry|poems]] and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly in regard to the Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and also first experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town [[Christianity|Christian]] environment.
[[Image:1864c.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche, 1864.]]
After graduation, in 1864, Nietzsche commenced his studies in [[theology]] and classical [[philology]] at the University of Bonn. For a short time, with Deussen, he was a member of the [[Burschenschaft]] ''Frankonia''. After one semester and to the anger of his mother, he stopped his studies in theology, and concentrated on [[philology]], with Professor [[Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl]], whom he followed to the [[University of Leipzig]] the next year. There, he became close friends with fellow student [[Erwin Rohde]]. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.
In 1865, Nietzsche became acquainted with the work of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], and [[Friedrich Albert Lange|Friedrich Albert Lange's]] ''[[Geschichte des Materialismus]]'' in 1866. Both of these encounters were stimulating, encouraging him to no longer limit himself to philology and continue his schooling. In 1867, Nietzsche committed to one year of voluntary service with the Prussian [[artillery]] division in Naumburg. However, a bad riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service. Consequently Nietzsche returned his attention to his studies, completing them and first meeting with [[Richard Wagner]] later that year.
=== Professor at Basel (1869&ndash;1879) ===
[[Image:Nietzsche187a.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1875.]]
Based on Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received an extraordinary offer to become professor of classical philology at the [[University of Basel]] before having completed his doctorate degree or certificate for teaching. Among his philological work there, he discovered that the ancient poetic [[Meter (poetry)|meter]] related only to the length of syllables, different from the modern, accentuating meter.
After moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship, and was for the rest of his life, officially [[Stateless person|stateless]]. Nevertheless, he served on the Prussian side during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] as a medical orderly. His time in the military was short, but he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted [[diphtheria]] and [[dysentery]].
On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the [[German Empire]] and the following era of [[Otto von Bismarck]] as an outsider and with a degree of skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered his inaugural lecture, 'On Homer's Personality'. Also, Nietzsche met [[Franz Overbeck]], a professor of theology, who remained his friend throughout his life. The other most influential colleague was historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]], whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended.
Already in 1868, Nietzsche had met Richard Wagner in Leipzig, and sometime later, his wife, [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima]]. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel was a frequent guest in Wagner's 'House of the Masters' in [[Tribschen]]. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their closest circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Festival House in Bayreuth. In 1870, he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of 'The Genesis of the Tragic Idea' as a birthday gift.
In 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, ''The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music.'' However, the work, in which he forewent a precise philological method to employ a style of philosophical speculation, was not well received among his classical philological colleagues, including Ritschl. In a polemic, 'Future Philology', [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]] dampened the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde, by now a professor in Kiel, and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted unsuccessfully to attain a position in philosophy at Basel.
Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: ''David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer'', ''On the Use and Abuse of History for Life'', ''Schopenhauer as Educator'', and ''Richard Wagner in Bayreuth''. (These four were later collected and published under the title, ''Untimely Meditations''.) The four shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. Starting in [[1873]], he also accumulated notes that were posthumously published as ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]''.
During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and [[Hans von Bülow]], and also began a friendship with [[Paul Rée]], an influence for the pessimism in his early writings. However, his disappointment with the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where he was repelled by the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public, caused him to finally distance himself from Wagner.
Most commentators agree that Nietzsche read [[Max Stirner]], however they differ in respect to whether he was influenced by him. {{ref|Brobjer}} At least one, philosopher [[Eduard von Hartmann]], has accused him of plagiarizing Stirner.
With the publication of ''Human, All-Too-Human'' in 1878, a book of [[aphorisms]] on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes, Nietzsche's departure from the philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident. Also, Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled. Nietzsche undertook more experiments, attempted to find a wife, and pursued Malwida von Meysenbug to no avail.
In 1879, after a significant decline in health, he was forced to resign his position. Since his childhood, Nietzsche had been plagued by various disruptive illnesses -- moments of shortsightedness practically to the degree of blindness, migraine headaches, and violent stomach attacks. These persistent conditions were perhaps aggravated by his riding accident in 1868 and diseases in 1870, and continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work was no longer practicable.
=== Free philosopher (1879&ndash;1889) ===
[[Image:Nietzsche paul-ree lou-von-salome188.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Lou Andreas-Salomé|Lou Salomé]], [[Paul Rée]] and Nietzsche, 1882.]]
Driven by his illness to find more compatible climates, Nietzsche travelled frequently and lived until 1889 as a free author in different cities. He spent many summers in
|
oreigners, as well as extreme social prejudice.
All non-Japanese are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards. From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the [[fingerprint]]ing that accompanied registration every five years. Those people who opposed fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals. The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration. Some Koreans, often with the support of either South Korea or the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), attempted to educate their children in the Korean language, history, and culture and to instill pride in their Korean heritage. Most Koreans in Japan, however, have never been to the Korean Peninsula and do not speak Korean. Many are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and discrimination in a society that emphasizes Japan's homogeneity and cultural uniqueness. Other Asians, too, whether students or permanent residents, face prejudice and a strong "us-them" distinction. Europeans and North Americans might be treated with greater hospitality but nonetheless find it difficult to become full members of Japanese society. Public awareness of the place of foreigners (''gaijin'') in Japanese society was heightened in the late 1980s in debates over the acceptance of Vietnamese and Chinese refugees and the importing of Filipino brides for rural farmers.
A small but noticeable number of [[Brazil|Brazilian]] immigrants (around 250.000) also live in Japan, particularly those of Japanese descent.
===Hisabetsu Buraku===
''Main article: [[Burakumin]]''
Despite popular claims of Japanese homogeneity on the part of observers both foreign and domestic, three native Japanese minority groups can be identified. The largest are the ''hisabetsu buraku'' or "discriminated communities", also known as the ''burakumin''. These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as [[butcher]]s, [[leather|leatherworkers]], [[funeral]] directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of [[India]]'s [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalits]]. Discrimination against these occupational groups arose historically because of [[Buddhist]] prohibitions against killing and [[Shinto]] notions of pollution, as well as governmental attempts at social control. During the [[Edo period|Tokugawa]] period, such people were required to live in special ''buraku'' and, like the rest of the population, were bound by [[sumptuary law]]s based on the inheritance of social class. The [[Meiji]] government abolished most derogatory names applied to these discriminated communities in [[1871]], but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination faced by the former outcasts and their descendants. The laws, however, did eliminate the economic monopoly they had over certain occupations.
Although members of these discriminated communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, they often live in urban [[ghetto]]es or in the traditional special hamlets in rural areas. Some attempt to pass as ordinary Japanese, but the checks on family background that are often part of marriage arrangements and employment applications make this difficult. Estimates of their number range from 2 million to 4 million, or about 2 to 3 % of the national population.
Ordinary Japanese claimed that membership in these discriminated communities can be surmised from the location of the family home, occupation, dialect, or mannerisms and, despite legal equality, continued to discriminate against people they surmised to be members of this group. Past and current discrimination has resulted in lower educational attainment and socioeconomic status among hisabetsu buraku than among the majority of Japanese. Movements with objectives ranging from "liberation" to encouraging integration have tried over the years to change this situation.
===Ryukyuans===
The second largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ryukyuans|Ryukyuan people]].
===Ainu===
The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ainu people|Ainu]], who are thought to be related to the Tungusic, Altaic, and Uralic peoples of [[Siberia]]. Historically, the Ainu (Ainu means human in the Ainu language) were an indigenous [[hunting]] and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshu as late as the Nara period (A.D. [[710]]-[[794|94]]). As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaido, in a manner similar to the placing of native Americans on reservations. Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20,000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese. Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population.
Although no longer in daily use, the [[Ainu language]] is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations. Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism.
==Basic facts==
'''Population''': 127,417,244 (July 2005 est.) people in 47,062,743 households, 78.7 % in urban areas (July 2000). High population density; 329.5 persons per square kilometer for total area; 1,523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land. More than 50 % of population lives on 2 % of land. (July 1993)
'''Population growth rate''':
:0.05% (2005 est.)
:0.08% (2004 est.)
:0.11% (2003 est.)
:0.18% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate''':
:9.47 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
:9.56 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)
:9.61 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:9.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate''':
:8.95 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
:8.75 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)
:8.55 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:8.15 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Age structure''':
:0-14 years: 14.3% (male 9,337,867; female 8,876,996)
:15-64 years: 66.2% (male 42,697,264; female 42,196,835)
:65 years and over: 19.5% (male 10,169,190; female 14,054,850) (2005 est.)
'''Sex ratio''':
:at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female
:total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate''':
:total: 3.26 deaths/1,000 live births
:male: 3.52 deaths/1,000 live births
:female: 2.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth''':
:total population: 81.15 years
:male: 77.86 years
:female: 84.61 years (2005 est.)
:total population: 80.7 years
:male: 77.51 years
:female: 84.05 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate''':
:1.288 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate''':
:less than 0.1% (2004 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS''':
:12,000 (2003 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - deaths''':
:500 (2003 est.)
'''Nationality''':
:noun: Japanese (singular and plural)
:adjective: Japanese
'''Ethnic Groups''': 99.4 % Japanese and 0.6 % other, mostly [[Korean people|Korean]] (40.4% of non-Japanese) and some [[ethnic Chinese|Chinese]]. [[Ainu people|Ainu]], [[Ryukyuans]] and [[hisabetsu buraku]] constitute native Japanese minority groups. Japanese people are considered to be a homogeneous race but recent studies have shown that the Japanese race is very mixed. It consists of Chinese, Korean, Polynesian and proto-caucasoid blood which explains the variety of Japanese facial structures.
'''Foreign Citizens''': More than 2.5 million (possibly higher because of the illegal immigrants), 14.9% up in five years. North and South Koreans 1 million, Chinese 0.5 million, Filipinos 0.5 million, and Brazilian 250,000 with others like Peruvian, American/Canadian, British, Indonesian, Thai, African and other nationals.
'''Marriage Status''':
:Over 15: Married Male 61.8%, Female 58.2%. Never married Male 31.8%, Female 23.7%.
:25 - 29: Never married Male 69.3%, Female 54.0%.
:30 - 34: Never married Male 42.9%, Female 26.6% (July 2000).
'''Religion''': No reliable statistics exist since census does not have questions regarding religion. See [[Religions of Japan]].
'''Net migration rate''':
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Language''': [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Emphasis on [[English language|English]] as a second language.
'''Literacy''':
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:total population: 99% (2002 est.)
:male: 99% (2002 est.)
:female: 99% (2002 est.)
==Reference==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
==External links==
* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Chapple.html The Dilemma Posed by Japan's Population Decline], discussion paper by Julian Chapple in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[18 October]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/24/international/asia/24population.html?n=Top%2fNews%2fInternational%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fJapan 'Japan's Population Fell This Year]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Demographics of Japan]]
[[es:Demografía del Japón]]
[[fr:Démographie du Japon]]
[[lt:Japonijos demografija]]
[[ms:Demografi Jepun]]
[[ru:Население Японии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Japan</title>
<id>15577</id>
<revision>
<id>41964496</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:42:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neier</username>
<id>430157</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision
|
re also Margraves of Brandenburg-Culmbach, Brandenburg-Kuestrin, Brandenburg-Ansbach-Bayreuth and many more.
== Dukes of Prussia ==
*[[Albert of Prussia]] (1525–1568)
*[[Albert Frederick]] (1568–1618)
*[[Joachim II]] Hector Co-Inheritor (1568–1571)
*[[Georg Friedrich]] (Regent, 1578–1603)
*[[Joachim Friedrich]] (Regent, 1603–1608)
*[[Johann Sigismund]] (1618–1619; Regent, 1608–1618)
*[[Georg Wilhelm]] (1619–1640)
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] (1640–1688)
*[[Frederick I of Prussia|Friedrich III]] (1688–1701), later King Friedrich I
== [[List of Kings of Prussia|Kings of Prussia]] ==
*[[Friedrich I of Prussia]] (1701–1713), formerly Friedrich III
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] (1713–1740)
*[[Friedrich II of Prussia]] "Frederick the Great" (1740–1786)
*[[Frederick William II of Prussia]] (1786–1797)
*[[Frederick William III of Prussia]] (1797–1840)
*[[Frederick William IV of Prussia]] (1840–1861)
*[[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] (1861–1888)
*[[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]] (1888)
*[[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] (1888–1918)
== [[List of German Kings and Emperors|German Emperors]] ==
*[[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] (1871–1888)
*[[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]] (1888)
*[[Wilhelm II]] (1888–1918)
The Hohenzollern family continues to exist, and since Wilhelm's death the [[Scion (disambiguation)|scions]] have been:
*[[Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany|Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia]] (1941–1951)
*[[Louis Ferdinand|Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia]] (1951–1994)
*[[Prince Georg Friedrich of Prussia]] (1994– )
Another branch of the Hohenzollerns, actually the dynastically senior line, the [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]s, were also important landowners in pre-German-Empire Germany, and later were the princes (1866–1881) and kings (1881–1947) of [[Romania]]. French opposition to their candidacy for the throne of [[Spain]] led to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870–1871) and the founding (January 1871) of the [[German Empire]].
== [[Kings of Romania]] ==
*[[Charles I of Romania|Carol I]] (1881–1914; Prince 1866–1881)
*[[Ferdinand of Romania|Ferdinand]] (1914–1927)
*[[Michael I of Romania|Michael]] (1927–1930 and 1940–1947)
*[[Charles II of Romania|Carol II]] (1930–1940)
==See also==
*[[Junker]]
[[Category:Royal families|Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:German nobility]]
[[da:Hohenzollern]]
[[de:Hohenzollern]]
[[et:Hohenzollernid]]
[[es:Dinastía Hohenzollern]]
[[fr:Hohenzollern]]
[[it:Hohenzollern]]
[[nl:Hohenzollern]]
[[ja:ホーエンツォレルン家]]
[[no:Hohenzollern]]
[[pl:Hohenzollernowie]]
[[ru:Гогенцоллерны]]
[[fi:Hohenzollern]]
[[sv:Hohenzollern]]
[[zh:霍亨索伦王朝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hang gliding</title>
<id>13850</id>
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<id>41149076</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:02:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Bentley</username>
<id>724762</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other */ Fix Yahoo Hang Glider History group link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hang gliding''' is an [[air sport]]. It is both a [[recreation]]al and competitive [[sport]] closely related to [[paragliding]] and [[gliding]] (flying [[sailplanes]]), but using a much simpler and less expensive craft consisting of an aluminum- or composite-framed fabric [[wing]], with the [[aviator | pilot]] mounted on a harness hanging from the wing frame and exercising control by shifting body weight.
[[image:hangglider.austria.750pix.jpg|thumb|400px|Hang glider preparing to launch in the Austrian Alps, above [[Zell am See]]]]
== Classes ==
Broadly there are two classes of hang glider. A flexible wing hang glider, having flight controlled by a wing whose shape changes in virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a [[paraglider]]. The second class is a rigid wing hang glider, having flight controlled by [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spoiler]]s, typically on top of the wing.
In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing. A third class of hang gliders exists (officially called Sub-Class O-2 by the FAI) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing. This offers the best performance and is the most expensive. All types of hang gliders can be foot-launched, while landing some class-2 hang gliders is only possible on wheels.
== History ==
{{main|History of flexible wing hang gliding}}
=== Overview ===
The early experiments with gliding flight were made throughout the late 19th century by pioneers such as [[Otto Lilienthal]]. These craft would now be considered hang gliders.
Modern hang gliding was invented, or at least strongly influenced, by the [[NASA]] technician [[Francis Rogallo]] in 1948 with the invention of the Flexkite. This device was considered as a possible landing system for the astronauts return to earth. From there, much of the development of hang gliders occurred in [[Australia]], where the first hang glider manufacturing firms were established. Hang gliding then became popular world-wide, with the peak in the 1980s. An alternative to hang gliding is [[Paragliding]] since the gear is more easily transported, although it offers lower performance.
=== History of Rigid Wing Hang Gliding ===
The first notable hang gliders to abandon the [[Rogallo wing]] were [[Kiceniuk Icarus I|Icarus I]] and [[Kiceniuk Icarus II |Icarus II]], built in 1971 and 1972 respectively [http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/icarus.htm]. These were rigid biplane flying wing designs by [[Taras Kiceniuk, Jr]].. [[Kiceniuk Icarus V| Icarus V]] was the precursor to the modern hang glider. It was essentially a monoplane version of the previous Icarus designs. All of the hang gliders in the Icarus series had hand-controlled rudders and the pilot flew in a reclining position (rather than a prone position as with other hang gliders). Although many [[Kiceniuk Icarus II |Icarus II]] and [[Kiceniuk Icarus V| Icarus V]] gliders were built from plans sold by [[Taras Kiceniuk, Jr|Kiceniuk]], they were never commercially produced.
In the late 1990's the first commercially successful rigid wing hang glider came on the market (the "Exxtacy") with a leading edge of carbon fiber, which does not deform. The nose angle and wing span is a little higher, and the sail is rather stiff.
== Flying ==
Launch techniques include foot-launching from a hill, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind another powered aircraft), and powered harnesses. Other, more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot-air balloon drops for very high altitude launches. In flight, conditions can be either soarable or not soarable (flights in non-soarable conditions are referred to as "sled runs"). Soaring flight can be sustained generally through thermals (caused by solar heating of surface air) or ridge lift (caused by wind rising over geographical features), or both. Flights powered by ridge lift are generally confined to the vicinity of the ridge (which can be very high and long in mountainous regions) or coastal cliff, while thermal flights can extend over great distances and reach thousands of feet in altitude over mountains and flatlands.
A handy FAQ can be found here: [http://members.aol.com/dfscinc/faq.html]
== Safety ==
[[Image:03810008.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Tandem Hang Gliding over São Conrado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil]]
While hang gliding has traditionally been considered a highly unsafe sport, the gliders themselves are as safe as any other aircraft when constructed by HGMA, BHPA or DHV*-certified manufacturers using modern materials. All modern gliders have built-in stall recovery mechanisms (such as luff lines in kingposted gliders) and are designed and tested for as much stability as possible, depending on the performance characteristics desired. Pilot safety is, as in all other forms of aviation, a matter of training (through certified instructors) and self-discipline.
As a backup, pilots carry a [[parachute]] with them in the harness. In case of serious problems the parachute is deployed (thrown by hand) and carries both pilot and glider down to earth. The size is typically 30 m<sup>2</sup> and the related sink rate should not exceed 6 to 7 m/s (but can be less, depending on the state of the glider). This is still sufficient to break some bones, so pilots are encouraged to climb into their control frame after a parachute deployment to allow the frame to absorb some of the impact energy. Some pilots have used rocket-assisted (pyrotechnic or compressed air) parachutes to increase the chances of a successful parachute deployment, but these systems proved unreliable enough that carrying a hand-deployed backup parachute was deemed necessary, so most just carry a single, hand-deployed system. Many hang gliding clubs hold regular parachute deployment clinics to practice this emergency technique on the ground and to encourage regular inspection and re-packing of parachutes.
Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry one or more other safety items such as hook knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for calling for help), and first aid equipment.
Another issue that has dramatically improved the safety of the modern hang glider pilot is training. Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error. Much of that very error has lead to effective training techniques and programs developed for today's novice pilot. While the pitch and roll stability built into modern hang gliders helps prevent high altitude problems in flight, these features require altitude to take effec
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ss and [[literacy]]. Clinton was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in [[1983]] and Arkansas Mother of the Year in [[1984]] [http://teacher.scholastic.com/researchtools/articlearchives/civics/presid/flgall/flclinto.htm].
===Honors===
Throughout her time as first lady, Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm. In [[1988]] and [[1991]] ''[[National Law Journal]]'' named Clinton one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America [http://search.eb.com/women/articles/Clinton_Hillary_Diane_Rodham.html]. Clinton co-founded the [[Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families]] and served on the boards of the [[Arkansas Children's Hospital]] Legal Services and the [[Children's Defense Fund]] [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html].
From [[1985]] to [[1992]], Clinton served on the Board of Directors for both [[TCBY| TCBY ("The Country's Best Yogurt")]] and [[Wal-Mart Stores Inc.]][http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0021,harkavy,15052,5.html]
[[Image:Hrcfamily.jpg|thumb|270px|The Clinton family arrives at the White House in 1993.]]
==First Lady of the United States==
[[Image:hRC.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Official First Lady Portrait of Hillary Rodham Clinton.]]
After Bill Clinton was elected to the White House in [[1992]], Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States in 1993. She was the first First Lady to hold a [[post-graduate study|post-graduate degree]] and the first to have her own successful professional career. [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556529/Hillary_Clinton.html] She is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history other than [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]. [http://www.verveonline.com/27/people/hillary/hillary.shtml]
===Health Care===
In [[1993]] the President appointed his wife to head the Task Force on National Health Care Reform. The recommendation of this task force, commonly called the [[Clinton health care plan]] and nicknamed "Hillarycare" by its opponents, failed to gain enough support to come to a floor vote in either house of Congress, although both had Democratic majorities, and was abandoned in September, [[1994]]. In her ''Living History'' memoirs, Clinton acknowledged that her political inexperience contributed to the defeat, but also said that many other factors were responsible as well. A decade later, "Hillarycare" would still be used as a label, sometimes pejoratively, for plans perceived as implementing universal health care. [http://www.time.com/time/columnist/klein/article/0,9565,1137628,00.html] [http://www.investors.com/editorial/IBDArticles.asp?artsec=20&artnum=3&issue=20051205]) At the time, Republicans used its unpopularity as a campaign issue in the 1994 midterm elections which saw a net Republican gain of 53 seats [[United States House election, 1994|in the House election]] and 7 [[United States Senate election, 1994|in the Senate election]].
===Criticism===
At the time, some critics called it inappropriate for a First Lady to play a central role in matters of public policy. Supporters, by contrast, argued that Clinton was no different than other White House advisors and that furthermore, voters were well aware that she would play an active role in her husband's Presidency. [http://teacher.scholastic.com/researchtools/articlearchives/civics/presid/flgall/flhomema.htm] Indeed, during the campaign Bill Clinton had stated that voting for him would get "two for the price of one." [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/billclinton/firstlady/] This remark led to the (inaccurate) notion that the two were acting as "co-Presidents" [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/greenberg071599.asp], sometimes nicknamed "Billary" [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002610.html].
===Praise===
As first lady, Clinton won many admirers for her staunch support for [[women's rights]] around the world and her commitment to children's issues [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html]. She initiated the [[Children's Health Insurance Program]] in 1997, a federal effort that provided state support for those children whose parents were unable to provide them with health coverage. She also successfully sought to increase the research funding for illnesses such as prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the [[National Institutes of Health]]. The First Lady worked to solve the mystery behind the illnesses that were affecting veterans of the [[Gulf War]]. She initiated and shepherded the [[Adoption and Safe Families Act]] of 1997, which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as First Lady [http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=43].
[[Image:Hrcraad.jpg|thumb|Clinton reads to a child during a school visit]]
===Role===
Clinton hosted numerous [[White House]] conferences that related to children's health, including early childhood development and school violence. She fought for nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and supported an annual drive to encourage older women to seek a mammogram to prevent breast cancer, coverage of the cost being provided by [[Medicare]]. With [[Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]], Clinton helped to create the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]]'s Violence Against Women office. She was one of the few international figures at the time who spoke out against the treatment of [[Afghan people|Afghani]] women by [[Islamist]] [[fundamentalist]] [[Taliban]] that had seized control of [[Afghanistan]]. One of the programs she helped create was Vital Voices, a U.S.-sponsored initiative to promote the participation of international women in their nation's political process.
Clinton performed many less political activities in her role as First Lady. With a lifelong interest in regional American history, she initiated the Save America's Treasures program, a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to rescue from deterioration and neglect, or restore to completion many iconic historic items and sites, including the flag that inspired the [[Star Spangled Banner]], and the National First Ladies Historic Site in Canton, Ohio. Clinton initiated the [[Millennium Project]] with monthly lectures that considered both America's past and forecasted its future. One of these lectures became the first live simultaneous webcast from the [[White House]]. Clinton also created the first Sculpture Garden, which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums in the [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] Garden on a rotating basis.
In the White House, Clinton placed the donated handicrafts (pottery, glassware, etc.) of contemporary American artisans on rotating display in the state rooms. She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room on the state floor, and the redecoration of the Treaty Room into the President's study on the second floor. In a unique venue of large white tents on the South Lawn that could accommodate several thousand guests, Clinton hosted many large events such as a [[St. Patrick's Day]] reception, a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries, and a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in the [[public schools]]. For all the foods served in the White House, Clinton hired a chef whose expertise was in American regional cooking. She hosted a massive [[New Year's Eve]] party on the turning of the twentieth century into the twenty-first century, as well as a state dinner honoring the November 2000 [[bicentennial]] of the White House, which gathered more former Presidents and First Ladies together in the mansion than had ever been present at any other time in its history.
==Relationship with Bill Clinton==
[[Image:Hillary.jpg|frame|left|Portrait of the President and First Lady at the South Portico of the White House, February 2000.]]
Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton met at Yale Law School where both were students. On October 11, [[1975]], when Hillary was 27 years old and Bill was 28 years old, the Clintons married in [[Fayetteville]], [[Arkansas]]. Before he proposed marriage to Hillary Rodham, Bill Clinton secretly purchased a small [[house]] in Fayetteville that she had noticed and remarked that she had liked. When he proposed marriage to her and she accepted, he revealed that they owned the house. They married and lived there, briefly, before relocating to the state capital of [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]], from which Bill conducted his first campaign, for [[U.S. Congress]].
===Husband Infidelity===
In [[1998]], the Clintons' relationship became the subject of much speculation and gossip after the [[Lewinsky scandal]] when the President admitted to a sexual affair (short of sexual intercourse) with a White House intern, [[Monica Lewinsky]]. During the Lewinsky scandal, Hillary initially claimed that the allegations against her husband were the result of a "vast right-wing conspiracy. [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/01/27/hillary.today/]" After the evidence of President Clinton's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible, she remained resolute that their marriage was solid. Both Bill's and Hillary's memoirs later revealed that the revelation of the affair was in reality a very painful time in their marriage.
For much of his political career, President Clinton was dogged by rumors of extra-marital affairs. These rumors gained credibility following the Lewinsky scandal. In his memoirs, President Clinton confirmed a "relationship that I should not have had" with [[Gennifer Flowers]], an Arkansas lounge singer [http://www.newswithviews.com/Boggs/kelly42.htm]. These revelations and rumors resulted in a mix of sympathy and scorn for the First Lady. While many women sympathized with her as a victim of her husband's insensitive behavior, others criticized her as being an [[Codependence|enabler]] to her husband's indiscretions by showing no interest in obtai
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s the adoption of a standard international language among the various competitors that had been devised up to that time. According to the minutes of the Committee, it was decided that no language was completely acceptable, but that [[Esperanto]] could be accepted "on condition of several modifications to be realized by the permanent Commission in the direction defined by the conclusions of the Report of the Secretaries (Couturat and [[Leopold Leau]]) and by the Ido project." This (anonymous) "Ido project" was later suggested to have been primarily devised by Couturat with some help from Esperanto's representative before the Committee, [[Louis de Beaufront]]. Beaufront had himself argued for reforming Esperanto prior to having been selected to the Delegation. His eventual "conversion" to the Ido camp, upon the presentation of that language, was thus consistent with his earlier positions.
Early supporters of [[Esperanto]] tended to resist reforms, and the language's inventor, [[L. L. Zamenhof]], deferred to their judgment. Ironically, several of the reforms adopted by Ido were themselves proposed at various times by Zamenhof, especially in [[1894]] when he proposed eliminating the accented letters and the accusative case (referring to it as "superfluous ballast" [http://web.archive.org/web/20021228070110/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/054_074.html]), changing the plural to an Italianesque ''-i'', and replacing the table of correlatives with more Latinate words (see [[History of Esperanto#Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress|History of Esperanto]]). The custom of keeping the basic rules of Esperanto fixed remains today. Couturat, who was the leading proponent of Ido, was killed in an automobile accident in [[1914]], which, along with [[World War I]], dealt a serious blow to the Ido movement. Although that movement recovered to some degree in the immediate postwar period, the whole movement of international languages became [[balkanization|balkanized]]. With the publication of an even more Europeanized planned language, [[Occidental language|Occidental]], in 1922, Ido went into decline. The Ido movement lost a majority of its published periodicals in the subsequent year or so, and the defection of its major intellectual supporter, the Danish linguist [[Otto Jespersen]], in 1928 on the occasion of the publication of his own planned language [[Novial]], seemed at the time to provide a quietus.
Some observers trace the eclipse of Ido to its hybrid character – part Esperanto reform project, part [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis|Standard Average European]]. In this view, once it was clear that Ido would neither displace Esperanto nor be adopted by the Esperanto community, many viewed its Esperanto-like features as unnecessary baggage and moved on to more naturalistic projects. Those who approved of them tended to return to the larger Esperanto community.
Ido's decline had slowed by the 1930s, and the movement was still a significant force in [[interlinguistics]] during the long gestation of the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]]'s project. Like the [[Occidental | Occidentalists]], many Idists hoped that IALA would produce a language relatively close to their own preferences. In the end, the radically naturalistic [[Interlingua]] was even farther from Ido than Occidental, and (in contrast to Occidental) there was no major migration of Ido supporters to the new language.
Ido's survival during this period was assisted by financial resources accumulated during its heyday (e.g., the chemist [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] had donated the proceeds of his 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] to an Ido foundation).
The language still has active speakers today, and the Internet has sparked a renewal of interest in the language in recent years. The estimates of the number of speakers range from 250 to 5000. In comparison, [[Esperanto]] has at least 100,000 ([[Sidney S. Culbert|Culbert's]] widely cited estimate of [[Esperanto#Geography_and_demography | 1.6 million speakers]] is controversial).
Jespersen, who was present during the ten days of Committee deliberations in Paris and later served as part of the permanent Commission, wrote a history of Ido. {{ref|Jesperson}}
A number of Esperanto supporters have attacked Ido over the years. The Esperantist [[Don Harlow]] has characterized Ido's founders as underhanded and conspiratorial{{ref|Harlow}}. However, most Ido partisans argue that Harlow's history is polemical and does not jibe with all the eyewitness accounts, such as those reported by Jespersen. Harlow claims to base his account on material from some other eyewitnesses such as [[Emile Boirac]] and [[Gaston Moch]] and with other source documentation (such as Zamenhof's correspondence with Couturat and others during the period), to which Jespersen (he says) did not have access.
== Comparison with Esperanto ==
:''Main article: [[Esperanto and Ido compared]]''
In spite of the fact that Ido technically ranks among the three largest constructed languages in the world, its user base is much smaller than that of Esperanto to the extent that the average person has never heard of the language. In contrast to this, many people who have never bothered to learn Esperanto still have an idea of its existence, its goals as a language and perhaps even a general idea of how the language itself works. Because of this, often the easiest way to explain Ido is to first show in what way it differs from Esperanto.
Ido inherits many features of [[Esperanto grammar|the grammar of Esperanto]], and in many cases the vocabulary is similar. Ido shares with Esperanto the goals of grammatical simplicity and consistency, ease of learning, and the use of [[loanword]]s from various European languages. The two languages, to a great extent, are mutually intelligible. However, certain changes were introduced to address some of the concerns that had arisen about Esperanto. These include:
* Esperanto's [[alphabet]] uses six non-Latin letters, three of which are not found in any other existing language; as a result, Esperanto in typing and in Internet e-mail and newsgroups frequently resorts to any of several schemes to represent these special letters. This leads to the situation where the same word may be displayed any of several different ways. Ido addresses this issue by using the 26-letter [[Latin alphabet]] with two [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]], ''ch'' ({{IPA|/&#679;/}}) and ''sh'' ({{IPA|/&#643;/}}) instead of Esperanto's ''ĉ'' and ''ŝ''. The digraph ''qu'', representing {{IPA|/k&#695;/}}, as in English "quick", is used instead of Esperanto ''kv'', and likewise ''gu'' is used instead of ''gv''. Ido orthography is phonetic in the sense that each written word has an unambiguous pronunciation, but it does not have the one-to-one correspondence between letters and [[phoneme]]s that Esperanto has.
* Ido generally does not impose rules of grammatical [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] between grammatical categories within a sentence, believing them to be grammatically complex and redundant in a potential universal second language. For example, in Esperanto, the verb in a sentence is invariable regardless of the number and person of the subject. This principle was not extended in Esperanto to adjectives and nouns, however; as a result, in Esperanto an adjective must agree in number and case with the noun it modifies as with the French ''grands livres'' (large books), where the adjective must be pluralized as well as the noun. There is no such requirement in English, for example, where number is emphasized by variation of the verb, and Ido eliminates this feature from its grammar.
* Esperanto requires the use of the ''-n'' ending to signify the use of the [[accusative case]]. Ido allows the use of this feature in ambiguous situations where the object of a sentence does not follow the subject, but in all other situations the accusative case was eliminated as redundant.
* Ido imposes consistent rules on the use of endings to transform a word from one meaning or part of speech to another, thus simplifying the amount of vocabulary memorization that is necessary.
* Ido, unlike Esperanto, does not assume the male sex as the default for family relationship words, and thus does not, for example, derive the word for "sister" by adding a feminine suffix to the word for "brother", as standard Esperanto does. Instead, some relationship root words are defined as sex neutral, and two different suffixes derive masculine- and feminine-specific words from the root&mdash;frato (sibling) > fratulo (brother), fratino (sister). In other cases, Ido has two or three root words where Esperanto has one&mdash;genitoro (parent), patro (father), matro (mother).
* Ido's vocabulary attempts to use [[cognate]]s that are shared in common by as many of its six source languages as possible.
Nevertheless, modern Esperanto has received some influence from Ido in areas such as a clarification of the rules for word derivation and suffixes like ''-oz-'' ("abundant in") and ''-end-'' ("required to").
== Phonology ==
Ido has the same typical five-vowel system (a, e, i, o, u have their [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values) as Esperanto, and most of the same consonants, omitting two consonant [[phoneme]]s used by Esperanto, IPA {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/&#676;/}}. (The distinctions between {{IPA|/x/ : /h/}} and between {{IPA|/&#676;/ : /&#658;/}} carry a very low functional load in Esperanto, and so were deemed to be unnecessary in Ido.) Without those two consonant phonemes, the consonants in the language are as follows:
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ution's predecessor, Nintendo Gamecube.
==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of IBM are: [[Soudeh Jahankhani]], [[Cathleen Black]], [[Ken Chenault]], [[Juergen Dormann]], [[Michael Eskew]], [[Shirley Ann Jackson]], [[Charles F. Knight]], [[Minoru Makihara]], [[Lucio Noto]], [[James W. Owens]] (effective 1 March 2006), [[Samuel J. Palmisano]], [[Joan Spero]], [[Sina Jahankhani]], [[Sidney Taurel]], [[Charles Vest]], and [[Lorenzo Zambrano]].
==See also==
*[[List of IBM products]]
*[[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]]
*[[computer]]
*[[IBM clone]]
*[[Lenovo Group]]
*[[AMIPP]]
==References==
*Gerstner, Jr., Louis V. (2002). ''Who Says Elephants Can't Dance?'' HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-715448-8.
==External links==
{{commons|International Business Machines}}
* [http://www.ibm.com/ IBM home page]
* [http://www.ibm.com/news/ IBM News]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/syndication/ IBM Syndicated Information]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ondemand/ IBM On Demand Business home page]
* [http://www.ibm.com/servers/ IBM eServer].
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ History and Archives]
* [http://barry_froggatt.users.btopenworld.com/songbook.html The IBM Songbook]; [http://anthems.zdnet.co.uk/anthems/ibm.swf ''Ever Onward''] (needs Flash)
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/ IBM Research]
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/cambridge/ IBM Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts]
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/history/ IBM Research specific to Wikipedia.org]
* [http://www.zurich.ibm.com IBM Research in Zurich]
* [http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/1980.htm IBM Antitrust Suit Records 1950-1982]
* [http://tuxmobil.org/ibm.html Linux on IBM laptops]
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=ibmjarg IBM Jargon Dictionary]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/ Current CEO - Samuel J Palmisano]
* [http://www.almaden.ibm.com/cs/BlueEyes/index.html BlueEyes Project Description]
* [http://www.computercraft.com/docs/ibm.html IBM Compatibles]
* [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/ developerWorks - IBM's resource for software developers]
* [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/blogs/index.jspa developerWorks blogging community]
* [http://www.ibm.com/alphaworks alphaWorks - IBM's showcase for emerging technology]
* [http://www.power.org power.org]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Indonesia}}The nation-state known in modern times as [[Indonesia]] encompasses an [[archipelago]] of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) stretching along the Equator. The area is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. These diverse peoples were influenced in varying degrees by trade and contact with the civilizations of the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Asia]], before colonists from the [[Netherlands]] finally consolidated most of the archipelago into a single administrative unit, under the [[Dutch East India Company]].
The outbreak of [[World War II]] saw Indonesia put in the middle of warfare between the Dutch and [[Imperial Japan]]. The defeat of the Dutch saw them driven out and replaced with Japanese occupation forces, but the weakening of these two world powers provided an opening for Indonesian Nationalists, led by [[Sukarno]], and other independence movements to launch an armed conflict. After a brief time, during which the Dutch sought to re-colonize the country, the Indonesian Nationalists won recognition for the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. In doing so, it became among the first [[Third World]] nations to gain its independence.
After gaining independence, the Republic of Indonesia has largely been ruled from a strong central government in [[Jakarta]]. After Indonesia's founding President Sukarno was weakened by prolonged warfare with [[Malaysia]] and its allies in the ''[[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]'', and by internal conflict between the Indonesian Army and the Communist Party of Indonesia, the general [[Suharto]] took power in [[1966]]. The period of his rule, known as the era of the New Order, would last 32 years and would make Indonesia a rapidly industrializing nation, though not without the problems of extensive corruption and popular discontent. After a wave of protests demanding democracy, Suharto stepped down, beginning the present period of Indonesian history, known as the Reformation era.
==Prehistory==
[[Image:Floresiensis.jpg|thumb|The skull of ''H. floresiensis''.]]
Geologically the area of modern [[Indonesia]] appeared sometime around the [[Pleistocene]] period when it was still linked with the [[Asia]]n mainland. The archipelago formed during the thaw after the latest [[ice age]]. The area's first known humanlike inhabitant some 500,000 years ago was "[[Java Man]]" (first classified as ''[[Pithecanthropus erectus]]'', then subsequently named a part of the species ''[[Homo erectus]]''). Recently discovered was a species of human, dubbed "[[Flores Man]]" (''[[Homo floresiensis]]''), a miniature hominoid that grew only three feet tall. Flores Man seems to have shared some islands with Java Man until only 10,000 years ago, when they became extinct.
==Early settlement==
Indian scholars wrote about the [[Dvipantara]] or [[Jawa Dwipa]] [[Hindu]] kingdom in [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] around [[200 BC]]. The [[Taruma]] kingdom occupied West Jawa around [[400s|400]]. In [[425]] [[Buddhism]] reached the area.
==Pre-colonial civilizations==
By the time of the [[Europe]]an [[Renaissance]], the two largest is
|
al)
*** [[Danish language|Danish]]
**** [[Norwegian language|Standard Norwegian (''Bokmål'' and ''Riksmål'')]] (Dano-Norwegian)
*** [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
*** [[Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]
**** [[Finland-Swedish]]
==Vocabulary comparison==
Several of the terms in the table below have had [[semantic drift]]. For example, the form 'Sterben' and other terms for 'die' are cognate with the English word 'starve'. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a Non-Germanic source (''ounce'' and its cognates from [[Latin]]).
<table border = "1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td>[[English language|English]]</td>
<td>[[Scots language|Scots]]</td>
<td>[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]</td>
<td>[[Dutch language|Dutch]]</td>
<td>[[Low German]]</td>
<td>[[German language|Standard German]]</td>
<td>[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]</td>
<td>[[Gothic language|Gothic]]</td>
<td>[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]</td>
<td>[[Faroese language|Faroese]]</td>
<td>[[Swedish language|Swedish]]</td>
<td>[[Danish language|Danish]]</td>
<td>[[Norwegian language|Norwegian (Bokmål)]]</td>
<td>[[Norwegian language|Norwegian (Nynorsk)]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Apple</td>
<td>Aiple</td>
<td>Appel</td>
<td>Appel</td>
<td>Appel</td>
<td>Apfel</td>
<td>עפּל {{IPA|[ɛp̩l]}}</td>
<td>Aplus</td>
<td>Epli</td>
<td>Epli¹</td>
<td>Äpple</td>
<td>Æble</td>
<td>Eple</td>
<td>Eple</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Board</td>
<td>Buird</td>
<td>Bord</td>
<td>Bord</td>
<td>Boord</td>
<td>Brett</td>
<td>בּרעט {{IPA|[brɛt]}}</td>
<td>Baúrd</td>
<td>Bor&eth;</td>
<td>Bor&eth;</td>
<td>Bord</td>
<td>Bræt</td>
<td>Bord</td>
<td>Bord</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Book</td>
<td>Beuk</td>
<td>Boek</td>
<td>Boek</td>
<td>Book</td>
<td>Buch</td>
<td>בּוך {{IPA|[bʊx]}}</td>
<td>Bōka</td>
<td>Bók</td>
<td>Bók</td>
<td>Bok</td>
<td>Bog</td>
<td>Bok</td>
<td>Bok</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Breast</td>
<td>Breest</td>
<td>Bors</td>
<td>Borst</td>
<td>Bost</td>
<td>Brust</td>
<td>בּרוסט {{IPA|[brʊst]}}</td>
<td>Brusts</td>
<td>Brjóst</td>
<td>Bróst</td>
<td>Bröst</td>
<td>Bryst</td>
<td>Bryst</td>
<td>Bryst</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Brown</td>
<td>Broun</td>
<td>Bruin</td>
<td>Bruin</td>
<td>Bruun</td>
<td>Braun</td>
<td>בּרוין {{IPA|[brɔjn]}}</td>
<td>Bruns</td>
<td>Brúnn</td>
<td>Brúnur</td>
<td>Brun</td>
<td>Brun</td>
<td>Brun</td>
<td>Brun</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Day</td>
<td>Day</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Tag</td>
<td>טאָג {{IPA|[tɔg]}}</td>
<td>Dags</td>
<td>Dagur</td>
<td>Dagur</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Dag</td>
<td>Dag</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Die</td>
<td>Dee</td>
<td>Sterf</td>
<td>Sterven</td>
<td>Döen/ Starven</td>
<td>Sterben</td>
<td>שׁטאַרבּן {{IPA|[ʃtarb̩n]}}</td>
<td>Diwan</td>
<td>Deyja</td>
<td>Doyggja</td>
<td>Dö</td>
<td>Dø</td>
<td>Dø</td>
<td>Døy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Enough</td>
<td>Eneuch</td>
<td>Genoeg</td>
<td>Genoeg</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Genug</td>
<td>גענוג {{IPA|[gənʊg]}}</td>
<td>Ganōhs</td>
<td>Nóg</td>
<td>Nóg/ Nógmikið</td>
<td>Nog</td>
<td>Nok</td>
<td>Nok</td>
<td>Nok</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Give</td>
<td>Gie</td>
<td>Gee</td>
<td>Geven</td>
<td>Geven</td>
<td>Geben</td>
<td>געבּן {{IPA|[gɛb̩n]}}</td>
<td>Giban</td>
<td>Gefa</td>
<td>Geva</td>
<td>Giva/ Ge</td>
<td>Give</td>
<td>Gi</td>
<td>Gje</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Glass</td>
<td>Gless</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>גלאָז {{IPA|[glɔz]}}</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Gler</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
<td>Glas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Gold</td>
<td>Gowd</td>
<td>Goud</td>
<td>Goud</td>
<td>Gold</td>
<td>Gold</td>
<td>גאָלד {{IPA|[gɔld]}}</td>
<td>Gul&thorn;</td>
<td>Gull</td>
<td>Gull</td>
<td>Guld</td>
<td>Guld</td>
<td>Gull</td>
<td>Gull</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>Haund</td>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>האַנט {{IPA|[hant]}}</td>
<td>Handus</td>
<td>Hönd</td>
<td>Hond</td>
<td>Hand</td>
<td>Hånd</td>
<td>Hånd</td>
<td>Hand</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Head</td>
<td>Heid</td>
<td>Kop</td>
<td>Hoofd/ Kop</td>
<td>Kopp</td>
<td>Haupt/ Kopf</td>
<td>קאָפּ {{IPA|[kɔp]}}</td>
<td>Háubi&thorn;</td>
<td>Höfu&eth;</td>
<td>Høvd/ Høvur</td>
<td>Huvud</td>
<td>Hoved</td>
<td>Hode</td>
<td>Hovud</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>High</td>
<td>Heich</td>
<td>Hoog</td>
<td>Hoog</td>
<td>Hoog</td>
<td>Hoch</td>
<td>הויך {{IPA|[hɔjx]}}</td>
<td>Háuh</td>
<td>Hár</td>
<td>Høg/ur</td>
<td>Hög</td>
<td>Høj</td>
<td>Høy</td>
<td>Høg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Home/House</td>
<td>Hame</td>
<td>Huis</td>
<td>Huis</td>
<td>(Huus)</td>
<td>Heim/Haus</td>
<td>היים {{IPA|[hɛjm]}}</td>
<td>Háimō&thorn;</td>
<td>Heim</td>
<td>Heim</td>
<td>Hem</td>
<td>Hjem</td>
<td>Hjem</td>
<td>Heim</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hook</td>
<td>Heuk</td>
<td>Haak</td>
<td>Haak</td>
<td>Haak</td>
<td>Haken</td>
<td>מענדל {{IPA|[mɛnd̩l]}}</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Krókur</td>
<td>Krókur/ Ongul</td>
<td>Hake/ krok</td>
<td>Hage</td>
<td>Hake/ Krok</td>
<td>Hake/ Krok</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>House</td>
<td>Hoose</td>
<td>Huis</td>
<td>Huis</td>
<td>Huus</td>
<td>Haus</td>
<td>הויז {{IPA|[hɔjz]}}</td>
<td>Hūs</td>
<td>Hús</td>
<td>Hús</td>
<td>Hus</td>
<td>Hus</td>
<td>Hus</td>
<td>Hus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Many</td>
<td>Mony</td>
<td>Menige</td>
<td>Menige</td>
<td>Mennig</td>
<td>Manch</td>
<td>פֿיל {{IPA|[fil]}}</td>
<td>Manags</td>
<td>Margir</td>
<td>Mangir/ Nógvir</td>
<td>Många</td>
<td>Mange</td>
<td>Mange</td>
<td>Mange</td>
</tr>
<tr&
|
nderry, retired [[British army]] officer Major Hubert O'Neill, issued a statement that August. He declared,
<blockquote>
the army ran amok that day...They were shooting innocent people. These people may have been taking part in a march that was banned but that does not justify the troops coming in and firing live rounds indiscriminately. I would say without hesitation that it was sheer unadulterated [[murder]].
</blockquote>
In the immediate aftermath of Bloody Sunday, the British government under Prime Minister [[Edward Heath]] established a commission of inquiry under the Lord Chief Justice, [[John Widgery, Baron Widgery|Lord Widgery]]. Many of the witnesses were prepared to [[boycott]] the inquiry as they lacked faith in his impartiality but were eventually persuaded to take part. His quickly-produced report supported the army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the inquiry were [[Greiss test|Greiss tests]] on the hands of the dead which seemed to show that some of them had handled explosives. The same test provided positive results which helped to convict the [[Birmingham Six]], [[Maguire Seven]] and [[Judith Ward]]; these results were later established to have been false and the convictions were quashed, although at the time the Greiss test was regarded as accurate. Most Irish people and witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It is now widely accepted that nail bombs photographed on Gerard Donaghy were planted there after his death and firearms residue on some deceased came from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies. In fact, in 1992, [[John Major]], writing to [[John Hume]] stated:{{fn|1}}
<blockquote>
The Government made clear in 1974 that those who were killed on 'Bloody Sunday' should be regarded as innocent of any allegation that they were shot whilst handling firearms or explosives. I hope that the familes of those who died will accept that assurance.
</blockquote>
In January 1997, the English television station [[Channel Four]] carried a news report that suggested that members of the [[Royal Anglian Regiment]] had also opened fire on the protesters and could have been responsible for 3 of the 14 deaths.
==The Saville Inquiry==
[[Image:Guildhall_Derry_SMC_2005.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The city Guildhall, home to the Inquiry.]]
Although [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[John Major]] had rejected [[John Hume]]'s requests for a new inquiry into the killings, his successor, [[Tony Blair]], decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by [[Lord Saville]], was established in January 1998 to re-examine 'Bloody Sunday'. Hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report is currently being written. The Saville Inquiry was a far more comprehensive study, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. The evidence so far has undermined the credibility of the original [[Widgery Tribunal]] report. Allegations were made that some bodies were placed next to guns and explosives, and other substances (including playing cards) have been found to cause [[false positive]]s in tests for explosives. Some of the scientists responsible for the original reports to the Widgery Tribunal now dismiss the interpretations that were put on their findings by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. [[Lord Saville]] has declined to comment on the Widgery report and has made the point that the Saville Inquiry is an inquiry into 'Bloody Sunday', not the Widgery Tribunal.
Evidence given by [[Martin McGuiness]], the deputy leader of [[Sinn Féin]], to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the [[Derry]] branch of the [[Provisional IRA]] and was present at the march. He did not answer questions about where he had been staying because he said it would compromise the safety of the individuals involved.
Many observers allege that the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] acted in a way to [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/2710309.stm impede] the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additonally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that should have been evidence in the inquiry were [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/699875.stm destroyed] by the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,1357102,00.html MoD]. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as [[Sierra Leone]], [[Beirut]], and [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]] [http://www.derryjournal.com/story/7120]) despite the obstruction [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-531-1721121-1187,00.html].
By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, at a total cost of [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,1357102,00.html £155m], making it the biggest investigation in [[Law of the United Kingdom|British legal]] history.
In mid-2005, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/features/story/0,11710,1446221,00.html play], ''BLOODY SUNDAY: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', based on the drama of the Saville inquiry opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin [http://www.dublinks.com/index.cfm/loc/14/pt/0/spid/85F418D2-6CD9-4669-8A9FA731AF2AB0CC.htm]. The writer, the journalist [[Richard Norton-Taylor]], distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by [[Tricycle Theatre]] [http://www.tricycle.co.uk/htmlnew/whatson/show.php3?id=71]. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets including, the Times: ''"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating"''; the Daily Telegraph: ''"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly... exceptionally gripping courtroom drama"'', and, The Independent: ''"A necessary triumph"''.
==Impact on Northern Ireland divisions==
[[Image:Bloody Sunday memorial.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bloody Sunday memorial in the [[bogside]].]]
Despite the controversy, all sides agree that 'Bloody Sunday' marked a major negative turning point in the fortunes of Northern Ireland. British opposition leader [[Harold Wilson]] reiterated his belief that a [[united Ireland]] was the only possible solution to [[Ulster]]'s [[Troubles]]. [[William Craig]], then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the [[Republic of Ireland]].
When it arrived in Northern Ireland, the [[British Army]] was welcomed by [[Catholic]]s as a neutral force there to protect them from [[Protestant]] mobs, the [[Royal_Ulster_Constabulary|RUC]] and the [[Ulster Special Constabulary|B-Specials]]. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the [[British army]], seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] became increasingly attracted to violent [[Irish republicanism|republican]] groups. With the OIRA and [[Official Sinn Féin]] having moved away from mainstream Irish nationalism/republicanism towards [[Marxism]], the [[Provisional IRA]] began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.
In the following twenty years, the [[Provisional IRA]] and other smaller republican groups such as the [[Irish National Liberation Army]] (INLA) mounted an armed campaign against the [[United Kingdom|British]], by which they meant the RUC, the British Army, the [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] of the British Army (and, according to their critics, the Protestant and [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] establishment). With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/[[loyalist]] communities (the [[Irish National Liberation Army]], a republican rival to the Provisionals, the [[Ulster Defence Association]], [[Ulster Volunteer Force]], etc on the loyalist side), a bitter and brutal war took place that cost the lives of thousands. Terrorist outrages involved such acts as the [http://www.serve.com/pfc/misc/050731bp.html killing] of three members of a Catholic pop band, the [[Miami Showband]], by a gang including members of the [[Ulster Volunteer Force|UVF]] who were also members of the local army regiment, the [[Ulster Defence Regiment|UDR]] and in uniform at the time, to the killing by the Provisionals of [[World War 2]] veterans and their families attending a war wreath laying in [[Enniskillen]].
With the official cessation of violence by some of the major paramilitary organisations, and the creation of the power-sharing executive at [[Stormont]] Parliament Buildings in [[Belfast]] under the [[Belfast Agreement]], the Saville Tribunal's re-examination of what remains one of the blackest days in Ireland for the British army offers a chance to heal the wounds left by the events of the notorious Bloody Sunday in January 1972.
==Artistic reaction==
[[Image:Derry_mural_4.jpg|thumb|RIGHT|240px|Bloody Sunday [[mural]] in Derry]]
The incident has been commemorated by [[U2]] in their [[protest song]] "[[Sunday Bloody Sunday (song)|Sunday Bloody Sunday]]". The [http://www.u2.com/music/lyrics.php?song=23&album=4 song] begins by expressing the anger of the singer at the events, before evolving into a call for all [[Christianity|Christians]], both [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] and [[Protestant]], in [[Northern Ireland]] to abandon [[sectarianism]] and fight to achieve a genuinely Christian society through [[Jesus Christ]]'s victory over death in the resurrection on [[Easter Sunday]] ("to claim the victory Jesus won on a Sunday, Bloody Sunday").
In the popular live recording, [[Bono]] clearly states (during the intro), "This is not a rebel song," lest the song be misrepresented as supporting [[Physical f
|
estamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Broughton</username>
<id>410440</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism by 130.191.196.13</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = City of Alameda, California |
nickname = [[The Island City]] |
image_flag = Alameda_city_flag.gif |
image_seal = Alamedaseal.gif |
image_map = Alameda_in_Alameda_County.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[California]] and [[Alameda_County%2C_California|Alameda County]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_California_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Beverley Johnson]] (D)|
area_note = |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 59.5 |
area_land = 28.0 |
area_water = 31.5 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_total = 72,259 |
population_density = 1,131.3 |
timezone = [[Pacific Standard Time|PST]] |
utc_offset = &minus;8 |
timezone_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = &minus;9 |
latitude = 37&deg;45'50" N |
longitude = 122&deg;15'25" W |
website = [http://ci.alameda.ca.us/ City of Alameda] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Alameda''' is a city located in [[Alameda County, California]]. It is a city on a small island of the same name next to [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[California]] in the [[San Francisco Bay]]. An additional part of the city is on ''Bay Farm Island'', which it shares with the [[Oakland International Airport]]. The city has a small town feel with its Victorian homes and tree lined neighborhoods. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 72,259.
Today the city consists of the main original section, with the former [[Naval Air Station Alameda|Naval Air Station]] at one end, and [[Bay Farm Island]], which is actually part of the mainland proper. Both of these are built on artificial hydraulic landfill on top of the bay's muddy bottom. The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point."
== History ==
The city was founded on June 6, 1853. Alameda was not originally on an island; rather, it was a peninsula off Oakland. The need for expanded shipping facilities in the late 19th century in both cities led to a shipping and tidal channel that was dug between the two cities in 1902, extending and deepening the natural estuary, which resulted in Alameda becoming an "island" with most of the dug up soil used to fill in some sections of the nearby marsh land.
== Geography ==
[[Image:CAMap-doton-Alameda.png|right|Location of Alameda, California]]Alameda is located at 37&deg;45'50" North, 122&deg;15'25" West (37.763971, -122.256810){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 59.5 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (23.0 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 28.0 km&sup2; (10.8 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 31.5 km&sup2; (12.2 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 52.98% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there are 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 2,583.3/km&sup2; (6,693.4/mi&sup2;). There are 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km&sup2; (2,931.2/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 56.95% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 6.21% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 0.67% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 26.15% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.60% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.29% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 30,226 households out of which 27.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% are non-families. 32.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.35 and the average family size is 3.04.
In the city the population is spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $56,285, and the median income for a family is $68,625. Males have a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $30,982. 8.2% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 11.4% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Transportation ==
Vehicle access to the island is via three bridges to Oakland, a bridge to Bay Farm Island, and two one-way tunnels leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Bridges at Fruitvale Avenue, High Street, and Park Street, and the tunnels at Webster Street and Harrison Street (the latter called the "Posey tube") connect Alameda and Oakland. Public transportation includes the [[AC Transit]] buses (which include express buses to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]) and two ferry services--the [[Alameda-Oakland Ferry]] and the [[Harbor Bay Ferry]]. The island is also close to the [[BART]] train service.
Even though the island is just minutes off [[Interstate 880]], the speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road. Many unaware drivers fail to slow down after exiting the highway. Groups like Pedestrian Friendly Alameda and BikeAlameda advocate stronger enforcement of speeding laws.
== Attractions ==
Due to its proximity to the Bay, [[windsurfing|wind surfer]]s and [[kite surfing|kite surfer]]s can often be seen along Crown Memorial State Beach and Shoreline Drive. From the beach there are also have views of the [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] skyline and the [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]].
One of the recent attractions is the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']], a [[museum ship]] now moored at the former [[Naval Air Station Alameda|Naval Air Station]].
== Economic development ==
[[Image:Afl_new.jpg|frame|The New Alameda Free Library]][[Image:Alameda_Theater.jpg|frame|The Alameda Theater as of February 2006]] The Naval Air Station Alameda was decomissioned and is in process of being turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development. The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point". Portions of Alameda Point are now in commercial use, but the transfer process has been slowed down by disputes between the Navy and the City regarding payment for environmental cleanup of the land. Development of the base is also opposed by a vocal minority in the City who object to modifications to a ballot measure passed in the 1970's that intended to stop a practice then popular in the City of tearing down the island's beautiful, historical Victorian homes and replacing them with apartment complexes.
After two previous failures, voters in the City passed a ballot measure in [[2000]] authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new library to replace the city's [[Carnegie library]] that was damaged during the [[Loma Prieta earthquake]]. The City also received state funds for the new library and it is currently under construction near the City's Park Street business district and will open in the fall of 2006.
City officials continue to seek ways to spur economic development on the Island including the reconstruction of the City's shopping mall and restoration of the historic art deco city landmark Alameda Theater. The theater restoration project is currently the subject of much controversy in the City, pitting the City's pro-development and anti-development factions against each other once again.
==Alameda Power and Telecom==
Unlike surrounding communities, Alameda has a municipal power and telecommunications service (Alameda Power and Telecom) that delivers services directly to consumers. The telecommunications service has the potential of far exceeding the capabilities of the various cable and DSL providers in the larger region.
There have been proposals by the power producer to produce energy from waste, but not within the city of Alameda. Instead this energy would be produced at a waste transfer station located in neighboring (and downwind) [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]]. Owing to the expected release of toxic emissions from what is essentially a [[Waste|garbage]] [[incinerator]], the mayor and city council of San Leandro rejected the proposal. The mayor vowed to fight this proposal, suggesting that Alameda could instead place this near their municipal golf course.
Also, unlike the three major power producers in California, Alameda is not required to establish [[net metering]] for home [[photovoltaic]] power producers, so the city currently lags far behind other communities in producing truly "green" energy, even though they have a potentially productive site for supplemental wind energy on the western edge of the former naval air station.
==Arts and Culture==
The [[Alameda Arts Council]] (AAC) is the Alameda City [[arts council]] serving the arts in the Alameda area.
==="Art In the Park"===
[[Art In the Park]] is an annual event that takes place in [[Jackson Park]] (Encinal and Park Ave) which the [[Alameda Arts Council]] co-produces with [[Alameda Recreation & Parks]]. This event is held each September and features over 100 local artists, two music areas, a children's activity area, food, poetry readings and art demonstrations. This event is free to the public.
|
districts. However, this meant districts with a low tax base were underfunded, so the province moved to a system that pools the education property tax, and distributes it based on student population and need.
===Post-secondary===
Alberta's oldest and largest university is Edmonton's [[University of Alberta]]. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966, and is now the second largest university in Alberta. There is also [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]]. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology|NAIT]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology|SAIT]] ([http://www.advancededucation.gov.ab.ca/college/postsecsystem/postsecinst/postsecinst.asp]). Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions.
==Transportation==
Alberta has over 180,000&nbsp;km of [[highway]]s and roads, of which nearly 50,000&nbsp;km are paved. The main north-south [[corridor]] is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston, Alberta|Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] [[border]] crossing. Highway 4, which effectively extends [[Interstate 15|U.S. Interstate Highway 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod, Alberta|Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 4 to Highway 2. Highway 2 travels northward through Fort Macleod, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]], [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] before dividing into two highways. One continues northwest as Highway 43 into [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]] and the [[Peace River country]]; the other (Highway 63) travels northeast to [[Fort McMurray]], the location of the [[Athabasca Tar Sands|Athabasca Oil Sands]]. Highway 2 is supplimented by two more highways that run parallel to it: highway 22, west of highway 2, known as 'the cowboy trail', and highway 21, east of highway 2.
Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway|Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through [[Banff National Park]]. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network but known alternatively as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into [[British Columbia]]. On a sunny spring or fall day, one of the most scenic drives in the world is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs some 300&nbsp;km between Jasper and Banff, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length.
Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and [[freeway]]s are often called ''trails''. For example, Highway 2 is Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary, Calgary Trail as it leaves Edmonton southbound, and St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton northbound toward the city of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]. Visitors from outside Alberta often find this disconcerting, accustomed as they are to the notion that a trail is an unpaved route primarily for [[pedestrian]]s.
Edmonton, Calgary, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial mass transit systems. Edmonton and Calgary also operate light rail vehicles.
Alberta is well-connected by air, with international [[airport]]s at both Edmonton and Calgary. Calgary's airport is the larger of the two, and is also the fourth busiest in Canada. It is a hub airport for a significant proportion of the connecting trans-border and international flights into and out of central Canada. There are over 9000&nbsp;km of operating mainline railway, and many tourists see Alberta aboard [[Via Rail]] or [[Rocky Mountain Railtours]].
==Culture==
:''Main article: [[Culture of Alberta]]''
Alberta is well known for its warm and outgoing friendliness and [[frontier]] spirit.
[[Image:whyte4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Whyte Avenue, Edmonton]]
Summer brings many festivals to the province. Edmonton's Fringe Festival is the world's second largest after [[Edinburgh]]'s. Alberta also hosts some of Canada's largest folk festivals, multicultural festivals, and heritage days (to name a few). Calgary is also home to [[Carifest]], the second largest [[Caribbean]] festival in the nation (after [[Caribana]] in [[Toronto]]). These events highlight the province's cultural diversity and love of entertainment. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre]].
Alberta also has a large ethnic population. Both the Chinese and East Indian communities are significant. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Alberta is home to the second highest proportion (two percent) of Francophones in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province. As reported in the 2001 census, the [[China|Chinese]] represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population and [[India|East Indians]] represented better than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have [[Chinatown]]s and Calgary's is Canada's third largest. [[Aboriginal peoples in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population.
The major contributors to Alberta's ethnic diversity have been the European nations. Forty-four percent of Albertans are of [[Great Britain|British]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] descent, and there are also large numbers of [[Germany|Germans]], [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]], and [[Scandinavia]]ns.
Both cities heavily support first-class [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams. [[football (soccer)|Soccer]], [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta.
[[Tourism]] is also important to Albertans. A million visitors come to Alberta each year just for Calgary's world-famous [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] and for Edmonton's [[Klondike Days]]. Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[gold field]]s, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]].
[[Image:Stephen_Avenue.jpg |thumb|left|Stephen Avenue, Calgary]]
Visitors throng to Calgary for ten days every July for a taste of "Stampede Fever". As a celebration of Canada's own [[Wild West]] and the cattle ranching industry, the [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] welcomes around 1.2 million people each year. Only an hour's drive from the [[Rocky Mountains]], Calgary also makes a visit to tourist attractions like [[Banff National Park]] something which can easily be done in a day. Calgary and Banff each host nearly 5 million tourists yearly.
Alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to [[skiing|ski]] and [[hiking|hike]]; Alberta boasts several world-class [[ski resort]]s. Hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive [[trophy|trophies]] and [[tall tales]] from their experiences in Alberta's wilderness.
==Demographics==
Alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years, due in large part to its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province saw high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as [[British Columbia]]), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo33c.htm]. As of 2005, the population of the province was 3,212,813 (''Albertans''). 81% of this population lives in urban areas and 19% is rural. The [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history.
===Population of Alberta since 1901===
[[Image:Alberta_pop.JPG|thumb|500px|right|Alberta's population has grown steadily for over a century]]
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!Year
!Population
!Five Year <br /> % change
!Ten Year <br /> % change
!Percentage of <br /> Canadian Pop.
|-
|1901 ||73,022 ||n/a ||n/a ||1.4
|-
|1911 ||374,295 ||n/a ||412.6 ||5.2
|-
|1921 ||588,454 ||n/a ||57.2 ||6.7
|-
|1931 ||731,605 ||n/a ||24.3 ||7.0
|-
|1941 ||796,169 ||n/a ||8.8 ||6.9
|-
|1951 || 939,501 ||n/a ||18.0 ||6.7
|-
|1961 ||1,331,944 ||n/a ||41.8 ||7.3
|-
|1971 ||1,627,874 ||n/a ||22.2 ||7.5
|-
|1981 ||2,237,724 ||n/a ||37.5 ||9.2
|-
|1986 ||2,365,825 ||5.7 ||n/a ||9.3
|-
|1991 ||2,545,553 ||7.6 ||13.8 ||9.3
|-
|1996 ||2,696,826 ||5.9 ||14.0 ||9.3
|-
|2001 ||2,974,807 ||10.3 ||16.9 ||9.9
|}
Racially and ethnically, the province is predominantly [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]. 88.8% of the population is either white or [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginal]] (Aboriginals represent a fairly small proportion of this percentage, however). This number is significantly smaller in many of the cities, particularly [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] which are home to a much larger number of visible minorities.
'''Visible Minorities'''
*3.3% [[China|Chinese]]
*2.3% [[Asian]]
*1.1% [[Black]]
*1.1% [[Filipino people|Filipino]]
Most Albertans identify as [[Christian]]s. Nevertheless, many people in the province observe other faiths or do not profess to a religion at all. Alberta has a somewhat higher percentage of [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] Christians than do other provinces. Conversely, Alberta also has the s
|
ean Grenet]]|
mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]|
intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz|Communauté<br>d'agglomération de<br>Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]|
longitude=1° 28' 30<nowiki>''</nowiki> W|latitude=43° 29' 37<nowiki>''</nowiki> N|
alt moy=4 m|alt mini=0 m|alt maxi=85 m|
hectares=2,168|km²=21.68|sans=<br>44,300<br>40,078|date-sans=July 1, 2004 estimate)<br>(March 8, 1999 census|dens=2,043|date-dens=2004}}
[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]
'''Bayonne''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bayonne'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/bajɔn/}}; [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Basque language|Basque]]: ''Baiona'') is a city and [[commune in France|commune]] of southwest [[France]] at the confluence of the [[Nive]] and [[Adour]] rivers, in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]''.
Together with nearby [[Anglet]], [[Biarritz]], [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]], and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an [[urban area]] with 178,965 inhabitants at the 1999 census, 40,078 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper (44,300 as of 2004 estimates).
The communes of Bayonne, Biarritz, and Anglet have joined into an [[Commune in France#Intercommunality|intercommunal]] entity called the ''[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]''.
Bayonne is the main town of [[Labourd]] in the French [[Basque Country]].
==History==
In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''. It was a military place, but not a port.
In 840, the Vikings appeared in front of Lapurdum. In 842, they launched a huge offensive very deeply inland and settled outside the city on the river bank. Lapurdum is an oppidum and they needed a port. Their leader Björn gave his name to this port. Björhamn became "Baionam" and finally "Baiona". Björnhamn is a key place on the route between river Adour et river Ebro, between, Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean sea. This commercial route was the main goal of danish invaders in France. They could esasily reach Tortosa in Spain which was the main market place in Europe dealing with slaves.
By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
Its importance waned somewhat when the French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]], took the city at the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the Adour changed course shortly afterwards, leaving Bayonne without its access to the sea. The French, however, realised Bayonne's strategic site near the [[Spain|Spanish]] border and in [[1578]] dug a canal to redirect the river through the city once again.
Bayonne endured numerous [[siege]]s from [[Plantagenet]] times until the end of the [[First French Empire]] in [[1814]]. In the [[17th century]], [[Vauban]] built large fortifications and the [[Citadel]]le in and around the city. These proved crucial in [[1813]] and [[1814]], when [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]]'s army besieged the city in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], only taking it when they used a bridge of ships across the Adour to position artillery around the city.
Bayonne's location close to the border, but also within the Basque Country straddling both France and Spain, gave it an often privileged position in commerce. Basque sailors travelled the world, bringing back products such as [[cinnamon]] and riches from piracy and the [[whaling]] and [[cod]] trades. An armaments industry developed, giving the world the "[[bayonet]]". [[Jew]]ish refugees from the [[Spanish Inquisition]] from [[1560]] brought new trades, most notably chocolate-making, which is still important in Bayonne. Spanish Basques also sought refuge in Bayonne in the [[20th century]] during [[Francisco Franco]]'s repression, with Petit Bayonne still a centre of [[Basque nationalism]].
By the mid-[[19th century]], Bayonne had declined somewhat with the centralisation of power to [[Paris]] and to the new ''[[département in France|département]]'' capital, non-Basque [[Pau]], after the [[1789]] [[French Revolution]], and with Wellington's bombardment. However, rail links with [[Paris]] from [[1854]] and the growing touristic importance of nearby Biarritz brought industrialisation and development. Bayonne is now part of 'BAB' (Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz), a metropolitan area of almost 200,000 people.
==Description==
[[Image:BayonneCatedral.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Cathedral]]
The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne, with five bridges between the two, both quarters still backed by Vauban's walls. Indeed the Nive is more like a main street, with many restaurants, squares and the covered market on its quays. The houses lining the Nive are picturesque examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont St-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier St-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located.
Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the [[cathedral]] and [[Hôtel de Ville]].
The Cathédrale Ste-Marie is an imposing, elegant [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and [[13th century|13th centuries]]. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower.
The cathedral is noted for its charming [[cloister]]s. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.
Nearby is the Château-Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English [[Black Prince]].
Petit Bayonne is lively with Basque bars and restaurants more reminiscent of cities the other side of the Pyrenees. There are two important museums here.
The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in [[1922]] but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and ''[[pelota]]'', handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.
The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter [[Léon Bonnat]]. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[El Greco]], [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]] and [[Francisco Goya|Goya]] among others.
At the back of Petit-Bayonne is the Château-Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly-arrived French in [[1460]] to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plantlife now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.
The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The St-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]] to care for [[Way of St James|pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela]]. It has an attractive wooden ''Flight into Egypt'' sculpture.
Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's [[1680]] Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and other British dignataries when staying in Biarritz.
The distillary of the famous local liqueur, ''[[Izarra]]'', is on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.
==Culture and sport==
Bayonne has the longest tradition of [[bull-fighting]] in France and there is a ring beyond the walls of Grand Bayonne. The season runs between July and September.
Bull-fighting is a major part of the five-day Fêtes de Bayonne which starts on the first Wednesday of August and attracts people from across the Basque Country and beyond. Parades, music, dance, fireworks, food and drink all feature in the celebrations. Soon after the [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] festival of [[15 August]] heralds a few more days of bull-fights.
There are also important festivals of Jazz (July), [[Bayonne ham]] ([[Holy Week]]), theatre and ''[[pelota]]'' (the Basque sport).
[[Aviron Bayonnais]] is the city's [[rugby union]] club, founded in [[1904]] and French champions three times, in [[1913]], [[1934]] and [[1943]]. The local [[football (soccer)|football]] team is [[Aviron Bayonnais FC]].
==Economy and products==
Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and [[Bayonne ham]], a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby [[Espelette]]. [[Izarra]], the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of [[mayonnaise]], supposedly a corruption of ''Bayonnaise'', the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.
Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of ''makilas'', traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outisde the city is known for its ''palas'', bats used in ''[[pelota]]'', the traditional Basque sport.
As of 1935, its chief industries were [[shipbuilding]], [[tanning]], and [[pottery]].
In the late 20th century, the processing of by-products from the Lacq [[natural gas]] field near Pau became important, al
|
ot;] from Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc
**[http://uberkuh.com/node/341 "Types of Atheistic Belief"]
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/faq/faq1111.htm#WHATISPOSATH "What Is Atheism?"] from Positive Atheism Magazine
* Defence
**[http://www.samharris.org The End of Faith] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]]
**[http://kenneth.moyle.com/aa/atheism1.htm Atheism defended]
**[http://atheisme.free.fr/Atheism.htm Atheism: The Capital Man]
**[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right] &mdash; the source of the famous "[religion is] the opiate of the masses", by [[Karl Marx]]
**[http://www.dlc.fi/~etkirja/LectureOnAtheism.htm Lecture on Atheism] by Erkki Hartikainen in The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, 2003
**[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/goldman/sp001502.html The Philosophy of Atheism] by Emma Goldman (''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]'', 1916)
**[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/WhyAtheism.htm Why Atheism?]
**[http://www.truthdig.com/dig/item/200512_an_atheist_manifesto/ An Atheist Manifesto] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]]
* Criticism
**[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02040a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: "atheism"]
**[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/003/21.36.html The Twilight of Atheism] by [[Alister McGrath]], Christianity Today, March 2005.
**[http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth02.html Theism, Atheism, and Rationality] by [[Alvin Plantinga]]
**[http://www.origins.org/articles/plantinga_intellectualsophistication.html Intellectual Sophistication and Basic Belief in God] by Alvin Plantinga
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**[http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/atheism.html Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns] atheism worldwide, by Phil Zuckerman
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*Mackie, J. L. (1982). ''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the existence of God.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019824682X.
*Maritain, Jacques (1953). ''The Range of Reason.'' London: Geoffrey Bles. [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range.htm Electronic Text]
**Note: Chapter 8, ''The Meaning of Contemporary Atheism'' (p.103-117, [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range08.htm Electronic Text]) is reprinted from ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 11 (3) July 1949, p. 267-280 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm Electronic Text]. A version also appears ''The Listener'', Vol. 43 No.1102, [[9 March]] [[1950]]. pp.427-429,432.
*Martin, Michael (1990). ''Atheism: A philosophical justification.'' Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. ISBN 0877229430.
*Martin, Michael, & Monnier, R. (Eds.) (2003). ''The impossibility of God.'' New York: Prometheus.
*McGrath, A. (2005). ''The Twilight of Atheism : The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World''. ISBN 0385500629
*McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1927). ''The Nature of Existence.'' Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1930). ''Some Dogmas of Religion.'' London: Edward Arnold & Co., new edition. [First published 1906]
*Mills, D. (2004). ''Atheist Universe'', Xlibris, ISBN 1413434819.
*Müller, F. Max (1889). ''Natural Religion: The Gifford Lectures, 1888.'' London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*Nagel, Ernest (1965). ''A Defence of Atheism.'' '''in''' Edwards, Paul and Pap, Arthur (eds), ''A Modern Introduction to Philosophy: readings from classical and contemporary sources.'' New York: Free Press. Rev ed. pp.460-472.
*Nielsen, Kai (1985). ''Philosophy and Atheism.'' New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879752890.
*Nielsen, Kai (2001). ''Naturalism and religion.'' New York: Prometheus.
*Reid, J.P. (1967). ''Atheism.'' '''in''' ''New Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: McGraw-Hill. p.1000-1003.
*Rizzuto, Ana-Maria (1998). ''Why did Freud reject God?: A psychoanalytic interpretation.'' Yale University Press. ISBN 0300075251.
*Robinson, Richard (1964). ''An Atheist's Values.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*Sharpe, R.A. (1997). ''The Moral Case Against Religious Belief.'' London: SCM Press. ISBN 0334026806.
*Smith, George H. (1990). ''Atheism, Ayn Rand, and Other Heresies''. New York: Prometheus.
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm Excerpt: ''Defining atheism'' (html)]
*Smith, George H. (1979). ''Atheism: The Case Against God''. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus. ISBN 087975124X.
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm Excerpt: ''The Scope of Atheism'' (html)]
*Sobel, Jordan H. (2004). ''Logic and theism: Arguments for and against beliefs in God.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Stenger, Victor J. (2003). ''Has science found God?.'' New York: Prometheus.
*Stein, G. (Ed.) (1984). ''The Encyclopaedia of Unbelief'' (Vols. 1-2). New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879753072.
*Thrower, James (1971). ''A Short History of Western Atheism.'' London: Pemberton. ISBN 0301711011.
*Vitz, Paul (1999). ''Faith of the fatherless: the psychology of atheism.'' Dallas, Texas: Spence. ISBN 1890626120.
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y of instruments, a family which originated in Europe in the [[15th century]], and is more properly described as a "bass viol."
The double bass is closest in construction to the [[violone]] (literally "large viol"), the largest and lowest member of the viola da gamba family. Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of the double bass is [[fret|unfretted]], and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or four). Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the viola da gamba family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family.
The double bass' proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin; for example, it is deeper (the distance from top to back is proportionally much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viola da gamba family. Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques; before these modifications the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.
The double bass is also the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like viola da gambas), rather than fifths (see [[#Tuning|Tuning]], below).
The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viola da gamba family is an issue that has not been entirely resolved.
In his ''A New History of the Double Bass'', Paul Brun asserts, with many references, that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to that of other instruments in the violin family, and is very different from the internal structure of viols.
== Naming ==
The instrument's standard English name, "double bass," comes from the instrument's Italian name ''contrabbasso'' (contrabass). Because it is approximately twice as large as the [[cello]] (the bass member of the violin family), and because the double bass was originally used to double the 'cello part an octave lower, it is properly called "double bass."
The instrument is known by several other names (especially when used in [[folk music|folk]], [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], and [[jazz]] music), including ''string bass'', ''upright bass'', ''standup bass'', ''acoustic bass'', ''bass viol'', ''contrabass viol'', ''bass violin'', ''doghouse bass'', ''dog-house'', ''bull fiddle'', ''hoss bass'', and ''bunkhouse bass''.
A person who plays this instrument is called a bassist, double bassist, double bass player, contrabassist, contrabass player, or simply "bass player."
== Design ==
The design of the double bass, in contrast to the instruments in the violin family, has never been fully standardized.
In general there are three major approaches to the design outline shape of the double bass, these being violin, viol, and less common the busetto shape (and very rarely the guitar or pear shape). The back of the instrument can vary from being a round, carved back similar to that of the violin, or a flat and angled back similar to the viol family (with variations in between).
[[Image:busettosolano.jpg|thumb|Example of a Busetto-shaped bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz (1700) by Rumano Solano]]
The double bass, unlike the rest of the violin family, still reflects influence and can be considered partly derived from the [[viol]] family of instruments, in particular the [[violone]], the contrabass member of the viol family.
The violin, viola and cello are tuned in fifths but the double bass is tuned in fourths to avoid too long a finger stretch (known as an "extension"). Other differences with the violin, viola and 'cello are the (sometimes) sloped shoulders of the instrument, the often angled back (both to allow easier access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range) and the near-universal use of [[machine heads]] for tuning.
Lack of standardisation in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different from another. To see some of the variations and construction approaches discussed above see the following web sites:
*[http://www.contrabass.co.uk The Contrabass Shoppe]
*[http://www.worldofbasses.de World of basses]
*[http://www.krattenmacher.com Stefan Johann krattenmacher Instrument builder]
== Practical problems of double bass playing ==
The principal [[logistical]] difficulty facing a double bass player is the sheer weight and bulk of the instrument itself. These issues, combined with the sensitivity of the instrument to changes in the environment (common in all wooden instruments) and the relative fragility of the wooden body make the instrument more difficult to transport safely in typical motor vehicles. Airlines are usually not prepared to handle such an item properly, but it is possible to purchase a fiberglass trunk to transport the bass on an airplane. However, professional orchestral double bass players often get extra pay to assist them to transport their instrument; this is called "carting" or "cartage fees."
Recently, violin/viol family instruments (including double basses) made of [[carbon fiber|carbon-fiber]] laminates have become available. These instruments are supposedly nearly impervious to changes in heat and humidity and extremely resilient to the knocking about that occurs during transport. Unfortunately, the sound quality of a carbon-fiber bass is generally thought to be far inferior to that of a wooden instument.
The youngest suitable age for starting to play double bass is when the child has grown enough to hold a 1/4 or 1/2 sized instrument, although some students are able to start at an earlier age playing cellos strung with bass guitar strings. Children between the ages of 8 and 10 are usually able to begin playing on such instruments. This contrasts with smaller instruments like [[violin]], which can be started by children aged 5 or even younger.
== Construction of the double bass ==
The double bass consists of the following parts:
* Scroll
* Pegbox
* Tuning machines
* C-extension (on some models)
* Nut
* Neck
* Fingerboard
* [[strings (music)|Strings]]
* Bridge
* F-holes
* Top or belly (upper bout and lower bout)
* Waist
* Back
* Ribs
* Tailpiece
* Saddle
* Endpin
The soundpost and bass bar are inside the bass. The materials most often used are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top) and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The exception is basses sometimes used by blues, rockabilly, or bluegrass bassists that have plywood-laminate tops and backs. All parts are glued together except the soundpost, bridge, nut and saddle, which are kept in place by string tension. The tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with wood screws. (The key on the tuning machine turns a worm, driving a [[worm gear]] that winds the string.)
The [[viol]] family of instuments has [[Fret|frets]], but the double bass does not use frets.
A wooden, metallic, or rubber [[Mute (music)|mute]] can be attached to the bridge, to make the sound softer and change the tone to a more nasal, muted sound.
==Bows==
The double bass bow consists of the following parts:
*Stick
*Bow screw
*Tip or head
*Head plate
*Frog
*Eye
*Wire winding
*Hair
Both [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] bows have the same parts but differently-shaped sticks and frogs. (These two types of bows also employ different methods of gripping the frog.) The best stick material is [[Brazilwood|pernambuco]], but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are used in most bows nowadays. [[Snakewood]], [[fiberglass]] and [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] are common. The frog is usually made out of [[ebony]]. The wire winding is [[gold]] or [[silver]] in quality bows, and the hair is usually [[horsehair]]. Bass players apply rosin to the bow hair, so that the hair will have enough "grip" to make the strings vibrate.
== Tuning ==
Modern instruments are usually tuned (low to high) E-A-D-G. The lowest string is tuned to E (the same pitch as the lowest E on a modern [[piano]], approx 41[[Hertz|Hz]]), nearly 3 octaves below middle C ); and the highest string is tuned to G, an octave and a fourth below [[middle C]] (approx 98[[Hertz|Hz]]).
A variety of tunings and numbers of strings were used on a variety of confusingly-named instruments through the sixteenth to the early twentieth centuries, by which time the four-stringed tuning mentioned above became almost universal. A very small number of concert bassists use a fifth string tuned to B three octaves below [[middle C]]. Since the range of the double bass lies largely below the standard [[bass clef]], it is notated an octave higher (hence sounding an octave lower than written). This transposition applies even when reading the [[tenor clef]] and [[treble clef]], which are used for the instrument's extreme upper range.
In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F#-B-E-A). This higher tuning is called "solo tuning," whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning." String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is required. Therefore the strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral. Sometimes published solo music is also arranged especially for either solo or orchestral tuning.
A small number of bass players choose to tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C-G-D-A low to high). This tuning is mostly used by jazz players, as the major tenth can be pl
|
|Indians award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Team records|Indians statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Players of note|Indians players of note]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Broadcasters|Indians broadcasters and media]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Managers and ownership|Indians managers and ownership]]
*[[List of sports team names derived from Indigenous peoples]]
==External links==
*[http://cleveland.indians.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cle/homepage/cle_homepage.jsp Cleveland Indians official web site]
*[http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/features/topteams/1954indians.stm 1954 Cleveland Indians]
*[http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1059019/0000950152-99-002807.txt Cleveland Indians 1998 Annual Report], the last filed with the SEC
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/clevind/indians.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]
== References ==
* Pluto, Terry (1999). ''Our Tribe: A Baseball Memoir''. New York: Simon & Schuster. [[Special:Booksources|ISBN 0-684-84505-9]]
* Cleveland Indians. ''Indians History Overview: The early years''. http://cleveland.indians.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cle/history/cle_history_overview.jsp. Retrieved Sep 2, 2004.
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<page>
<title>Cape Town</title>
<id>6653</id>
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<id>42076602</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:40:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Treeboy2001</username>
<id>907401</id>
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<comment>/* Highlights nearby */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cape Town infobox}}
'''Cape Town''' ([[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]: ''Kaapstad'' /{{IPA|ˈkɑːpstɑt}}/; [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]: ''iKapa'') is the third most populous [[city]] in [[South Africa]]. Cape Town is widely regarded as one of the world's most beautiful cities. It is built on a portion of the Cape Peninsula, on the Atlantic Ocean, and has dozens of peaks rising thousands of feet in height both in and around its various suburbs.
As the oldest city in South Africa, Cape Town is known affectionately as the Mother City. It is the [[Legislature|legislative]] capital of South Africa, as well as capital of the [[Western Cape|Western Cape province]]. Cape Town is famous for its harbour which was constructed by a process of land reclamation, as well as its location at the northern end of the [[Cape Peninsula]] and generally known as the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Its central area is dominated by [[Table Mountain (South Africa)|Table Mountain]], so named after its flat top. The [[Castle of Good Hope]], the historical centre of the city which was built on the original shoreline, is located at {{coor dms|33|55|33|S|18|25|37|E|type:city}}.
Cape Town is a major trade centre for South Africa. Situated on the South-western corner of the African continent, it is an important base for trade with other countries in Africa and on other continents.
Cape Town is the [[tourism]] capital of South Africa, receiving the largest number of tourists of any South African city.
The area is famous for its unique plant life: [[fynbos]] (an [[Afrikaans]] word meaning "fine bush"), a shrubby, evergreen vegetation type similar to other winter rainfall shrublands, in which [[protea]]s are prominent and characteristic and which occurs nowhere else but the Cape coastal belt, the adjacent mountains and some isolated inland mountain tops. Fire is a necessary stage in the lives of almost all fynbos plants.
It is also famous for the fine wines produced locally.
When leaving Cape Town, one first passes the suburbs, townships, and [[Cape Town International Airport]]. Further out one passes through the winelands of the Boland and the Cape Fold mountain ranges. After getting over the mountains one enters the [[Karoo]] in the north-east or the coast regions in the north and east.
==History==
The area today known as Cape Town was settled by the [[San people|San]] and [[Khoikhoi]], collectively known as the [[Khoisan]], long before the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie''; VOC) established a supply [[depot]] in Cape Town in 1652. By and large the indigenous people refused to deal with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], so the VOC imported [[slavery|slaves]] from [[Madagascar]], [[India]], [[Ceylon]], [[Malaya]], and [[Indonesia]] to deal with the [[colony]]'s chronic [[labour (economics)|labour]] shortage. Over time, with the shortage of women among the colony's settlers, settlers, slaves and the Khoisan intermarried. The offspring of these unions formed the basis of sections of today's [[Cape Coloured]] population and also helps explain the unique character of the city's [[Cape Malay]] population.
During 150 years of Dutch rule, ''Kaapstad'', as the Cape settlement became known, thrived and gained a wider reputation as the "Tavern of the Seas", a riotous [[port]] used by every [[sailor]] travelling between Europe and the [[Orient]]. By the end of the 18th century, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was nearly [[bankrupt]], making Cape Town an easy target for [[United Kingdom|British]] [[imperialism|imperialist]] interests in the region. Following the British defeat of the Dutch in 1806 at [[Bloubergstrand, Cape Town|Bloubergstrand]], 25 [[kilometre]]s north of Cape Town, the colony was ceded to the [[British monarchy]] on [[13 August]] [[1814]]. The slave trade was abolished in 1808, and all slaves were [[emancipation|emancipated]] in 1833. In [[1867]] [[District Six]] was developed and became a thriving community.
The discovery and exploitation of [[diamond]]s and [[gold]] in the [[Transvaal]] region of South Africa in the 1870s and 1880s led to rapid change. Cape Town was soon no longer the single dominant [[Metropolitan area|metropolis]] in the country, but as a major port it too was a beneficiary of the mineral wealth that laid the foundation for an [[industry|industrial]] [[society]]. The same wealth led to imperialist dreams of grandeur on the part of [[Cecil John Rhodes]], the premier of the [[Cape Colony]] in 1890, who had made his millions at the head of [[De Beers|De Beers Consolidated Mines]].
Following a plague, Africans were moved to two locations, one near the [[Dock (maritime)|dock]]s and the other at [[Ndabeni]] about 6 kilometres east of the city, an early introduction of racial segregation. This was the start of what would later develop into the townships of the [[Cape Flats]]. In 1948, the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] stood for election on its policy of [[apartheid]] and won. In a series of bitter [[court]] and [[constitution]]al battles, the limited rights of [[coloured]]s to vote in the Cape were removed, and the apparatus of apartheid was erected. In 1966, the [[District Six]] area close to the city centre was declared a Whites-only area. This and many similar declarations under the [[Group Areas Act]] resulted in whole communities being uprooted and cast out to the Cape Flats.
Under Apartheid, the Cape was considered a "Coloured labour preference area" by the government, to the exclusion of Africans. The government tried for decades to eradicate largely Xhosa [[squatter camp]]s, such as [[Crossroads, South Africa|Crossroads]], which were the focal point for black resistance to the apartheid regime. In the last attempt between May and June 1986, an estimated 70,000 people were driven from their homes, and many killed. Even this brutal attack was unsuccessful in eradicating the townships, and the government accepted the inevitable and began to upgrade conditions.
Hours after being released from prison on [[11 February]] [[1990]], [[Nelson Mandela]] made his first public speech in decades from the balcony of [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]], heralding the beginning of a new era for South Africa. Much has improved in Cape Town since; property prices are increasing greatly and the city centre is becoming safer, with the development of [[loft apartment|loft-style apartment]]s in grand old structures such as the [[Old Mutual Building]] and the Board of Executors building. Full integration of Cape Town's mixed population, however, remains a long way off, if it is achievable at all. Meanwhile the vast majority of Capetonians who live in the Cape Flats are still split along race lines and suffer horrendous economic, social, and health problems. Cape Town is dealing with the major problems like [[AIDS]], [[Tuberculosis]] and violent [[hard drug|drug]]-related [[crime]] in these areas, including one of the highest homicide rates in the world.
==Government==
{{main|City of Cape Town}}
Cape Town's local government is the [[City of Cape Town]], a [[metropolitan municipality (South Africa)|metropolitan municipality]]. Cape Town has a 200-member city council, who answer to a 28-member executive council. This in turn is presided over by a city manager and an executive mayor. The current [[Cape Town Mayor|mayor]] is [[Nomaindia Mfeketo]] of the [[African National Congress|ANC]], the city's first black female mayor, and the current city manager is [[Wallace Mgoqi]]. An election is scheduled for [[1 March]] [[2006]].
==Demographics==
[[Image:ZA Cape Town language.gif|thumb|right|300px|Geographical distribution of home languages in Cape Town.]]
:''See also'' [[List of Cape Town suburbs]]
As of the [[census]] of 2001, there are 2,893,251 people and 759,767 households residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,158/km². The household density is 304/km². The racial makeup of the city is 31.68% [[Blacks|Black African]], 48.13% [[Coloured]], 1.43% [[India|Indian]]/[[Asia|Asian]], and 18.75% [[Whites|White]].
16.1% of all households are made up of individuals. The average househol
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], and [[ceruloplasmin]], a [[protein]] that carries [[copper]] [[ion]]s in [[chelation]].
*Traditionally, someone who works well with plants is said to have a ''green thumb'', or green fingers.
*An inexperienced person is sometimes known as ''green'', probably by analogy to unripe (i.e. unready, immature) fruit. The word ''greenhorn'' also refers to an inexperienced person.
*[[Extraterrestrial life|Aliens]] (of the extraterrestrial variety) are sometimes referred to as "[[little green men]]".
*People who are feeling ill are sometimes referred to as "green around the gills".
*"Green" is a slang term for marijuana, due to the color of the plant material.
===Web color ===
{{swatch|green}}
The color ''green'' used in [[HTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] is actually a dark green, as seen in the sample to the right: the pure green color is called ''[[lime (color)#Web color|lime]]''.
{{-}}
=="Green" as a political ideology ==
The [[ecology movement]] uses green because of its common occurrence in nature. [[Greenpeace]], an [[ecology|ecological]] group, uses green because of its association with life and verdancy. Those who carry this into the political realm are called "[[Greens]]":
There are [[political party|political parties]] known as "[[Green Parties]]" in over one hundred countries throughout the world (beginning primarily in [[Europe]], though similar parties have taken root around the world). The more generic term "[[green party]]" is used for parties that emphasize [[environmentalism]], but it is increasingly out of favour as the [[Global Greens]] have succeeded in uniting almost all such parties under a [[Global Green Charter]].
A "Green Party" (or Faction) also existed in the [[Byzantine Empire]] for a while, but of course it had nothing to do with modern Greens. Rather, it developed out of a kind of [[chariot racing]] [[fanclub]] whose drivers used the color green to distinguish themselves from the opposing "Blue Party".
The [[flag of Libya]] is plain green (the traditional color of [[Islam]]), the only current national flag of a single color.
Green is also the color of supporters of [[Taiwan independence]] in opposition to the unification-leaning pan-[[blue]] coalition. This symbolism comes from [[Taiwan]]'s tropics and is unrelated to [[environmentalism]] or the [[Green Party]].
==Green as a symbol==
Green is the color of the back of [[U.S. currency]], and thus carries a strong connotation of money, wealth, and capitalism. This is especially true in the U.S., but the symbol of the dollar worldwide makes it a wider symbol. This is illustrated by a joke told in the days of the [[Soviet Union]]: "Name something green, other than money", with the correct answer being "A [[ruble]]". US banknotes are often called by the slang term "greenbacks".
In North American [[stock markets]], green is used to denote a rise in stock prices. In East Asian [[stock markets]], however, green is used to denote a drop in stock prices.
==Green pigments==
* Cobalt green
* Emerald green
* [[Malachite]]
* [[Sap green]]
* Terre verte
* [[Verdigris]]
* [[Viridian]]
== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar|green}}
*[[Distinguishing "blue" from "green" in language]]
*[[List of colors]]
{{EMSpectrum}}
{{web colors}}
[[Category:Shades of green|*]]
[[Category:Optical spectrum]]
[[af:Groen (kleur)]]
[[ca:Verd]]
[[cs:Zelená]]
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[[de:Grün]]
[[es:Verde]]
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[[id:Hijau]]
[[it:Verde]]
[[he:ירוק]]
[[lt:Žalia]]
[[hu:Zöld]]
[[mi:Kakariki]]
[[nl:Groen]]
[[nds:Gröön]]
[[ja:緑]]
[[no:Grønn]]
[[nn:Grøn]]
[[pl:Barwa zielona]]
[[pt:Verde]]
[[ru:Зелёный цвет]]
[[scn:Virdi]]
[[simple:Green]]
[[sk:Zelená]]
[[sl:Zelena (barva)]]
[[sr:Зелена боја]]
[[su:Héjo]]
[[fi:Vihreä]]
[[sv:Grön]]
[[vi:Xanh lá cây]]
[[tr:Yeşil]]
[[zh:綠色]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gradient</title>
<id>12461</id>
<revision>
<id>41748237</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:31:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Newbi</username>
<id>931114</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:grad1.jpg|frame|In the above two images, the scalar field is in black and white, black representing higher values, and its corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.]]
'''Gradient''' is commonly used to describe the measure of the '''[[slope]]''' (also called ''steepness'', or ''incline'') of a [[line (mathematics)|straight line]]. It is also sometimes used synonymously with ''[[grade (geography)|grade]]'', meaning the ''inclination'' of a [[surface]] along a given direction.
A generalization of these concepts is the '''gradient''' in [[vector calculus]]; and this article will be mostly about this vector gradient. The ''gradient'' of a [[scalar field]] is a [[vector field]] which points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] is the greatest rate of change. More rigorously, the gradient of a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from the [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> to '''R''' is the best [[linear approximation]] to that function at any particular point in '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>. To that extent, the gradient is a particular case of the [[Jacobian]].
Given a surface, the grade (inclination) of the surface in a particular direction given a unit vector is the [[dot product]] of the vector gradient with that vector.
==Interpretations of the gradient==
Consider a room in which the temperature is given by a scalar field <math>\phi</math>, so at each point <math>(x,y,z)</math> the temperature is <math>\phi(x,y,z)</math>. We will assume that the temperature does not change in time. Then, at each point in the room, the gradient at that point will show the direction in which it gets hot most quickly. The magnitude of the gradient will tell how fast it gets hot in that direction.
Consider a hill whose height at a point <math>(x, y)</math> is <math>H(x, y)</math>. The gradient of <math>H</math> at a point is in the direction of the steepest [[slope]]/[[grade (geography)|grade]] at that point. The magnitude of the gradient tells how steep the slope actually is.
The gradient can also be used to tell how things change in other directions rather than the direction of largest change. Consider again the example with the hill. One can have a road which goes right uphill where the slope is largest and then its slope is the magnitude of the gradient. Or one can have a road which goes under an angle with the uphill direction, say for example an angle of 60° when projected onto the horizontal plane. Then, if the steepest slope on the hill is 40%, the road will make a shallower slope of 20% which is 40% times the cosine of 60°.
This observation can be mathematically stated as follows. The gradient of the hill height function <math>H</math> [[dot product|dotted]] with a unit [[vector (spatial)|vector]] gives the slope of the surface in the direction of the vector. This is called the [[directional derivative|directional derivative]].
== Formal definition ==
The gradient of a scalar function <i>{{phisymbol}}</i> is denoted by:
: <math>\nabla \phi</math>
where <math>\nabla</math> ([[nabla symbol|nabla]]) denotes the vector [[differential operator]] [[del]]. The gradient of <i>{{phisymbol}}</i> is sometimes also written as grad(<i>{{phisymbol}}</i>).
<!--we should probably mention 2D too is it just a simple case of getting rid of the Z term in that expression?-->
In 3 [[dimension]]s, the expression expands to
:<math>\nabla \phi = \begin{pmatrix}
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}},
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y}},
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial z}}
\end{pmatrix}</math>
in [[Cartesian coordinates]]. (''See [[partial derivative]] and [[vector (spatial)|vector]].'')
Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under [[Orthogonal matrix|orthogonal transformation]]s, as it should, in view of the geometric definition.
===Example===
The gradient of the function <i>{{phisymbol}}</i><math>=2x+3y^2-\sin(z)</math> is:
:<math>\nabla \phi = \begin{pmatrix}
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}},
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y}},
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial z}}
\end{pmatrix} =
\begin{pmatrix}
{2},
{6y},
{-\cos(z)}
\end{pmatrix}.</math>
==The gradient on manifolds==
For any differentiable function f on a [[Riemannian manifold]] ''M'', the gradient of ''f'' is the [[vector field]] such that for any vector <math>\xi</math>,
:<math>\langle \nabla f(x), \xi \rangle := \xi f</math>
where <math>\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle</math> denotes the [[inner product]] on ''M'' (the metric) and
<math>\xi f</math> is the function that takes any point ''p'' to the [[directional derivative]] of <math>f</math> in the direction <math>\xi</math> evaluated at ''p''. In other words, under some [[coordinate chart]]<math>\varphi</math>, <math>\xi f (p)</math> will be:
:<math>\sum \xi_{x_{j}} (\partial_{j}f \mid_{p}) := \sum \xi_{x_{j}} (\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j} }(f \circ \varphi^{-1}) \mid_{\varphi(p)}).</math>
The gradient of a function is related to the [[exterior derivative]], since <math>\xi f (p) = df(\xi)</math>. Indeed, the metric allows one to associate canonically the 1-form ''df'' to the vector field <math>\nabla f</math>. In '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> the flat metric is implicit and the gradient can be identified
|
dy.gov ready.gov] recommends medical supplies for a family, as well as suggestions for storing food.
===Step 3: Neighborhood rescue===
After self-rescue, the neighborhood goes to their team's neighborhood "command post," established at earlier meetings. The object is to centralize and prioritize resources. This one step is the single most powerful act of a CERT. The CERT command post is always marked by a flag, sign or tabard to help people locate it.
The neighborhood is usually informed about the command post at a neighborhood block party or picnic.
If the teams lack trained staff (likely, as most people are likely to be unorganized volunteers), the leader rips out sections of the notebook acquired during his training, and the teams self-train on-the-spot. The notebooks include check-lists and procedures. Literacy is both assumed and essential.
The leader (selected at an earlier meeting) assigns street teams to systematically assess every building in the neighborhood and report back. Meanwhile, the neighborhood leader assigns people to specialist teams. Generally, a trained and untrained person, or a fit and unfit person are paired.
When the leader takes charge and a communications person is present, the team reports that it started-up to the city's emergency operations center.
In a good team, various families have agreed to loan supplies, tools and equipment to the team in an emergency. They bring these to the logistic team, who issues them. Logistics people also canvass new people for needed tools, food, water, tents, paper, field commodes and other needs listed by the planners.
When the street and block assesments come back, the planners try to track current problems and anticipate future needs so the leader can assign teams well. Usually the critical planning aid is a couple of greaseboards (which work in rain).
The assessments include details like addresses of: destroyed buildings, unrescued persons, and hazards, as well as people who need immediate professional care or professional rescues.
===Step 4. Coordination with Regional Authorities===
The CERT team's communicators send a digested summary of damage and critical injuries to the city's (or regional) emergency operations center. The 5% of rescues that require professional training and equipment are also reported in the summary. The reports include exact addresses, and damage assesments.
Soon, the CERT begins light rescues, and brings injured people to the first-aid station. Planners track the injuries, especially [[triage]]d injuries requiring immediate professional care. The communicators inform the city when local rescues are complete, and give an updated summary of severe injuries and damaged buildings.
At some point, a fire or police team may appear at the command post. The planners and leader can brief them from the summaries. This saves professional responders huge amounts of time, and directs them to important problems.
Eventually, the city's emergency operations center tells the CERT where the injured people who need immediate care can be taken. Note that the regional center can coordinate to balance loading of local hospitals. The logistics people recruit vehicles, the leader assigns drivers and first-aid people, and the severe injuries are evacuated. Later, less immediate injuries will be evacuated.
===Step 5. Local sheltering===
Throughout, the CERT's shelter workers register people and children so family members can find them, and feed and house people and (if possible) pets (in tents, eventually). As time passes, the communicator passes lists of registrees as desgnated by the emergency operations center. In most situations, Red Cross or Red Crescent helps family members locate each other.
The CERT team should prepare the shelter area in advance, getting permission to locate an emergency tent city on a school grounds, park, parking lot or other open space. If most families have tents, a small managed tent community has better access to regional services and security than individual campers.
After some time, the regional EOC may choose to relocate people to a larger, more professionally-managed shelter. Even in this situation, local CERT shelters can still provide services to people with property, livestock or pets, because these are not usually permitted in large shelters.
The result is not professional, but it's much better than an unorganized mob.
==Training and Organization==
CERT training is easy for government. The training can be organized as mass-classes using pre-existing training facilities. Training usually combines expert lecturers, take-home emergency manuals and self-study materials with hands-on classes in small groups with previously-trained CERT volunteers. The result is a very good value for the cost.
Most effective programs run a program on a very predictable schedule so civilians can locate the training. For example, one effective format has a four-hour training program on the first Saturday morning of each month.
About 1% of adults will train simply because the training is available. More will train if the area is prone to periodic disasters, or the government effectively recruits public-service groups and schools. Civilians are recruited with advertising in schools, businesses, parks, recreation programs, libraries, and open-houses for fire and police departments.
CERT participation becomes much wider if the recruiting and training is made into a social occasion. One of the best social recruiting methods is to ask trainees to go door-to-door in their neighborhoods. This mobilizes CERT trainees to establish neighborhood teams. Typically, the volunteer distributes flyers that offer a "yard party" on a patriotic holiday, and then hosts it.
The classic way to recruit a neighborhood team is to offer food. Most people will come for the food. After that, the neighborhood at least knows where to go. The flyers or pamphlets usually also give the schedules of training sessions. The social occasion gives people a place to meet and lets interested persons find each other and organize.
The first step of each training meeting is always to register attendees. A notice and newsletter is mailed or e-mailed to previous attendees to arrive just before the next training session. The city also uses attendance to certify people, giving the city a database of trained volunteers.
As a last step, before graduating and certifying volunteers that complete the training, the city can run a criminal check on them. This means that even criminals can train (they need disaster preparation, too!), but the city can avoid depending on them.
During registration, the trainee gets a name tag, with a colored dot, or group number.
As part of registration, the trainee collates a self-training booklet for the class, and adds it to the notebook binder he was requested to bring to each session. This notebook forms an important resource to help remember procedures in a real disaster. It also assures that a trainee has an exact record of the areas in which he was trained - many trainees make up missed classes to fill their notebook.
The CERT organization may run a lottery to encourage attendance. The tickets are given at registration. The premiums are given after the training, and may include items purchased by the government (tools or supplies) as well as commercial promotional offerings from local businesses, such as free lunches or sample products.
After this, the group splits into parts (assigned by the colored dots on their badges) and trains. Having several groups permits smaller facilities to be used in rotation with lectures and demonstrations.
Topics for a week-end training session usually include: "need for disaster preparedness", "fire safety and [[fire extinguisher]] use", "[[first aid]] and [[triage]]", "[[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]", "logistics and communication", "sheltering", "search and rescue", and "team organization".
In some areas, auxiliary classes are offered to train communicators, radiological safety officers, shelter cooking and organization, staffing of the emergency operations center, and advanced CPR and first-aid.
After the training, the lots are drawn and the premiums are distributed.
After a trainee graduates and passes the background check, they may get a service uniform, possibly a protective helmet or emergency-colored windbreaker with organizational logos.
More information: [http://www.training.fema.gov/emiweb/CERT/new_CERT/index.htm Starting and Maintaining a CERT Organization: Resource Center.]
==CERT TEAMS==
*[http://www.cert-la.com/links/statelnk.htm Find a nearby CERT Team in the U.S.]
*Chautauqua County Kansas CERT,
*[http://www.hb-cert.org/ Huntington Beach CERT]
*[http://cert.ssar.us Kaufman County CERT, Inc.]
*[http://www.cert-la.com/ Los Angeles CERT]
*[http://www.sfgov.org/site/sfnert_index.asp San Francisco's NERT]
*[http://www.westchicago.org/about/CommunityEmergencyResponse.htm West Chicago]
List your unit here
See also: [[ZAKA]]
==CERT Equipment==
[http://www.armorcertkits.com Armor CERT Kits.]
==External links==
[[Image:EMANZ.gif]] [http://www.emanz.ac.nz Emergency Management Academy of New Zealand] provides training to NZ Community Emergency Response Teams
{{DHS.Gov|sourceURL=http://www.training.fema.gov/emiweb/CERT/}}
[[Category:Amateur radio organizations]]
[[Category:American disaster preparation]]
[[Category:Emergency services]]
[[Category:Voluntary organisations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catapult</title>
<id>7063</id>
<revision>
<id>42117762</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:04:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spawn Man</username>
<id>372996</id>
</contributor>
<comment>shuffle pics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[
|
a Scrolls]]".
King Herod built several palaces on the Western Bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was [[Masada]], where, in 66-70 AD, a small group of rebellious Jewish [[zealots]] held out against the might of the Roman Legion.
The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the [[Judean Desert]] are places of pilgrimage. Bedouin tribes have continuously lived in the area and more recently explorers and scientists arrived to analyze the minerals and conduct research into the unique climate. Since the 1960s, tourists from all the over world have also explored the Dead Sea region.
In the early part of the 20th century the Dead Sea began to attract interests from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of [[potash]] and [[bromine]]. The ''Palestine Potash Company'' was chartered in 1929 (after its founder, a Jewish engineer from [[Siberia]], worked for the charter for over ten years). The original Palestine Potash Company was located at the north end of the lake, in what is now the West Bank. Employing [[Arab]]s and [[Jew]]s, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East and later built a second plant on the southwest shore.
==Saving the Dead Sea==
[[Image:Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A common tourist practice when visiting the Sea is to read a newspaper to demonstrate the unusual buoyancy]]
As mentioned above, the Dead Sea is rapidly shrinking. Although the Dead Sea would never entirely disappear (because evaporation slows down as surface area decreases and saltiness increases), the Dead Sea as we know it could become a thing of the past.
Because it is not realistic to cease using the Jordan River for human needs, one idea to save the Dead Sea is to bring in water from the [[Mediterranean]] or [[Red Sea]], either through tunnels or canals. Although a Mediterranean structure would be shorter, Israel is now committed to building a Red Sea canal in deference to Jordan's needs. The plan is to pump water 400 ft (120 m) up the Arava/[[Arabah]] from [[Aqaba]] or [[Eilat]], tunnel under the highest point of the Arava/Arabah valley, and then canalize the river of seawater as it falls 1700 ft (520 m) to the Dead Sea. The desalination plant would be constructed in Jordan.
On [[May 9th]], [[2005]], Jordan, Israel, and the [[Palestinian Authority]] signed an agreement to begin feasibility studies on the project&mdash;to be officially known as the "[[Two Seas Canal]]". The scheme calls for the production of 870 million cubic meters of fresh water per year and 550 megawatts of electricity. The [[World Bank]] is supportive of the project.
See also [[Dead Sea canal]].
-------------
== Other extremely deep points on the earth's surface ==
The deepest point on the earth's crust is the [[Mariana Trench]], a submarine trench in the western Pacific Ocean. There are ice-covered depressions on the continent of [[Antarctica]] that are deeper than the Dead Sea (for example, the [[Bentley Subglacial Trench]]).
==External links==
{{Commons|Dead Sea}}
* [http://www.pa-chouvy.org/Photos/Jordanie/JordanieMerMorteDeadSea2005.htm Dead Sea photogeography and explication]
* [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/dead-sea-salts-cosmetics.htm Dead Sea] photos
* [http://www.learn-hebrew-bible.com/gallery_show.asp?id=2 Dead Sea pictures]
* [http://www.deadsea.co.il/ The offical Israeli] Dead Sea site.
[[Category:Endorheic lakes]]
[[Category:Geography of Jordan]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley lakes]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Lakes of Israel]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Palestinian history]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Shrunken lakes]]
[[ar:بحر ميت]]
[[bg:Мъртво море]]
[[ca:Mar Morta]]
[[cs:Mrtvé moře]]
[[da:Det Døde Hav]]
[[de:Totes Meer]]
[[et:Surnumeri]]
[[es:Mar Muerto]]
[[eo:Morta Maro]]
[[fr:Mer Morte]]
[[gl:Mar Morto]]
[[id:Laut Mati]]
[[is:Dauðahaf]]
[[it:Mar Morto]]
[[he:ים המלח]]
[[lb:Doudegt Mier]]
[[mk:Мртво Mоре]]
[[nl:Dode Zee]]
[[ja:死海]]
[[no:Dødehavet]]
[[pl:Morze Martwe]]
[[pt:Mar Morto]]
[[ru:Мёртвое море]]
[[simple:Dead Sea]]
[[sk:Mŕtve more]]
[[fi:Kuollutmeri]]
[[sv:Döda havet]]
[[th:ทะเลตาย]]
[[vi:Biển Chết]]
[[uk:Мертве море]]
[[zh:死海]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dragon</title>
<id>8531</id>
<revision>
<id>42156107</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lemuel Gulliver</username>
<id>253646</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview */ ([[genitive]]: ''draconis'')</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Dragon chinois.jpg|thumb|''Chinese dragon'', colour engraving on wood, Japanese Chinese school, 19th Century]]
A '''dragon''' is a [[legendary creature]], typically depicted as a large and powerful [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] or other [[reptile]], with [[magical]] or [[Spirituality|spiritual]] qualities.
==Overview==
The various figures now called dragons most likely have no single origin, but spontaneously came to be in several different [[culture]]s around the world, based loosely on the appearance of a [[snake]] and possibly [[fossil]]ized [[dinosaur]] and [[Tertiary]] mammal [[megafauna]] remains.
[[Chinese dragon]]s (龙 lóng) among others are generally seen as benevolent, whereas [[European dragon]]s are usually malevolent. However, malevolent dragons are not restricted to Europe and also occur in [[Persian mythology]] (see [[Azi Dahaka]]) and other cultures.
Malevolent dragons are prominent figures in Christian belief. In ''[[Book of Revelation|Revelation 12:3]]'', an enormous red dragon with seven heads is described, whose tail sweeps one third of the stars from heaven down to earth (held to be symbolic of the fall of the angels).
The Latin word for a dragon, ''draco'' ([[genitive]]: ''draconis''), actually means ''snake'' or ''serpent'' and is so connected to the Christian association of snakes and the Devil.
The biblical dragon carries over thirty possible references, with the fire-breathing [[Leviathan]] described in Job 41. Strong's Hebrew 03882: [http://www.studylight.org/lex/heb/view.cgi?number=03882], 08568, 08577, and Greek 1404.
In [[iconography]], some Christian Saints are depicted in the act of killing a dragon: for instance, [[Saint George]] in [[Egyptian]] [[Copt|Coptic]] iconography [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/stgeorge.htm], at the coat of arms of [[Moscow]], or, in Italy, [[Saint Mercurialis]], who was the first bishop of the city of [[Forlì]]. In the [[Book of Job]] Chapter 41, the sea monster [[Leviathan]], which has some dragonlike characteristics, is described as God talks about the "king of beasts" that lived upon the Earth at a former time. Leviathan was birthed from an enzyme from the [[Garden of Eden]]. God fed Leviathan to Israel while they wandered in the wilderness for forty years (Psalm 74:14). [[Image:Zmey.jpg|thumb|''[[Dobrynya Nikitich]] slaying [[Zmey Gorynych]]'', by [[Ivan Bilibin]].]]
In medieval symbolism, dragons were often symbolic of [[apostasy]] and treachery, but also of anger and envy, and eventfully symbolised great calamity. Several heads were symbolic of decadence and oppression, and also of [[heresy]]. They also served as symbols for independence, leadership and strength. Colours often determined the symbolism a dragon carried. In the hero's journey pattern, dragons represented fear.
Dragons are often held to have major spiritual significance in various religions and cultures around the world. In many [[oriental]] cultures dragons were, and in some cultures still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of [[nature]] and the [[universe]].
Some believe that the dragon may have had a real-life counterpart from which the legends around the world arose &mdash; typically [[dinosaurs]] are mentioned as a possibility &mdash; but there is no evidence to support this claim. Another less common claim is that they are based upon some sort of flying machines possessed by some ancient, unknown culture. Both of these hypotheses are [[pseudoscience]].
Dragons are very popular in [[video games]] today, especially [[role-playing games]]. They are typically used as very powerful bosses and villains. In many games, a powerful character must overcome a dragon as a final challenge.
The word "dragon" should not be confused with [[dragoon]] (infantry that moves around by horse, yet still fight as foot soldiers). However, numerous fantasy settings (such as the [[Final Fantasy]] games) make varying degrees of association between dragons and the dragoon [[character class]] (such as in the [[helmet]] of a dragoon-class character), and in the game [[Panzer Dragoon]] in which the player flies about on a dragon.
==Dragons of myth and folklore==
[[Image:Hopperstad dragon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Dragon carving on [[Hopperstad stave church]], [[Norway]] ]]
* [[Asian dragon]]
** [[Chinese dragon]]
** [[Indian dragon]]
** [[Japanese dragon]]
** [[Korean dragon]]
** [[Persian dragon]]
** [[Tibetan dragon]]
[[Image:stgeorge-dragon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Saint George]] versus the dragon'', [[Gustave Moreau]], ca [[1880]]. This small one has the look of a [[griffin]] or a [[wyvern]].]]
* [[European dragon]]
** [[Celtic dragon]]
** [[Egyptian dragon]]
** [[Finnish dragon]]
** [[French dragon]]
** [[Greek dragon]]
** [[Lindworm]] dragon
** [[Norse dragon]]
** [[Smok Wawelski|Polish dragon]]
** [[Schrick Dragon]]
** [[Serbian dragon]]
** [[Slavic dragon]]
** Romanian dragons ([[Romanian dragon|Zmeu]] and [[Balaur]])
** [[Zilant|Tatar dragon]]
** [[Y Ddraig Goch|Welsh dragon]]
* [[Quetzalcoatl|Meso-American Dragon]]
* [[South American dragon]]
* Dragon Relatives
** [[Basilisk]]
** [[Griffin]]
** [[Leviathan]]
|
| Explorer
! style="background:#efefef;" | Name
! style="background:#efefef;" | Launch Date
! style="background:#efefef;" | Mission
|-
|align=center| 1
|align=center| [[Explorer 1]]
|| [[January 31]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies, discovered the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
|-
|align=center| 2
|align=center| [[Explorer 2]]
|| [[March 5]] [[1958]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 3
|align=center| [[Explorer 3]]
|| [[March 26]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| 4
|align=center| [[Explorer 4]]
|| [[July 26]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| 5
|align=center| [[Explorer 5]]
|| [[August 24]] [[1958]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-1
|| [[July 16]] [[1959]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 6
|align=center| [[Explorer_6|S-2]]
|| [[August 7]] [[1959]]
|| Magnetosphere research
|-
|align=center| 7
|align=center| [[Explorer_7|S-1a]]
|| [[October 13]] [[1959]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-46
|| [[March 23]] [[1960]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 8
|align=center| S-56
|| [[November 3]] [[1960]]
|| Measured atmospheric composition of the ionosphere
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-56
|| [[December 4]] [[1960]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 9
|align=center| S-56a
|| [[February 16]] [[1961]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-45
|| [[February 24]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 10
|align=center| P-14
|| [[March 25]] [[1961]]
|| Investigated field magnetic field between the earth
|-
|align=center| 11
|align=center| S-15
|| [[April 27]] [[1961]]
|| Gamma ray astronomy
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-45a
|| [[May 25]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-55
|| [[June 30]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 12
|align=center| EPE A
|| [[August 16]] [[1961]]
|| Energetic particles research
|-
|align=center| 13
|align=center| S-55a
|| [[August 25]] [[1961]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 14
|align=center| EPE B
|| [[October 2]] [[1962]]
|| Energetic particles research
|-
|align=center| 15
|align=center| EPE C
|| [[October 27]] [[1962]]
|| Energetic particles research
|-
|align=center| 16
|align=center| S-55b
|| [[December 16]] [[1962]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 17
|align=center| AE A
|| [[April 3]] [[1963]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 18
|align=center| IMP A
|| [[November 27]] [[1963]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 19
|align=center| AD A
|| [[December 19]] [[1963]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 20
|align=center| IE A
|| [[August 25]] [[1964]]
|| Ionosphere research
|-
|align=center| 21
|align=center| IMP B
|| [[October 4]] [[1964]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 22
|align=center| BE B
|| [[October 10]] [[1964]]
|| Ionospheric and geodetic research
|-
|align=center| 23
|align=center| [[Explorer 23]]
|| [[November 6]] [[1964]]
|| Micrometeoric research
|-
|align=center| 24
|align=center| AD B
|| [[November 21]] [[1964]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 25
|align=center| Injun 4 (IE B)
|| [[November 21]] [[1964]]
|| Ionospheric research
|-
|align=center| 26
|align=center| EPE D
|| [[December 21]] [[1964]]
|| High energy particle observations
|-
|align=center| 27
|align=center| IMP C
|| [[April 29]] [[1965]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 28
|align=center| IMP C
|| [[May 29]] [[1965]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 29
|align=center| [[Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite|GEOS A]]
|| [[November 6]] [[1965]]
|| Geodetic earth monitoring
|-
|align=center| 30
|align=center| Solrad 8 (SE A)
|| [[November 19]] [[1965]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 31
|align=center| DME A
|| [[November 29]] [[1965]]
|| Ionospheric research
|-
|align=center| 32
|align=center| AE B
|| [[May 25]] [[1966]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 33
|align=center| [[Explorer_32|IMP D]]
|| [[July 1]] [[1966]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 34
|align=center| IMP F
|| [[May 24]] [[1967]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 35
|align=center| [[Explorer_35|IMP E]]
|| [[July 19]] [[1967]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 36
|align=center| [[Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite|GEOS B]]
|| [[January 11]] [[1968]]
|| Geodetic earth monitoring
|-
|align=center| 37
|align=center| Solrad 9 (SE B)
|| [[March 5]] [[1968]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 38
|align=center| RAE A
|| [[July 4]] [[1968]]
|| Radio astronomy
|-
|align=center| 39
|align=center| AD C
|| [[August 8]] [[1968]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 40
|align=center| Injun 5 (IE C)
|| [[August 8]] [[1968]]
|| Magnetospheric Research
|-
|align=center| 41
|align=center| IMP G
|| [[June 21]] [[1969]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 42
|align=center| SAS A
|| [[December 12]] [[1970]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy
|-
|align=center| 43
|align=center| IMP H
|| [[March 13]] [[1971]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 44
|align=center| Solrad 10 (SE C)
|| [[July 8]] [[1971]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 45
|align=center| SSS A
|| [[November 15]] [[1971]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 46
|align=center| MTS A
|| [[August 13]] [[1972]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 47
|align=center| IMP I
|| [[September 23]] [[1972]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 48
|align=center| SAS B
|| [[November 15]] [[1972]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy
|-
|align=center| 49
|align=center| RAE B
|| [[June 10]] [[1973]]
|| Radio astronomy
|-
|align=center| 50
|align=center| IMP J
|| [[October 26]] [[1973]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 51
|align=center| AE C
|| [[December 16]] [[1973]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 52
|align=center| Injun 6 (IE D)
|| [[June 3]] [[1974]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 53
|align=center| SAS C
|| [[May 7]] [[1975]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy
|-
|align=center| 54
|align=center| AE D
|| [[October 6]] [[1975]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 55
|align=center| AE E
|| [[November 20]] [[1975]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 56
|align=center| ISEE 1
|| [[October 22]] [[1977]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 57
|align=center| [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]]
|| [[January 26]] [[1978]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 58
|align=center| HCMM
|| [[April 26]] [[1978]]
|| Thermal mapping of the earth
|-
|align=center| 59
|align=center| ISEE 3 (ICE)
|| [[August 12]] [[1978]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 60
|align=center| SAGE
|| [[February 18]] [[1979]]
|| Stratospheric aerosol and ozone data
|-
|align=center| 61
|align=center| Magsat
|| [[October 30]] [[1979]]
|| Mapped the near surface magnetic field of the Earth
|-
|align=center| 62
|align=center| DE 1
|| [[August 3]] [[1981]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 63
|align=center| DE 2
|| [[August 3]] [[1981]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 64
|align=center| SME
|| [[October 6]] [[1981]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 65
|align=center| CCE
|| [[August 16]] [[1984]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 66
|align=center| [[COBE]]
|| [[November 18]] [[1989]]
|| Microwave astronomy
|-
|align=center| 67
|align=center| EUVE
|| [[June 7]] [[1992]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 68
|align=center| SAMPEX
|| [[July 3]] [[1992]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 69
|align=center| RXTE
|| [[December 30]] [[1995]]
|| X-ray astronomy
|-
|align=center| 70
|align=center| FAST
|| [[August 21]] [[1996]]
|| Auroral phenomena
|-
|align=center| 71
|align=center| [[Advanced Composition Explorer|ACE]]
|| [[August 25]] [[1997]]
|| Solar/interplanetary/interstellar partical research
|-
|align=center| 72
|align=center| SNOE
|| [[February 26]] [[1998]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 73
|align=center| TRACE
|| [[April 2]] [[1998]]
|| Solar observatory
|-
|align=center| 74
|align=center| SWAS
|| [[December 6]] [[1998]]
|| Submillimeter astronomy
|-
|align=center| 75
|align=center| WIRE
|| [[March 5]] [[1999]]
|| InfraRed astronomy, primary mission failed due to loss of coolant
|-
|align=center| 76
|align=center| TERRIERS
|| [[May 18]] [[1999]]
|| Atmospheric research, satellite failed shortly after achiving orbit
|-
|align=center| 77
|align=center| [[Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|FUSE]]
|| [[June 23]] [[1999]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 78
|align=center| [[IMAGE]]
|| [[March 25]] [[2000]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 79
|align=center| [[WMAP]]
|| [[June 30]] [[2001]]
|| Microwave astronomy
|-
|align=center| 80
|align=center| [[RHESSI]]
|| [[February 5]] [[2002]]
|| X-ray and gamma ray solar flare imaging
|-
|align=center| 81
|align=center| [[CHIPSat]]
|| [[January 13]] [[2003]]
|| Ultraviolet spectroscopy and astronomy
|-
|align=center| 82
|align=center| [[GALEX]]
|| [[April 28]] [[2003]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 83
|align=center| [[Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission|SWIFT]]
|| [[November 20]] [[2004]]
|| Gamma ray astronomy
|}
== External links ==
[http://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions.html NASA Explorer program missions page]
[[Category:Explorer program]]
[[Category:NASA]]
[[Category:NASA probes]]
[[de:Explorer (Raumsonde)]]
[[fr:Programme Explorer]]
[[pl:Program Explorer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethnic</title>
<id>9919</id>
<revision>
<id>15907773</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-19T11:28:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated link to avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethnic group]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>El
|
block of plaintext.
To encrypt messages longer than the [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] (128 bits in the above example), a [[block cipher modes of operation|mode of operation]] is used.
Block ciphers can be contrasted with [[stream cipher]]s; a stream cipher operates on individual digits one at a time, and the transformation varies during the encryption. The distinction between the two types is not always clear-cut: a block cipher, when used in certain [[block cipher modes of operation|modes of operation]], acts effectively as a stream cipher.
An early and highly influential block cipher design was the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES), developed at [[IBM]] and published as a standard in [[1977]]. A successor to DES, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), was adopted in [[2001]].
==Generalities==
A block cipher consists of two paired algorithms, one for encryption, ''E'', and another for decryption, ''E<sup>-1</sup>''. Both algorithms accept two inputs: an input block of size ''n'' bits and a [[key (cryptography)|key]] of size ''k'' bits, yielding an ''n''-bit output block. For any one fixed key, decryption is the [[Inverse function]] of encryption, so that
:<math>E_K^{-1}(E_K(M))=M</math>
for any block ''M'' and key ''K''.
For each key ''K'', ''E<sub>K</sub>'' is a [[permutation]] (a [[bijective]] mapping) over the set of input blocks. Each key selects one permutation from the possible set of <math>2^n!</math>.
The [[block size (cryptography)|block size]], ''n'', is typically 64 or 128 bits, although some ciphers have a variable block size. 64 bits was the most common length until the mid-1990s, when new designs began to switch to the longer 128-bit length. One of several [[block cipher modes of operation|modes of operation]] is generally used along with a [[padding (cryptography)|padding]] scheme to allow plaintexts of arbitrary lengths to be encrypted. Each mode has different characteristics in regard to error propagation, ease of random access and vulnerability to certain types of attack. Typical [[key size]]s (''k'') include 40, 56, 64, 80, 128, 192 and 256 bits. [[As of 2006]], 80 bits is normally taken as the minimum key length needed to prevent [[brute force attack]]s.
===Iterated block ciphers===
Most block ciphers are constructed by repeatedly applying a simpler function. This approach is known as ''iterated block cipher'' (see also [[product cipher]]). Each iteration is termed a ''round'', and the repeated function is termed the ''round function''; anywhere between 4 to 32 rounds are typical.
Many block ciphers can be categorised as [[Feistel network]]s, or, as more general [[substitution-permutation network]]s. [[Arithmetic]] operations, [[Logic gate|logical operations]] (especially [[XOR]]), [[S-box]]es and various [[permutation]]s are all frequently used as components.
==History==
[[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer]] is generally considered to be the first civilian block cipher, developed at [[IBM]] in the [[1970s]] based on work done by [[Horst Feistel]]. A revised version of the algorithm was adopted as a [[United States|US]] government [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] standard, the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). It was chosen by the US National Bureau of Standards (NBS) after a public invitation for submissions and some internal changes by [[NBS]] (and, potentially, the [[NSA]]). DES was publicly released in [[1976]] and has been widely used.
DES was designed, among other things, to resist a certain cryptanalytic attack known to the NSA and rediscovered by IBM, though unknown publicly until rediscovered again and published by [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]] in the late [[1980s]]. The technique is called [[differential cryptanalysis]] and remains one of the few general attacks against block ciphers; [[linear cryptanalysis]] is another, but may have been unknown even to NSA, prior to its publication by [[Mitsuru Matsui]]. DES prompted a large amount of other work and publications in [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]] in the open community and it inspired many new cipher designs.
DES has a block size of 64 bits and a [[key size]] of 56 bits. 64-bit blocks became common in block cipher designs after DES. [[Key (cryptography)|Key]] length depended on several factors, including government regulation. Many observers in the 1970s commented that the 56-bit key length used for DES was too short. As time went on, its inadequacy became apparent, especially after a special purpose machine designed to break DES was demonstrated in [[1998]] by the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]. A variant of DES, [[Triple DES]], triple-encrypts blocks with (usually) two different keys (2TDES), resulting in a 112-bit keys and 80-bit security. It was widely adopted as a replacement and is still ([[2004]]) considered secure.
DES has been superseded as a Federal Standard by the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), adopted by [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) in [[2001]] after a 5-year [[Advanced Encryption Standard process|public competition]]. The cipher was developed by two [[Belgian]] cryptographers, [[Joan Daemen]] and [[Vincent Rijmen]], and submitted under the name ''Rijndael.'' (See [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]] page for pronunciation.) AES has a block size of 128 bits and three possible [[key size]]s, 128, 192 and 256 bits. The US Government permits the use of AES to protect [[classified information]] in systems approved by [[NSA]].
==Cryptanalysis==
In addition to linear and differential cryptanalysis, there is a growing catalog of attacks: truncated and partial differential cryptanalysis, slide attacks, [[boomerang attack]]s, square and integral attacks, the [[XSL attack]], impossible differential cryptanalysis and algebraic attacks. For a new block cipher design to have any credibility, it must demonstrate evidence of security against known attacks.
== Hash functions based on block ciphers ==
:''Main article: [[Hash functions based on block ciphers]]''
There are several methods to use a block cipher to build a [[cryptographic hash function]]. The methods resembles the [[block cipher modes of operation]] usually used for encryption.
Using a block cipher as a hash function usually is much slower than using a specially designed hash function. However, in some cases, it might be easier since it means just implementing a block cipher and then using it both as a block cipher and a hash function. It can also save code space in very tiny [[embedded system]]s like for instance [[smart card]]s or nodes in cars or other machines.
==See also==
*[[Advanced Encryption Standard process]]
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Cipher block chaining]]
*[[Confusion and diffusion]]
*[[Topics in cryptography]]
==External links==
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html A list of many symmetric algorithms, the majority of which are block ciphers.]
* [http://www.mat.dtu.dk/people/Lars.R.Knudsen/bc.html The block cipher lounge]
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/faq/2-1-4.html RSA FAQ, "What is a block cipher?"]
{{Block_ciphers}}
[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[cs:Bloková šifra]]
[[de:Blockverschlüsselung]]
[[es:Cifrado por bloques]]
[[fr:Chiffrement par bloc]]
[[it:Cifratura a blocchi]]
[[he:צופן בלוקים]]
[[nl:Blokvercijfering]]
[[ja:ブロック暗号]]
[[pl:Szyfr blokowy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Broadband wireless access</title>
<id>4595</id>
<revision>
<id>38739380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T08:11:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Willcannings</username>
<id>900977</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Clarified that licensing spectrum from the FCC is only valid in the US</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dishes_ft_worth2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Three 45 Mbit/s wireless dishes on top of 307 W. 7th Street Fort Worth TX]]
'''Broadband wireless access''' is a technology aimed at providing [[wireless]] access to [[data networks]], with high data rates. According to the [[IEEE 802.16|802.16-2004]] standard, broadband means 'having instantaneous [[bandwidth]] greater than around 1 [[MHz]] and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 [[Megabit|Mbit]]/s'. From the point of view of connectivity, broadband wireless access is equivalent to broadband wired access, such as [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] or [[cable modem|cable modems]]. It is planned to be used in the next few years and is estimated to have a range of 50km (30 miles).
Most widely used technologies are [[LMDS]] and [[MMDS]].
One particular broadband wireless access technology is being standardized by [[IEEE 802.16]] also known as [[WiMAX]].
'''Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISP)''' are usually found in rural areas where [[cable]] or [[DSL]] is not available. A common case scenario is that a WISP will get large connection such as a T1 or DS3 and deliver it to a high point in the area such as a high rise or water tower. Then the consumers will mount a small dish to the roof of their home or office and point it towards the high area. Line of site is usually necessary for wireless access to work.
A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlicensed. In the US, licensed connections use a private spectrum the user has secured rights to from the [[FCC]]. In other countries, spectrum is licensed from the country's national radio communications authority (such as the [[ACMA]] in [[Australia]]). Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private access to spectrum for use in point to point communication. Because of this, most wireless ISP's use unlicensed spectrum which is publicly shared and therefore more prone interference.
Fact - This wireless technology has been around since the 1950s. [[MCI]] stands for [[Microwave]] Communications Inc.
==See also==
*[[
|
]]
*[[List of Born-again Christian Laypeople]]
[[Category:1969 births|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Free State cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Leicestershire cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African ODI cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African Test cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African all-rounders|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African batsmen|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African bowlers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African cricket captains|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African people|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Sports scandals|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 30s|Cronje, Hansie]]
==External Links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/sophieblakegal/hanse.mp3 Hansie confesses]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/2021613.stm Hansie Cronje killed in a plane crash]
[[nl:Hansie Cronje]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hultsfred Municipality</title>
<id>13963</id>
<revision>
<id>33385585</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T16:11:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chris the speller</username>
<id>525927</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun|
name=Hultsfred|
fullname=Hultsfred Municipality|
isocode=&nbsp;|
capital=Hultsfred|
governor=|
county=[[Kalmar County]]|
province=[[Smalandia]]|
arearank=91st|
area=1,127|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=x|
population=14,591|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=13|
coatofarms=[[Image:Hultsfred City Arms.png|70px|Hultsfred City Arms]]|
map=[[Image:Svcmap kalmar.png|120px]]<br>'''Hultsfred in Kalmar County''' <br> [[Image:Kalmar Municipalities.png|150px]]|
location=57_30_N_15_51_E|
locationReadable=57° 30´ N 15° 51´ E
}}
'''Hultsfred Municipality''' is a [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] in [[Kalmar County]], in south-eastern [[Sweden]]. The seat is in '''Hultsfred''' with 5,300 inhabitants. The municipality was created through a unification of different municipalities in [[1971]].
Hultsfred is known as the site of the largest [[Rock and roll|rock]] festival in Sweden, the [[Hultsfred Festival]].
== Geography ==
Basically every one of the towns of Hultsfred is situated on the railway. Besides Hultsfred, in the mid north of the municipality, there are the towns of Virserum in the south-west and other ever smaller settlements such as Lönneberga, Silverdalen and Molilla. The population of the municipality has however been decreasing with some 2,000 people in the last 10 years, as many people prefer to move to larger [[cities of Sweden]].
Much of the geography is taken up with forests, a notability for the entire province of [[Småland]], with some few scattered areas suitable for agriculture.
== History ==
In the age known as the [[Nordic Bronze Age]], the area had some shipping of furs to northern Germany and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] army, but not much is known from that time other than the area being inhabited; there has also been older finds from 3,000-4,000 BC. However, from the medieval age, around 1100 AD, there still remains a few churches.
The area continued to be inhabited mainly by farmers until the 20th century. In the 17th and 18th there was some production of iron in Kalmar Country, totalling about 10 mines; of those 2 were located to the municipality of Hultsfred. Hultsfred was a center for some military excercising companies during the 19th century, and some remaining building can be visited in the vicinity of Silverån. When the railroads through Sweden were built late in that century, Hultsfred received a population boost.
There are several folks museums around the area that keeps trace of its history.
== External links ==
* [http://www.hultsfred.se Hultsfred] - Official site
* [http://www.rockparty.se/content/english/ Hultsfred Festival] - Official site
{{Kalmar County}}
[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Kalmar County]]
[[fo:Hultsfreds kommuna]]
[[nl:Hultsfred]]
[[pl:Gmina Hultsfred]]
[[sv:Hultsfreds kommun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Parliament of the United Kingdom</title>
<id>13964</id>
<revision>
<id>41027160</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:05:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kurando</username>
<id>258456</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ put in Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}
[[image:houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Houses of Parliament, seen over Westminster Bridge]]
The '''Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' is the supreme [[legislature|legislative institution]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Crown colony|British overseas territories]] (it alone has [[parliamentary sovereignty]]). At its head is the [[British monarch|Sovereign]]; it is [[bicameral]], including an [[Upper House]], called the [[House of Lords]], and a [[Lower House]], called the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The House of Lords includes two different types of members&mdash;the [[Lords Spiritual]] (the senior [[clergy]] of the [[Church of England]]) and the [[Lords Temporal]] (members of the [[Peerage]]); it is a wholly unelected body. The House of Commons, on the other hand, is a [[democracy|democratically]] elected chamber. The House of Lords and the House of Commons meet in separate chambers in the [[Palace of Westminster]] (commonly known as the "Houses of Parliament"), in the British capital, [[London]] (more precisely, in the [[borough]]&mdash;and [[city]]&mdash;known as the [[City of Westminster]]). By [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]], all [[political minister|government ministers]], including the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] are drawn exclusively from the House of Commons or House of Lords.
Parliament evolved from the ancient council which advised the Sovereign. In theory, power is vested not in Parliament, but in the "[[Queen-in-Parliament]]" (or "King-in-Parliament"). The Queen-in-Parliament is often said to be a completely sovereign authority, though such a position is debatable. In modern times, real power is vested in the democratically elected House of Commons; the Sovereign acts only as a figurehead and the powers of the House of Lords are greatly limited.
The British Parliament is often called the "Mother of Parliaments," as the legislative bodies of many nations&mdash;most notably, those of the members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]&mdash;are modelled on it. However, it is a misquotation of [[John Bright]], who had actually remarked on [[18 January]] [[1865]] that "England is the Mother of Parliaments", in the context of supporting demands for expanded voting rights in a country which had pioneered Parliamentary government.
==History==
In the [[medieval]] period there were three kingdoms of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], and these developed separate parliaments. The [[Act of Union 1707|1707 Act of Union]] brought England and Scotland together under the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], and the [[Act of Union 1800|1800 Act of Union]] included Ireland under the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
===Parliament of England===
{{main|Parliament of England}}
The English Parliament can trace its origins to the [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Witenagemot]]. In [[1066]] [[William I of England|William of Normandy]] brought a [[feudal system]] where he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and [[ecclesiastic]]s before making laws. In [[1215]] the tenants-in-chief secured from [[John of England|John]] the [[Magna Carta]], which established that the King may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council which slowly developed into a Parliament. In [[1265]], [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] summoned the first [[election|elected]] Parliament. The franchise in parliamentary elections for [[county]] constituencies was uniform throughout the country, extending to all those who owned the freehold of land to an annual rent of 40 shillings ([[Forty-shilling Freeholders]]). In the [[Borough#Parliamentary boroughs|boroughs]], the franchise varied across the country; individual boroughs had varying arrangements. This set the scene for the so-called "[[Model Parliament]]" of [[1295]] adopted by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]. By the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] Parliament had been separated into two Houses: one, including the nobility and higher clergy, the other, including the knights and burgesses, and no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses as well as of the Sovereign.
When [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] was succeeded in [[1603]] by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] King James VI who also became [[James I of England]] the countries both came under his personal rule but each retained its own Parliament. James I's successor, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], quarrelled with Parliament and after he provoked the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] their dispute developed into the [[English Civil War]]. Charles was executed in [[1649]] and under [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s [[Commonwealth of England]] the House of Lords was abolished, and the House of Commons remained subordinate to Cromwell. After Cromwell's death [[English Restoration|the Restoration]] of [[1660]] restored the monarchy and the House of Lords.
Amidst fears of a [[Roman
|
eory)|class]] '''Grp''' of [[group (mathematics)|groups]] consists of all objects having a "group structure". More precisely, '''Grp''' consists of all [[set]]s ''G'' endowed with a [[binary operation]] satisfying a certain set of [[axiom]]s. One can proceed to [[mathematical proof|prove]] [[theorem]]s about groups by making logical deductions from the set of axioms. For example, it is immediately proved from the axioms that the [[identity element]] of a group is unique.
Instead of focusing merely on the individual objects (groups) possessing a given structure, as mathematical theories have traditionally done, category theory emphasizes the [[morphism]]s &mdash; the structure-preserving processes &mdash; between these objects. It turns out that by studying these morphisms, we are able to learn more about the structure of the 'objects' (groups). Here the morphisms are the [[group homomorphism]]s. A group homomorphism between two groups "preserves the group structure" in a very precise way &mdash; it is a "process" taking one group to another, in a way that carries along information about the structure of the first group into the second group. The study of group homomorphisms then provides a tool for studying general properties of groups and consequences of the group axioms.
A similar type of investigation occurs in many mathematical theories. A category is an ''axiomatic'' formulation of this idea of relating mathematical structures to the structure-preserving functions between them. A systematic study of categories then allows us to prove general results from the axioms of a category.
A category is itself a type of mathematical structure, so we can look for 'processes' which preserve this structure in some sense. Such a process is called a [[functor]]. It associates to every object of one category an object of ''another'' category; and to every morphism in the first category a morphism in the second. By studying categories and functors, we are not just studying a class of mathematical structures and the morphisms between them, we are studying the essential of ''relationships between various classes of mathematical structure''. This is a fundamental idea, which first surfaced in [[algebraic topology]]. Difficult ''topological'' questions can be translated into ''algebraic'' questions which are much easier to solve. Basic constructions, such as the [[fundamental group]] of a [[topological space]], can be expressed as functors in this way.
Constructions are often "naturally related", a vague notion at first sight. This leads to the clarifying concept of [[natural transformation]], a way to "map" one functor to another. Many important constructions in mathematics can be studied in this context. 'Naturality' is a principle, like [[general covariance]] in physics, that cuts deeper than is initially apparent.
==Historical notes==
Categories, functors and natural transformations were introduced by [[Samuel Eilenberg]] and [[Saunders Mac Lane]] in [[1945]]. Initially, the notions were applied in [[topology]], especially [[algebraic topology]], as an important part of the transition from [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]] (an intuitive and geometric concept) to [[homology theory]], an [[axiom]]atic approach. It has been claimed, for example by or on behalf of [[Stanislaw Ulam]], that comparable ideas were current in the late [[1930s]] in the Polish school. These ideas were in some ways a continuation of the contributions of [[Emmy Noether]] in formalizing abstract processes in the first half of the 20th-century. Noether realised that in order to understand a type of mathematical structure, one really needs to understand the processes preserving this structure. Eilenberg and Mac Lane gave an [[axiom|axiomatic]] formalization of this relation between structures and the processes preserving them.
Eilenberg/Mac Lane have said that their goal was to understand natural transformations; in order to do that, functors had to be defined; and to define functors one needed categories.
The subsequent development of the theory was powered first by the computational needs of [[homological algebra]]; and then by the axiomatic needs of [[algebraic geometry]], the field most resistant to the [[Russell-Whitehead]] view of united foundations. General category theory—an updated [[universal algebra]] with many new features allowing for semantic flexibility and [[higher-order logic]]—came later; it is now applied throughout mathematics.
Special categories called [[topos|topoi]] can even serve as an alternative to [[axiomatic set theory]] as the foundation of mathematics. These broadly-based foundational applications of category theory are contentious; but they have been worked out in quite some detail, as a commentary on or basis for [[constructive mathematics]]. One can say, in particular, that axiomatic set theory still hasn't been replaced by the category-theoretic commentary on it, in the everyday usage of mathematicians. The idea of bringing category theory into earlier, undergraduate teaching (signified by the difference between the ''Birkhoff-Mac Lane'' and later ''Mac Lane-Birkhoff'' [[abstract algebra]] texts) has hit noticeable opposition.
[[Categorical logic]] is now a well-defined field based on [[type theory]] for [[intuitionistic logic]]s, with application to the theory of [[functional programming]] and [[domain theory]], all in a setting of a [[cartesian closed category]] as non-syntactic description of a [[lambda calculus]]. At the very least, the use of category theory language allows one to clarify what exactly these related areas have in common (in an [[Wiktionary:abstract|abstract]] sense).
==Categories, objects, and morphisms==
''Main articles: [[category (category theory)|category]], [[morphism]]''
A ''[[category (category theory)|category]]'' ''C'' consists of
* a [[Class (set theory)|class]] ob(''C'') of ''objects'':
* a class hom(''C'') of ''[[morphism]]s''. Each morphism ''f'' has a unique ''source object a'' and ''target object b''. We write ''f'': ''a'' &rarr; ''b'', and we say "''f'' is a morphism from ''a'' to ''b''". We write hom(''a'', ''b'') [or Hom(''a'', ''b''), or hom<sub>''C''</sub>(''a'', ''b'')] to denote the ''hom-class'' of all morphisms from ''a'' to ''b''. (Some authors write Mor(''a'', ''b'') or C(''a'', ''b'').)
* for every three objects ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', a binary operation hom(''a'', ''b'') &times; hom(''b'', ''c'') &rarr; hom(''a'', ''c'') called ''composition of morphisms''; the composition of ''f'' : ''a'' &rarr; ''b'' and ''g'' : ''b'' &rarr; ''c'' is written as ''g'' &#9675; ''f'' or ''gf'' (Some authors write ''fg''.)
such that the following axioms hold:
* (associativity) if ''f'' : ''a'' &rarr; ''b'', ''g'' : ''b'' &rarr; ''c'' and ''h'' : ''c'' &rarr; ''d'' then ''h'' &#9675; (''g'' &#9675; ''f'') = (''h'' &#9675; ''g'') &#9675; ''f'', and
* (identity) for every object ''x'', there exists a morphism 1<sub>''x''</sub> : ''x'' &rarr; ''x'' called the ''identity morphism for x'', such that for every morphism ''f'' : ''a'' &rarr; ''b'', we have 1<sub>''b''</sub> &#9675; ''f'' = ''f'' = ''f'' &#9675; 1<sub>''a''</sub>.
From these axioms, one can prove that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. Some authors use a slight variation of the definition in which each object is identified with the corresponding identity morphism.
Relations among morphisms (such as ''fg'' = ''h'') can most conveniently be represented with [[commutative diagram]]s, where the objects are represented as points and the morphisms as arrows. Indeed, the morphisms of a category are sometimes called ''arrows'' due to the influence of commutative diagrams.
===Some properties of morphisms===
A morphism ''f'' : ''a'' &rarr; ''b'' is called
* a ''[[monomorphism]]'' (or ''monic'') if ''fg<sub>1</sub>'' = ''fg<sub>2</sub>'' implies ''g<sub>1</sub>'' = ''g<sub>2</sub>'' for all morphisms ''g''<sub>1</sub>, ''g<sub>2</sub>'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''a''.
* an ''[[epimorphism]]'' (or ''epic'') if ''g<sub>1</sub>f'' = ''g<sub>2</sub>f'' implies ''g<sub>1</sub>'' = ''g<sub>2</sub>'' for all morphisms ''g<sub>1</sub>'', ''g<sub>2</sub>'' : ''b'' &rarr; ''x''.
* an ''[[isomorphism]]'' if there exists a morphism ''g'' : ''b'' &rarr; ''a'' with ''fg'' = 1<sub>''b''</sub> and ''gf'' = 1<sub>''a''</sub>.{{ref|isomorphism-counterexample}}
* an ''[[endomorphism]]'' if ''a'' = ''b''. The class of endomorphisms of ''a'' is denoted end(''a'').
* an ''[[automorphism]]'' if ''f'' is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism. The class of automorphisms of ''a'' is denoted aut(''a'').
{{note|isomorphism-counterexample}} Note that a morphism which is both epic and monic is not necessarily an isomorphism! For example, in the category consisting of two objects A and B, the identity morphisms, and a single morphism f from A to B, f is both epic and monic but is not an isomorphism.
==Functors==
''Main article: [[functor]]''
Functors are structure-preserving maps between categories. They can be thought of as morphisms in the category of all (small) categories.
A (''covariant'') ''functor'' ''F'' from the category ''C'' to the category ''D''
* associates to each object ''x'' in ''C'' an object ''F''(''x'') in ''D'';
* associates to each morphism ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'' a morphism ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''x'') &rarr; ''F''(''y'')
such that the following two properties hold:
* ''F''(1<sub>''x''</sub>) = 1<sub>''F''(''x'')</sub> for every object ''x'' in ''C''.
* ''F''(''g'' &#9675; ''f'') = ''F''(''g'') &#9675;
|
us first follows the loop ''f'' with "twice the speed" and then follows ''g'' with twice the speed. The product of two homotopy classes of loops [''f''] and [''g''] is then defined as [''f'' &lowast; ''g''], and it can be shown that this product does not depend on the choice of representatives. With this product, the set of all homotopy classes of loops with base point ''x''<sub>0</sub> forms the fundamental group of ''X'' at the point ''x''<sub>0</sub> and is denoted &pi;<sub>1</sub>(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>), or simply &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>). The identity element is the constant map at the basepoint, and the inverse of a loop ''f'' is the loop ''g'' defined by ''g''(t) = ''f''(1 &minus; ''t''). That is, ''g'' follows ''f'' backwards.
Although the fundamental group in general depends on the choice of base point, it turns out that, [[up to]] [[isomorphism]], this choice makes no difference if the space ''X'' is [[connectedness|path-connected]]. For path-connected spaces, therefore, we can write &pi;(''X'') instead of &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>) without ambiguity whenever we care about the [[isomorphism|isomorphy class]] only.
== Examples ==
In many spaces, such as '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, or any [[convex]] subset of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, there is only one homotopy class of loops, and the fundamental group is therefore trivial, i.e. ({0},+). A path-connected space with a trivial fundamental group is said to be [[Simply connected space|simply connected]].
A more interesting example is provided by the [[circle]]. It turns out that each homotopy class consists of all loops which wind around the circle a given number of times (which can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of winding). The product of a loop which winds around ''m'' times and another that winds around ''n'' times is a loop which winds around ''m'' + ''n'' times. So the fundamental group of the circle is [[isomorphic]] to <math>(\mathbb{Z}\ , +)</math>, the additive group of [[integer|integers]]. This fact can be used to give proofs of the [[Brouwer fixed point theorem]] and the [[Borsuk-Ulam theorem]] in dimension 2.
Since the fundamental group is a homotopy invariant, the theory of the [[winding number]] for the complex plane minus one point is the same as for the circle.
Unlike the [[homology group]]s and higher homotopy groups associated to a topological space, the fundamental group need not be [[abelian group|Abelian]]. For example, the fundamental group of a [[graph_(mathematics)|graph]] ''G'' is a [[free group]]. Here the rank of the free group is equal to 1 &minus; &chi;(''G''): one minus the [[Euler characteristic]] of ''G''. A somewhat more sophisticated example of a space with a non-Abelian fundamental group is the complement of a [[trefoil knot]] in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>.
== Functoriality ==
If ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' is a continuous map, ''x''<sub>0</sub>&isin;''X'' and ''y''<sub>0</sub>&isin;''Y'' with ''f''(''x''<sub>0</sub>) = ''y''<sub>0</sub>, then every loop in ''X'' with base point ''x''<sub>0</sub> can be composed with ''f'' to yield a loop in ''Y'' with base point ''y''<sub>0</sub>. This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and the composition of loops, and we get a [[group homomorphism]] from &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>) to &pi;(''Y'',''y''<sub>0</sub>). This homomorphism is written as &pi;(''f'') or ''f''<sub>*</sub>. We thus obtain a [[category theory|functor]] from the category of topological spaces with base point to the category of groups.
It turns out that this functor cannot distinguish maps which are [[homotopic]] relative the base point: if ''f'' and ''g'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' are continuous maps with ''f''(''x''<sub>0</sub>) = ''g''(''x''<sub>0</sub>) = ''y''<sub>0</sub>, and ''f'' and ''g'' are homotopic relative to {''x''<sub>0</sub>}, then ''f''<sub>*</sub> = ''g''<sub>*</sub>. As a consequence, two homotopy equivalent path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups.
== Relationship to first homology group ==
The fundamental groups of a topological space ''X'' are related to its first singular [[homology group]], because a loop is also a singular 1-cycle. Mapping the homotopy class of each loop at a base point ''x''<sub>0</sub> to the homology class of the loop gives a homomorphism from the fundamental group &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>) to the homology group ''H''<sub>1</sub>(''X''). If ''X'' is path-connected, then this homomorphism is [[surjective]] and its [[Kernel_(algebra)|kernel]] is the [[commutator subgroup]] of &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>), and ''H''<sub>1</sub>(''X'') is therefore isomorphic to the abelianization of &pi;(''X'',''x''<sub>0</sub>). This is a special case of the [[Hurewicz theorem]] of algebraic topology.
== Related concepts ==
The fundamental group measures the 1-dimensional hole structure of a space. For studying "higher-dimensional holes", the [[homotopy group]]s are used. The elements of the n-th homotopy group of X are homotopy classes of (basepointed) maps from S<sup>''n''</sup> to X.
The set of loops at a particular base point can be studied without regarding homotopic loops as equivalent. This larger object is the [[loop space]].
===Fundamental groupoid===
Rather than singling out one point and considering the loops based at that point up to homotopy, one can also consider ''all'' paths in the space up to homotopy (fixing the initial and final point). This yields not a group but a [[groupoid]], the '''fundamental groupoid''' of the space.
[[de:Fundamentalgruppe]]
[[fr:Groupe fondamental]]
[[es:Grupo fundamental]]
[[it:Gruppo fondamentale]]
[[ru:&#1060;&#1091;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1084;&#1077;&#1085;&#1090;&#1072;&#1083;&#1100;&#1085;&#1072;&#1103; &#1075;&#1088;&#1091;&#1087;&#1087;&#1072;]]
[[sv:Fundamentalgrupp]]
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[[Category:Homotopy theory]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Franklin Pierce</title>
<id>11005</id>
<revision>
<id>41074918</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:07:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TgordonD</username>
<id>921022</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Election of 1852 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Franklin Pierce
| nationality=american
| image=Franklin Pierce.jpg
| order=14th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1853]]
| term_end=[[March 4]], [[1857]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 4. -->
| predecessor=[[Millard Fillmore]]
| successor=[[James Buchanan]]
| birth_date=[[November 23]], [[1804]]
| birth_place=[[Hillsborough (town), New Hampshire|Hillsborough]], [[New Hampshire]]
| death_date=[[October 8]], [[1869]]
| death_place=[[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]]
| spouse=[[Jane Pierce|Jane Appleton Pierce]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
| vicepresident=[[William R. King]]
}}
'''Franklin Pierce''' ([[November 23]], [[1804]]&ndash;[[October 8]], [[1869]]) was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] and the 14th [[President of the United States]], serving from 1853 to 1857. Pierce was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] and the first president to be born in the 19th century. He was a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] and [[United States Senate|Senate]]. Later, Pierce took part in the [[Mexican-American War]], becoming a [[brigadier general]]. His private law practice in his home state, [[New Hampshire]], was so successful that he turned down several important positions. Later, he was nominated for president as a "[[dark horse]]" candidate on the 49th ballot at the [[1852 Democratic National Convention]]. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1852|presidential election]], Pierce and his running mate [[William R. King]] won in a landslide, beating [[Winfield Scott]] by a 50 to 44% margin in the popular vote and 254 to 42 in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral vote]]. He became the youngest president up until that time.
His good looks and inoffensive personality caused him to make many friends, but he did not do what was necessary to avoid the impending [[American Civil War]], thus giving him his reputation as one of the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|worst presidents in U.S. history]]. Pierce's popularity in the [[U.S. Northern states|North]] went down sharply after he came out in favor of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], repealing the [[Missouri Compromise]] and reopening the question of the expansion of [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] in the [[American West|West]]. Pierce's credibility was further damaged when several of his foreign ministers issued the [[Ostend Manifesto]]. Abandoned by his own party, he was not renominated at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1856|1856 presidential election]], and was replaced by [[James Buchanan]]. After losing the Democratic nomination, Pierce continued his lifelong struggle with [[alcoholism]] as his marriage to [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]] fell apart. He destroyed his reputation by declaring support for the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and died in 1869 from [[
|
land S.J. (2000) [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/25/13690 Testing a biosynthetic theory of the genetic code: Fact or artifact?] ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA'' '''97'''(25), 13690-13695.
*{{fnb|6}} e.g. see review by Freeland S.J.; Wu T. and Keulmann N. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14604186 The Case for an Error Minimizing Genetic Code.] ''Orig Life Evol Biosph.'' '''33'''(4-5), 457-77.
==See also==
*[[Anticodon]]
*[[Protein biosynthesis]]
*[[Operon]]
*[[lac operon]]
==External links==
*[http://www.geneseo.edu/~eshamb/php/dna.php Online DNA &rarr; Amino Acid Converter]
*[http://bioinformatics.picr.man.ac.uk/bioinf/tyates.jsp?page=3 DNA Sequence &rarr; Protein Sequence converter]
*[http://insilico.ehu.es/translate/ DNA to protein translation (6 frames/13 genetic codes)]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Gene expression]]
[[bg:Генетичен код]]
[[ca:Codi genètic]]
[[cs:Genetický kód]]
[[da:Genetisk kode]]
[[de:Genetischer Code]]
[[es:Codón]]
[[eo:Genetika Kodo]]
[[fr:Code génétique]]
[[ko:코돈]]
[[he:הקוד הגנטי]]
[[mk:Генетички код]]
[[nl:Genetische code]]
[[ja:コドン]]
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[[pl:Kod genetyczny]]
[[ru:Генетический код]]
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[[vi:Mã di truyền]]
[[zh:遗传密码]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golden ratio</title>
<id>12386</id>
<revision>
<id>41750591</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:57:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom harrison</username>
<id>42168</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ split long sentence</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''golden ratio''', also known as the '''golden proportion''', '''golden mean''', '''golden section''', '''golden number''', '''divine proportion''' or '''''sectio divina''''', is an [[irrational number]], approximately [[#Decimal expansion|1.618]], that possesses many interesting properties.
Shapes proportioned according to the golden ratio have long been considered [[aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing in Western cultures, and the golden ratio is still used frequently in art and design, suggesting a natural balance between symmetry and asymmetry. The ancient [[Pythagorean]]s, who defined numbers as expressions of ratios (and not as units as is common today), believed that reality is numerical and that the golden ratio expressed an underlying truth about existence.
==Definition==
Two quantities are said to be in the ''golden ratio'', if "the whole (i.e., the sum of the two parts) is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part", i.e. if
:<math>\frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{b}</math>
where ''a'' is the larger part and ''b'' is the smaller part.
[[Image:Golden ratio line.png|right|frame|A line is divided into two segments <font color="blue">'''''a'''''</font> and <font color="red">'''''b'''''</font>. The <font color="green">'''''entire line'''''</font> is to the <font color="blue">'''''a'''''</font> segment as <font color="blue">'''''a'''''</font> is to the <font color="red">'''''b'''''</font> segment]]
Equivalently, they are in the golden ratio if the [[ratio]] of the larger one to the smaller one equals the ratio of the smaller one to their difference, i.e. if
:<math>\frac{a}{b} = \frac{b}{a-b}.</math>
After multiplying the first equation with ''a''/''b'' or the second equation with (''a''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''b'')/''b'', both of these equations are seen to be equivalent to
:<math>\left(\frac{a}{b}\right)^2 = \frac{a}{b} + 1.\qquad\qquad(*)</math>
The Greek letter &phi; ([[phi]]) is conventionally used to denote the size of the larger part when the smaller part is 1, and this number &phi; is often called "the golden ratio". Thus we have
:<math>\frac{a}{b} = \varphi.</math>
The equation labeled (*) above then becomes
:<math>\varphi^2=\varphi+1\,</math>
or equivalently,
:<math>\varphi^2 - \varphi - 1 \ = \ 0</math>
The solutions of this [[quadratic equation]] are
:<math>{1 \pm \sqrt{5} \over 2}.</math>
Since &phi; is a quantity it must be positive, hence we have
:<math>\varphi = {1 + \sqrt{5} \over 2}\approx\ 1.618 033 988\dots.</math>
== History ==
The golden ratio was first studied by ancient mathematicians because of its frequent appearance in [[geometry]]. There is evidence that it was understood and used as far back in history as [[ancient Egypt]]. In the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] built around [[2600 BC]], the golden ratio is represented by the ratio of the length of the face (the slope height), inclined at an angle [[θ]] to the ground, to half the length of the side of the square base, equivalent to the [[secant]] of the angle θ. The above two lengths were about 186.4 and 115.2 metres respectively. The ratio of these lengths is the golden ratio 1.618.
The largest [[isosceles triangle]] of the ''sriyantra'' design used in [[ancient India]], described in the ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]]'' (circa [[1200 BC|1200]]-[[900 BC]]) is one of the face triangles of the Great Pyramid in miniature, showing almost exactly the same relationship between [[π]] and the golden ratio as in its larger counterpart.
It is believed that after tracing the path of [[Venus]] in the sky, the ancients found that the ratio of the length of the long arm of the pentagon shape to the length of the shorter arm was 1.618.
The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] usually attributed its discovery to [[Pythagoras]] (or to the Pythagoreans, notably [[Theodorus of Cyrene|Theodorus]]) or to [[Hippasus of Metapontum]]. [[Hellenistic]] mathematician [[Euclid]] spoke of the "golden mean" this way, "a straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser". The golden ratio is represented by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] '''<math>\varphi</math>''' ([[phi]], after [[Phidias]], a sculptor who commonly employed it) or less commonly by '''<math>\tau</math>''' ([[tau]], the first letter of Greek words meaning ''cut'').
==A startlingly quick proof of irrationality==
Recall that we denoted the "larger part" by ''a'' and the "smaller part" by ''b'',
and concluded that
:<math>\frac{a}{b} = \frac{b}{a-b}.</math>
This gives a startlingly quick proof that the golden ratio is an [[irrational number]]. An irrational number is one that cannot be written as ''a''/''b'' where ''a'' and ''b'' are [[integer]]s. If ''a''/''b'' is such a fraction, in [[lowest terms]], then ''b''/(''a''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''b'') is in even lower terms &mdash; a contradiction. Thus this number cannot be so written, and it is therefore irrational.
==Alternate forms==
The formula <math>\varphi = 1 + 1/\varphi</math> can be expanded recursively to obtain a [[continued fraction]] for the golden ratio:
:<math>\varphi = [1; 1, 1, 1, ...] = 1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \cdots}}}</math>
and its [[reciprocal]]:
:<math>\varphi^{-1} = [0; 1, 1, 1, ...] = 0 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \cdots}}}.</math>
Note that the successive convergents of these continued fractions are ratios of [[Fibonacci number]]s.
The equation <math>\varphi^2 = 1 + \varphi</math> likewise produces the continued [[square root]] form:
:<math>\varphi = \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \cdots}}}}.</math>
Also:
:<math>\varphi=1+2\sin(\pi/10)=1+2\sin 18^\circ</math>
:<math>\varphi={1 \over 2}\csc(\pi/10)={1 \over 2}\csc 18^\circ</math>
:<math>\varphi=2\cos(\pi/5)=2\cos 36^\circ\,</math>
These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is &phi; times the length of its side, and similar relations in a [[pentagram]].
==Mathematical uses==
<div style="float:right;width:315px;">
[[Image:FakeRealLogSpiral.png|none|thumb|300px|Approximate and true Golden Spirals. The <font color=#008000>green</font> spiral is made from quarter-circles tangent to the interior of each square, while the <font color=#800000>red</font> spiral is a Golden Spiral, a special type of [[logarithmic spiral]]. Overlapping portions appear <font color=#808000>yellow</font>. The length of the side of a larger square to the next smaller square is in the golden ratio.]]
[[image:Fibonacci Spiral.png|none|thumb|300px|A [[Fibonacci sequence|Fibonacci spiral]] which also approximates the Golden Spiral.]]
</div>
The number &phi; turns up frequently in [[geometry]], in particular in figures involving pentagonal [[symmetry]].
For instance the ratio of a regular [[pentagon]]'s side and diagonal is equal to &phi;, and the vertices of a regular [[icosahedron]] are located on three orthogonal [[golden rectangle]]s.
The explicit expression for the [[Fibonacci sequence]] involves the golden ratio:
:<math>F\left(n\right) = {{\varphi^n-(1-\varphi)^n} \over {\sqrt 5}} = {{\varphi^n-(-\varphi)^{-n}} \over {\sqrt 5}}</math>
The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like sequence) equals the golden ratio; therefore, when a number in the Fibonacci sequence is divided by its preceding number, it approximates &phi;. e.g., 987/610&nbsp;≈&nbsp;1.6180327868852. Alternatingly the approximation to &phi; is too small and too large, it gets better as the Fibonacci numbers get higher, and:
:<math>\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}|F(n)\varphi-F(n+1)| =
|
Louis-Laurent Houel]]
On [[5 May]] [[1789]], [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] convened the [[Estates-General of 1789|Estates-General]] to hear their grievances. The deputies of the [[Third Estate]] representing the common people (the two others were clergy and nobility) decided to break away and form a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]].
On [[20 June]] the deputies of the Third Estate took the [[Tennis Court Oath]] (named after the place where they had gathered which was a place where an [[real tennis|ancestor of tennis]], the "[[jeu de paume]]" was played), swearing not to separate until a Constitution had been established. To show their support, the people of [[Paris]] stormed the [[Bastille]], a prison where people were jailed by arbitrary decision of the King (''[[lettre de cachet]]''). The Bastille was, in particular, known for holding political prisoners whose writings had displeased the royal government. Thus the Bastille was a symbol of the [[political absolutism|absolutism]] of the monarchy.
There were only 7 inmates housed at the time of the siege. The storming of the Bastille was more important as a rallying point and symbolic act of rebellion than a practical act of defiance. No less important in the history of [[France]], it was ''not'' the image typically conjured up of courageous French patriots storming the Bastille and freeing hundreds of oppressed peasants. However, it did immediately inspire preparations amongst the peasants for the very real threat of retaliation.
Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, on [[26 August]], the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] was proclaimed.
===The ''Fête de la Fédération''===
: ''Main article: [[Fête de la Fédération]]''
[[Image:Fete federation.jpg|thumb|The ''Fête de la Fédération'']]
The Fête de la Fédération of the [[14 July]] [[1790]] was a huge feast and official event to celebrate the uprising of the short-lived [[constitutional monarchy]] in France and what people of the time considered to be the happy conclusion of the [[French Revolution]].
The event took place on the [[Champ de Mars]], which was at the time far outside Paris. The place had been transformed on a voluntary basis by the population of Paris itself, in what was recalled as the ''Journée des brouettes'' ("Wheelbarrow Day").
A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun. The very popular General La Fayette, as both captain of the National Guard of Paris and confident of the king, took his oath to the Constitution, followed by the King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]].
After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four day popular feast.
==Other References==
"'''Bastille Day'''" is the name of a song by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] released on their [[1975]] album ''[[Caress of Steel]]''.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Bastille Day military parade}}
* [http://14juillet.senat.fr/toutsavoir/index.html senat.fr] ''Tout savoir sur le 14 Juillet''
[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:Parades]]
[[da:Bastilledagen]]
[[de:14. Juli in Frankreich]]
[[fr:Fête de la Fédération]]
[[ru:День взятия Бастилии]]
[[zh:巴士底日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blowfish (cipher)</title>
<id>3940</id>
<revision>
<id>37000525</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T22:02:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.49.241.113</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers |
fullName = Blowfish |
image = BlowfishFFunction.png |
caption = The round function (Feistel function) of Blowfish |
yearPublished = [[1993]] |
derivedFrom = - |
derivedTo = [[Twofish]] |
designers = [[Bruce Schneier]] |
blockSize = 64 bits |
keySize = 32-448 bits in steps of 8 bits; default 128 bits |
cipherStructure = [[Feistel network]] |
rounds = 16 |
cryptanalysis = Four rounds of Blowfish are susceptible to a second-order [[differential attack]] (Rijmen, 1997); for a class of [[weak key]]s, 14 rounds of Blowfish can be distinguished from a random permutation (Vaudenay, 1996).
}}
In [[cryptography]], '''Blowfish''' is a [[key (cryptography)|key]]ed, [[symmetric key algorithm|symmetric]] [[block cipher]], designed in [[1993]] by [[Bruce Schneier]] and included in a large number of cipher suites and encryption products. While no effective cryptanalysis of Blowfish has been found to date, more attention is now given to block ciphers with a larger [[Block size (cryptography)|block size]], such as [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]] or [[Twofish]].
Schneier designed Blowfish as a general-purpose algorithm, intended as a replacement for the aging [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] and free of the problems associated with other algorithms. At the time, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents or kept as government secrets. Schneier has stated that, "Blowfish is unpatented, and will remain so in all countries. The algorithm is hereby placed in the public domain, and can be freely used by anyone."
Notable features of the design include key-dependent [[S-box]]es and a highly complex [[key schedule]].
==The algorithm==
Blowfish has a 64-bit [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] and a [[key length]] of anywhere from 32 bits to 448 bits. It is a 16-round [[Feistel cipher]] and uses large key-dependent [[Substitution box|S-boxes]]. It is similar in structure to [[CAST-128]], which uses fixed S-boxes.
[[Image:BlowfishDiagram.png|left|thumbnail|216px|Diagram of Blowfish]]
The diagram to the left shows the action of Blowfish. Each line represents 32 bits. The algorithm keeps two subkey arrays: the 18-entry P-array and four 256-entry S-boxes. The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output. One entry of the P-array is used every round, and after the final round, each half of the data block is [[XOR]]ed with one of the two remaining unused P-entries.
[[Image:BlowfishFFunction.png|right|thumbnail|250px|Diagram of Blowfish's F function]]
The diagram to the right shows Blowfish's F-function. The function splits the 32-bit input into four eight-bit quarters, and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes. The outputs are added [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 2<sup>32</sup> and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output.
Since Blowfish is a Feistel network, it can be inverted simply by XORing P<sub>17</sub> and P<sub>18</sub> to the ciphertext block, then using the P-entries in reverse order.
Blowfish's [[key schedule]] starts by initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from the [[hexadecimal]] digits of [[pi]], which contain no obvious pattern. The secret key is then XORed with the P-entries in order (cycling the key if necessary). A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands. The resultant ciphertext replaces P<sub>1</sub> and P<sub>2</sub>. The ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and P<sub>3</sub> and P<sub>4</sub> are replaced by the new ciphertext. This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries. In all, the Blowfish encryption algorithm will run 521 times to generate all the subkeys - about 4KB of data is processed.
<br clear="all">
==Cryptanalysis of Blowfish==
There is no effective [[cryptanalysis]] of Blowfish known publicly [[as of 2006]], although the 64-bit block size is now considered too short, because encrypting more than 2<sup>32</sup> data blocks can begin to leak information about the [[plaintext]] due to a [[birthday attack]]. Despite this, Blowfish seems thus far to be secure. While the short block size does not pose any serious concerns for routine consumer applications like e-mail, Blowfish may not be suitable in situations where large plaintexts must be encrypted, as in data archival.
In [[1996]], [[Serge Vaudenay]] found a known-plaintext attack requiring 2<sup>8''r'' + 1</sup> known plaintexts to break, where ''r'' is the number of rounds. Moreover, he also found a class of [[weak key]]s that can be detected and broken by the same attack with only 2<sup>4''r'' + 1</sup> known plaintexts. This attack cannot be used against the full 16-round Blowfish; Vaudenay used a reduced-round variant of Blowfish. [[Vincent Rijmen]], in his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] thesis, introduced a second-order differential attack that can break four rounds and no more. There remains no known way to break the full 16 rounds, apart from a [[brute-force search]].
In [[2005]], Dieter Schmidt investigated the Blowfish key schedule and noted that the subkeys for the third and fourth round are independent of the first 64 bits of the user key [http://eprint.iacr.org/2005/063].
==Blowfish in practice==
Blowfish is one of the fastest [[block cipher]]s in widespread use, except when changing keys. Each new [[key (cryptography)|key]] requires pre-processing equivalent to encrypting about 4 kilobytes of text, which is very slow compared to other block ciphers. This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others. In one application, it is actually a benefit: the [[password]]-hashing method used in [[OpenBSD]] uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against [[dictionary attack]]s.
In some implementations, Blowfish has a relatively large memory footprint of just over 4 kilobytes of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. This is not a problem even for older smaller desktop and laptop computers, but it does prevent use in the smallest [[embedded systems]] such as early [[smartcard]]s.
Blowfish is not subject to any patents and is therefore freely available for anyone to use. This has contributed to
|
stes Konzil von Konstantinopel]]
[[fr:Ier concile œcuménique de Constantinople]]
[[nl:Concilie van Constantinopel I]]
[[ja:第1コンスタンティノポリス公会議]]
[[pl:Sobór Konstantynopolitański I]]
[[zh:第一次君士坦丁堡公會議]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fourth Council of Constantinople</title>
<id>11644</id>
<revision>
<id>39777907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T20:36:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ASDamick</username>
<id>153752</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="400"
|-
| colspan="2" bgcolor="lightgreen" style="font-size:120%" align="center"|'''''Fourth Council of Constantinople'''''
|-
|Date
|[[869]]-[[870]] '''or''' [[879]] - [[880]]
|-
|Accepted by
|[[Catholicism]] '''or''' [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Third Council of Constantinople]]
|-
|Next Council
|[[First Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|Convoked by||Emperor [[Basil I]] and [[Pope Adrian II]]
|-
|Presided by||papal legates
|-
|Attendance||20-25 (first session), 102 (last session)
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Photius]]' patriarchate
|-
|Documents and statements||deposition of Photius, twenty-seven canons, including directives for behavior of bishops and the rights of patriarchs
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
The '''Fourth Council of Constantinople''' is considered an [[ecumenical council]] by [[Catholicism|Roman Catholics]] and met from [[October 5]], [[869]] to [[February 28]], [[870]].
It was called by Emperor [[Basil I]] the Macedonian and [[Pope Adrian II]]. It deposed and condemned [[Photius]] as patriarch and, of the four Eastern patriarchates, ranked [[patriarch of Constantinople|Constantinople]] before [[patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]], and [[Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. [[Photius]] is now considered a [[saint]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]; in part for having refused to acquiesce to the decision of this council and what the Eastern Orthodox consider to have been overweening monarchical aspirations on the part of Rome's patriarch.
Photius is also considered a saint by [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rite Catholics]] in the same manner as he is by the Orthodox. Among Eastern Catholics, he is remembered for the virtues of his personal life and his remarkable talents, even genius, and the wide range of his intellectual aptitudes.
==The "Other" Fourth Council of Constantinople==
Many theologians (and not a few bishops; see [[Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs]]) within the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]] consider the council of [[869]]-[[870]] to have been a [[Latrocinium|robber council]] and instead recognize the reunion council held at Constantinople in [[879]]-[[880]] as being the '''Eighth Ecumenical Council'''. This latter council was originally accepted and fully endorsed by Rome (whose [[legate]]s were present), who in the 11th century repudiated it and retroactively regarded the council of [[869]]-[[870]] to be ecumenical. The council of [[879]]-[[880]] restored St. [[Photius]] to his see and anathematized any who altered the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (thus condemning the [[Filioque clause|Filioque]]).
== External links ==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04310b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Council of Constantinople]
*[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/4_ch05.htm Schaff's Church History: Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches]
For more on the council of [[879]]-[[880]], see also:
* [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/dragas_eighth.html The Eighth Ecumenical Council: Constantinople IV (879/880) and the Condemnation of the ''Filioque'' Addition and Doctrine] by Protopresbyter George Dion Dragas
* [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/8-9synods.html The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:869]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Constantinople 4]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]
[[cs:4. konstantinopolský koncil]]
[[de:Viertes Konzil von Konstantinopel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F. A. Hayek</title>
<id>11645</id>
<revision>
<id>15909381</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Hayek]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich Hayek</title>
<id>11646</id>
<revision>
<id>41374156</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:43:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Knucmo2</username>
<id>116082</id>
</contributor>
<comment>selected bibliography</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FvonHayek.jpg|thumbnail|right|140px|Friedrich Hayek]]
'''Friedrich August von Hayek''' ([[May 8]], [[1899]] in [[Vienna]] &ndash; [[March 23]], [[1992]] in [[Freiburg]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[economist]] and [[political philosophy|political philosopher]], noted for his defense of [[liberal democracy]] and [[free market|free-market capitalism]] against [[socialism|socialist]] and [[collectivism|collectivist]] thought in the mid-[[20th century]]. Widely regarded as one of the most influential members of the [[Austrian School]] of economics, he also made significant contributions in the fields of [[jurisprudence]] and [[cognitive science]]. He shared the [[1974]] [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with ideological rival [[Gunnar Myrdal]].
== Life ==
{{Libertarianism}}
Hayek was born in [[Vienna]] to a [[Catholic]] family of prominent intellectuals. At the [[University of Vienna]] he received [[doctorate]]s in law and political science in [[1921]] and [[1923]] respectively, and he also studied [[psychology]] and economics with keen interest. Initially sympathetic to socialism, Hayek's economic thinking was transformed during his student years in Vienna through attending [[Ludwig von Mises]]' private seminars along with [[Fritz Machlup]] and other young students.
Hayek worked as a research assistant to Prof. [[Jeremiah Jenks]] of [[New York University]] from [[1923]] to [[1924]]. He then served as director of the newly formed Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research before joining the faculty of the [[London School of Economics]] at the behest of [[Lionel Robbins]] in [[1931]]. Unwilling to return to Austria after its annexation to [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], Hayek became a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[British nationality law|citizen]] in [[1938]].
In the early [[1940s]], Hayek enjoyed a considerable reputation as a leading economic theorist. But after the end of [[World War II]], Hayek's ''[[laissez-faire]]'' doctrines were challenged by [[John Maynard Keynes]] and others who argued for active government intervention in economic affairs. The debate between the two schools of thought remains unresolved today, with Hayek's position gaining currency since the late 1970s. In 1950 Hayek left the [[London School of Economics]] for the [[University of Chicago]], becoming a professor in the [[Committee on Social Thought]]. He remained there until [[1962]]. From 1962 until his retirement in [[1968]], he was a professor at the [[Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg|University of Freiburg]]. Later he was a visiting professor at the [[University of Salzburg]]. Hayek died in 1992 in Freiburg, Germany.
== Work ==
===The economic calculation problem===
Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek believed that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary cooperation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In his popular book, ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'' ([[1944]]) and in subsequent works, Hayek claimed that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn had a strong probability of leading towards [[totalitarianism]], because the central authority would have to be endowed with powers that would impact social life as well.
Building on the earlier work of Mises and others, Hayek also argued that in centrally-planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, but that these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. The efficient exchange and use of resources, Hayek claimed, can be maintained only through the [[price]] mechanism in free markets (see [[economic calculation problem]]). In ''The Use of Knowledge in Society'' ([[1945]]), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronize local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous [[self-organization]]. He coined the term [[catallaxy]] to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation."
In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the [[rule of law]], with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Hayek conceded that when competition is not possible (or, more rarely, when competition does not provide efficient outcomes) some degree of direct government control becomes necessary. He also argued that social services are a paramount duty of the state but they should not interfere with the principle of economic competition.
===Spontaneous order===
Hayek viewed the [[price]] mechanism, not as a conscious invention (that which is intentionally designed by man), but as spontaneous order, or what is referred to
|
[[The Animals of Farthing Wood]]''
*''[[The Apprentice (UK)|The Apprentice]]''
*''[[Archangel (Harris novel)|Archangel]]''
*''[[Are You Being Served?]]''
*''[[Arena (television)|Arena]]''
*''[[Around the World in Eighty Treasures]]''
*''[[As Time Goes By]]''
*''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
*''[[Auf Wiedersehen, Pet]]''
**originally an [[ITV]] show from [[1983]] - [[1986]], revived by the BBC in [[2002]] - [[2004]]
==B==
*''[[Bagpuss]]''
*''[[Ballykissangel]]''
*''[[Band of Brothers]]''
*''[[Bargain Hunt]]''
*''[[BBC News]]''
*''[[BBC One O'Clock News]]''
*''[[BBC Six O'Clock News]]''
*''[[BBC Ten O'Clock News]]''
*''[[Bella and the Boys]]''
*''[[Belonging]]''
*''[[Between The Lines]]''
*''[[The Big Read]]''
*''[[The Flowerpot Men|Bill and Ben]]''
*''[[The Bigger Picture with Graham Norton]]''
*''[[Birds of a Feather]]''
*''[[Blackadder]]''
*''[[Blackpool (television)|Blackpool]]''
*''[[Blake's 7]]''
*''[[Bleak House (television)|Bleak House]]''
*''[[Blessed (television)|Blessed]]''
*''[[Blott on the Landscape]]''
*''[[Blue Peter]]''
*''[[The Blue Planet]]''
*''[[Bob the Builder]]''
*''[[Bottom (television)|Bottom]]''
*''[[Boys from the Blackstuff]]''
*''[[Breakfast]]''
*''[[The Brittas Empire]]''
*''[[Bugs (television programme)|Bugs]]''
==C==
*''[[Café Continental]]''
*''[[Cambridge Spies]]''
*''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''
*''[[Captain Pugwash]]''
*''[[Casanova (1971 television)|Casanova]]'' (1971)
*''[[Casanova (2005 television)|Casanova]]'' (2005)
*''[[Casualty (television)|Casualty]]''
*''[[Cathy Come Home]]''
*''[[Celebdaq]]''
*''[[Century Falls]]''
*''[[Challenge Anneka]]''
*''[[Changing Rooms]]''
*''[[Child of our Time]]''
*''[[The Chinese Detective]]''
*''[[Chucklevision]]''
*''[[Civilisation (television series)|Civilisation]]''
*''[[Clocking Off]]''
*''[[Coast]]''
*''[[Colditz (TV series)|Colditz]]''
*''[[Comedy Playhouse]]''
*''[[Countryfile]]''
*''[[Coupling (TV series)|Coupling]]''
*''[[Crackerjack]]''
*''[[Crimewatch UK]]
*''[[Cutting It]]''
==D==
*''[[Dad's Army]]''
*''[[Daily Politics]]''
*''[[Dark Season]]''
*''[[Dead Ringers (comedy)|Dead Ringers]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[The Demon Headmaster]]''
*''[[Dick and Dom in da Bungalow]]''
*''[[Didn't They Do Well]]''
*''[[The Disorderly Room]]''
*''[[Doctor Who]]''
*''[[Doctors]]''
*''[[Doomwatch]]''
==E==
*''[[EastEnders]]''
*''[[Edge of Darkness]]''
*''[[Eldorado (soap opera)|Eldorado]]''
*''[[Essential Guide to Rocks]]''
==F==
*''[[Fame Academy]]''
*''[[The Fast Show]]''
*''[[Fawlty Towers]]''
*''[[Film 2006]]''
*''[[Flog It!]]''
*''[[The Flying Gardener]]''
*''[[Food and Drink]]''
*''[[For The Children]]''
*''[[French and Saunders]]''
==G==
*''[[Gardeners' World]]''
*''[[The Generation Game]]''
*''[[Gimme Gimme Gimme]]''
*''[[The Girl in the Café]]''
*''[[The Good Life]]''
*''[[Goodness Gracious Me]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Goodnight Sweetheart]]''
*''[[Grandstand]]''
*''[[Great Britons]]''
*''[[Ground Force]]''
*''[[The Grove Family]]''
==H==
*''[[Hancock's Half Hour]] / Hancock''
**Originally on BBC Radio
*''[[Harry Enfield]]'s Television Programme''
*''[[Have I Got News For You]]''
**Television version of [[BBC Radio 4]]'s ''[[News Quiz]]''
*''[[A History of Britain]]''
*''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Holby City]]''
*''[[Holiday (television)|Holiday]]''
*''[[Holidays In The Danger Zone]]''
*''[[Hollywood Science]]''
*''[[Homefront (BBC TV show)|Home Front]]''
*''[[Honey We're Killing The Kids]]
*''[[Hope and Glory (TV series)|Hope and Glory]]''
*''[[Horizon (television)|Horizon]]''
*''[[Hotel Babylon]]''
*''[[House Invaders]]''
*''[[House of Cards]]''
*''[[House of Tiny Tearaways]]''
*''[[Howards' Way]]''
*''[[Hustle (BBC)|Hustle]]''
*''[[The Human Body]]''
*''[[Human Instinct]]''
==I==
*''[[I, Claudius]]''
*''[[I'm Alan Partridge]]''
*''[[Imagine...]]''
==J==
*''[[Jackanory]]''
*''[[Jonathan Creek]]''
*''[[Jonny Briggs]]''
*''[[Journeys From The Centre Of The Earth]]''
*''[[Judge John Deed]]''
*''[[Juliet Bravo]]''
==K==
*''[[Kaleidoscope (television)|Kaleidoscope]]''
*''[[Keeping Up Appearances]]''
==L==
*''[[L.A. 7]]''
*''[[Last of the Summer Wine]]''
*''[[Later with Jools Holland]]''
*''[[The League of Gentlemen (television series)|The League of Gentlemen]]''
**Originally on BBC Radio 4 as ''On the Town with the League of Gentlemen''
*''[[The Life of Birds]]''
*''[[The Life of Mammals]]''
*''[[Life on Earth]]''
*''[[Life on Mars]]''
*''[[Life in the Freezer]]''
*''[[Linda Green]]''
*''[[Little Britain]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[The Living Planet]]''
*''[[Look Around You]]''
*''[[Love Soup]]''
==M==
*''[[The Madhouse on Castle Street]]''
*''[[The Man With the Flower in His Mouth]]''
*''[[Manchild]]''
*''[[Mary Mungo & Midge]]''
*''[[Masterchef]]''
*''[[Mastermind (television)|Mastermind]]''
*''[[Match of the Day]]''
*''[[Meet the Ancestors]]''
*''[[Men Behaving Badly]]''
**Two series for [[ITV]], then transferred to the BBC
*''[[Messiah (television)|Messiah]]''
*''[[Miami 7]]''
*''[[The Mighty Boosh]]''
*''[[Mock The Week]]''
*''[[Monarch of the Glen]]''
*''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''
*''The [[Morecambe and Wise]] Show''
**Also on ITV at various times
*''[[My Family (television)|My Family]]''
*''[[My Hero]]''
==N==
*''[[The Naked Chef]]''
*''[[The National Lottery Jetset]]''
*''[[Nationwide (TV series)|Nationwide]]''
*''[[Never Mind The Buzzcocks]]''
*''[[Never the Twain]]''
*''[[Newsnight]]''
*''[[Newsround]]''
*''[[Nighty Night]]''
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four (TV programme)|Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''
*''[[Noddy]]''
*''[[Noel's House Party]]''
*''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]''
==O==
*''[[The Office]]''
*''[[One by One (television)|One by One]]''
*''[[One Foot in the Grave]]''
*''[[Only Fools and Horses]]''
*''[[Open All Hours]]''
*''[[Our Friends in the North]]''
==P==
*''[[Panorama (television)|Panorama]]''
*''[[Michael Parkinson|Parkinson]]''
*''[[Patrick Kielty]]''
*''[[Pennies From Heaven]]''
*''[[Picture Page]]''
*''[[Pinwright's Progress]]''
*''[[Play for Today]]''
*''[[Porridge (TV)|Porridge]]''
*''[[Posh Nosh]]''
*''[[Postman Pat]]''
*''[[The Power of Nightmares]]''
*''[[The Private Life of Plants]]''
*''[[Pulaski (TV)|Pulaski]]''
==Q==
*''[[Q (Spike Milligan series)|Q5]]'', ''Q6'', ''Q7'', ''Q8 / Kuwait'' and ''Q9''
*''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]''
*''[[Quatermass II]]''
*''[[Quatermass and the Pit]]''
*''[[QI]]''
*''[[A Question of Sport]]''
*''[[Question Time (television)|Question Time]]''
==R==
*''[[Ready Steady Cook]]''
*''[[Real Story]]''
*''[[Red Dwarf (television)|Red Dwarf]]''
*''[[Restoration (television)|Restoration]]''
*''[[Robot Wars]]''
*''[[Rome]]''
*''[[Rough Science]]''
*''[[The Royle Family]]''
==S==
*''[[Science Shack]]''
*''[[Sea of Souls]]''
*''[[See Hear]]''
*''[[Shoestring]]''
*''[[Silent Witness]]''
*''[[The Singing Detective]]''
*''[[The Sky at Night]]''
*''[[Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em]]''
*''[[Songs of Praise]]''
*''[[Spooks]]''
*''[[Sports Review]]''
*''[[Springwatch]]''
*''[[Starlight (television)|Starlight]]''
*''[[Steptoe and Son]]''
*''[[Strange]]''
*''[[Survivors]]''
*''[[Sykes]]''
==T==
*''[[Talking to a Stranger]]''
*''[[Telecrime]]''
*''[[Teletubbies]]''
*''[[The Telegoons]]''
*''[[The Thin Blue Line (television)|The Thin Blue Line]]''
*''[[They Think It's All Over]]''
*''[[Test the Nation]]''
*''[[Theatre 625]]''
*''[[Theatre Parade]]''
*''[[Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends]]''
*''[[The Thick of It]]''
*''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]''
*''[[Timewatch]]''
*''[[Tipping the Velvet]]''
*''[[Tomorrow's World]]''
*''[[Top Gear]]''
*''[[Top of the Pops]]''
*''[[To the Manor Born]]''
*''[[Trainer (TV series)|Trainer]]''
*''[[The Trials of Life]]''
*''[[The Two Ronnies]]''
*''[[Two Thousand Acres of Sky]]''
==U==
*''[[United!]]''
*''[[University Challenge]]''
**Originally shown on [[ITV]], still produced by [[Granada Television]]
*''[[Up Pompeii]]''
==V==
*''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
*''[[The Virgin Queen]]''
==W==
*''[[Waking the Dead (television series)|Waking the Dead]]''
*''[[Walking with Beasts]]''
*''[[Walking with Cavemen]]''
*''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]''
**The ''Walking With...'' series were co-produced with the [[Discovery Channel]].
*''[[Watchdog (television)|Watchdog]]''
*''[[Watch with Mother]]''
*''[[The Way We Cooked]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]''
*''[[The Wednesday Play]]''
*''[[What Not To Wear]]''
*''[[What The Romans Did For Us]]''
*''[[What the Victorians Did for Us]]''
*''[[Who Do You Think You Are?]]''
*''[[Why Don't You?]]''
*''[[Wild In Your Garden]]''
*''[[Wildlife on One]]'' / ''Wildlife on Two''
*''[[Wogan]]''
*''[[The Wombles]]''
*''[[The Worst Week of my Life]]''
==Y==
*''[[Yes, Minister]]''
*''[[Yes, Prime Minister]]''
*''[[The Young Ones (television series)|The Young Ones]]''
==Z==
*''[[Z-Cars]]''
*''[[Zoo Quest]]''
== Special events ==
*[[Chelsea Flower Show]]
*[[Children in Need]]
*[[Comic Relief]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival]]
*[[European Championship]]
*[[Eurovision Song Contest]]
*[[Glastonbury Festival]]
*[[Olympic Games]]
*[[Football World Cup]]
*[[The Proms]]
== See also ==
*[[BBC television drama]]
*[[List of television programs]]
**List of [[animated series]]
**[[List of British TV shows remade for the American market]]
**List of [[children's television series]]
**[[List of comedies]]
**List of [[game show]]s
**[[List of science fiction television programs]]
**[[List of television commercials]]
**[[List of television spin-offs]]
{{Programs}}
[[Category:BBC television programmes|BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television series by network]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boomerang</title>
<id>4359</id>
<revision>
<id>41886307</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:33:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.81.36.9</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the device Boomerang}}
[[Image:Boomerang.jpg|thumb|A typical wooden returni
|
ience, creativity, and attention to detail.
In [[motion picture terminology]], a '''montage''' (from the French for "putting together" or "assembly") is a [[film editing]] technique.
==Methods of montage==
There are at least three senses of the term:
#In [[France|French]] film practice, "montage" simply identifies a movie's editor. That is, if you see "montage" in a film's end credits, then that is the film's editor.
#In [[Soviet]] filmmaking of the [[1920s]], "montage" was theorized to be the essence of the cinema. Different filmmakers had various ideas about what that essence was.
#In [[classical Hollywood cinema]], a "montage sequence" was a short segment in a film in which narrative information was presented in a condensed fashion.
===Soviet montage===
[[Lev Kuleshov]] was among the very first to theorize about the relatively young medium of the cinema in the 1920s. For him, the unique essence of the cinema — that which could be duplicated in no other medium — is editing. He argues that editing a film is like constructing a building. Brick-by-brick (shot-by-shot) the building (film) is erected. His often-cited [[Kuleshov Experiment]] established that montage can lead the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film. Montage works because viewers infer meaning based on context.
Although, strictly speaking, U.S. film director [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] was not part of the montage school, he was one of the early proponents of the power of editing — mastering [[cross-cutting]] to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well. Griffith's work in the teens was highly regarded by Kuleshov and other Soviet filmmakers and greatly influenced their understanding of editing.
[[Sergei Eisenstein]] was briefly a student of Kuleshov's, but the two parted ways because they had different ideas of montage. Eisenstein regarded montage as a [[dialectic|dialectical]] means of creating meaning. By contrasting unrelated shots he tried to provoke associations in the viewer, which were induced by shocks.
Like Kuleshov, Eisenstein was a theorist in addition to being a filmmaker. He established five "methods of montage":
#Metric — based solely on the length of a shot
#Rhythmic — based on the length of a shot, plus the visual composition of the image
#Tonal — based on the dominant visual style of an image
#Overtonal — based on the interaction of dominant visual styles
#[[intellectual montage|Intellectual]] — based on the symbolic content generated by two (or more) juxtaposed images; a film metaphor
===Classical montage sequence===
The second kind of montage consists of a series of short shots that are edited into a coherent sequence to condense narrative. It is usually used to advance the story as a whole (often to suggest the passage of time), rather than to create symbolic meaning. In many cases, a song plays in the background to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being conveyed.
Many films are well known for their montage scenes. Examples include the training montages in [[Sylvester Stallone]]'s ''[[Rocky]]'' series of movies, ''[[Dirty Dancing]]'', ''[[Flashdance]]'', several of director [[Sam Raimi]]'s films and the [[satire|satirical]] self-referential montages in ''[[South Park]]'' and ''[[Team America: World Police]]''. In nearly all of these examples, the montages are used to compress narrative time and show the main character learning or improving skills that will help achieve the ultimate goal. The song "Montage" used in ''Team America'''s montage parody described this perfectly:
''Show a lot of things happening at once <br>Remind everyone of what’s going on <br>And with every shot you show a little improvement <br>To show it all would take too long <br>That’s called a montage <br>Oh we want montage''
== Continuity editing ==
{{main|continuity editing}}
What became known as the popular '[[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]]' style of editing was developed by early European and American directors, in particular [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] in his films such as ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' and ''[[Intolerance (movie)|Intolerance]]''. The classical style ensures temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing narrative, using such techniques as the [[180 degree rule]], [[Establishing shot]], and [[Shot reverse shot]].
== Alternatives to Continuity editing ==
Early Russian filmmakers such as [[Lev Kuleshov]] further explored and theorized about editing and its ideological nature. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] developed a system of editing that was unconcerned with the rules of the continuity system of classical Hollywood that he called [[Intellectual montage]].
== Editing techniques ==
*[[180 degree rule]]
*[[A Roll]]
*[[B Roll]]
*[[Cross cutting]]
*[[Cutaway (film) | Cutaway]]
*[[Cut in]]
*[[Cut out]]
*[[Dissolve (film)|Dissolve]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[[Hairy arm]]
*[[Insert (film)|Insert]]
*[[Keying (graphics)|Key]]
*[[L cut]]
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Wipe]]
**[[Clock wipe]]
**[[Heart wipe]]
**[[Matrix wipe]]
**[[Star wipe]]
*[[Axial cut]]
[[Stanley Kubrick]] noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures. Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film. In Alexender Walker's ''Stanley Kubrick Directs,'' Kubrick was quoted as saying, "I love editing. I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking. If I wanted to be frivolous, I might say that everything that precedes editing is merely a way of producing film to edit."
== See also ==
*[[Kuleshov Effect]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of film-related topics]]
*[[Non linear editing]]
*[[Edited movies]]
[[Category:Film techniques]]
[[de:Schnitt (Film)]]
[[fr:Montage]]
[[it:Montaggio]]
[[es:Montaje]]
[[ja:&#26144;&#20687;&#32232;&#38598;]]
[[sv:Filmklippning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freestyle</title>
<id>10776</id>
<revision>
<id>42034995</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:06:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ary29</username>
<id>64395</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''freestyle''' is used to describe a [[sport]] or other activity where the participant is free to choose a [[style]] at will. It is also used to describe a version of a sport which is slightly more lenient than the sport it descended from.
See (in music):
* [[Freestyle music]], also known as "Latin hip hop" or "Latin freestyle"
* [[Freestyle rap]]ping is improvised rapping.
* Freestyle was the name of [[hip hop music]]ian [[Pretty Tony]]'s one man band.
* [[Freestyle (Swedish band)]] is a Swedish band popular in the [[1980s]].
* [[Freestyle (radio program)]] is on the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]'s [[CBC Radio One|Radio One]]
* ''Freestyle'' is a Saturday night music video request show on New Zealand's [http://www.c4tv.co.nz C4].
* ''Freestyler'' is a [[Bomfunk MC's]] single.
* [[Freestylers]] is a [[United Kingdom]] [[electronic music]] group.
See (in sports):
* [[Freestyle frisbee]]
* [[Freestyle fighting]], a kind of martial art that incorporates various styles and forms of martial arts.
* Freestyle [[FMX]], motorcycle jumping on a [[motocross]] bike.
* [[Freestyle BMX]], bicycle stunts on a [[BMX]] bike.
* [[Freestyle swimming]]
* [[Freestyle wrestling]]
* In skiing:
** [[Freestyle skiing]] (which includes aerial, moguls and ballet skiing)
** Freestyle skis, which are also known as [[Twin-tip ski]]s
** [[Freestyle snowboarding]]
** In cross-country skiing, [[cross-country skiing#Free.2FSkating|skating]] is allowed in ''freestyle'' races
* [[Freestyle skydiving]]
* [[Freestyle skateboarding]]
* Freestyle hockey, which is like normal [[field hockey|hockey]], but:
:#The number of players per team is increased from 11 to 14.
:#The length is increased from 70 to 100 minutes.
:#Goals can be shot from anywhere.
:#A player can hit anyone from the opposing team with his/her stick.
:#There are no other changes.
*[[Freestyle (monster trucks)]]
* [[Freestyle society]], a society dedicated to the acrobatic arts.
* [[Freestyle Soccer]]
==See also==
* Freestyle dance
* [[Musical Canine Freestyle]]
(in consumer goods):
* In [[Sweden]] the word '''freestyle''' is synonymous with a portable [[cassette tape]] player.
*[[Reebok Freestyle]], a women's athletic shoe.
*[[Ford Freestyle]], a crossover SUV.
{{disambig}}
[[it:Freestyle]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12522;&#12540;&#12473;&#12479;&#12452;&#12523;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich Wöhler</title>
<id>10777</id>
<revision>
<id>32498022</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T17:03:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name=Friedrich Wöhler|
image_name=Friedrich Wöhler Stich.jpg|
image_caption=German [[chemist]] |
quotation=Father of organic chemistry|
date_of_birth=[[July 31]], [[1800]] |
place_of_birth=
[[Eschersheim]], [[Frankfurt am Main]],[[Germany]]|
dead=dead |
date_of_death=[[September 23]], [[1882]] |
place_of_death=[[Göttingen]],[[Germany]]
}}
'''Friedrich Wöhler''' ([[July 31]], [[1800]] - [[September 23]], [[1882]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[chemist]], best-known for his synthesis of [[urea]], but also the first to isolate several of the elements.
==Early days==
He w
|
ce)|Baris]]" are some of the better-known examples. -->
After being conquered by [[Japan]] during [[World War II]], Bali became part of the [[Republic of East Indonesia]], and in [[1948]] became part of [[United States of Indonesia]].
In [[1965]], after a failed ''[[coup d'etat]]'' against the national government, Bali was the scene of widespread killings of members and sympathizers of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) by right-wing militias, along with several other parts of Indonesia.
On [[October 12]] [[2002]], there was a [[2002 Bali terrorist bombing|car bomb attack]] in the tourist resort of [[Kuta]], killing 202 people, mostly foreign tourists. Another series of bombings occurred nearly three years later at Kuta and nearby Jimbaran; see [[2005 Bali bombings]].
==Demographics==
Bali is a richly diverse island of approximately 3.57 million people ([[As of 2003|2003]] statistics).
===Religion===
Unlike most of [[Islam|Muslim]]-majority Indonesia, about 92% of Bali's population adheres to [[Balinese Hinduism]], formed as a combination of existing [[Balinese mythology|local beliefs]] and [[Hindu]] influences from mainland [[Southeast Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Minority religions include [[Islam]] (5.7%), [[Christianity]] (1.4%), and [[Buddhism]] (0.6%) ([[As of 2003|2003]] statistics).
===Language===
[[Balinese language|Balinese]] and [[Indonesian language|Bahasa Indonesian]] are the most widely spoken [[language]]s in Bali, and many Balinese people are [[bilingual]] or even [[trilingual]]. [[English language|English]] is a common third language owing to the island's large [[tourism industry]].
Balinese is a rich and diverse language reflecting the population. In the past, the language was heavily influenced by the [[Balinese caste system]], but this is becoming less and less pronounced.
===Culture===
Bali is famous for the arts, both the performing arts as well as painting, scuplture, and woodcarving. Balinese [[gamelan]] music is highly developed and varied. <!--Balinese dance is also highly developed and considered by many to be one of the world's finest artistic traditions-->. The dances portray stories from Hindu Epics such as Ramayana. Famous Balinese dances include [[Pendet]], [[legong]], [[baris (dance)]], [[topeng]], [[barong]], Kecak (the fire dance) and many others. The problem Bali's culture is facing today is from the toursim industry. Today the culture is slowly oriented to attract tourists; its original form is gradually fading away. One can project Bali to become like another Hawaii.
==See also==
* [[Balinese people]]
* [[Balinese language]]
* [[Balinese Hinduism]]
* [[Balinese mythology]]
* [[Balinese caste system]]
* [[Culture of Indonesia]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[Bali bombings]]
==External links==
{{commonscat|Bali}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/southeast_asia/ Average weather conditions]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Bali Bali travel guide] at [http://wikitravel.org/en/Main_Page Wikitravel]
* [http://ivebeentobalitoo.blogspot.com/ I've been to Bali too (blog looking at real Bali culture)]
* [http://www.baliblog.com/ Bali Blog] - Coverage of daily life, news, and things to do in Bali
* [http://www.agnihoma.com/ Agnihoma.com | About Hindu Bali Religion and Balinese Tradition, Ritual and Ceremony]
==References==
* Miguel Covarrubias, ''Island of Bali'', 1946. ISBN 9625930604
{{Indonesia}}
[[Category:Bali| ]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[ar:بالي]]
[[da:Bali]]
[[de:Bali]]
[[et:Bali]]
[[es:Bali]]
[[eo:Balio]]
[[fa:بالی]]
[[fr:Bali]]
[[ko:발리 섬]]
[[id:Bali]]
[[it:Bali]]
[[he:באלי]]
[[lt:Balis]]
[[ms:Bali]]
[[nl:Bali (Indonesië)]]
[[ja:バリ島]]
[[no:Bali]]
[[nn:Bali]]
[[pl:Bali (wyspa)]]
[[pt:Bali]]
[[ro:Bali]]
[[ru:Бали]]
[[scn:Bali]]
[[simple:Bali]]
[[sl:Bali]]
[[fi:Bali]]
[[sv:Bali]]
[[zh:巴厘岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bulgarian language</title>
<id>4149</id>
<revision>
<id>41931696</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:35:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Komitata</username>
<id>1018424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Bulgarian
|nativename=Български ''Bǎlgarski''
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Bulgaria]], [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], the [[Western Outlands]] region in [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Romania]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]] and among emigrant communities around the world
|region=[[The Balkans]]
|speakers=approx. 10 million, incl. 1.5–2 million second-language speakers
|fam2=[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|fam3=[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|fam4=[[South Slavic]]
|fam5=Eastern South Slavic
|nation=[[Bulgaria]]
|agency=[http://www.ibl.bas.bg/index.htm Institute of Bulgarian] at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (Институт за български език)
|iso1=bg|iso2=bul|iso3=bul}}
'''Bulgarian''' is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]], a member of the [[South Slavic|Southern]] branch of the [[Slavic languages]]. Bulgarian demonstrates several linguistic innovations that set it apart from other Slavic languages, such as the elimination of noun [[declension]], the development of a suffixed [[definite article]] (see [[Balkan linguistic union]]), the lack of a verb [[infinitive]], and the retention and further development of the [[proto-Slavic]] verb system. There are various verb forms to express nonwitnessed, retold, and doubtful action.
Bulgarian is part of the [[Balkan linguistic union]], which also includes the closely related [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], as well as [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and some [[Serbian language|Serbian]] dialects. The prelevant opinion in Bulgaria is that the language in [[Republic of Macedonia]] is an other literary variant of Bulgarian language. Most of these languages share some of the above-mentioned characteristics (e.g., definite article, infinitive loss, complicated verb system) and many more. The "nonwitnessed action" verb forms, pertaining to a mood known as [[renarrative mood]], have been attributed to Turkish influences by most Bulgarian linguists. Morphohologically, they are obviously related to the perfect tenses, which are known in Bulgarian linguistic tradition as "preliminary" (''предварителни'') tenses.
== History ==
{{main|History of Bulgarian}}
The development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several historical periods. The prehistoric period (essentially proto-Slavic) occurred between the Slavonic invasion of the eastern Balkans and the mission of [[St. Cyril]] and [[St. Methodius]] to Great Moravia in the 860s. '''[[Old Bulgarian]]''' (9th to 11th century, also referred to as [[Old Church Slavonic]]) was the language used by [[St. Cyril]], [[St. Methodius]] and their disciples to translate the [[Bible]] and other liturgical literature from [[Greek language|Greek]]. '''Middle Bulgarian''' (12th to 15th century) was a language of rich literary activity and major innovations. '''Modern Bulgarian''' dates from the 16th century onwards; the present-day written language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. The historical development of the Bulgarian language can be described as a transition from a highly [[synthetic language]] (Old Bulgarian) to a typical [[analytic language]] (Modern Bulgarian) with Middle Bulgarian as a midpoint in this transition.
Fewer than 20 words remain in Bulgarian from the language of the [[Bulgars]], the Central Asian people who moved into present-day Bulgaria and eventually adopted the local Slavic language. The [[Bolgar language]], a member of the Turkic language family or the Iranian language family ([[Pamir languages]]), is otherwise unrelated to Bulgarian.
Old Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing. As Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as <u>языкъ словяньскъ</u>, "the Slavic language". In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was gradually replaced by the name <u>языкъ блъгарьскъ</u>, the "Bulgarian language". In some cases, the name <u>языкъ блъгарьскъ</u> was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. A most notable example of anachronism is the Service of [[St. Cyril]] from Skopje (<u>Скопски миней</u>), a 13th century Middle Bulgarian manuscript from northern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] according to which St. Cyril preached with "Bulgarian" books among the Moravian Slavs. The first mention of the language as the "Bulgarian language" instead of the "Slavonic language" comes in the work of the Greek clergy of the [[Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid]] in the [[11th century]], for example in the [[Greek language|Greek]] hagiography of [[Saint Clement of Ohrid]] by [[Theophylact of Bulgaria|Theophylact]] of Ohrid (late 11th century).
During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Old Slavonic case system, but preserving the rich verb system (while the development was exactly the opposite in most other Slavic languages) and developing a definite article. It was influenced by its non-Slavic neighbours in the [[Balkan linguistic union]] (mostly grammatically) and later also by [[Turkish language|Turkish]], which was the official language of [[Ottoman empire]] in the form of the [[Ottoman language]] (an earlier former of Turkish), mostly lexically. As a national revival occurred towards the end of the period of Ottoman rule (mostly during the 19th century), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged which drew heavily on [[Russian language|Russia
|
onductor]]. Thus all armchair (''n''=''m'') nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (5,0), (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting. An alternative (equivalent) representation of this condition is if (''n'' - ''m'') /3=integer, then the SWNT is metallic. In theory, metallic nanotubes can have an electrical current density more than 1,000 times stronger than metals such as [[silver]] and [[copper]].
===Thermal===
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as "[[ballistic conduction]]," but good insulators laterally to the tube axis.
==Defects==
As with any material, the existence of defects affect the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85% [http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2004/isbn9512273799/article5.pdf]. Due to the almost one-dimensional structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on the weakest segment of it in a similar manner to a chain, where a defect in a single link will greatly diminish the strength of the entire chain.
In terms of the tube's electrical properties, they too are affected by the presence of defects. A common result is the lowered conductivity through the defected region of the tube. Some defect formation in armchair type tubes (which are metallic) can cause the region surrounding that defect to become semiconducting. Futhermore single monoatomic vacancies induce magnetic properties.
==Synthesis==
Techniques have been developed to produce nanotubes in sizeable quantities, including [[arc discharge]], [[laser ablation]], high pressure carbon monoxide ([[HiPco]]), and [[chemical vapor deposition]] (CVD). Of these, the CVD method has shown the most promise in terms of its price/unit ratio. It generally involves reacting a carbon-containing gas (such as [[acetylene]], [[ethylene]], [[ethanol]], etc.) with a metal catalyst particle (usually [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]] or a combination of these such as cobalt/iron or cobalt/molybdenium) at temperatures above 600°C. Unfortunately, although these methods can produce large quantities of nanotubes, their cost still precludes any large-scale applications.
[[Fullerene | Fullerenes]] and carbon nanotubes are not necessarily products of high-tech laboratories; they are commonly formed in such mundane places as candle flames. However, these naturally occurring varieties, due to the highly uncontrolled environment in which they're produced, are highly irregular in size and quality, lacking the high degree of uniformity necessary to meet the needs of both research and industry.
==Applications==
[[Image:Louie nanotube.jpg|thumb||330px|An electronic device known as a [[diode]] have been proposed to be formed by joining two nanoscale carbon tubes with different electronic properties.]]
The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controlling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in [[nanotechnology]] engineering. The highest [[tensile strength]] an individual SWNT has been tested to be is 63 [[Pascal|GPa]] [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=nanotubes+%22tensile+strength%22+%2263+GPa%22&btnG=Google+Search]. In Earth's upper atmosphere, atomic [[oxygen]] erodes the carbon nanotubes, but other applications of carbon nanotubes rarely need the surface to be protected. Though it is debatable if nanotube materials can ever be made with a tensile strength approaching that of individual tubes, composites may still yield incredible strengths potentially sufficient to allow the building of such things as [[space elevator]]s, artificial muscles, ultrahigh-speed flywheels, and more. MIT is working on combat jackets utilizing carbon nanotubes for ultrastrong fibers and for monitoring its wearer's condition.
Carbon nanotubes have already been used as composite fibers in [[polymers]] and [[concrete]] to improve the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product. Researchers have also found that adding them to [[polyethylene]] increases the polymer's [[elastic modulus]] by 30%. In concrete, they increase the tensile strength, and halt crack propagation.
Conductive carbon nanotubes have been used for several years in brushes for commercial electric motors. They replace traditional [[carbon black]], which is mostly impure spherical carbon fullerenes. The nanotubes improve electrical and thermal conductivity because they stretch through the plastic matrix of the brush. This permits the carbon filler to be reduced from 30% down to 3.6%, so that more matrix is present in the brush. Nanotube composite motor brushes are better-lubricated (from the matrix), cooler-running (both from better lubrication and superior thermal conductivity), less brittle (more matrix, and fiber reinforcement), stronger and more accurately moldable (more matrix). Since brushes are a critical failure point in electric motors, and also don't need much material, they became economical before almost any other application.
A recent 2005 Science paper notes that drawing transparent high strength swathes of SWNT is a functional production technique. These conductive elastic materials are among the many applications listed here of photovoltaic active structures as well as load structures.
Carbon nanotubes additionally can also be used to produce nanowires of other chemicals, such as gold or zinc oxide. These nanowires in turn can be used to cast nanotubes of other chemicals, such as gallium nitride. These can have very different properties from CNTs - for example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs are hydrophobic, giving them possible uses in organic chemistry that CNTs could not be used for.
One use for nanotubes that has already been developed is as extremely fine electron guns, which could be used as miniature [[cathode ray tube]]s in thin high-brightness low-energy low-weight displays. This type of display would consist of a group of many tiny CRTs, each providing the [[electron]]s to hit the [[phosphor]] of one [[pixel]], instead of having one giant CRT whose electrons are aimed using electric and [[magnetic field]]s. These displays are known as [[field emission display]]s (FEDs). A nanotube formed by joining nanotubes of two different diameters end to end can act as a [[diode]], suggesting the possibility of constructing electronic computer circuits entirely out of nanotubes. Nanotubes have been shown to be [[superconductivity|superconducting]] at low temperatures.
Nanotubes can be opened and filled with materials such as [[molecules|biological molecules]], raising the possibility of applications in [[biotechnology]]. They can be used to dissipate heat from tiny computer chips.
==Carbon nanotube fiber & film==
One application for nanotubes that is currently being researched is high [[tensile strength]] [[fiber]]s. Two methods are currently being tested for the manufacture of such fibers. A French team has developed a liquid spun system that involves pulling a fiber of nanotubes from a bath which yields a product that is approximately 60% nanotubes. The other method, which is simpler but produces weaker fibers uses traditional melt-drawn [[polymer]] fiber techniques with nanotubes mixed in the [[polymer]]. After drawing, the fibers can have the polymer burned out of them to make them purely nanotube or they can be left as they are.
Ray Baughman's group from the [[NanoTech Institute]] at [[University of Texas at Dallas]] produced the current toughest material known in mid-2003 by spinning fibers of single wall carbon nanotubes with [[polyvinyl alcohol]]. Beating the previous contender, [[spider silk]], by a factor of four, the fibers require 600 [[Joule|J]]/[[gram|g]] to break. In comparison, the bullet-resistant fiber [[Kevlar]] is 27-33J/g. In mid-2005 Baughman and co-workers from [[Australia]]'s [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization]] developed a method for producing transparent carbon nanotube sheets 1/1000th the thickness of a human hair capable of supporting 50,000 times their own mass.
In August 2005, Ray Baughman's team managed to develop a fast method to manufacture up to seven meters per minute of nanotube tape [http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/003330.html]. Once washed with [[ethanol]], the ribbon is only 50 [[nanometer]]s thick; a square kilometer of the material would only weigh 30 kilograms.
In 2004 Alan Windle's group of scientists at the [[Cambridge-MIT Institute]] developed a way to make carbon nanotube fiber continuously at the speed of several centimetres per second just as nanotubes are produced. One thread of carbon nanotubes was more than 100 metres long. The resulting fibers are electrically conductive and as strong as ordinary textile threads. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3872931.stm]
[http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994769]
==Current progress==
* April 2001, [[International Business Machines|IBM]] announced it had developed a technique for automatically developing pure [[semiconductor]] surfaces from nanotubes.
*[[September 19]] [[2003]], [[NEC Corporation]], [[Japan]], [http://www.nec.co.jp/press/en/0309/1901.html announced] stable fabrication technology of carbon nanotube transistors.
* 2002, REBO method of quickly and accurately modeling classical nanotube behavior is described. [http://sinnott.mse.ufl.edu/sub05b_nanomechanics.html]
* 2002, multi-walled nanotubes demonstrated to be fastest known oscillators (> 50 GHz) [http://focus.aps.org/story/v9/st4]
*June 2003, High purity (80%) nanotubes with metallic properties were reported to be extracted with [[electrophoresis|electrophoretic]] techniques. [http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/6/19/1]
* 2003, nanotubes cost from 20 euro per gram to 1000 euro per gram, depending on purity, composition (single-wall, doub
|
p]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1981 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1981-82|Conference Championship]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1982 || 6 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1983 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1984 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1985-86|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1986 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1988 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1992 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXVII]]'''
|-
|1993 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXVIII]]'''
|-
|1994 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Conference Championship]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1995 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXX]]'''
|-
|1996 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]])
|-
|1997 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Arizona Cardinals|Cardinals]])
|-
|1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|2000 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]])
|-
|2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|2005 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Cowboys All-Time Record is 424-314-6 (including playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Dallas Cowboys roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Troy Aikman]] (QB 1989-2000)
*[[Tony Dorsett]] (RB 1977-87)
*[[Tom Landry]] (Head Coach 1960-88)
*[[Bob Lilly]] (DT 1961-74)
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[Mel Renfro]] (S/CB 1964-77)
*[[Tex Schramm]] (Pres/GM 1960-89)
*[[Roger Staubach]] (QB 1964-79)
*[[Randy White (football player)|Randy White]] (DT 1975-88)
*[[Rayfield Wright]] (OT 1967-1979)
</div><br clear="all">
Due to the rich history of the Cowboys from the 1960's, 1970's and 1990's, one would assume that the Cowboys would have a large number of inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Unfortunately, however, they do not. Many have raised strong arguments asking why many Cowboys legends have been snubbed by the Hall's induction committee, especially those who played during the decade of the 1970's. On the Pro Football Hall of Fame's 1970's all-decade team (selected by the same group as the one charged with picking the inductees), there are six Dallas Cowboys ([[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]], Rayfield Wright, Roger Staubach, [[Harvey Martin]], Bob Lilly, and [[Cliff Harris]]) and eight Pittsburgh Steelers ([[Lynn Swann]], [[Mike Webster]], [[Terry Bradshaw]], [[Franco Harris]], [[LC Greenwood]], Mean [[Joe Greene]], [[Jack Ham]] and [[Jack Lambert]])*. Of those, only three Cowboys have been inducted (Wright, Staubach and Lilly) versus seven Steelers (all but Greenwood). Not including the two kickers and one punter on the team, the three Cowboys are among only eleven players on the forty-five man roster not in the Hall.
The most notable among the three is Pearson, who has campaigned to raise awareness in NFL circles about the supposed Anti-Cowboys prejudice. Perhaps the biggest case to be made for Pearson's induction is the 2001 induction of Pittsburgh's Swann, who played in the same era as Pearson at the same position (wide receiver). He caught only 336 passes for 5,462 yards in his career to Pearson's 489 and 7,822, respectively. Overall, the Cowboys have nine inducteed to the Hall**, which ties them for twelfth.
However, those that would argue with the conspiracy theorists point out that many of the teams ahead of Dallas in number of inductees have been around much longer. The top five teams (the [[Chicago Bears]], [[Green Bay Packers]], [[New York Giants]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Washington Redskins]], respectively) were all founded in 1933 or before. The Cowboys were founded in 1960. Others argue that the defensive players for the Cowboys in the 1970's operated under an ingenious system devised by Head Coach Tom Landry (see above) which inflated the public's perception of their supposed skill. The debate over an anti-Cowboys bias still rages today:
http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060203/SPORTS08/602030433/1296
http://www.mysanantonio.com/sports/columnists/bharvey/stories/MYSA020406.1C.COL.FBNharvey.cowboys.21f0406f.html
(*)The NFL does not officially identify players with the team with whom they played most of their career. All teams for whom a player played are recognized equally.
(**)Numbers do not include players who played a minority of their career with the Cowboys or other teams. For example, Lance Alworth played for the San Diego Chargers from 1962-1970, and with the Cowboys from 1971-1972. He is not included in the nine for the Cowboys, nor is Mike Ditka, who played for 8 years with the Bears and Eagles before ending his career with a four-year stint with the Cowboys.
===Super Bowl MVPs===
With the Dallas Cowboys holding the NFL record for the most Super Bowl appearances (8) and tied at 5 (with the 49ers and Steelers) for the most Super Bowl victories, it stands to reason that the team would at least be tied for the most [[Super Bowl MVP|Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Awards]]. They aren't...tied, that is. The team actually holds the record for the most SB MVP honors (7).
* [[Chuck Howley]]'s performance as Dallas' linebacker in [[Super Bowl V]] earned him the honor, despite his team's loss to the [[Baltimore Colts]] in the big game. (As a linebacker, he was the first defensive player to win the award, which had been given to quarterbacks previously and his honor marks the only time in NFL history where a player from the losing team was chosen as MVP.)
* [[Roger Staubach]] became the fourth QB to earn MVP honors in Dallas' win over the [[Miami Dolphins]] in [[Super Bowl VI]].
* [[Super Bowl XII]] saw the first and only (through Super Bowl XL) tie as two Cowboys were chosen for MVP honors: DT [[Randy White]] and DE [[Harvey Martin]].
* [[Troy Aikman]] became the second Dallas QB to earn the MVP honor as he led the Cowboys back to victory in 1993 in [[Super Bowl XXVII]].
* Dallas earned its first back-to-back victory thanks in part to running back, and [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] MVP, [[Emmitt Smith]].
* Cornerback [[Larry Brown (cornerback)|Larry Brown]] returned with the championship Cowboys team to his third Super Bowl in just four years. His two key interceptions helped Dallas win [[Super Bowl XXX]] and earned him the first MVP award ever given to a cornerback.
===Retired numbers/[[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''"Ring of Honor"''']]===
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''"Ring of Honor"''']], which is on permanent display encircling the field at '''Texas Stadium''' in Irving. The first inductee was [[Bob Lilly]] in 1975 and by 2005, the hallowed ring contained [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''17 names''']], all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president.
The most recent inductees were: Aikman, Smith and Irvin, known as "The Triplets". The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during half time at a [[Monday Night Football]] home game against the arch-rival [[Washington Redskins]] on [[September 19]], [[2005]] (Cowboys lost 14-13).
Although the team doesn't officially retire jersey numbers, in the 2005 season, the numbers of [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''"Ring of Honor"''']] inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Meredith (17), Hayes and Smith (22), Perkins and Harris (43) and Lilly (74) were not being worn by any Cowboys player.
===Not to be forgotten===
The following is a list of players who also made valuable contributions to the Dallas Cowboys, but are not in either the Pro Football Hall of Fame or the Ring of Honor:
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[George Andrie]] (DE 1962-72)
*[[Bill Bates]] (S 1983-97)
*[[Larry Cole]] (DE 1968-80)
*[[Doug Cosbie]] (TE 1979-88)
*[[Michael Downs]] (DB 1981-88)
*[[Billy Joe Dupree]] (TE 1973-83)
*[[Dave Edwards]] (OLB 1963-75)
*[[Walt Garrison]] (FB 1966-74)
*[[Peter Gent]] (WR 1964-1968)
*[[La'Roi Glover]] (DT 2002-2005)
*[[Cornell Green]] (DB 1962-74)
*[[Charles Haley]] (DE 1992-96)
*[[Alvin Harper]] (WR 1991-94)
*[[Thomas "Hollywood" Henderson]] (LB 1975-79)
*[[Calvin Hill]] (RB 1969-74)
*[[Tony Hill (American football)|Tony Hill]] (WR 1977-86)
*[[Jim Jeffcoat]] (DE 1983-94)
*[[Daryl Johnston]] (FB 1989-99)
*[[Ed Jones (football player)|Ed "Too Tall" Jones]] (DE 1974-78, 1980-89)
*[[D.D. Lewis]] (LB 1968-81)
*[[Leon Lett]] (DL 1991-2000)
*[[Eugene Lockhart]] (LB 1984-90)
*[[Harvey Martin]] (DE 1973-83)
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[Russell Maryland]] (DT 1
|
led a [[redundancy check]].
For error correction, a distribution of likely perturbations is assumed at least approximately. Perturbations to a string are then classified into large (improbable) and small (probable) errors. The second criterion is then restated so that if we are given H(x) and x+s, then we can compute x efficiently if s is small. Such hash functions are known as error correction codes. Important sub-class of these correction codes are [[cyclic redundancy check]]s and [[Reed-Solomon code]]s.
== Audio identification ==
For audio identification such as finding out whether an [[MP3]] file matches one of a list of known items, one could use a conventional hash function such as MD5, but this would be very sensitive to highly likely perturbations such as time-shifting, CD read errors, different compression algorithms or implementations or changes in volume. Using something like MD5 is useful as a first pass to find exactly identical files, but another more advanced algorithm is required to find all identical items. Contrary to an assumption often voiced by people who don't follow the industry carefully, hashing algorithms ''do'' exist that are robust to these minor differences. Most of the algorithms available are not extremely robust, but some are so robust that they can identify music played on loud-speakers in a noisy room. <!-- Examples of such algorithms include ... -->
== Rabin-Karp string search algorithm ==
[[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]] is a relatively fast [[string searching algorithm]] that works in [[Big O notation|O(n)]] time on average. It is based on the use of hashing to compare strings.
== Origins of the term ==
The term "hash" apparently comes by way of analogy with its standard meaning in the physical world, to "chop and mix."
[[Knuth]] notes that [[Hans Peter Luhn]] of [[IBM]] appears to have been the first to use the concept, in a memo dated January [[1953]]; the term ''hash'' came into use some ten years later.
In the SHA-1 algorithm, for example, the domain is "flattened" and "chopped" into "words" which are then "mixed" with one another using carefully chosen mathematical functions. The range ("hash value") is made to be a definite size, 160 bits (which may be either smaller or larger than the domain), through the use of [[modular_arithmetic|modular division]].
== See also ==
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Cryptographic hash function]]
*[[HMAC]]
*[[Geometric hashing]]
*[[Message digest]]
*[[Perfect hash function]]
*[[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]]
*[[Zobrist hashing]]
*[[Bloom filter]]
* [[Hash table]]
* [[Hash list]]
* [[Hash tree]]
*[[Coalesced hashing]]
== References ==
* [http://www.extra.research.philips.com/natlab/download/audiofp/cbmi01audiohashv1.0.pdf Robust Audio Hashing for Content Identification]
== External links ==
*[http://www.partow.net/programming/hashfunctions/index.html General purpose hash function algorithms (C\C++\Pascal\Java\Ruby)]
*[http://burtleburtle.net/bob/hash/evahash.html Hash Functions for Hash Table Lookup] by Bob Jenkins
*[http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/hash.html Hash Functions] by Paul Hsieh
*[http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2176 What is a hash function?] from RSA Laboratories
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, etc. hashing algorithms]
[[Category:Search algorithms]]
[[Category:Error detection and correction]]
[[ca:Hashing]]
[[cs:Hašovací funkce]]
[[da:Hashfunktion]]
[[de:Hash-Funktion]]
[[es:Función hash]]
[[fr:Fonction de hachage]]
[[it:Hash]]
[[he:פונקציה חד כיוונית]]
[[lt:Maišos funkcija]]
[[nl:Hashfunctie]]
[[ja:ハッシュ関数]]
[[pl:Funkcja haszująca]]
[[pt:Hash]]
[[ru:Хеширование]]
[[sl:Sekljalna funkcija]]
[[uk:Хешувальна функція]]
[[zh:散列函數]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High jump</title>
<id>13791</id>
<revision>
<id>41940720</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:48:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jonel</username>
<id>56176</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EthelCatherwood1928.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold medal winner [[Ethel Catherwood]] of [[Canada]] ''scissors'' over the bar at the [[1928 Summer Olympics]]. Her winning result was 1.59 m]]
The '''high jump''' is an [[athletics]]/[[track and field]] event in which competitors must jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights.
==History==
Although the event was likely competed in as early as the ancient Greek Olympics, the first recorded high jump competition took place in Scotland in the early [[19th century]], with clearances of up to 5'6" (1.68 m) measured. Early jumpers used either a straight on approach or a ''scissors'' technique. In the latter, the bar was approached on a diagonal, and the jumper threw first the inside leg and then the other over the bar in a scissoring motion. Around the turn of the century, techniques began to modernize, starting with M.F. Sweeney's ''Eastern cut-off''. By taking off as in the scissors, but extending his back and flattening out over the bar, the Irish-American gained a more economic clearance and took the world record to 6'5-5/8" (1.97 m) in [[1895]].
<div class="floatright">
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:220 height:1000
PlotArea = width:35 height:950 left:50 bottom:40
Legend = columns:2 left:15 top:25 columnwidth:50
AlignBars = early
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1920 till:2004
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1920
Colors=
id:Basis value:red legend:World_record_women's_high_jump
PlotData=
bar:Leaders width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:XS shift:(22,-4)
from:1922 till:end color:Basis
at:1922 text:[[Nancy_Vorhees]]_1,46_m
at:1926 text:[[Phyllis_Green]]_1,55_m
at:1929 text:[[Carolina_Gisoll]]_1,60_m
at:1932 text:[[Jean_Shiley]]_1,65_m
at:1939 text:[[Dorothy_Adams]]_1,66_m
at:1943 text:[[Fanny_Blankers-Koen]]_1,71_m
at:1956 text:[[Mildred Singleton]]_1,76_m
at:1958 text:[[Iolanda_Balas]]_1,80_m
at:1960 shift:(22,-8) text:Iolanda_Balas_1,85_m
at:1961 shift:(22,-7) text:Iolanda_Balas_1,90_m
at:1961 shift:(22,0) text:Iolanda_Balas_1,91_m
at:1971 text:[[Ilona_Gusenbauer]]_1,92_m
at:1972 text:[[Jordanka_Blagojewa]]_1,94_m
at:1974 text:[[Rosemarie_Ackermann]]_1,95_m
at:1976 shift:(22,-8) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_1,96_m
at:1977 shift:(22,-8) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_1,97_m
at:1977 shift:(22,-1) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_2,00_m
at:1978 shift:(22,-2) text:[[Sara_Simeoni]]_2,01_m
at:1982 shift:(22,-6) text:[[Ulrike_Meyfarth]]_2,02_m
at:1983 shift:(22,-8) text:Ulrike_Meyfarth_2,03_m
at:1983 shift:(22,-1) text:[[Tamara_Bykowa]]_2,04_m
at:1984 shift:(22,-5) text:Tamara_Bykowa_2,05_m
at:1984 shift:(22,2) text:[[Ludmilla_Andonowa]]_2,07_m
at:1986 text:[[Stefka_Kostadinova]]_2,08_m
at:1987 text:Stefka_Kostadinova_2,09_m
</timeline>
</div>
Another American, M.F. Horine, developed a yet more efficient technique, the 'Western roll'. In this style, the bar again is approached on a diagonal, but the inner leg is used for the take-off, while the outer leg is thrust up to lead the body sideways over the bar. Horine took the world standard to 6'7" (2.01 m) in [[1912]]. His technique predominated through the [[Berlin Olympics]] of [[1936]] where the event was won by Cornelius Johnson at 2.03 m (6'9-3/4").
American and then Russian jumpers dominated the next four decades, which saw the evolution of the ''straddle'' technique. Straddle jumpers took off as in the Western roll, but rotated their (belly-down) torso around the bar, obtaining the most economical clearance to date. Straddle-jumper Charles Dumas broke the elusive 7' (2.13 m) barrier in [[1956]], and American wunderkind [[John Thomas (high jumper)|John Thomas]] pushed the world mark to 2.23 m (7'3-3/4") in [[1960]]. [[Valeriy Brumel]] took over the event for the next four years. The elegant Soviet jumper radically sped up his approach run, took the record up to 2.28 m (7'5-3/4"), and won the Olympic gold medal in [[1964]], before a motorcycle accident foreshortened his career.
American coaches, including two-time [[NCAA]] champion Frank Costello of the University of Maryland, flocked to Russia to learn from Brumel and his coaches. However it would be a solitary innovator at Oregon State University, [[Dick Fosbury]], who would bring the high jump into the next century. Taking advantage of the raised, softer landing areas by then in use, Fosbury added a new twist to the outmoded Eastern Cut-off. He directed himself over the bar head and shoulders first, sliding over on his back and landing in a fashion which would likely have broken his neck in the old sawdust landing pits. After he used this [[Fosbury flop]] to win the [[1968]] Olympic gold medal, the technique began to spread around the world, and soon ''floppers'' were dominating international high jump competitions. The last straddler to set a world record was the late Vladimir Yashchenko, who cleared 2.33 m (7'7-3/4") in 1977 and then 2.35 m (7'8-1/2") indoors in 1978.
Among renowned high jumpers following Fosbury's lead were: Americans Dwight Stones and his rival, 5'8" (1.73 m) Franklin Jacobs, who cleared 2.32 m (7'7-1/4"), an astounding two feet (0.59 m) over his head; Chinese record-setters Ni-chi Chin and Zhu Jianhua; Germans Gerd Wessig and Dietmar Mögenburg; Swedish Olympic medalist and world record holder [[Patrik Sjöberg]]; and female jumpers [[Iolanda Balaş]] of Romania, Ulrike Meyfarth of Germany and Italy'
|
t>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comedy film]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cult Film</title>
<id>5141</id>
<revision>
<id>15903371</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlie Chaplin</title>
<id>5142</id>
<revision>
<id>42090671</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:40:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Jamaica|Jamaican]] musician named Charlie Chaplin, see [[Charlie Chaplin (singer)]]; for the artist and printmaker, see [[Charles Chaplin (artist)]].}}
{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Sir '''Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr'''
| image = Charlie Chaplin.jpg
| caption = Chaplin in his costume as ''The Tramp''.
| birth_date = [[April 16]], [[1889]]
| birth_place = [[Walworth, London]], [[England]]
| death_date = [[December 25]], [[1977]]
| death_place = [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]
| occupation = [[Actor]], [[film director|director]], [[producer]], [[composer]]
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
[[image:CharlieChaplinCitylights2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin and [[Virginia Cherrill]] in ''City Lights'' (1931)]]
Sir '''Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr''', [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]], ([[April 16]], [[1889]] &ndash; [[December 25]], [[1977]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] born [[actor]], the most famous actor in early to mid [[Hollywood]] [[film|cinema]] era, and also a notable [[film director|director]]. His principal character was "[[The Tramp]]": a [[vagrancy|vagrant]] with the refined manners and dignity of a [[gentleman]] who wears a tight coat, oversized pants and shoes, a derby or bowler hat, a bamboo cane, and his signature [[toothbrush moustache]]. Chaplin was one of the most creative personalities in the [[silent film]] era; he acted in, directed, scripted, produced, and eventually scored his own films.
==Birth==
He was believed to have been born on [[April 16]], [[1889]] {{ref|birth}}. There is some doubt whether [[April 16]] is actually his birthday, and it is possible he was not born in 1889. There is also uncertainty about his birthplace: [[London]] or [[Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau, France]]. There is no doubt, however, as to his parentage: he was born to Charles Chaplin, Sr. and Hannah Harriette Hill (aka [[Lily Harley]] on stage), both [[Music Hall]] entertainers. His parents separated soon after his birth, leaving him in the care of his increasingly unstable mother.
==Childhood==
[[Image:Chaplinstamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A postage stamp issued by [[India]]]]
In 1896, Chaplin's mother was unable to find work; Charlie and his older half-brother [[Sydney Chaplin]] had to be left in the [[workhouse]] at [[Lambeth]], moving after several weeks to Hanwell School for Orphans and Destitute Children. His father died an [[alcoholic]] when Charlie was 12, and his mother suffered a mental breakdown, and was eventually admitted temporarily to the Cane Hill Asylum at Coulsdon (near Croydon). She died in 1928 in the United States, two years after coming to the States to live with Chaplin, by then a commercial success.
==Stage==
Charlie first took to the stage when, aged five, he performed in Music Hall in 1894, standing in for his mother. As a child, he was confined to a bed for weeks due to a serious illness, and, at night, his mother would sit at the window and act out what was going on outside. In 1900, aged 11, his brother helped get him the role of a comic cat in the [[pantomime]] ''[[Cinderella]]'' at the [[London Hippodrome]]. In 1903 he appeared in 'Jim, A Romance of Cockayne', followed by his first regular job, as the newspaper boy Billy in Sherlock Holmes, a part he played into 1906. This was followed by Casey's 'Court Circus' [[variety show]], and, the following year, he became a clown in [[Fred Karno]]'s 'Fun Factory' slapstick comedy company.
==America==
According to immigration records, he arrived in the [[United States]] with the Karno troupe on [[October 2]], [[1912]]. In the Karno Company was Arthur Stanley Jefferson, who would later become known as [[Stan Laurel]]. Chaplin and Laurel wound up sharing a room in a boarding house. Stan Laurel returned to [[England]] but Chaplin remained in the [[United States]]. Chaplin's act was seen by film producer [[Mack Sennett]], who hired him for his studio, the [[Keystone Film Company]].
While Chaplin initially had difficulty adjusting to the Keystone style of film acting, he soon adapted and flourished in the medium. This was made possible in part by Chaplin developing his signature Tramp persona, and by eventually earning directorship and creative control, which enabled him to become Keystone's top star and talent.
[[image:Charlie chaplin early 1914.gif |thumb|right|250px|"Kid auto races at Venice" (1914) Chaplin's 2nd film and debut of the "tramp" character.]]
His salary history shows how rapidly he became world famous, and the skill of his brother, [[Sydney Chaplin|Sydney]], at being his business manager.
* [[1914 in film|1914]]: Keystone, worked for $150 a week
* 1914-[[1915 in film|1915]]: [[Essanay Studios]], of Chicago, Illinois, $1250 a week, plus $10,000 signing bonus
* [[1916 in film|1916]]-1917: Mutual, $10,000 a week, plus $150,000 signing bonus
* [[1917 in film|1917]]: [[First National]], $1 million deal &mdash; the first actor ever to earn that sum. He also formed his own independent production company, the Charles Chaplin Film Corporation, which made him a very wealthy man
==Auteur==
Chaplin built his own Hollywood studio in 1918, and assumed an unparalleled degree of artistic and financial independence over his productions. Using this independence, over the next 35 years he created a remarkable, timeless body of work that remains entertaining and influential. These include comedy shorts including: ''[[A Dog's Life]]'' (1918), and ''[[Pay Day (1922 film)|Pay Day]]'' (1922); longer films, such as: ''[[Shoulder Arms]]'' (1918) and ''[[The Pilgrim]]'' (1923); and his great silent feature length films, among them: ''[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]'' (1921), ''[[A Woman of Paris]]'' (1923), ''[[The Gold Rush]]'' (1925), and ''[[The Circus]]'' (1928). After the arrival of sound films, he made ''[[City Lights]]'' (1931) and ''[[Modern Times]]'' (1936), essentially silent films scored with his own music and sound effects. His dialogue films made in Hollywood were ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940), ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' (1947), and ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'' (1952).
[[image:CharlieChaplinTheModernTimes2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"Modern Times" (1936) depicts the dismal situation of workers and the poor in industrial society. The Eating Machine Scene depicts the dehumanizing effect of mechanization.]]
While ''Modern Times'' (1936) is a non-talkie, it does contain talk -- usually coming from inanimate objects such as a radio or a TV monitor. This was done to help 1930s audiences, who were out of the habit of watching silent films, adjust to not hearing dialogue. Chaplin being observed by his boss while sneaking a smoke in the bathroom came before [[George Orwell]]'s "[[Big Brother]]" by more than a decade, and might have inspired it. ''Modern Times'' was the first film where Chaplin's voice is heard (in the nonsense song at the end). However, for most viewers it is still considered a silent film.
==United Artists==
In [[1919 in film|1919]] he founded the [[United Artists]] film distribution company with [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[D. W. Griffith]], and served on the board of UA until the early 1950s.
Although "[[talkie]]s" became the dominant mode of moviemaking soon after they were introduced in [[1927 in film|1927]], Chaplin resisted making a talkie all through the [[1930s]]. It is a tribute to Chaplin's versatility that he also has one film credit for choreography for the [[1952 in film|1952]] film ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'', and one credit as a singer for the title music of the [[1928 in film|1928]] film ''[[The Circus]]''. The best-known of several songs he composed are "[[Smile (song)|Smile]]", famously covered by [[Nat King Cole]], among others, and the theme from ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]''.
<br style="clear:both" />
[[image:CharlieChaplinDictator2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"The Great Dictator" (1940) was an act of defiance against Adolf Hitler and fascism. Chaplin played a fascist dictator clearly modeled on Hitler (also with a certain physical likeness).]]
==The Great Dictator==
His first dialogue picture, ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' ([[1940 in film|1940]]) was an act of defiance against [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[fascism]], filmed and released in the United States one year before it abandoned its policy of [[isolationism]] to enter [[World War II]]. The film was a remarkable act of courage in the political environment of the time, both for its fearless ridicule of Nazism, and for the portrayal of overt Jewish characters and the depiction of their persecution. Chaplin played a fascist [[dictator]] clearly modeled on Hitler (also with a certain physical likeness), as well as a [[Jew]]ish barber cruelly persecuted by the [[Nazi]]s. Hitler, who was a great fan of movies, is known to have seen the film twice (records were kept of movies ordered for his personal theater). Interestingly, Chaplin and Hitler were born only four days apart (Hilter was born on April 20, 1889).
[[image:CharlieChaplinDictator.j
|
assive corporations) is the natural result of free market capitalism.
Others critics say that they are pro-capitalist, but anti-corporatist. They support capitalism but only when corporate power is separated from state power.
===Corporatism and Fascism===
Some critics equate too much corporate power and influence with fascism. See [[Fascism and ideology]]. Often they cite a quote claimed to be from Mussolini: "Fascism should more properly be called corporatism because it is the merger of state and corporate power." However the most common cites for the quote do not track back to this phrase, and it is most likely an Internet hoax. [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html]. Despite this, the alleged quote has entered into modern discourse, and it appears on thousands of web pages [http://www.google.com/search?q=mussolini+fascism+corporatism+%22merger+of+state+and+corporate+power%22], and in books [http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+fascism+corporatism+%22merger+of+state+and+corporate+power%22], and even a conspiracy theory advertisement in the ''Washington Post.''[http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/051603_wash_post_ad.html]. However, the alleged quote contradicts almost everything else written by Mussolini on the subject of the relationship between corporations and the Fascist State.[http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html].
In one 1935 English translation of what Mussolini wrote, the term "corporative state" is used,[http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm] but this has a different meaning from modern uses of the terms used to discuss business corporations. In that same translation, the phrase "national Corporate State of Fascism," refers to syndicalist corporatism. The dubious quote is sometimes claimed to more accurately summarize what Mussolini did and not what he said. However many scholars of fascism reject this claim. See [[Fascism and ideology]].
There is a very old argument about who controlled who in the fascist states of Italy and Germany at various points in the timeline of power. It is agreed that the army, the wealthy, and the big corporations ended up with much more say in decision making than other elements of the corporative state [http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/corpor-st.html] [http://www.bartleby.com/65/fa/fascism.html] [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html]. There was a power struggle between the fascist parties/leaders and the army, wealthy, and big corporations. It waxed and waned as to who had more power at any given time. Scholars have used the term "Mussolini's corporate state" in many different ways[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&q=mussolini+corporate+state].
In the United States, corporations representing many different sectors are involved in attempts to influence legislation through lobbying. This is also true of many non-business groups, unions, membership organizations, and non-profits. While these groups have no official membership in any legislative body, they can often wield considerable power over law-makers. In recent times, the profusion of lobby groups and the increase in campaign contributions has led to widespread controversy and the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act|McCain-Feingold Act]].
===Free Market criticisms===
[[Free market]] theorists like [[Ludwig von Mises]], would describe corporatism as anathema to their vision of capitalism. In the kind of capitalism such theorists advocate, what has been called the [[night-watchman state|"night-watchman" state]], the government's role in the economy is restricted to safeguarding the autonomous operation of the free market. In this sense of capitalism, corporatism would be perceived as anti-capitalist as socialism. Other critics argue that corporatist arrangements exclude some groups, notably the unemployed, and are thus responsible for high unemployment. This argument is the basis of the book "Logic of Collective Action" by Harvard economist [[Mancur Olson]].
In the United States, some claim that [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]&rsquo;s [[New Deal]] programs were an unprecedented jump towards a corporate state. Although there is a long history of narrow economic interests controlling the decision-making process in America, these critics, usually libertarians, say that the New Deal in general and the [[National Recovery Administration]] in particular represented a new and broad experiment in corporatism. [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:fHF_o54pFCEJ:www.fee.org/pdf/the-freeman/1005RME] Several portions of the New Deal were struck down as [[unconstitutional]] by the US Supreme Court. For example, the Court in striking down the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] stated that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government..."Some [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=3054] claim that later US governmental programs represent further state corporatist activity. In this context, corporatism has been described as ''economic fascism''. See: [[Fascism and ideology]].
==See also==
*[[Anti-globalization]]
*[[Antitrust]]
*[[Collectivism]]
*[[Corporate nationalism]]
*[[Corporate police state]]
*[[Corporatization]]
*[[Crony capitalism]]
*[[Economic fascism]]
*[[Globalization]]
*[[New Deal]]
*[[Plutocracy]]
*[[Quango]]
==Sources==
'''On Italian Corporatism'''
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Fiume Constitution of Fiume]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html ''Rerum Novarum'': encyclical of pope Leo XIII on capital and labor]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno_en.html ''Quadragesimo Anno'': encyclical of pope Pius XI on reconstruction of the social order]
*There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to [[Benito Mussolini]] that appeared in the 1932 edition of the ''Enciclopedia Italiana'', and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. There are also links there to the complete text.
'''On Neo-Corporatism'''
*Katzenstein, Peter: ''Small States in World Markets'', Ithaca, 1985.
*Olson, Mancur: ''Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups'', (Harvard Economic Studies), Cambridge, 1965.
*Schmitter, P. C. and Lehmbruch, G. (eds.), ''Trends toward Corporatist Intermediation'', London, 1979.
*Rodrigues, Lucia Lima: "Corporatism, liberalism and the accounting profession in Portugal since 1755," ''Journal of Accounting Historians,'' June 2003. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200306/ai_n9301506/print]
==External links==
*[http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html publiceye.org discusses ''this'' article, and provides copious references on the subject]
*[http://www.banned-books.com/truth-seeker/1994archive/121_3/ts213l.html ''Economic Fascism''] by Thomas DiLorenzo
*[http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22& 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable.] Click on the result titled "My Rise and Fall" (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled "search within this book."
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99690246 The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] ''My Autobiography''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
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<page>
<title>Christmas tree</title>
<id>7770</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:33:02Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Name controversy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Juletræet.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A Christmas tree in a Danish home.]]
A '''Christmas tree''' is one of the most popular [[tradition]]s associated with the celebration of [[Christmas]]. It is normally an [[evergreen]] [[Pinophyta|coniferous]] [[tree]] that is brought into a home or used in the open, and is decorated with [[Christmas lights]] and colourful [[Christmas ornament|ornament]]s during the days around Christmas.
==Dates==
Traditionally, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until [[Christmas Eve]] ([[24 December]]), and then removed the day after [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|twelfth night]] (i.e., [[6 January]]); to have a tree up before or after these dates was even considered bad luck. Modern [[commercialisation]] of Christmas has however resulted in trees being put up much earlier; in [[shop]]s often as early as late October. The most common tradition in U.S. homes is to put the tree up right after [[Thanksgiving]] (the fourth Thursday in November) and to take it down right after the [[New Year]]. In more northern climates and into Canada, the tree (if not too dry) and other decorations are left up well into January. In Europe, private Christmas trees are not usually put up until at least the middle of December and are usually taken down by the 6th of January. In Germany, the Catholic people takes their Christmas trees down by the 2nd of February.
==Types of trees used==
[[Image:Christmas tree2.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A sheared tree.]]
Both natural and artificial trees are used as Christmas trees.
===Natural trees===
The best [[species]] for use are species of [[fir]] (''Abies''), which have the major benefit of not shedding the needles when they dry out, as well as good foliage colour and
|
blem from the database end, by defining an object-oriented data model for the database, and defining a database programming language that allows full programming capabilities as well as traditional query facilities.
Object databases suffered because of a lack of standardization: although standards were defined by [[Object Database Management Group|ODMG]], they were never implemented well enough to ensure interoperability between products. Nevertheless, object databases have been used successfully in many applications: usually specialized applications such as engineering databases or molecular biology databases rather than mainstream commercial data processing. However, object database ideas were picked up by the relational vendors and influenced extensions made to these products and indeed to the [[SQL]] language.
==Database Internals==
===Indexing===
All of these kinds of database can take advantage of indexing to increase their speed, and this technology has advanced tremendously since its early uses in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. The most common kind of index is a sorted list of the contents of some particular table column, with pointers to the row associated with the value. An index allows a set of table rows matching some criterion to be located quickly. Various methods of indexing are commonly used; [[B-tree]]s, [[hash]]es, and [[linked lists]] are all common indexing techniques.
Relational DBMSs have the advantage that indices can be created or dropped without changing existing applications making use of it. The database chooses between many different strategies based on which one it estimates will run the fastest.
Relational DBMSs utilize many different algorithms to compute the result of an [[SQL]] statement. The RDBMS will produce a plan of how to execute the query, which is generated by analysing the run times of the different algorithms and selecting the quickest. Some of the key algorithms that deal with [[Join (SQL)|joins]] are [[Nested Loops Join]], [[Sort-Merge Join]] and [[Hash Join]].
===Transactions and concurrency===
In addition to their data model, most practical databases ("transactional databases") attempt to enforce a [[database transaction]] model that has desirable data integrity properties. Ideally, the database software should enforce the [[ACID]] rules, summarized here:
* [[Atomicity]] - Either all the tasks in a transaction must be done, or none of them. The transaction must be completed, or else it must be undone (rolled back).
* [[Database consistency|Consistency]] - Every transaction must preserve the integrity constraints -- the declared consistency rules -- of the database. It cannot place the data in a contradictory state.
* [[Isolation]] - Two simultaneous transactions cannot interfere with one another. Intermediate results within a transaction are not visible to other transactions.
* [[Durability (computer science)|Durability]] - Completed transactions cannot be aborted later or their results discarded. They must persist through (for instance) restarts of the DBMS after crashes.
In practice, many DBMS's allow most of these rules to be selectively relaxed for better performance.
[[Concurrency control]] is a method used to ensure that transactions are executed in a safe manner and follow the ACID rules. The DBMS must be able to ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are allowed, and that no actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted transactions.
===Replication===
Replication of databases is closely related to transactions. If a database can log its individual actions, it is possible to create a duplicate of the data in real time.
The duplicate can be used to improve Performance or Availability of the whole database system.
Common replication concepts include:
* Master/Slave Replication: All write requests are performed on the master and then replicated to the slaves
* Quorum: The result of Read and Write requests is calculated by querying a "majority" of replicas.
* Multimaster: Two or more replicas sync each other via a transaction identifier.
''More information on database replication:'' [http://www.gravic.com/shadowbase/productinfo.html#articles Database Replication Articles]
==Applications of databases==
Databases are used in many applications, spanning virtually the entire range of [[computer software]]. Databases are the preferred method of storage for large multiuser applications, where coordination between many users is needed. Even individual users find them convenient, though, and many electronic mail programs and personal organizers are based on standard database technology. Software database drivers are available for most database platforms so that [[Application software|application software]] can use a common [[Application programming interface|application programming interface (API)]] to retrieve the information stored in a database. Two commonly used database APIs are [[Java Database Connectivity|JDBC]] and [[ODBC]].
==Common Database Brands==
(In alphabetical order)
* [[4th Dimension (Software)|4D]]
* [[Adabas]]
* [[Corel Paradox]]
* [[DB2]]
* [[Filemaker|FileMaker Pro]]
* [[FirebirdSQL]]
* [[Information Management System|IMS]]
* [[Informix]]
* [[Microsoft Access]]
* [[Microsoft SQL Server]]
* [[MySQL]]
* [[OpenOffice.org_Base|OOo Base]]
* [[Oracle database|Oracle]]
* [[PostgreSQL]]
* [[SQLite]]
* [[Sybase SQL Server]]
==See also==
* [[Client-Server]]
* [[Database dump]]
* [[Database management system]]
* [[Data Manipulation Language]]
* [[Database normalization]]
* [[:Category:Databases in the United Kingdom|Databases in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Deadlock]]
* [[Deductive database]]
* [[Dimensional database]]
* [[Distributed database]]
* [[Entity-relationship model]]
* [[Flat file database]]
* [[Hierarchical database|Hierarchic Database]]
* [[Key field]]
* [[Main Memory database]]
* [[MUMPS]]
* [[Multidimensional hierarchical toolkit]]
* [[Multidimensional database]]
* [[OLAP]]
* [[ODBC]]
* [[Recordset]] : [[dynaset]], [[Snapshot (computer storage)|snapshot]]
* [[Relational model]]
* [[SQL]] (Structured Query Language)
* [[Object database]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Databases| Important publications in databases]]
* [[Redundancy (databases)]]
* [[Software engineering]] and [[List of software engineering topics]]
* [[Temporal database]]
* [[Very large database]]
==References==
* ''The Codasyl Approach to Data Base Management.'' T. William Olle. Wiley, 1978. ISBN 0471995797
* ''Readings in Database Systems.'' Michael Stonebraker (ed). Morgan Kaufmann, 1988. (A collection of the most influential early papers on database technology from 1969 to 1988, with a preface analyzing their impact.) ISBN 1558605231
===Open source database references===
* CNET News.com article, [http://news.com.com/2100-7344_3-5171543.html?part=rss&tag=feed&subj=news Study: Open-source databases going mainstream]
*[http://www.geocities.com/mailsoftware42/db/index.html Open Source database comparison]
[[Category:Data_management]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[af:Databasis]]
[[ca:Base de dades]]
[[cs:Databáze]]
[[da:Database]]
[[de:Datenbanksystem]]
[[es:Base de datos]]
[[eo:Datumbazo]]
[[fa:دادگان]]
[[fr:Base de données]]
[[gl:Base de datos]]
[[ko:데이터베이스]]
[[hr:Baza podataka]]
[[id:Basis data]]
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[[is:Gagnagrunnur]]
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[[he:בסיס נתונים]]
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[[hu:Adatbázis]]
[[ms:Pangkalan data]]
[[nl:Database]]
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[[pl:Baza danych]]
[[pt:Banco de dados]]
[[ro:Bază de date]]
[[ru:База данных]]
[[sk:Databáza]]
[[sl:Podatkovna baza]]
[[fi:Tietokanta]]
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[[th:ฐานข้อมูล]]
[[vi:Cơ sở dữ liệu]]
[[tr:Veri tabanı]]
[[uk:База даних]]
[[zh:数据库]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dipole</title>
<id>8378</id>
<revision>
<id>41614877</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:03:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arnero</username>
<id>233665</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Dipole radiation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:*''This article is about the electromagnetic phenomenon. From the point of view of the [[mathematics]] of [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s, a dipole can be taken to be the directional derivative of a [[Dirac delta function]]. A [[dipole antenna|dipole]] is also a type of radio antenna.''
:*''For magnets in particle accelerators please see [[dipole magnet]]''.
[[Image:Dipole field.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Earth's magnetic field]], which is approximately a dipole. However, the "N" and "S" (north and south) poles are labeled here ''geographically'', which is the opposite of the convention for labeling the poles of a magnetic dipole moment.]]
A '''dipole''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''di(s)'' = double and ''polos'' = pivot) is a pair of [[Electric charge|electric charges]] or magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite polarity (opposite electronic charges), separated by some, usually small, distance. Dipoles can be characterized by their dipole [[Magnetic moment|moment]], a vector quantity with a magnitude equal to the product of the charge or magnetic strength of one of the poles and the distance separating the two poles. The direction of the dipole moment corresponds, for electric dipoles, to the direction from the negative to the positive charge. For magnetic dipoles, the dipole moment points from the magnetic [[south pole|south]] to the magnetic [[north pole]] &mdash; confusingly, the "north" and "south" convention for magnetic dipoles is the opposite of that used to describe the Earth's geographic and magnetic poles, so that the Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the ''south'' pole of its dipole moment. Because of the absence of [[magnetic monopole|magnetic monopoles]], magnetic dipoles are actuall
|
e introduction of the euro, its exchange rate against other currencies, especially the [[US dollar]], declined heavily. At its introduction in 1999, the euro was traded at USD1.18; on [[26 October]] [[2000]], it fell to an all time low of $0.8228 per euro. It then began what at the time was thought to be a recovery; by the beginning of 2001 it had risen to nearly $0.96. It declined again, although less than previously, reaching a low of $0.8344 on [[6 July]] [[2001]] before commencing a steady appreciation. In the wake of U.S. corporate scandals, the two currencies reached parity on [[15 July]] [[2002]], and by the end of 2002 the euro had reached $1.04 as it climbed further.
On [[23 May]] [[2003]], the euro surpassed its initial ($1.18=€1.00) trading value for the first time. At the end of 2004, it had reached a peak of $1.3668 per euro (€0.7316 per $) as the US dollar fell against all major currencies. At that time, some analysts expected the dollar to continue to fall, a few even suggesting $1.60 per euro by the end of 2005, fuelled by the so called twin deficit of the US accounts. However, the dollar recovered in 2005, rising to $1.18 per euro (€0.85 per $) in July 2005 (and stable throughout the second half of 2005). The fast increase in US interest rates during 2005 had much to do with this trend.
*[http://www.ecb.int/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/index.en.html Current and historical exchange rates against 29 other currencies (European Central Bank)]
*[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/fds/hi/business/market_data/currency/13/12/twelve_month.stm Current dollar/euro exchange rates (BBC)]
*[http://www.kshitij.com/graphgallery/eurmth.shtml Historical exchange rate from 1971 till now]
===Currencies pegged to the euro===
{{main|Currencies related to the euro}}
There are a number of foreign currencies that were pegged to a European currency and are now currencies related to the euro: the [[Cape Verdean escudo]], the [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]], the [[CFP franc]], the [[CFA franc]] and the [[Comorian franc]].
In total, the euro is the official currency in 15 states and territories outside the European Union. In addition, 22 states and territories have a national currency that are directly pegged to the euro including fourteen West African countries, three French Pacific territories, two African island countries and three Balkan countries.
===Drivers===
Part of the euro's strength in the period 2001-2004 was thought to be due to more attractive [[interest]] rates in Europe than in the United States. The US [[Federal Reserve]] had maintained lower rates than the [[European Central Bank|ECB]] for these years, despite key European economies, notably Germany, growing relatively slowly or not at all. This is attributed in part to the ECB's duty to check inflation across the eurozone, which in high-performing countries such as [[Republic of Ireland]] is above the ECB's target.
However, although the interest rate differential formed part of the backdrop, the main ''a posteriori'' justification for the euro's continuing ascent against the dollar was the concern over the huge unsustainable US [[current account]] [[deficit]]s. The market has been awash with concerns about the US [[twin deficit]]s, which have been a key driver of dollar weakness. The US [[budget deficit]] is about $427 [[billion]], or 3.7% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), while the current account&mdash;the broadest trade measure since it adds investment flows&mdash;hit a record $166.18bn shortfall in the second quarter of 2004.
A key factor is that a number of Asian currencies are rising less against the dollar than is the euro. In the case of China, the [[renminbi]] was until recently pegged against the dollar, whilst the Japanese [[yen]] is supported by intervention (and the threat of it) by the [[Bank of Japan]]. This means much of the pressure from a falling dollar is translated into a rising euro.
The euro's climb from its lows began shortly after it was introduced as a cash currency. In the time between 1999 and 2002, [[euroscepticism|eurosceptics]] believed that the weak euro was a sign that the euro experiment was doomed to fail. It may be that its weakness in this period was due to low confidence in a currency that did not exist in "real" form. While the overt conversion to notes and coins had not yet occurred, it remained possible that the project could fail. Once the euro became "real" in the sense of existing in the form of cash, confidence in the euro rose and the increasing perception that it was here to stay helped increase its value. This effect was probably significant in the euro's decline and recovery between 1999 and 2002, but other factors are more significant since then.
Another factor in the early decline of the euro was that many investors and [[central banks]] sold large portions of their legacy (national) currency holdings once the irrevocable exchange rates were set, as the goal of holding multiple currencies is to dampen losses when one currency falls. Once the exchange rates between eurozone countries were pegged against each other, holdings in German [[German mark|marks]] and French [[French franc|francs]] (for example) became identical. There is also some reason to believe that significant sums of illegally held money were sold for dollars to avoid an official and public exchange for euros.{{citationneeded}}
===Consequences===
Despite the euro's rise in dollar-denominated value, as well as those of other major and minor currencies, the US trade deficits continue to rise. Economic theory would suggest that a fall in the dollar and a rise in the euro should lead to an improvement in US exports and a decline in US imports, as the former becomes cheaper and the latter more expensive. However, this depends to some extent on how currency costs are passed down the supply chain. Furthermore, the declining dollar makes foreign investment in the US cheaper (although also reducing the return), so that continuing foreign investment may underpin the dollar to some extent.
The role of the dollar as the world's [[de facto]] reserve currency helps support both the dollar and the US budget deficit &mdash; but it depends on the continued willingness of foreigners to finance both. Central banks and others finance the budget by acquiring newly-issued, dollar-denominated US government bonds, which they need to acquire dollars for. If at some point foreigners become unwilling to accept new bonds at the prevailing interest rate (perhaps because the falling dollar is reducing the bonds' value too much), the dollar will fall even more &mdash; or the US will have to raise interest rates, which would reduce economic growth.
There is speculation that the strength of the euro relative to the dollar might encourage the use of the euro as an alternative [[reserve currency]]; [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] switched its currency reserves from dollars to euros in 2000. Moves by central banks with major reserve currency holdings such as those of [[India]] or [[China]] to switch some of their reserves from dollars to euros, or even of [[OPEC]] countries to switch the currency they trade in from dollars to euros, will further reinforce the dollar's decline. In 2004, the [[Bank for International Settlements]] reported the proportion of bank deposits held in euros rising to 20%, from 12% in 2001, and it is continuously rising. The falling dollar also raises returns for US investors from investing in foreign stocks, encouraging a switch which further depresses the dollar.
The rise in the euro should dampen eurozone exports, but there is little sign of this happening yet. The main reason is that the currencies of Euroland's major world-wide customers are also seeing their currencies rise relative to the dollar. As the current account deficits continue to rise and the US plans no austerity measures to curb foreign imports and increase exports, the situation may cause the US dollar to lose its position as a hegemonic currency replaced by either the euro or the euro and a basket of currencies.
==Name and linguistic issues==
{{main|Linguistic issues concerning the euro}}
Several [[linguistic]] issues have arisen in relation to the spelling of the words ''euro'' and ''cent'' in the many languages of the member states of the European Union, as well as in relation to [[grammar]] and the formation of [[plurals]]. Immutable word formations have been encouraged by the European Commission in usage with official EU [[legislation]] (originally in order to ensure uniform presentation on the banknotes), but the "unofficial" practice concerning the mutability (or not) of the words differs between the member states and their languages. The subject has led to much debate and controversy. <!-- advice to editors: this paragraph is intended to be just a summary. If you wish to add material, please consider using the "Linguistic issues" article to do so. -->
==See also==
===Euro related===
*[[Currencies related to the euro]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]] (EMU)
*[[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]]
*[[Eurozone]]
*[[Euro coins]], [[€2 commemorative coins]] and [[Euro banknotes]].
*[[European System of Central Banks]]
*[[Economy of the European Union]] and [[Economy of Europe]].
*[[Euribor]], a benchmark for money market in the eurozone.
*[[Eonia]], an effective overnight reference rate for the euro.
*[[Linguistic issues concerning the euro]]
*[[Optimal Currency Area - Eurozone]]
*[[Stability and Growth Pact]] is an agreement by [[European Union]] member states related to their conduct of [[fiscal policy]], to facilitate and maintain [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]].
===Other===
*[[Latin Monetary Union]] '''(1865&ndash;1927)'''
*[[Scandinavian Monetary Union]]
*[[American currency union|Amero]
|
est competition was from the newly-born DEC [[PDP-11]] computer series, and to a lesser extent the venerable DEC [[PDP-8]] systems. It has been said that the Nova was pretty crude compared to its competitors; but it was quite effective and very fast for its day, at least at its low-cost end of the market.
Besides offering 16 bits compared to the 12 bits of the [[PDP-8]], another big innovation of the Nova was in packaging. The original Nova CPU was built on only two large 15×15 inch (38×38 cm) [[printed circuit board]]s, which could be run off on an assembly line with no manual wiring required. This greatly reduced costs over the rival PDP-8 and PDP-8/I, which consisted of many smaller boards that had to be wired together. The larger-board construction also made the Nova more reliable, which made it especially attractive for industrial or lab settings.
A further improvement on the Nova design followed the next year, the '''SuperNOVA'''. The SuperNOVA included a number of improvements that dramatically improved performance over the original. This included the use of [[Read-only memory|ROM]] for library software that could be run much faster than the same code in the normal [[core memory]], due to the latter's need to be written immediately after being read. Additionally the system included a new set of core with an 800 ns cycle time, faster than the original's 1200 ns version. Finally the SuperNOVA also replaced the earlier model's 4-bits-at-a-time math unit with a new 16-bit parallel version, speeding math by up to four times.
Soon after the introduction of the SuperNOVA, another version featuring semiconductor memory in place of core was introduced, the '''SuperNOVA SC'''. The much higher performance memory allowed the CPU, which was synchronous with memory, to be further increased in speed to run at a 300 [[nanosecond]] cycle time (3.3 MHz), which made it the fastest minicomputer for over a decade following its introduction.
====Later versions====
Further improvements in the line followed in 1970/1 with a pair of machines that replaced the Nova/SuperNOVA, the '''Nova 1200''' and '''Nova 800''' series. The 1200 used the original's slower 1200ns core while the 800 featured the SuperNOVA's 800ns core, explaining the somewhat confusing naming where the lower number represents the faster machine. Like the earlier models, the 1200 used a 4-bit math unit while the 800 used the SuperNOVA's 16-bit unit. Both models were offered in a variety of cases, the 1200 with seven slots, the 1210 with four and the 1220 with fourteen. The 840, first offered in 1973, also included a new paged memory system allowing for up to 17-bit addresses. An index offset the base address into the larger 128 kWord memory. Actually installing this much memory required considerable space, the 840 shipped in a large 14-slot case.
The next version was the '''Nova 2'', with the first versions shipping in 1973. The Nova 2 was essentially a simplified version of the earlier machines as increasing chip densities allowed the CPU to be reduced in size. While the SuperNOVA used three 15"x15" boards to implement the CPU and it's memory, the Nova 2 fit all of this onto a single board. ROM was used to store the boot code, which was then copied into core when the "program load" switch was flipped. Versions were available with four, seven and ten slots.
[[Image:Dg-nova3.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General Nova 3]]
The '''Nova 3''' of 1975 added two more registers, used to control access to a built-in stack. The processor was also re-implemented using four 4-bit LSI chips in place of the earlier TTL components, further lowering the cost of the system. The Nova 3 was offered in three and twelve slot versions.
It appears that Data General originally intended the Nova 3 to be the last of it's line, planning to replace the Nova with the later Eclipse machines. However continued demand led to a '''Nova 4''' machine, this time based on four [[AMD 2901]] bit-slice processors. This design was also used in the Eclipse, and it appears that the Nova 4 is essentially a re-packaged Eclipse with different ROMs. A floating-point co-processor was also available, taking up a separate slot. An additional option allowed for memory mapping, allowing programs to access up to 128 kwords of memory using [[bank switching]]. Unlike the earlier machines, the Nova 4 did not include a front panel console (switches and lights) and instead relied on the [[terminal]] to emulate a console when needed.
====microNOVA====
Data General also produced a series of single-chip implementations of the Nova processor as the '''microNOVA'''. Changes to the bus architecture limited speed dramatically, to the point where it was about one-half the speed of the original Nova. The original microNOVA with the "mN601" processor shipped in 1977. It was followed by the '''microNOVA MP/100''' in 1979, which reduced the CPU to a single [[VLSI]] chip, the mN602. A larger version was also offered as the '''microNOVA MP/200''', shipping the same year.
The microNOVA was later re-packaged in a PC-style case with two [[floppy disk]]s as the '''Enterprise'''. Enterprise shipped in 1981, running [[RDOS]], but the introduction of the [[IBM PC]] the same year made most other machines disappear under the radar.
====Nova's legacy====
The Nova influenced the design of both the [[Xerox Alto]] ([[1973]]) and [[Apple I]] ([[1976]]) computers. Its external design has been reported to be the direct inspiration for the front panel of the [[Altair 8800|MITS Altair]] ([[1975]]) microcomputer.
Data General followed up on the success of the original Nova with a series of faster designs. The Eclipse family of systems was later introduced with an extended upwardly compatible instruction set, and the MV-series further extended the Eclipse into a 32-bit architecture to compete with the DEC [[VAX]]. The development of the MV-series was documented in Tracy Kidder's popular 1981 book, ''[[The Soul of a New Machine]]''. Data General itself would later evolve into a vendor of Intel processor-based servers and storage arrays, eventually being purchased by [[EMC]].
[[As of 2004]] there are still 16-bit Novas and [[Data General Eclipse|Eclipse]]s running in a variety of applications worldwide. There is a diverse but ardent group of people worldwide who restore and preserve legacy 16-bit Data General systems.
==Technical description==
====Processor design====
[[Image:Dg-pcb.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Nova 3 PCB]]
The Nova had four 16-bit [[accumulator]] registers, of which two could be used as [[index register]]s. There was a 15-bit [[program counter]] and a single-bit [[carry (computer science)|carry]] register. As for the PDP-8, current + [[zero page]] addressing was central.
The earliest models of the Nova processed math serially in 4-bit packages. A year after its introduction the processor was upgraded to use a full 16-bit parallel math unit, this design being referred to as the SuperNova. Future versions of the system added a stack unit and hardware multiply/divide.
The Nova 4 was based on the Eclipse design, and similar largely in name only.
====Memory and I/O====
The first models were available with 4[[K]] [[word (computer science)|word]]s of [[magnetic core memory]] as an option, one that practically everyone had to buy, bringing the system cost up to $7,995. Even here DG managed to innovate, packing several planes of very small core and the corresponding support electronics onto a single standard 15 x 15 inch board. Up to 32K of such core [[random-access memory|RAM]] could be supported in one external expansion box. [[Semiconductor]] [[read-only memory|ROM]] was already available at the time, and RAM-less systems (i.e. with ROM only) became popular in many industrial settings. The original Nova machines ran at approximately 0.2 [[megahertz|MHz]], but its SuperNova was designed to run at up to 3 MHz when used with special semiconductor main memory.
The standardized [[backplane]] and [[input/output|I/O]] signals created a simple, efficient I/O design that made interfacing programmed I/O and Data Channel devices to the Nova simple compared to competitive machines. In addition to its dedicated I/O bus structure, the Nova backplane had [[wirewrap]] pins that could be used for non-standard connectors or other special purposes.
====Programming model====
The [[instruction set|instruction format]] could be broadly categorized into one of three functions: <nowiki>1) register-to-register manipulation, 2) memory reference, and 3)</nowiki> input/output. Each instruction was contained one word. The register-to-register manipulation was almost [[RISC]]-like in its bit-efficiency; and an instruction that manipulated register data could also perform tests, shifts and even elect to discard the result. Hardware options included a multiply and divide integer unit, a [[floating-point unit]] (single and double precision), and [[memory management]].
[[Image:Dg-papertapes.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General software on punched paper tape]]
Data General developed a wide range languages for the Nova computers running under a range of consistent operating systems. [[FORTRAN IV]], [[ALGOL]], Extended [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], [[Data General Business Basic]], Interactive [[COBOL]], and several assemblers were available from Data General. Third party vendors and the user community expanded the offerings with [[Forth programming language|Forth]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[BCPL]], [[C programming language|C]], [[ALGOL|Algol]], and other proprietary versions [[COBOL]] and [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]].
== Assembly language examples ==
=== Hello world program ===
This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language. It is designed to run under [[RDOS]] and prints the string "[[Hello world program|Hello, world.]]" on the console.
; a "hello, world
|
l early notions of [[information entropy]] predated Shannon's paper.
One version was defined and used during the Second World War by [[Alan Turing]] at [[Bletchley Park]]. Turing named it "weight of evidence" and measured it in units called [[ban (information)|bans]] and [[deciban]]s. (This is not to be confused with the ''weight of evidence'' defined by [[I.J. Good]] and described in the article [[statistical inference]], which Turing also tackled and named "log-odds" or "lods".) Turing and Shannon collaborated during the war but it appears that they independently created the concept.
A very similar concept was developed by Boltzmann during the 1800's in his work on [[statistical mechanics]]. This connection, between information-theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, was later studied by [[Rolf Landauer]] and is described in this article.
-->
=== Development since 1948 ===
{{section stub}}
==References==
===The classic paper===
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Shannon, C.E.]] (1948), "[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]", ''Bell System Technical Journal'', 27, pp. 379–423 & 623–656, July & October, 1948. [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf PDF.] <br>[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html Notes and other formats.]
===Other journal articles===
* R.V.L. Hartley, "Transmission of Information," ''Bell System Technical Journal'', July 1928
* J. L. Kelly, Jr., "New Interpretation of Information Rate," ''Bell System Technical Journal'', Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 917-26
* R. Landauer, "Information is Physical" ''Proc. Workshop on Physics and Computation PhysComp'92'' (IEEE Comp. Sci.Press, Los Alamitos, 1993) pp. 1-4.
* R. Landauer, "[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/441/landauerii.pdf Irreversibility and Heat Generation in the Computing Process]" ''IBM J. Res. Develop.'' Vol. 5, No. 3, 1961
===Textbooks on information theory===
* Claude E. Shannon, Warren Weaver. ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication.'' Univ of Illinois Press, 1963. ISBN 0252725484
* Robert B. Ash. ''Information Theory''. New York: Dover 1990. ISBN 0486665216
* Thomas M. Cover, Joy A. Thomas. ''Elements of information theory'', 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. ISBN 0471241954 (''forthcoming, to be released February 17, 2006.'').
* Stanford Goldman. ''Information Theory''. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover 2005 ISBN 0486442713
* Fazlollah M. Reza. ''An Introduction to Information Theory''. New York: Dover 1994. ISBN 048668210
* David J. C. MacKay. ''[http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms]'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521642981
===Other books ===
* James Bamford, ''The Puzzle Palace'', Penguin Books, 1983. ISBN 0140067485
* Leon Brillouin, ''Science and Information Theory'', Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, [1956, 1962] 2004. ISBN 0486439186
* W. B. Johnson and J. Lindenstrauss, editors, ''Handbook of the Geometry of Banach Spaces'', Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier 2001. ISBN 0444828427
* A. I. Khinchin, ''Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory'', New York: Dover, 1957. ISBN 0486604349
* H. S. Leff and A. F. Rex, Editors, ''Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information, Computing'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1990). ISBN 069108727X
==See also==
* [[List_of_important_publications_in_computer_science#Information_theory|List of important publications]]
===Applications===
===History===
* [[Timeline of information theory]]
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Shannon, C.E.]]
* [[Hubert Yockey|Yockey, H.P.]]
===Theory===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Detection theory]]
* [[Estimation theory]]
* [[Fisher information]]
* [[Kolmogorov complexity]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Information geometry]]
* [[Logic of information]]
* [[Semiotic information theory]]
{{col-end}}
==External links==
* Gibbs, M., "Quantum Information Theory", [http://members.aol.com/jmtsgibbs/infothry.htm Eprint]
* Schneider, T., "Information Theory Primer", [http://www.lecb.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/paper/primer Eprint]
*[http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/1999/Oct/abs1385.html Journal of Chemical Education, ''Shuffled Cards, Messy Desks, and Disorderly Dorm Rooms - Examples of Entropy Increase? Nonsense!'' ]
* [http://www.itsoc.org/index.html IEEE Information Theory Society] and [http://www.itsoc.org/review.html the review articles].
* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/ On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by [[David MacKay]] - gives an entertaining and thorough introduction to Shannon theory, including state-of-the-art methods from coding theory, such as [[arithmetic coding]], [[low-density parity-check code]]s, and [[Turbo code]]s.
{{Cybernetics}}
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Information theory|*]]
[[de:Informationstheorie]]
[[es:Teoría de la información]]
[[et:Informatsiooniteooria]]
[[fa:نظریه اطلاعات]]
[[fr:Théorie de l'information]]
[[gl:Teoría da información]]
[[he:תורת האינפורמציה]]
[[hu:Információelmélet]]
[[id:Teori Informasi]]
[[io:Informo-teorio]]
[[it:Teoria dell'informazione]]
[[ja:情報理論]]
[[nl:Informatietheorie]]
[[no:Informasjonsteori]]
[[pl:Teoria informacji]]
[[pt:Teoria da informação]]
[[ru:Теория информации]]
[[sv:Informationsteori]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีข้อมูล]]
[[zh:信息论]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information explosion</title>
<id>14774</id>
<revision>
<id>38514251</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T21:26:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Eye of Timaeus</username>
<id>855153</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Wiki */ growng changed to growing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Library and Information Science]], '''information explosion''' is a term used for the ever increasing rate of [[publication]].
Search http://google.com/search?q=information+explosion
In [http://privacy.cs.cmu.edu/people/sweeney/explosion.html Information Explosion], Latayana Sweeney estimates the Global Disk Storage per Person (GDSP) as
{|
|+GDSP over Time [http://privacy.cs.cmu.edu/people/sweeney/explosion.html]
|-
!!!1983!!1996!!2000!
|-
|Global storage (terabytes)
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|90 Tb
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|160,623 Tb
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|2,829,288 Tb
|-
|Storage per person (GDSB)
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|0.02 Mb
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|28 Mb
|ALIGN="RIGHT"|472 Mb
|}
{{sci-stub}}
==Blogs==
[[Blog]]s are important factor. Some of the most popular blogs are: Livejournal, Blogger, Diaryland.
==Wiki==
[[Wiki]] are Collaborative portals. The number of articles is growing [[exponential growth|exponentially]].
==See also==
[[Metcalfe's law]]
==External links==
*[http://www.slais.ubc.ca/courses/libr500/03-04-wt2/www/K_Woods/vol1.htm Information explosion]
*[http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/ How much info?]
[[de:Informationsexplosion]]
[[ru:Информационный взрыв]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inch</title>
<id>14775</id>
<revision>
<id>41885148</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:17:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.131.172.165</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''[[Inches (album)|Inches]] is also an album by Les Savy Fav.''
[[Image:Inch converter.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Mid-19th century tool for converting between different standards of the inch]]
An '''inch''' is an [[Imperial units|Imperial]] and [[U.S. customary units|U.S. customary]] unit of [[length]]. Sweden also briefly had a "decimal inch" based on the [[SI|metric system]]: see below for more.
According to some sources, the inch was originally defined informally as the distance between the tip of the thumb and the first joint of the thumb. Another source says that the inch was at one time defined in terms of the [[yard]], supposedly defined as the distance between [[Henry I of England]]'s nose and his thumb. In another version, the inch was defined as the length of three [[barleycorn]]s. There are twelve inches in a [[Foot (unit of length)|foot]], and three feet in a [[yard]].
The English word ''inch'' comes from Latin ''[[uncia]]'' meaning "one twelfth part" (in this case, one twelfth of a foot); the word ''[[ounce]]'' (one twelfth of a troy pound) has the same origin. In some other languages, the word for "inch" is similar to or the same as the word for "thumb"; for example, [[French language|French]]: ''pouce'' inch, ''pouce'' thumb; [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''pollice'' inch, ''pollice'' thumb; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''pulgada'' inch, ''pulgar'' thumb; [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''polegada'' inch, ''polegar'' thumb; [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''tum'' inch, ''tumme'' thumb; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''duim'' inch, ''duim'' thumb; [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: ''Angulam'' inch, ''Anguli'' Finger.
==International inch==
{{unit of length|
|name= inch
|m= 0.0254
|cm= 2.54
|km= 0.0000254
|mm= 25.4
|ang= 254,000,000
|au= 1.697885129e-13
|parsec= 8.231579396e-19
|ly= 2.684782118e-18
|in= 1
|ft= 0.08333
|yd= 0.02778
|mi= 0.000015783
|n-mi= 0.000013715
|s-mi= 0.000015783
|fathom= 0.013888889
|furlong= 0.000126263
}}
Historically, the inch has referred to several slightly different units of length, used in different parts of the world. There was little uniformity; different countries, and even different cities within the same country, used their own standard length. The only "inch" still in use today is the [[English unit]]. Most countries which previously had their own separate definitions of the inch, have converted to using the metric system instead. However, the inc
|
music|1970]] "A Real Live Dolly" (live album) #154 U.S. (#32 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "Once More" (with Porter Wagoner) #191 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "The Best Of Dolly Parton" (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "Two Of A Kind" (with Porter Wagoner) #142 U.S. (#13 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "Golden Streets Of Glory" (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "Joshua" #198 U.S. (#16 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "The Best Of Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton" (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "Coat Of Many Colors" (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "The Right Combination/Burning The Midnight Oil" (with Porter Wagoner) (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "Touch Your Woman" (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "Together Always" (with Porter Wagoner) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "Sings My Favorite Songwriter: Porter Wagoner" (#33 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] "We Found It" (with Porter Wagoner) (#20 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] "My Tennessee Mountain Home" (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] "Love And Music" (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] "Bubbling Over" (#14 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "Jolene" (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "Porter ‘N‘ Dolly" (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "Love Is Like A Butterfly" (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "The Bargain Store" (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "In Concert" (live album with Chet Atkins, Ronnie Milsap, Charley Pride, Jerry Reed and Gary Stewart) (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "Best Of Dolly Parton (Vol. 2)" (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "Say Forever You‘ll Be Mine" (with Porter Wagoner) (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "Dolly" (aka "The Seeker/We Used To")(#14 COUNTRY)
*[[1976 in music|1976]] "All I Can Do" (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] "New Harvest - First Gathering" #71 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] "[[Here You Come Again]]" #20 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] "Heartbreaker" #27 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] "Dolly Parton/Both Sides" #24 UK
*[[1979 in music|1979]] "Great Balls of Fire" #40 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "Dolly, Dolly, Dolly" #71 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "Porter & Dolly" (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "9 to 5 and Odd Jobs" #11 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Heartbreak Express" #106 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "The Best Little Whorehouse In Texas" (film soundtrack) #63 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Greatest Hits" #77 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "The Winning Hand" (with Kris Kristofferson, Brenda Lee, and Willie Nelson) #109 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1983 in music|1983]] "Burlap & Satin" #127 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "The Great Pretender" #73 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "Rhinestone" (film soundtrack) #135 U.S. (#32 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "Once Upon A Christmas" (with Kenny Rogers) #31 U.S. (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] "Real Love" (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1986 in music|1986]] "Think About Love" (#54 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] "[[Trio (album)|Trio]]" (with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]] #6 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] "Rainbow" #153 U.S. (#18 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] "White Limozeen" (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1990 in music|1990]] "Home For Christmas" (#74 COUNTRY)
*[[1991 in music|1991]] "Eagle When She Flies" #24 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1992 in music|1992]] "Straight Talk" (film soundtrack) #138 U.S. (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1993 in music|1993]] "Slow Dancing With The Moon" #16 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1993 in music|1993]] "Honky Tonk Angels" (with Loretta Lynn and Tammy Wynette) #42 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1994 in music|1994]] "Heartsongs: Live From Home" (live album) #87 U.S. (#16 COUNTRY)
*[[1995 in music|1995]] "Something Special" #54 U.S. (#10 COUNTRY)
*[[1996 in music|1996]] "I Will Always Love You And Other Greatest Hits" (#47 COUNTRY)
*[[1996 in music|1996]] "Treasures" #122 U.S. (#21 COUNTRY)
*[[1997 in music|1997]] "A Life in Music - Ultimate Collection" #38 UK
*[[1998 in music|1998]] "Hungry Again" #167 U.S. (#23 COUNTRY)
*[[1999 in music|1999]] "[[Trio 2 (album)]]" (with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]] #62 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1999 in music|1999]] "The Grass Is Blue" #198 U.S. (#24 COUNTRY)
*[[2001 in music|2001]] "Little Sparrow" # 97 U.S., #30 UK (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[2001 in music|2001]] "Gold - The Hits Collection" #23 UK
*[[2002 in music|2002]] "Halos & Horns" #58 U.S., #37 UK (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] "Ultimate Dolly Parton" #130 U.S., #17 UK (#20 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] "Just Because I‘m A Woman: Songs Of Dolly Parton" #55 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] "For God And Country" #167 U.S. (#23 COUNTRY)
*[[2004 in music|2004]] "Live & Well" (live album) #161 U.S. (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[2005 in music|2005]] "Those Were The Days" #48 U.S. (#9 COUNTRY) #35 UK (#2 U.K. Country)
==Filmography==
*''[[Nine to Five|9 to 5]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) ... Doralee Rhodes
*''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]) ... Mona Stangley
*''[[Rhinestone (1984 film)|Rhinestone]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) ... Jake
*''[[Steel Magnolias]]'' ([[1989 in film|1989]]) ... Truvy Jones
*''[[Straight Talk]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) ... Shirlee Kenyon
*''[[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Frank McKlusky, C.I.]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) ... Edith McKlusky
*''[[Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) .. cameo as herself
==TV filmography==
*''[[A Smoky Mountain Christmas]]'' ([[1986 in television|1986]]) ... Lorna Davis
*''[[Wild Texas Wind]]'' ([[1991 in television|1991]]) ... Thiola "Big T" Rayfield
*''[[Big Dreams and Broken Hearts: The Dottie West Story]]'' ([[1995 in television|1995]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Naomi and Wynonna: Love Can Build a Bridge]]'' ([[1995 in television|1995]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Get To The Heart: The Barbara Mandrell Story]]'' ([[1997 in television|1997]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Unlikely Angel]]'' ([[1996 in television|1996]]) ... Ruby Diamond
*''[[Blue Valley Songbird]]'' ([[1999 in television|1999]]) ... Leanna Taylor
*''[[Jackie's Back]]'' ([[1999 in television|1999]]) ... cameo as herself
==TV series==
*''[[Heavens to Betsy (1994 TV series)|Heavens to Betsy]]'' ([[1994 in television|1994]]) (comedy - three episodes, unaired) ... star
==TV guest appearances==
*''[[Country Music Association Awards]]'' [[1968]] - 86 ...Performer/presenter
*''[[Hee-Haw]]'' [[1974]] ... as herself
*''[[Capitain Kangaroo]]'' [[1976in television|1976]] ... as herself
*''[[Cher Special]]'' [[1978]] ... as herself
*''[[The Midnight Special (television)|The Midnight Special]]'' [[1978in television|1978]] ... Host
*''[[Alvin & The Chipmunks]]'' [[1987in television|1987]] ... as herself
*''[[Country Music Association Awards]]'' [[1988in television|1988]] ... Host
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' [[1989in television|1989]] ... Host/Musical Guest
*''[[Designing Women]]'' [[1990in television|1990]] ... as herself/"Guardian Movie Star"
*''[[Babes]]'' [[1991in television|1991]] ... as herself
*''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' [[1994in television|1994]] ... Katrina Eloise "Murph" Murphy
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[1999in television|1999]] ... as herself
*''[[Bette]]'' [[2000 in television|2000]] ... as herself
*''[[Academy Of Country Music Awards]]'' [[2000in television|2000]] ... Host
*''[[Austin City Limits]]'' [[2001in television|2001]] ... Musical Guest
*''[[CMT Flame Worthy Awards]]'' [[2004in television|2004]] ... Host
*''[[Reba]]'' [[2005 in television|2005]] ... Dolly Majors
==TV music & variety series==
*''[[The Porter Wagoner Show]]'' ([[1967 in television|1967]]-[[1974 in television|1974]]) (country music) ... regular singer
*''[[Dolly (1976 TV series)|Dolly]]'' ([[1976 in television|1976]]-[[1977 in television|1977]]) (variety) ... host
*''[[Dolly (TV series)|Dolly]]'' ([[1987 in television|1987]]-[[1988 in television|1988]]) (variety) ... host
==TV specials==
*''[[Rowan and Martin Special]]'' [[1973in television|1973]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1977in television|1977]]
*''[[Cher . . . Special]]'' [[1978in television|1978]]
*''[[Carol and Dolly in Nashville]]'' [[1979in television|1979]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1979in television|1979]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1980in television|1980]]
*''[[Best Little Special In Texas]]'' [[1982in television|1982]]
*''[[Dolly In London]]'' [[1983in television|1983]]
*''[[Dolly Parton Meets The Kids]]'' [[1983in television|1983]]
*''[[Kenny & Dolly: Once Upon A Christmas]]'' [[1984in television|1984]]
*''[[Kenny & Dolly: Real Love]]'' [[1985in television|1985]]
*''[[Bob Hope Christmas Special]]'' [[1988in television|1988]]
*''[[Kenny, Dolly & Willie: Something Inside So Strong]]'' [[1989in television|1989]]
*''[[Home For Christmas]]'' [[1990in television|1990]]
*''[[Treasures]]'' [[1996in television|1996]]
*''[[Precious Memories]]'' [[1999in television|1999]]
*''[[Graham Goes To Dollywood]]'' [[2001in television|2001]]
*''[[A Capitol Fourth]]'' [[2003in television|2003]]
*''[[Star
|
1 Squadron RAF|No. 1 Squadron]]
* [[No. 3 Squadron RAF|No. 3 Squadron]]
* [[No. IV Squadron RAF|No. IV Squadron]]
* [[No. 20 Squadron RAF|No. 20 Squadron]]
* [[RAF SAOEU]] Strike Attack Operational Evaluation Unit
==Specifications (AV-8B)==
Note:&nbsp; Data may differ for other versions.
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1
* '''Length:''' 46 ft 4 in (14.1 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 30 ft 4 in (9.2 m)
* '''Height:''' 11 ft 9 in (3.5 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 243.4 ft&sup2; (22.61 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 12,500 lb (5,700 kg)
<!--
* '''Loaded:''' lb ( kg)
-->
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 29,750 lb (13,400 kg)
* '''Power plant:''' 1x [[Rolls-Royce F402]]-RR-408, 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 629 mph (1000 km/h) 547 knots
* '''Range:''' 685 miles (1,000 km)
* '''Service ceiling:''' 50,000 ft (15,000 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 14,715 ft/min (4,485 m/min)
<!--
* '''Wing loading:''' lb/ft&sup2; (kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:'''
-->
===Armament===
*Detachable fuselage strakes can be replaced with pods for one [[GAU-12 Equalizer|GAU-12U "Equalizer"]] 25 mm cannon (left pod) and 300 rounds of ammunition (right pod) 7 pylons for a maximum of 13,200 lb (STOL) of stores, including: Iron bombs, cluster bombs, napalm canisters, laser-guided bombs, [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missiles, and up to four [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] or similar-sized infrared-guided missiles. AV-8B+ variants can carry up to four [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles.
==Films==
The Harrier II made an appearance in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] spy-action movie ''[[True Lies]]'' and in the [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Battlefield Earth]]'' starring [[John Travolta]]. It also appeared as the [[Aerialbots|Aerialbot]] [[Slingshot]] in ''[[Transformers (toyline)|The Transformers]]''. It also was seen in the spy movie spoof ''[[Spy Hard]]'' starring [[Leslie Nielsen]]. An alien ship was disguised as a Harrier II in a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] science fiction movie, ''[[The Returner]]''.
==External links==
*[http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpharrier.html RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: Video of Harrier Hovering]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/av-8b.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: AV-8B Harrier II]
* [http://news.mod.uk/news/press/news_headline_story.asp?newsItem_id=3462 UK MoD Release lauds No. 1 Squadron & No. 3 Squadron's role in Afghanistan] with GR7As (August 10, 2005)
* Defense Industry Daily: [http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/03/av8b-harrier-finding-success-in-iraq/index.php AV-8B Harrier finding Success in Iraq] (March 30, 2005)
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
|sequence=
* [[A-5 Vigilante|A-5]] - [[A-6 Intruder|A-6]] - [[A-7 Corsair II|A-7]] - '''AV-8''' - [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9]] - [[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]] - [[A-12 Avenger II|A-12]]
<!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? -->
|related=
* [[Hawker P.1127]]
* [[Hawker Kestrel]]
* [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]
* [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]]
* [[RAF Harrier II]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[Boeing X-32]]
* [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]
* [[Yakovlev Yak-38]]
|lists=
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1970-1979]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps equipment]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]
[[fi:Harrier]]
[[fr:AV-8 Harrier II]]
[[hu:Harrier]]
[[pt:AV-8 Harrier II]]
[[sv:Harrier]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AGM-65 Maverick</title>
<id>3151</id>
<revision>
<id>38026054</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T18:09:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300px"
|+ <big>'''AGM-65 Maverick'''</big><br><small>'''Technical Summary'''</small>
|-
|align="center" colspan="2"| [[Image:AGM-65_Maverick.jpg|thumb|300px|A pilot inspects an AGM-65 Maverick missile on his [[A-10 Thunderbolt]].]]
|-
|Primary function
|Air-to-surface [[guided missile]]; attack and destroy armor, air defenses, ships, ground transportation, and fuel installations.
|-
|Contractor
|[[Hughes Aircraft Corporation]]; [[Raytheon Corporation]].
|-
|Power plant
|[[Thiokol]] TX-481 [[dual-thrust]] [[solid propellant]] [[rocket motor]]
|-
|Length
|2.55 m (8 ft 2 in)
|-
|Launch weight
|From 208 kg (462 lb) to 302 kg (670 lb) depending upon model and warhead weight
|-
|Diameter
|305 mm (12 in)
|-
|Wing span
|710 mm (2 ft 4 in)
|-
|Range (max. at high altitude)
|27 km (17 statute miles, 15 nautical miles)
|-
|Range (max. at low altitude)
|13 km (8 statute miles, 7 nautical miles)
|-
|Guidance
|Electro-optical in A, B, K, and H models; infrared imaging in D and G models; laser guided in E models; infrared homing in F models.
|-
|Warhead
|135 kg (300 lb); contact fuze, delayed fuze penetrator, heavyweight
|-
|Unit cost
|Up to US$160,000
|-
|Date first deployed
|August [[1972]]
|}
The '''AGM-65 Maverick''' is an [[air-to-surface missile|air-to-surface tactical missile]] (ASM) designed for close air support, prohibition, and forceful prevention. It is effective against a wide range of [[Military tactic|tactical]] targets, including [[armor]], air defenses, [[ship]]s, ground transportation, and fuel storage facilities.
The AGM-65F ([[infrared]] targeting) used by the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] has an [[infrared]] guidance system optimized for ship tracking and a larger penetrating warhead than the [[shaped charge]] used by the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]] and the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] (300 pounds (136 kg) vs 125 pounds (57 kg)). The AGM-65 has two types of [[warhead]]s; one has a contact [[Fuse (explosives)#Fuze|fuze]] in the nose, and the other has a heavyweight warhead with a delayed fuze, which penetrates the target with its [[kinetic energy]] before firing. The latter is most effective against large, hard targets. The propulsion system for both types is a solid-fuel rocket motor behind the warhead.
AGM-65 missiles were employed by [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s and [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]s during Operation [[Gulf War|Desert Storm]] in [[1991]] to attack armored targets. Mavericks played a large part in the destruction of [[Iraq]]'s military force.
LAU-117 Maverick launchers have also been used on USA navy and air force [[aircraft]]: [[A-4 Skyhawk]], [[A-6 Intruder]], [[A-7 Corsair II]], [[AH-1 Cobra|AH-1W]], [[AV-8 Harrier II]], [[F-4 Phantom II]], [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]], [[F-15 Eagle]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]], [[General Dynamics F-111]], [[P-3 Orion]], and [[SH-2 Seasprite|SH-2G]]; and the [[Royal Air Force|UK Royal Air Force]]' [[AV-8 Harrier II|Harrier GR7]].
[[Category:American Cold War air-to-surface missiles]]
[[Category:Modern American air-to-surface missiles]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]
[[de:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[pt:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[fi:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[sv:Robot 75 Maverick]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIM-54 Phoenix</title>
<id>3152</id>
<revision>
<id>41675065</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:06:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Prodego</username>
<id>451766</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clarify, AIM-54 is still a missile, just not in use</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AIM-54 Phoenix.jpg|thumb|300px|An AIM-54 Phoenix]]The '''AIM-54 Phoenix''' is a long-range [[air-to-air missile|air-to-air]] [[missile]], carried in clusters of up to six missiles on the [[F-14 Tomcat]], the only aircraft capable of carrying it.
The Phoenix missile was the [[US Navy]]'s only long-range air-to-air missile. It is an airborne weapons control system with multiple-target handling capabilities, used to kill multiple air targets with conventional warheads. Near simultaneous launch is possible against up to six targets in all weather and heavy jamming environments. The improved Phoenix, the AIM-54C, was developed to better counter projected threats from tactical aircraft and cruise missiles.
The AIM-54 Phoenix was retired from USN service on [[30 September]] [[2004 in aviation|2004]].
==Versions==
'''AIM-54A''': The original version to become operational, in [[1974 in aviation|1974]].
'''AIM-54C''': Improved version, better able to counter [[cruise missiles]]. Superseded the AIM-54A from [[1986 in aviation|1986]].
'''AIM-54 ECCM/[[Sealed round|Sealed]]''': Improved to include electronic counter-countermeasure capabilities, does not require coolant conditioning during captive flight. Used from [[1988 in aviation|1988]] onwards.
Because the AIM-54 ECCM/Sealed receives no coolant, [[F-14 Tomcat|Tomcats]] carrying this version of the missile may not exceed a certain airspeed.
In recent years, [[Iran]] is said to have developed its own version of the Phoenix.
==Combat performance==
Reports of use of the 285 missiles supplied to Iran [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/planes/q0077.shtml] during the [[Iran-Iraq War]], from 1980&ndash;88, vary, with some sources claiming as many as 25 kills with it [http://www.iiaf.net/aircraft/jetfighters/F14/f14.html] and others suggesting sabotage of the aircraft making it impossible to fire the missile or no kills for other reasons. It is generally reported that the primary use of the [[F-14]] was as an [[airborne early warning]] aircraft, guarded by other fighters. However, some insist that this is incorrect and point to the experience of fighting Iraqi pilots during the [[1991 Gulf War]]. Iraqi fighter pilots consistently turned and fled as soon as American F-14 pilots turned on their fighters' very distinctive [[AN/AWG-9]] radars.
The [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)]], in which Ame
|
broke an unwritten scheduling rule that the two flagship soaps would not be put directly against each other. In this first head-to-head battle, ''EastEnders'' claimed victory over its rival.
In 1998, ''[[EastEnders Revealed]]'' was launched on [[BBC Choice]] (now [[BBC3]]), the show takes a look behind the scenes of the show and investigates particular places, characters or families within ''EastEnders''. ''EastEnders Revealed'' is the only BBC Choice programme to last the entire life of the channel and is still running on BBC3. An episode of ''EastEnders Revealed'' which was commissioned for BBC3 attracted 611,000 viewers.
In early 2003, viewers could watch episodes of ''EastEnders'' on digital channel BBC3 before they were broadcast on BBC One. This was to coincide with the relaunch of the channel and helped BBC3 break the one million viewers for the first time with 1.03 million who watched to see [[Mark Fowler]]'s departure.
In [[February 2005]], there were reports that the ''EastEnders'' schedule was threatened due to production problems. Newspaper reports indicated that the show faced being taken off air for a fortnight after a storyline shortage, however this was denied by the BBC. In March of the same year, as [[Peter Fincham]] became the BBC One controller, rumours were sparked that ''EastEnders'' could air in a new time slot.
''EastEnders'' is usually repeated on BBC3 at 10:00 p.m. and old [[reruns]] can often be seen on [[UKTV Gold]] (As of February 2006, UKTV Gold are showing episodes originally aired in December 2002. They are showing 5 episodes which means that 5 week's worth of episodes are shown every 4 weeks, which results in a catch-up rate of around 3 months a year).
As part of the BBC's digital push, ''[[EastEnders Xtra]]'' was introduced in 2005. The show is presented by Angelica Bell and available to digital viewers at 8.30 p.m. on Monday nights. The series goes behind the scenes of the show and talks to some of the cast members. The current series has now finished.
===International screenings===
''EastEnders'' is aired around the world in many [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, including [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]]. The series aired in the [[United States]] until [[BBC America]] ceased broadcasts of the serial in 2003, amidst fan protests. It is still shown on [[BBC Prime]] in [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]], and on [[BBC Canada]] in [[Canada]].
In June, 2004, the Dish Satellite Network picked up ''EastEnders'', airing episodes starting at the point where BBC America had ceased broadcasting them, offering the serial as a Pay-per-View item. Dish first broadcast two weeks' worth of shows each week to get caught up. In approximately February, 2005, the programming reached the point of being one month behind the new shows being aired in the UK. At that point, Dish stopped its double-helping schedule, and now maintains the schedule of airing the new programmes consistently one month behind the UK schedule. Episodes from prior years are still shown on various PBS stations in the US.
The American [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] channel, [[KOCE-TV]] ran the show one episode per week from 1990 to 1993. The series was screened in [[Australia]] by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] from 1987 until the early 1990s. Currently the series is seen in Australia only on pay-TV channel [[UK.TV]]. In [[New Zealand]], it was shown by [[TVNZ]] on TV One, but is now on [[Prime Television New Zealand|Prime]]. In [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], it is shown on [[RTÉ One]] at the same time as [[BBC One]], which is also widely received in the country.
It is also shown on the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]]'s main TV channel, BFBS1, to members of [[Military of the United Kingdom|HM Forces]] stationed around the world.
===Critique===
''EastEnders'' has received both praise and criticism for most of its storylines which have dealt with difficult themes, such as violence, rape and murder.
[[Mary Whitehouse]] argued at the time that ''EastEnders'' represented a violation of 'family viewing time' and that it undermined the [[Watershed (television)|watershed]] policy. She regarded ''EastEnders'' as a fundamental assault on the family and morality itself. She made reference to representation of family life and emphasis on psychological and emotional violence within the show. She was also critical of language such as 'bleeding', 'bloody hell', 'bastard' and 'For Christ's sake'. However Whitehouse also praised the programme, describing Michelle Fowler's decision not to have an abortion as a 'very positive storyline'. She also felt that ''EastEnders'' had been cleaned up as a result of her protests, though she later commented that ''EastEnders'' had returned to its old ways. Her criticisms were widely reported in the tabloid press as ammunition in its existing rivalry with the BBC. The stars of ''Coronation Street'' in particular aligned themselves with Mary Whitehouse, gaining headlines such as "STREETS AHEAD! RIVALS LASH SEEDY EASTENDERS" and "CLEAN UP SOAP! Street Star Bill Lashes 'Steamy' EastEnders".
The long-running storyline of Mark Fowler's HIV was so successful in raising awareness that in 1999 a survey by the ''National Aids Trust'' found teenagers got most of their information about HIV from the soap. Though, one campaigner noted that in some ways the storyline was not reflective of what was happening at the time as the condition was more common among the gay community. Mark struggles with various issues connected to his HIV status including public fears of contamination, a marriage breakdown connected to his inability to have children, and the side effects of combination therapies. However in 2003 when the makers of the series decided to write Mark out of the series they sent him away to travel, and several months later word was received from overseas that he had died.
The child abuse storyline with Kat and her uncle Harry, saw calls to the ''National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children'' ([[NSPCC]]) go up by 60%. The chief executive of the NSPCC praised the storyline, for covering the subject in a direct and sensitive way, coming to the conclusion that people were more likely to report any issues relating to child protection because of it. In 2002 ''EastEnders'' also won an award from the ''Mental Health Media Awards'' held at BAFTA for this storyline.
''EastEnders'' is often criticised for being too violent, most notably during a [[domestic violence]] storyline between Little Mo and husband Trevor. As ''EastEnders'' is shown pre-watershed, there were worries that scenes of this storyline were too graphic for its audience. Complaints against a scene in which Little Mo's face was shoved in gravy on Christmas day, were upheld by the ''Broadcasting Standards Council''. However, a helpline after this episode attracted over 2000 calls. [[Erin Pizzey]], who became internationally famous for having started one of the first Women's Refuges, said that ''EastEnders'' had done more to raise the issue of violence against women in one story than she had done in twenty-five years.
In 2003, Shaun Williamson who played Barry Evans, said that the programme had become much grittier over the past 10 to 15 years, and found it "frightening" that parents let their young children watch.
The BBC was criticised of anti-religious bias by a committee in the [[House of Lords]], examples of this suggestion included ''EastEnders''. Dr Indarjit Singh, the editor of the Sikh Messenger and patron of the World Congress of Faiths, said: "''EastEnders''' [[Dot Branning|Dot Cotton]] is an example. She quotes endlessly from the Bible and it ridicules [religion] to some extent."
==Trivia==
*Between 2001 and 2002, EastEnders was the 10th most searched-for TV show on the Internet.
*''EastEnders'' was the 2nd most popular UK search term in 2003.
*''EastEnders'' was the 4th most popular UK search term in 2004.
*''EastEnders'' was the 1st most popular UK search term in 2005.
*''EastEnders'' holds the record for the highest rated soap episode in Britain.
*In 2001 ''EastEnders'' went head to head with ''[[Coronation Street]]'' for the first time, ''EastEnders'' won the battle with 8.4 million viewers (41%) while ''Coronation Street'' attracted 7.3 million (36%).
*There is a shop in [[Walford]] named ''Barratt's Bargain Corner'', cleverly incorporating the [[BBC]]'s initials.
*[[Susan Tully]] who played Michelle Fowler has directed some episodes since leaving.
*[[Sheila Hancock]] has appeared in the soap playing Barbara Owen.
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and [[Guy Ritchie]] are rumoured to be big fans of the show, with Madonna's favourite character being [[Dot Cotton]].
*[[George Michael]], [[Brad Pitt]] and [[Jennifer Aniston]] are also fans of the soap.
*[[Brad Pitt]] is such a fan of the soap that when BBC America took EastEnders off the air in 2003, he and his then wife [[Jennifer Aniston]] joined a petition of 15,000 US fans demanding the cable channel reinstate it.
*[[Robbie Williams]] has made a [[cameo appearance]] on the telephone in the Queen Vic and is a big fan of the show.
*Martha Ross, mother of [[television presenter]] [[Jonathan Ross|Jonathan]], has been an [[extra (drama)|extra]] in the programme, as a [[market]] stallholder, since its inception.
*Before the [[Spice Girls]], [[Emma Bunton]] was cast as a troubled youth in the soap.
*Researchers, from the [[BBC]], went to the East End and visited 'Fassett Square' in the 1980&#8217;s, Albert Square is based on 'Fassett Square' which is dubbed the "real life Albert Square".
*The famous double-handers when only two actors appear in an episode was originally done for speed: while they film that, the rest of the cast can be making another episode.
*Pam St Clement (Pat) has 125 pairs of earrings from which to choose and fans still send her earrings in wh
|
:انقراض جماعي]]
[[de:Massenaussterben]]
[[es:Extinción masiva]]
[[fr:Extinction massive]]
[[he:הכחדה המונית]]
[[ja:大量絶滅]]
[[pt:Extinção em massa]]
[[sv:Massutdöende]]
[[zh:生物集群灭绝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E. E. Smith</title>
<id>9814</id>
<revision>
<id>41322474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T15:49:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Painbearer</username>
<id>137392</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Series */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Astounding Grey Lensman.png|thumb|200px|"Grey Lensman" in ''[[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]]'' Oct. 1939]]
'''E. E. Smith''', also '''Edward Elmer Smith, Ph.D.''', '''E.E. "Doc" Smith''' and '''Doc Smith''' ([[May 2]], [[1890]] - [[August 31]], [[1965]]) was a [[science fiction author]] who wrote the ''[[Lensman]]'' series and the ''Skylark'' series, among others.
Dr. Smith was born in [[Idaho]] and held a large number of menial jobs before attending the [[University of Idaho]], where he is installed in the Alumni Hall of Fame. He also lived in [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], and [[Florida]]. Some of his biography is captured in an essay by [[Robert A. Heinlein]], which was reprinted in the collection ''Expanded Universe'' in 1980.
He was a doctor, donning his doctoral hood in [[Chemical Engineering]] from [[George Washington University]] in [[1919]]. From [[1936]] onwards, he was employed as a food technologist (a "cereal" chemist) by the Dawn Doughnut Company before working for the US Army between [[1941]] and [[1945]]. Persistent but unconfirmed accounts maintain that Dr. Smith developed the first process for "sticking" powdered sugar on doughnuts. An extended segment in ''Triplanetary'', one of his novels, suggests intimate familiarity with explosives and munitions manufacturing.
[[Robert A. Heinlein]] and Dr. Smith were personal friends. Heinlein reported that E.E. Smith perhaps took his "unrealistic" heroes from life. He reported that E.E. Smith was a large, blond, athletic, very intelligent, very gallant man, married to a remarkably beautiful, intelligent red-haired woman named MacDougal (thus perhaps the prototypes of 'Kimball Kinnison' and 'Clarissa MacDougal'). In one of Heinlein's books, he reports that he began to suspect Smith might be a sort of superman when he asked Dr. Smith for help in purchasing a car. Smith tested the car by driving it on a back road at illegally high speeds with their heads pressed tightly against the roof columns to listen for chassis squeaks by [[bone conduction]]&mdash;a process apparently improvised on the spot.
His novels are generally considered to be the original [[space opera]]s and offer almost non-stop action. However they are, to a fair extent, still "true" [[science fiction]], in that they use the extrapolation of known science and, often, the extrapolation of existing and historic social and political patterns of the early to mid-twentieth century. Smith himself expressed a preference for inventing fictional technologies that were not strictly impossible (so far as the science of the day was aware) but highly unlikely: "the more unlikely the better" was his phrase.
In recent years many critics have characterized his writings as cliché-ridden, or as using tired old themes. Dr. Smith, however, ''invented'' many of these themes. It is his imitators who made them tired old cliches. They were often totally new when he wrote them. With a little tolerance and imagination, a sense of wonder is easy to recapture, because Smith had it when he was writing his work. His excitement and enthusiasm shine through his writing and make his books well worth reading despite their age and their obvious literary flaws.
The Lensman novels were particularly interesting for their imaginative use of extra-terrestrial, non-human characters as major heros, another science fiction "first."
''Vortex Blasters'' (a.k.a. ''Masters of the Vortex'') is set in the same universe as the ''Lensman'' novels, an extension to the main storyline difficult to place on the timeline, and introducing a different type of psionics than that used by the Lensmen. ''Spacehounds of IPC'' is not a part of the series, despite occasional erroneous statements to the contrary.
[[Robert A. Heinlein]] reported that Doc had planned a seventh ''Lensman'' novel, set after the events described in ''Children of the Lens'', which was unpublishable at that time (the early [[1960s]]). Careful searches by people who knew Doc well (including [[Frederik Pohl]], Doc's editor, and Verna Trestrail, Doc's daughter) have failed to locate any material related to such a story. Doc apparently never wrote any of it down. Doc told Heinlein that the new novel proceeded inexorably from unresolved matters in ''Children'', a statement easily supported by a careful reading of ''Children''.
On [[14 July]] [[1965]], barely a month before his death, E. E. Smith gave written permission to [[William B. Ellern]] to continue the ''Lensman'' series, which led to the publishing of ''New Lensman'' in [[1976]]. Smith's long-time friend, Dave Kyle, wrote three authorized added novels in the Lensman series that provided background about the major non-human Lensmen.
Steve 'Slug' Russell wrote the original computer game [[Spacewar]] inspired by the space battles from the Lensman series.
The [[GURPS]] role-playing game includes a worldbook based on the Lensman series.
In his biography, [[George Lucas]] reveals that the Lensmen novels were a major influence on his youth, completing the tie from the books to modern popular culture through Star Wars.
As well as influencing the course of popular culture, Smith was also a huge influence on modern warfare. His books were widely read by scientists and engineers from the [[1930s]] until the [[1970s]]. Ideas that arguably entered the military-scientific complex from Smith's work included [[Strategic Defense Initiative|SDI]] (Triplanetary), [[Stealth technology|stealth]] (Gray Lensman) and [[Observation, orientation, decision and action|OODA-loops]]/[[Command, control, and communications|C3]] based warfare and the [[Airborne Warning and Control System|AWACS]] (Gray Lensman). One underlying theme of the novels was the difficulty in maintaining military secrecy&mdash;as advanced capabilities are revealed, the opposing side can often duplicate them.
An influence that is inarguable was described in a letter to Doc from [[John W. Campbell]] (the editor of [[Astounding (magazine)|''Astounding'' magazine]], where much of the ''Lensman'' series was originally published). In it, Campbell relayed Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]]'s acknowledgment that he had used Smith's ideas for displaying the battlespace situation (called the "tank" in the stories) in the design of the [[United States Navy]]'s ships' [[Combat Information Center]]s. "Your entire set-up was taken specifically, directly, and consciously from the ''Directrix'' in your story. Here you reached the situation the Navy found itself in &mdash; more communication channels than integration techniques to handle them. In your writing you proposed precisely such an integrating technique and proved how advantageous it could be."&sup1;
The beginning of the story the Skylark of Space describes in relative detail the protagonists research into separation of platinum group residues, subsequent experiments involving electrolysis and the discovery of a process evocative of [[cold fusion]] (over 50 years before [[Stanley Pons]] and [[Martin Fleischmann]]). He describes a nuclear process yielding large amounts of energy and producing only negligible radioactive waste&mdash;which then goes on to form the basis of the adventures in the Skylark books. Smith's general description of the process of discovery is highly evocative of Röntgen's descriptions of his discovery of the [[X-ray]].
Another theme of the Skylark novels involves precursors of modern information technology. The humanoid aliens encountered in the first novel have developed a primitive technology called the "mechanical educator," which allows direct conversion of brain waves into intelligible thought for transmission to others or for electrical storage. By the third novel in the series, ''Skylark of Valeron'', this technology has grown into an "Electronic Brain" which is capable of computation on all "bands" of energy&mdash;electromagnetism, gravity, and "tachyonic" energy and radiation bands included. This is itself derived from a discussion of reductionist atomic theory in the second novel, ''Skylark Three'', which is evocative of modern quark and sub-quark theories of elementary particle physics.
In his later non-series novels, ''Galaxy Primes'', ''Subspace Explorers'', and ''Subspace Encounter'', E. E. Smith explores themes of telepathy and other mental abilities collectively called "psionics," and of the conflict between libertarian and dictatorial influences in the colonization of other planets.
Doc himself appears as a character in the [[2006]] [[novel]] ''The Chinatown Death Cloud Peril'' by [[Paul Malmont]]. The novel describes friendship and rivalry among pulp writers of the [[1930s]]; it also includes [[Walter Gibson]], creator of [[The Shadow]], and [[Lester Dent]], creator of [[Doc Savage]].
==Biblography==
===Series===
<big>'''[[Lensman]]'''</big>
# ''Triplanetary'' (1934)
# ''First Lensman'' (1950)
# ''Galactic Patrol'' (1950)
# ''Gray Lensman'' (1951)
# ''Second Stage Lensma''n (1953)
# ''Children of the Lens'' (1954)
# ''The Vortex Blaster'' aka Masters of the Vortex (1960)
<big>'''[[Skylark (series)|Skylark]]'''</big>
# ''The Skylark of Space'' (1946)
# ''Skylark Three'' (1948)
# ''Skylark of Valeron'' (1949)
# ''Skylark DuQuesne''
|
mare and stallion never have to come in contact with each other, which therefore reduces breeding accidents, such as the mare kicking the stallion.
* AI opens up the world to international breeding, as semen may be shipped across continents to mares that would otherwise be unable to breed to a particular stallion.
* A mare also does not have to travel to the stallion, so the process is less stressful on her, and if she already has a foal, the foal does not have to travel.
* AI allows more mares to be bred from one stallion, as the ejaculate may be split between mares.
* AI reduces the chance of spreading sexually transmitted diseases between mare and stallion.
* AI allows mares or stallions with health issues, such as sore hocks which may prevent a stallion from mounting, to continue to breed.
* Frozen semen may be stored and used to breed mares even after the stallion is dead, allowing his lines to continue. However, the semen of some stallions does not freeze well, and live cover is sometimes the only option.
It is important to note that the [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow AI, and all breedings must be live cover if the resulting foal is to be registered to race.
A stallion is usually trained to mount a phantom mare, although a live mare may be used, and he is collected using an artificial vagina (AV), which is often heated to simulate the vagina of the mare. The AV has a filter and collection area at one end to collect the semen, which is then processed in a lab. The semen is then chilled or frozen and shipped to the mare owner. When the mare is in heat, a veterinarian introduces the semen directly into her via a syringe and pipette.
[[Image:Gallop.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow AI or surrogate dams.]]
===Surrogate Dams===
Often an owner does not want to take a valuable competition mare out of training to carry a foal. This presents a problem, as the mare will usually be quite old by the time she is retired from her competitive career, at which time it is more difficult to impregnate her. Other times, a mare may have physical problems that prevent or discourage breeding. However, there are now several options for breeding these mares. These options also allow a mare to produce multiple foals each breeding season, instead of the usual one. Therefore, mares may have an even greater value for breeding.
*'''[[Embryo transfer|Embryo Transfer]]''': The relatively new method involves removing the mare's fertilized embryo a few days following insemination, and transferred to a surrogate mare.
*'''Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)''': The mare's ovum and the stallion's sperm are deposited in the oviduct of a surrogate dam. This technique is very useful for subfertile stallions, as fewer sperm are needed, so a stallion with a low sperm count can still successfully breed.
*'''Egg Transfer''': An [[oocyte]] is removed from the mare's follicle and transferred into the oviduct of the recipient mare, who is then bred. This is best for mares with physical problems, such as an obstructed oviduct, that prevent breeding.
It is important to note that the [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow foals from surrogate mothers to be registered.
===See also===
* [[Horse]]
* [[Horse breeds]]
* [[Horse racing]]
* [[Horse reproduction]]
* [[Horse training]]
[[Category:Horse management]]
[[de:Pferdezucht]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterosexuality</title>
<id>14084</id>
<revision>
<id>41778539</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:07:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.253.212.218|216.253.212.218]] ([[User talk:216.253.212.218|talk]]) to last version by 86.49.56.69</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Sexual orientation}}
'''Heterosexuality''' is the scientific name for [[sexual attraction]] and/or [[sexual behaviour]] between animals of the opposite characteristic sex, or being straight. It is the fifth element of the classic quinto-modal continuum of [[sexual orientation]], which consists of [[asexuality]], [[autosexuality]], [[homosexuality]], [[bisexuality]], and heterosexuality. Some theorists extend the continuum to include such concepts as "[[allosexuality]]", but these have not yet been accepted by the academic community as actual sexual orientations.
Applying this definition to people complicates it, because there are several determinants that may or may not be important for categorization:
#Chromosonal indicators (XX, XY or unusual variations)
#Internal reproductive anatomy (immature, mature or "different")
#Any of the several hormonal indicators
#External anatomy (commonly breasts & external genitals, but not always)
#Projected assumptions of sexuality at birth
#Projected assumptions of sexuality after birth
#Individually chosen assumptions after birth
#Assumptions from external appearances and clothing
#Assumptions from external behaviours (excluding visual appearances)
#Assumptions from reputation(s)
#Situational judgements; changing depending on environments, such as companions, clubs, etc.
For most humans, in most of the time of their lifespan, the above factors may correlate very well. After the sexual hormone production changes about the ages of fifty, changes are expected at physiological, sensory, visual, emotional and physical levels. Inexperienced persons however often are mistaken in their judgements on hetero or other sexualities.
Note that if one of the animals involved in the sexual attraction and/or behaviour is intersex, or (more rarely) of indeterminable characteristic sex - and particularly if the sexual attraction and/or behaviour involves something other than another animal (e.g., sexual behaviour between an animal and a plant) - the attraction and/or behaviour cannot be classified quadrimodally as heterosexual, homosexual, etc.
The concept of heterosexuality as applied to humans is further complicated by the distinction between [[sex]] and [[gender]] in humans. [[Sexual orientation]] may be based on sex, gender, or some combination of both: for example, some heterosexuals are attracted only to people of the opposite sex, regardless of those people's gender, and others are attracted to people of the opposite gender, even if they are of the same sex.
People who cannot be classified as "[[male]]" or "[[female]]" -- in terms of either gender or sex -- cannot have any sexual orientation as that concept is currently constructed; thus, their sexual behaviour cannot be heterosexual, homosexual, though certain types of behaviour can always be classified as autosexual.
Sexual impulses in humans are generally thought to be the product of [[genetics|genetic]], [[chemical]], [[behavioural]], sometimes other factors that produce an [[erotic]] [[sexual desire|desire]] that is generally trained to a particular sexual orientation. Human sexual behaviour routinely is not correlated to an individual's actual or declared sexual orientation. Human behaviour may in fact involve emotional, cognitive, social and physical parts of the body, consciously or deliberately often (but not always), so that a clear label of a type of sexuality may be applied.
Heterosexuality is usually contrasted with [[homosexuality]] and sometimes [[bisexuality]]. Current trends in [[psychology]] suggest heterosexuality and homosexuality may exist on a non-modal [[continuum]] rather than as discrete entities. Thus, views on heterosexuality are divided among those who hold that heterosexuality is a concrete idea of attraction towards the opposite sex, versus those that hold that heterosexuality is more fluid. Acknowledging that a person's sex and gender can differ also requires a more flexible definition of heterosexuality.
In the [[animal]] kingdom, the vast majority of [[sexual reproduction]] results from heterosexual [[coitus]] between sexually mature partners. However, many modern psychologists hold that [[sexuality]] in humans is a larger term than originally thought, encompassing more complex behaviors. Given the tension between the biological definition of heterosexuality and the modern psychological definition of heterosexuality, political and sociological discussions of the subject are often difficult.
==Etymology==
''Hetero-'' comes from the Greek word ''heteros'', meaning "different" (for other uses, see [[heterozygote]], [[heterogeneous]]), and the Latin for sex (that is, characteristic sex or [[sexual differentiation]]). The term "''heterosexual''" was [[Neologism|coined]] shortly after and opposite to the word "homosexual" by [[Karl Maria Kertbeny]] in [[1868]] and was first published in [[1869]]. [[Heterosexuality#References|<nowiki>[2]</nowiki>]] ''"Heterosexual"'' was first listed in Merriam-Websters's ''New International Dictionary'' as a medical term for "morbid sexual passion for one of the opposite sex", but in 1934 in their ''Second Edition Unabridged'' it is a "manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality". (Katz, 1995)
==History and demographics==
The prevalence of exclusive heterosexuality has varied over the centuries and also from culture to culture. ''See [[Demographics of sexual orientation]]''
Though there have always been individuals (sometimes in a majority, sometimes in a minority) who were exclusively attracted to those of the opposite sex, heterosexuality as an identity (just like homosexuality) has developed only since the middle of the nineteenth century.
The history of heterosexuality is part of the [[History of sexuality|history of sexuality]]. That history and science derivative of it is far from complete. Owing to complications of human politics and prejudice, coupled w
|
ngle (geometry)|triangle]] with equal base and height. (See the illustration below. The "base" is any [[secant line]], not necessarily [[orthogonal]] to the parabola's [[axis]]; "the same base" means the same "horizontal" component of the length of the base; "horizontal" means orthogonal to the axis. "Height" means the length of the segment parallel to the axis from the [[vertex]] to the base. The vertex must be so placed that the two horizontal distances mentioned in the illustration are equal.)
<div style="float:right;padding:5px;text-align:center">[[Image:Parabola.png]]<br></div>
In the process, he calculated the oldest known example of a [[geometric series]] with the [[ratio]] 1/4:
:<math> \sum_{n=0}^\infty 4^{-n} = 1 + 4^{-1} + 4^{-2} + 4^{-3} + \cdots = {4\over 3} \; . </math>
If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle in the [[illustration]] then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines in the illustration. Essentially, this paragraph summarizes the proof. Archimedes also gave a quite different proof of nearly the same [[proposition]] by a method using [[infinitesimals]] (see "[[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]]").
He proved that the [[area]] and volume of the [[sphere]] are in the same ratio to the area and volume of a circumscribed straight [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]], a result he was so proud of that he made it his [[epitaph]].
Archimedes is probably also the first [[mathematical physicist]] on record, and the best before [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]. He invented the field of [[statics]], enunciated the law of the [[lever]], the law of [[equilibrium]] of [[fluids]] and the law of [[buoyancy]]. (He famously discovered the latter when he was asked to determine whether a crown had been made of pure gold, or gold adulterated with silver; he realized that the rise in the water level when it was immersed would be equal to the volume of the crown, and the decrease in the weight of the crown would be in proportion; he could then compare those with the values of an equal weight of pure gold). He was the first to identify the concept of [[center of gravity]], and he found the centers of gravity of various geometric figures, assuming uniform [[density]] in their interiors, including triangles, [[paraboloid]]s, and [[sphere|hemisphere]]s. Using only [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[geometry]], he also gave the equilibrium positions of floating sections of paraboloids as a function of their height, a feat that would be taxing to a modern physicist using [[calculus]].
Apart from general physics he was an [[astronomer]], and [[Cicero]] writes that the Roman [[consul]] [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]] brought two devices back to [[Rome]] from the sacked city of Syracuse. One device mapped the [[sky]] on a sphere and the other predicted the motions of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] and the [[planet]]s (i.e., an [[orrery]]). He credits [[Thales]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] for constructing these devices. For some time this was assumed to be a legend of doubtful nature, but the discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] has changed the view of this issue, and it is indeed probable that Archimedes possessed and constructed such devices. [[Pappus]] of [[Alexandria]] writes that Archimedes had written a practical book on the construction of such spheres entitled ''[[On Sphere-Making]]''.
Archimedes' works were not widely recognized, even in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. He and his contemporaries probably constitute the peak of Greek [[mathematical rigour]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] the mathematicians who could understand Archimedes' work were few and far between. Many of his works were lost when the [[library of Alexandria]] was burnt (twice) and survived only in [[Latin]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[translation]]s. As a result, his ''[[how Archimedes used infinitesimals|mechanical method]]'' was lost until around [[1900]], after the [[arithmetization of analysis]] had been carried out successfully. We can only speculate about the effect that the "method" would have had on the development of [[calculus]] had it been known in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries.
== Writings by Archimedes ==
* ''On the Equilibrium of Planes'' (2 volumes)
:This scroll explains the law of the lever and uses it to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures.
* ''On Spirals''
:In this scroll, Archimedes defines what is now called [[Archimedean spiral|Archimedes' spiral]]. This is the first mechanical curve (i.e., traced by a moving point) ever considered by a Greek mathematician. Using this curve, he was able to [[Squaring the circle|square the circle]].
* ''On the Sphere and The Cylinder''
:In this scroll Archimedes obtains the result he was most proud of: that the area and volume of a sphere are in the same relationship to the area and volume of the circumscribed straight cylinder.
* ''On Conoids and Spheroids''
:In this scroll Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres and paraboloids.
* ''On Floating Bodies'' (2 volumes)
:In the first part of this scroll, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water around a center of gravity will adopt a spherical form. This is probably an attempt at explaining the observation made by Greek astronomers that the Earth is round. Note that his fluids are not self-gravitating: he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall and derives the spherical shape. One is led to wonder what he would have done had he struck upon the idea of universal [[gravitation]].
:In the second part, a veritable ''tour-de-force'', he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, which is reminiscent of the way [[iceberg]]s float, although Archimedes probably was not thinking of this application.
* ''The Quadrature of the Parabola''
:In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the area of a segment of a parabola (the figure delimited by a parabola and a secant line not necessarily perpendicular to the axis). The final answer is obtained by [[Triangulation|triangulating]] the area and summing the geometric series with ratio 1/4.
* ''Stomachion''
:This is a Greek puzzle similar to [[Tangram]]. In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the areas of the various pieces. This may be the first reference we have to this game. Recent discoveries indicate that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the strips of paper could be assembled into the shape of a square. This is possibly the first use of [[combinatorics]] to solve a problem.
* ''Archimedes' Cattle Problem''
:Archimedes wrote a letter to the scholars in the Library of Alexandria, who apparently had downplayed the importance of Archimedes' works. In these letters, he dares them to count the numbers of cattle in the [[Herd of the Sun]] by solving a number of simultaneous [[Diophantus|Diophantine]] equations, some of them [[quadratic equation|quadratic]] (in the more complicated version). This problem is one of the famous problems solved with the aid of a computer. The solution is a very large number, approximately {{sn|7.760271|206544}} (See the external links to the Cattle Problem.)
* ''[[The Sand Reckoner]]''
:In this scroll, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand fitting inside the [[universe]]. This book mentions [[Aristarchus of Samos]]' theory of the [[solar system]] (concluding that "this is impossible"), contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. From the introductory letter we also learn that Archimedes' father was an astronomer.
* ''"[[Archimedes Palimpsest|The Method]]"''
:In this work, which was unknown in the Middle Ages, but the importance of which was realised after its discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use of [[infinitesimal]]s, showing how breaking up a figure in an infinite number of infinitely small parts could be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes did probably consider these methods not mathematically precise, and he used these methods to find at least some of the areas or volumes he sought, and then used the more traditional [[method of exhaustion]] to prove them. This particular work is found in what is called the [[Archimedes bathtub flotation device]]. Some details can be found at [[how Archimedes used infinitesimals]].
==Quotes about Archimedes==
* "Perhaps the best indication of what Archimedes truly loved most is his request that his tombstone include a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, accompanied by the inscription of his amazing [[theorem]] that the sphere is exactly two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder in both surface area and volume!" (Laubenbacher and Pengelley, p. 95)<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup>
* "...but regarding the work of an engineer and every art that ministers the needs of life as ignoble and vulgar, he devoted his earnest efforts only to those studies the subtlety and charm of which are not affected by the claims of necessity." [[Plutarch]], possibly explaining why Archimedes produced no writings that describe precisely the design of his inventions. It has also been suggested that this statement merely reflects the prejudices of Plutarch and his peers, influenced by [[Platonic]] beliefs in pure [[reasoning]] and [[deduction]] over [[experimentation]] and [[induction (philosophy)|inductive]] processes. Given Archimedes's prodigious output as an engineer, Plutarch's often quoted comments on him seem hard to believe for modern historians
|
|bankruptcies]]) and suspended from work. In 1893 John Joyce was dismissed with a [[pension]]. This was the beginning of a slide into [[poverty]] for the family, mainly due to John's drinking and general financial mismanagement.
James Joyce was initially educated at [[Clongowes Wood College]], a boarding school in [[County Kildare]], which he entered in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the [[Christian Brothers]] school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the [[Jesuits]]' Dublin school, [[Belvedere College]], in 1893. The offer was made at least partly in the hope that he would prove to have a vocation and join the Order. Joyce, however, would reject [[Catholicism]] by the age of 16, although the philosophy of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] would remain a strong influence on him throughout his life.
He enrolled at the recently established [[University College Dublin]] in 1898, as [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] was still off-limits to Catholics. He studied modern languages, specifically [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city. His review of ''[[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]]'s New Drama'' was published in 1900 and resulted in a letter of thanks from the [[Norway|Norwegian]] dramatist himself. Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this period. Many of the friends he made at University College would appear as characters in Joyce's written works.
After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris; ostensibly to study medicine, but in reality he squandered money his family could ill afford. He returned to Ireland after a few months, when his mother was diagnosed with cancer. Joyce refused to pray at her bedside but this seems to have had more to do with Joyce's agnosticism than antagonism for his mother. After she died he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching and singing. On [[7 January]] [[1904]], he wrote ''A Portrait of the Artist'', an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, in a day, only to have it rejected from the free-thinking magazine ''Dana''. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story and turn it into a novel he planned to call ''Stephen Hero''. The same year he met [[Nora Barnacle]], a young woman from [[Connemara]], [[County Galway]] who was working as a chambermaid. On [[16 June]] [[1904]], they went on their first date, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of ''Ulysses''. Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into an fight over a misunderstanding with a man in [[Phoenix Park]]; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter was rumored to be a [[Jew]] and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for [[Leopold Bloom]], the main protagonist of ''Ulysses''. He took up with medical student [[Oliver St John Gogarty]], who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in ''Ulysses''. After staying in Gogarty's [[Martello Tower]] for six nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol in his direction. He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora.
===1904-1920: Trieste and Zurich===
Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to [[Zurich]], where he had supposedly acquired a post teaching English at the [[Berlitz Language Schools|Berlitz Language School]] through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to [[Trieste]], in [[Austria-Hungary]]. Once again, he found there was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Artifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally secured a teaching position in [[Pula|Pola]], then part of Austria-Hungary (today part of [[Croatia]]). He stayed there from October 1904 through March 1905, when the Austrians discovered an espionage ring in the city and expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next ten years.
Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, George. He then managed to talk his brother, [[Stanislaus Joyce|Stanislaus]], into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Ostensibly his reasons were for his company and offering his brother a much more interesting life than the simple clerking job he had back in Dublin, but in truth, he hoped to augment his family's meagre income with his brother's earnings. Stanislaus and Joyce had strained relations the entire time they lived together in Trieste, most arguments centering around Joyce's frivolity with money and drinking habits.
With chronic wanderlust much of his early life, Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to [[Rome]] in late 1906, having secured a position working in a bank in the city. He intensely disliked Rome, however, and ended up moving back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] was born in the summer of the same year.
Joyce returned to Dublin in the summer of 1909 with George, in order to visit his father, show off his son and work on getting ''Dubliners'' published. He visited Nora's family in [[Galway]], meeting them for the first time (a successful visit, to his relief). When preparing to return to Trieste he decided to bring one of his sisters, Eva, back to Trieste with him in order to help Nora look after the home. He would spend only a month back in Trieste before again heading back to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners in order to set up a regular cinema in Dublin. The venture was successful (but would quickly fall apart in his absence), and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister in tow, Eileen. While Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek.
Joyce returned to Dublin briefly in the summer of 1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher, George Roberts, over the publication of ''Dubliners''. His trip was once again fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem "Gas from a Burner" as a thinly veiled invective of Roberts. It was his last trip to Ireland, and he never came closer to Dublin than London again, despite the many pleas of his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer [[William Butler Yeats]].
Joyce came up with many money-making schemes during this period of his life, such as his attempt to become a cinema magnate back in Dublin, as well as an always-discussed but never-accomplished plan to import Irish tweeds into Trieste. His expert borrowing skills kept him from ever becoming completely destitute. His income was made up partially from his position at the Berlitz school, and partially from taking on private students. Many of his aquaintances through meeting these private students proved invaluable allies during his problems getting out of Austria-Hungary and into [[Switzerland]] in 1915.
One of his students in Trieste was [[Italo Svevo|Ettore Schmitz]], better known by the pseudonym [[Italo Svevo]]; they met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was a Jew, and became the primary model for Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith included in ''Ulysses'' came from Schmitz in response to Joyce's queries. Joyce would spend most of the rest of his life on the Continent. It was in Trieste that he first began to be plagued by major eye problems, which would result in over a dozen surgeries before his death.
In 1915 he moved to Zurich in order to avoid the complexities of living in Austria-Hungary during [[World War I]], where he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of ''Ulysses'' and ''Finnegans Wake''. It was also here where [[Ezra Pound]] brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching in order to focus on his writing. After the war he returned to Trieste briefly, but found the city had changed, and his relations with his brother (who had been interred in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years.
===1920-1941: Paris and Zurich===
He travelled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who suffered from [[schizophrenia]]. In Paris, [[Maria Jolas|Maria]] and [[Eugene Jolas]] nursed Joyce during his long years of writing ''Finnegans Wake''. Were it not for their unwavering support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver's unwavering financial support), there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published. In their now legendary literary magazine ''"transition''," the Jolases published serially various sections of Joyce's novel under the title ''Work in Progress.'' He returned to Zurich to live after the [[Nazi]] occupation of [[France]] in [[1939]]. He lived quietly in Zurich for the next two years. On [[11 January]]
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Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 6: Heapsort, pp.123&ndash;144.
== External links ==
* [http://www2.hawaii.edu/~copley/665/HSApplet.html Heapsort animated]
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/heapSort.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Heapsort]
* [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/sort.html Sorting revisited]
* [http://www-cse.uta.edu/~holder/courses/cse2320/lectures/applets/sort1/heapsort.html Heapsort Animation]
* [http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/DS/mal/lecture170/lecture.html Heapsort Lecture]
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<page>
<title>Heap (data structure)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''heap''' is a specialized [[tree data structure|tree]]-based [[data structure]]. Its base datatype (used for node keys) must be an [[ordered set]].
Let ''A'' and ''B'' be nodes of a heap, such that ''B'' is a [[Child node|child]] of ''A''. The heap must then satisfy the following condition (''heap property''):
: key(''A'') &ge; key(''B'')
[[Image:Max-heap.png|thumb|right|240px|Example of a Complete Binary Max Heap]]
This is the only restriction of general heaps. In this form it implies that the greatest element is always in the root node, and such a heap is sometimes called a ''max heap''. (Alternatively, if the comparison is reversed, the smallest element is always in the root node, which results in a ''min heap''.) Due to this fact, heaps are used to implement [[priority queue]]s. The efficiency of heap operations is crucial in several [[graph theory|graph]] [[algorithm]]s.
The operations commonly performed in a heap are
*''delete-max'' or ''delete-min'': removing the root node of a max- or min-heap, respectively,
*''decrease-key'': updating a key within the heap, and
*''insert'': adding a new key to the heap.
*''merge'': joining two heaps to form a valid new heap containing all the elements of both.
Heaps are used in the sorting algorithm called [[heapsort]].
==Variants==
*[[Binary heap]]
*[[Binomial heap]]
*[[Fibonacci heap]]
*[[Pairing heap]]
*[[Leftist tree|Leftist heap]]
*[[Soft heap]]
*[[2-3 heap]]
*[[Treap]]
*[[Beap]]
*[[Skew heap]]
==Comparison of theoretic bounds for variants==
Function names assume a min-heap:
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|- style="background-color:#e9e9e9" |
! rowspan="2" | Operation
! Binary
! Binomial
! Fibonacci
!!colspan="2" | Pairing
! Leftist
! Soft
! 2-3
! Treap
! Beap
|- style="background-color:#e9e9e9" |
! worst-case
! worst-case
! amortized
! worst-case
! amortized
! amortized !! !! !!
|-
| find-min
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> || || ||
|-
| delete-min
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> || || ||
|-
| insert
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> or O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> || || ||
|-
| decrease-key
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> or O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> || || ||
|-
| merge
|| O<math>(n)</math>
|| O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> or O<math>(\log n)</math>
|| O<math>(1)</math> || || ||
|}
For [[pairing heap]]s the ''insert'', ''decreaseKey'' and ''merge'' operations are conjectured to be O<math>(1)</math> amortized complexity but this has not yet been proven.
==Heap applications==
Heaps are favourite data structures for many applications.
* [[Heap sort]]: One of the best sorting methods being in-place and with no quadratic worst case scenarios.
* [[Selection algorithm]]s: Finding the min, max or both of them, median or even any ''k''-th element in sublinear time can be done dynamically with heaps.
* [[List_of_algorithms#Graph_algorithms|Graph algorithms]]: By using heaps as internal traversal data structures, run time will be reduced by an order of polynomial. Examples of such problems are kruskal's minimal spanning tree algorithm and Dijikstra's shortest path problem.
One more advantage of heap over tree in some applications is construction of heap can be done in linear time using Tarjan's algorithm.
==See also==
*[[Wikibooks:Wikiversity:Data_Structures|Heaps at Wikiversity]]
*[[Wikibooks:Computer_Science:Data_Structures:Min_and_Max_Heaps|Heaps at wikibooks]]
==External links==
*[http://leekillough.com/heaps/ Priority Queues] by [[Lee Killough (programmer)|Lee Killough]]
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<page>
<title>Hierarchical tree structure</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tree structure]]</text>
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<title>Hierarchy</title>
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:''For the various types of hierarchy, see [[hierarchy (disambiguation)]]''
A '''hierarchy''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Ιεραρχία''', it is derived from ''ιερός''-hieros, sacred, and ''άρχω''-arkho, rule) is a system of ranking and organizing things or people, where each element of the system (except for the top element) is subordinate to a single other element.
The first appearance of "hierarchy" in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] was in 1380, where it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]]. Areopagite used the word both in reference to the heavenly hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm]. This was the origin of the common meaning of "rule by [[priest]]s". Since hierarchical [[church]]es, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God]] as the pinnacle of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in more general settings.
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or horizontally. The only direct links in a hierarchy are to one's immediate superior, or to one of one's subordinates. However, indirect links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction. All parts of the hierarchy which are not vertically linked to one another can nevertheless be "horizontally" linked by travelling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers, neither of whom is the other's boss, but both of whose chains of command will eventually meet.
These relationships can be formalized mathematically; see [[hierarchy (mathematics)]].
== Diverse examples of reasoning with hierarchies ==
*COMPUTATION and ELECTRONICS: Large [[electronics|electronic]] devices such as [[computer]]s are usually composed of modules, which are themselves created out of smaller components ([[integrated circuit]]s), which in turn are internally organized using hierarchical methods (e.g. using standard cells). The order of tasks in a computational [[algorithm]] is often managed hierarchically, with repeated loops nested within one another. [[Computer file]]s in a [[file system]] is stored in a hierarchy of [[directory|directories]] in most [[operating system]]s. In [[object-oriented]] programming, classes are organized hierarchically; the relationship between two related classes is called [[inheritance-oop|inheritance]]. In the [[Internet]], [[IP address]]es are increasingly organized in a [[Classless inter-domain routing|hierarchy]] (so that the [[routing]] will continue to function as the Internet grows).
*BIOLOGICAL TAXONOMY: In [[biology]], the study of [[taxonomy]] is one of the most conventionally hierarchical kinds of knowledge, placing all living beings in a nested structure of di
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alex''' is a short form of the [[given name]] '[[Alexander (disambiguation)|Alexander]]'. In particular, it may refer to&mdash;
* [[Alessandro dos Santos]], a Brazilian-born Japanese soccer player.
* [[Alex (Street Fighter)]], the main character of the ''Street Fighter III'' series.
* [[Alex (cartoon)]] in the ''Daily Telegraph''.
* [[Alex (parrot)]] a famous talking parrot studied by Irene Pepperberg.
* [[Alex (videotex service)]] a videotex service offered by Bell Canada in the early 1990s.
* [[Alex (restaurant)]] a 5 star restaurant in Las Vegas
* [[Alex DeLarge]], the antihero of ''A Clockwork Orange''
* [[Alex Kidd]], a video game character.
* [[Alex Lam]], a Hong Kong individual music producer.
* [[Alex, Haute-Savoie]] a commune in the Haute-Savoie ''département'' of France.
* [[Alex, Oklahoma]].
* [[Alexsandro de Souza]], a Brazilian football player.
* [[List of characters in Golden Sun#Alex|Alex]], a video game character in ''Golden Sun''.
* [[Alex Trebek]], Host of the game show Jeopardy.
* [[Standard sniper rifle "Alex"]] - polish [[sniper rifle]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Alex]]</text>
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<title>Astounding magazine</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The foremost of the '''[[Monarch|king]]s of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon England]]''' was [[Aelle of Sussex|Ælle of Sussex]] in [[477]], who was much later followed by [[Alfred the Great]] (who took the place of [[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]]) in [[871]]. The last king of the Anglo-Saxon period was [[Edgar Atheling]], who was deposed by William I in 1066. Many of these monarchs used the name ''[[Bretwalda]]''.
==Anglo-Saxon kings==
* See the [[:Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs|Anglo-Saxon monarchs category]].
===[[Wessex]] kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Wessex]]
===[[East Anglia]] kings===
* See [[Kings of East Anglia]]
===[[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] kings===
* See [[Kingdom of Essex]]
===[[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] kings===
* See [[Kings of Kent]]
===[[Mercia]] kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Mercia]]
===[[Northumbria]] and Northumbria subkingdoms kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Northumbria]]
==Anglo-Saxon England [[heptarchy]]==
The separate [[monarchy|kingdom]]s which made up Anglo-Saxon [[England]] were:
* [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]]
* [[Northumbria]]
* [[Wessex]]
* [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]]
* [[Sussex]]
* [[Mercia]]
* [[East Anglia]]
===Subkingdoms of Northumbria===
* [[Bernicia]]
* [[Deira]]
===Other minor kingdoms===
* [[Kingdom of Ynys Weith|Isle of Wight]]
* [[Kingdom of Suther-ge|Surrey]]
* [[Kingdom of the Iclingas]]
* [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]]
* [[Hwicce]]
* [[Dalriada]] / [[Strathclyde]]
* [[Whitghar]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England|Monarchs]]
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<title>Adam and Eve</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other uses of Adam or Eve, see [[Adam (disambiguation)]] and [[Eve (disambiguation)]]. For the orchid species commonly called Adam and Eve, see [[Aplectrum hyemale]].''
According to the [[Book of Genesis]] in [[Judaism]]'s [[Torah]] and the [[Christian]] [[Bible]], and [[Islam]]'s [[Qur'an]], '''Adam''' was the [[First man or woman|first man]] created by [[God]]. At Genesis 1:27, Adam's female [[Marriage|mate]] is said to have been created with Adam, and at Genesis 2:21-22 Adam's wife is named as '''[[Eve]]''' (or '''Chava-חוה''') and was created from his side. Hence, in modern times Eve has been thought of as the [[first woman]], though classical traditions recorded in the Midrash make her the second.
The Qur'an tells the story of Adam and Eve mainly in [[al-Baqara|2]]:30-39, [[al-A'raf|7]]:11-25, [[al-Hijr|15]]:26-44, [[al-Isra|17]]:61-65, [[Ta-Ha|20]]:115-124, [[Sad (sura)|38]]:71-85., and the Book of Genesis tells the story at chapters 2-3. Also, in the Scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the story of Adam and Eve is explained in better detail in the Book of Mormon in the Second Chapter of 2nd Nephi, and in Chapters 2-5 in the Book of Moses and Chapters 3 through 4 in the Book of Abraham. The latter two is found in the Pearl of Great Price.
==Interpretation of names==
{{Cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Adam'''&mdash;אָדָם in [[Standard Hebrew]], ʾĀḏām in [[Tiberian Hebrew]], آدم (ʾĀdam) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], አዳም ('Adam) in [[Geez]] (Ethiopic), and Adamus in [[Latin]] &mdash; translates literally as ''red earth''. In the ancient cultures of the [[fertile crescent]], people were thought to have been created from the earth itself, and so the term ''red earth'' was used to refer to mankind generally. This is true today for the [[Kazak]] language, in which ''Adam'' means ''human'' and ''Adamshylyk'' is mankind, and for most other [[Turkic languages]], in which ''Adam'' also means ''man'' or ''human''.
However, in the [[Sibylline Oracles]], the name Adam is explained as a [[notaricon]] composed of the initials of the four directions; [[anatole]] (east), [[dusis]] (west), [[arktos]] (north), and [[mesembria]] (south). The Jews had their own [[acrostic]] interpretation of the name Adam. In the [[2nd century CE]], [[Rabbi Yohanan]] used the Greek technique of notarichon to explain the name אָדָם as the initials of the words ''afer'', ''dam'', and ''marah'', being dust, blood, and [[gall]].
'''Eve'''&mdash;חַוָּה (Ḥavva) in [[Standard Hebrew]], Ḥawwāh in [[Tiberian Hebrew]], حواء (Hawwāʾ) in Arabic, ሕይዋን (Hiywan) in Geez, and Eva/Eua or Geva in Latin &mdash; means simply ''living one'', or ''[[life]]''. Hence these names are literal descriptions of the purported parents of humanity.
==Adam and Eve of the Torah, Pseudepigraphic Books and other Jewish Traditions==
[[Image:AdamAndEve fx.png|200px|thumb|left|Traditional woodblock print portraying Adam and Eve in the [[Garden of Eden]] with many of the "lower creatures."]]
[[Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 017.jpg|thumb|left|Michelangelo's [[Creation of Adam|Adam]].]]
Adam is said, in the Torah, to have been created from the dust of the earth, and in the [[Talmud]] (Tractate Sanhedrin 38b) is, more specifically, described as having initially been a [[golem]] kneaded together from [[mud]]. In the Torah, God is initially described, at Genesis 1:26, as breathing the ''breath of life'' into the nostrils of the first man, and this is usually interpreted in Judaeo-Christian circles as having brought life immediately to the first man.
===Eve's creation===
At this point, in the Torah, [[Yahweh]] is described as causing a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and removing part of his body, usually interpreted as a [[rib cage|rib]] (though a more literal translation is non-specific), referring to "side". From this body part, Eve is subsequently created, as a companion to alleviate Adam's loneliness.
===Traditions regarding Adam and other wives===
[[Image:Lilith (John Collier painting).jpg|thumb|''Lilith'' (1892), by [[John Collier]]]]
Thus in Genesis, there are two separate accounts of the creation &mdash; one at Genesis 1-2:3, when woman was created with man and another after Genesis 2:4 giving the account of the creation of Eve from Adam's rib. While the more traditional view holds these to be written by the same author as a fuller account supplementing the earlier one, most modern scholars support the [[documentary hypothesis]], which claims each account derived from separate source texts that were later combined, with Eve's name and story being present only in the [[Yahwist]] text. Even in ancient times, the presence of two distinct accounts was noted, and regarded with some curiosity. The first account says ''male and female [God] created them'', which has been assumed by critical scholars to imply simultaneous creation, whereas the second account states that God created Eve from Adam's rib because Adam was lonely. Thus to resolve this apparent discrepancy, mediaeval rabbis suggested that Eve and the woman of the first account were two separate i
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are strings such that the concatenation <math>v_{1}...v_{n}</math> is in <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>w_{1},...,w_{n}</math> are strings such that <math>w_{1}...w_{n}</math> is in <math>L_{2}</math>.
A question often asked about formal languages is "how difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to the language?"
This is the domain of [[computation|computability theory]] and [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]].
==Further reading==
* Hopcroft, J. & Ullman, J (1979). ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation.'' Addison Wesley. ISBN 020102988X
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<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Free to Choose''''' is both a book (ISBN 0156334607) and a [http://www.ideachannel.com/FreeToChoose.htm ten-part television series]. ''Free to Choose: A Personal Statement'' by economists [[Milton Friedman|Milton]] and [[Rose Friedman|Rose D. Friedman]] provides examples of how the free market works, as evidence that it can solve problems that other approaches have been unsuccessful in solving. Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1976, the same year that fellow University of Chicago Professor, Saul Bellows won the Prize for literature. Contrary to normal practice the book was written after the TV series was produced, using the program transcripts as reference. PBS telecast the series, beginning in January 1980. The book was on the best sellers list for 5 weeks.
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<page>
<title>Foreign Service Level 3</title>
<id>10941</id>
<revision>
<id>15908731</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-16T05:47:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sj</username>
<id>40487</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ILR scale#Foreign Service Level 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FORTRAN</title>
<id>10942</id>
<revision>
<id>15908732</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-25T17:07:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stan Shebs</username>
<id>7777</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fortran]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fortran]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit</title>
<id>10945</id>
<revision>
<id>36470879</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T06:41:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 circuit|
Name = Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit |
Location = [[Albert Park]], [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] |
Image = [[Image:GrandPrix_Circuit_Australia_2006.svg|230px]] |
Events = [[Formula One]]; [[V8 Supercar]]s; [[Carrera Cup]]; [[Formula Ford]] |
Length_km = 5.30 |
Length_mi = 3.30 |
Turns = 16 |
Record_time = 1'24.125 |
Record_driver = [[Michael Schumacher]] |
Record_team = [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] |
Record_year = [[2004]]
}}
[[Image:Melbourne_Grand_Prix_Circuit_pit_building.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Albert Park grand prix circuit pit building.]]
The '''Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit''' is a street-based circuit around [[Albert Park]] Lake, only a couple of kilometres south of central [[Melbourne]]. It is best-known for holding the opening race of each [[Formula One]] season, the [[Australian Grand Prix]].
The circuit utilises everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-made lake just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne. The road sections that are used were rebuilt prior to the inaugural event in [[1996]] to ensure consistency and smoothness. As a result, compared to other circuits that are held on public roads, Albert Park is quite smooth as a racing surface and picturesque as there are only a few other places on the Formula 1 calendar where there is a body of water close to a racing track.
As a racing track of interest to drivers, it is considered quite fast and relatively easy to drive, drivers having commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times. However, the flat terrain around the lake, coupled with the track design, means that the track is not conducive to overtaking or easy spectating unless in possession of a [[grandstand]] seat.
Each year, the much of the trackside fencing, pedestriance overpasses, grandstands and other motorsport infrastructure are erected from approximately 4 weeks prior to the grand prix weekend and removed within 2 weeks after the event. Land around the circuit (including a large aquatic centre, a [[golf course]], a football [[stadium]], some restaurants and rowing boathouses) have restricted access during the grand prix weekend. Dissent is still prevalent among nearby local residents and some still maintain a silent [[protest]] against the event. Nevertheless, the event is immensely popular in Melbourne and Australia (with a large European population and a general interest in motorsport).
:''See also :'' [[Formula One]], [[Australian Grand Prix]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.grandprix.com.au/ Australian Grand Prix Corporation]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=albert+park&ll=-37.847070,144.970779&spn=0.047132,0.081050&t=k&hl=en Google Maps satellite view of the circuit]
*[http://www.f1db.com/f1/page/Albert_Park_Grand_Prix_Circuit Albert Park Circuit Statistics]
[[Category:Motor racing venues in Australia]]
[[Category:Formula One circuits]]
[[Category:Australian Grand Prix]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Melbourne]]
[[cs:Melbourne]]
[[de:Albert Park Circuit]]
[[es:Circuito del Gran Premio de Melbourne]]
[[fr:Circuit international de Melbourne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Monaco Grand Prix</title>
<id>10946</id>
<revision>
<id>40998165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:53:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Tyrrell]] to [[Tyrrell Racing]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 race |
Flag = Monaco_flag_large.png |
Name = [[Monaco]] Grand Prix |
Circuit = [[Circuit de Monaco]] |
Circuit_image = Monacogprix.png |
Laps = 78 |
Circuit_length_km = 3.34 |
Circuit_length_mi = 2.08 |
Race_length_km = 260.52 |
Race_length_mi = 161.88 |
Current_year = 2005 |
Winning_time = 1:45:15.556 |
Winner = [[Kimi Räikkönen]] |
Winning_team = [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] |
Pole_time = 2:30.323 (Aggregate Time)|
Pole_driver = [[Kimi Räikkönen]] |
Pole_team = [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] |
Fastest_lap = 1:15.842 |
Fastest_lap_driver = [[Michael Schumacher]] |
Fastest_lap_team = [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
}}
The '''Monaco Grand Prix''' is a [[Formula One]] race held annually, and since [[1929]], in the Principality of [[Monaco]] considered to be one of the most important and prestigious races around the world alongside the [[Indianapolis 500|Indianapolis 500-Mile Race]] and [[24 Hours of Le Mans]].
==Beginning==
[[Image:MonacoGrandPrix.jpg|thumb|left|''[[1934 Monaco Grand Prix]] advertisement.'']]
Like many European races, the Monaco Grand Prix predates the organized World Championships; the principality's first [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix race]] was organized in [[1929]] by Antony Noghes, a well-to-do cigarette manufacturer and a resident of Monte Carlo, under the auspices of [[Louis II, Prince of Monaco|Prince Louis II]] through the establishment of the "Automobile Club de Monaco" of which Noghes was the founding president.
The inaugural race was won by [[William Grover-Williams]] (a.k.a. "Williams") driving a [[Bugatti]] painted in what would become the famous [[British racing green]] color. The Monaco Grand Prix counted toward the [[European Championship (auto racing)|European Championship]] from [[1936]] to [[1939]] (although the race was cancelled in [[1938]]).
The Monaco Grand Prix was one of the inaugural races in the Formula One championship in 1950. However, there was no race in 1951, and in 1952 the Monaco Grand Prix took place but was not included within the Formula One championship. Since 1955, the Monaco Grand Prix has taken place each year and has been raced as part of the Formula One championship.
The Grand Prix of Monaco is organized each year by the ''Automobile Club de Monaco'' who also runs the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] and the Monaco Kart Cup.
==The Circuit==
As a street race held on the [[Circuit de Monaco]], which consists of the actual city streets of [[Monte Carlo]] and [[La Condamine]], the race has many elevation shifts, tight corners, and a narrow course that make it perhaps the most demanding and the most dangerous track still in
|
y created by current loops or by quantum-mechanical [[spin (physics)|spin]].
Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.
When placed in an [[electric field|electric]] or [[magnetic field|magnetic]] field, equal but opposite [[force]]s arise on each side of the dipole creating a [[torque]] '''&tau;''':
:<math> \mathbf{\tau} = \mathbf{p} \times \mathbf{E}</math>
for an electric dipole moment '''p''' (in coulomb-meters), or
:<math> \mathbf{\tau} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_o \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{H} </math>
for a magnetic dipole moment '''m''' (in ampere-square meters).
The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field.
==Physical dipoles, point dipoles, and approximate dipoles==
[[image:dipole.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Diagram of a physical dipole, with equipotential surfaces and field lines indicated ]]
A ''physical dipole'' consists of two equal and opposite point charges: literally, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A ''point (electric) dipole'' is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the [[multipole expansion]] is precisely the point dipole field.
Although there are no known [[magnetic monopole]]s in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical [[spin (physics)|spin]] associated with particles such as [[electron]]s (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic ''point dipole'' has a magnetic field of the exact same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.
Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the [[multipole expansion]]; when the charge ("monopole moment") is 0—as it ''always'' is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles—the dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: its field falls off in proportion to <math>1 / r^3</math>, as compared to <math>1 / r^4</math> for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of <math>1 / r</math> for higher terms, or <math>1 / r^2</math> for the monopole term.
==Molecular dipoles==
Many [[molecule|molecules]] have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. For example:
(positive) H-Cl (negative)
A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule and is '''polarized'''. The physical chemist [[Peter Debye|Peter J. W. Debye]] was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and dipole moments are consequently measured in units named ''[[debye]]'' in his honor.
With respect to molecules there are three types of dipoles:
* '''Permanent dipoles:''' These occur when 2 atoms in a molecule have substantially different [[electronegativity]]&nbsp;&mdash; one atom attracts electrons more than another becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. See [[dipole-dipole attraction|dipole-dipole attractions]].
* '''Instantaneous dipoles: ''' These occur due to chance when [[electron|electrons]] happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a [[molecule]], creating a temporary dipole. See [[Instantaneous dipole attraction]].
* '''Induced dipoles''' These occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, "inducing" a dipole moment in that molecule. See [[induced-dipole attraction]].
==Field from a magnetic dipole==
===Magnitude===
The strength, '''B''', of a dipole magnetic field is given by:
:<math>B(\mathbf{r}, \lambda) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi} \frac {\mathbf{M}} {r^3} \sqrt {1+3\sin^2\lambda}</math>
where:
:'''B''' is the strength of the field, measured in [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]s
:'''r''' is the distance from the center, measured in [[metre]]s
:'''&lambda;''' is the magnetic latitude (90°-&theta;) where &theta; = magnetic colatitude, measured in [[radian]]s or [[degree (angle)|degree]]s from the dipole axis (magnetic colatitude is 0 along the dipole's axis and 90° in the plane perpendicular to its axis)
:'''M''' is the dipole moment, measured in ampere square-metres
:'''&mu;<sub>0</sub>''' is the permeability of free space, measured in [[Henry (inductance)|henry]]s per metre.
===Vector form===
The field itself is a vector quantity:
:<math>\mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi r^3} \left(3(\mathbf{m}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{m}\right)</math>
where
:'''B''' is the field
:'''r''' is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured
:''r'' is the absolute value of '''r''': the distance from the dipole
:<math>\hat{\mathbf{r}} = \mathbf{r}/r</math> is the unit vector parallel to '''r'''
:'''m''' is the (vector) dipole moment
:'''&mu;<sub>0</sub>''' is the permeability of free space
This is ''exactly'' the field of a point dipole, ''exactly'' the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and ''approximately'' the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.
===Magnetic vector potential===
The [[vector potential]] '''A''' of a magnetic dipole is
:<math>\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi r^2} (\mathbf{m}\times\hat{\mathbf{r}})</math>
with the same definitions as above.
==Field from an electric dipole==
The [[electrostatic potential]] of an electric dipole is
:<math> \Phi (\mathbf{r}) = \frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0 r^2} (\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}}).</math>
And the [[electric field]] from a dipole can be found from the [[gradient]] of this potential:
:{|
|<math> \mathbf{E} \,</math>
|<math> = - \nabla \Phi \,</math>
|-
|
|<math> =\frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0 r^3} \left(3(\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{p}\right)</math>
|}
where
:'''E''' is the electric field
:'''r''', ''r'', <math>\hat{\mathbf{r}}</math> are as above
:'''p''' is the (vector) dipole moment
:'''&epsilon;<sub>0</sub>''' is the [[permittivity of free space]].
Notice that this is formally identical to the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole; only a few names have changed.
==Dipole radiation==
In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time.
In particular, a harmonically oscillating electric dipole is described by a dipole moment of the form <math>\mathbf{p}=\mathbf{p'(\mathbf r)}e^{-i\omega t}</math> where &omega; is the [[angular frequency]]. In vacuum, this produces fields:
:<math>\mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \left\{ \frac{\omega^2}{c^2 r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}
+ \left( \frac{1}{r^3} - \frac{i\omega}{cr^2} \right) \left[ 3 \hat{\mathbf{r}} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \cdot \mathbf{p}) - \mathbf{p} \right] \right\} e^{i\omega r/c}</math>
:<math>\mathbf{H} = \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi c} \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \left( 1 - \frac{c}{i\omega r} \right) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r}</math>
Far away (for <math>r\omega/c \gg 1</math>), the fields approach the limiting form of a radiating spherical wave:
:<math>\mathbf{H} = \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi c} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r}</math>
:<math>\mathbf{E} = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon_0}} \mathbf{H} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}</math>
which produces a total time-average radiated power ''P'' given by:
:<math>P = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon_0}} \frac{\omega^4}{12\pi c^2} |\mathbf{p}|^2</math>
This power is not distributed isotropically, but is rather concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment.
Usually such equations are described by [[spherical_harmonics]], but they look very different.
A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles.
==See also==
* [[Electrostatics]]
* [[Magnetostatics]]
* [[Electric field]]
* [[Magnetic field]]
* [[Magnetic dipole moment]]
==References==
*{{cite book
| last = Brau | first = Charles A.
| title=Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=2004
| id=ISBN 0195146654
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Griffiths | first = David J. | title=Introduction to Electrodynamics
| edition = 3rd ed.
| publisher=Prentice Hall
|year=1998
|id=ISBN 013805326X
}}
==External links==
* [http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
[[Category:Electromagnetism]]
[[Category:chemical properties]]
[[de:Dipol]]
[[fa:دوقطبی الکتريکی]]
[[fr:Dipôle]]
[[it:Dipolo magnetico]]
[[ja:双極子]]
[[nl:Dipool]]
[[pl:Elektryczny moment dipolowy]]
[[sl:električni dipol]]
[[sr:Дипол]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dipole-dipole bond</title>
<id>8379</id>
<revision>
<id>15906382</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypass redirect chain</comment>
<text xml:space="pre
|
ming out of the [[Shi'ite]]-[[Sunni]] divide. In Europe the [[Protestant Reformation]] had a similar effect, sparking years of both civil and international wars of religion. Civil wars between [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] consumed France in the [[Wars of Religion]], the Netherlands during the [[Eighty Years' War]], Germany during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and more recently, [[The Troubles]] of [[Northern Ireland]]. Religious disputes among Protestant sects also played an important role in the [[English Civil Wars]], while official persecution of Catholics during the [[French Revolution]] spurred the [[Revolt in the Vendée]].
===Revolutions===
A [[revolution]] is generally seen as a civil war fought over issues of ideology, over how power should be organized and distributed, not merely over which individuals hold it. The classic example of a revolution, and by some arguments the first is the [[French Revolution]], which is seen to have pitted the middle class and urban poor of France against the aristocracy and monarchy. Some argue that revolutions are a modern continuation of the peasant revolts of the past. Unlike peasant revolts, however, revolutions are almost always lead by members of the educated, but disaffected, middle class who then rally the large mass of the population to their cause. Others see ideology as merely replacing religion as a justification and motivation for violence that is fundamentally caused by socioeconomic factors. To be successful revolutions almost always require armed force to be employed, sometimes escalating to a civil war, such as in the [[Chinese Civil War]]. In some cases, such as the French and [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]s the revolutionaries succeed in gaining power through a quick coup or localized uprising, but a civil war results from [[counterrevolution]]ary forces organizing to crush the revolution.
===Separatist revolts===
One of the most common causes of civil wars, especially in the post-[[Cold War]] world has been separatist violence. [[Nationalism]] can be seen as similar to both a religion and an ideology as a justification for war rather than a root cause of conflict. All modern states attempt to hold a monopoly on internal military force. For separatist civil wars to break out thus either the national army must fracture along ethnic, religious, or national lines as happened in [[Yugoslavia]]; or more commonly a modern separatist conflict takes the form of [[asymmetrical warfare]] with separatists lightly armed and disorganized, but with the support of the local population such groups can be hard to defeat. This is the route taken by most liberation groups in colonies, as well as forces in areas such as [[Eritrea]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Regional differences may be enhanced by differing economies, as in the [[American Civil War]]. National minorities are also often religious minorities and wars of religion may link closely into separatist conflicts.
===Coups===
[[Coup d'état|Coups d'état]] are by definition quick blows to the top of a government that do not result in the widespread violence of a civil war. On occasion a failed coup, or one that is only half successful, can precipitate a civil war between factions. These wars often quickly try to pull in larger themes of ideology, nationalism, or religion to try to win supporters among the general population for a conflict that in essence is an intraelite competition for power.
==Reasons for war==
Almost every nation has minority groups, religious plurality, and ideological divisions, but not all plunge into civil war. [[Sociologist]]s have long searched for what variables trigger civil wars. In the modern world most civil wars occur in nations that are poor, autocratic, and regionally divided. However, the United States was one of the wealthiest and most democratic countries in the world at the time of its bloody civil war.
Some models to explain the occurrence of civil wars stress the importance of change and transition. According to one such line of reasoning, the American Civil War was caused by the growing economic power of the North relative to the South; the [[Lebanese Civil War]] by the upsetting of the delicate demographic balance by the increase in the Shi'ite population; the [[English Civil War]] by the growing power of the middle class and merchants at the expense of the aristocracy.
Competition for resources and wealth within a society is seen as a frequent cause for civil wars, however economic gain is rarely the justification espoused by the participants. [[Marxist]] historians stress economic and class factors arguing that civil wars are caused by imperialist rulers battling each other for greater power, and using tools such as nationalism and religion to delude people into joining them.
Not only are the causes of civil wars widely studied and debated, but their persistence is also seen as an important issue. Many civil wars have proved especially intractable, dragging on for many decades. One contributing factor is that civil wars often become [[proxy war]]s for outside powers that fund their partisans and thus encourage further violence.
Research related to the [[democratic peace theory]] have studied civil wars and democracy. Research shows that the most democratic and the most authoritarian states have few civil wars, and intermediate regimes the most. The probability for a civil war is also increased by political change, regardless whether toward greater democracy or greater autocracy. Intermediate regimes continue to be the most prone to civil war, regardless of the time since the political change. In the long run, since intermediate regimes are less stable than autocracies, which in turn are less stable than democracies, durable democracy is the most probable end-point of the process of [[democratization]] [http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/peace.htm]. The fall of [[Communism]] and the increase in the number of democratic states were accompanied by a sudden and dramatic decline in total warfare, interstate wars, [[ethnic]] wars, [[revolutionary]] wars, and the number of [[refugees]] and [[displaced person]]s [http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/conflict.htm].
==Post war==
Rebuilding a society in the wake of a civil war is often difficult. In an international war the two parties merely have to agree to a cease-fire and can, for the most part, go their own way. In a civil war not only must violence stop but the factions involved must also learn to coexist with each other. This can often prove difficult, much of the population will have lost friends or loved ones in the war, losses they blame on their opponents. Civil wars also tend to greatly entrench any ethnic, religious, or ideological divisions within a society and restoring unity can be very difficult. The record of [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] forces in healing such war-torn societies is mixed.
==Lists of civil wars==
* [[List of civil wars]]
* [[List of fictional wars]]
==See also==
*[[Wars of national liberation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Sri Lanka Civil War]
[[Category:War]]
[[bg:Гражданска война]]
[[ca:Guerra Civil]]
[[cs:Občanská válka]]
[[da:Borgerkrig]]
[[de:Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra civil]]
[[fr:Guerre civile]]
[[id:Perang saudara]]
[[he:מלחמת אזרחים]]
[[lt:Pilietinis karas]]
[[nl:Burgeroorlog]]
[[ja:内戦]]
[[no:Borgerkrig]]
[[nn:Borgarkrig]]
[[pt:Guerra civil]]
[[ro:Război civil]]
[[ru:Гражданская война]]
[[sk:Občianska vojna]]
[[sl:Državljanska vojna]]
[[fi:Sisällissota]]
[[sv:Inbördeskrig]]
[[wa:Guere civile]]
[[zh:内战]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Castagna</title>
<id>7086</id>
<revision>
<id>15905175</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-30T17:58:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solipsist</username>
<id>49943</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Castagno]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of cryptographers</title>
<id>7088</id>
<revision>
<id>41605880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:29:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mangojuice</username>
<id>178098</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Asymmetric-key algorithm inventors */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
See also: [[:Category:Cryptographers|Category:Cryptographers]] for an exhaustive list.
==Pre twentieth century==
* [[Charles Babbage]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[19th century]] [[mathematician]] who, about the time of the [[Crimean War]], secretly developed an effective attack against [[polyalphabetic substitution]] ciphers.
* [[Leone Battista Alberti]], [[polymath]]/universal [[genius]], inventor of [[polyalphabetic substitution]], and what may have been the first mechanical encryption aid.
* [[Giovanni Battista della Porta]], author of a seminal work on [[cryptanalysis]].
* [[Julius Caesar]], Roman [[general]]/[[politician]], has the [[Caesar cipher]] is named after him, and a [[lost work]] on cryptography by Probus (probably Valerius Probus) is claimed to have covered his use of military cryptography in some detail. It is likely that he did not invent the cipher named after him, as other [[substitution cipher]]s were in use well before his time.
* [[Friedrich Kasiski]], author of the first published attack on the [[Vigenère cipher]], now known as the [[Kasiski test]].
* [[Auguste Kerckhoffs]], known for contributing cipher design principles.
* [[Johannes Trithemius]], mystic and first to describe ''tableaux'' (tables) for use in [[polyalphabetic substitution]]. Wrote an early work on [[steganography]] and cryptography generally.
* [[Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde]], deciphered Spanish messages for [[William_I_of_Orange|William the Silent]] during the Dutch revolt against the Spanish.
|
[[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]. It is Mission Control for most of the space projects of the ESA. ESOC also houses the Ground Facilities Control Centre (GFCC) that is responsible for remote operation of the [[ESTRACK]] network of Ground Stations and antennas.
The last important projects that were launched and controlled from ESOC were Smart-1, [[Mars Express]] (MEX), [[Venus Express]] (VEX), [[Rosetta_space_probe|Rosetta]], [[Cassini-Huygens|Huygens]].
Recently controlled through [[LEOP]], and then handed over to [[EUMETSAT]] was MSG-2.
Currently ESOC is operating the following satellites: Envisat, ERS-2, Integral, XMM-Newton, Rosetta, Mars Express, Venus Express, Smart-1 and Cluster.
Projects under preparations include: Metop, [[GOCE]], [[LISA_Pathfinder|LISA Pathfinder]], Aeolus and Herschel-Planck
This branch of the agency is also responsible for the development of the technology infrastructure it requires to support existing and planned missions. Arguably its most important technology asset is the Space Control and Operations Software ('''SCOS-2000'''), an adaptable software infrastructure for monitoring and controlling the various spacecraft.
==External links==
* [http://www.esa.int/esoc Welcome to the ESOC Home Page]
{{space-stub}}
[[Category:European Space Agency]]
[[de:Europäisches Raumflugkontrollzentrum]]
[[fr:European Space Operations Centre]]
[[it:European Space Operations Centre]]
[[pl:Europejskie Centrum Operacji Kosmicznych]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ESA (disambiguation)</title>
<id>10362</id>
<revision>
<id>41188281</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T17:28:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alinor</username>
<id>134350</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving link from [[ESA]] redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ESA''' is a [[TLA]] that can stand for
* [[European Space Agency]]
* [[Entertainment Software Association]]
* [[Ecological Society of America]]
* [[electrostatic self-assembly]]
* [[Epsilon Sigma Alpha]] International, a women's service organization.
* [[Endangered Species Act]], an important piece of US environmental legislation.
* [[Environmental Site Assessment]]
* [[EFTA Surveillance Authority ]]
* [[Evangelicals for Social Action]]
* [[Entomological Society of America]]
* The "end of selected area" control code in the [[C1 control code set]].
* [[Excited-state absoption]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[Category:Abbreviations|ESA]]
[[fi:ESA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Space Agency</title>
<id>10363</id>
<revision>
<id>42033838</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:50:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Pole]] to [[Poles]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the European Space Agency. For other meanings of ESA, see [[ESA (disambiguation)]].''
{| style="float: right; margin: 0 0 5px 5px; width: 260px; clear: right;"
|-
|[[Image:Logo ESA.png|155px|right|Logo of the European Space Agency]]
|}
The '''European Space Agency''' ('''ESA'''), established in [[1975]],is an [[inter-governmental]] organisation dedicated to [[Space exploration|exploration of space]] with currently 17 member states. Its [[headquarters]] are in [[Paris]], [[France]]. ESA has a staff (excluding sub-contractors and national space agencies) of about 1900 with a budget of about €3 billion in [[2006]].
ESA's [[spaceport]] is the [[Centre Spatial Guyanais|Guiana Space Centre]] in [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]], a site chosen because it is close to the [[equator]] from which commercially important orbits are easier to access. During the era of [[Ariane 4]] ESA gained the position of market leader in commercial space launches and in recent years ESA has established itself as the major competitor of [[NASA]] in space exploration.
ESA science missions are based at [[ESTEC]] in [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands]], Earth Observation missions at [[ESRIN]] in [[Frascati]], [[Italy]], ESA Mission Control ([[European Space Operations Centre|ESOC]]) is in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]], and the European Astronauts Centre ([[European Astronauts Centre|EAC]]), that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]].
==History and goals==
* [http://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1235/sp1235v1web.pdf European Space Agency History 1958-1987 Volume I 458 pages PDF]
* [http://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1235/sp1235v2web.pdf European Space Agency History 1958-1987 Volume II 691 pages PDF]
===ESA's mission===
Since the [[Cold War]] ended with the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]'s "[[iron curtain]]," [[space agency|space agencies]] around the world had to refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with [[JAXA]], the Japanese Space Agency, [[Jean-Jacques Dordain]] ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space agency's mission:
<blockquote>''Today space activities are pursued for the benefit of citizens, and citizens are asking for a better quality of life on earth. They want greater security and economic wealth, but they also want to pursue their dreams, to increase their knowledge, and they want younger people to be attracted to the pursuit of science and technology.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>''I think that space can do all of this: it can produce a higher quality of life, better security, more economic wealth, and also fulfil our citizens' dreams and thirst for knowledge, and attract the young generation. This is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be even more important in the future.'' {{ref|Jaxainterview}}</blockquote>
===History of ESA's foundation===
[[image:1pierre auger.gif|thumb|right|220px|Pierre Auger, one of the ideological founders of the European Space Agency]]
After the [[World War II|Second World War]] many European scientists had left Europe in order to work either in the US or the Soviet Union. Although the booming recovering process of the 50s made it possible for European countries to invest into research and specifically into space related activities, European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two major superpowers. In [[1958]], only months after the [[Sputnik crisis|Sputnik shock]], [[Edoardo Amaldi]] and [[Pierre Auger]], two prominent members of the European scientific community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a common European space agency.
The European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned to develop a launch system [[ELDO]] (European Launch Development Organisation) and the precursor of the European Space Agency, [[ESRO]] (European Space Research Organisation) that was established on [[March 20]], [[1964]] per an agreement signed on [[June 14]], [[1962]]. From [[1968]] to [[1972]] ESRO could celebrate its first successes. Seven research satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems.
The ESRO's successor organisation [[ESTEC]] (European Space Research and Technology Centre, based in [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]]) is still a part of ESA, though ESA itself is a much bigger organisation today. ESA in its current form was founded in [[1974]], when ESRO was merged with [[ELDO]]. ESA was constituted of 11 founding members including not only then EU-members (correctly stated: EC-members) but also [[Switzerland]] and [[Norway]]. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in [[1975]], [[Cos-B]] a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe.
===From its beginnings to a leading institution===
[[image:1geos esa.jpg|thumb|left|260px|GEOS-ESA, a satellite studying the Earth's magnetosphere, launched 1977, an example of early ESA space research activity]]
Beginning in the [[1970s]], when the [[space race]] between the US and the Soviet Union had tuned down and space budgets were cut dramatically in both [[superpower]]s, ESA established itself as a forerunner in space exploration. ESA joined NASA and the UK in the [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]], the world's first high-orbit [[telescope]], which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in [[1986]] ESA began [[Giotto mission|Giotto]], its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets Halley and Grigg-Skejllerup. [[Hipparcos]], a star-mapping mission, was launched in [[1989]] and in the [[1990s]] [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]], [[Ulysses probe|Ulysses]] and the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] were all jointly carried out with NASA. Recent scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the [[Cassini-Huygens]] space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] landing module [[Huygens]].
As the successor of the [[ELDO]], ESA has also constructed rockets for unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. [[Ariane 1]], launched in [[1979]], brought mostly-commercial payloads into orbit from [[1984]] onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the [[Ariane 4]], which operated between [[1988]] and [[2003]] and would have established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches. However its successor, the currently used [[Ariane 5]] rocket, had starting problems. The first launch of the lightest variation of [[Ariane 5]] in [[1996]] failed as did the first flight of the [[Ariane 5|Ariane 5 ECA]], a heavy modification of Ariane, in [[2002]]. Despite these failures the [[Ariane 5]] rocket has established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market since its firs
|
y|Percy]] was still played by [[Tim McInnerny]]. Rowan Atkinson speaks, dresses and generally looks and acts like the later Blackadder descendants of the second series onwards, but no reason is given as to why he changed to a snivelling wretch in the first series. One assumes that the change was driven by the writing, which wouldn't have worked with a swaggering character in the lead.
Richard Curtis admitted in a 2004 [[documentary film|documentary]] on the show that just before filming began, producer John Lloyd came up to him with Atkinson and asked what Edmund's character was. Curtis then realised that, despite writing some funny lines, he had no idea how Rowan Atkinson was supposed to play his part. This is typical of the slighting and dismissive remarks Curtis makes about this first series. One supposes that Atkinson, who co-wrote this series but not the later ones, came up with his characterization himself.
The opening titles consisted of several stock shots of Edmund riding his horse on location, interspersed with different shots of him doing various silly things (and, usually, a shot of King Richard IV to go with Brian Blessed's credit). The closing titles were the same sequence of Edmund riding around, eventually falling off his horse, and then chasing after it. The [http://www.howardgoodall.co.uk/tvthemes/Blackadder.htm theme tune] also gained lyrics:
:''The sound of hoofbeats 'cross the glade,''
:''Good folk, lock up your son and daughter,''
:''Beware the deadly flashing blade,''
:''Unless you want to end up shorter.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, he rides a pitch black steed.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, he's very bad indeed.''
:''Black: his gloves of finest mole,''
:''Black: his [[codpiece]] made of metal,''
:''His horse is blacker than a vole,''
:''His pot is blacker than his kettle.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, with many a cunning plan.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, you horrid little man.''
===Series 2: ''Blackadder II''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 2: Blackadder II (1986)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder II'']]
''Blackadder II'' is set in England during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] ([[1558]]&ndash;[[1603]]). The principal character is [[Lord Blackadder|Edmund, Lord Blackadder]], a [[Kinship and descent|descendant]] of the original Black Adder. During the series, he often comes into contact with the [[Queenie|Queen]], her Lord Chamberlain [[Melchett|Lord Melchett]] and her former nanny [[Nursie]].
Following the BBC's request for improvements to be made to the show, several changes were made. The second series was the first to establish the familiar character of Blackadder: cunning, shrewd and witty, in sharp contrast with [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Prince Edmund]] of the first series. To make the show more cost effective, it was also shot with far fewer outdoor scenes than the first series and several, frequently used, indoor scenes, such as the Queen's [[throne room]] and Blackadder's front room. Each episode in the series also features another unique location, from [[Bob (Blackadder character)|Bob]]'s father's front room to a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[dungeon]].
The opening titles are played to a version of the theme on an Elizabethan wind instrument and an electric guitar, over shots of a black [[adder]] slithering about on a [[checkerboard]] surface. The snake is eventually removed and replaced with something to do with the title of the episode, which in this series was always a single noun. The opening ominous violin music and initial shots are a parody of the opening credits of the 1975 BBC television adaptation of [[Robert Graves]]' ''[[I, Claudius]]''.
The closing titles use a different arrangement of the theme on various instruments, with lyrics reflecting the storyline of the episode, over a shot of Blackadder walking through a palace garden and being annoyed by a high-pitched [[minstrel]]. As each episode elapses, this sequence becomes a mini-series in its own right in which Blackadder constantly tries to apprehend the musician. At the end of the final episode, Blackadder catches the minstrel and dunks him into a fountain numerous times.
===Series 3: ''Blackadder the Third''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 3: Blackadder the Third (1987)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder the Third'']]
''Blackadder The Third'' is set in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a period known as the [[English Regency|Regency]]. For much of this period, [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] was incapacitated due to poor mental health, and his son George, the [[Prince of Wales]], acted as [[regent]]. From 1811 until his father's death in 1820, he was known as "the [[Prince Regent]]".
In the series, [[Mr. E. Blackadder|E. Blackadder]] Esquire is the butler to the [[Prince George (Blackadder character)|Prince of Wales]] (played by [[Hugh Laurie]] as a complete fop and idiot). Despite Edmund's respected intelligence and abilities, he has no personal fortune to speak of. According to Edmund he has been serving the Prince Regent all their lives, since they were both [[breastfeeding]] (when he had to show the Prince which part of his mother was serving the drinks). There are three main sets: the Prince's quarters, which are large and lavish, the below-stairs kitchen hangout of Blackadder and Baldrick, which is dark and squalid, and finally [[Mrs. Miggins]]' [[coffee house]] (Mrs Miggins' pie shop was a never-seen [[running gag]] in ''Blackadder II''; she &mdash; or, at least, a descendant of hers &mdash; was now finally shown).
As well as Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson in their usual roles, this series starred Hugh Laurie as the Prince Regent, and [[Helen Atkinson-Wood]] (no relation to Rowan) as Mrs. Miggins. The series features [[rotten borough]]s, [[Samuel Johnson|Dr. Johnson]] (played by [[Robbie Coltrane]]), the [[French Revolution]] (featuring [[Chris Barrie]]) and the [[Scarlet Pimpernel]], over-the-top theatrical actors, highwaymen who hate squirrels, and [[duel]]s.
The opening theme is this time played on a harpsichord, oboe and cello over close-ups of Blackadder searching a book-case, the credits and "Blackadder the Third" appearing on some of the books' spines (along with humorous titles such as "From Black Death to Blackadder" and "The Encyclopaedia Blackaddica"). Hidden inside a hollow book, he finds a romance novel, complete with steamy cover art, bearing the episode's title, which is always a noun paired with another noun derived from an adjective. Example: Sense and Senility (title based on the [[Jane Austen]] novel, [[Sense and Sensibility]]). The closing credits are presented in the style of a programme from a Regency-era play, and with an entirely new closing theme.
===Series 4: ''Blackadder Goes Forth''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 4: Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder Goes Forth'']]
This series is set in the trenches of the [[World War I|First World War]]. Another "big push" is planned, and [[Captain Blackadder]]'s one goal is to avoid getting shot, so he plots ways to get out of it. Blackadder is joined by the idealistic, gung-ho [[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh|Lieutenant George]] (Hugh Laurie), and the world's worst cook, Private S. [[Baldrick#Private S. Baldrick - Series 4|Baldrick]]. The first initial "S" is taken from the first episode of Season 3, in which Baldrick says he can't remember his first name, but assumes it must be "Sodoff", as when he introduces himself to people, they generally say, 'yes, we know: Sod off, Baldrick'. Loony [[Melchett#General Sir Anthony Cecil Hogmanay Melchett|General Melchett]] rallies his troops from a French mansion, where he is aided and abetted by his administrator, [[Captain Kevin Darling|Captain Darling]] (Tim McInnerny), pencil-pusher supreme, whose name is played on for maximum comedy value. Every episode's title is based on the pairing of a military rank, major, general, etc., and another word. This format is not used in the final episode, titled "Goodbyeee". In a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] drawn up by the [[British Film Institute]] in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' was placed 16th.
Note: Captain Darling's name was originally intended to be Captain Cartwright, until Stephen Fry chirped in with the name 'Darling', and the name, along with Blackadder's pronunciation of 'Bob', became one of the funniest words to be said in the series.
The theme tune here was played by a military band (in this case the Band of the 3rd Battalion, [[The Royal Anglian Regiment]]) over opening title images of Blackadder and George parading their men past Melchett and Darling, while Baldrick plays the triangle. The music starts with the opening bars of '[[The British Grenadiers]]' before segueing into the familiar ''Blackadder'' theme. In the closing credits, the full ''Blackadder'' theme plays as the men march off down the parade ground. Of note is that the titles here are presented as static captions instead of being rolled as on the previous three series, and that the crew credits are presented in pseudo-military fashion: for example, the designer is credited thus: ' Dgr – 404371 Hull, C '. Also of note is that the opening sequence is filmed in color, while the closing sequence is filmed in grainy, streaky black-and-white.
====Moral messages====
The final episode of the last series, "Goodbyeee...", is known for being extraordinarily moving for a comedy &mdash; especially the final scene, which sees the main characters (Blackadder, Baldrick, George, and Darling) finally going over the top and charging off to die in the fog and smoke of [[No man's land|No Man's Land]]. (Melchett remains at his office bu
|
men and women are called ''[[gay]]''. ''[[Lesbian]]'' is a gender-specific term for homosexual women. The adjective homosexual is also used for same-sex [[human sexual behavior|sexual relations]] between persons of the same sex who are not gay or lesbian. Three major forms of homosexual relationships are proposed by anthropologists: [[gay community|egalitarian]], [[two-spirit|gender-structured]], and [[pederasty|age-structured]]. Of these, one is usually dominant in a given society at a given time. (See [[#Forms|Forms]] below.) As there are different biological, historical and psychosocial components to sex and gender, no single label or description will fit all individuals. ''See discussions on sex and gender at [[sex]] and [[homosexuality and transgender]]''.
[[Religion]] often addresses same-sex relations, and the issue continues to be widely debated in modern religious politics. The scriptures of the [[Abrahamic Religions]] are traditionally interpreted to condemn some of its aspects, though many [[denominations]] and groups within these religions now and in the past have taken a different view. The world's first recorded laws concerning same-sex relations were religious in nature: In ancient [[Greece]], [[Greek religion]] consecrated pedagogic erotic love, symbolized by the love between [[Zeus]] and [[Ganymede]] and other such [[Greek mythology|myths]]. Ancient [[Judaism]] (the first [[Abrahamic]] faith) had the first rule banning intercourse between men as part of the moral code given in the [[Torah]]. Until the spread of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], most religions made no distinction between homosexual and heterosexual relations.
[[Image:Hyakinthos.jpg|thumb|''[[Zephyrus]] and [[Hyacinthus]]''<br> [[Attica|Attic]] [[red figure|red-figure]] cup from [[Tarquinia]], circa 480 BCE. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.]]
==Etymology and usage==
{{main|Terminology of homosexuality}}
The word ''homosexual'' translates literally as "same-sex," being a [[hybrid word|hybrid]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''homo-'' meaning "same" and the Latin root ''sex-'' meaning "sex." The first known appearance of the term ''homosexual'' in print is found in an anonymously published [[1869]] German pamphlet written by the Austrian-born novelist [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]].
The term ''homosexual'' can be used as a noun or adjective to describe persons as well as their sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification. Since ''homosexual'' places emphasis on sexuality, it should be avoided in reference to non-sexual contexts. Some people also feel the term is too clinical and somewhat dehumanising. Much of that sentiment arose while homosexuality was still classified as a mental illness in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. As a result of this sentiment the terms ''gay'' and ''lesbian'' are generally preferred when discussing a person with this [[sexual orientation]]. The first letters are frequently combined to create the acronym "LGBT" (B = bisexual, T = transgender). Some same-sex oriented persons actually prefer the term homosexual to gay, as they may perceive the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify.
Although some early writers used the adjective ''homosexual'' to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term ''homosocial'' is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. The more generic term ''homophilia'' ("same-love") is also preferred by some.
Derogatory terms include ''fag'' or ''[[faggot (slang)|faggot]],'' which generally refer to gay men; ''poofter,'' is used mostly in the [[United Kingdom]] and the Commonwealth; ''[[queer]]'' is generally used against anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual, but also reclaimed as an affirming term by many gays and academics; ''gay'', ''homo,'', and "queer", which are common abusive terms among adolescents; and ''[[dyke (lesbian)|dyke]],'' which refers to lesbians. ''See [[Homophobia]]''
Given how confusing and overloaded various terms can be, when specificity is important new terms are starting to be pressed into service. For example, ''[[men who have sex with men]],'' or ''MSM'' for short, is sometimes used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual behaviour (regardless of sexual orientation or self-identification). ''[[Same-sex attraction]]'' focuses on spontaneous feeling, but de-emphasises identification with a demographic or cultural group, and also leaves open the possibility for co-existing opposite-sex attraction. ''[[Homoerotic]]'' is a synonym for ''[[same-sex attraction]]'', that is used to refer both to personal feelings and works of art. ''Non-straight'' is another attempt at neutrality that is gaining currency. Some other humorous terms are now gaining weight, including ''[[heteroflexible]]'' to refer to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities, or ''[[metrosexual]]'' to denote a straight man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion and design.
==Academic study==
The manifestation of sexual orientation is subject to a considerable variability. Thus it is common for homosexual individuals in [[heteronormativity|heteronormative]] societies to love, marry, and have children with individuals of the opposite sex, a practice that may be done primarily for social reasons in societies which reject same-sex relations, as a cover for one's orientation (such relationships are known as "beards"). These adaptations are forms of [[situational sexual behavior]]. A further, and extremely common, manifestation of situational sexual behaviour involving homosexual acts is seen in [[prison sexuality|prisons]] where individuals only encounter caged members of their own sex for long periods of time.
===Anthropology===
====Forms====
Numerous researchers studying the social construction of [[same-sex relationships]] have suggested that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as "homosexualities." They document that same-sex relations have been and continue to be organised in distinctly categorical ways by different societies in different eras. These variations are grouped by [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologist]] Stephen O. Murray into three separate modes of association:
* '''Egalitarian''', features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially-accepted sex role as [[heterosexuality|heterosexuals]] of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in western society between partners of similar age and gender. ''See [[Sexual minority cultures]]''
* '''Gender structured''' features each partner playing a different [[gender role]]. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia|South]] [[Asia]], as well as [[two-spirit]] or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. [[Albania]] also has a similar practice where a woman may choose to be an "[[Albanian Virgin]]" and be given all the rights and entitlements of a man. In North America, this is best represented by the [[butch and femme|butch/femme]] practice. ''See [[Homosexuality and Islam]], [[Two-Spirit]], and [[Hijra]]''
* '''Age structured''' features partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This is exemplified by [[pederasty]] among the [[Hellenic civilization|Classical Greeks]] or those engaged in by novice [[samurai]] with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy-marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. ''See [[Shudo]], [[Pederasty]], [[Historical pederastic couples]], and [[Homosexuality in China]].''
Both gender-structured and age-structured homosexuality frequently involve one partner adopting a "passive" and the other an "active" role. Among men, being the passive partner often means receiving [[semen]], i.e. performing fellatio or being the receptive partner during [[anal sex]]. This is sometimes interpreted as an emphasis on the sexual pleasure of the active partner, although this is not true in all cases. For example, in gender-structured female homosexuality in [[Thailand]], active partners (''toms'') emphasise the sexual pleasure of the passive partner (''dee''), and often refuse to allow their ''dee'' to pleasure them.
Some anthropologists have argued for the existence of a fourth type of homosexuality, [[social class|class]]-structured homosexuality, but many scholars believe that this has no independent existence from the other three types.
Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm ''Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,''] in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of [[pederasty]], and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian homosexuality is becoming the principal form practised in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are becoming less common. As a byproduct of Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures.
====Incidence====
{{main|Demographics of sexual orientation}}
Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably. They are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of ''homosexuality'', and by fluctu
|
ent of [[Tesco]] plc lives. {{citation needed}} (Mentioned briefly on a radio programme on BBC Radio 4 about Leahy)
== External links ==
* [http://www.hertsinternet.com/hertfordshire/guide/hatfield.shtml Herts Internet article on Hatfield]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/ Official Government website for Hatfield]
* [http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/london/hatfield.shtml Michael Pead :: Photos of Hatfield]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/twinning.php Article on the twinning with Zierikzee]
* [http://www.welhat.gov.uk/ Welwyn Hatfield Council]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk Hatfield Town Council website]
[[Category:Towns in Hertfordshire]]
[[la:Hatfeldia, Hartfordiensis comitatus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hertfordshire</title>
<id>13986</id>
<revision>
<id>39771393</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:47:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.11.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[2001: A Space Odyssey]] to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="300"
|+ <big>'''Hertfordshire'''</big>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;" | [[Image:EnglandHertfordshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Geography
|-
! width="45%" | Status
|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] & [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! width="45%" | Origin
|[[Traditional counties of England|Historic]]
|-
!Region:
|[[East of England]]
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''<br />- Total<br />- Admin. council
|[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 36th]]<br />634 [[square mile|miles&sup2;]] ([[1 E9 m²|1,643]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]])<br />[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 32nd]]
|-
!Admin HQ:
|[[Hertford]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:
|GB-HRT
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:
|26
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:
|UKH23
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Demographics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- Admin. Council
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 16th]]<br />1,041,300<br />634 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 6th]]
|-
!Ethnicity:
|93.7% White<br />3.0% S. Asian<br />1.1% Afro-Carib.
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-herts.jpg|200px|Arms of Hertfordshire County Council]]<br />Hertfordshire County Council<br />http://www.hertsdirect.org/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[James Clappison]]
*[[Barbara Follett]]
*[[David Gauke]]
*[[Oliver Heald]]
*[[Peter Lilley]]
*[[Anne Main]]
*[[Mike Penning]]
*[[Mark Prisk]]
*[[Grant Shapps]]
*[[Charles Walker (politician)|Charles Walker]]
*[[Claire Ward]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Districts
|-
|colspan=2|<center>[[Image:HertfordshireNumbered.png]]</center>
#[[Three Rivers, England|Three Rivers]]
#[[Watford]]
#[[Hertsmere]]
#[[Welwyn Hatfield]]
#[[Broxbourne (borough)|Broxbourne]]
#[[East Hertfordshire]]
#[[Stevenage]]
#[[North Hertfordshire]]
#[[City and District of St Albans|St Albans]]
#[[Dacorum]]
|}
'''Hertfordshire''' (pronounced "Hartfordshire" and abbreviated as "Herts") is an inland [[Counties of England|county]] in the [[United Kingdom]], officially part of the [[East of England]] Government region. It is one of the [[Home Counties]].
Hertfordshire is located to the north of [[Greater London]], and much of the county is part of the [[London commuter belt]].
The county has a wide range of transport links, with the M1, M10, A1(M), the M25 and other motorways passing through it.
To the east of Hertfordshire is [[Essex, England|Essex]], to the west is [[Buckinghamshire]] and to the north are [[Bedfordshire]], [[Luton]] and [[Cambridgeshire]].
The highest point in the county is 803 feet (245 m) above sea level, a quarter mile (400 m) from the village of [[Hastoe]] near [[Tring]].
The county motto, is ''"Trust and fear not"''.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Hertfordshire]].''
Hertfordshire was originally the area assigned to a fortress constructed at [[Hertford]] under the rule of [[Edward the Elder]] in [[913]]. The name Hertfordshire appears in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] in [[1011]].
The [[Domesday Book]] recorded the county as having nine [[hundred (divisions)|hundred]]s. [[Tring]] and [[Danais]] became one, [[Dacorum]]. The other seven were [[Broadwater]], [[Cashio]], [[Edwinstree]], [[Hertford]], [[Hitchin]] and [[Odsey]].
Hertfordshire is the starting point of the [[New River (England)|New River]]: a man made waterway, opened in [[1613]] to supply [[London]] with fresh drinking water.
In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, [[Barnet Urban District]] and [[East Barnet Urban District]] were abolished and their area transferred from Hertfordshire to [[Greater London]] to form part of the [[London Borough of Barnet]]. [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10042082] [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10001699] At the same time the [[Potters Bar Urban District]] was directly transferred from [[Middlesex]] to Hertfordshire. [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10135590&c_id=10001043]
From the [[1920s in film|1920s]] until the late [[1980s in film|1980s]], the town of [[Borehamwood]] was home to one of the major British [[film studio]] complexes, including the [[MGM-British Studios]]. Many well known films were made here, including ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' and the original ''[[Star Wars]]'' and [[Indiana Jones]] trilogies. Television productions are still made at the nearby [[Elstree Studios]], which were taken over by the [[BBC]].
On the morning of [[11 December]] [[2005]], a [[2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire|large explosion and fire]] occurred at a [[petroleum]] fuel depot near [[Hemel Hempstead]], in [[Buncefield]]. Forty three people were injured, luckily nobody was killed, but considerable damage was caused. The two day fire was the largest in peacetime Europe, and a pall of smoke darkened London and much of South East England.
==Geology==
''Main article: [[Geology of Hertfordshire]].''
The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the great shallow [[syncline]] known as the [[London basin]]. The beds dip in a south-easterly direction towards the syncline's lowest point roughly under the [[River Thames]]. The most important formations are the [[Cretaceous]] [[Chalk]], which is exposed as the high ground in the north and west of the county and the younger [[Palaeocene]], [[Reading Beds]] and [[Eocene]], [[London Clay]] which occupy the remaining southern part. The eastern half of the county was covered by glaciers during the Ice Age and has a superficial layer of glacial boulder clays.
==Urban areas==
These are the '''main''' towns in Hertfordshire. For a complete list of settlements see '''[[list of places in Hertfordshire]]'''.
*[[Baldock]]
*[[Berkhamsted]]
*[[Bishop's Stortford]]
*[[Borehamwood]]
*[[Broxbourne]]
*[[Cheshunt]]
*[[Cuffley]]
*[[Chorleywood]]
*[[Harpenden]]
*[[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Hatfield]]
*[[Hemel Hempstead]]
*[[Hertford]]
*[[Hitchin]]
*[[Hoddesdon]]
*[[Letchworth Garden City]]
*[[London Colney]]
*[[Potters Bar]]
*[[Radlett]]
*[[Rickmansworth]]
*[[Royston, Hertfordshire|Royston]]
*[[Sawbridgeworth]]
*[[Stevenage]]
*[[St Albans]]
*[[Tring]]
*[[Waltham Cross]]
*[[Ware]]
*[[Watford]]
*[[Welwyn]]
*[[Welwyn Garden City]]
==Places of interest==
*[[Aldenham]] Country Park
*[[Beech Bottom Dyke]], St Albans - large scale [[iron age]] defensive or boundary ditch
*[[Berkhamstead Castle]]
*[[De Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]], [[Salisbury Hall]], between [[London Colney]] and [[South Mimms]]
*[[Hatfield House]] : [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] house, gardens and park
*[[Henry Moore Foundation]], [[Much Hadham]] - Sculpture park on the work of [[Henry Moore]]
*[[Knebworth House]] - 250 acres (1.0 km&sup2;) of country park, venue of regular rock and pop festivals.
*[[St Albans Cathedral]]
*[[Shaw's Corner]], [[Ayot St Lawrence]], home of [[George Bernard Shaw]].
*The [[Six Hills]] [[Roman Britain|Roman]] site in Stevenage.
*[[Stevenage]], the first UK [[New Town]]
*[[Sopwell Nunnery]], St Albans
*The [[University of Hertfordshire]] was created from [[Hatfield Polytechnic]] which originated in [[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Hatfield]].
*[[Verulamium]] Roman town remains at St Albans
*[[Ye Olde Fighting Cocks]], St Albans - a claimant to being the oldest pub in Britain.
{{England ceremonial counties}}
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{{England traditional counties}}
[[Category:Hertfordshire| ]]
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[[sk:Hertfordshire]]
[[sv:Hertfordshire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Helene Kröller-Müller</title>
<id>13987</id>
<revision>
<id>21962734</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-27T14:59:14Z</timesta
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what short-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties won't be noticeable. This related subject is [[tone mapping]].
Mathematics used in rendering includes: [[linear algebra]], [[calculus]], [[numerical analysis|numerical mathematics]], [[digital signal processing|signal processing]], [[Monte Carlo method|monte carlo]].
== Chronology of important published ideas ==
* 1970 '''Scan-line algorithm''' (Bouknight, W. J. (1970). A procedure for generation of three-dimensional half-tone computer graphics presentations. ''Communications of the ACM'')
* 1971 '''Gouraud shading''' (Gouraud, H. (1971). Computer display of curved surfaces. ''IEEE Transactions on Computers'' '''20''' (6), 623&ndash;629.)
* 1974 '''Texture mapping''' (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. ''PhD thesis'', University of Utah.)
* 1974 '''Z-buffer''' (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. ''PhD thesis'')
* 1975 '''Phong shading''' (Phong, B-T. (1975). Illumination for computer generated pictures. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''18''' (6), 311&ndash;316.)
* 1976 '''Environment mapping''' (Blinn, J.F. Newell, M.E. (1976). Texture and reflection in computer generated images. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''19''', 542&ndash;546.)
* 1977 '''Shadow volumes''' (Crow, F.C. (1977). Shadow algorithms for computer graphics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1977)'' '''11''' (2), 242&ndash;248.)
* 1978 '''Shadow buffer''' (Williams, L. (1978). Casting curved shadows on curved surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978)'' '''12''' (3), 270&ndash;274.)
* 1978 '''Bump mapping''' (Blinn, J.F. (1978). Simulation of wrinkled surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978)'' '''12''' (3), 286&ndash;292.)
* 1980 '''BSP trees''' (Fuchs, H. Kedem, Z.M. Naylor, B.F. (1980). On visible surface generation by a priori tree structures. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1980)'' '''14''' (3), 124&ndash;133.)
* 1980 '''Ray tracing''' (Whitted, T. (1980). An improved illumination model for shaded display. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''23''' (6), 343&ndash;349.)
* 1981 '''Cook shader''' (Cook, R.L. Torrance, K.E. (1981). A reflectance model for computer graphics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1981)'' '''15''' (3), 307&ndash;316.)
* 1983 '''Mipmaps''' (Williams, L. (1983). Pyramidal parametrics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1983)'' '''17''' (3), 1&ndash;11.)
* 1984 '''Octree ray tracing''' (Glassner, A.S. (1984). Space subdivision for fast ray tracing. ''IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications'' '''4''' (10), 15&ndash;22.)
* 1984 '''Alpha compositing''' (Porter, T. Duff, T. (1984). Compositing digital images. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 253&ndash;259.)
* 1984 '''Distributed ray tracing''' (Cook, R.L. Porter, T. Carpenter, L. (1984). Distributed ray tracing. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 137&ndash;145.)
* 1984 '''Radiosity''' (Goral, C. Torrance, K.E. Greenberg, D.P. Battaile, B. (1984). Modelling the interaction of light between diffuse surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 213&ndash;222.)
* 1985 '''Hemi-cube radiosity''' (Cohen, M.F. Greenberg, D.P. (1985). The hemi-cube: a radiosity solution for complex environments. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1985)'' '''19''' (3), 31&ndash;40.)
* 1986 '''Light source tracing''' (Arvo, J. (1986). Backward ray tracing. ''SIGGRAPH 1986 Developments in Ray Tracing course notes'')
* 1986 '''Rendering equation''' (Kajiya, J.T. (1986). The rendering equation. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1986)'' '''20''' (4), 143&ndash;150.)
* 1987 '''[[Reyes rendering | Reyes]] algorithm''' (Cook, R.L. Carpenter, L. Catmull, E. (1987). The reyes image rendering architecture. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1987)'' '''21''' (4), 95&ndash;102.)
* 1991 '''Hierarchical radiosity''' (Hanrahan, P. Salzman, D. Aupperle, L. (1991). A rapid hierarchical radiosity algorithm. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1991)'' '''25''' (4), 197&ndash;206.)
* 1993 '''Tone mapping''' (Tumblin, J. Rushmeier, H.E. (1993). Tone reproduction for realistic computer generated images. ''IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications'' '''13''' (6), 42&ndash;48.)
* 1993 '''Subsurface scattering''' (Hanrahan, P. Krueger, W. (1993). Reflection from layered surfaces due to subsurface scattering. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1993)'' '''27''' (), 165&ndash;174.)
* 1995 '''Photon mapping''' (Jensen, H.J. Christensen, N.J. (1995). Photon maps in bidirectional monte carlo ray tracing of complex objects. ''Computers & Graphics'' '''19''' (2), 215&ndash;224.)
== See also ==
* [[Pre-rendered]]
* [[Graphics pipeline]]
* [[Virtual model]]
== Books and summaries ==
* Foley; Van Dam; Feiner; Hughes (1990). ''Computer Graphics: Principles And Practice''. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0201121107.
* Glassner (1995). ''Principles Of Digital Image Synthesis''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558602763.
* Pharr; Humphreys (2004). ''Physically Based Rendering''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 012553180X.
* Dutre; Bala; Bekaert (2002). ''Advanced Global Illumination''. AK Peters. ISBN 1568811772.
* Jensen (2001). ''Realistic Image Synthesis Using Photon Mapping''. AK Peters. ISBN 1568811470.
* Shirley; Morley (2003). ''Realistic Ray Tracing'' (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1568811985.
* Glassner (1989). ''An Introduction To Ray Tracing''. Academic Press. ISBN 0122861604.
* Cohen; Wallace (1993). ''Radiosity and Realistic Image Synthesis''. AP Professional. ISBN 0121782700.
* Akenine-Moller; Haines (2002). ''Real-time Rendering'' (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1568811829.
* Gooch; Gooch (2001). ''Non-Photorealistic Rendering''. AKPeters. ISBN 1568811330.
* Strothotte; Schlechtweg (2002). ''Non-Photorealistic Computer Graphics''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558607870.
* Blinn (1996). ''Jim Blinns Corner - A Trip Down The Graphics Pipeline''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558603875.
* [http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/papers/sg94.1/ Description of the 'Radiance' system]
== External links ==
* [http://www.siggraph.org/ SIGGRAPH] The ACMs special interest group in graphics &mdash; the largest academic and professional association and conference.
* [http://www.raytracingnews.org/ Ray Tracing News] A newsletter on ray tracing technical matters.
* [http://www.realtimerendering.com/ Real-Time Rendering resources] A list of links to resources, associated with the ''Real-Time Rendering'' book.
* http://www.graphicspapers.com/ Database of graphics papers citations.
* http://www.cs.brown.edu/~tor/ List of links to (recent) siggraph papers (and some others) on the web.
* http://www.pointzero.nl/renderers/ List of links to all kinds of renderers.
* http://www.renderman.org/
* [http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/ 'Radiance' renderer.] A highly accurate ray-tracing software system.
* [http://www.aqsis.org/ 'Aqsis' renderer] A free RenderMan compatible OpenSource REYES renderer.
* http://www.povray.org/ A free ray tracer.
[[Category:3D computer graphics]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[da:Rendere]]
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[[es:Render]]
[[it:Rendering]]
[[ja:レンダリング]]
[[pl:Rendering]]
[[th:การสร้างภาพจากแบบจำลอง]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Citric Acid cycle</title>
<id>6605</id>
<revision>
<id>38561179</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:02:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unint</username>
<id>531119</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Citric acid cycle]] {{R for alternate capitalisation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartridge</title>
<id>6606</id>
<revision>
<id>24998999</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T19:30:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cartridge''' has different meanings, depending on context:
*[[Cartridge (electronics)]] - a module to be inserted into a larger piece of equipment, for example a games cartridge in a [[games console]], or an [[ink]] cartridge in a [[Computer printer|printer]].
*[[8-track]] audio tapes are often called cartridges.
*[[Cartridge (firearms)]] is a round of charge-and-bullet ammunition.
*The removable part of a [[gramophone|record player]] (turntable) arm holding the [[stylus]] (needle) - see [[magnetic cartridge]].
*Cartridge paper is a high quality type of heavy [[paper]] used for illustration, drawing, etc. It was originally used for making cartridges of the weaponry kind, hence the name.
*Originally a cartridge was a small paper package, e.g. in an old book about making [[printer]]'s [[typesetting|type]]: After all the type has been [[molding|cast]]: "The Boy will paper up each sort in a cartridge by itself". This is an [[obsolete]] usage.
{{disambig}}
[[sl:Naboj (orožje)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaosium</title>
<id>6607</id>
<revision>
<id>39315140</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T07:45:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The 21 Planes of Hell</username>
<id>921835</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chaosium''' is one of the longer lived publishers of [[role-playing game]]s still in existence. Originally founded by [[Greg Stafford]], its first game was actually a wargame, [[White Bear and Red Moon]], which later mutated into [[Dragon Pass]] and its sequel, [[Nomad Gods]]. [[White Bear and Red Moon]] is notable for containing the first published material about [[Glorantha]], later immortalized as the
|
r />
<comment>sp (2): descendents→descendants, refered→referred</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
Name = Delaware |
Fullname = State of Delaware |
Flag = DE_Flag_500w.gif |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Delaware]] |
Seal = DE_Seal_Color_250w.gif |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Delaware.png |
Nickname = The First State |
Capital = [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]] |
LargestCity = [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] |
Governor = [[Ruth Ann Minner]] (D)|
Senators = [[Joe Biden|Joseph R. Biden, Jr.]] (D)
[[Thomas R. Carper]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = DE |
OfficialLang = ''None'' |
AreaRank = 49<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 6,452 |
LandArea = 5,068 |
WaterArea = 1,387 |
PCWater = 21.5 |
PopRank = 45<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 783,600 |
DensityRank = 7<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 154.87 |
AdmittanceOrder = 1<sup>st</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 7]], [[1787]] |
TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]] |
Longitude = 75°2'W to 75°47'W |
Latitude = 38°27'N to 39°50'N |
Width = 48 |
Length = 161 |
HighestElev = 137 |
MeanElev = 18 |
LowestElev = 0 |
ISOCode = US-DE |
Website = delaware.gov
}}
'''Delaware''' is a state in the [[United States|United States of America]]. It was one of the original 13 states and is known as the "First State" as it was the first of them to ratify the [[United States Constitution]]. It is a [[Mid-Atlantic]] state located on the western shore of the [[Delaware River]] and [[Delaware Bay]] and geographically is the second smallest state in the [[United States]]. The state capital is at [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]] and its major city is [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Delaware}}
===Native Americans===
Before Delaware was settled by [[Europeans]], the area was home to the Eastern [[Algonquian]] tribes known as the Unami [[Lenape]] or [[Lenape|Delaware]] throughout the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] valley, and the [[Nanticoke]] along the rivers leading into the [[Chesapeake Bay]]. The Unami [[Lenape]] in the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] valley were closely related to Munsee [[Lenape]] tribes along the [[Hudson River]]. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the [[Susquehannock|Minqua]] or [[Susquehannock]]. With the loss of their lands on the [[Delaware River]], and the destruction of the [[Susquehannock|Minqua]] by the [[Iroquois]] of the [[Five Nations]] in the [[1670]]'s, the remnants of the [[Lenape]] left the region and moved over the [[Alleghany Mountains]] by the mid 18th century.
===Colonial Delaware===
The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] were the first [[Europeans]] to settle in present day Delaware by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]] in [[1631]]. Within a year all the settlers were killed in a dispute with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. In [[1638]] a [[Sweden|Swedish]] trading post and colony was established at [[Fort Christina]] (now in [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]]) by the Dutchman [[Peter Minuit]] at the head of a group of [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Finnish people|Finns]] and Dutch. Thirteen years later the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of [[Peter Stuyvesant]], established a new fort in [[1651]] at present day [[New Castle, Delaware]] and in [[1655]] took over the entire Swedish colony, incorporating it into the Dutch [[New Netherland]]s.
Only nine years later, in [[1664]], the Dutch were themselves forcibly removed by a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] expedition under the direction of [[James II of England|James, the Duke of York]]. Fighting off a prior claim by [[Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore]], Proprietor of [[Maryland]], the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to [[William Penn]] in [[1682]]. Penn badly wanted an outlet to the sea for his [[Pennsylvania]] province and leased what were now known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware" from the Duke.
Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in [[1682]]. However, by [[1704]] the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so much, their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and the other at New Castle. Penn and his heirs remained the Proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Deputy Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties.
===American Revolution===
Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially lacked much enthusiasm for a break with [[Great Britain]]. They had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their [[General Assembly|Colonial Assembly]] than other colonies. Nevertheless, there was strong objection to the seemingly arbitrary measures of [[Parliament]], and it was well understood that the territory's very existence as a separate entity depended upon its keeping step with its powerful neighbors, especially [[Pennsylvania]].
So it was that [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]] lawyer, [[Thomas McKean]] denounced the [[Stamp Act]] in the strongest terms, and [[Kent County, Delaware|Kent County]] native, [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], became the "Penman of the Revolution." Anticipating the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]], patriot leaders [[Thomas McKean]] and [[Caesar Rodney]] convinced the [[General Assembly|Colonial Assembly]] to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on [[June 15]], [[1776]], but the person best representing Delaware's majority, [[George Read (1733-1798)|George Read]], could not bring himself to vote for a [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Only the dramatic overnight ride of [[Caesar Rodney]] gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for Independence. Once the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration]] was adopted, however, [[George Read (1733-1798)|Read]] signed the document.
Initially led by [[John Haslet (1727-1777)|John Haslet]], Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the [[Continental Army]], known as the "Delaware Blues" and nicknamed the "[[Blue Hen Chicken]]s." In August [[1777]] [[William Howe|General Sir William Howe]] led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] and capture of the city of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was fought on [[September 3]], [[1777]], at Cooch's Bridge in [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]]. It is believed to be the first time that the Stars and Stripes was flown in battle.
Following the [[Battle of Brandywine]], [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] was occupied by the British and [[Governor of Delaware|State President]] [[John McKinly]] was taken prisoner. The Britsh remained in control of the [[Delaware River]] for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active [[Loyalist]] portion of the population, particularly in [[Sussex County, Delaware|Sussex County]]. Only the repeated military activities of [[Governor of Delaware|State President]] [[Caesar Rodney]] was able to control them.
Following the [[American Revolution]], statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central [[United States]] government with equal representation for each state. Once the [[Connecticut Compromise]] was reached creating a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] and [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the leaders in Delaware were able to easily secure ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] on [[December 7]], [[1787]], making Delaware the first state to do so.
===Slavery===
With two-thirds of the state settled by descendants of slave holding [[Maryland]] [[tobacco]] farmers, large parts of Delaware had a long tradition of acceptance of the institution of [[slavery]]. This was in spite of the fact that farmers increasingly had such little use for slaves that by the [[1860]] census there were only about 1,800 slaves in a state of 90,000 people, including nearly 20,000 free [[African Americans]]. When he freed his slaves in [[1777]], [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]] was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves.
The oldest black [[religious denomination|church]] in the country was chartered in Delaware by former-slave [[Peter Spencer]] in 1813 as the "[[Spencer Churches|Union Church of Africans]]," which is now the [[A.U.M.P. Church]]. The [[Big August Quarterly]] which began in 1814 is still celebrated and is the oldest such cultural festival in the country.
During the [[American Civil War]], Delaware was a slave state that remained in the Union (Delaware voters voted not to secede on [[January 3]], [[1861]]). Delaware had been the first state to embrace the Union by ratifying the constitution, and would be the last to leave it, according to Delaware's governor at the time. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the War served in the regiments the State answered Lincoln's call to arms with, some did in fact serve in Delaware companies on
|
ot; has become a common way of referring to the source of press statements coming from parts of the [[British Royal Family]] (see [[Metonymy]]). In addition to being the London home of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], Buckingham Palace is a setting for state occasions, royal entertaining and base for all officially visiting heads of state, and is a major tourist attraction. It has been a rallying point for the British at times of national rejoicing and crisis.
The palace, originally known as Buckingham House, was a large [[townhouse]] built for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham]] in 1703 and acquired by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] in 1762 as a private [[residence]]. It was enlarged over the next 75 years, principally by [[architect]]s [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] and [[Edward Blore]], forming three wings around a central courtyard. Buckingham Palace finally became the official royal palace of the British monarch on the accession of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1837. The last major structural additions were made in Victoria's time, with the addition of the large wing facing east towards [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], and the removal of the former state entrance, [[Marble Arch]], to its present position near [[Speakers' Corner]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]]. The east front was refaced in [[Portland stone]] in 1913 as a backdrop to the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]], creating the present-day 'public face' of Buckingham Palace, including the famous balcony.
The original Georgian interior designs included widespread use of brightly coloured [[scagliola]] and blue and pink [[Lapis lazuli|lapis]], on the advice of Sir [[Charles Long]]. [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] oversaw a heavy redecoration in a [[Belle epoque]] cream and gold colour scheme. Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the [[China|Chinese]] [[regency]] style with furniture and fittings brought from the [[Royal Pavilion]] at [[Brighton]] and from [[Carlton House]] following the death of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]]. The [[Buckingham Palace Gardens]] are the largest private gardens in London, originally landscaped by [[Capability Brown]], but redesigned by [[William Townsend Ailton]] of [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew Gardens]] and John Nash. The man-made lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water from the [[Serpentine (lake)|Serpentine]], a lake in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].
==History==
===Early history===
[[Image:Buckingham House 1710.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Buckingham House circa 1710 as redesigned by [[William Winde]] for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]]. This [[facade]] is today the core of the state entrance on the west side of the quadrangle, with the Green Drawing Room above]]
The first house recorded on the site was known as Goring House, built by the [[George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich|Lord Goring]] circa 1633. However, the house which forms the centre of the present palace was built for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]] in 1703. Buckingham had the house rebuilt by the architect [[William Winde]]. The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings.
Buckingham's house was eventually sold by his descendant, Sir Charles Sheffield, in 1762 to King George III. The house was originally intended as a private retreat for the Royal Family, and in particular [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Charlotte]], George III's consort, rather than as an official royal palace. The official and ceremonial royal residence remained at [[St. James's Palace]]; indeed, today foreign [[ambassador]]s are still accredited to the [[Court of St. James's]], even though it is at Buckingham Palace they present their credentials and staff to the Queen on their appointment.
===House to palace===
[[Image:George IV of the United Kingdom.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] transformed Buckingham House to a palace]]
[[Queen Charlotte]] died in 1818 and her mentally unstable husband [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] in 1820. Immediately, their son, the [[spendthrift]] [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]], decided to enlarge Buckingham House to use in conjunction with St. James's Palace as had his father, but by 1826 he had decided to convert the house to a fully equipped royal palace. He commissioned [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] to create this vision. The palace which arose framed three sides of a large quadrangle, with the former Buckingham House at its centre. The new work was faced in [[Bath]] stone, with exquisite detailing in the [[France|French]] [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style. This is the palace much as it is today, but without the great east front, facing [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], which now encloses the quadrangle. On the future site of the present east front, between the two projecting wings, was a colossal triumphal arch of [[Racaccione]] [[marble]], modelled on the [[Arch of Constantine]] in [[Rome]]. This arch, which had cost [[pound sterling|£]]34,450 to erect, served as the state entrance. George IV had intended it to be crowned by a [[bronze]] equestrian statue of himself, but he died before its completion, and when [[Parliament]] reluctantly paid the bill for it, they decided to erect it in [[Trafalgar Square]]. The interiors of the palace were to be of unparalleled splendour. George IV was advised on the interior design by Sir [[Charles Long]], who advocated the widespread use of brightly coloured [[scagliola]] and blue and pink [[Lapis lazuli|lapis]], with sculptured plaster panels set in the ceilings. George IV died in 1830, and the colourful and heavily gilded present state and semi-state rooms were not completed until the reign of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]], a man of simpler tastes, and his wife, Queen [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Adelaide]].
[[Image:Prince_William,_Duke_of_Clarence_and_St_Andrews_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13899.png|left|thumb|180px|[[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV's]] guidance and practicality ensured the final completion of the palace. While his and [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Queen Adelaide]]'s gilded [[monogram]] decorates many rooms, they never lived there]]
By the time of the death of George IV, the escalating cost of the still unfinished palace was causing concern in both Parliament and the press. William IV dismissed Nash as architect and employed [[Edward Blore]], who suited admirably the more restrained tastes of the new king. A less idealistic but more businesslike architect than Nash, he retained Nash's completed work and completed the palace in a similar, if more solid and less picturesque, vein. Though the new King and Queen held receptions and courts in the state rooms, they never lived in the palace, preferring to remain at [[Clarence House]], the more modest London [[mansion]] they had commissioned to be built before their succession. The final cost to the nation of rebuilding Buckingham Palace was in excess of £719,000. It is interesting to note that when the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] burnt down in 1834, the King offered the incomplete palace to the nation as a replacement seat of government, an offer which suggests the new King was rather less taken with the ornate palace than was his late brother. The offer was declined and the old Palace of Westminster rebuilt.
Many of the smaller reception rooms were furnished at this time, as they still are, in the [[China|Chinese]] [[regency]] style, as many of the fireplaces, decorations, and furniture were brought from the [[Royal Pavilion]] at [[Brighton]] and from [[Carlton House]], the palaces of George IV, following his death.
===Queen Victoria===
[[Image:queen_victoria.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], the first sovereign to reside at Buckingham Palace, moved into the newly completed palace at the age of 18]]
Buckingham Palace finally became the principal Royal residence in 1837 on the accession of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]. While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious. It was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die, and consequently the court shivered in icy magnificence. Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when a decision was taken to install gas lamps there was a serious worry about the build up of gas on the lower floors. It was also said that the staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty. Following the Queen's marriage to [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] in 1840, her husband concerned himself with a reorganization of the household offices and staff, and the design faults of the palace. The problems were attended to and the builders finally left the palace in 1840.
[[Image:Buckingham Palace ILN 1842.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Palace in 1842, before [[Edward Blore|Blore]]'s block of 1847 enclosed the quadrangle. [[Marble Arch]] served as the principal entrance to the palace [[precinct]]s.]]
The large wing facing east towards [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]] (today the 'public face' of Buckingham Palace) was constructed after the marriage of Queen Victoria. By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family, and as a result the new wing, designed by William IV's architect Edward Blore, was built, enclosing the quadrangle which is the centre of the palace. This new wing contains the balcony from which the [[Royal Family]] acknowledge the crowds on momentous o
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recent shoulder injury, plunged into the surf. He disappeared from view and was never seen again. Despite an extensive search, his remains were never found. He was officially presumed dead on [[19 December]] [[1967]].
Holt was an affable and well-liked figure in politics, and Australians of all political views were saddened by his death. US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] returned to Melbourne for his memorial service.
There were many rumours about Holt's death, such as that he had committed suicide or faked his own death in order to run away with his mistress. In [[1983]], British journalist Anthony Grey published a book in which he claimed that Holt had been an agent for the [[People's Republic of China]] and had been picked up by a Chinese submarine off Portsea and taken to China. The truth was that Holt was caught in the strong [[rip current|undertow]] off the beach and swept out to sea.
No inquest was held at the time because Victorian law did not provide any mechanism for reporting presumed or suspected deaths to the Victorian Coroner. The law was changed in [[1985]], and in [[2003]] the [[Victoria Police]] Missing Persons Unit formally reopened 161 pre-[[1985]] cases where drowning was suspected but no body was found. Holt's stepson Nicholas Holt said that after 37 years there were few surviving witnesses and no new evidence would be presented. On [[2 September]] [[2005]], the Coroner found that Holt had drowned in accidental circumstances on [[17 December]] [[1967]].
After Harold Holt's death, his widow Zara was made a [[Dame Commander of the British Empire]] (DBE), becoming [[Dame Zara Bate|Dame Zara Holt]]. She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, Jeff Bate, becoming Dame Zara Bate.
The [[United States Navy]] [[Knox class frigate]] [[USS Harold E. Holt (FF-1074)|USS ''Harold E. Holt'' (FF-1074)]] was named in his honour. He is also commemorated by the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre, a [[swimming pool]] complex in the [[Melbourne]] suburb of [[Malvern, Victoria|Malvern]]. (The complex was already under construction at the time of Holt's death, and since he was Malvern's local member it was named in his memory; the irony of commemorating him with a swimming pool has been the source of much amusement to Australians.) Several other memorials also exist.
==See also==
*[[First Holt Ministry]]
*[[Second Holt Ministry]]
==External links==
*[http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=17 Harold Holt] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Arthur Fadden|Sir Arthur Fadden]] | after=[[William McMahon]] | years=1958&ndash;1966}}
{{succession box one to two | title1=[[Liberal Party of Australia|Leader of the Liberal Party]] | before=[[Robert Menzies]] | after1=[[John Gorton]] | years1=1966&ndash;1967 | title2=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | after2=[[John McEwen]] | years2=1966&ndash;1967}}
{{end box}}
{{AustraliaPM}}
[[Category:1908 births|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Liberal Party of Australia politicians|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Holt, Harold]]
[[de:Harold Holt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia</title>
<id>13868</id>
<revision>
<id>37996241</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T13:38:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkerpikker</username>
<id>584672</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">=I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia. What should I do?=
There are many ways! Below are just some of our best ideas, which include many things you can do with minimal effort.
==Create new articles==
Creating a new article is often a very useful thing to do, especially if there are lots of articles linking to an empty page.
Wikipedia articles contain lots of links to other articles. Blue (or purple, if you have already visited them) links represent pages that do exist. <font color="#CC2200">Red</font> links point to pages that don't yet exist. Presumably, whoever created the link thought that an article on the topic should exist. It's possible this was a bad idea, and the link should be removed. It's also possible they made a spelling error or didn't know the correct name for a page on the same (or a more general topic) that does exist. In this case, you could fix the link, and/or create a [[Wikipedia:Redirect|redirect]]. If you decide there ''should'' be an article at the other end of the link, by all means start writing it!
In addition to looking for red links, you can look at a list of requested articles, and pick one you know something about. (See the section "Where do I start?" below.)
Please do read [[Wikipedia:Your first article]] for additional advice about how and when ''not'' to create a new article.
For technical help getting started, see [[Help:Starting a new page]].
===Tip===
'''Don't be surprised if other people edit "your" pages to adapt them to our [[Wikipedia:Policy|policies]]. It's OK to learn as you go along.'''
==Maintenance tasks==
There are many things that need doing that don't necessarily involve creatively editing article content. See [[Wikipedia:Cleaning department]] for a list of janitorial tasks that we always need help with, [[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] or the section "Start with a list of things that need doing", below.
==Make a donation==
Wikipedia is in constant need of more server capacity, bandwidth, and other technical services, to keep it running and fast enough to be useful. Financial contributions to our non-profit parent, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], are greatly appreciated. Please see http://wikimediafoundation.org/fundraising.
==Publicize Wikipedia==
See [[Wikipedia:Publicity]] for ideas.
==Help other users==
Even new users can help answer factual questions on the [[Wikipedia:Reference desk]], which serves the same purpose as a [[reference desk]] you might find in your local library. (You might also think of it as the Wikipedia version of [[Google#Google_Answers|Google Answers]].) You don't have to be an expert on Wikipedia because:
* You can help people find answers in existing Wikipedia articles.
* If you know the answer to a question not answered by Wikipedia, you can assist the questioner and at the same time, add that information to Wikipedia for the benefit of future readers.
* If you don't know the answer to an interesting question, you can research it in non-Wikipedia sources, and then improve Wikipedia for the benefit of the questioner and future readers.
If you already have some experience, your assistance in one of the many [[:Category:Wikipedia help forums|Wikipedia help forums]], including [[Wikipedia:Help desk]], would be a valuable contribution. You can help Wikipedia grow by helping other people share what they know.
==Where do I start?==
===Start with a list of things that need doing===
{{Opentask}}<br clear=all>
{{Resources for collaboration}}
The tables you see above and to the right contain a wealth of starting points loaded with lists of things to do on Wikipedia.
You may be interested to join in one of the [[Wikipedia:Collaboration of the week|collaborations of the week]], or the [[Wikipedia:Article improvement drive]], featured on [[Wikipedia:Community Portal]].
[[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] also lists a variety of tasks that need carrying out on a regular basis, and [[:Category:Wikipedia requests]] has many that need filling.
[[:Category:Incomplete lists]] is the place to start if you would enjoy making or finishing lists.
===Start with what you know===
Visit [[Wikipedia:Pages needing attention]] to find a list of articles by topic. These often need contributions from people who know something about the subject!
Make a list of everything you know. Strike through the things that are not [[Wikipedia:Verifiable|verifiable]] or [[Wikipedia is not|not supposed to be covered by Wikipedia]]. Then, find the proper places to write about the items remaining on the list. Use the [[Wikipedia:Go button|go button]], the [[Wikipedia:Search|search]], or just navigate by following links. Click the "What links here" link on pages you visit.
Things you might know about...
* Things you have already done research on. Have you written a [[thesis]], essay, or school paper? Consider contributing the fruits of your efforts to related Wikipedia articles. You probably don't want to dump the raw text of your essay into the wiki. First of all, there will almost certainly be an existing article which you will want to [[Wikipedia:Merge|merge]] your content into. Secondly, Wikipedia is an encyclopedia. Articles that are not written in an encyclopedic style should be rewritten that way, or at least tagged {{tl:cleanup-tone}}. Also keep in mind that [[Wikipedia:No original research|Wikipedia is not a place to post original research]]. This means that if you make a new discovery or come up with a new theory, you should find someplace else to post it. What we ''are'' about is researching and summarizing ideas and information that have already been publicized elsewhere. Most papers written up to the [[undergraduate]] level do exactly this. For technical help, see [[Wikipedia:How to import articles]].
* Current events. Wikipedia articles constantly need to be updated to reflect recent developments. Wikipedia also has an important role to serve in publishing background information that helps people understand current events and issues. If you hear a news story on your favorite news source (check out [http://news.google.com/ Google News] if you don't have one), check Wikipedia's coverage on th
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h population, deported 11,000 Jews from occupied [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Yugoslavia]]n territories. In France, the [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] government, police, secret police ([[Milice]]), and collaborationist thugs of the [[Parti Populaire Français]] rounded up 75,000 Jews for deportation to concentration camps. The [[Netherlands]] civilian administration and police participated in the roundups of the Jewish population. A [[Netherlands|Dutch]] group, [[Henneicke Column]], hunted and "delivered" 9,000 Jews for deportation{{ref|price}}.[[Norway|Norwegian]] police rounded up 750 Jews. [[Slovakia|Slovakia's]] [[Josef Tiso|Tiso]] regime deported approximately 70,000 Jews, of whom 65,000 were killed.{{ref|victims}}
The [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Miklós Horthy|Horthy]] regime deported 20,000 Jews from annexed [[Transcarpathian Ukraine]] in 1941 to [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] in the German-occupied [[Ukraine]], where they were shot by the German [[Einsatzgruppen]] detachments. Hungarian army and police units killed several thousand [[Jew|Jews]] and [[Serb|Serbs]] in [[Novi Sad]] in January 1942. However Horthy resisted German demands for mass deportation of Hungarian Jews, and most survived until 1944, when the Horthy fell from power and was replaced by the [[Arrow Cross]] regime. At this late date in the war with German defeat appearing likely, Hungarian police nevertheless participated fully with [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] in the roundups of 440,000 Jews for deportation to the [[extermination camps]]. Moreover, 20,000 [[Budapest]] Jews were shot by the banks of the [[Danube]] by Hungarian forces. 70,000 Jews were forced on a death march to [[Austria]]&mdash;thousands were shot and thousands more died of starvation and exposure. {{ref|hungary}}
[[Image:Kovnopogrom.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Killing of 5,000 Jews in Kovno by Lithuanian nationalists in June 1941. The SS urged anti-communist partisan leader Klimatis to attack the Jews to show that "the liberated population had resorted to the most severe measures against the ... Jewish enemy."]]
The [[Croatia]]n [[Ustaše]] regime killed hundreds of thousands of Serbs (estimates vary widely, but a minimum of 330,000-390,000 is generally accepted), over 20,000 Jews and 26,000 Roma, primarily in the Ustase's [[Jasenovac concentration camp]] near [[Zagreb]]. The Ustase also deported 7,000 more Jews to German [[extermination camps]].{{ref|croats}}
In the German-occupied Soviet territories local units represented over 80% of the available German forces providing a total of nearly 450,000 personnal organised in so-called "Schutzmanschaft" formations. Practically all of these units participated in the round-ups and mass-shootings. The overwhelming majority were recruited in the western Ukraine and the Baltic region, areas recently occupied by the Soviets for which the Jews were typically scapegoated, exacerbating existing anti-Semitic attitudes. Thus for instance, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] nationalists killed 4,000 [[Lviv]] Jews in July 1941, and an additional 2,000 in late July 1941 during the so-called [[Symon Petliura|Petliura]] Days [[pogrom]] German [[Einsatzgruppen]], together with Ukrainian auxiliary units, killed 33,000 [[Kiev]]an [[Jew|Jews]] in [[Babi Yar]] in September 1941. Ukrainian auxiliaries participated in a number of killings of Jews, among them in Romanian concentration camps in [[Bogdanovka]] and in [[Latvia]].
[[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvia|Latvian]] auxiliary military units with German [[Einsatzgruppen]] detachments participated in the extermination of the Jewish population in their countries, as well as assisting the Nazis elsewhere, such as deportations from the [[Warsaw Ghetto]]. The [[Arajs Commando]], a Latvian volunteer police unit, for example, shot 26,000 Latvian Jews, at various locations after they had been brutally rounded-up for this purpose by the regular police and auxilaries and was responsible for assisting in the killing of 60,000 more Jews.{{ref|latvia}}
About 75% of [[Estonia|Estonia's]] Jewish community, aware of the fate that otherwise awaited them, managed to escape to the Soviet Union; virtually all the remainder (between 950 and 1000 people) were killed by Einsatzgruppe A and local collaborators before the end of 1941.{{ref|estonia}}
===Who authorized the killings?===
Hitler authorized the mass killing of those labelled by the Nazis as "undesirables" in the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]]. Hitler encouraged the killings of the Jews of Eastern Europe by the ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' death squads in a speech in July, 1941, though he almost certainly approved the mass shootings earlier. A mass of evidence suggests that sometime in the fall of 1941, Himmler and Hitler agreed in principle on the complete mass extermination of the Jews of Europe by gassing, with Hitler explicitly ordering the "annihilation of the Jews" in a speech on December 12, 1941 (see [[Final Solution]]). To make for smoother intra-governmental cooperation in the implementation of this "Final Solution" to the "Jewish Question", the [[Wannsee conference]] was held near Berlin on [[January 20]] [[1942]], with the participation of fifteen senior officials, led by [[Reinhard Heydrich]] and [[Adolf Eichmann]], the records of which provide the best evidence of the central planning of the Holocaust. Just five weeks later on [[February 22]], Hitler was recorded saying "We shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews" to his closest associates.
Arguments that no documentation links Hitler to "the Holocaust" ignore the records of his speeches kept by Nazi leaders such as [[Joseph Goebbels]] and rely on artificially limiting the Holocaust to exclude what we do have documentation on, such as the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] and the [[Kristallnacht]] [[pogrom]].
===Who knew about the killings?===
Some claim that the full extent of what was happening in German-controlled areas was not known until after the war. However, numerous rumors and eyewitness accounts from escapees and others gave some indication that Jews were being killed in large numbers. Since the early years of the war the [[Polish government-in-exile]] published documents and organised meetings to spread word of the fate of the Jews. By early 1941, the British had received information via an intercepted Chilean memo that Jews were being targeted, and by late 1941 they had intercepted information about a number of large massacres of Jews conducted by German police. In the summer of 1942 a Jewish labor organization (the Bund) got word to London that 700,000 Polish Jews had already died, and the BBC took the story seriously, though the United States State Department did not take the news seriously{{ref|Archives}}. By the end of 1942, however, the evidence of the Holocaust had become clear and on December 17, 1942 the Allies issued a statement that the Jews were being transported to Poland and killed. The US State Department was aware of the use and the location of the gas chambers of extermination camps, but refused pleas to bomb them out of operation. On [[May 12]], [[1943]], Polish government-in-exile and Bund leader [[Szmul Zygielbojm]] committed [[suicide]] in London to protest the inaction of the world with regard to the Holocaust, stating in part in his suicide letter:
:''I cannot continue to live and to be silent while the remnants of Polish Jewry, whose representative I am, are being killed. My comrades in the [[Warsaw ghetto]] fell with arms in their hands in the last heroic battle. I was not permitted to fall like them, together with them, but I belong with them, to their mass grave.
:''By my death, I wish to give expression to my most profound protest against the inaction in which the world watches and permits the destruction of the Jewish people.
Debate also continues on how much average Germans knew about the Holocaust. Recent historical work suggests that the majority of Germans knew that Jews were being indiscriminately killed and persecuted, even if they did not know of the specifics of the death camps. [[Robert Gellately]], a historian at [[Oxford University]], conducted a widely-respected survey of the German media before and during the war, concluding that there was "substantial consent and active participation of large numbers of ordinary Germans" in aspects of the Holocaust, and documenting that the sight of columns of slave laborers were common, and that the basics of the concentration camps, if not the extermination camps, were widely known{{ref|Gallately}}.
== Historical interpretations ==
===Why did people participate in, authorize, or tacitly accept the killing?===
==== Obedience ====
[[Stanley Milgram]] was one of a number of post-war psychologists and sociologists who tried to address why people obeyed immoral orders in the Holocaust. [[Milgram experiment|Milgram's findings]] demonstrated that [[reasonable person|reasonable people]], when instructed by a person in a position of authority, [[obedience|obeyed]] commands entailing what they believed to be the death or suffering of others. These results were confirmed in other experiments as well, such as the [[Stanford prison experiment]].
==== Functionalism versus intentionalism ====
{{main|Functionalism versus intentionalism}}
A major issue in contemporary Holocaust studies is the question of ''functionalism'' versus ''intentionalism''. The terms were coined in a 1981 article by the British [[Marxist]] historian [[Timothy Mason]] to describe two schools of thought about the origins of the Holocaust. Intentionalists hold that the Holocaust was the result of a long-term masterplan on the part of Hitler's and that Hitler was the driving force behind the Holocaust. Functionalists hold that Hitler was anti-Semitic, but that he did not have a masterplan for genocide. Functionalists see the Holocaust as coming from below in the ranks o
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rsing.
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<pre><nowiki>
; Definition list : list of definitions
; item : the item's definition
; another item
: the other item's definition
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* You can even create mixed lists
*# and nest them
*#* like this
*#*; can I mix definition list as well?
*#*: yes
*#*; how?
*#*: it's easy as
*#*:* a
*#*:* b
*#*:* c
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<pre><nowiki>
* You can even create mixed lists
*# and nest them
*#* like this
*#*; can I mix definition list as well?
*#*: yes
*#*; how?
*#*: it's easy as
*#*:* a
*#*:* b
*#*:* c
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
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: A colon indents a line or paragraph.
A manual newline starts a new paragraph.
* This is primarily for displayed material, but is also used for discussion on [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]]s.
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<pre><nowiki>
: A colon indents a line or paragraph.
A manual newline starts a new paragraph.
</nowiki></pre>
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When there is a need for separating a block of text
<blockquote>
the '''blockquote''' command will indent both margins when needed instead of the left margin only as the colon does.
</blockquote>
This is useful for (as the name says) inserting blocks of quoted (and cited) text.
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<pre><nowiki>
<blockquote>
The '''blockquote''' command will indent
both margins when needed instead of the
left margin only as the colon does.
</blockquote>
</nowiki></pre>
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(See formula on right):
*This is useful for:
** pasting preformatted text;
** algorithm descriptions;
** program source code;
** [[ASCII art]];
** chemical structures;
* '''WARNING''': If you make it wide, you [[page widening|force the whole page to be wide]] and hence less readable, especially for people who use lower resolutions. Never start ordinary lines with spaces.
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<pre><nowiki>
IF a line starts with a space THEN
it will be formatted exactly
as typed;
in a fixed-width font;
lines will not wrap;
ENDIF
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
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<center>Centered text.</center>
* Please note the American spelling of "center".
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<pre><nowiki>
<center>Centered text.</center>
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
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A [[horizontal dividing line]]:
this is above it
----
and this is below it.
* Mainly useful for
**disambiguation - but to be used sparsely, only when separating completely different, unrelated (groups of) meanings
**separating threads on Talk pages.
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<pre><nowiki>
A [[horizontal dividing line]]:
this is above it
----
and this is below it.
</nowiki></pre>
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===Links and URLs===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
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! What it looks like
! What you type
|- valign="top"
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London has [[public transport]].
* A link to another Wikipedia article.
* Internally, the first letter of the target page is automatically capitalized and spaces are represented as underscores (typing an underscore in the link has the same effect as typing a space, but is not recommended).
* Thus the link above is to the [[URL]] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport, which is the Wikipedia article with the name "Public transport". See also [[Wikipedia:Canonicalization]].
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London has [[public transport]].
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San Francisco also has
[[public transport|
public transportation]].
* Same target, different name.
* This is a [[piped link]].
* The "piped" text must be placed first, the text that will be displayed, second.
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<pre><nowiki>
San Francisco also has
[[public transport|
public transportation]].
</nowiki></pre>
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San Francisco also has
[[public transport]]ation.
Examples include [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s,
and [[streetcar]]s.
* Endings are blended into the link.
* Preferred style is to use this instead of a piped link, if possible.
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<pre><nowiki>
San Francisco also has
[[public transport]]ation.
Examples include [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s,
and [[streetcar]]s.
</nowiki></pre>
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See the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]].
* A link to another [[Wikipedia:namespace|namespace]].
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<pre><nowiki>
See the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]].
</nowiki></pre>
|- id="link-to-section" valign="top"
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[[Economics#See also]] is a link
to a section within another page.
[[#Links and URLs]] is a link
to a section on the current page.
[[#example]] is a link to an
anchor that was created using
<div id="example">an id attribute</div>
* The part after the number sign (#) must match a section heading on the page. Matches must be exact in terms of spelling, case, and punctuation. Links to non-existent sections are not broken; they are treated as links to the top of the page.
* Identifiers may be created by attaching an <code>id="..."></code> attribute to almost any HTML element.
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<pre><nowiki>
[[Economics#See also]] is a link
to a section within another page.
[[#Links and URLs]] is a link
to a section on the current page.
[[#example]] is a link to an
anchor that was created using
<div id="example">an id attribute
</div>
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
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Automatically hide stuff in parentheses:
[[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]].
Automatically hide namespace:
[[Wikipedia:Village Pump|Village Pump]].
Or both:
[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings)|Manual of Style]]
But not:
[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Links|]]
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<pre><nowiki>
Automatically hide stuff
in parentheses:
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Automatically hide namespace:
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Or both:
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Manual of Style (headings)|]]
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Manual of Style#Links|]]
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/id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh people]] → [[Category:Tanakh people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abijah''' means father (i.e., "possessor or worshipper") of God, in the [[Hebrew Bible]].
# [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 7:8.
# 1 Chr. 2:24.
# '''Abijah''' is also the second son of [[Samuel]] ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 8:2; 1 Chr. 6:28). His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beer-sheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a royal form of government.
# Another '''Abijah''' was a descendant of [[Eleazar]], the son of [[Aaron]], a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by [[David]] (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah was one of those which did not return from the Captivity ([[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 2:36-39; [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 7:39-42; 12:1).
# The '''Abijah''' or [[Abijam]], who was son of [[Rehoboam]], and succeeded him on the throne of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] (1 Chr. 3:10).
# Furthermore, '''Abijah''' was also the name of a son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found "some good thing toward the Lord," he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and "all Israel mourned for him" ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 14:1-18).
# The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 29:1; compare [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 8:2), and afterwards the wife of Ahaz was also named '''Abijah'''. She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).
# One of the sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8) was '''Abijah''', also known by the name ''Abiah''.
-----
Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed
[[Category:Tanakh people]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ark</title>
<id>2087</id>
<revision>
<id>39618442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T18:33:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/83.103.96.130|83.103.96.130]] ([[User talk:83.103.96.130|talk]]) to last version by Penguinonice4</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ark''' may be:
{{Wiktionarypar|ark}}
== Religion ==
* [[Ark (synagogue)]], a cabinet used to store a synagogue's Torah scroll.
* [[Ark of the Covenant]], consecrated container for Moses's tablets of Ten Commandments.
* [[Ark of bulrushes]], infant Moses's boat.
* [[Noah's Ark]], a massive vessel Noah built at God's command to keep Noah, his family, and a core breeding stock of the world’s animals safe.
== Technology contexts ==
* [[Ark (computing)]], archiving tool.
* [[Ark Linux]], software distribution.
* [[Interstellar ark]], multi-lifetime space vehicle.
== Entertainment contexts ==
Narratives:
* [[Ark (2005 film)]]
* [[The Ark (Transformers)]], fictional spacecraft.
* [[The Ark (Doctor Who)]], series of fiction episode.
* [[Ark (Noon Universe)]], fictional planet.
Music:
* [[Ark (folk venue)]], a world-class concert venue in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
* [[ARK (band)]], Norwegian/American heavy metal.
* [[The Ark (band)]], Swedish glam-rock.
* [[Ark (album)]], by the Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel.
Games:
* [[Ark (game)]], a 1996 computer game subtitled ''Search For The Future''.
* [[Space colony ARK]], from the video game ''Sonic Adventure 2''.
* Ark, [[Summoner (character class)]] character in [[Final Fantasy IX]].
* Ark, main character of video game [[Terranigma]].
* [[The Ark (Halo)]], a mysterious Forerunner facility from which all the Halos can be controlled.
* [[Abels Ark]], from the video game ''[[Xenogears]]'' and the video game series ''[[Xenosaga]]''.
== Other ==
* ARK, stock symbol for [[Senior High Income Portfolio]]
* [[The Ark (Antarctica)]], mountain.
* [[The Ark (newspaper)]], California.
* [[The Ark (Hammersmith)]], a large office block in Hammersmith, London, that looks like a ship.
== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar2|arc|arch-}}
* [[Arc]]
* [[Arch]]
__NOTOC__
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aphasia</title>
<id>2088</id>
<revision>
<id>41970447</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Acquired aphasia |
ICD10 = R47.0 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|784.3}} |
}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Developmental aphasia |
ICD10 = F80.0-F80.2 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|315.31}} |
}}
'''Aphasia''' is a loss or impairment of the ability to produce and/or comprehend [[language]], due to [[brain damage]]. It is usually a result of damage to the language centres of the brain (like [[Broca's area]]). These areas are almost always located in the [[left hemisphere]], and in most people this is where the ability to produce and comprehend language is found. However in a very small number of people language ability is found in the right hemisphere. Damage to these language areas can be caused by a [[stroke]], [[traumatic brain injury]] or other [[head injury]]. Aphasia may also develop slowly, as in the case of a [[brain tumor]]. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, understand more complex sentences than he or she can produce, or display any of a wide variety of other deficiencies in reading, writing, and comprehension.
Aphasia may co-occur with speech disorders such as [[dysarthria]] or [[apraxia]] of speech, which also result from brain damage.
The brains of young children with brain damage sometimes restructure themselves to use different areas for speech processing, and regain lost function; adult brains are less "plastic" and lack this ability.
Aphasia can be assessed in a variety of ways, from quick clinical screening at the bedside to several-hour-long batteries of tasks that examine the key components of language and communication.
==Who has aphasia?==
Anyone can acquire aphasia, but most people who have aphasia are in their middle to late years. Men and women are equally affected. It is estimated that approximately 80,000 individuals in the [[United States]] acquire aphasia each year. About one million persons in the United States currently have aphasia.
==Causes==
Aphasia can be caused by damage to one or more of the language areas of the brain. Many times, the cause of the brain injury is a [[stroke]]. A stroke occurs when, for some reason, blood is unable to reach a part of the brain. Brain cells die when they do not receive their normal supply of blood, which carries oxygen and important nutrients. Other causes of brain injury are severe blows to the head, brain tumors, brain infections, and other conditions of the brain.
Traumatic aphasia can occur without physical damage to the brain, but by experiencing a horrific event (normally during childhood). Treatment for traumatic aphasia is wildly different, normally requiring the help of a psychologist. And as the patient grows older, the chances of recovery gradually decline.
Individuals with [[Broca's aphasia]] have damage to the frontal lobe of the brain. These individuals frequently speak in short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. Broca's aphasia is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as "is," "and," and "the." For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say, "Walk dog" meaning, "I will take the dog for a walk." The same sentence could also mean "You take the dog for a walk," or "The dog walked out of the yard," depending on the circumstances. Individuals with Broca's aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have [[right-sided weakness]] or paralysis of the arm and leg because the frontal lobe is also important for body movement.
In contrast to Broca's aphasia, damage to the [[temporal lobe]] may result in a fluent aphasia that is called [[Wernicke's aphasia]]. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new "words." For example, someone with Wernicke's aphasia may say, "You know that smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like you want before," meaning "The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk." Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding speech and are therefore often unaware of their mistakes. These individuals usually have no body weakness because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement.
A third type of aphasia, global aphasia, results from damage to extensive portions of the language areas of the brain. Individuals with global aphasia have severe communication difficulties and will be extremely limited in their ability to speak or comprehend language.
==Diagnosis==
Aphasia is usually fir
|
l architecture after the [[ionic order|Ionic]] and the [[doric order|Doric]]. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the accumulation of wealth and the luxurious lifestyle in the ancient city-state, while the Doric order was analogous to the strict and simplistic lifestyle of the older Dorians like the Spartans, and the Ionic was a balance between those two following the philosophy of harmony of Ionians like the Athenians.
[[image:Corinthian_silver_stater.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Early Corinthian silver [[stater]] Obverse: [[Pegasus]].]]
[[image:Corinthian_silver_stater_reverse.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Early Corinthian silver [[stater]] Reverse: [[Swastika]].]]
At this time there was a famous ancient saying: "'''Ou pantos plein es Korinthon'''", which translates as "Not everyone is able to go to Corinth", due to the expensive living standards that prevailed in the city. The city was renowned for the temple prostitutes of [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love, who served the wealthy merchants and the powerful officials living in or travelling in and out of the city. The most famous of them, [[Lais]], was said to have extraordinary abilities and charged tremendous fees for her favours.
The city had two main ports, one in the Corinthian Gulf and one in the Saronic Gulf, serving the trade routes of the western and eastern [[Mediterranean]], respectively. In the Corinthian Gulf lied [[Lechaio|Lechaion]], which connected the city to it's western colonies ('''Greek''': [[Colonies in antiquity|apoikoiai]]) and [[Magna Graecia]], while in the Saronic Gulf the port of [[Kechries|Kenchreai]] served the ships coming from Athens, [[Ionia]], [[Cyprus]] and the rest of the [[Levant]]. Both ports had docks for the large war fleet of the city-state.
The city was a major participant in the [[Persian Wars]], offering 40 war ships in the sea [[Battle of Salamis]] under the admiral [[Adeimantos]] and 5,000 [[hoplites]] (wearing their characteristic [[Corinthian helmet]]s) in the following [[Battle of Plataea]] but afterwards was frequently an enemy of Athens and an ally of [[Sparta]] in the [[Peloponnesian League]]. In [[431 BC]], one of the factors leading to the [[Peloponnesian War]] was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (Corfu), which probably stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities.
[[image:Amphoreus_Corinthian.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Corinthian [[Amphora|Amphoreus]] ca. 600 BC]]
After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, which were former allies with Sparta in the Peloponnesian League, had grown dissatisfied with the hegemony of Sparta and started the [[Corinthian War]] against it, which further weakened the [[polis|city-states]] of the Peloponnese. This weakeness allowed for the subsequent invasion of the [[Macedon]]ians of the north and the forging of the [[Corinthian League]] by [[Philip II of Macedon]] against the [[Persian Empire]]. Philip's son [[Alexander the Great]] was the first general of the [[Hellenes]].
In the [[4th century BC]], Corinth was home to [[Diogenes of Sinope]], one of the world's best known cynics.
===Roman era===
The [[Roman Republic|Romans]] under [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus|Lucius Mummius]] destroyed Corinth following a siege in [[146 BC]]; when he entered the city Mummius put all the men to the sword and sold the women and children into slavery before he torched the city, for which he was given the [[cognomen]] ''Achaicus'' as the conqueror of the [[Achaean League]] (see [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]]). While there is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, [[Julius Caesar]] refounded the city as ''Colonia laus Iulia Corinthiensis'' in [[44 BC]] shortly before his assassination. According to [[Appian of Alexandria|Appian]], the new settlers were drawn from [[freedmen]] of Rome. Under the Romans it became the seat of government for Southern [[Greece]] or [[Achaia]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious, immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and [[Jews]].
When [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] first visited the city ([[51|AD 51]] or [[52]]), [[Gallio]], the brother of [[Lucius Annaeus Seneca|Seneca]], was [[proconsul]]. Paul resided here for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became acquainted with [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla]], and soon after his departure [[Apollos]] came from [[Ephesus]]. Although he intended to pass through Corinth the second time before he visited Macedonia, circumstances were such, in the absence of Titus, that he went from Troas to Macedonia, and then likely passed into Corinth for a "second benefit" (2 Corinthians 1:15), and remained for three months, according to Acts 20:3.
During this second visit in the spring of [[58]] it is likely the [[Epistle to the Romans]] was written. Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] reflects the difficulties of maintaining a Christian community in such a cosmopolitan city.
===Byzantine era===
The city was destroyed by an earthquake in [[375]] and again in [[551]].
During [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s invasion of Greece, in [[395]]&ndash;[[396]], Corinth was one of the cities he despoiled, selling many of its citizens into slavery.
During the reign of [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Justinian I]], a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulf, protecting the city and the Peloponnesean peninsula from the barbarian invasions of the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named [[Examilion wall|Examilion]] (exi=six in Greek). During this era Corinth was the seat of the ''[[Thema]]'' of Hellas (representing modern day [[Greece]]).
In the 12th century (during the reign of the [[Comnenus]] dynasty), the wealth of the city, generated from the silk trade to the Latin states of western Europe, attracted the attention of the Sicilian [[Normans]] under the [[Roger of Sicily]], who plundered it in [[1147]].
===Principality of Achaea===
In [[1204]] [[Geoffrey I Villehardouin|Geoffrey I de Villehardouin]], nephew of the homonymous [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin|famous historian]] of the [[Fourth Crusade]], was granted Corinth after the sack of [[Constantinople]], with the title of Prince of Achaea. From [[1205]]-[[1208]] the Corinthians resisted the Frankish domination from their stronghold in [[Acrocorinth]], under the command of the Greek general [[Leo Sgouros]]. The [[French people|French]] knight [[William of Champlitte]] led the crusader forces. In 1208 Leo Sgouros killed himself by riding off the top of Acrocorinth, but from 1208 to [[1210]] the Corinthians continued to resist against the enemy forces.
After the collapse of resistant and for the years to come Corinth became a full part of the Principality, governed by the [[Villehardouin|Villehardouins]] from their capital in [[Andravida]] of [[Elis]]. Corinth was the last significant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the [[Duchy of Athens]].
===Ottoman Rule===
In [[1458]] five years after the final [[Fall of Constantinople]], the Turks of the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered the city and its mighty castle.
During the [[Greek War of Independence]], [[1821]]-[[1830]] the city was totally destroyed by the Turkish forces. The city was officially liberated in [[1832]] after the [[London Conference of 1832|Treaty of London]]. In [[1833]], the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded [[Kingdom of Greece]], due to its historical significance and strategic position. Athens, then an insignificant village, was chosen instead.
<table width = 75% border = 2 align="center">
<tr>
<td width = 35% align="center"></td>
<td width = 30% align="center">'''North:''' [[Gulf of Corinth]],<br/>[[Loutraki-Perachoras]] (NE)</td>
<td width = 35% align="center"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width = 35% align="center">'''West:''' [[Vocha (plain of)|Vocha]],</br>[[Lechaio]]</td>
<td width = 30% align="center">'''Corinth'''</td>
<td width = 35% align="center">'''East:''' [[Saronic Gulf]],<br/>[[Isthmia]],<br/>[[Kechries]] (SE)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width = 35% align="center"></td>
<td width = 30% align="center">'''South''': [[Oneia mountains]],<br/>[[Examilia]],<br/>[[Ancient Corinth]] (SW)</td>
<td width = 35% align="center"></td>
</tr>
</table>
== Corinth today ==
[[image:Corinth_aerial.jpg|right|thumb|325px|'''Κόρινθος''' the key to [[Peloponnese]]. North to South aerial view. [[Acrocorinth]] and Oneia mountains are visible in the background]]
In [[1858]] the old city (ancient Corinth, today a town 3km SW of the modern city) was totally destroyed by an earthquake. The new city of Corinth was founded on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth.
Corinth is the second largest city in the [[periphery]] of Peloponnese after [[Kalamata]] (53,659 inh. in 2001). In the census of [[1991]] the city had a population of 28,071 while latest data [[2001]] showed an increase of 2,363 inhabitants (+8,4%) to 30,434. It should be noted the fact that between the census of [[1981]] and that of 1991 the city had one of the fastest increasing populations in the country.
The [[Municipality of Corinth]] or ''Dimos Korinthion'' had a population of 36,991 in 2001. The municipality includes the town of Ancient Corinth (1,770 inh.), where the ancient and the medieval city used to be built at the foothills of the rock of Acrocorinth 3km from the new city centre, the town of Examilia (1,547 inh.), and the smaller settlements of [[Xyloke
|
ch are perfect for light [[surfing]], but a little bit risky due to under-tow currents.
[[Shopping]] districts are another treat in Barbados, with ample duty-free shopping. There is also a festive nightlife available in mainly tourist areas like the Saint Lawrence Gap. Other attractions include wildlife reserves, jewelry stores, [[scuba]] diving, helicopter rides, [[golf]], [[festival]]s, sight seeing, cave exploration, exotic [[drink]]s and fine [[clothes]] [[shopping]].
===Attractions, landmarks and points of interest===
Name / Parish Location:
{| valign=top
|-
|width=200 valign=top style="font-size:90%;"|
- '''Christ Church'''
* [[Barbados Historical Museum]]
* [[Garrison Savannah]]
* [[Graeme Hall Swamp]]
* [[St. Lawrence Gap]]
- '''St. Andrew'''
* [[Cherry Tree Hill]]
* [[Morgan Lewis Windmill]]
|width=200 valign=top style="font-size:90%;"|
- '''St. George'''
* [[Gun Hill Signal Station]]
* [[Francia Great House]]
* [[Orchid World]]
- '''St. James'''
* [[Folkestone Marine Park]]
- '''St. John'''
* [[Codrington College]]
* [[St. John Parish Church]]
|width=200 valign=top style="font-size:90%;"|
- '''St. Joseph'''
* [[Andromeda Gardens]]
* [[Flower Forest]]
* [[Hackleton's Cliff]]
- '''St. Lucy'''
* [[Animal Flower Cave]]
* [[Mount Gay|Mount Gay Rum Distilleries]]
|width=200 valign=top style="font-size:90%;"|
- '''St. Michael'''
* [[Bridgetown Synagogue|Bridgetown Synagogue and Cemetery]]
* [[Bussa Emancipation Statue]]
* [[Kensington Oval]]
* [[Sharon Moravian Church]]
- '''St. Peter'''
* [[Barbados Wildlife Reserve]]
* [[Farley Hill National Park]]
- '''St. Philip'''
* [[Sunbury Plantation]]
- '''St. Thomas'''
* [[Harrison's Cave]]
* [[Welchman Hall Gully]]
|}
''List of'': [[List of Cities, towns and villages in Barbados|Cities, towns and villages]] in Barbados.
==Transportation==
Transportation on the island is good, with 'route taxis', called "ZR's" (pronounced "Zed-Rs"), travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, but will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. These buses generally depart from the capital [[Bridgetown]] or from [[Speightstown, Barbados|Speightstown]] in the northern part of the island.
Buses are abundant in Barbados. There are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays), and a ride on any of them costs $1.50 BDS. The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems ("ZR's" and "minibuses") can make change; the larger blue buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. However, if you wait long enough, you might find a bus that bypasses the capital and takes you right to your destination. Drivers are generally happy to help you get where you're going; however, some drivers within the competitive privately owned systems are reluctant to instruct you to use competing services, even if those would be preferable.
Competition for patrons extends to the bus terminals (sometimes just a parking lot full of buses); it is normal for the 'ZR' bus conductors to attempt to escort you to his vehicle and engage in loud altercations with other drivers and conductors, in competition for your patronage. These altercations, though sometimes dramatic, are less problematic than they usually seem to the unaccustomed.
Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island. Hotel shuttles generally leave right outside of the hotel's lobby. The island also has an abundance of taxis-for-hire, although visitors staying on the island may find this an expensive option. Visitors also have the option of transport by car, presuming that they have a valid driver's license (issued in their native country.) There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados.
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Barbados}}
Barbados has a population of about 279,000 and a growth rate of 0.33% (Mid-2005 estimates). Close to 90 percent of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as ''Bajan'') are of [[African]] descent ("Afro-Bajans"), mostly descendants of the [[slavery|slave]] labourers on the sugar plantations. The remainder of the population includes groups of [[Europe]]ans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans"), [[Asia]]ns, Bajan Hindus and Muslims, and an influential Middle Eastern ("Arab-Bajans") group mainly of [[Syria]]n and [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] descent.
Other groups in Barbados include people from the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[expatriate]]s from [[Latin America]]. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the U.S. are called "Bajan Yankees"; this term is considered derogatory by some.
The official language of Barbados is [[English language|English]] but most Bajans speak their national language, [[Bajan]] and while most Barbadians are [[Protestant]] Christians, chiefly of the [[Anglican Church]], there are other Protestant, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Islam|Muslim]] minorities. Barbados is currently a chief emigration location from the [[South America]]n nation of [[Guyana]].
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Barbados}}
The influence of the English on Barbados is more noticeable than on other islands in the West Indies. A good example of this is the island's national sport: [[cricket]]. Barbados has brought forth several great cricket players, including [[Garfield Sobers]] and [[Frank Worrell]].
Citizens are officially called Barbadian, however residents of Barbados colloquially refer to themselves or the products of the country as "Bajan". The term "Bajan", may have come from a localized pronunciation of the word Barbadian which at times can sound more like "Bar-bajan". The term Barbadian, is used less frequently than is "Bajan".
The largest [[Carnival]] cultural events which take place in Barbados are the ''Congaline Festival'' and ''Crop Over Festival'' as known internationally.
As is the case in many of the other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Carnival is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to the island to participate in the annual events.
The smaller of the two events is the ''Congaline Festival'', which takes place during the last week of March. The ''Crop Over'' Carnival which includes various musical competitions, and other traditional activities usually kicks into high gear from the beginning of July, and ends in its entirety during the first week of August.
The Crop Over festival closes with Grand Kadooment a large parade on the final day of festivities.
:''See also: [[Music of Barbados]]''
==Sport==
There are several sports played in Barbados of which cricket is arguably the favourite(like many other Caribbean countries).
Barbados will be playing host to the 2007 Cricket World Cup final,as well as six "Super Eight" matches and several warm-up matches. The final is schedule to take place on Saturday 28 April, 2007.
==National symbols==
[[Image:Flower4.JPG|thumb|100px|A yellow and red Poinciana]]
The national flower is the [[Poinciana]] (''Caesalpinia pulcherrima'' (L.) Sw. , Pride of Barbados), which grows across the island of Barbados.
[[Image:Barbados_coa.png|thumb|192px|left|Barbados' Coat of Arms]]
===Golden Shield===
The Golden Shield in the Coat of Arms carries two "Pride of Barbados" orchids and the "bearded" fig tree (''[[Ficus citrifolia]]'' or ''Ficus barbata'') which was common on the island at the time of its settlement by the British and contributed to Barbados being so named.
===Coat of Arms===
The [[coat of arms]] depicts two animals which are supporting the shield. On the left is a [[dolphin]] (dexter); symbolic of the fishing industry and sea-going past of Barbados. On the right is a [[pelican]] (sinister); symbolic of a small island named [[Pelican Island]] that once existed off the coast of Bridgetown. Above the shield is the helmet of Barbados with an extended arm clutching two [[sugar-cane]] stalks. The "cross" formation made by the cane stalks represents the cross which [[Saint Andrew]] was crucified. On the base of the Coat of Arms reads "Pride and Industry" in reference to the motto of the country.
==National Heroes==
There are '''10 Barbados national heroes'''.
*Sir [[Errol Barrow]]
*[[Grantley Herbert Adams|Sir Grantley Adams]] ([http://www.barbados.gov.bb/grantleya.htm])
*[[Bussa]]
*[[Sarah Ann Gill]]
*[[Samuel Jackson Prescod]]
*Sir [[Frank Walcott]]
*[[Charles Duncan O'Neal]]
*Sir [[Garfield Sobers]]
*[[Clement Payne]]
*Sir [[Hugh Springer]]
''See also: [[List of Eastern Caribbean people#Barbados|List of Eastern Caribbean people]]''
==<br clear="all">International rankings==
* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html CIA World Factbook - GDP] - ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) per capita:
** [[2004]]: ranked 59 of 232 countries & territories -- $ 15,700 [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html 59th]
* [[The Economist|Economist, The]], Worldwide quality-of-life index:
** [[2005]] ranked 33 out of 111 countries [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 33rd]
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]], [[Index of Economic Freedom]] [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ countries]:
** [[2005]] ranked 32 of 155 countries [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Barbados 32nd]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]], Digital Access Index (Top 10 in Americas):
**[[2002]]: ranked 45 of 178 countries [http://www.itu.int/newsarchive/press_releases/2003/30.html 45th]
* [[Reporters without borders]]:
** [[2004]]: N/A [http:
|
ion moves at 10 frames per second.''</small>
<br />[[Image:Animexample2.gif]]<br /><small>''This animation moves at 2 frames per second. At this rate, the individual frames should be discernible.''</small><br />[[Image:Animhorse.gif|200px]]<br /><small>''12 frames per second is the typical rate for an [[animated cartoon]].''</small>
</div>
'''Animation''' is the illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a [[film]] or [[Film|movie]] is produced individually. These frames may be generated by computers, or by photographing a drawn or painted image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed, there is an illusion of continuous movement due to the phenomenon known as [[persistence of vision]]. Generating such a film tends to be very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process.
[[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]](SWF) allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.
[[Image:Animexample3.png|frame|none|''The animations shown before consist of these 6 frames.'']]
__TOC__
== Animation techniques ==
[[Traditional animation]] began with each frame being painted and then filmed. [[Traditional animation|Cel animation]], developed by [[Bray Productions|Bray]] and Hurd in the 1910s, sped up the process by using transparent overlays so that characters could be moved without the need to repaint the background for every frame. More recently, styles of animation based on painting and drawing have evolved, such as the minimalist [[Simpsons]] cartoons, or the roughly sketched [[The Snowman]].
[[Computer animation]] has advanced rapidly, and is now approaching the point where movies can be created with characters so lifelike as to be hard to distinguish from real actors. This involved a move from 2D to 3D, the difference being that in 2D animation the effect of perspective is created artistically, but in 3D objects are modeled in an internal 3D representation within the computer, and are then 'lit' and 'shot' from chosen angles, just as in real life, before being 'rendered' to a 2D bitmapped frame. Predictions that famous dead actors might even be 'brought back to life' to play in new movies before long have led to speculation about the moral and copyright issues involved. The use of computer animation as a way of achieving the otherwise impossible in conventionally shot movies has led to the term "[[computer generated imagery]]" being used, though the term has become hard to distinguish from computer animation as it is now used in referring to 3D movies that are entirely animated.
Computer animation involves modelling, motion generation, followed by the addition of surfaces and then [[rendering]]. Surfaces are programmed to stretch and bend automatically in response to movements of a '[[wire frame model]]', and the final rendering converts such movements to a [[Raster graphics|bitmap image]]. It is the recent developments in rendering complex surfaces like fur and clothing textures that have enabled stunningly life-like character models, including surfaces that even ripple, fold and blow in the wind, with every fibre or hair individually calculated for rendering. However, that actually has little to do with the animation itself. Animation is the process of bringing a lifeless puppet to life through the use of motion. Many people confuse fancy effects and high-res textures with animation, but in fact life-like motion can be created using the simplest of models. Pixar's work is a testament to this. The goal of an animator is not simply to "copy" the real world, but to enhance and to take the essence of the motion that is there, and this is how animation can be elevated to the level of art.
There is a large misconception in the public mind that computers create animation today. This couldn't be further from the truth. A computer is nothing more (though also nothing less) than a very expensive fancy pencil, and has to be treated as such for any quality work to be acheived. The choices a computer makes when interpolating motion are almost always the wrong ones, because the computer does not know what you are trying to create. Even if a complex physics system were created complete enough to exactly mimic the real world, the end result would not be the desirable one, because a large part of animation concerns the choices an animator makes. When a computer tries to make the choices for you, disaster is the general result.
==History==
{{see|Animated cartoon|History of animation}}
The major use of animation has always been for entertainment. However, there is growing use of [[instructional animation]] and [[educational animation]] to support explanation and learning.
The "classic" form of animation, the "[[animated cartoon]]", as developed in the early 1900s and refined by [[Ub Iwerks]], [[Walt Disney]] and others, requires up to 24 distinct drawings for one second of animation. This technique is described in detail in the article [[Traditional animation]].
Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry. [[Bill Plympton]] is one of the most well known independent animators today.
[[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]].
==Animation studios==
Animation Studios, like [[Movie studio|Movie Studios]] may be production facilities, or financial entities. In some cases, especially in [[Anime]] they have things in common with [[Studio|artists studios]] where a Master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision.
==Styles and techniques of animation==
{|
| style="width:20%" valign="top"|
*[[Traditional animation]]
**[[Character animation]]
**[[Limited animation]]
**[[Rotoscope|Rotoscoping]]
| style="width:20%" valign="top"|
*[[Computer animation]]
**[[Multi-Sketch|Multi-Sketching]]
**[[skeletal animation]]
**[[Morph target animation]]
**[[Cel-shaded animation]]
**[[Onion skinning]]
**[[Analog computer animation]]
**[[Motion capture]]
**[[Tradigital animation]]
| style="width:20%" valign="top"|
*[[Stop-motion animation]]
**[[Cutout animation]]
**[[claymation]]
**[[Pixilation]]
**[[Pinscreen animation]]
**[[Puppetoon]]
| style="width:20%" valign="top"|
*[[Drawn on film animation]]
*[[Special effects animation]]
|}
==Branch pages==
* [[Computer animation]]
* [[Computer generated imagery]]
* [[Traditional animation]]
* [[Animated cartoon]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Avar (animation variable)]]
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Animated series]]
* [[Japanese Animation|Anime]] (Japanese animation)
* [[List of animation studios]]
* [[Famous names in animation]]
==See also==
* [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]]
* [[List of movie genres]]
==Further Readings==
*[[Frank Thomas]] and [[Ollie Johnston]], [[The_Illusion_Of_Life|Disney animation: The Illusion Of Life]], Abbeville 1981
*Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004
*Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997
*The Animator's Survival Kit, Richard Williams
*Animation Script to Screen, Shamus Culhane
*The Animation Book, Kit Laybourne
==External links==
<!-- These links need annotation to distinguish the true reference sites
from the ones merely using Wikipedia to drive business to their ad-supported site -->
{{commons|Animation}}
* [http://mag.awn.com/index.php?ltype=search&sval=jean%20ann%20wright Writing for Animation]
* [http://www.awn.com/mag/issue3.2/3.2pages/3.2student.html Animating Under the Camera]
* [http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf Experimental Animation Techniques]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/arts/strange/workshop/style.htm Drawn Under-Camera Style Animation]
* [http://www.mattworld.2ya.com Matt World - Web-based animations from animator Matt Greenwood]
* [http://www.keyframeonline.com Keyframe - the Animation Resource]
* [http://www.nftsanimation.org The Animation Department of the National Film and Television School UK ]
* [http://www.animationnation.com Animation Nation - a forum for professional animators]
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/chronint.html Chronology of Animation]
* [http://www.fh-wuerzburg.de/petzke/zagreb.html Zagreb Film]
* [http://www.safcakovec.com/ SAF], [[Cakovec|&#268;akovec]] school of animation
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Animation/ Animation Directory]
* [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia]
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons]
* [http
|
*[http://www.weirdomusic.com/zappa.htm Zappa at Weirdomusic.com]
*[http://www.ifilm.com/ifilmdetail/2658805 Zappa on Crossfire in 1986]
*[http://www.arf.ru/ ARF: Frank Zappa Scholars Web Page]
*[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5934313/zappa_lives_on_in_lithuania/?rnd=1138372376413 Rolling Stone article about Vilnus Zappa bust]
[[Category:1940 births|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American jazz musicians|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Experimental composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Frank Zappa band members|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Frank Zappa|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Humanists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Pre-punk groups|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Sicilian-Americans|Zappa, Frank]]
[[br:Frank Zappa]]
[[da:Frank Zappa]]
[[de:Frank Zappa]]
[[el:Φρανκ Ζάπα]]
[[es:Frank Zappa]]
[[fi:Frank Zappa]]
[[fr:Frank Zappa]]
[[he:פרנק זאפה]]
[[hu:Frank Zappa]]
[[ia:Frank Zappa]]
[[it:Frank Zappa]]
[[ja:フランク・ザッパ]]
[[nl:Frank Zappa]]
[[no:Frank Zappa]]
[[pl:Frank Zappa]]
[[pt:Frank Zappa]]
[[simple:Frank Zappa]]
[[sk:Frank Zappa]]
[[sl:Frank Zappa]]
[[sr:Френк Запа]]
[[fi:Frank Zappa]]
[[sv:Frank Zappa]]
[[tr:Frank Zappa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fagales</title>
<id>10673</id>
<revision>
<id>37290106</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fagales
| image = Buchenwald 1.jpg
| image_width = 270px
| image_caption = ''Fagus sylvatica''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Fagales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Adolf Engler|Engler]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Fagales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, including some of the best known [[tree]]s. They belong among the rosid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. The families now included here are listed at right.
;Families
*[[Betulaceae]] - Birch family
*[[Casuarinaceae]] - She-oak family
*[[Fagaceae]] - Beech family
*[[Juglandaceae]] - Walnut family
*[[Myricaceae]] - Bayberry family
*[[Nothofagus|Nothofagaceae]] - Southern beech family
*[[Rhoiptelea]]ceae - Rhoiptelea family
*[[Ticodendron|Ticodendraceae]] - Ticodendron family
Older texts such as the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew]] checklist (see external link below) which followed the [[Cronquist system]] only included four families (Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae, Ticodendraceae; Corylaceae now being included within Betulaceae). The other families were split into three different orders, placed among the [[Hamamelidae]]. The Casuarinales comprised the single family Casuarinaceae, the Juglandales comprised the Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae, and the Myricales comprised the remaining forms (plus ''[[Balanops]]''). The change is due to studies suggesting that the Myricales, so defined, are [[paraphyletic]] to the other two groups.
==External links==
*[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/fagalesweb.htm Missouri Botanical Gardens - Fagales]
*[http://www.kew.org/wcb/aboutfag.html Kew checklist - Fagales]
[[Category:Fagales| ]]
[[ca:Fagales]]
[[da:Bøge-ordenen]]
[[de:Buchenartige]]
[[es:Juglandales]]
[[fr:Fagales]]
[[it:Fagales]]
[[la:Fagales]]
[[nl:Fagales]]
[[no:Fagales]]
[[pl:Bukowce]]
[[ru:Букоцветные]]
[[fi:Fagales]]
[[sv:Fagales]]
[[tr:Fagales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fabales</title>
<id>10674</id>
<revision>
<id>37290085</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fabales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Fabales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward Ffrench Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Fabaceae]] (legumes)<br />
[[Quillajaceae]]<br />
[[Polygalaceae]] ([[milkwort]] family)<br />
[[Surianaceae]]
}}
The '''Fabales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, included in the [[rosid]] group of [[eudicots]]: in APG it includes the families given at right. Under the older [[Cronquist system]] the other families now treated here were placed in separate orders: the Polygalaceae within the [[Polygalales]], and the others within the [[Rosales]].
{{plant-stub}}
[[Category:Fabales|*]]
[[da:Ærteblomst-ordenen]]
[[de:Schmetterlingsblütenartige]]
[[es:Fabales]]
[[fr:Fabales]]
[[la:Fabales]]
[[nl:Fabales]]
[[no:Fabales]]
[[pl:Bobowe]]
[[fi:Fabales]]
[[tr:Fabales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Folk Dance</title>
<id>10675</id>
<revision>
<id>15908474</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Folk dance]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>French</title>
<id>10676</id>
<revision>
<id>42075082</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MJCdetroit</username>
<id>627347</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
{{wikibooks}}
'''French''' can refer to:
*Of or relating to [[France]]
*[[French language]]
*[[French people]]
*[[French (euphemism)]], used in the UK and U.S. as a derogatory term (as in "[[pardon my French]]")
*[[The French]], band
*[[Samuel French Ltd]]
People named French:
*[[Charles K. French]] (1860-1952), U.S. actor
*[[Daniel Chester French]] (1850-1931), U.S. sculptor
*[[David French]] (born 1939), Canadian playwright
*[[Dawn French]] (born 1957), British comedienne
*[[Emma Lee French]] (1836-1897), British who settled in the old American West
*[[Fred F. French]] (1883-1936), U.S. real estate tycoon
*[[George French]] (1841-1921), Commissioner of the Northwest Mounted Police
*[[Heather French]], Miss America 2000
*[[Henry French]], American cowboy, member of Billy the Kid's gang
*[[James R. French]], U.S. areospace engineer
*[[John French (musician)|John French]], U.S. drummer
*[[John Alexander French]], Australian corporal of World War II
*[[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|John Denton Pinkstone French, 1st Earl of Ypres]] (1852-1925), British military commander of World War I
*[[Marilyn French]] (born 1929), U.S. feminist author
*[[Nicci French]], the pseudonym for a couple of London journalists, Nicci Gerrard and Sean French
*[[Nicki French]] is a female singer and dancer born in Carlisle, Cumbria, England
*[[Samuel French]] (1821-1898), U.S. entrepreneur and theatrical publisher
*[[Valerie French]], professional wrestling valet ("Sunshine")
*[[Victor French]] (1934-1989), U.S. actor
*[[William Percy French]] (1854-1920), Irish songwriter and entertainer
Fictional characters:
*Joseph French, a Detective Inspector appearing in several novels by [[Freeman Wills Crofts]]
*Giles French or "Mr. French" on the television series ''[[Family Affair]]'', played by [[Sebastian Cabot]]
==See also==
*[[Special:Allpages/French|List of all pages beginning with "French"]]
{{disambig}}
[[bg:Френски]]
[[de:Französisch]]
[[es:Francés]]
[[fr:Français]]
[[simple:French]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First hand</title>
<id>10677</id>
<revision>
<id>37840162</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T13:34:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''First hand''' is where one experiences something personally, in effect, within reach of one's hands, also known as [[first person]].
Other [[points of view]] include [[second person|second hand]] and [[third person]].
==See also==
*[[Hand]]
*[[Right Hand]]
*[[Qualia]]
{{lit-stub}}
----
'''First Hand''' is also a [[philanthropic]], [[nonprofit]] [[foundation (charity)|foundation]] established by the associates of [[Cerner Corporation]]. First Hand helps the families of children with health problems address the financial aspects of their child's healthcare.
== External links ==
* [http://www.firsthandfoundation.org/ First Hand Foundation website]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of French people</title>
<id>10678</id>
<revision>
<id>41723192</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:09:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criminals */ Alain Juppé</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[French people]]'''.
==Actors/actresses==
===A===
*[[Isabelle Adjani]]
*[[Renee Adoree|Renée Adorée]]
*[[Anouk Aimée]]
*[[Arletty]]
*[[Antonin Artaud]]
*[[Fanny Ardant]]
*[[Jeanne Aubert]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Aumont]]
*[
|
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