text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
litical mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, [[Gyula Gömbös]], that changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany and started an effort to magyarize the few remaining ethnic minorities in Hungary. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets.
===World War II===
[[Image:Hungary map.png|thumb|right|[[Hungary]] in 1920 and 1941]]
[[Hitler]] used promises of returning territories, economic pressure, and threats of military intervention to compel the Hungarians into supporting his policies, including those related to Jews, which encouraged Hungary's anti-Semites. In 1935 Hungary's most important fascist party, [[Ferenc Szálasi]]'s [[Arrow Cross]], was founded. Gömbös successor, [[Kálmán Darányi]] attempted to appease the anti-Semites and the Nazis by proposing and passing the First Jewish Law, which set quotas limiting Jews to 20% of the positions in a number of businesses and professions. The law failed to satisfy Hungary's anti-Semitic radicals, and the regent then appointed the anti-Nazi [[Béla Imrédy]], who banned all Hungarian fascist parties and drafted a harsher Second Jewish Law, before Horthy forced his resignation in February 1939. The new government of Pál Teleki approved the Second Jewish Law, which greatly restricted the Jewish employment and defined Jews by blood, disregarding conversion.
The first [[Vienna Awards|Vienna Award]] of 1938 returned parts of Czechoslovakia (Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia) with predominantly Hungarian population. In March 1939 however, Hungary occupied the rest of [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Sub-Carpathia]], an area with no Hungarian population, and also tried to occupy the rest of (in the meantime independent) [[Slovakia]]. However, after a war with Slovakia Hungary only gained easternmost Slovakia. The second [[Vienna Awards|Vienna Award]] returned the northern part of Transylvania in September 1940. There were atrocities on both sides during this transitional period. As a German-Italian mixed committee stated: "Romanians committed more robberies, Hungarians more assassinations". In October 1940 a reciprocity policy (especially in minoritiy question) was initiated between Romania and Hungary and continued until the end of WWII. Dividing Transylvania between [[Romania]] and Hungary, Hitler was able to manipulate and control both of his future allies. On [[November 20]] [[1940]], under pressure from Germany, Teleki affiliated Hungary to the [[Tripartite Pact]]. In December, he also signed an ephemeral "Treaty of Eternal Friendship" with Yugoslavia. A few months later, Hitler asked Hungary to support his invasion of Yugoslavia and promised territory in exchange for cooperation. Unable to prevent Hungary's participation in the war alongside Germany, Teleki committed suicide. The right-wing radical [[László Bárdossy]] succeeded and in April 1941, after the German attack, Horthy dispatched the military forces to occupy former Hungarian lands in Yugoslavia, and Hungary eventually annexed sections of [[Vojvodina]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]].
Hungary did not immediately participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union on [[June 22]] 1941 and Hitler did not directly ask for Hungarian assistance. But many Hungarian officials argued for participation so as not to encourage Hitler into favouring Romania in the event of border revisions in Transylvania. Hungary eventually entered the war at the end of June, after the questionable Soviet bombing of [[Kosice]] (Kassa). By December 1941, hopes of a quick victory over the Soviet Union had faded and by 1942 Hungary's troop contingent had increased to 150,000. Worried about Hungary's increasing reliance on Germany, Horthy removed Bárdossy and replaced him with [[Miklós Kállay]], a veteran conservative of Bethlen's government. He continued Bardossy's policy of supporting Germany against the Red Army, but he also began negotiations with the Western Allies. The Hungarian Army suffered terrible losses after a heavy Soviet breakthrough at the [[Don River, Russia|River Don]], shortly after the fall of [[Stalingrad]] in January 1943. There were secret negotiations with the British and Americans, but no connection with the Soviets (as the Western Allies requested). Aware of Kállay's deceit and fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace, on March 1944, Hitler ordered Nazi troops to occupy Hungary and [[Döme Sztójay]], a supporter of the Nazis, became the new prime minister. He governed with the aid of a Nazi military governor, [[Edmund Vessenmeyer]]. Horthy was confined to a castle, in essence placed under [[house arrest]].
In July 1941, the Bárdossy government deported 40,000 Jews from Hungary, and six months later Hungarian troops, in reprisal for resistance activities, murdered 3,000 Serbian and Jewish hostages, near [[Novi Sad]] in Vojvodina. Hoping to win favour with Germany by persecuting Jews, Bardossy passed the "Third Jewish Law" in August 1941, which prohibited marriage and sexual intercourse with Jews. While Kallay was prime minister, the Jews endured economic and [[political repression]], but the government protected them from the [[final solution]]. But when the Nazis occupied Hungary in March 1944, the deportation of the Jews to the German [[death camps]] located in occupied [[Poland]] began. The infamous SS Colonel [[Adolf Eichmann]] came to Hungary and oversaw large-scale deportations carried out by local authorities. In May and June of 1944, Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews in more than 145 trains, mostly to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005458]. Ultimately, over 533,000 Jews in Hungary were killed during the [[Holocaust]], as well as several tens of thousands of [[Roma people|Roma]].
In August 1944, Horthy replaced Sztójay with General [[Géza Lakatos]]. In September, Soviet forces crossed the border, and on [[October 15]] Horthy announced that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. The army ignored his orders and the Germans forced him to abrogate the armistice, depose Lakatos government, and name the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, [[Ferenc Szálasi]], as prime minister. Horthy abdicated, and soon Hungary became a battlefield. Szálasi promised greatness for Hungary and a prosperity for the peasants, but in reality Hungary was crumbling and its armies slowly surrendered, one by one. In cooperation with the Nazis, Szálasi restarted the deportations of Jews, now focusing on Budapest. A fascist reign of terror resulted in random massacres of Jews and other "suspicious" people. The retreating German army demolished the rail, road, and communications systems and the advancing Red Army found the country in a state of political chaos. Germans held off the Soviet troops near Budapest for seven weeks before the defenses collapsed, and on [[April 4]] [[1945]], the last German troops were driven out of Hungary, controlled now by the Soviet Red Army.
==Hungary's second communist government (1944-1956)==
The Soviet Army occupied Hungary from September 1944 until April 1945. It took almost 2 months to conquer [[Budapest]] and almost the whole city was destroyed.
By signing the Peace [[Treaty of Paris]], Hungary again lost all the territories that it gained between 1938 and 1941. Neither Western Allies nor the Soviet Union supported any change in Hungary's pre-1938 borders.
The Soviet Union itself annexed [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Sub-Carpathia]], which is now part of Ukraine.
The [http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS076.pdf Treaty of Peace with Hungary] signed on [[10 February]] [[1947]] declared that "The decisions of the Vienna Award of [[2 November]] [[1938]] are declared null and void" and Hungarian boundaries were fixed along the former frontiers as they existed on [[1 January]] [[1938]], except a minor loss of territory on the Czechoslovakian border. Half of the ethnic German minority (240,000 people) was deported to Germany in 1946-48, and there was a forced "exchange of population" between Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
The Soviets set up an alternative government in Debrecen on [[December 21]], [[1944]] but did not capture Budapest until [[January 18]] [[1945]]. Soon afterwards, [[Zoltán Tildy]] became the provisional prime minister.
In elections held in November 1945, the [[Independent Smallholders' Party]] won 57% of the vote. The [[Hungarian Communist Party]], now under the leadership of [[Mátyás Rákosi]] and [[Erno Gero|Ernő Gerő]], received support from only 17% of the population. The Soviet commander in Hungary, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders Party to form a government. Instead Voroshilov established a coalition government with the communists holding some of the key posts. The leader of the Smallholders, [[Zoltán Tildy]], was named president and [[Ferenc Nagy]] prime minister. Mátyás Rákosi became deputy prime minister.
[[László Rajk]] became minister of the interior and in this post established the security police ([[ÁVH]]). In February 1947 the police began arresting leaders of the Smallholders Party and the National Peasant Party. Several prominent figures in both parties escaped abroad. Later Mátyás Rákosi boasted that he had dealt with his partners in the government, one by one, "cutting them off like slices of salami."
The [[Hungarian Workers Party]] (formed by a merger of the Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party) became the largest single party in the elections in 1947 and served in the coalition People's Independence Front government. The communists gradually gained control of the government and by 1948 the Social Democratic Party ceased to exist as an independent orga |
bsequently most aircraft are [[monoplane]]s. This is principally an improvement in [[structure]]s and not aerodynamics.
Other possibilities include the [[delta-wing]], where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined, and the [[flying wing]], where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. the [[B-2 Spirit]]).
A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft (the [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]], [[Panavia Tornado]], [[F-14 Tomcat]] and [[B-1 Lancer]], among others).
The [[lifting body]] configuration is where the body itself produce lift. So far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the [[Space Shuttle]], but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone.
A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the [[rotary-wing aircraft]]. Here, the lift is provided by rotating [[aerofoil]]s or [[rotor]]s. The best-known examples are the [[helicopter]], the [[autogyro]] and the [[tiltrotor]] aircraft (such as the [[V-22 Osprey]]). Some craft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts.
A further category might encompass the [[ground effect|wing-in-ground-effect]] types, for example the Russian [[ekranoplan]] also nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster" and [[hovercraft]]; most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by [[boat]]s of similar weight.
A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the [[fan wing]]. This uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in development in the [[United Kingdom]].
And finally the flapping-wing [[ornithopter]] is a category of its own. These designs may have potential but are not yet practical.
====By propulsion====
[[Image:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[turboprop]]-engined [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DeHavilland Twin Otter]] adapted as a [[floatplane]].]]
Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or [[glider]], do not have any propulsion. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered "tug" aircraft. [[Airship]]s combine a balloon's [[buoyancy]] with some kind of propulsion, usually [[propeller]] driven.
Until [[World War II]], the [[Internal combustion engine|internal combustion piston engine]] was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft. (See also: [[Aircraft engine]].) The piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft, but the [[radial engine]] (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the [[crankshaft]]) has largely given way to the [[horizontally-opposed engine]] (with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft). Water cooled [[V engine]]s, as used in automobiles, were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine power. Piston engines typically operate using [[avgas]] or regular gasoline, though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel. Piston engines normally become less efficient above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors (blowers) or turbine-powered [[turbocharger]]s or turbonormalizers that compress the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m) above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen or cabin pressurisation.
During the forties and especially following the [[1973 energy crisis]], development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped blades for use in high-speed commercial and military transports.
Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use the [[turbine|turbine engine]], since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use turbine engines. In addition to turbine engines like the [[turboprop]] and [[jet engine|turbojet]], other types of high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the [[ramjet]] and the [[pulse jet]]. [[Rocket aircraft]] have occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather specialised niches, such as [[spaceflight]], where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxygen).
====By usage====
The major distinction in aircraft usage is between [[military aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance, transport, and training), and [[civil aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military purposes.
=====[[Military aircraft]]=====
[[Image:4781.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A prototype of [[Hindustan Aeronautics]]' [[Light Combat Aircraft]].]]
Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category. Many civil aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil [[Douglas DC-3]] airliner, which became the military [[C-47]]/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the "Dakota" in the U.K. and the [[Commonwealth]]. Even the small fabric-covered two-seater [[Piper Cub|Piper J3 Cub]] had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. In the past, gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], and cargo gliders were used during [[World War II]] to land intruding German troops in a few European countries in the 1940-42 period, while Allied troops used them in landings on [[Sicily]] and [[Italy]], 1943, and in Western Europe [France and Holland] on [[D-Day]] (the [[Normandy]] 6 June 1944 [[Operation Overlord]] invasion) and in [[Operation Anvil-Dragoon]] (1944) and in [[Operation Market Garden]] (1944).
Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and [[surveillance aircraft|surveillance]] during the [[Italo-Turkish War]], did not come into widespread use until the [[Balkan War]] when [[first air-dropped bomb]] was invented and widely used by [[Bulgarian air force]] against [[Turkey]]. During [[World War I]] many types of aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first aircraft designed as [[bomber]]s were born. In order to prevent the enemy from bombing, [[fighter aircraft]] were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. [[Tanker (aircraft)|Tanker]]s were developed after [[World War II]] to refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range. By the time of the [[Vietnam War]], [[helicopter]]s had come into widespread military use, especially for transporting, supplying, and supporting ground troops.
=====Civil aviation=====
[[image:heli.g-code.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bell 206|Bell 206B JetRanger III]] '''[[helicopter]]''']]
Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and [[general aviation]], a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use. The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on [[freight aircraft]].
Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation. Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport ([[medevac]]). Piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the [[Bell 206|Bell JetRanger]] or turboprops like the [[Beechcraft King Air]]. Business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots.
== See also ==
{{Aviation portal}}
*[[List of aircraft by category]]
*[[List of aircraft by date and usage category]]
*[[List of civil aircraft]]
*[[List of helicopter models]]
*[[List of military aircraft]]
*[[List of notable aircraft]]
*[[List of World War II jet aircraft]]
*[[List of aircraft engines]]
*[[List of aircraft engine manufacturers (alphabetical)]]
*[[Aerial refuelling]]
*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[Aircraft carrier]]
*[[Aircraft spotting]]
*[[Airline call sign]]s
*[[Airliner]]
*[[Air safety]]
*[[Aviation]]
*[[Contrail]]
*[[First flying machine]]
*[[Flight controls]]
*[[Flight instruments]]
*[[Gliding]]
*[[Lifting body]]
*[[List of early flying machines]]
*[[Model aircraft]]
*[[Category:Notable Aircraft]]
*[[Richard Pearse]]
*[[Spacecraft propulsion]]
*[[Spacecraft]]
*[[Steam aircraft]]
*[[Successful aircraft types]]
*[[Undercarriage]]
*[[Wright brothers]]
*[[List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms]]
==External link |
roup. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation of the Jews]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti-Semitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of [[eugenics]], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist anti-Semitism.
===Nationalism and Anti-Semitism===
Racial anti-Semitism was preceded, especially in Germany, by anti-Semitism arising from [[Romantic]] [[nationalism]]. As racial theories developed, especially from the mid nineteenth-century onwards, these nationalist ideas were subsumed within them. But their origins were quite distinct from racialism. On the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the 'Volk' ideas of [[Herder]]. This led to anti-Semitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the 19th century of which [[Richard Wagner]]'s [[Das Judentum in der Musik]] (Jewry in Music) is perhaps the most notorious example. On the other hand, radical socialists such as [[Karl Marx]] identified Jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the [[Capitalist]] system - e.g. in his article 'On the Jewish Question'. From sources such as these, and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued, anti-Semitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought.
===The rise of racial anti-Semitism===
Modern European anti-Semitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that the Jewish people are a sub-group of Semitic peoples; Semitic people were thought by many Europeans to be entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of [[patriotism]].
While enlightened European intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declassé and a sign of ignorance, because of this supposed 'scientific' connection to [[genetics]] they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or 'race'. In order to differentiate between the two practices, the term anti-Semitism was developed to refer to this 'acceptable' bias against Jews as a nationality, as distinct from the 'undesirable' prejudice against Judaism as a religion. Concurrently with this usage, [[Definitions of Palestine#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|some authors in Germany]] began to use the term 'Palestinians' when referring to Jews as a people, rather than as a religious group.
As further proof of its pseudo-scientific nature, it is questionable whether [[Jew]]s in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting "racial" anti-Semitism. This was especially true in places like [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Austria]] where the Jewish population tended to be more secular (or at least less Orthodox) than that of Eastern Europe, and did not wear clothing (such as a [[yarmulke]]) that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non-Jewish population. Many anthropologists of the time such as [[Franz Boas]] tried to use complex physical measurements like the [[cephalic index]] and visual surveys of hair/eye color and skin tone of Jewish vs. non-Jewish European populations to prove that the notion of a separate "Jewish race" was a myth. The 19th and early 20th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various Jewish groups, see [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]].
The advent of racial anti-Semitism was also linked to the growing sense of [[nationalism]] in many countries. The nationalist context viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided, a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments.
===Elites and the use of Anti-semitism===
[[Image:1889 French elections Poster for antisemitic candidate Adolf Willette.jpg|thumb|250px|1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" [[Adolphe Willette]]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!"]]
Many analysts of modern anti-Semitism have pointed out that its essence is [[scapegoat]]ing: features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable (e.g. materialism, the power of money, economic fluctuations, war, secularism, socialism, Communism, movements for racial equality, social welfare policies, etc.) are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group. Traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to embrace such views. Indeed, it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the [[WASP]] establishment of the [[United States]] as well as other comparable Western elites (e.g. the [[British Foreign Office]]) have harbored such attitudes, and in the aftermath of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], some xenophobic anti-Semites have imagined world [[Communism]] to be a Jewish conspiracy (''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' [1980], p. 590).
The modern form of anti-Semitism is identified in the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 edition]] of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society. The Jews of Europe, then recently emancipated, were relatively literate, entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems, and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant [[bourgeois]] class. As the [[aristocracy]] (and its hangers-on) lost out to this new center of power in society, they found their scapegoat - exemplified in the work of [[Arthur de Gobineau]]. That the Jews were singled out to embody the 'problem' was, by this theory, no more than a symptom of the [[nobility]]'s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding (on which its own [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]] was founded).
===Dreyfus Affair===
[[Image:Degradation alfred dreyfus.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]] demonstrated French anti-semitism.]]
The [[Dreyfus affair]] was a political scandal which divided [[France]] for many years during the late 19th century. It centered on the 1894 treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a Jewish officer in the French army. Dreyfus was, in fact, innocent: the conviction rested on false documents, and when high-ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes. The writer [[Émile Zola]] exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper ''L'Aurore'' (The Dawn) in a famous open letter to the [[President of France|Président de la République]] [[Félix Faure]], titled ''J'accuse !'' (I Accuse!) on January 13, 1898.
The Dreyfus Affair split France between the ''Dreyfusards'' (those supporting Alfred Dreyfus) and the ''Antidreyfusards'' (those against him). The quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly [[controversial]] in a heated political climate.
Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, readmitted into the army, and made a knight in the [[Légion d'Honneur|Legion of Honour]]. An Austrian Jewish journalist named [[Theodor Herzl]] was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath. The injustice of the trial and the anti-Semitic passions it aroused in France and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading [[Zionism|Zionist]]; ultimately turning the movement into an international one. Also see [[Alfred Dreyfus]] and [[Dreyfus affair]].
===Pogroms===
[[Image:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The victims, mostly Jewish children, of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipropetrovsk]].]]
[[Pogrom]]s were a form of race riots, most commonly Russia and Eastern Europe, aimed specifically at Jews and often government sponsored. Pogroms became endemic during a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots that swept southern [[Russia]] in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]. In the 1881 outbreak, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; women sexually assaulted, and large numbers of men, women, and children killed or injured in 166 Russian towns. The new czar, [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]], blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a [[May Laws|series of harsh restrictions]] on Jews. Large numbers of pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903-1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead, and many more wounded. A final large wave of 887 pogroms in Russia and Ukraine occurred during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], in which between 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed by riots led by various sides.
During the early to mid-1900s, pogroms also occurred in Poland, Argentina, and throughout the Arab world. Extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during [[World War II]], including the Romanian [[Iaşi pogrom]] in which 14,000 Jews were killed, and the [[Jedwabne massacre]] in Poland which killed between 380 and 1,600 Jews. The last mass pogrom in Europe was the post-war [[Kielce pogrom]] of 1946.
===Anti-Jewish Legislatio |
lgarian tributaries, all but the [[Iskar River]] rise in the Balkan Mountains. The Iskur flows northward to the Danube from its origin in the Rila Mountains, passing through Sofia's eastern suburbs and through a Balkan Mountain valley.
The Danube gets slightly more than 4 % of its total volume from its Bulgarian tributaries. As it flows along the northern border, the Danube averages 1.6 to 2.4 kilometers in width. The river's highest water levels usually occur during June floods; it is frozen over an average of forty days per year.
Several major rivers flow directly to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Most of these streams fall swiftly from the mountains and have cut deep, scenic gorges. [[Maritsa]] with its tributaries is by far the largest draining all of the western [[Thracian Plain]], all of the [[Sredna Gora]], the southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains, and the northern slopes of the eastern Rhodopes. After it leaves Bulgaria, the Maritsa forms most of the Greek-Turkish border. [[Struma]] and the [[Mesta River|Mesta]] (which separate the Pirin Mountains from the main Rhodopes ranges) are the next largest Bulgarian rivers flowing to the Aegean. Struma and Mesta reach the sea through Greece.
==Climate==
Considering its small area, Bulgaria has an unusually variable and complex climate. The country lies between the strongly contrasting [[continental climate|continental]] and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] climatic zones. Bulgarian mountains and valleys act as barriers or channels for air masses, causing sharp contrasts in weather over relatively short distances. The continental zone is slightly larger, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the summer and produces hot, dry weather. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains is felt throughout the country: on the average, northern Bulgaria is about one degree cooler and receives about 192 more millimetres of rain than southern Bulgaria. Because the Black Sea is too small to be a primary influence over much of the country's weather, it only affects the immediate area along its coastline.
The Balkan Mountains are the southern boundary of the area in which continental air masses circulate freely. The Rhodope Mountains mark the northern limits of domination by Mediterranean weather systems. The area between, which includes the Thracian Plain, is influenced by a combination of the two systems, with the continental predominating. This combination produces a plains climate resembling that of the Corn Belt in the United States, with long summers and high humidity. The climate in this region is generally more severe than that of other parts of Europe in the same latitude. Because it is a transitional area, average temperatures and precipitation are erratic and may vary widely from year to year.
Average [[precipitation]] in Bulgaria is about 630 millimetres per year. [[Dobruja]] in the northeast, the Black Sea coastal area, and parts of the Thracian Plain usually receive less than 500 millimetres. The remainder of the Thracian Plain and the Danubian Plateau get less than the country average; the Thracian Plain is often subject to summer droughts. Higher elevations, which receive the most rainfall in the country, may average over 2,540 millimeters per year.
The many valley basins scattered through the uplands have temperature inversions resulting in stagnant air. Sofia is located in such a basin, but its elevation (about 530 meters) tends to moderate summer temperature and relieve oppressive high humidity. Sofia also is sheltered from the northern European winds by the mountains that surround its troughlike basin. Temperatures in Sofia average -2°C in January and about 21°C in August. The city's rainfall is near the country average, and the overall climate is pleasant.
The coastal climate is moderated by the Black Sea, but strong winds and violent local storms are frequent during the winter. Winters along the Danube River are bitterly cold, while sheltered valleys opening to the south along the Greek and Turkish borders may be as mild as areas along the Mediterranean or Aegean coasts.
==Environment==
Like other former European members of the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]], Bulgaria saw unimpeded industrial growth as a vital sign of social welfare and progress toward the socialist ideal. Because this approach made environmental issues a taboo subject in socialist Bulgaria, the degree of damage by postwar industrial policy went unassessed until the government of [[Todor Zhivkov]] (1962-1989) was overthrown in late [[1989]]. The Zhivkov government's commitment to heavy industry and lack of money to spend on protective measures forced it to conceal major environmental hazards, especially when relations with other countries were at stake. Factories that did not meet environmental standards paid symbolic fines and had no incentive to institute real environmental protection measures. Even as late as 1990, socialist officials downplayed the effects on Bulgaria of radiation from the 1986 nuclear power plant accident at [[Chernobyl']]. Citizens were informed that they need not take iodine tablets or use any other protective measures.
In 1991 Bulgarian environmentalists estimated that 60 % of the country's agricultural land was damaged by excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers and by industrial fallout. In 1991 two thirds of Bulgarian rivers were polluted, and the [[Yantra River]] was classified as the dirtiest river in Europe. By that time, about two-thirds of the primary forests had been cut. However, despite its recognition of the need for greater environmental protection, Bulgaria budgeted only 10.4 billion [[lev]]a.
Perhaps the most serious environmental problem in Bulgaria was in the Danube port city of [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]]. From 1981 to 1989, the chemical pollution that spread from a [[chlorine]] and [[sodium]] plant across the Danube in [[Giurgiu]], Romania, was a forbidden subject in Bulgaria because it posed a threat to good relations between two Warsaw Pact countries. Chemical plants in Ruse also contributed to the pollution. Citizen environmentalists opposing the situation in Ruse organized the first demonstrations and the first independent political group to oppose the Zhivkov regime. During the Giurgiu plant's first year of operation, chlorine levels in Ruse almost doubled, reaching two times the permissible maximum in the summer of 1990. Over 3,000 families left the city in the 1980s despite government restrictions aimed at covering up the problem. Besides chlorine and its byproducts, the plant produced chemical agents for the rubber industry, and in 1991 some sources reported that the plant was processing industrial waste from Western countries—both activities likely to further damage Ruse's environment. International experts claimed that half of Ruse's pollutants came from Giurgiu, and the others came from Bulgarian industries. In response to the formidable Bulgarian environmental movement, some Bulgarian plants have been closed or have added protective measures; the Giurgiu plant, however, was planning to expand in 1991.
Pollution of agricultural land from a copper plant near the town of [[Srednogorie]] provoked harsh public criticism. The plant emitted toxic clouds containing [[copper]], [[lead]], and [[arsenic]]. In 1988 it released toxic wastewater into nearby rivers used to irrigate land in the Plovdiv-[[Pazardzhik]] Plain, which includes some of Bulgaria's best agricultural land. The groundwater beneath the plain also was poisoned. Work has begun on a plan to drain toxic wastewater from the plant's reservoir into the Maritsa River. Environmental improvements for the copper plant and three other factories in the Plovdiv area (a lead and zinc factory, a chemical factory, and a uranium factory) also were planned, but they would take years to implement.
None of Bulgaria's large cities escaped serious environmental pollution. Statistics showed that 70 to 80 % of Sofia's air pollution is caused by emissions from cars, trucks, and buses. Temperature inversions over the city aggravated the problem. Two other major polluters, the [[Kremikovtsi]] Metallurgy Works and the [[Buhovo]] [[uranium]] mine (both in southwestern Bulgaria), contaminated the region with lead, [[sulfur dioxide]], [[hydrogen sulfide]], [[ethanol]], and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. The city of [[Kardzhali]] became heavily polluted with lead from its lead and zinc complex. In 1973 the [[petroleum]] and chemical plant near the Black Sea port of [[Burgas]] released large amounts of chlorine in an incident similar to the one in Srednogorie. Environmentalists estimated that the area within a thirty-kilometer radius of the plant was rendered uninhabitable by that release. The air in Burgas was also heavily polluted with carbon and sulfur dioxide in 1990.
In 1990 environmental scientists claimed that two-thirds of Bulgaria's population suffered from the polluted environment to some degree. In 1991 Bulgaria began seeking international assistance in solving environmental problems. Besides joining Romania, Turkey, and Russia in joint scientific studies of the critically polluted Black Sea, Bulgaria actively sought environmental technology and expertise from [[Western Europe]] and the [[United States]].
==Political geography==
Bulgaria's political geography has changed greatly since the restoration of statehood in [[1878]]. [[Russia]], whose military victories had lead to its creation, pushed for a "big Bulgaria" that would include much of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. At the [[Congress of Berlin, 1878|Congress of Berlin]], however, the powers insisted upon a much reduced area, divided until [[1885]] between the principalities of Bulgaria proper and [[Eastern Rumelia]].
An independent kingd |
ess is extremely constrained: accept or not.
It was advocated in 1968 and 1977 by [[Guy Ottewell]]. The term "Approval voting" was first coined by [[Robert J. Weber]] in 1976, but was fully devised in 1977 and published in 1978 by political scientist [[Steven Brams]] and mathematician [[Peter Fishburn]]. Historically, something resembling
Approval voting for candidates was used in the [[Republic of Venice]] during the 13th century and for elections in 19th century [[England]]. Also the UN uses a process similar to Approval Voting to elect the Secretary General.
==Procedures==
Each voter may vote for as many options as he or she chooses, at most once per option. This is equivalent to saying that each voter may "approve" or "disapprove" each option by voting or not voting for it, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a range voting system.
The votes for each option are tallied. The option with the most votes wins.
==Example==
{{Tenn_voting_example}}
Supposing that voters voted for their two favorite candidates, the results would be as follows (a more sophisticated approach to voting is discussed below):
*Memphis: 42 total votes
*Nashville: 68 total votes (wins)
*Chattanooga: 58 total votes
*Knoxville: 32 total votes
===Potential for tactical voting===
Approval voting passes the [[monotonicity criterion]], in that voting for a candidate never lowers that candidate's chance of winning. Indeed, there is never a reason for a voter to [[tactical voting|tactically vote]] for a candidate X without voting for all candidates he or she prefers to candidate X. It is also never necessary for a voter to vote for a candidate liked ''less'' than X in order to elect X.
However, as approval voting does not offer a single method of expressing sincere preferences, but rather a plethora of them, voters are encouraged to analyze their fellow voters' preferences and use that information to decide which candidates to vote for. This feature of approval voting makes it difficult for theoreticians to predict how approval will play out in practice.
One possible tactic is that a voter will only approve of their first preference candidate; this will make it more difficult for other candidates to win. If every voter uses this tactic, then the election essentially turns into a [[first-past-the-post]] election, where the candidate with the largest plurality of first preference supporters wins.
One good tactic is to vote for every candidate the voter prefers to the leading candidate, and to also vote for the leading candidate if that candidate is preferred to the current second-place candidate. When all voters use this tactic, there is a good chance that the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet winner]] will be elected. Approval voting fails to satisfy the [[Condorcet criterion]]. It is even possible that a Condorcet loser can be elected.
In the above election, if Chattanooga is perceived as the strongest challenger to Nashville, voters from Nashville will only vote for Nashville, because it is the leading candidate and they prefer no alternative to it. Voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville will withdraw their support from Nashville, the leading candidate, because they do not support it over Chattanooga. The new results would be:
*Memphis: 42
*Nashville: 68
*Chattanooga: 32
*Knoxville: 32
If, however, Memphis were perceived as the strongest challenger, voters from Memphis would withdraw their votes from Nashville, whereas voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville would support Nashville over Memphis. The results would then be:
*Memphis: 42
*Nashville: 58
*Chattanooga: 32
*Knoxville: 32
The mathematics of approval voting lend it to some manipulation and tactical voting. As each vote counts as one vote and the winner is the one with the highest total, each vote equally helps the candidate/issue (city in this example) selected win. Because of this, voters are more likely to only vote for their favorite. Because Approval voting has not been used much for real elections, this phenomenon is not well documented.
==Effect on elections==
The effect of this system as an [[electoral reform]] measure is not without critics. [[Instant-runoff voting]] advocates like the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] argue that Approval Voting would lead to the election of "lowest common denominator" candidates disliked by few, and liked by few, but this could also be seen as an inherent strength against demagoguery in favor of a discreet popularity. A study by Approval advocates [[Steven Brams]] and [[Dudley R. Herschbach]] published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in 2001<ref>Brams and Herschbach {{Journal reference|Title=The Science of Elections|ID={{DOI|10.1126/science.292.5521.1449}}|Journal=Science|Volume=292|Issue=5521|Pages=1449|Year=2001}}</ref> argued that approval voting was "fairer" than [[Preferential voting|preference voting]] on a number of criteria. They claimed that a close analysis shows that the hesitation to support a lesser evil candidate to the same degree as one supports one's first choice actually outweighs the extra votes that such second choices get.
One study showed that approval voting would not have chosen the same two winners
as plurality voting (Chirac and Le Pen) in [[French_presidential_election%2C_2002|France's presidential election of 2002]] (first round) - it instead would have
chosen Chirac and Jospin. This seems a more reasonable result since Le Pen was a radical who
lost to Chirac by an enormous margin in the second round.{{fact}}
==Other issues and comparisons==
Advocates of approval voting often note that a single simple ballot can serve for single, multiple, or negative choices. It requires the voter to think carefully about who or what they really accept, rather than trusting a system of tallying or compromising by formal ranking or counting. Compromises happen but they are explicit, and chosen by the voter, not by the ballot counting.
Some features of approval voting include:
*Unlike [[Condorcet method]], [[instant-runoff voting]], and other methods that require ranking candidates, approval voting does not require significant changes in ballot design, voting procedures or equipment, and it is easier for voters to use and understand. This reduces problems with mismarked ballots, disputed results and recounts.
*It provides less incentive for [[negative campaigning]] than many other systems, though the same incentive as [[instant runoff voting]], [[condorcet method]], and [[Borda count]].
*It allows voters to express [[tolerances versus preferences|tolerances but not preferences]]. Some political scientists consider this a major advantage, especially where acceptable choices are more important than popular choices.
*Each voter may vote as many times as they wish, at most once per candidate. This is equivalent to saying that each voter may ''approve'' or ''disapprove'' each candidate by voting or not voting for them, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a [[range voting]] system.
*It is easily reversed as [[disapproval voting]] where a choice is disavowed, as is already required in other measures in politics (e.g. representative [[recall election|recall]]).
*In contentious elections with a super-majority of voters who prefer their favorite candidate vastly over all others, approval voting tends to revert to [[plurality voting]]. Some voters will support only their single favored candidate when they perceive the other candidates to be poor compromises.
*Approval voting fails the [[majority criterion]], so that the favorite candidate of a majority can fail to be elected.
However strategy issues of candidate list order if voters are not fully aware and reflective of the full set of candidates before any votes are cast.)
===Multiple winners===
Approval voting can be extended to multiple winner elections, either as ''block approval voting'', a simple variant on [[block voting]] where each voter can select an unlimited number of candidates and the candidates with the most approval votes win, or as ''[[proportional approval voting]]'' which seeks to maximise the overall satisfaction with the final result using approval voting. That first system has been called minisum to distinguish it from minimax, a system which uses approval ballots and aims to elect the slate of candidates that differs from the least-satisfied voter's ballot as little as possible.
===Relation to effectiveness of choices===
[[Operations research]] has shown that the effectiveness of a policy and thereby a leader who sets several policies will be [[Logistic function|sigmoidally]] related to the level of approval associated with that policy or leader. There is an acceptance level below which effectiveness is very low and above which it is very high. More than one candidate may be in the effective region, or all candidates may be in the ineffective region. Approval voting attempts to ensure that the most-approved candidate is selected, maximizing the chance that the resulting policies will be effective.
==Ballot types==
Approval ballots can be of at least four semi-distinct forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the names of supported candidates is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark or word to be made by each supported candidate. A more explicit structured ballot can list the candidates and give two choices by each. (Candidate list ballots can include spaces for write-in candidates as well.)
{| BORDER
|-
| [[Image:Approvalballotname.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotword.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotmark.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotchoice.png|160px]]
|}
All four ballots are interchangeable. The more structured ballots may aid voters in offering clear votes so they explicitly know all their choices. The Yes/No format can help to detect an "undervote" when a can |
jesus-christ-kristos-page.htm ''The Etymological Derivation Of The Name "Christ"'', NZs Hare Krishna Spiritual Network]
*[http://www.hermes-press.com/Perennial_Tradition/esoteric_christianity.htm Norman D. Livergood, ''The Christ concept in Esoteric Christianity'']
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Esoteric Christianity]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Christus]]
[[cs:Kristus]]
[[eo:Kristo]]
[[es:Cristo]]
[[et:Kristus]]
[[ia:Christo]]
[[ja:キリスト]]
[[nl:Christus]]
[[pt:Cristo]]
[[sv:Kristus]]
[[tl:Kristo]]
[[zh:基督]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesV</title>
<id>5186</id>
<revision>
<id>15903414</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capital (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5187</id>
<revision>
<id>40176282</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T19:24:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rocastelo</username>
<id>163463</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[gl:Capital (homónimos)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Capital''' is a word with many potential meanings:
*[[Capital]], the city or town that contains the government.
*[[Capital (architecture)]], the crowning member of a pillar or column.
*[[Capital (economics)]], real or financial wealth.
*''[[Capital (magazine)]]'', a French-language magazine.
*[[Capital letters]], one type of case in a writing system.
*[[Capital punishment]], a sentence of death.
*[[Capitol]], buildings used to house the legislative body of a certain sovereignty, which is often confused with "capital".
*[[Cultural capital]], forms of knowledge, skill and education.
*[[Das Kapital]], a book by Karl Marx which is called ''Capital'' in English.
*[[Five Capitals]], an economic model.
*[[Human capital]], defining and categorizing peoples' skills and abilities as used in employment and otherwise contribute to the economy.
*[[Social capital]], resources based on group membership, relationships, networks of influence and support.
{{disambig}}
[[es:Capital]]
[[fr:Capitale]]
[[gl:Capital (homónimos)]]
[[it:Capitale]]
[[he:ערי בירה]]
[[nl:Kapitaal]]
[[pl:Stolica]]
[[simple:Capital]]
[[tl:Kapital (paglilinaw)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Europe</title>
<id>5188</id>
<revision>
<id>40765347</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:51:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hede2000</username>
<id>284384</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+da:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:European_Regions_16.png|right|thumb|300px|Regions of Europe]]
'''Central Europe''' is the [[region]] lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Western Europe|Western]] [[Europe]]. In addition, [[Northern Europe|Northern]], [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]] may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. The term has come back into fashion since the end of the [[Cold War]], which had divided Europe politically into East and West, with the [[Iron Curtain]] splitting "Central Europe" in half. With exception for a kernel from Poland to Hungary, the understanding of the concept varies considerably from nation to nation, but also from time to time.
The region is usually used to mean:
*[[Germany]]
*[[Switzerland]]
*[[Liechtenstein]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Austria]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Slovenia]]
Sometimes, [[Croatia]] is also considered Central European.
Rather than a physicial entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history, in opposition to ''the East'' represented by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Imperial Russia]], and up to [[World War I]] distinguished from ''the West'' as the area of relative political [[conservatism]] opposing the [[liberalism]] of the West and the influences of the [[French Revolution]]. Following World War I, and even more so after [[World War II]], the liberal/conservative divide between West and East became obsolete and was replaced by a democratic/authoritarian divide.
In the English language, the concept of ''Central Europe'' fell out of usage during Cold War, shadowed by notions of ''Eastern'' and ''Western Europe''. It may be seen in historical and cultural contexts, where it denotes areas where [[German people|Germans]] settled and mixed with [[Slavs]] and [[Magyars]], and where [[Roma people|Roma]] and [[Jew]]ish minorities made important cultural contributions. This notion has lost much of its relevance due to [[the Holocaust]] and the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] over the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. However, the term is being increasingly used again, with the recent expanses of [[European Union]].[[Image:Hist central europe.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Historical regions of Central Europe|Historical lands and provinces in Central Europe]].]]
It is sometimes joked that ''Central Europe'' is the part of the continent that is considered Eastern by Western Europeans and Western by Eastern Europeans.
== Between the Alps and the Baltics ==
[[image:Central-europe.png|thumb|300px|The Alpine Countries and the Visegrád Group (Political map, 2004)]]
Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders to its neighbouring regions to the North and South: namely [[Northern Europe]] (or [[Scandinavia]]) across the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[Apennine peninsula]] (or [[Italy]]) across the [[Alps]]. The borders to [[Western Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] are geographically a lot more floating and for this reason [[culture]] and geographical definitions migrate easier West-East then South-North. To note the [[Rhine]] river which runs South-North through Western [[Germany]] is a speciality.
This may explain why according to most English-language encyclopedias, such as the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] and the [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], as well as the [[CIA World Factbook]], the term ''Central Europe'' is taken to include:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="10"
|
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Slovenia]]
|width="2" bgcolor="#f0f246"|
||
[[Alpine countries]]<br />
(west to east)
|-
|
* [[Poland]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Hungary]]
|width="2" bgcolor="#65d782"|
||
[[Visegrád group]]<br />
(north to south)
|}
In the article on Europe, the [[1913 Catholic Encyclopedia]] counts Germany (that then reached east of the Baltic) but not Switzerland to ''Central Europe;'' Liechtenstein is not mentioned. In other articles of that encyclopedia, [[France]] and Switzerland are included.
The notion of ''Alpine Countries'' extending to the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]] is not uncontroversial. While Germany without any doubt has formerly been considered a Central European land, both by Germans and by others, it has at least for the 19th and 20th century had an identity and self-image as located ''North of the Alps'' rather than ''in the Alps.'' This holds true even for [[Bavaria]], the most Alpine of the German states, where most people live below the [[Alps]].
== Culturally Central-European ==
Several other [[country|countries]] have regions that retain a Central European character as well, having historically been part of the central [[Europe]]an [[monarchy|kingdom]]s and [[empire]]s such as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], the [[Habsburg monarchy]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and [[Imperial Germany]]. These are:
* [[Belarus]] (western parts)
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Romania]] ([[Transylvania]])
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] ([[Vojvodina]], [[Boka Kotorska]])
* [[Ukraine]] ([[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]])
== Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain ==
Following [[World War II]], large parts of Europe that were culturally and historically Western became part of the [[Eastern bloc]], which effectively neutralized the concept of Central Europe. Following the dissolution of the [[Warsaw Pact]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], this distinction has again come into use, often to cover those countries that had been Warsaw Pact members but are now members of [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]].
During the Cold War, the English term ''Central Europe'' was increasingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw Pact countries (Poland to Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were culturally tied to Western Europe. This usage continued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these countries started to undergo transition.
In everyday usage, this is the most common meaning of ''Central Europe'', not least among Central Europeans who wish to distance themselves from "''Eastern Europe''".
So defined, the following countries are entirely included:
* [[Poland]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Slovenia]]
Usually excluded are:
* the [[Baltic countries]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] and [[Muslim]] lands
* the [[Balkans]]
Although Slovenia as a part of [[Yugoslavia]] was strictly speaking not a member of the [[Warsaw Pact]], Slovenia's 20th century history has much in common with that of the other Central European countries. [[East Germany]], on the other hand, was from [[1949]]&ndash;[[1990]] a loyal member of the Warsaw Pact, but would now rather be seen as the inheritor of Protestant [[Prussia]]n culture than of Catholic ''Central Europe.''
== The new members of the European Union ==
After the [[enlargement of th |
that the vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind." &mdash; [[Albert Einstein]] (Letter to ''Vegetarian Watch-Tower'', [[27 December]] [[1930]])
* "The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated." &mdash; [[Mahatma Gandhi]]
* "We have enslaved the rest of the animal creation, and have treated our distant cousins in fur and feathers so badly that beyond doubt, if they were able to formulate a religion, they would depict the Devil in human form." &mdash; [[William Ralph Inge]]
*"The question is not can they reason, nor can they talk, but can they suffer?" [[Jeremy Bentham]]
* "In years of studying the (Animal Rights) mentality and engaging (activists) in debate, I have arrived at four basic characteristics that all ARAs seem to have in common. The proportions vary, of course, but all ARAs seem to have all four traits in some percentage. The four traits are as follows: Misplaced Compassion, Denial, Intellectual Laziness, and Arrogance." &mdash; Ward M. Clark (''Misplaced Compassion - The Animal Rights Movement Exposed'', Writer's Club Press, 2001)
* "You have just dined, and however scrupulously the slaughter-house is concealed in the graceful distance of miles, there is complicity, expensive races, -- race living at the expense of race." &mdash; [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] ("Fate")
*"As often as Herman had witnessed the slaughter of animals and fish, he always had the same thought: in their behaviour toward creatures, all men were Nazis. The smugness with which man could do with other species as he pleased exemplified the most extreme racist theories, the principle that might is right." -[[Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
* "The animals themselves are incapable of demanding their own liberation, or of protesting against their condition with votes, demonstrations, or bombs. Human beings have the power to continue to oppress other species forever, or until we make this planet unsuitable for living beings. Will our tyranny continue, proving that we really are the selfish tyrants that the most cynical of poets and philosophers have always said we are? Or will we rise to the challenge and prove our capacity for genuine altruism by ending our ruthless exploitation of the species in our power, not because we are forced to do so by rebels or terrorists, but because we recognize that our position is morally indefensible? The way in which we answer this question depends on the way in which each one of us, individually, answers it." -[[Peter Singer]]
* "Animals do not survive by rational thought (nor by sign languages allegedly taught to them by psychologists). They survive through inborn reflexes and sensory-perceptual association. They cannot reason. They cannot learn a code of ethics. A lion is not immoral for eating a zebra (or even for attacking a man). Predation is their natural and only means of survival; they do not have the capacity to learn any other." -Edwin A. Locke (author of "The Prime Movers")
==See also==
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Animal Liberation Front]]
* [[Animal liberation movement]]
* [[British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection]]
* [[Animal testing]], [[SHAC]]
* [[Animal welfare]]
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Barry Horne]]
* [[Blood sport]]
* [[Cinci Freedom]]
* [[GANDALF trial]]
* [[Great ape personhood]]
* [[Imitation meat]], [[In vitro meat]]
* [[Juicing fish]] Information of injection of dye (cosmetic [[mutilation]]) of fish for the tropical aquarium trade.
* [[List of animal rights groups]]
* [[List of animal welfare and animal rights groups]]
* [[Livestock]]
* [[Open rescue]]
* [[Painism]]
* [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]]
* [[Speciesism]]
* [[United Animal Nations]]
* [[Veganism]], [[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Vivisection]]
* [[Richard D. Ryder]], [[Steven Best]], [[Peter Singer]], [[Tom Regan]]
==References==
*Bentham, Jeremy. ''Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation'', 1781.
*Frey, R.G. ''Interests and Rights: The Case Against Animals'', 1980
*Regan, Tom. ''The Case for Animal Rights'', New York: Routledge, 1984
*Scruton, Roger. ''Animal Rights and Wrongs'', 1997
*Scruton, Roger. [http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_3_urbanities-animal.html "Animal rights"], ''City Journal'', Summer 2000
*Singer, Peter. ''Animal Liberation'', 1975; second edition, New York: Avon Books, 1990
*[http://www.stpt.usf.edu/hhl/papers/species.htm The Origins of Speciesism] by Hugh LaFollette and Niall Shanks, ''Philosophy'' 1996, pp. 41-60
*[http://print.google.ca/print?id=83_7kgFJ8ggC&dq=Kathryn+Paxton+George&oi=print&pg=1&sig=NSLWKdGM6HGRlOTjgdqJ6z_RZPs&prev=http://www.google.ca/search%3Fnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26scoring%3Dd%26q%3DKathryn%2BPaxton%2BGeorge%26btnG%3DSearch%26meta%3D Animal, Vegetable, or Woman?: A Feminist Critique of Ethical Vegetarianism] by Kathryn Paxton George
*[http://www.greatapeproject.org/ The Great Ape Project]
*[http://www.meetyourmeat.com/wycd.html Meet Your Meat] a [[PETA]]-produced slaughterhouse tour narrated by [[Alec Baldwin]]
== Further reading ==
===Books about animal rights===
* Adams, Carol. ''The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory.'' New York: Continuum, 1996.
* Adams, Carol. ''The Pornography of Meat.'' New York: Continuum, 2004.
* Adams, Carol, & Donovan, Josephine. (eds). ''Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations.'' London: Duke University Press, 1995.
*Adams, Carol J. ''The Social Construction of Edible Bodies''
*[[Douglas Adams|Adams, Douglas]]. ''Meeting a Gorilla''.
*Anstötz, Christopher. ''Profoundly Intellectually Disabled Humans''
*Auxter, Thomas. ''The Right Not to Be Eaten''
*Barnes, Donald J. ''A Matter of Change''
*Barry, Brian. ''Why Not Noah's Ark?''
*Bekoff, Marc. ''Common Sense, Cognitive Ethology and Evolution''.
*Cantor, David. ''Items of Property''.
*Cate, Dexter L. ''The Island of the Dragon''
*Cavalieri, Paola. ''The Great Ape Project — and Beyond''
*Carwardine, Mark. ''Meeting a Gorilla''
*[[Stephen R. L. Clark|Clark, Stephen R.L.]] ''Apes and the Idea of Kindred''.
*__________________ ''Good Dogs and Other Animals''
*__________________ ''The Pretext of "Necessary Suffering"''
* Clark, Ward M. ''Misplaced Compassion: The Animal Rights Movement Exposed'', Writer's Club Press, 2001
*[[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]]. ''Gaps in the mind''.
* Dunayer, Joan. "Animal Equality, Language and Liberation" 2001
* Francione, Gary. ''Introduction to Animal Rights, Your child or the dog?'', Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000
* Nibert, David. ''Animal Rights, Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation'', New York: Rowman and Litterfield, 2002
* Patterson, Charles "Eternal Treblinka" 2002
*[[Roger Scruton|Scruton, Roger]]. ''Animal Rights and Wrongs'' Claridge Press, 2000
*[[Peter Singer|Singer, Peter]], "Animal Liberation".
* Spiegal, Marjorie. ''The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery'', New York: Mirror Books, 1996.
* Steeve, Peter H. (ed.) ''Animal Others: On Ethics, Ontology, and Animal Life.'' New York: SUNY Press, 1999.
* [[Angus Taylor|Taylor, Angus]]. ''Animals and Ethics''. Broadview Press, 2003
* Weil, Zoe. ''The Power and Promise of Humane Education.'' British Columbia: New Society Publishers, 2004.
* Wolfe, Cary. ''Animal Rites: American Culture, the Discourse of Species, and Posthumanist Theory'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 2003.
* Wolch, Jennifer, & Emel, Jody. ''Animal Geographies: Place, Politics, and Identity in the Nature-Culture Borderlands.'' New York: Verso, 1998.
<!--books to add
Ambiguous Apes
Contextual Moral Vegetarianism
The Third Chimpanzee
What's in a Classification?
The Rights of Animals and Future Generations
Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language
Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language
Personhood, Property and Legal Competence
The Silver Spring Monkeys
Chimpanzees - Bridging the Gap
The Case for the Personhood of Gorillas
Fit to Be Tamed
From Property to Person
Who's Like Us?
Who's Like Us?
Animal Rights in the Political Arena
Against Zoos
Great Apes and the Human Resistance to Equality
Ask No Questions
Spirits Dressed in Furs?
Like Driving a Cadillac
Brave New Farm?
Apes, Humans, Aliens, Vampires and Robots
Persons and Non-Persons
The Concept of Beastliness
The Wahokies
Humans, Nonhumans and Personhood
Constraints and Animals
The Silver Spring Monkeys
The Case for the Personhood of Gorillas
The Post-Darwinian Transition
A Basis for (Interspecies) Equality
A Reply to VanDeVeer
Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?
Why Darwinians Should Support Equal Treatment
Do Animals Have a Right to Life?
Ill-gotten Gains
The Case for Animal Rights
Animal Rights, Endangered Species and Human Survival
The Ascent of Apes — Broadening the Moral Community
Experiments on Animals
Sentientism
Speciesism in the Laboratory
Aping Persons — Pro and Con
Images of Death and Life
Ethics and the New Animal Liberation Movement
All Animals Are Equal
Do Animals Feel Pain?
Animal Liberation at 30
A Vegetarian Philosophy
The Forgotten Animal Issue
Fighting to Win
The Scientific Basis for Assessing Suffering in Animals
The Limits of Trooghaft
The Chimp Farm
They Are Us
Defending Animals by Appeal to Rights
From Property to Person
An Ecological Argument for Vegetarianism
Language and the Orang-utan
'They Clearly Now See the Link': Militant Voices
Dietethics: Its Influence on Future Farming Patterns
-->
=== Animal rights in philosophy and law ===
* [http://www.nabranimallaw.org The National Association for Biomedical Research Animal Law Section].
* [http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/arights/ The Tom Regan Animal Rights Archive].
* [http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/ Utilitarian Philosophers: Peter Singer].
* [http://www.animal-law.or |
ot;1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
|-
! style="background:#ffdead;" | Heracles myths as told by story tellers
|-
|[[Media:Hercules and Hylas wiki.ogg|'''1. Heracles and Hylas,''' read by Timothy Carter]]
|-
|Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]], ''Odyssey,'' 12.072 (7th c. BC); [[Theocritus]], ''Idylls,'' 13 (350&ndash;310 BC); [[Callimachus]], ''Aetia (Causes)'', 24. Thiodamas the Dryopian, Fragments, 160. Hymn to Artemis (310&ndash;250? BC); [[Apollonios Rhodios]], ''Argonautika,'' I. 1175 - 1280 (c. 250 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library and Epitome'' 1.9.19, 2.7.7 (140 BC); [[Sextus Propertius]], ''Elegies,'' i.20.17ff (50&ndash;15 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Ibis,'' 488 (AD 8 &ndash;18); [[Gaius Valerius Flaccus]], ''Argonautica,'' I.110, III.535, 560, IV.1-57 (1st century); [[Hyginus]], ''Fables,'' 14. Argonauts Assembled (1st century); [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images,'' ii.24 Thiodamas (170&ndash;245); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 49. Hercules et Hylas
|-
|}
==External links==
{{commons|Hercules (mythology)}}
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/classical/heracles.html Timeless Myths &ndash; Heracles] The life and adventure of Heracles, including his twelve labours.
*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Heracles1.html Heracles, Greek Mythology Link]
*[http://www.insecula.com/contact/A004087.html/ Heracles (in French)]
{| class="toccolours" style="text-align:center; border: 1px solid "
|- padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;"
|style="font-size: 100%"|
|-
|style="text-align:justify; font-size: 95%"|'''NOTE''': Categorising a story as a myth does not necessarily imply that it is untrue. [[Religion and mythology]] differ, but have overlapping aspects. Many English speakers understand the terms "myth" and "mythology" to mean ''fictitious'' or ''imaginary''. However, according to many dictionary definitions, these terms can also mean '''''a traditional story or narrative that embodies the belief or beliefs of a group of people''''', and this Wikipedia category should be understood in this sense only. The use of these terms in this category does '''not''' imply that any story so categorized is historically true or false or that any belief so embodied is itself either true or false.
|}
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Argonauts]]
[[Category:Twelve labours of Herakles]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]
[[bg:Херкулес]]
[[da:Herakles]]
[[de:Herakles]]
[[et:Herakles]]
[[es:Heracles]]
[[fr:Héraclès]]
[[he:הרקולס]]
[[hu:Héraklész]]
[[ko:헤라클레스]]
[[it:Eracle]]
[[la:Hercules]]
[[nl:Heracles (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ヘラクレス]]
[[nb:Herakles]]
[[pl:Herakles]]
[[pt:Hércules]]
[[ro:Heracles]]
[[sl:Heraklej]]
[[sr:Херакле]]
[[fi:Herakles]]
[[sv:Herakles]]
[[uk:Геракл]]
[[zh:海格力斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hexidecimal</title>
<id>13818</id>
<revision>
<id>15911407</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-19T22:55:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.133.143.68</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hexadecimal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanse Cronje</title>
<id>13819</id>
<revision>
<id>15911408</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hansie Cronje]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Rollins</title>
<id>13820</id>
<revision>
<id>42124712</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:59:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.7.233.87</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>[[pl:Henry Rollins]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography_Alive |
subject_name = Henry Rollins |
image_name = HenryRollins.jpg |
image_caption = Henry Rollins |
date_of_birth = [[February 13]], [[1961]] |
place_of_birth = [[Washington D.C.]], [[United States|USA]] |
}}
'''Henry Rollins''' (born [[February 13]], [[1961]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Rock (music)|rock music]] singer and songwriter; he's also been active as a storyteller, author, actor, poet, and radio personality. He lives in [[Los Angeles, California]], but recently stated that he was moving back to his hometown of [[Washington, DC]].
==Biography==
Born '''Henry Lawrence Garfield''' in [[Washington D.C.]], his parents divorced when he was young, and Rollins was raised primarily by his mother, Iris. He was prescribed [[ritalin]] as a child, and due to what he characterises as bad behavior and poor choices, he was sent to the Bullis Academy, a Washington D.C. [[military school]]. He has expressed mixed feelings for his years at Bullis Academy: He disliked the authoritarian atmosphere and the then-boys-only campus, which impeded his early attempts at dating and made him uncomfortable around women for several years. More positively, he says Bullis helped instill a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic. It was also at military school that he began to develop his muscular build, which would later lead to what is known as the "most hardcore neck in music."
Rollins became involved in the [[punk music|punk]] scene through his close friend [[Ian MacKaye]] (who would later head [[Minor Threat]] and [[Fugazi_(band)|Fugazi]]). [[Bad Brains]] were one of Rollins' favorite groups; singer [[H.R.]] would sometimes coax Rollins onstage to sing a song with them. Rollins then joined S.O.A. ([[State of Alert]]), which would release one [[EP (format)|EP]] before disbanding. Rollins worked at a number of jobs (including at the [[National Institutes of Health]]), before becoming the manager of a [[Haagen Dazs]] [[ice cream]] store.
In [[1981]], his friend Mitch Parker gave him a copy of [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]]'s ''[[Nervous Breakdown]]'' EP. Rollins soon became a huge fan, and began exchanging letters with the group. When Black Flag toured the East coast, playing Washington D.C. and [[New York City]], Rollins attended as many performances as he could. At an impromptu show in a bar, he asked to sing "Clocked In." As vocalist [[Dez Cadena]] was going to switch to [[guitar]], the band invited Rollins to a rehearsal. Impressed by his stage demeanor, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist, and despite some doubts, he accepted, due in part to MacKaye's encouragement. His large, muscular neck and intense personality made him a perfect fit as their frontman.
[[Image:Henry_Rollins_of_Black_Flag.jpg|left|thumbnail|220px|Rollins in the 1980s]]
Rollins toured and recorded with Black Flag from 1981 until their breakup in 1986. During Rollins' tenure, Black Flag's music underwent some dramatic changes. Though guitarist [[Greg Ginn]] was the primary songwriter, Rollins wrote a number of songs with Black Flag.
Throughout most of his time with Black Flag, Rollins kept a regular diary of his thoughts and experiences. In 1994 he published these diaries as ''[[Get In The Van]]''; the book also featured many photographs, as well as Rollins' reminiscences of his time with the group before he kept a diary. Rollins read portions of ''Get In The Van'' for an [[audio book]]; this recording won a [[Grammy]]. Rollins later characterized the entire affair as "corny" and gave his Grammy statuette to an acquaintance.
Rollins began publishing his own books during his time with Black Flag. His early efforts were self-made volumes ([[photocopy|photocopied]] and stapled), though he quickly began printing [[chapbook]]s before moving on to establish [[2.13.61]], an independent publisher named for his birthday.
Also while in Black Flag, Rollins met [[Joe Cole (roadie)|Joe Cole]], an acquaintance of Ginn's. Cole and Rollins quickly became close friends and roommates. Rollins and Cole were both robbed in 1991. During the incident Cole was murdered by a shot to the head (the crime remains unsolved), while Rollins narrowly escaped without injury. Most of Rollins' efforts since have been dedicated to his late friend's memory.
After Black Flag broke up in early 1986, Rollins quickly formed a new group and released a solo album and an EP with guitarist [[Chris Haskett]]. Soon, he added former [[Gone]] members [[Andrew Weiss]] and [[Sim Cain]], calling the new group the [[Rollins Band]]. They gained popularity through the strength of albums like ''The End of Silence'' (1992) and ''[[Weight (album)|Weight]]'' (1994). He also gained roles in movies and television shows (particularly as a [[VJ]] on [[MTV]]) and recorded a cover of [[AC/DC]]'s "[[Let There Be Rock]]" in 1991 with the [[Hard-Ons]].
Beginning in his later years in Black Flag until present, he has toured as a [[Spoken word|spoken-word]] artist, focusing mostly on social topics, as well as recounting his life experiences. His blend of self-deprecating humor and serious discussion of important social issues has gained him great popularity. He has released nine spoken word albums through his [[2.13.61]] publishing company (and several through other record companies); 2.13.61 has also released books by Rollins, [[Joe Cole (roadie)|Joe Cole]], [[Nick Zedd]], [[Nick Cave]], and [[Michael Gira]], as well as albums by Rollins Band, [[Exene Cervenka]], [[Hubert Selby Jr.]], [[The Birthday Party (band)|The Birthday Party]], and [[Gun Club]].
Rollins is an avowed [[free jazz]] fan, having released albums by [[Matthew Shipp]] and [[Roscoe Mitchell]] on his 2.13.61 label. In [[1990]], Rollins guest hosted a [[Los Angeles, California]] college radio program and devoted much of this appearance to [[saxophone]] player [[Albert Ayler]]'s music. [http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~mawillia/ayler.html]
Romantically linked to actress [[Kari Wuhrer]], web personality Dr.Venus, singer [[Lydia Lunch]].
==Radio and te |
tewardship]] role with the land they operate. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] are of concern in many countries.
Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of [[community-supported agriculture]], [[local food movement]], [[Slow Food|slow food]], and commercial [[organic farming]], though these yet remain fledgling industries.
==History==
[[Image:Ancient egyptian farmer.gif|thumb|230px|Ancient Egyptian farmer]]
: ''Main article: [[History of agriculture]]''
[[Paleoethnobotany|Archaeobotanists]]/[[Paleoethnobotany|Paleoethnobotanists]] have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough [[rachis]] and larger [[seeds]], to just after the [[Younger Dryas]] (about 9,500 BC) in the early [[Holocene]] in the [[Levant]] region of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Limited [[anthropology|anthropological]] and [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence both indicate a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] [[farming]] along the [[Nile]] in the [[10th millennium BC]] using the world's earliest known type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s. There is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest: grains of [[rye]] with domestic traits have been recovered from [[Epi-Palaeolithic]] (10,000+ BC) contexts at [[Abu Hureyra]] in [[Syria]], but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It is not until ca. 8,500 BC, in middle-Eastern cultures referred to as [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]]), where there is the first definite evidence for the emergence of a widespread subsistence economy that was dependent on domesticated plants and animals. In these contexts lie the origins of the eight so-called [[Neolithic founder crops|founder crops]] of agriculture: firstly [[emmer wheat]], [[einkorn wheat]], then hulled [[barley]], [[pea]], [[lentil]], [[bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]] and [[flax]]. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]] sites in this region, although the consensus is that [[wheat]] was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. There are many sites that date to between ca. 8,500 BC and 7,500 BC where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants' diet. From the [[Fertile Crescent]] agriculture spread eastwards to [[Central Asia]] and westwards into [[Cyprus]], [[Anatolia]] and, by 7,000 BC, [[Greece]]. Farming, principally of emmer and einkorn, reached northwestern [[Europe]] via southeastern and central Europe by ca. 4,800 BC (see, among others, Price, D. [ed.] 2000. ''Europe's First Farmers''. Cambridge University Press; Harris, D. [ed.] 1996 ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture in Eurasia''. UCL Press).
[[Image:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A [[tractor]] [[plough]]ing an [[alfalfa]] field]]
The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included [[climate]] change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving). Most certainly there was a gradual transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the [[Levant]], the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times, possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. In addition to emergence of farming in the [[Fertile Crescent]], agriculture appeared by at least 6,800 BC in East Asia ([[rice]]) and, later, in [[Mesoamerica|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[maize]], [[squash (fruit)|squash]]). Small scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in [[India]] (rice) and [[Southeast Asia]] (taro).<!--Sources?-->
[[Image:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|right|230px|[[Sumer]]ian Harvester's sickle, [[3000 BCE]]. Baked clay. [[Field Museum]].]]
Full dependency on domestic crops and animals (i.e. when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet) was not until the [[Bronze Age]]. If the operative definition of ''agriculture'' includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, [[mono-cropping]], organised [[irrigation]], and use of a specialized [[labour (economics)|labour]] force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the [[Sumer]]ians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering and allows for the accumulation of excess product to keep for winter use or to sell for profit. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with material production was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. The agriculturalism of the Sumerians allowed them to embark on an unprecedented territorial expansion, making them the first [[empire]] builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by effective farming of the [[Nile|Nile valley]], achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.<!--Sources?-->
The invention of a [[three field system]] of crop rotation during the [[Middle Ages]] vastly improved agricultural efficiency.
After [[1492]] the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the [[Columbian Exchange]].<!--Is this just Crosby's term or is it more widely used?--> Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the [[tomato]] became a favorite in European cuisine, while certain wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans.
By the early [[1800]]s agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before, especially in the largely virgin lands of North and South America. With the rapid rise of [[mechanised agriculture|mechanization]] in the 20th century, especially in the form of the [[tractor]], the demanding tasks of [[sowing]], [[harvesting]] and [[threshing]] could be performed with a speed and on a scale barely imaginable before. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit.
==Crops==
===World production of major crops in 2004===
In millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization | FAO]] estimates[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]:
By crop types
:[[Cereal]]s 2,264
:[[Vegetable]]s and [[melon]]s 866
:[[Root]]s and [[Tuber]]s 715
:[[Milk]] 619
:[[Fruit]] 503
:[[Meat]] 259
:[[Vegetable oil|Oilcrop]]s 133
:[[Fish]] 130 (2001 estimate)
:[[Egg (food)|Eggs]] 63
:[[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]]s 60
:[[Fiber crop|Vegetable Fiber]] 30
By individual crops
:[[Sugar Cane]] 1,324
:[[Maize]] 721
:[[Wheat]] 627
:[[Rice]] 605
:[[Potato]]es 328
:[[Sugar Beet]] 249
:[[Soybean]] 204
:[[Oil palm|Oil Palm]] Fruit 162
:[[Barley]] 154
:[[Tomato]] 120
===Crop improvement===
[[Image:Cropscientist.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An agricultural scientist records corn growth]]
[[Image:Bird netting.jpg|thumb|250px|Netting protecting wine grapes from birds]]
*''See main article on'' [[Plant breeding]]
Domestication of plants is done in order to increase yield, improve disease resistance and drought tolerance, ease harvest and to improve the taste and [[nutrition]]al value and many other characteristics. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year so that they can make improvements all the more quickly.
Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and '30s improved [[pasture]] (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the [[1950s]] produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn and barley.<!--Source?-->
For example, average yields of corn ([[maize]]) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in [[1900]] to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in [[2001]], primarily due to improvements in genetics. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in [[1900]] to more than 2.5 t/ha in [[1990]]. [[South America]]n average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, [[Africa]]n under 1 t/ha, [[Egypt]] and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as [[France]] is over 8 t/ha. Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical [[pest control]], growth control to avoid lodging).<!--Sources?--> [Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg]
In industrialized agriculture, crop "improvement" has often reduced nutritional and other qualities of food plants to serve the interests of producers. After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were harder and less nutritious (Frie |
't specified, their canonical name. Many people use the terms ISO 8859-''n'' and ISO-8859-''n'' interchangeably. [[ISO/IEC 8859-11|ISO 8859-11]] did not get such a charset assigned presumablly because it was almost identical to [[TIS 620]].
== Characters ==
The ISO 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not [[typography]]; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc. As a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the [[ASCII]] and ISO 8859 standards, or use [[Unicode]] instead.
As a rule of thumb, if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it didn't get in. Hence the directional double quotation marks ''«'' and ''»'' used for some European languages were included, but not the directional double quotation marks ''“'' and ''”'' used for English and some other languages. French didn't get its ''œ'' and ''Œ'' ligatures because they could be typed as 'oe'. Ÿ, needed for all-caps text, was left out as well. These characters were, however, included later with [[ISO/IEC 8859-15|ISO 8859-15]], which also introduced the new [[Euro]] character €. Likewise Dutch did not get the 'ij' and 'IJ' letters, because Dutch speakers had gotten used to typing these as two letters instead. Romanian did not initially get its '{{unicode|Ș/ș}}' and '{{unicode|Ț/ț}}' ([[Comma (punctuation)|with comma]]) letters, because these letters were initially unified with 'Ş/ş' and 'Ţ/ţ' ([[Cedilla|with cedilla]]) by the [[Unicode Consortium]], considering the shapes with comma beneath to be [[glyph]] variants of the shapes with cedilla. However, the letters with explicit comma below were later added to the Unicode standard and are also in [[ISO/IEC 8859-16|ISO 8859-16]].
Most of the ISO 8859 encodings provide diacritic marks required for various European languages. Others provide non-Roman alphabets: [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]]. Most of the encodings contain only [[spacing characters]] although the Hebrew and Arabic ones do also contain [[combining characters]]. However, the standard makes no provision for the scripts of East Asian languages (''[[CJK]]''), as their ideographic [[writing system]]s require many thousands of code points. Although it uses Latin based characters, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] does not fit into 96 positions (without using combining diacritics) either; Japanese syllabic [[Kana]] scripts, on the other hand, might, but like several other alphabets of the world isn't encoded in the ISO 8859 system.
== The Parts of ISO 8859 ==
ISO 8859 is divided into the following parts:
{| class="wikitable"
![[ISO/IEC 8859-1|Part&nbsp;1]]
|''Latin-1'' <br />''Western European''
|Perhaps the most widely used part of ISO 8859, covering most Western European languages: [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (partial{{ref 1}}), [[English language|English]], [[Faroese language|Faeroese]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (partial²), [[French language|French]] (partial{{ref 2}}), [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romansh language|Rhaeto-Romanic]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]], Eastern European [[Albanian language|Albanian]], as well as the African languages [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol and capital ''Ÿ'' are in the revised version ISO 8859-15. The corresponding IANA-approved character set ISO-8859-1 is the default encoding for legacy [[HTML]] documents and for documents transmitted via MIME messages, such as [[HTTP]] responses when the document's media type is "text" (as in "text/html").
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-2|Part&nbsp;2]]
|''Latin-2'' <br />''Central European''
|Supports those Central and Eastern European languages that use a Roman alphabet, including [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol can be found in version ISO 8859-16.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-3|Part&nbsp;3]]
|''Latin-3'' <br />''South European''
|[[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], and [[Esperanto]]. Largely superseded by [[ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]] for Turkish and [[Unicode]] for Esperanto.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-4|Part&nbsp;4]]
|''Latin-4'' <br />''North European''
|[[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]], and [[Sami languages|Sami]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-5|Part&nbsp;5]]
|''Latin/Cyrillic''
|Covers mostly Slavic languages that use a [[Cyrillic]] alphabet, including [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (partial{{ref 3}}).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-6|Part&nbsp;6]]
|''Latin/Arabic''
|Covers the most common [[Arabic language]] characters. Doesn't support other languages using the [[Arabic script]]. Needs to be [[bidi]] and [[cursive joining]] processed for display.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-7|Part&nbsp;7]]
|''Latin/Greek''
|Covers the modern [[Greek language]] ([[monotonic orthography]]). Can also be used for Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] written without accents or in monotonic orthography, but lacks the diacritics for [[polytonic orthography]]. These were introduced with Unicode.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-8|Part&nbsp;8]]
|''Latin/Hebrew''
|Covers the modern [[Hebrew alphabet]] as used in Israel. In practice two different encodings exist, logical order (needs to be [[bidi]] processed for display) and visual (left-to-right) order (in effect, after bidi processing and line breaking).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-9|Part&nbsp;9]]
|''Latin-5'' <br />''Turkish''
|Largely the same as ISO 8859-1, replacing the rarely used [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] letters with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ones. It is also used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-10|Part&nbsp;10]]
|''Latin-6'' <br />''Nordic''
|a rearrangement of Latin-4. Considered more useful for Nordic languages. Baltic languages use Latin-4 more.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-11|Part&nbsp;11]]
|''Latin/Thai''
|Contains most glyphs needed for the [[Thai language]]. Same as [[TIS 620]].
|-
!non-existent <br/>[[ISO/IEC 8859-12|Part&nbsp;12]]
|''Latin/Devanagari''
|The work in making a part of 8859 for [[Devanagari]] was officially abandoned in 1997. [[ISCII]] and [[Unicode]]/[[ISO/IEC 10646]] cover Devanagari.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-13|Part&nbsp;13]]
|''Latin-7'' <br />''Baltic Rim''
|Added some characters for Baltic languages which were missing from Latin-4 and Latin-6.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-14|Part&nbsp;14]]
|''Latin-8'' <br />''Celtic''
|Covers Celtic languages such as [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] and the [[Breton language]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-15|Part&nbsp;15]]
|''Latin-9''
|A revision of 8859-1 that removes some little-used symbols, replacing them with the [[Euro]] symbol ''€'' and the letters ''Š'', ''š'', ''Ž'', ''ž'', ''Œ'', ''œ'', and ''Ÿ'', which completes the coverage of [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-16|Part&nbsp;16]]
|''Latin-10'' <br />''South-Eastern European''
|Intended for [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], but also Finnish, French, German and [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] (new orthography). The focus lies more on letters than symbols. The currency sign is replaced with the [[Euro]] symbol.
|}
{{ref 1}}&mdash;only the [[IJ (letter)|IJ/ij (letter IJ)]] is missing, which is usually represented as IJ.<br>
{{ref 2}}&mdash;missing characters are in ISO 8859-15.<br>
{{ref 3}}&mdash;missing &#1168;/&#1169; characters were reintroduced into Ukrainian in 1991.
Each part of ISO 8859 is designed to support languages that often borrow from each other, so the characters needed by each language are usually accommodated by a single part. However, there are some characters and language combinations that are not accommodated without transcriptions. Efforts were made to make conversions as smooth as possible. For example, German has all its seven special chars at the same positions in all Latin variants (1-4, 9-10, 13-16), and in many positions the characters only differ in the diacritics between the sets. In particular, variants 1-4 were designed jointly, and have the property that every encoded character appears either at a given position or not at all.
=== Table ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Comparison of the various parts of ISO 8859
![[Binary numeral system|Binary]]!![[Octal|Oct]]!![[Decimal|Dec]]!![[Hexadecimal|Hex]]
!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!7!!8!!9!!10!!11!!13!!14!!15!!16
|-
!10100000!!240!!160!!A0
|colspan="16" |[[Non-breaking space]] (NBSP)
|-
!10100001!!241!!161!!A1
|[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ħ]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ё]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"|&nbsp;||[[‘]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"|&nbsp;||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[ก]]||[[”]]||[[Ḃ]]||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]
| |
n by a British newspaper after Cleese named him in an interview. (Interestingly, Basil Fawlty displayed an affinity for Canada on a couple of occasions in the series, once joking that he would move there to escape his wife.) Mr Sinclair and his relatives have never been too happy about the way he has been portrayed, and his widow Betty is now campaigning to remove what she sees as a slur on her husband's reputation, but former staff and visitors have remembered actual events there that were allegedly as ludicrous as those depicted in the programmes. Also the children of Donald Sinclair confirm that it is an accurate rendition of their father.{{fact}}
==Credits==
The cast:
* Basil Fawlty (played by [[John Cleese]])
* Sybil Fawlty ([[Prunella Scales]])
* Polly Sherman ([[Connie Booth]])
* Manuel ([[Andrew Sachs]])
* Major Gowen ([[Ballard Berkeley]])
* Miss Tibbs ([[Gilly Flower]])
* Miss Gatsby (Renee Roberts)
* Terry the Chef ([[Brian Hall (actor)|Brian Hall]])
==Characters==
{{Spoiler}}
====Basil Fawlty====
Basil is a [[Snob|snobbish]], [[Miser|miserly]], [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] and sexually repressed [[Paranoia|paranoiac]] who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees the successful running of the hotel as a means of achieving this ("''turn it into an establishment of class...''"), yet his job forces him to be pleasant to people he despises or aspires to be above socially.
While he is terrified of his wife's sharp tongue, he wishes to stand up to her and his plans often conflict with her wishes. She is often verbally abusive towards him (describing him as "''an ageing, brilliantined stick insect''") and though he is much taller than Sybil, he often finds himself on the receiving end of Sybil's temper, expressed verbally or physically. Basil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with whatever scheme he has planned, while trying his best to prevent Sybil from finding out.
Basil served in the Catering Corps of the [[British Army]], possibly as part of his [[National Service]] and it is assumed that, on leaving, he used his gratuity to buy a hotel. He is often seen wearing a military tie and a military-type moustache. He also claims to have sustained an injury to his leg in the [[Korean War]] caused by [[shrapnel]].
[[John Cleese]] himself described Basil as thinking that he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way.
====Sybil Fawlty====
As Basil's wife, she's the only one that refers to him by his first name. She is often seen to be a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil either gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when handling difficult customers. Despite this, however, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel; during busy check-in sessions or meal-times, whilst everyone else is busy working around her she's frequently found talking on the phone to one of her friends (usually 'Audrey', who makes a rare on-camera appearance in ''The Anniversary'') or chatting to customers. She is characterised by an arguably annoying conversational tone and laugh, which her husband compares to 'someone machine-gunning a seal'. Basil also refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face: these include "the dragon", "toxic midget", "my little nest of vipers", "my little piranha fish", "my little commandant" and &mdash; memorably &mdash; "a rancorous, coiffured old sow".
====Polly Sherman====
Polly, employed as a [[waitress]], is often stuck doing many other jobs in the hotel. She is also the voice of sanity, although she loyally attempts to aid Mr. Fawlty when he is trying to cover for a mistake he's made.
Polly is, in theory, only employed part-time, and is supposedly an art student: in one episode, she is seen to draw a sketch (presumably an [[impressionist|impressionistic]] [[caricature]]) of Basil, which everyone but Basil immediately recognizes. Which art college she studies at, or indeed if she actually does, is not explained. She does find time to sketch, and has managed to sell some occasionally to supplement her meagre waitressing income, even to the hotel guests.
====Manuel====
Manuel, the [[waiter]], is a well-meaning but disorganized and constantly confused [[Spain|Spaniard]] (from [[Barcelona]]) with a limited grasp of the [[English language]] and customs. He is afraid of Mr. Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given the position. When told by either Basil, Sybil or Polly what to do, he answers "qué?" which means 'what?' and "si" is 'yes'
His less than flattering portrayal of the Spanish resulted in the character's nationality being switched to [[Italy|Italian]] for the Spanish dub of the show [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072500/trivia].
====Other regular characters====
* Terry the Chef is probably the next most important character after Polly and Manuel. Terry's cooking style is quite relaxed and Basil occasionally gets frustrated with his "It's all right" attitude. Terry arrives in the second season after the relief of Curt (only seen in ''Gourmet Night''). He used to work in [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] (not at [[Dorchester Hotel|The Dorchester]]).
* Major Gowen is a slightly senile old soldier who holds a permanent residence in the hotel. He enjoys talking about the world outside (especially the cricket scores) and is always on the lookout for the paper. He seems to have trouble understanding that the Second (or possibly even First) World War has been over for some time.
* Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby are the other two (often inseparable) permanent residents, who are slightly scatty spinsters. They seem to take a fancy to Basil, though he switches from being overly kind to utterly rude during various talks with the two.
* The paperboy, though not seen very often, is responsible for changing the "FAWLTY TOWERS" sign to read various (sometimes crude) phrases, such as "Fatty Owls", "Flay Otters", "Farty Towels", "Watery Fowls" and "Flowery Twats". The shot of the sign with the hotel appears at the beginning of every episode but one.
==Plot==
The episodes typically revolve around Basil Fawlty's efforts to succeed, and his frustration at mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's insulting and sometimes aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and his wife, whom he addresses with insults such as "that golfing puff adder". Despite this, he frequently feels intimidated as she is able to insult him with equal venom. At the end of some episodes, Basil; suceeds in annoying the guests and sometimes gets it thrown back in his face.
The plots are intricate and [[farce|farcical]], involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes, accidental meetings and missed meetings. The sex of the [[bedroom farce]] is sometimes present, often to the disgust of conservative Basil, but it is Basil Fawlty's eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots.
The guests at the hotel are typically [[straight man|comic foil]]s to Basil's anger and outbursts, with requests both reasonable and impossible testing Basil Fawlty's temper. The show also uses mild [[black humour]] at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body, and some of the comments made by Basil both about Sybil ("Did you ever see that film, ''How To Murder Your Wife''? ...Awfully good, I saw it six times") and about the guests ("May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea? Or preferably in it?") border on the [[psychopathic]]. Basil is also known to behave violently towards Manuel for innocent mistakes, exacting on some occasions physical violence, including beating Manuel with a frying pan and hitting him over the head, despite Manuel's piteous pleading.
Basil displays blatant elitism, expressing disdain for the "riff-raff" that he believes currently stay at the hotel, in order to climb the social ladder. His desperation is apparent, as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to gain favour with the wealthy, yet finds himself forced to serve and help people he sees as far lower than him. As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage stretching further and further towards breaking point.
==Episode list==
First broadcast on [[BBC Two|BBC 2]] on [[September 19]], [[1975]]. The episodes of the first series were:
===First series===
; ''' "A Touch of Class" '''
:Basil is delighted when a member of the aristocracy chooses to stay at the hotel, snubbing the normal guests who frequent the hotel. Unbeknownst to Basil, however, the man is not a Lord, but a confidence trickster who attempts to purloin Basil's collection of rare coins. As Basil's desperation to keep such an 'upstanding' guest increases, Basil becomes increasingly tolerant towards the man's behavior, only to have the guest arrested in a [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] raid on the hotel.
:Featuring [[Michael Gwynn]] as Lord Melbury.
:Sign outside the hotel reads: FAWLTY TOWERS. Sign is wider and font is fancier than the plain, Times-like font it would use later on.
; ''' "The Builders" '''
:When some work is required on the hotel lobby, Basil goes for the cheapest quote, an [[Ireland|Irish]] builder by the name of O'Reilly, the moment his wife is out of the way. O'Reilly and his workers botch the job, fitting doors where they shouldn't be and visa versa. As a result, Sybil is forced to call in a proper builder, only to suffer embarrassment when O'Reilly returns to fix the mess he made. How |
unpleasant long term "group shelters".
===At risk of exposure===
The "Motor Homeless", sleep in an unheated junk car that is drivable, many will die from exposure. There are also those who choose to live a nomadic lifestyle, and will not necessarily die from exposure.
===Ongoing risk of illness from exposure===
Those who spend at least 30 nights a year in open air winter,or rainy conditions.
===Probable life risk===
Those who have no family, no affluent friends, have no car, no food except donated charity goods.
==Causes==
There are numerous possible causes of homelessness. It is a spectrum, a space occupied by many people, including the mentally ill, the unemployed, travelers, drug addicts, alcoholics, and those who have spiritual reasons (as yogis in India). Some people claim the problem stems from inadequate [[social service]]s such as [[public housing]]. In Ventura County, California, access to public housing currently requires a 4 year wait.
This is typical in many areas. Public housing requires paying 1/3 of all income as rent. A good credit history is also required. The VA only provides housing to chronically sick veterans. A homeless person with no family or generous friends must face sleeping in the open, in a car if they have one, or on commercial property until ejected. Some studies suggest [[rent control]] and other housing regulations foster homelessness by reducing the supply of housing. Social changes, such as the movement to recognize the rights of those considered mentally ill, could lead to increased homelessness, as such people can no longer be involuntarily committed to [[mental hospital]]s. Such a change occurred in the early 1980s in the United States, where it is now estimated that half of all homeless persons have some form of [[mental illness]]. In some cases, it is not always clear which came first; the homelessness or the mental illness. According to the [[National Alliance for the Mentally Ill]] (NAMI), there are 50,000 mentally ill homeless people in California alone because of deinstitutionalization between 1957 and 1988 and a lack of adequate local service systems. [http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/full/hlthaff.w5.212/DC1]
[[Substance abuse]] may be a cause as well — an estimated 50% of America's homeless have substance abuse problems. Debate exists about whether [[drug use]] is a cause or consequence of homelessness, but it is generally agreed that the prevalence of [[alcoholism]], [[drug addiction]], and [[mental illness]] in the homeless population makes employment difficult to maintain. Many of these problems could stem from [[sexual abuse]], [[physical abuse]], or some other trauma. A 2005 study of homeless young people published in the ''[[Journal of Adolescence]]'' found that personal drug use, familial drug use, family conflict, and in some cases family breakdown were contributing factors. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WH0-4G3CN05-1&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2005&_alid=277279236&_rdoc=1&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6836&_sort=d&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=cdf479bac371d00c2d9c95253e17d87b]
== Near-Homeless: Disabled non-abusers have little safety net ==
People who are chronically sick and are neither substance abusers nor mentally impaired, must present themselves to shelters,
or group living homes. Regular apartments in public senior or disabled housing may have waiting lists as long as four years and rents that equal one-third of a person's income.
Millions of disabled persons in the U.S. who receive a check must live with another person or two or risk sleeping in a car.
There is no "per diem" program in America to provide temporary housing. They must pay from a disability check or "sleep in the
rough." A disabled person with no close relatives or friends risks dying of exposure if they are unable to find a cot in a
shelter. Several advocates have suggested that unused jail cells should be provided free to any citizen, not wanted on an arrest warrant. The key would lock the cell from the inside instead of the outside, of course. "We shelter our criminals but not our unfortuates", or so the advocates are inclined to say.
==Law enforcement "poor folks" practices frequently trigger homelessness or worse ==
{{cite sources}}
An example: A 40-year-old disabled person who lived in Santa Barbara County, California had a car which she slept in. The car was impounded. The towing bill was $400 with a few days of storage. She spent 4 days on the streets, and was found dead from undetermined causes.
An Orange County Ca. diabetic veteran, had a junk car that ran. He waited 2.5 years for a public housing unit. His car broke down, was impounded for $375 and he was unable to pay rent. He was evicted, dropped out of sight, and is currently presumed deceased by his few friends. Fees and penalties that would be reasonable to most people are life ending traumas to the very poor & sick.
In the [[United Kingdom]], the three leading stated reasons homeless people give for losing their previous accommodation, according to [http://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_homelessness/documents/downloadable/odpm_home_028163.pdf government surveys]are: parents, relatives or friends not being able or willing to provide accommodation; Relationship breakdown; and of assured [[shorthold]] [[tenancy]].
==Demographics==
Single men have traditionally composed the homeless demographic, although in current time, homelessness is affecting more families and couples in areas of the United States. In the 1980s, there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain cities of the United States (notably [[City of New York|New York]]). Most homeless families consist of an unmarried mother and children.
Many long-term homeless people in the United States served in the [[military]]. The [[U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs]] [http://www1.va.gov/homeless/page.cfm?pg=1 estimates] that more than 200,000 veterans are homeless on any given night. Physical [[disability|disabilities]] that make work difficult or impossible are also common among homeless people. Many organizations such as the [http://borgenproject.org/ Borgen Project] have criticized U.S. leaders for not doing enough.
==Services==
[[Homeless shelter]]s operated by government, churches, or charities work to provide temporary housing to the homeless. While some shelters also provide food, others require people to turn to [[food bank]]s and [[soup kitchen]]s for nutrition. Other services provided by some shelters include [[health clinic]]s, clothing and personal items, [[employment assistance]], [[counseling]] and other [[social services]]. However, there are a number of complaints about the safety and quality of homeless shelters. [[Subsidized housing]] is a more expensive solution that some believe might end the cycle of homelessness.
==Income Opportunities==
Homelessness can often produce a [[vicious circle]]. With no [[phone number]], permanent [[address (geography)|address]], or place to get changed and washed, it can be very hard for the homeless to find or maintain jobs. Many non-profit organizations such as [[Goodwill Industries]] maintain a mission to "provide skill development and work opportunities to people with barriers to employment"( Goodwill calls "sorting clothes" job training at a cost of $5,600 per trainee.), though most of these organizations are not primarily geared toward homeless individuals. Many cities also have [[street newspapers]] or [[street magazines]]: publications designed to provide employment opportunity to homeless people or others in need by their sale on the streets of their respective cities.
While some homeless have paying jobs, some must seek other methods to make money. [[Begging]] or panhandling is one option, but it's increasingly illegal in many cities. Despite the stereotype, not all homeless people panhandle, and not all panhandlers are homeless. Another option is [[busking]]: performing tricks, playing music, drawing on the sidewalk, or offering some other form of entertainment in exchange for donations. In cities where pharmaceutical companies still collect paid [[blood plasma]], homeless people may generate income through frequent visits to these centers.
In many cities, people who busk, panhandle, or visibly sleep outdoors are harassed by authorities. This trend is referred to as the [[criminalization]] of homelessness. It is often motivated by urban development and pushes toward [[gentrification]]. Homeless people have been known to purposely commit crimes in order to be sent to [[jail]] or [[prison]] for food and shelter. In police lingo, this is called "three hots and a cot." Similarly a homeless person may approach a hospital's emergency department and fake a mental illness in order to receive food and shelter.
==Statistics for developed countries==
The following statistics indicate the approximate average number of homeless people at any one time. Each country has a different approach to counting homeless people, so comparisons should be made with caution.
:[[European Union]]: 3,000,000 ([[Unicef]] 1998)
:[[United States]]: 750,000 (Unicef 1998)
:[[Canada]]: 200,000 ([[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] News December 1998)
:[[Australia]]: 99,000 ([[ABS]]: [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/DDC8DC3787E2D9FCCA256E9E0028F91E?Open Homelessness])
The number of homeless people worldwide has grown steadily in recent years. In some Third World nations such as Brazil, India, Nigeria, and South Africa, homelessness is rampant, with millions of children living and working on the streets. Homelessness has become a problem in the cities of China, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines despite their growing prosperity, mainly due to migrant workers wh |
quot; (Professor Beet).
==Contents==
The contents of this epistle give an interesting insight into the condition of the church at Rome at the time it was written. Paul's imprisonment, we are informed, was no hindrance to his preaching the gospel, but rather "turned out to the furtherance of the gospel." The gospel spread very extensively among the Roman soldiers, with whom he was in constant contact, and the Christians grew into a "vast multitude." It is plain that Christianity was at this time making rapid advancement in Rome.
The doctrinal statements of this epistle bear a close relation to those of the [[Epistle to the Romans]]. Compare also Phil. 3:20 with Eph. 2:12, 19, where the church is presented under the idea
of a city or commonwealth for the first time in Paul's writings. The personal glory of Christ is also set forth in almost parallel forms of expression in Phil. 2:5-11, compared with Eph.
1:17-23; 2:8; Col. 1:15-20. "This exposition of the grace and wonder of His personal majesty, personal self-abasement, and personal exaltation after it," found in these epistles, "is, in
a great measure, a new development in the revelations given through St. Paul" (Moule). Other minuter analogies in forms of expression and of thought are also found in these letters that Paul is believed to have written while he was in prison.
Of particular importance to professed Christians are:
* 1:15-18(a) "It is true that some preach Christ out of envy and rivalry, but others out of goodwill. The latter do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel. The former preach Christ out of selfish ambition, not sincerely, supposing that they can stir up trouble for me while I am in chains. But what does it matter? The important thing is that in every way, whether from false motives or true, Christ is preached. And because of this I rejoice." ([[NIV]])
* 2:5-11 "Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father." ([[NIV]])
* 3:7-9 "But whatever gain I had, I counted as loss for the sake of Christ. Indeed, I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have suffered the loss of all things and count them as rubbish, in order that I may gain Christ and be found in him, not having a righteousness of my own that comes from the law, but that which comes through faith in Christ, the righteousness from God that depends on faith" ([[ESV]])
* 4:4 "Rejoice in the Lord always. I will say it again: Rejoice!" ([[NIV]])
* 4:6-7 "Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God. And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus." ([[NIV]])
* 4:8 "Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy—think about such things." ([[NIV]])
* 4:13 "I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me." ([[NKJV]])
==References==
*Beare, F. W. (1959). A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians. Harper & Row; reprint, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries, ed. Henry Chadwick. (1987). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
*Moule, H. C. G. (1981). The Epistle to the Philippians. Baker Book House.
*{{eastons}}
== External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Philippians]]:
* {{biblegateway||Philippians}}
Related articles:
* [http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=1333 Bible.org introduction to Philippians]
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Philippians from the Biblical Resource Database]
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:New Testament books|Philippians]]
[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Philipper]]
[[fr:Épître aux Philippiens]]
[[ko:필리비인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Filipi]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Filippenzen]]
[[pl:List do Filipian]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Filipenses]]
[[fi:Kirje filippiläisille]]
[[sv:Filipperbrevet]]
[[zh:腓立比書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to the Colossians</title>
<id>9951</id>
<revision>
<id>41777467</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Taragui</username>
<id>170855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Colossians''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[New Testament]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the church in [[Colossae]].
== Occasion of writing ==
It was written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there ([[Acts]] 28:16, 30), probably in the spring of AD [[57]], or, as some scholars think, [[62]], and soon after he had written his [[Epistle to Ephesians]].
Like some of his other [[epistle]]s (e.g., those to [[Corinth]]), this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had somehow been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there (1:4-8). Its object was to counteract [[heresy|false teaching]]. A large part of it is directed against certain speculatists who attempted to combine the doctrines of Eastern [[mysticism]] and [[asceticism]] with [[Christianity]], thereby promising the disciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in [[Jesus]] they had all things. He sets forth the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the "[[new moon]]" and "[[sabbath]] days" (2:16) shows also that there were here Judaizing teachers who sought to draw away the disciples from the simplicity of the [[gospel]].
== Content of the letter ==
Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists of two parts: a doctrinal and a practical.
The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. His main [[theme (literary)|theme]] is developed in chapter 2. He warns them against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fulness of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]], and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more?
The practical part of the epistle (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man (3:5-14). Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character.
[[Tychicus]] was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the [[Ephesians]] and to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange this letter with that he had sent to the neighbouring [[Laodicean Church]]. (The apocryphal [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] is almost universally believed to be a [[forgery]] based on this instruction.) He then closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation. There is a remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians.
== Authorship ==
According to Raymond Brown (''An Introduction to the New Testament'' [New York: Doubleday, 1997], p. 610), "At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter." The disagreements concern language, style, and the presence or absence of characteristic Pauline concepts. However, the differences between these elements in this letter and one commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g. [[1 Thessalonians]]) can also be explained by human variability. For more details, see the article [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]].
{{eastons}}
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Colossians]]:
* {{biblegateway||Colossians}}
Related articles:
* [http://explorers.whyte.com/Bible/colossians.htm Nicholas Whyte's Commentary on ''Colossians'']
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Colossians]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Kolosser]]
[[es:Epístola a los Colosenses]]
[[fr:Épître aux Colossiens]]
[[ko:골로사이인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Kolose]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Kolossen |
ced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders. The Cuban government has not removed a corresponding minefield on its side of the border. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1731704.stm]
The U.S. control of this Cuban territory has never been popular with the Cuban government or the Cuban people. The Cuban government strongly denounces the treaty on grounds that article 52 of the [[1969]] [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] declares a treaty void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force — in this case by the inclusion, in [[1903]], of the [[Platt Amendment]] in the Cuban Constitution. The United States warned the [[Cuban Constitutional Convention]] not to modify the Amendment, and was told U.S. troops would not leave Cuba until its terms had been adopted as a condition for the U.S. to grant independence, making the [[Geneva Conventions]] applicable to the [[1903]]/[[1934]] treaty upheld by that Amendment.
The United States holds that by cashing the first check received in accordance with said treaty, Castro's government effectively ratified the lease, and cannot unilaterally change its mind after the fact on account of political tensions or ideological differences. It further argues that all claims regarding an original violation of sovereignty under the Platt Amendment, and questions of an illegal military occupation, became moot once the new and independent revolutionary government freely reaffirmed the base's legitimacy.
===Gitmo's [[fast food]]===
In [[1986]], Guantánamo became host to Cuba's first and only [[McDonald's]] restaurant, as well as a [[Subway (restaurant)| Subway]][http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/july-dec03/gbay_10-14.html]. These fast food restaurants are on base, and not accessible to Cubans. It has been reported that prisoners showing good behavior have been rewarded not only with dates, pita bread and even [[twinkies]], but also '[[Happy Meal|Happy Meals]]', [[hamburger|hamburgers]] or [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwiches from the McDonalds's located at Camp America.[http://nation.ittefaq.com/artman/publish/article_24715.shtml]
==Detention of prisoners==
{{current}}
[[Image:Camp x-ray detainees.jpg|right|thumb|251px|Detainees upon arrival at Camp X-Ray, January 2002]]
{{main|Camp Delta}}
The use of Guantánamo Bay as a military prison has been controversial among [[human rights]] organizations concerned about reports of the treatment of detainees. Critics of U.S. detainment policies also question the propriety of using an offshore prison, and the unclear legal status of its detainees (neither prisoners of war, nor tried as common criminals). Critics of protesting organizations argue that constitutional rights have never been afforded for prisoners of war or non-U.S. citizens, however they omit the protections guaranteed by international treaties, among other things, against [[torture]]. These treaties are the "Supreme Law of the Land" through the U.S. constitution and also cover the treatment of prisoners in [[black sites]] and exported and outsourced torture.
On [[June 16]], [[2005]], the U.S. Department of Defense announced a unit of [[defense contractor]] [[Halliburton]] will build a new $30 million detention facility and security perimeter around the base.
In the last quarter of the [[20th century]], prior to the decision by President [[George W. Bush]] to lead the United States into the "[[War on Terror]]", the base was used to house Cuban and [[Haiti]]an refugees intercepted on the high seas. Most controversially, the base was used during the early [[1990s]] to hold often [[HIV]]-positive refugees fleeing Haiti after the overthrow of democratically-elected President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] by a military [[coup d'etat]]. These refugees were held in a detainment area called [[Camp Bulkeley]] until [[U.S. District Court]] Judge [[Sterling Johnson Jr.]] declared the camp unconstitutional on [[June 8]], [[1993]]. The last Haitian migrants departed from Guantánamo on [[1 November]] [[1995]].
Beginning in 2002, however, a small portion of the base was used to imprison suspected [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Taliban]] prisoners captured in [[Afghanistan]] and elsewhere at [[Camp Delta]], Echo, [[Camp Iguana]], and the now closed Camp X-Ray.
The names of more than 317 of the about 500 alleged enemy combatants being held in Guantánamo Bay were released by the [[Department of Defense]] on [[March 3]], [[2006]], after a [[court order]] to reveal them. [[Jed_S._Rakoff#Associated_Press_v._Dep.27t_of_Defense|The court order]] required the DoD to release the names of all the detainees. Although justice [[Jed Rakoff]] had already dismissed this argument, Pentagon spokesmen Bryan Whitman justified withholding the names out of a concern for the detainees' privacy.
[http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/foi/index.html] [http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=1684997]
===Statistics===
As of June 2005, the United States was holding about 520 foreign terrorism suspects at the facility, some of whom were captured in [[Afghanistan]]. On [[September 22]], [[2004]] ten prisoners were brought from Afghanistan. A total of 242 detainees have been moved out of Guantánamo as of [[July 20]], [[2005]], according to the [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2005&m=July&x=20050720174600adynned0.488476&t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html U.S. Department of Defense],
Of these 242, 173 have been released, and 69 transferred to the governments of other countries.
On [[November 12]], [[2005]], the [[Wall Street Journal]] reported that as of [[November 7]], [[2005]], 358 of the 505 detainees then held at Guantánamo Bay had had Administrative Review Board hearings. Of these, 3 percent were granted and awaiting release, the decision was to transfer in 20 percent, the decision was to continue to detain in 37 percent, and there was no decision yet in 40 percent.
The WSJ reports that of the 505 detainees held in Guantánamo, 100 or more are from Saudi Arabia, about 80 are from Yemen, about 65 are from Pakistan and about 50 are from Afghanistan. Two detainees are from Syria.
A [http://law.shu.edu/news/guantanamo_report_final_2_08_06.pdf report based on data supplied by the Defense Department] showed that 86% of the prisoners were handed over by local bounty-hunters rather than as the result any American investigation or collection of intelligence.
The WSJ reports that there are 28 detainees at Guantánamo on hunger strikes. Of those, 23 are being tube-fed at the local military hospital. This number is down sharply from July of [[2005]], when more than 100 detainees were on hunger strikes.
===Detention camps===
[[Image:camp_delta.jpg|thumb|300px|A Camp Delta recreation and exercise area at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. The detention block is shown with sunshades drawn on [[December 3]], [[2002]].]]
It is argued that U.S. government is currently in breach of the Geneva Conventions, as the Third [[Geneva Convention]] makes no distinction between 'Prisoners of War' and 'illegal combatants'.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,921192,00.html] The [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration believes that the Third Geneva Convention, by defining who is subject to its protections, clearly implies that there may be persons who engage in hostilities against American forces who are not covered by its purview. No foreign state has supported this view. The United States of America government currently refuses to give Guantánamo detainees trials.
The Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly has released its own report on [http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc05/EDOC10497.htm the Lawfulness of detentions by the United States of America in Guantánamo Bay] and more recently both Amnesty International and the United Nations have expressed their own concerns in a [http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng series of reports] into what they call "a human rights scandal".
Camp Delta is the main prison at Guantánamo Bay. As of [[July 22]], [[2005]] there are "about 510 prisoners at Guantánamo." [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/22/politics/22gitmo.html]
The Migrant Operations Center on Guantánamo typically keeps less than 30 individuals interdicted at sea in the Caribbean region.
==Camp Delta==
''Main article: [[Camp Delta]]''
'''Camp Delta''' (composed of detention camps: 1,2,3,4,5,6, and [[Camp Echo]]) is located in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[United States Navy|naval base]] that stands on [[Guantánamo Bay]] in [[Cuba]]. It is a permanent 612-unit detention center. Construction of the camp began on [[February 27]], [[2002]] with workers from Kellogg, Brown and Root, a subsidiary of [[Halliburton]], [[Seabee|Navy Seabees]], and Marine Engineers. It finished approximately in the middle of April 2002. The U.S. army military police make up the security force present at Camp Delta.
Camp 3 is the maximum security camp; when a prisoner first arrives, he is sent here. When a detainee shows co-operation with the staff, he is moved to Camp 2. With more co-operation, the prisoner is moved to Camp 1. Finally, when a prisoner shows no security risk and is actively co-operating with the interrogation process, he is moved to Camp 4.
Camp 4 detainees are housed in buildings with four communal living rooms of 10 persons, each with a private toilet and sink, as well as a larger shower and toilet room that serve the entire complex. Detainees each have a bed with a mattress, locker for storing personal items like diaries and books. Camp 4 also has small, common recreational areas for playing board games and team sports. Detainees at Camp 4 share communal meals, and wear white instead of orange.[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/guantanamo-bay_delta.htm]
[[Camp Echo]] is a detention center where pre-commissions are held. The detainees here have access to [[lawyers]] and hold pri |
e]]
* ''[[Smax]]'', 5 issues (2003-2004), hardback and paperback collected editions (2004), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Zander Cannon]]
* "[[Superman]]: For the Man who has Everything", ''Superman Annual'' #11 (1985) DC Comics; with [[Dave Gibbons]]
* "[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]", ''Superman'' #423 and ''[[Action Comics]]'' #583 (1986) DC Comics; with [[Curt Swan]]
* ''[[Supreme (comics)|Supreme]]'' #41-56 (1996-1998), Image Comics/Awesome Entertainment; with [[Joe Bennett]], Rick Veitch, [[Keith Giffen]], [[Dan Jurgens]], [[Stephen Platt]], [[Chris Sprouse]] and others
* ''Supreme: the Return'' #1-6 (1999-2000), Awesome Entertainment; with Chris Sprouse, Rick Veitch and others, Supreme work collected in 2 volumes by Checker Books.
* ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' #20-58, 59-61, 63-64, Annual #2 (1983-1987), DC Comics; with Stephen R. Bissette, Rick Veitch and others; collected in 6 volumes as:
**''Saga of the Swamp Thing'' (1987)
**''Swamp Thing: Love and Death'' (1990)
**''Swamp Thing: The Curse'' (2000)
**''Swamp Thing: A Murder of Crows'' (2001)
**''Swamp Thing: Earth to Earth'' (2002)
**''Swamp Thing: Reunion'' (2003)
*''[[Terra Obscura]]'' Volume 1, 6 issues (2003-2004), collected edition 2004, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Peter Hogan]] and [[Yanick Paquette]]
*''Terra Obscura'' Volume 2, 6 issues (2004-2005), collected edition 2005, DC Comics/Wilsdstorm/ABC; with Peter Hogan and Yanick Paquette
*"This is Information", ''9/11: Artists Respond'' Volume 1 (2002) DC Comics; with Melinda Gebbie
*''[[Tomorrow Stories]]'', 12 issues (1999-2002), collected in 2 volumes in hardback and paperback, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with various artists
*''[[Tom Strong]]'', 32 issues (to date) (1999-present), collected in 5 volumes (to date), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with Chris Sprouse and others
*''[[Tom Strong's Terrific Tales]]'', 12 issues (2002-2005), collected in 2 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Steve Moore (comics)|Steve Moore]], [[Arthur Adams]] and others
*''[[Top 10 (comic)]]'', 12 issues (1999-2001), collected in 2 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Gene Ha]] and Zander Cannon
*''[[V for Vendetta]]'': first two books serialised in ''Warrior'' #1-26 (1982-1985), Quality Communications; 10 issues (1988-1989) DC Comics; collected edition (1995), DC Comics; with [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]]
*''[[Watchmen]]'', 12 issues (1986-1987), collected edition (1987), DC Comics; with Dave Gibbons
*''[[Wildcats (comics)|Wildcats]]'' #21-34, 50 (1995-1998), Image Comics; with [[Travis Charest]] and others
*''Yuggoth Cultures and Other Growths'', 3 issues (2003), Avatar Press; short pieces by Moore and various artists
===Novels===
* ''Voice of the Fire'', 1996, Victor Gollancz; 1997, Orion Books; republished 2003, Top Shelf Productions. This new editon features a dust jacket designed by [[Chip Kidd]], and introduction by [[Neil Gaiman]] and thirteen color plates by [[José Villarrubia]].
* He is currently working on the novel ''Jerusalem''. His previous planned prose work ''A Grimoire'' has been put on hold.
===Audio recordings===
* ''March of the Sinister Ducks'' (Single recorded by ''The Sinister Ducks'', 1983)
* ''The Birth Caul'', 1996, D.O.R.; adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell, 1999, Eddie Campbell Comics
* ''The Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels'', 1996, Cleopatra
* ''Brought to Light'', 1998, Codex Books
* ''The Highbury Working'', 2000, RE
* ''Angel Passage'', 2002, RE
* ''Snakes and Ladders'', 2003, RE; adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell, 2001, Eddie Campbell Comics
==Adaptations of Moore works in other media==
===Comics===
*''[[Alan Moore's The Courtyard]]'', 2 issues (2003), [[Avatar Press]]; story by Moore, adapted for comics by Antony Johnston with artwork by [[Jacen Burrows]]. Collected into softcover and hardcover editions by Avatar Press (2004).
*''Alan Moore's The Courtyard Companion'' (2004), Avatar Press; reprints Antony Johnston's script for ''Alan Moore's The Courtyard'' with annotations by NGChristakos, Moore's original short story (from which the series was adapted), new pinups/art by Jacen Burrows, and a new essay by Antony Johnson.
*''[[Alan Moore's Hypothetical Lizard]]'', 4 issues (2005), Avatar Press.
*''Alan Moore's Magic Words'' (2002), Avatar Press; song lyrics, poems and other writings by Moore, adapted for comics by various artists, with a cover by [[Juan José Ryp]]
*''Another Suburban Romance'' (2003), Avatar Press; play by Moore, adapted for comics by Antony Johnston and Juan José Ryp
*''The Birth Caul'' (1999), Eddie Campbell Comics; performance art piece adapted for comics by [[Eddie Campbell]]
*''Snakes and Ladders'' (2001), Eddie Campbell Comics; performance art piece adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell
===Films===
* ''[[From Hell]]'', 2001, adaptation directed by the [[Hughes Brothers]]
* ''[[The Mindscape of Alan Moore]]'', 2003, [[Shadowsnake Films]]
* ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', 2003, adaptation directed by [[Stephen Norrington]]
* ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'', 2005, based on the character [[John Constantine]], created by Moore in ''Swamp Thing''
* ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' (in production)
* ''[[Watchmen]]'' (in production)
===Television===
* The ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' episode "For the Man Who Has Everything" is based on the ''Superman Annual'' story by Moore with the same title.
==Source material==
===Notes===
#{{note|acid}} Brad Stone ''[http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=554 Alan Moore Interview]'', [http://www.comicbookresources.com/ Comic Book Resources], [[22 October]] [[2001]], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|gutters}} Rich Johnston, ''[http://www.comicbookresources.com/columns/index.cgi?column=litg&article=2153 Lying in the Gutters]'', [http://www.comicbookresources.com/ Comic Book Resources], [[23 May]] [[2005]], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|vpress}} [http://www.newsarama.com/movies/VforPressConf.htm ''V for Vendetta'' press conference transcript], [http://www.newsarama.com/ Newsarama], 2005, accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|smithee}} [http://www.comicsreporter.com/index.php/alan_moore_asks_for_an_alan_smithee/ "Alan Moore Asks for an Alan Smithee"], [[9 November]] [[2005]], [http://www.comicsreporter.com/ The Comics Reporter], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
===References===
* Efforn, Samuel (1996) [http://www.alanmooresenhordocaos.hpg.ig.com.br/artigos10.htm Taking Off the Mask (Tirando a Máscara)] ''Invocation and Formal Presentation of the Superhero Comic in Moore and Gibbons' Watchmen'' Accessed [[June 29]] [[2005]]
* Young, Robert (2004) "Zero Sum Masterpiece: The Division of Big Numbers" in [[The Comics Interpreter]] #3 Vol. 2-- The definitive behind the scenes story of the demise of Moore's magnum opus.
* Groth, Gary (1990-1991), "Big Words", ''[[The Comics Journal]]'' 138-140, Fantagraphics Books
* Khoury, George (2003), ''The Extraordinary Works of Alan Moore'', TwoMorrows Publishing
* Moore, Alan (1994), ''From Hell: the Compleat Scripts Book One'', Borderlands Press/SpiderBaby Graphics
* Moore, Alan (1999), "Appendix I: Annotations to the Chapters", ''From Hell'', Eddie Campbell Comics
* Moulthrop, Stuart; Kaplan, Nancy; ''et al'' (1997-2000) [http://iat.ubalt.edu/moulthrop/hypertexts/wm/ Watching The Detectives], ''An Internet Companion for Readers of Watchmen''. Accessed [[June 29]] [[2005]]
* Sabin, Roger (1993), ''Adult Comics An Introduction'', Routledge
* Smoky Man & Gary Spencer Millidge (eds) (2003), ''Alan Moore: Portrait of an Extraordinary Gentleman'', Abiogenesis Press
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://fourcolorheroes.home.insightbb.com/free.html 4ColorHeroes Moore For Free]
* [http://www.alanmoorefansite.com Alan Moore Fansite]
* [http://www.sequart.com/alanmoorechronology.htm Alan Moore Chronology]
* [http://www.2000adonline.com/index.php3?zone=droid&page=profiles&choice=alanm 2000 AD profile]
* [http://theages.superman.ws/moore.php Alan Moore on Superman]
* [http://comicbookresources.com/columns/index.cgi?column=litg&article=2153 Alan Moore on split from DC/V for Vendetta]
* [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/6612/twilight.htm Twilight of the Superheroes proposal]
===Interviews===
*[http://www.enginecomics.co.uk/interviews/jan05/alanmoore.htm "The Craft"]
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/amoore/crowley1.html Blather.net interview with Moore] on magic and [[Aleister Crowley]]
* [http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=4737 "Chain Reaction" interview transcript] - originally broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]]
* [http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/features/article324487.ece Alan Moore interview in ''The Independent'']
*[http://www.alanmooreinterview.co.uk Alan Moore Interview Index] - Links to all Moore's online interviews in chronological order
[[Category:1953 births|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:2000 AD Creators|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Anarchists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:British comics writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Comics writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:English novelists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:English occultists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Natives of Northamptonshire|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Moore, Alan]]
[[de:Alan Moore]]
[[es:Alan Moore]]
[[fi:Alan Moore]]
[[fr:Alan Moore]]
[[gl:Alan Moore]]
[[it:Alan Moore]]
[[ja:アラン・ムーア]]
[[pl:Alan Moore]]
[[pt:Alan Moore]]
[[sv:Alan Moore]]
[[tr:Alan Moore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdul Rashid Dostum</title>
<id>2376</id>
<revision>
<id>41222572</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:05:59Z</timestamp>
<contrib |
In the [[1990s]] another type of electronic paper was invented by [[Joseph Jacobson]]. This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white [[molecules|particle]]s suspended in a colored [[Mineral oil|oil]]. In early versions, the underlying [[circuitry]] controls whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule (so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil). This was essentially a reintroduction of the well-known [[Electrophoresis|electrophoretic]] display technology, but the use of microcapsules allowed the display to be used on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass.
There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area. Other technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of [[liquid crystal display]]s, [[electrochromic display]]s, and the electronic equivalent of an [[Etch-A-Sketch]] at Kyushu Univerisity. One form or another of electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), Philips Electronics, Kent Displays (cholesteric displays), Ntera ([[electrochromic]] [[Nanochromic displays]]), and many others. One important feature needed is that the pixels be [[bistable]] so that the state of each pixel can be maintained without a constant supply of power.
In April, [[2004]], [[Sony]] announced the first commercially available electronic paper device, the [[Sony Librie EBR-1000EP|LIBRIe]], sold only in Japan. On January 6, 2006, Sony announced the [[Sony Reader]], a successor to the LIBRIé for the US market.
On July 14th and 15th 2005 Fujitsu showcased their jointly developed electronic paper at the Tokyo International Forum. It boasts low power consumption in that it does not require electricity except during screen image changes, making electronic paper especially suited for advertisements or information bulletins in public places for which paper is currently used.
It has been rumored that Leeds' (UK) Yorkshire Post will be one of the first newspapers to use this.
E Ink announced in October 2005 that it would begin shipping developer kits of 6 inch, 800x600 resolution electronic paper on November 1st, 2005.
Another electronic paper device to be introduced in April of 2006 is the iLiad produced by iRex Technologies BV (a spinoff from Royal Philips Electronics). It would be able to render content without DRM based restrictions, and supports PDF, XHTML, TXT and MP3 formats. It also has standard connectivity features for transferring content, namely USB stick/cable, Compact Flash, SD Memory Card, WiFi, and Ethernet access.
In December 2005 Xerox announced it was closing the Gyricon operation as of December 31, 2005.
Electronic paper should not be confused with [[digital paper]].
==See also==
*[[Librie|Sony LIBRIé]]
*[[Sony Reader|Sony Reader]]
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | author=Gelinck GH, Huitema HE, van Veenendaal E, Cantatore E, Schrijnemakers L, van der Putten JB, Geuns TC, Beenhakkers M, Giesbers JB, Huisman BH, Meijer EJ, Benito EM, Touwslager FJ, Marsman AW, van Rens BJ, de Leeuw DM | title=Flexible active-matrix displays and shift registers based on solution-processed organic transistors | journal=Nature Materials | year=2004 | pages=106–110 | id=PMID 14743215}}
==External links==
* [http://www.overclockersclub.com/?read=2136713 Fujitsu announcement of bendable electronic paper; good pictures] [[July 14]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.eink.com eink.com]
* [http://www.eink.com/kits/ e-ink developer kits]
* [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-electronic-ink wisegeek.com explanation]
* [http://www.irextechnologies.com/shop/products/iliad.htm iRex iLiad]
[[Category:Display technology]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
[[Category:Paper]]
[[de:Elektronisches Papier]]
[[fr:Encre électronique]]
[[nl:Elektronisch papier]]
[[ja:電子ペーパー]]
[[pl:Papier elektroniczny]]
[[sl:Elektronski papir]]
[[sv:Elektroniskt papper]]
[[vi:Giấy điện tử]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Engineering Statistics</title>
<id>9226</id>
<revision>
<id>15907129</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Engineering statistics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earth Sciences</title>
<id>9227</id>
<revision>
<id>15907130</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T23:17:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect[[Earth science]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Earth science]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earth</title>
<id>9228</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42090517</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:39:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redtitan</username>
<id>1015132</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed 'muahahaha'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Planet Infobox/Earth}}
'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]]. It is the largest of the [[solar system]]'s [[terrestrial planet]]s and the only place in the universe known to harbor [[life]]. Scientific evidence indicates that the Earth was formed around 4.57 [[billion]] (4.57{{e|9}}) [[year]]s ago (see [[Age of the Earth]]) and that its single [[natural satellite]], the [[Moon]], was orbiting it shortly thereafter, around 4.533 billion years ago.
==Lexicography==
The official name for the planet Earth, as set by the [[International Astronomical Union]], is ''Terra'', after the [[Roman mythology|Roman goddess]] [[Terra (mythology)|Terra Mater]]. With this name, ''all'' the planets in our solar system known from ancient times are now named for [[Roman mythology|Roman gods or goddesses]]. ''Terra'' is also the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] word for "earth" (soil).
Terms that refer to the Earth can use the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] root ''terra-'', such as the word ''terrestrial''. There is also the alternative Latin root ''tellur-'', as used in words such as [[telluric]], tellurian, [[tellurion]] and [[Tellurium]], which derives the goddess Terra Mater's more ancient name Tellūs Mater. Scientific terms such as [[geography]], [[geocentric]] and [[geothermal]] use the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''geo-'', derived from Terra Mater's [[Greek mythology|Greek]] counterpart [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
The English word "earth" has [[cognate]]s in many modern and ancient languages. Examples in modern tongues include ''aarde'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Erde'' in [[German language|German]] and ''arde'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The root also has cognates in extinct languages such as ''ertha'' in [[Old Saxon]] and ''ert'' (meaning "ground") in [[Middle Irish]], derived from the [[Old English]] ''eor&#0240;e''. Given [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]], we can find cognates of "earth" between ''terra'' and the modern [[Romance languages]], for instance ''tierra'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or ''terra'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].
Several [[Semitic languages]] have words for "earth" similar to those in [[Indo-European languages]], although evidence of a link is not overwhelming. Arabic has ''aard''; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], ''irtsitu''; [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], ''araa''; [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]], ''erets'' (which appears in the [[Mesha Stele]]); and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], ארץ (''arets'', or ''erets'' when followed by a [[Hebrew grammar#Nouns|noun modifier]]).
===Symbol===
The [[astrology|astrological]] and [[astronomical symbol]] for Earth consists of a circled cross, the arms of the cross representing a [[meridian]] and the [[equator]] (<big>{{unicode|&#x2295;}}</big>). A variant puts the cross atop the circle (<big>{{unicode|&#x2641;}}</big>).
==History==
{{main|History of Earth}}
Based on the available evidence, scientists have been able to reconstruct detailed information about the planet's past. Earth is believed to have formed around 4.55&times;10<sup>9</sup> years ago out of the [[solar nebula]], along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed soon afterwards. Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere; condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered by comets, [[Origin of the world's oceans|produced the oceans]]. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4&times;10<sup>9</sup> years ago, and half a billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all life]] lived. The development of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the sun's energy to be harvested directly; the resultant [[oxygen]] accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the [[ozone layer]]. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryotes]]. Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]], life colonized the surface of Earth. Continents formed and broke up as the surface of Earth continually reshaped itself. 65 million years ago, a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as the [[mammal]]s, then resembling shrews. Life diversified, and several million years ago, a small African ape gained the ability to stand upright. As [[brain]] size increased, t |
ament references to the river
*[http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/ted/ice/tigris.htm Tigris-Euphrates River dispute, details of conflict and cooperation]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.tr/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MainIssues/WaterIssues/WaterIssuesBetweenTurkeySyriaIraq_Chapter_IV.htm The Turkish National Policy for Utilizing the Waters of Euphrates-Tigris Basin (THE THREE-STAGED PLAN)]
[[Category:Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Turkey]]
[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Iraq]]
[[Category:Sites along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Torah places]]
[[ar:الفرات]]
[[ca:Eufrates]]
[[cs:Eufrat]]
[[da:Eufrat]]
[[de:Euphrat]]
[[es:Éufrates]]
[[eo:Eŭfrato]]
[[fa:فرات]]
[[fr:Euphrate]]
[[gl:Eufrates]]
[[ko:유프라테스 강]]
[[is:Efrat]]
[[he:פרת]]
[[la:Euphrates]]
[[nl:Eufraat]]
[[ja:ユーフラテス川]]
[[no:Eufrat]]
[[pl:Eufrat]]
[[pt:Rio Eufrates]]
[[ru:Евфрат (река)]]
[[sl:Evfrat]]
[[fi:Eufrat]]
[[sv:Eufrat]]
[[tr:Fırat]]
[[wa:Ufrate (aiwe)]]
[[zh:幼发拉底河]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estonian language</title>
<id>10223</id>
<revision>
<id>42089242</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:29:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Caesarion</username>
<id>178966</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+li</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Estonian
|nativename=Eesti keel
|familycolor=Uralic
|states=[[Estonia]]
|region=[[Northern Europe]]
|speakers=1.1 million
|fam2=[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]
|fam3=[[Finno-Lappic]]
|fam4=[[Baltic-Finnic]]
|nation=[[Estonia]], [[European Union]]
|agency=Institute of the Estonian Language (semi-official)
|iso1=et|iso2=est|iso3=est}}
The '''Estonian language''' (Estonian: ''eesti keel'') is spoken by about 1.1 million people, of which the great majority live in the [[Northern European]] country of [[Estonia]].
Estonian belongs to the [[Finnic]] branch of the [[Finno-Ugric languages]]. Estonian is thus related to [[Finnish language|Finnish]], spoken on the other side of the [[Gulf of Finland]], and more distantly to the [[Hungarian language]] of the Ugric branch. Despite some minor overlaps in the vocabulary, in terms of its origin, the Estonian language is not related to its nearest western neighbour, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], nor to its southern neighbour, [[Latvian language|Latvian]], nor to its eastern neighbour, [[Russian language|Russian]], which are all [[Indo-European languages]].
One of the distinctive features of Estonian is that it has what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phoneme length: short, long, and "overlong", such that [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/toto/}}, {{IPA|/to:to/}} and {{IPA|/to::to/}} are distinct, as are {{IPA|/toto/}}, {{IPA|/tot:o/}}, and {{IPA|/tot::o/}}. The distinction between long and overlong is, in practice, as much a matter of syllable stress (involving pitch) as duration. Long and overlong vowels are not distinguished in written Estonian; plosives, however, appear in writing with three "degrees": b,d,g; p,t,k and pp;tt;kk (all unvoiced plosives).
==Phonology==
There are nine phonemic monophthongs — '''a e i o u''' '''õ''' [{{IPA|ɤ}}] '''ä''' [æ] '''ö''' [ø] '''ü''' [y] — which have three phonetic lengths. Of these, simple and long are segmentally phonemic, and the third length level is suprasegmentally phonemic and aided by a distinctive tonal contour. The script distinguishes only short and long (marked by vowel doubling). There are 19 segmental diphthongs (Hint 1978), and polysyllablic vowel clusters are also found.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Front
| colspan=2 | Back
|-
|
|Unrounded
|Rounded
|Unrounded
|Rounded
|-
|Close
! align="center" |i
! align="center" |ü
!
! align="center" |u
|-
|Mid
! align="center" |e
! align="center" |ö
! align="center" |õ
! align="center" |o
|-
|Open
! align="center" |ä
!
! align="center" |a
!
|}
There is one series of stops, unvoiced unaspirated, with three phonemic lengths, written '''b d g''', '''p t k''' and '''pp tt kk'''. The rest of the consonants also have distinctive length, but only short and long are distinguished in writing. As with vowels, two segmental length levels are phonemic, and the third level is suprasegmentally phonemic. For example, for 'n', short 'n' in ''lina'' "sheet", half-long 'n' in ''linna'' "town's", over-long 'n' in ''linna'' "to the town". The latter addition of length is traceable to a grammatical marker *''-han'' that has elided.
The fricatives are '''s h''', added with '''f š ž z''' for loans. The other consonants are '''j l m n r v''', plus the allophonic [[velar nasal]] in '''nk''' and '''ng'''. Consonants may be palatalized; this is not spelled out. Palatalization occurs before front vowels. About 0.15% of the vocabulary features fully phonemic palatalization, where palatalization occurs without the front vowel. (The process is similar to that found in Eastern Finnish dialects, where word-final 'i' is elided, leaving the palatalization on the consonant.) Thus, palatalization does not necessarily need a front vowel, and palatalized vs. plain continuants can be articulated. Estonian palatalization is thought to be of [[Uralic languages|Uralic origin]], and is different from Russian. In Russian, palatalization causes some affrication and necessarily features a palatal approximant/fricative offglide, which is not the case in Estonian.
The stress is on the first syllable; however, international loanwords and over-long consonants may alter this pattern.
==Vocabulary==
Although the Estonian and [[English language]]s are of completely different origins (leaving out the highly controversial [[Nostratic]] and [[Proto-World language]] theories), one can identify many similar words in the two languages. This is primarily due to the fact that the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], including about 15% of the total number of word roots in modern Estonian which were borrowed from [[Middle Low German]] (Low Saxon) during the period of [[History_of_Estonia#The_Middle_Ages|German rule]] in Estonia.
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Proposed origin</th>
<th>No. of word roots</th>
<th>Period</th>
<th>Examples</th>
</tr><tr>
<td>Nostratic (hypothetical)</td>
<td>130?</td>
<td>15 000 – 10 000 BC</td>
<td>'' mi(na) 'I', si(na) 'thou', vesi 'water', tabama 'to catch, seize, capture, hit', arbuma 'to magic, charm', puur 'auger', poeg 'son', päkk 'ball of the foot', keel 'tongue', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', süva 'deep-seated, profound', vedama 'to pull, draw, drag, carry, drive', üks 'one' ''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Uralic</td>
<td>120</td>
<td>5000-4000 BC</td>
<td>''ala 'under, sub', üla 'upper, top', esi 'front', taga 'behind'; see 'this, it', too 'that', kes 'who', mis 'what', ei 'no'; minema 'to go', tulema 'to come', tundma 'to feel', ujuma 'to swim', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', kaduma 'to disappear', mõskma; puu, kuusk, kõiv, murakas, suvi, päev, kaja, kuu, lumi, soo, juga, kala, küü, sisalik; keel, kõrv, luu, maks, põlv, põsk, silm, muna, neelama, pala, sulg, kõrv; tuli, süsi, suusk, nool, sõudma, punuma, vask, vöö; elama, koolma, vägi, nimi, sala, naine; kaks, viis''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Finno-Ugric</td>
<td>270</td>
<td>4000 -3000 BC</td>
<td>''aju, üdi, hing, pea, pii, sapp, vats; aru, jää, koit, voor, paju, pihl, kask, mari, pohl, kamar, rebane, nugis, siil, utt, hiir, püü, mõtus, vares, pääsuke, säga, säinas, särg, täi, kusilane, koi; koda, küla; põlema, küdema, pada, leem, või, väits, vestma, sau; sõba; kolm, neli, kuus; nõid, ise, ilm; talv, sügis, iga; isa, poeg, küdi, kond; valge, hahk, uus, sepp''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Finno-Permic</td>
<td>50-140</td>
<td>2500 -1500 BC</td>
<td>''kõht; kõri; säär; koobas, põrm, sõnnik; peda(jas), kuslapuu, oks, pähkel, kiud, peni, orav, kotkas; rehi, kuduma, amb, mõla, õng; äi, äike; parem, vana; lõuna; meel''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Finno-Volgaic</td>
<td>100-150</td>
<td>1500 -1000 BC</td>
<td>''selg, koon, käpp, vaim; kevad, täht, järv, haab, saar, tamm, vaher, sarapuu, õlg, lehm, siga, pett, jahvatama, kurg, kurvits, parm, sääsk; keema, hiilgama, käis, piir; vene; lell; jumal; aher, jahe, kõva, süva; kargama, pesema, püsima, lüpsma''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Finno-Lappic</td>
<td>130 - 150</td>
<td>1000 – 500 BC</td>
<td>''vihm, sammal, org, vili, põõsas, põud, õnn, veli, ime, luule, taga, tõsi, nälg, küll''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Baltic-Finnic</td>
<td>600 - 800</td>
<td>500 BC – 800 AD</td>
<td>''põder, oja, udu, hobu, mänd; kõne, sõna; aeg, eile; laps, rahvas, linn; nuga, king; julge''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Estonian and unknown</td>
<td>appr. 1000</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>''räni, roie, salk, videvik, jäärak, ila, aas, lubi, lõhn, kaan, kesv, ürp'' + numerous onomatopoetic-descriptive words</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Artificial</td>
<td>50-60</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>''veenma, roim, laip, kolp, relv, ese, süüme, mõrv, ulm, siiras, range, sulnis, nõme, taunima, naasma, reetma, embama; eirama, eramu, etlema, kõlar, külmik, meetmed, meene, siirdama, teave, teismeline, teler, üllitis, ärandama, levima, süva(muusika), taies, rula''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Proto-European loan |
[[1969]])
*''[[Again, Dangerous Visions]]'' (special award for excellence in anthologizing, [[1972]])
*''[[The Deathbird]]'' (best novelette, [[1974]])
*''[[Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans]]: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13" W'' (best novelette, [[1975]])
*''[[Jeffty is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1978]])
*''[[Paladin of the Lost Hour]]'' (best novelette, [[1986]])
=== Locus Poll Award ===
*''[[The Region Between]]'' (best short fiction, [[1970]])
*''[[Basilisk]]'' (best short fiction, [[1972]])
*''[[Again, Dangerous Visions]]'' (best anthology, [[1972]])
*''[[The Deathbird]]'' (best short fiction. [[1974]])
*''[[Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans]]: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13" W'' (best novelette, [[1975]])
*''[[Croatoan (Ellison)|Croatoan]]'' (best short story, [[1976]])
*''[[Jeffty Is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1978]])
*''[[Count the Clock That Tells the Time]]'' (best short story, [[1979]])
*''[[Djinn, No Chaser]]'' (best novellette, [[1983]])
*''[[Sleepless Nights in the Procrustean Bed]]'' (best related non-fiction, [[1985]])
*''[[Medea - Harlan's World|Medea: Harlan's World]]'' (best anthology, [[1986]])
*''[[Paladin of the Lost Hour]]'' (best novelette, [[1986]])
*''[[With Virgil Oddum at the East Pole]]'' (best short story, [[1986]])
*''[[Angry Candy]]'' (best collection, [[1989]])
*''[[The Function of Dream Sleep]]'' (best novellette, [[1989]])
*''[[Eidolons]]'' (best short story, [[1989]])
*''[[Mefisto in Onyx]]'' (best novella, [[1994]])
*''[[Slippage]]'' (best collection, [[1998]])
=== Nebula Award ===
*''[["Repent, Harlequin!" Said the Ticktockman]]'' (best short story, [[1965]])
*''[[A Boy and His Dog]]'' (best novella, [[1969]])
*''[[Jeffty is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1977]])
=== Additional reading ===
*''[[California Sorcery]]'', edited by [[William F. Nolan]] and [[William Schafer]]
==Parodies and pastiches of Ellison==
Ellison's prose style, while highly regarded, is distinctive but easy to parody: many have tried, with varying degrees of success. Ellison himself is such a distinctive personality that many other science-fiction authors have inserted characters into their works who are thinly-disguised parodies of Ellison himself; some of these parodies are good-natured, others definitely hostile.
One of the more benevolent parodies of Ellison is the main character in a [[mystery]] novel by an author who is better known for [[science fiction]]: ''[[Murder at the A.B.A.]]'' by [[Isaac Asimov]]. (This novel's title refers to the annual convention of the [[American Booksellers Association]].) The novel's main character and narrator is an author named "Darius Just", who finds himself serving as an amateur sleuth to solve the murder of a fellow author at the ABA convention. Asimov intended the name "Darius Just" as a pun on "Dry As Dust", and the protagonist is a slightly exaggerated pastiche of Ellison himself. Ellison has objected to the depiction: Darius Just is only five feet tall, whereas Ellison is four inches taller.
[[Ben Bova]]'s comic-SF novel ''[[The Starcrossed]]'' was inspired by Ellison's and Bova's experience on the Canada-produced miniseries ''[[The Starlost]]''. In Bova's novel, a new 3D television projection system has been developed, and a new show is produced to encourage people to buy the new sets. The producers hire a famous writer named Ron Gabriel to write the show: the character is a thinly disguised Ellison. Although Bova is a friend of Ellison's, and his portrayal of Gabriel is admiring and sympathetic, the novel is broad comedy, and should not be read as a true [[roman a clef]]. (Ellison has given his own non-fiction account of his [[Starlost]] experience in a lengthy essay titled "Somehow, I Don't Think We're in Kansas, Toto."
In a somewhat less sympathetic vein, Ellison serves as a partial basis for a composite character in ''Bimbos of the Death Sun'' by [[Sharyn McCrumb]], who differs from Ellison in a number of respects, including having written a series of sword & sorcery books.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://harlanellison.com/home.htm Ellison Webderland]&mdash;official homepage
*[http://www.worldtalkradio.com/archive.asp?aid=4239 Radio Interview on Comic Zone]
*{{imdb name|id=0255196|name=Harlan Ellison}}
*[http://www.snopes.com/disney/wdco/ellison.htm Urban Legends Reference Pages: Disney (Harlan Ellison)]
* {{isfdb name|id=Harlan_Ellison|name=Harlan Ellison}}
[[Category:1934 births|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Babylon 5 cast and crew|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Clevelanders|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Literary critics|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Wikipedia critics]]
[[Category:Living people|Ellison, Harlan]]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Ellison, Harlan Jay
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American [[science fiction]] author, screenwriter
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 27]], [[1934]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[bg:Харлан Елисън]]
[[de:Harlan Ellison]]
[[es:Harlan Ellison]]
[[eo:Harlan ELLISON]]
[[fr:Harlan Ellison]]
[[he:הרלאן אליסון]]
[[nl:Harlan Ellison]]
[[ja:ハーラン・エリスン]]
[[pl:Harlan Ellison]]
[[fi:Harlan Ellison]]
[[sv:Harlan Ellison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi</title>
<id>13463</id>
<revision>
<id>42049857</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>indexing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi''' (Turkish: '''Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi'''), who lived in the [[17th century]] in [[Istanbul]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]], is one of the first [[aviator]]s to have succeeded in flying with artificial wings. He is supposed to have been inspired by and used the studies of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] on the flight of [[bird|birds]]. He started flying from the [[Galata Tower]], a high tower in [[Istanbul]], and managed to fly over the [[Bosporus]]. The few people known to have succeeded in this kind of flight are an aviator from Moorish [[Spain]] and an [[England|English]] monk in the [[8th century|9th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]], respectively. One of Hezarfen's friends [[Lagari Hasan Celebi]] is known to have performed the first flight with a rocket in a conical cage filled with gun powder. Ahmet Celebi, because of his vast scientific knowledge was given the name '''Hezarfen''', meaning “a thousand sciences”([[polymath]]). In his early studies of flying, he was motivated by the [[10th century]] Turkish scientist [[Ismail Cevheri]]. Celebi, after carefully studying Cevheri’s findings and when he felt confident enough arranged a public demonstration. He climbed the Galata Tower and launched himself into the wind; he passed over the Bosporus and landed in the slopes of [[Üsküdar]] on the [[Anatolia]]n side.
This event created a great sensation. Sultan [[Murat IV]] was delighted and wanted to award Hezarfen but religious leaders and palace advisers soon changed his mind. Hezarfen was exiled to [[Algeria]] where he died soon at the age of thirty-one.
Being one of the three airports in [[Istanbul]], Hezarfen Airfield is a good example of Turks fidelity to this hero.
[[Category:Turkish people|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Turkish aviators|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Year of death missing|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[tr:Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt</title>
<id>13464</id>
<revision>
<id>36458646</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T04:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Semiconscious</username>
<id>302094</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt''' ([[June 2]], [[1885]] &ndash; [[December 30]], [[1964]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[neuropathologist]]. He was born in [[Harburg, Germany|Harburg]] and died in [[Munich]].
==See also==
*[[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]
{{med-bio-stub}}
[[Category:German neuroscientists|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:Pathologists|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:1885 births|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[de:Hans-Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]
[[nl:Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holmium</title>
<id>13465</id>
<revision>
<id>40010917</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:55:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=67 | symbol=Ho | name=holmium | left=[[dysprosium]] | right=[[erbium]] | above=- | below=[[einsteinium|Es]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ho,67| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|164.93032]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>11</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 29, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalpro |
itution]] in 1923 under the leadership of the popular revolutionary [[Saad Zaghlul]]. Between 1924-1936 there existed a short-lived but successful attempt to model Egypt's constitutional government after the European style of government; known as [[Egypt's Liberal Experiment]]. However, in 1952 a military ''[[coup d'état]]'' forced [[King Farouk I]], a constitutional monarch, to abdicate in support of his son [[King Ahmed Fouad II]].
Finally, the Egyptian Republic was declared on [[18 June]] [[1953]] with General [[Muhammad Naguib]] as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib was also forced to resign in 1954 by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], the real architect of the 1952 movement, the latter assumed [[Political power|power]] as President and nationalized the [[Suez Canal]] leading to the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]]. Nasser came out of the war an Arab hero, and [[Nasserism]] won widespread influence in the region though was met with mixed reactions amongst Egyptians, many of whom had previously been indifferent to [[Arab nationalism]].
Between 1958 and 1961, Nasser undertook to form a union between Egypt and [[Syria]] known as the [[United Arab Republic]]. This attempt too was met with mixed reactions, and it was clear that many Egyptians resented finding that the name of their country, which had endured for thousands of years, was suddenly eliminated. Three years after the 1967 [[Six Day War]], in which Egypt lost the [[Sinai]] to [[Israel]], Nasser died and was succeeded by [[Anwar Sadat]], who presented his takeover in terms of a [[The Corrective Revolution|Corrective Revolution]]. Sadat switched Egypt's [[Cold War]] allegiance from the [[Soviet Union]] to the [[United States]], expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the [[Infitah]] economic reform, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike. Egypt's name was also restored.
In 1973, Egypt, along with [[Syria]], launched a surprise attack on Israel in the [[October War]] (known also as the [[Yom Kippur War]]), which, despite not being a complete military success, was by most accounts a political victory. Both the [[United States]] and the [[USSR]] intervened, and a cease-fire was reached between Egypt and [[Israel]]. In 1979, Sadat made [[Camp David Accords|peace]] with [[Israel]] in exchange for the Sinai, a move that sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the [[Arab League]] (it was readmitted in 1989). Sadat was murdered by a religious fundamentalist in 1981, and succeeded by [[Hosni Mubarak]].
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Egypt}}
[[Image:presoffice.jpg|thumb|The Office of the [[President of Egypt]] at the [[Presidential Palace]].]]Egypt has been a republic since [[18 June]] [[1953]]. President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the [[President of Egypt|President of the Republic]] since [[October 14]] [[1981]], following the assassination of former-President [[Anwar Sadat|Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat]]. Muburak is currently serving his sixth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]. [[Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]] Dr. [[Ahmed Nazif]] was sworn in as Prime Minister on [[9 July]] [[2004]], following the resignation of Dr. [[Atef Ebeid]] from his office.
Egypt is regarded by many as being ruled by a military dictatorship. Although power is ostensibly organised under a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[semi-presidential system]], whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a sixth consecutive term, was held in September 2005 (see below).
[[Image:parli.gif|thumb|The [[Parliament of Egypt|Egyptian Parliament]].]]In late-February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as [[Ayman Nour]] from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.
Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging. In addition, violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators and police brutality were evident during the elections. This poses major questions about the government's purported commitment to democracy.
As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratisation and the role of the elections. A very small proportion of those eligible to vote actually turned out for the 2005 elections. Newspapers, however, have exhibited an increasing degree of freedom in criticizing the president, and the results of the recent parliamentary elections, which saw Islamist parties such as the banned [[Muslim Brotherhood]] winning many seats, genuinely indicate that a change of some sorts is underway.
The permanent headquarters for the [[League of Arab States]] (The Arab League) is located in Cairo. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]] at the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.
==Military==
{{main|Military of Egypt}}
The Egyptian Armed Forces ([[Arabic]]: القوات المسلحة المصرية tran: Al-Quwwat Al-musallaha Al-Masriya) consists of the Army, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense. The Coast Guard and Border Guard operate as subordinates to the Navy and Army Command respectively.
[[Image:Egyptian F-16s.jpg|thumb|Egyptian F-16s flying in close formation next to the Pyramids]]The Egyptian military is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, the largest being that of Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). The Egyptian Armed Forces also ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the region. Its inventory includes [[F-16]]s, [[Mirage 2000]] aircraft, [[MiG-29]] fighters, [[Apache helicopter]]s, [[M1 Abrams]] Tanks and medium-long range missiles. The Egyptian Armed forces, has a combined troop strength of 450,000 active personnel.
The Supreme Commander is [[Hosni Mubarak]], wartime [[Field Marshal]] of the army, [[admiral]] of the navy, Chief Air Marshal ([[Colonel General]]) of the Air Forces and Air Defence Forces. During peacetime, the title of Supreme Commander is ceremonial.
The Commander-in-Chief and commander of the army is [[Field Marshal]] [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]], Minister Of Defense and Military Production.
The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Enan.
The Commander of the Navy is Vice Admiral Tamer Abd El Aleem Mohamed Ismail
The Commander of the Air Forces is Air Marshal (Lt. Gen.) Magdy Galal Sharawi
The Commander of the Air Defence Forces is Major General Abd El Aziz Seif
[[Conscription#Egypt|Conscription]] is compulsory for Egyptian men of 18 years of age. Full-time students may defer their service until the age of 28. The length of the service depends on the level of education achieved by the conscripted.
Military relations between Egypt and the US are strong. Military cooperation between the two countries covers a number of strategic areas, including cooperation in the ongoing process of modernising Egyptian armaments and training the Egyptian armed forces.
While military cooperation between the US and Egypt is close and diversified, this does not constitute a form of military alliance. Nothing could furnish clearer proof of this than the high degree of transparency surrounding all aspects of Egyptian-US military cooperation. Bilateral exercises and mutual training are carried out regularly, and, according to one US source, reflect the high level of professionalism and the growing excellence of the fighting men and women in the various branches of the Egyptian armed forces.
Egypt takes part regularly in military exercises with the US and other European and Arab allies, including the manoeuvres that take place in Egypt every two years.
Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in [[East Timor]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Liberia]].
==Governorates==
{{main|Governorates of Egypt}}
[[Image:Eg-map.png|thumb|right|Map of Egypt]]
Egypt is divided into 26 [[governorate]]s (''Muhafazat;'' singular &ndash; ''Muhafazah'') and the city of [[Al Uqsur]] (Luxor), which is classified as a city rather than a governorate.
<table border=0><tr valign=top><td>
*[[Aswan]]
*[[Asyut]]
*[[Al Bahr al Ahmar Governorate|Al-Bahr Al-Ahmar]] (Red Sea)
*[[Bani Suwayf]]
*[[Al Buhayrah|El-Beheirah]]
*[[Bur Sa'id]] (Port Said)
*[[Ad-Daqahliyah]]
*[[Dimyat|Dumyat]]
*[[Al Fayyum|Al-Fayyum]]
<td>
*[[Al Gharbiyah|Al-Gharbiyah]]
*[[Al Iskandariyah|Al-Iskandariyah]] (Alexandria)
*[[Al Isma'iliyah|Al-Isma'iliyah]]
*[[janub Sina'|Ganub Sina]] (Sou |
t: The Letters of H. P. Lovecraft and Donald Wandrei'' et al.) and Necronomicon Press (''Letters to Samuel Loveman and Vincent Starrett'' et al).
===Intellectual property===
There is no little controversy over the [[copyright]] status of many of Lovecraft's works, especially his later works. All works published in the US before 1923 are [[public domain]]. However, there is some disagreement over who exactly owns or owned the copyrights and whether the copyrights for the majority of Lovecraft's works published post-1923 - including such prominent pieces as ''[[The Call of Cthulhu]]'' and ''[[At the Mountains of Madness]]'' - have now expired.
Questions center over whether copyrights for Lovecraft's works were ever renewed under the terms of the [[USA]] [[Copyright Act of 1976]] for works created prior to [[January 1]] [[1978]]. If Lovecraft's work had been renewed they would be eligible for protection for 75-95 years after the author's death according to the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] of 1998. This means the copyrights would not expire on some of Lovecraft's works until 2019 at the earliest, providing that no further laws extend the periods of copyrights within the USA. Similarly, the [[European Union]] [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] of 1993 extended the copyrights to 70 years after the author's death.
In those [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] countries who have implemented only the minimum copyright period, copyright expires 50 years after the author's death.
Lovecraft protégés and part owners of Arkham House, [[August Derleth]] and [[Donald Wandrei]] often claimed copyrights over Lovecraft's works. On [[October 9]], [[1947]] Derleth purchased all rights to ''[[Weird Tales]]''. However, since April 1926 at the latest, Lovecraft had reserved all second printing rights to stories published in ''Weird Tales''. Hence, ''Weird Tales'' may only have owned the rights to at most six of Lovecraft's tales. Again, even if Derleth did obtain the copyrights to Lovecraft's tales no evidence as yet has been found that the copyrights were renewed.[http://phantasmal.sourceforge.net/Innsmouth/LovecraftCopyright.html]
Prominent Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]] concludes in his biography, ''H.P. Lovecraft: A Life'', that Derleth's claims are "almost certainly fictitious" and that most of Lovecraft's works published in the amateur press are most likely now in the public domain. The copyright for Lovecraft's works would have been inherited by the only surviving heir of his 1912 will: Lovecraft's aunt, [[Annie Gamwell]]. Gamwell herself perished in 1941 and the copyrights then passed to her remaining descendants, [[Ethel Phillips Morrish]] and Edna Lewis. Morrish and Lewis then signed a document, sometimes referred to as the Morrish-Lewis gift, permitting [[Arkham House]] to republish Lovecraft's works but retaining the copyrights for themselves. Searches of the [[Library of Congress]] have failed to find any evidence that these copyrights were then renewed after the 28 year period and, hence, it is likely that these works are now in the public domain.
According to [[Peter Ruber]]'s (the current editor of Arkham House) essay, ''The Un-Demonizing of August Derleth'', certain letters obtained in June 1998 detail the Derleth-Wandrei acquisition of Lovecraft's estate. It is unclear whether these letters contradict Joshi's views on Lovecraft's copyrights.[http://www.epberglund.com/RGttCM/nightscapes/NS15/ns15nf01.htm]
[[Chaosium]], publishers of the [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu role-playing game]], have a [[trademark]] on several Lovecraftian phrases and creations, including "The Call of Cthulhu" for use in game products. Another RPG publisher, [[TSR, Inc.]], original publisher of [[Dungeons and Dragons|Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]], included in one of that game's earlier supplements, [[Deities & Demigods]], a section on the Cthulhu Mythos; TSR, Inc. was later forced to remove this section from subsequent editions because of Chaosium's trademark.
Regardless of the legal disagreements surrounding Lovecraft's works, Lovecraft himself was extremely generous with his own works and actively encouraged others to borrow ideas from his stories, particularly with regard to his Cthulhu Mythos. By "wide citation" he hoped to give his works an "air of verisimilitude" and actively encouraged other writers to reference his creations, such as the ''Necronomicon'', Cthulhu and Yog-Sothoth. After his death, many writers have contributed stories and enriched the shared mythology of the Cthulhu Mythos, as well as making numerous references to his work (see [[References to the Cthulhu mythos|References to the Cthulhu Mythos]]).
== Locations featured in Lovecraft stories ==
Lovecraft drew extensively from his native New England for settings in his fiction. Numerous real historical locations are mentioned, and several fictional New England locations make frequent appearances.
=== Historical locations ===
* [[Copp's Hill]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* [[Red Line (MBTA)]]
* [[Cranston, Rhode Island|Pawtuxet]] (not extant)
* [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]]
* [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]
* Many locations within his hometown of [[Providence, Rhode Island]], including the (then purportedly haunted) Halsey House, Prospect Terrace, and [[Brown University|Brown University's]] John Hay Library and John Carter Brown Library.
=== Fictional locations ===
* [[Miskatonic University]] in the fictional [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]]
* [[Innsmouth]]
* [[Dunwich (H. P. Lovecraft)|Dunwich]]
== Bibliography ==
*[[List of Works by H. P. Lovecraft]]
==Books==
{{Wikisource author}}
* McInnis, John L. (1975). ''H.P. Lovecraft: The maze and the minotaur''. (Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge).
*From [[Arkham House]]
**Definitive versions with corrected texts by [[S. T. Joshi]]:
***''At the Mountains of Madness, and Other Novels'' (7th corrected printing), S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1985. ISBN 0-870-54038-6.
***''Dagon and Other Macabre Tales'', S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1987. ISBN 0-870-54039-4..
***''The Dunwich Horror and Others'' (9th corrected printing), S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1984. ISBN 0-870-54037-8.
***''The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions'', S.T. Joshi (ed.), 1989. ISBN 0-87054-040-8.
**''[[Miscellaneous Writings]]'' (ISBN 0870541684)
*From [[Ballantine]]/[[Del Rey]]:
**''[[The Tomb and Other Tales]]'' (ISBN 0345336615)
**''[[Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos]]'' (ISBN 034542204)
**''[[The Doom That Came to Sarnath]]'' (ISBN 0345331052)
**''[[The Lurking Fear and Other Stories]]'' (ISBN 0345326040)
**''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]'' (ISBN 0345337794)
**''[[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward]]'' (ISBN 0345354907)
**''[[At the Mountains of Madness|At the Mountains of Madness and Other Tales of Terror]]'' (ISBN 0345329457)
**''[[The Best of H. P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre]]'' (ISBN 0345350804)
**''[[The Road to Madness]]'' (ISBN 0345384229)
**''[[Dreams of Terror and Death: The Dream Cycle of H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0345384210)
**''[[Waking Up Screaming: Haunting Tales of Terror]]'' (ISBN 034545829X)
*From [[Night Shade Books]]:
**''[[The Ancient Track: The Complete Poetical Works of H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 1892389169)
**''[[Mysteries of Time and Spirit: The Letters of H.P. Lovecraft and Donald Wandrei]]'' (ISBN 1892389495)
*From Hippocampus Press:
**''[[The Shadow out of Time]]'' (ISBN 0967321530)
**''[[From the Pest Zone: The New York Stories]]'' (ISBN 0967321581)
**''[[The Annotated Fungi From Yuggoth]]'' (ISBN 0972164472)
**''[[Collected Essays]]'' (ISBN 0972164413)
**''[[The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature]]'' (ISBN 0967321506 )
**''[[H. P. Lovecraft: Letters to Alfred Galpin]]'' (ISBN 096732159X)
**''[[H. P. Lovecraft: Letters To Rheinhart Kleiner]]'' (ISBN 0974878952)
**''[[Lovecraft's Library: A Catalogue]]'' (ISBN 0967321573)
**''[[Primal Sources: Essays on H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0972164405)
**''[[An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia]]'' (ISBN 097487891X)
*From Fenham Publishers:
**''[[The Gentleman From Angell Street: Memories of H.P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0970169914)
==Adaptations==
===Movies===
<!-- ***PLEASE***, do not add movies here which are merely "Lovecraftian" (see "Lovecraftian horror") or which make references to the Mythos (see "References to the Cthulhu mythos"), as those are cataloged elsewhere already. This section is purely for adaptations of lovecraft's work or biographical films. If you're not sure, check the above mentioned two pages and see if the film is listed there. Then check the IMDB to see if Lovecraft is given story credit for the film. -->
Films based (generally ''very'' loosely) on specific Lovecraft works (partial list only; see [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0522454/ Lovecraft's IMDB entry] for a more complete selection):
*''Cool Air'' (1998), Adaptation by Bryan Moore starring Jack Donner ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0200546/combined IMDb entry])
*''The Curse'' (1987) Adaptation of "[[The Colour out of Space]]" ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092809/ IMDb entry])
*''Dagon'' (2001), based less on Lovecraft's story of the same name as on ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0264508/ IMDb entry])
*''Die, Monster, Die!'' (1965) (another adaptation of "The Colour out of Space") ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0059465/ IMDb entry])
*''The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath'' (2003), an animated adaptation of the book by the same name ([http://www.petting-zoo.org/Movies_Dreamquest.html Official Site]) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0384057/ IMDb entry])
*''[[The Dunwich Horror]]'' (1970) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0065669/ IMDb entry])
*''From Beyond'' (1986) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0091083/ IMDb entry])
*''The Hau |
ry:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Pnictogens]]
[[category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|id}}
[[ar:زرنيخ]]
[[bg:Арсен]]
[[bs:Arsen]]
[[ca:Arsènic]]
[[cs:Arsen]]
[[cy:Arsenig]]
[[da:Arsen]]
[[de:Arsen]]
[[et:Arseen]]
[[es:Arsénico]]
[[eo:Arseno]]
[[fa:آرسنیک]]
[[fr:Arsenic]]
[[ko:비소]]
[[io:Arseno]]
[[id:Arsenik]]
[[is:Arsen]]
[[it:Arsenico]]
[[he:ארסן]]
[[lv:Arsēns]]
[[lt:Arsenas]]
[[hu:Arzén]]
[[nl:Arsenicum]]
[[ja:ヒ素]]
[[no:Arsen]]
[[nn:Arsen]]
[[oc:Arsenic]]
[[pl:Arsen]]
[[pt:Arsênio]]
[[ru:Мышьяк]]
[[sc:Arsènicu]]
[[sl:Arzen]]
[[sr:Арсен]]
[[fi:Arseeni]]
[[sv:Arsenik]]
[[th:สารหนู]]
[[uk:Арсен]]
[[zh:砷]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antimony</title>
<id>898</id>
<revision>
<id>41659149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:45:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hairy Dude</username>
<id>274535</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{distinguish2}} replacing ad hoc disambig notice</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{distinguish2|[[antinomy|anti'''n'''o'''m'''y]], a type of [[paradox]]}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=51 | symbol=Sb | name=antimony | left=[[tin]] | right=[[tellurium]] | above=[[arsenic|As]] | below=[[bismuth|Bi]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=5 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Sb,51| silvery lustrous grey }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|121.760]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&#93; 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup> 5p<sup>3</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 6.697 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.53 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=903.78 | c=630.63 | f=1167.13 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1860 | c=1587 | f=2889 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 19.79 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 193.43 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.23 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 807 | 876 | 1011 | 1219 | 1491 | 1858 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &minus;3, '''3''', 5 }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.05 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 834 | 1594.9 | 2440 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|145]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|133]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|138]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 417 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 24.4 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 11.0 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 3420 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 55 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 20 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 42 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 3.0 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 294 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-36-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=antimony | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=121 | sym=Sb | na=57.36% | n=70 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=123 | sym=Sb | na=42.64% | n=72 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=125 | sym=Sb
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.7582 [[year|y]]
| dm=[[beta emission|Beta<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.767 | pn=125 | ps=[[tellurium|Te]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
'''Antimony''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Sb''' ([[Latin (language)|L.]] ''Stibium'') and [[atomic number]] 51. A [[metalloid]], antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in flame-proofing, [[paint]]s, [[ceramic]]s, [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]]s, a wide variety of [[alloy]]s, [[electronics]], and [[rubber]].
== Notable characteristics ==
Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, [[brittle]], [[fusibility|fusible]], [[crystal|crystalline]] solid that exhibits poor electrical and heat [[conductivity]] properties and [[vaporize]]s at low [[temperature]]s. A [[metalloid]], antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by [[oxidation|oxidizing]] [[acid]]s and [[halogen]]s. Antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling.
Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the [[Earth]]'s crust range from 0.2 to 0.5 [[part per million|ppm]]. Antimony is geochemically categorized as a [[chalcophile]], occurring with [[sulfur]] and the [[heavy metals]] [[lead]], [[copper]], and [[silver]].
== Applications ==
Antimony is increasingly being used in the [[semiconductor]] industry in the production of [[diode]]s, [[infrared]] detectors, and [[Hall effect|Hall-effect]] devices. As an [[alloy]], this semi-metal greatly increases [[lead]]'s hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Other uses;
*[[Battery (electricity)|Batteries]],
*antifriction alloys,
*type metal,
*small arms and tracer bullets,
*cable sheathing,
*matches,
*medicines,
*plumbing ("lead-free" solder contains 5% Sb),
*main and big-end bearings in [[internal combustion engine]]s (as alloy).
*used in the past to treat [[Schistosomiasis]], nowadays [[Praziquantel]] is universally used.
Antimony compounds in the form of [[oxide]]s, [[sulfide]]s, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, [[ceramic]] enamels, [[glass]], [[paint]]s, and [[pottery]]. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. Also, antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients of a modern match.
== History ==
Antimony was recognized in antiquity ([[4th_millennium_BC|3000 BC]] or earlier) in various compounds, and it was prized for its fine [[casting]] qualities. It was first reported scientifically by [[Tholden]] in [[1450]], and was known to be a metal by the beginning of the [[17th century]]. The origin of the name "antimony" is not clear; the term may come from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words "anti" and "monos", which approximately means "opposed to solitude" as it was thought never to exist in its pure form, or from the [[Egyptian mythology|Pharaonic]] expression "Antos Amun", which could be translated as "bloom of the god [[Amun]]".
[[image:antimony-symbol.png|frame|left|80px|Alchemical symbol for antimony]]
The natural sulfide of antimony, [[stibnite]], was known and used in Biblical times as [[medicine]] and as a [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]]. Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as [[medicine]]. Antimony has been used for the treatment of [[schistosomiasis]]. Antimony attaches itself to [[sulfur]] atoms in certain [[enzyme]]s which are used both by the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in several[[ veterinary]] preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug.
The relationship between antimony's modern name and its symbol is complex; the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was borrowed by the [[Greece|Greeks]], which was in turn borrowed by [[Latin]], resulting in ''stibium''. The chemical pioneer [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings, and his usage became the standard symbol.
Treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called [[antimonial]]s.
== Sources ==
[[Image:Antimony massive.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Native massive antimony with [[redox|oxidation]] products]]
Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 [[mineral]] species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide [[stibnite]] (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) which is the predominant ore [[mineral]]. Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals.
{| border="1"
! Country !! Tonnes !! % of total
|-
|align="center" |[[People's Republic of China]]
|align="center" |126 000
|align="center" |81.5
|-
|align="center" |[[Russia]]
|align="center" |12 000
|align="center" |7.8
|-
|align="center" |[[South Africa]]
|align="center" |5 023
|align="center" |3.3
|-
|align="center" |[[Tadjikistan]]
|align="center" |3 480
|align="center" |2.3
|-
|align="center" |[[Bolivia]]
|align="center" |2 430
|align="center" |1.6
|-
|align="center" |''Top 5''
|align="center" |''148 933''
|align="center" |''96.4''
|-
|align="center" |'''Total world'''
|align="center" |'''154 538'''
|align="center" |'''100.0'''
|}
<small>''Chiffres de [[2003]], métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source : L'état du monde 2005''</small>
== Precautions ==
Antimony and many of its compounds are [[toxic]]. Clinically, antimony poi |
particular]]s, or [[concrete]] things, or maybe [[substance]]s (but bear in mind the word 'substance' has some special philosophical meanings).
===Minds===
[[Mind]]s -- those "parts" of us that think and perceive -- are considered beings by some philosophers. Each of us, according to [[common sense]] anyway, "has" a mind. Of course, philosophers rarely just assume that minds occupy a different category of beings from physical objects. Some, like [[René Descartes]], have thought that this is so (this view is known as [[dualism]], and [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]] also considers the mind as distinct from the body), while others have thought that concepts of the mental can be [[reduction|reduced]] to physical concepts (this is the view of [[physicalism]] or [[materialism]]). Still others maintain though "mind" is a noun, it is not necessarily the "name of a thing" distinct within the whole person. In this view the relationship between mental properties and physical properties is one of [[supervenience]] &ndash; similar to how "banks" supervene upon certain buildings. See [[Philosophy of mind]].
===Classes===
We can talk about all human beings, and the planets, and all engines as belonging to [[class (philosophy)|class]]es. Within the class of human beings are all of the human beings, or the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the term 'human being'. In the class of [[planet]]s would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and all the other planets that there might be in the universe. Classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings. Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of planets ''is'', or has being. Classes are usually taken to be [[Abstract structure|abstract objects]], like sets; 'class' is often regarded as equivalent, or nearly equivalent, in meaning to '[[set]]'. Denying that classes and sets exist is the contemporary meaning of [[nominalism]].
===Properties===
The redness of a red apple, or more to the point, the redness all red things share, is a ''[[property (philosophy)|property]]''. One could also call it an ''attribute'' of the apple. Very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object. This will not do as a definition of the word 'property' because, like 'attribute', 'quality' is a near-synonym of 'property'. But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we are talking about. Whenever one talks about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, one is talking about the properties of that object. Some -- though this is a point of severe contention in the [[problem of universals]] -- believe that properties are beings; the redness of all apples is something that ''is.'' To deny that universals exist is the [[Scholastic philosophy|scholastic]] variant of [[nominalism]].
===Relations===
An apple sitting on a table is in a [[relation]] to the table it sits on. So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table: namely, the relation of sitting-on. So, some say, we can say that that relation has being. For another example, the [[Washington Monument]] is taller than the [[White House]]. Being-taller-than is a relation between the two buildings. We can say that ''that'' relation has being as well. This, too, is a point of contention in the [[problem of universals]].
Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be ''[[abstract]],'' rather than ''[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]].'' Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence. That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
== See also ==
* [[metaphysics]]
* [[Modal logic]]
* [[Ontology]]
==References==
*[[Aristotle]], 1953. ''[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/metaphysics/ Metaphysics]''. Ross, W. D., trans. Oxford Uni. Press.
*--------, 2004. ''[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/a8/categori.html Categories]'', Edghill, E. M., trans. Uni. of Adelaide library.
*[[Roderick Chisholm]], 1996. ''A Realistic Theory of Categories''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Grossman, Rheinhardt, 1983. ''The Categorial Structure of the World''. Indiana Uni. Press.
*Hoffman, J., and Rosenkrantz, G. S.,1994. ''Substance among other Categories''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*[[Edmund Husserl]], 1962. ''Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology''. Boyce Gibson, W. R., trans. Collier.
*------, 2000. ''Logical Investigations'', 2nd ed. Findlay, J. N., trans. Routledge.
*Johanssen, Ingvar, 1989. ''Ontological Investigations''. Routledge.
*[[Immanuel Kant]], 1998. ''Critique of Pure Reason''. Guyer, Paul, and Wood, A. W., trans. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*[[Charles Peirce]], 1992, 1998. ''The Essential Peirce'', vols. 1,2. Houser, Nathan et al, eds. Indiana Uni. Press.
*[[Gilbert Ryle]], 1949. ''The Concept of Mind''. Uni. of Chicago Press.
*[[Wilfred Sellars]], 1974, "Toward a Theory of the Categories" in ''Essays in Philosophy and Its History''. Reidel.
*[[Barry Smith]], 2003. "Ontology" in ''Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information''. Blackwell.
== External links ==
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/categories/ Categories] -- Amie Thomasson.
* Aristotle's ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html Categories]'' at MIT.
* "[http://ejap.louisiana.edu/EJAP/1997.spring/thomasson976.html Ontological Categories and How to Use Them]" -- Amie Thomassen.
* "[http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~weltyc/fois/fois-2001/keynote/ Recent Advances in Metaphysics]" -- E. J. Lowe.
* [http://www.formalontology.it/ Ontology: A Resource Guide for Philosophers] -- Raul Corrazon.
[[Category:Ontology]]
[[cs:Kategorie (filosofie)]]
[[de:Kategorie (Philosophie)]]
[[he:קטגוריה]]
[[nl:Categorie]]
[[ru:Категория (философия)]]
[[zh:范畴 (哲学)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concrete</title>
<id>5371</id>
<revision>
<id>42047415</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:54:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.222.248.72</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Self compacting concretes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Concrete pouring 0020.jpg|270px|right|thumb|Placing a concrete floor for a commercial building]]
[[Image:Concrete rebar 0030.jpg|220px|right|thumb|Installing rebar in a floor during a concrete pour]]
In [[construction]], '''concrete''' is a [[composite material|composite]] building material made from the combination of [[aggregate (composite)|aggregate]] and [[cement]] [[composite material|binder]].
The most common form of concrete consists of [[Portland cement]], mineral aggregates (generally [[gravel]] and [[sand]]) and [[water (molecule)|water]].
Contrary to common belief, concrete does not solidify from drying after mixing and placement. Instead, the cement [[hydration|hydrates]], gluing the other components together and eventually creating a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term '''concrete'''. Concrete is used to make pavements, building structures, foundations, motorways/roads, overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material on the planet, with water being the only substance on Earth we utilize more. As of 2005 over six billion tons of concrete are made each year, amounting to the equivalent of one ton for every person on Earth, and powers a 35 billion dollar industry which employs over two million workers in the United States alone. Over 55,000 miles of freeways and highways in America are made of this material. An old name for concrete is liquid stone.
However, [[asphalt concrete]] is strictly speaking a form of concrete as well.
==History==
The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Babylonian]]s used [[clay]] as [[cement]] in their concretes. The [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]]s used [[Lime (mineral)|lime]] and [[gypsum]] cement. In the [[Roman Empire]], concrete made from [[Quicklime]], [[pozzolanic ash]]/[[pozzolana]] and an aggregate made from [[pumice]] was very similar to modern portland cement concrete. In [[1756]], [[United Kingdom|British]] engineer [[John Smeaton]] pioneered the use of portland cement in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. In the modern day, the use of recycled/reused materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity due to increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is pulverized fuel ash, recycled from the ash by-products of coal power plants. This has a significant impact in reducing the amount of quarrying and the ever-attenuating landfill space.
==Characteristics==
During hydration and hardening, concrete needs to develop certain physical and chemical properties, among others, mechanical strength, low permeability to ingress of moisture, and chemical and volume stability. Concrete has relatively high [[compressive strength]], but significantly lower [[tensile strength]] (about 10% of the compressive strength). As a result, concrete always fails from tensile stresses - even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of these facts is that concrete elements that are subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced. To illustrate this difference in compressive and tensile strength for unreinforced concrete one only has to imagine a 10' x 10' section of concrete 4 inches thick suspended on its edges. This section of concrete would be unable to support its own weight and would crack in two. Concrete is most often constructed with the addition of [[steel]] bar or [[fiber]] reinforcement. The reinforcement can be by bars ([[rebar]]s), mesh, or fibres to prod |
le:Dimension]]
[[sv:Dimension]]
[[zh:維度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dissolve</title>
<id>8399</id>
<revision>
<id>40123259</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:10:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<comment>solvation, rather</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The term '''dissolve''' has several meanings:
*In [[chemistry]], it is the act of '''[[solvation]]''', when the components of a solid blend into a liquid, creating a [[solution]]. Upon evaporation, the dissolved components generally can come out of solution and reform the solid.
*In [[film editing|film]] and [[video editing]], it means a gradual transition between pieces of [[footage]]. See '''[[dissolve (film)]]'''.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Duodecimal</title>
<id>8400</id>
<revision>
<id>41890020</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ayersalisa</username>
<id>919106</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Numeral Systems}}
[[Image:Duodecimal Multiplication Table.PNG|right|thumb|200px|A duodecimal [[multiplication table]]]]
The '''duodecimal''' (also known as '''[[Base (mathematics)|base]]-{{num|12}}''' or '''dozenal''') system is a [[numeral system]] using [[12 (number)|twelve]] as its base.
The number 12 has four factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], [[4 (number)|4]] and [[6 (number)|6]]. It is a more convenient number system for computing fractions compared with the [[decimal]] or [[vigesimal]] system.
The decimal system has only two factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]] and [[5 (number)|5]]. Also the vigesimal system has four factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]], [[4 (number)|4]], [[5 (number)|5]] and [[10 (number)|10]]; compared with the factor 3 (duodecimal) and 5 (vigesimal).
== Origin ==
:''In this section, numerals are based on decimal [[digit|places]]. For example, 10 means [[10 (number)|ten]], 12 means [[12 (number)|twelve]].''
Languages based on the duodecimal system are uncommon. Languages in the [[Nigeria]]n Middle Belt such as [[Janji]], [[Kahugu]], the [[Nimbia]] dialect of [[Gwandara]], [[Mahl language]] of [[Minicoy]] and the [[Chepang]] language of [[Nepal]] are known to use duodecimal numerals. In fiction, [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Elvish languages]] used the duodecimal.
Natural explanations for the choice of the number twelve include the following:
*the approximate number of [[lunar calendar|lunar]] [[month]]s in an Earth [[year]];
*the sum of [[10 (number)|ten]] [[finger]]s on human hands and [[2 (number)|two]] [[foot|feet]]; or
*the number of [[phalanx bone]]s in the four fingers of one hand, with the thumb used as an indicator.
Historically, [[unit]]s of [[time]] in many [[civilization]]s are duodecimal, which may come as a generalization of the use for months. There are twelve signs of the [[zodiac]]. There are twelve European [[hour]]s in a day or night. Traditional [[Chinese calendar]]s, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve [[Earthly Branches]].
Many European languages have special words for 11 and 12 (and sometimes into the teens), which are often misinterpreted as vestiges of a base-twelve system. However, in actuality, most if not all of these terms have been [[Erosion#Figurative use|eroded]] from decimal roots. For example, in [[Latin]], the teens were formed by suffixing -decem (ten) to the respective words. In the modern Romance languages, this is often obscured by sound changes. For example, ''undecem'' and ''duodecem'' became, in [[Spanish Language|Spanish]], ''once'' and ''doce'' (likewise ''trece, catorce, quince''). [[English language|English]] “eleven” and “twelve” are believed to come from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''ainlif'' and *''twalif'' (respectively “one left” and “two left”), also related to base-ten. Admittedly, the survival of such apparently unique terms may be connected with duodecimal tendencies, but their origin is not duodecimal.
Being a versatile denominator in fractions may explain why we have 12 [[inch]]es in a [[foot (unit of length)|foot]], 12 ounces in a [[troy pound]], 12 [[penny|old British pence]] in a [[shilling]], 12 items in a [[dozen]], 12 dozens in a [[gross]] ([[144 (number)|144]], [[square number|square]] of 12), 12 gross in a [[great gross]] ([[1728 (number)|1728]], [[cube (arithmetic)|cube]] of 12),
10 dozens in a [[small gross]] ([[120 (number)|120]]), etc.
== Places ==
In a duodecimal place system, [[10 (number)|ten]] is written as A, [[11 (number)|eleven]] is written as B, [[12 (number)|twelve]] is written as 10. According to this notation, duodecimal 50 expresses the same quantity as decimal [[60 (number)|60]] (= five times twelve), duodecimal 60 is equivalent to decimal [[72 (number)|72]] (= six times twelve = half a gross), duodecimal 100 has the same value as decimal [[144 (number)|144]] (= twelve times twelve = one gross), etc. Note that in English we say ''a gross '''of''' apples'', and not *''a gross apples''. In a hypothetical duodecimal system, the term ''per gross'' (¹&#8260;<sub>144</sub>) might replace ''per cent'' (¹&#8260;<sub>100</sub>).
{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Examples in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| 26
| two dozen and six = two and a half dozen
| [[30 (number)|30]]
|-
| 3B
| three dozen and eleven
| [[47 (number)|47]]
|-
| A0
| ten dozen = one small gross
| [[120 (number)|120]]
|-
| 1A6
| one gross ten dozen and six
| [[270 (number)|270]]
|-
| 260
| two gross and six dozen = two and a half gross = thirty dozen
| [[360 (number)|360]]
|-
| 500
| five gross
| [[720 (number)|720]]
|-
| 600
| six gross = half a great gross
| [[864 (number)|864]]
|-
| 700
| seven gross
| [[1008 (number)|1,008]]
|-
| B29
| eleven gross two dozen and nine
| [[1617 (number)|1,617]]
|-
| BBB
| eleven gross eleven dozen and eleven = one less than a great gross
| [[1727 (number)|1,727]]
|-
| 1,1B1
| one great gross one gross eleven dozen and one
| [[2005 (number)|2,005]]
|-
| 36,A17
| three dozen and six great gross ten gross one dozen and seven
| [[74035 (number)|74,035]]
|}
{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''twelve''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''10''' = 10^1
| twelve = one dozen
| [[12 (number)|12]] = 12^1
|-
| '''100''' = 10^2
| one gross = twelve dozen
| [[144 (number)|144]] = 12^2
|-
| '''1,000''' = 10^3
| one great gross = twelve gross
| [[1728 (number)|1,728]] = 12^3
|-
| '''10,000''' = 10^4 = 100^2
| one dozen great gross = twelve great gross
| [[20736 (number)|20,736]] = 12^4 = 144^2
|-
| '''100,000''' = 10^5
| ? (twelve to the fifth power)
| [[248832 (number)|248,832]] = 12^5
|-
| '''1,000,000''' = 10^6 = 100^3 = 1,000^2
| ? twelve to the sixth power)
| [[2985984 (number)|2,985,984]] = 12^6 = 144^3 = 1,728^2
|-
| '''10,000,000''' = 10^7
| ? (twelve to the seventh power)
| [[35831808 (number)|35,831,808]] = 12^7
|-
| '''100,000,000''' = 10^8 = 100^4
| ? (twelve to the eighth power)
| [[429981696 (number)|429,981,696]] = 12^8 = 144^4
|-
| '''1,000,000,000''' = 10^9 = 1,000^3
| ? (twelve to the ninth power)
| [[5159780352 (number)|5,159,780,352]] = 12^9 = 1,728^3
|-
| '''10,000,000,000''' = 10^A = 100^5
| ? (twelve to the tenth power)
| [[61917364224 (number)|61,917,364,224]] = 12^10 = 144^5
|-
| '''100,000,000,000''' = 10^B
| ? (twelve to the eleventh power)
| [[743008370688 (number)|743,008,370,688]] = 12^11
|-
| '''1,000,000,000,000''' = 10^10 = 10[[Knuth's up-arrow notation|^^]]2 = 100^6 = 1,000^4 = 10,000^3 = 1,000,000^2
| ? (twelve to the twelfth power = twelve [[tetration|tetrated]] to the second hyperpower)
| [[8916100448256 (number)|8,916,100,448,256]] = 12^12 = 12^^2 = 144^6 = 1,728^4 = 20,736^3 = 2,985,984^2
|}
{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''ten''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''A''' = A^1
| ten
| [[10 (number)|10]] = 10^1
|-
| '''84''' = A^2
| eight dozen and four
| [[100 (number)|100]] = 10^2
|-
| '''6B4''' = A^3
| six great gross eleven dozen and four
| [[1000 (number)|1,000]] = 10^3
|-
| '''5,954''' = A^4 = 84^2
| five great gross nine gross five dozen and four
| [[10000 (number)|10,000]] = 10^4 = 100^2
|-
| '''49,A54''' = A^5
| four dozen and nine great gross, ten gross five dozen and four
| [[100000 (number)|100,000]] = 10^5
|-
| '''402,854''' = A^6 = 84^3 = 6B4^2
| four gross and two great gross, eight gross five dozen and four
| [[1000000 (number)|1,000,000]] = 10^6 = 100^3 = 1,000^2
|-
| '''3,423,054''' = A^7
| ? (ten to the seventh power)
| [[10000000 (number)|10,000,000]] = 10^7
|-
| '''29,5A6,454''' = A^8 = 84^4 = 5954^2
| ? (ten to the eighth power)
| [[100000000 (number)|100,000,000]] = 10^8 = 100^4 = 10,000^2
|-
| '''23A,A93,854''' = A^9 = 6B4^3
| ? (ten to the ninth power)
| [[1000000000 (number)|1,000,000,000]] = 10^9 = 1,000^3
|-
| '''1,B30,B91,054''' = A^A = A^^2 = 84^5
| ? (ten to the tenth power = ten tetrated to the second hyperpower)
| [[10000000000 (number)|10,000,000,000]] = 10^10 = 10^^2 = 100^5
|-
| '''17,469,96A,454''' = A^B
| ? (ten to the eleventh power)
| [[100000000000 (number)|100,000,000,000]] = 10^11
|-
| '''141,981,B87,854''' = A^10 = 84^6 = 6B4^4 = 5,954^3 = 402,854^2
| ? (ten to the twelfth power)
| [[1000000000000 (number)|1,000,000,000,000]] = 10^12 = 100^6 = 1,000^4 = 10,000^3 = 1,000,000^2
|}
{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''two''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''2''' = 2^1
| two
| [[2 (number)|2]] = 2^1
|-
| '''4''' = 2^2 = 2^^2
| four
| [[4 (number)|4]] = 2^2 = 2^^2
|-
| '''8''' = 2^3
| eight
| [[8 (number)|8]] = 2^3
|-
| '''14''' = 2^4 = 2^^3 = 4^2
| one dozen and four
| [[16 (number)|16]] = 2^4 = 2^^3 = 4^2
|-
| '''28''' = 2^5
| two dozen and eight
| [[32 |
The process of downloading the source code, compiling and installing the entire GNOME desktop manually is a laborious and time-consuming process, and a number of build-[[Scripting programming language|script]]s (such as "jhbuild" or GARNOME{{ref|gargnome}}) are used to automate it.
==Notes and references==
#{{note|aboutgnome}}[http://www.gnome.org/about/ About GNOME] retrieved on [[8 September]], [[2005]]
#{{note|harmonyandgnome}}[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=2000-09-05-001-21-OP-LF-KE Richard Stallman] regarding the origin of GNOME. Retrieved on [[9 September]], [[2005]].
#{{note|gplcompat}}[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=2000-09-05-001-21-OP-LF-KE Richard Stallman] on QPL and GPL covered code, and the Qt license change. Retrieved on [[9 September]], [[2005]].
#{{note|reverseengineering}}[http://www.fsf.org/licensing/licenses/lgpl.html Section 6 of the LGPL v2.1] prohibits linking to software with a license that restricts reverse-engineering and modification of the work for the customer's own use.
#{{note|mailinglists}}[http://mail.gnome.org GNOME mailing lists] rules and [[FAQ]]s.
#{{note|foundationmembership}}[http://foundation.gnome.org/membership/ Membership of the GNOME foundation] retrieved on [[8 September]], [[2005]]
#{{note|gnomelivecd}}[http://torrent.gnome.org/ The official GNOME LiveCD]
#{{note|topaz}}[http://live.gnome.org/ThreePointZero Project Topaz homepage]
#{{note|soylent}}[http://galago-project.org/wiki/Project_Soylent Project Soylent homepage]
#{{note|gargnome}}[http://www.gnome.org/projects/garnome/ The GARNOME homepage]
==See also==
* [[GnomeFiles]] - a software repository
* [[Linux Documentation Project]]
==External links==
{{wikinews|GNOME Project unveils latest version of Linux and Unix desktop}}
{{wikibooks|Using GNOME}}
{{wikibooks|GNOME for Debian}}
{{commons|GNOME}}
===Official sites===
* [http://www.gnome.org/ Official GNOME website]
* [http://www.gnome.org/learn/ Learn how to use GNOME]
* [http://foundation.gnome.org The GNOME Foundation]
* [http://developer.gnome.org/projects/gdp/ The GNOME Documentation Project]
* [http://gnomesupport.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Official GNOME Wiki for users]
* [http://live.gnome.org/ Wiki for GNOME developers]
* [http://planet.gnome.org/ Blogs of the GNOME developers]
* [http://art.gnome.org/ Artwork & Themes for GNOME]
===GNOME versions===
* Release announcements for versions [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/1999-October/msg00020.html 1.0.53], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2000-May/msg00062.html 1.2], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2001-April/msg00005.html 1.4], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/desktop-devel-list/2002-June/msg00592.html 2.0], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/desktop-devel-list/2003-February/msg00255.html 2.2], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2003-September/msg00062.html 2.4], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2004-March/msg00131.html 2.6], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2004-September/msg00037.html 2.8], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2005-March/msg00049.html 2.10], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2005-September/msg00024.html 2.12]
* Start pages for versions [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.0/ 2.0], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.2/ 2.2], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.4/ 2.4], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.6/ 2.6], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.8/ 2.8], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.10/ 2.10], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.12/ 2.12]
===Third-party sites===
* [http://www.gnome-look.org/ GNOME-Look.org Artwork for GNOME]
* [http://www.gnomedesktop.org/ A GNOME news site]
* [http://www.gnomejournal.org/ GNOME Journal] &mdash; an online magazine devoted to the GNOME Desktop
* [http://primates.ximian.com/~miguel/gnome-history.html The Story of the GNOME project] written by [[Miguel de Icaza]]
* [http://www.nabble.com/Gnome-f1226.html GNOME Forum] &mdash; an unofficial forum archiving the mailing lists of many GNOME projects.
[[Category:GNU project software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:X Window System]]
[[ar:GNOME]]
[[bg:GNOME]]
[[ca:Gnome]]
[[cs:GNOME]]
[[da:GNOME]]
[[de:GNOME]]
[[es:GNOME]]
[[eu:GNOME]]
[[fa:گنوم]]
[[fr:GNOME]]
[[gl:GNOME]]
[[ko:그놈]]
[[is:GNOME]]
[[it:GNOME]]
[[he:GNOME]]
[[ku:GNOME]]
[[lt:GNOME]]
[[hu:GNOME]]
[[nl:GNOME (desktop)]]
[[ja:GNOME]]
[[no:GNOME]]
[[pl:GNOME]]
[[pt:GNOME]]
[[ru:GNOME]]
[[simple:GNOME]]
[[sk:GNOME]]
[[fi:GNOME]]
[[sv:GNOME]]
[[th:GNOME]]
[[vi:GNOME]]
[[tr:GNOME]]
[[zh:GNOME]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Googol</title>
<id>12363</id>
<revision>
<id>41990259</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:00:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kaimiddleton</username>
<id>626471</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|googol}}
:''This article is about the large number. For the Internet company, see [[Google]]. For the author, see [[Gogol]].''
A '''googol''' is the [[large number|large]] [[number]] 10<sup>100</sup>, that is, the [[numerical digit|digit]] 1 followed by one hundred [[0 (number)|zero]]s. The term was coined in [[1938]] by nine-year-old [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[United States|American]] [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]]. Kasner popularized the concept in his book ''Mathematics and the Imagination''.
A googol is approximately equal to the [[factorial]] of 70, and its only [[prime factor]]s are 2 and 5. In [[binary numeral system|binary]] it would take up 333 [[bit]]s.
The googol is of no particular significance in [[mathematics]], nor does it have any practical uses. Kasner created it to illustrate the difference between an unimaginably large number and [[infinity]], and in this role it is sometimes used in teaching mathematics.
==Writing out a googol==
A googol can be written in conventional notation, as follows:
:<small>1 googol = 10<sup>100</sup> =
<small>10 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000</small>
==Relation to ''-illion'' number names==
Using the [[long and short scales|short scale]], a googol is equal to ten [[duotrigintillion]]. Using the [[long and short scales|long scale]], it is equal to ten thousand [[sexdecillion]] (or sedecillion), or ten sexdecilliard/sedecilliard.
==The shrinking googol==
Back when it was named in 1938, the googol was undeniably large. However, with the invention of fast computers and fast [[algorithm]]s, computation with numbers the size of a googol has become routine. For example, even the difficult problem of [[prime factorization]] is now fairly accessible for 100 digit numbers.
The largest number that can be represented by a typical pocket calculator for high school or scientific use is slightly less than a googol (e.g. 9.9999999 E+99, i.e. 9.9999999<math>\times</math>10<sup>99</sup>, or 0.99999999 googol). However, some models allow exponents larger than 99. (Note that since often these numbers are stored as [[floating point]] numbers, only an approximation of the actual number is stored and not the entire number.)
==Trivia==
*''Googol'' was the answer to the million-[[Pound Sterling|pound]] question on [[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire|''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire'']] when [[Charles Ingram|Major Charles Ingram]] attempted to defraud the quiz show on [[10 September]] [[2001]].
*If you drew a [[regular polygon]] with a googol sides that was 10<sup>27</sup> times the size of the known [[universe]], it would still appear circular, even on the scale of a [[Planck length]].
*A googol is greater than the number of particles in the [[known universe]], which has been variously estimated from 10<sup>72</sup> up to 10<sup>87</sup>.
*[[Black hole]]s are presumed to evaporate because they faintly give off [[Hawking radiation]]; if so, a [[Supermassive_black_hole|supermassive black hole]] would take ''roughly'' a googol years to evaporate. [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/programs/html/prog-content_4-4.html]
*A googol is considerably ''less'' than the number described in the ancient Greek story of [[The Sand Reckoner]], namely <math>10^{8 \times 10^{16}}</math>.
*A ''little googol'' is 2<sup>100</sup> &#8776; 1.267x10<sup>30</sup> and a ''little googolplex'' is <math>2^{2^{100}} \approx 10^{3.8 \times 10^{29}}</math>.
*The Internet [[search engine]] [[Google]] was named after this number. The original founders were going for 'Googol', but ended up with 'Google' due to a spelling mistake. [[Lawrence E. Page]]: "[[Lucas Pereira]]: 'You idiots, you spelled "Googol" wrong!' But this was good, because google.com was available and googol.com was not. Now most people spell 'Googol' 'Google', so it worked out OK in the end."
==Googolplex ==
A [[googolplex]] is 1 followed by a googol of zeroes, or ten raised to the power of a googol: <math>{10}^\mbox{googol}</math> = <math>{10}^{{10}^{100}}</math>.
==See also==
*[[Googolplex]]
*[[Googlit]]
*[[Large number]]
*[[Names of large numbers]]
== References ==
*Kasner, Edward & Newman, James Roy ''Mathematics and the Imagination'' (London: Penguin, [[1940]]; New York: Simon and Schuster, [[1967]]; Dover Pubns, April [[2001]], ISBN 0486417034).
*[http://afr.com/articles/2004/06/18/1087245103935.html 'Searching for the birth of the googol']
*[http://alan.blog-city.com/read/1003011.htm 'An evening with Googles Marissa Mayer']
*[http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/000032.html 'Google and Larry Page']
*[http://www.googol.com/ googol.com]
*"There Could Be No Google Without Edward Kasner", Carl Bialik, ''The Wa |
==
* [http://lacroatie.free.fr/croatia/high/index.php Motorways in Croatia]
* [http://www.hac.hr/index.php?l=en Croatian Motorways, current developments, toll rates]
* [http://www.akz.hr/Eng/Time-table/time-table.html Main bus terminal in Zagreb, timetables]
* [http://www.hznet.hr/eng Croatian Railways - Hrvatske Željeznice (HŽ)]
[[Category:Transport in Croatia| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Croatia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Croatia</title>
<id>5581</id>
<revision>
<id>25167511</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-10T02:15:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Whobot</username>
<id>393532</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Recat per [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2005_October_1|WP:CFD]] Category:Croatian_military to Category:Military_of_Croatia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Osrh.jpg|right|Emblem of the Armed Forces]]
[[Croatia]]'s [[military]] is officially called "Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia" (''Oružane Snage Republike Hrvatske'') and it consists of these branches:
* [[Croatian ground army|ground forces]] (''Hrvatska kopnena vojska'')
* [[Croatian war navy|naval forces]] (''Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica'')
* [[Croatian air and air defense forces|air and air defense forces]] (''Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo i protuzračna obrana'')
Total active duty members of the armed forces number is 29,000, including about 21,000 [[conscript]]s.
Reserves number 111,000 out of which 32,360 on first state of alert. Available males aged 15-49 number 1,081,135, of which 856,946 are technically fit for military service.
Only male citizens are subject to [[compulsory military service]]. The number of males reaching military age of 19 is 30,096 per year (2003 est.), at which point they have eight years to enlist either for 6 months in the army or for 8 months in the civil service.
The Croatian military budget was approximately USD 1.1 billion in 1997 (a little more than 5% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]), but it has since been reduced significantly (USD 520 million or 2.39% of GDP in 2002) and further reduced in 2003 (2.2% of GDP).
The [[Commander-in-Chief]] of all Croatian armed forces in peace and war is the [[President of Croatia|President of the Republic]]. The Commander-in-Chief prescribes the organisation of the Croatian Armed Forces at the proposal of the Chief of General Staff, with consent of the Minister of Defence.
The Armed Forces consist of peacetime and wartime component. The peacetime component is made of active military officers, [[civil servant]]s and employees in the Croatian Armed Forces, cadets, and conscripts serving a 6-month national service and reservists when on military exercise. The wartime component of the Armed Forces is additionally made of all other reservists.
[[Croatian General Staff|The General Staff]] is part of Ministry of Defense in charge of commanding, training and use of the Armed Forces.
In peace, Commander-in-Chief exercises his command through Minister of Defense. In war and in case the Minister of Defence is not fulfilling orders, Commander-in-Chief exercises his command directly through the General Staff Commander.
The [[Croatian Parliament]] exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces by adopting defense strategy, defense budget and defense laws.
==See also==
* [[Croatian military ranks]]
** [[Admiral Flote]]
==External links==
* [http://www.morh.hr/osrh/index_en.asp Croatian Armed Forces Official website]
* [http://www.vojska.net/military/croatia/ Unofficial website describing structure and development of Croatian armed forces; army, navy and air force; combat history of individual units, orders of battle and military equipment]
[[Category:Military of Croatia]]
[[hr:Hrvatska vojska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Croatia</title>
<id>5582</id>
<revision>
<id>40415200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T10:47:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Slovak Republic]] to [[Slovakia]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Croatia}}
== History ==
[[Croatia]]n [[foreign policy]] has focused on greater Euro-Atlantic integration, mainly entering the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. In order to gain access to European and trans-Atlantic institutions, it has had to undo many negative effects of the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and the war that ensued, and improve and maintain good relations with its neighbors.
Key issues over the last decade have been the implementation of the [[Dayton Agreement|Dayton Accords]] and the Erdut Agreement, nondiscriminatory facilitation of the return of refugees and displaced persons from the 1991-95 war including property restitution for ethnic [[Serbs]], resolution of border disputes with [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], and [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and general [[Democracy|democratization]].
Croatia has had an uneven record in these areas between [[1996]] and [[1999]] during the [[right-wing]] HDZ government, inhibiting its relations with European Union and the U.S. Improvement in these areas severely hindered the advance of Croatia's prospects for further Euro-Atlantic integration. Progress in the areas of Dayton, Erdut, and refugee returns were evident in [[1998]], but progress was slow and required intensive international engagement.
Croatia's unsatisfactory performance implementing broader [[democratic reform]]s in 1998 raised questions about the ruling party's commitment to basic democratic principles and norms. Areas of concern included restrictions on [[freedom of speech]], one-party control of [[Public broadcasting|public TV and radio]], repression of independent media, unfair electoral regulations, a [[judiciary]] that is not fully independent, and lack of [[human rights|human]] and [[civil rights]] protection.
A centre-left coalition government was elected in early [[2000]]. The SDP-led government slowly relinquished control over public media companies and did not interfere with freedom of speech and independent media, though it didn't complete the process of making [[Croatian Radiotelevision]] independent. Judiciary reforms remained a pending issue as well.
Major Croatian advances in foreign relations during this period have included:
* admittance into NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] Programme in May 2000
* admittance into [[World Trade Organization]] in July 2000;
* signing a Stabilization and [[European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement]] with the EU in October 2001
* becoming part of NATO's Membership Action Programme in May 2002
* becoming a member of the [[Central European Free Trade Agreement]] (CEFTA) in December 2002
* application for membership in the EU in February [[2003]]
* full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal and the beginning of accession negotiations with the EU in October [[2005]]
The EU application was the last major international undertaking of the [[Ivica Račan|Račan]] government, which submitted a 7,000-page report in reply to the questionnaire by the [[European Commission]].
Foreign relations were severely affected by the government's hesitance and stalling of the extradition of Croatian general [[Janko Bobetko]] to the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], and inability to take general [[Ante Gotovina]] into custody for questioning by the Court.
Refugee returns accelerated since [[1999]], reached a peak in [[2000]], but then slightly decreased in 2001 and 2002. The [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] mission in Croatia has continued to monitor the return of refugees and is still recording civil rights violations. Croatian Serbs continue to have problems with restitution of property and acceptance to the reconstruction assistance programmes. Combined with lacking economic opportunities in the rural areas of [[RSK|former Krajina]], the return process is highly troubled.
At the time of Croatia's application to the European Union, three EU countries were yet to ratify the Stabilization and Association Agreement: United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy.
The new [[Ivo Sanader|Sanader]] government repeated the assurances that Croatia will fulfill the missing political obligations, and expedited the extradition of several ICTY indictees.
The European Commission replied to the answers of the questionnaire sent to Croatia on [[April 20]], [[2004]] with a positive opinion. The country was finally accepted as EU candidate in July [[2004]]. Italy and Britain ratified the SA agreement shortly thereafter, while the ten EU countries that were admitted to membership that year ratified it en masse on a European Summit.
In December 2004, the EU leaders announced that accession negotiations with Croatia would start on [[March 17]], [[2005]] provided that Croatian government cooperates fully with the [[ICTY]]. The main issue, the flight of general [[Ante Gotovina|Gotovina]], however, remained unsolved and despite the agreement on an accession negotiation framework, the negotiations did not begin in March 2005.
On October 4, 2005 Croatia finally received green light for accession negotiations after the main prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, [[Carla del Ponte]] officially stated that Croatia is fully cooperating with the Tribunal. This has been the main condition demanded by EU foreign ministers for accession negotiations. The [[International Criminal Court]] (ICTY) called upon other southern European states to follow Croatia's good example. Thanks to the consistent position of [[Austria]] during the meeting of EU foreign ministers, a long period of instability and the questioning of the determina |
, which stabilized somewhat earlier than the Heckel, developed in a more conservative manner. While the development of Heckel bassoon can be characterized as a complete overhaul of the instrument from both an acoustic and keywork perspective, the Buffet system focused primarily on incremental improvements to the keywork. This less radical approach deprives the Buffet system bassoon of the improved consistency, and thus ease of operation, and increased power found in the Heckel lineage bassoons, but the Buffet is considered by some to have a more vocal and expressive quality. (Conductor John Foulds in 1934 lamented the dominance of the Heckel-style bassoon, considering them to be too homogeneous in sound with the [[horn (instrument)|horn]].)
Compared to the Heckel bassoon, Buffet system bassoons have a narrower bore and differing keywork; the Buffet instruments are known for a reedier sound and greater facility in the upper registers, reaching e<nowiki>'''</nowiki> and f<nowiki>'''</nowiki> with far greater ease and less air pressure. While specifically desirable in some music (French woodwind players traditionally produce a lighter and more reedy tone than is usual elsewhere) the more reedy sound has sometimes drawn criticism for being too distinctive. As with all bassoons the tone varies substantially from instrument to instrument and performer to performer. The Heckel system can sound rather fixed and woody, but good players strive and usually succeed in producing a warm singing tone. The Buffet can sound reedy, but many good players strive and usually succeed in producing a warm, expressive sound which is not in the least reedy.
Though the French system was once widely favored in England, Buffet instruments are no longer made there, and the last prominent English player of the French system retired in the 1980s. However, with its continued use in some regions and its distinctive tone, the Buffet continues to have a place in modern bassoon playing, particularly in France. Buffet-model bassoons are currently made in Paris by Buffet-Crampon and Selmer, with various other makers producing replica instruments. <!-- This subsection needs work -->
==Construction and characteristics==
[[Image:Fagott-Bassoon.svg|thumb|160px|left|Parts of the bassoon]]
[[Image:Range bassoon.png|thumb|200px|[[Playing range]] of a bassoon <br>({{Audio|Bassoon-technical-range.ogg|listen}})]]
The bassoon disassembles into six main pieces, including the reed. The bell <font color=red>(6)</font>, extending upward; the tenor joint <font color=red>(5)</font>, connecting the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) <font color=red>(4)</font>, at the bottom of the instrument and folding over on itself; the wing joint <font color=red>(3)</font>, which extends from boot to bocal; and the [[bocal]] (or crook) <font color=red>(2)</font>, a crooked metal tube which attaches the wing joint to a reed <font color=red>(1)</font> ({{Audio|Bassoon-technical-reed.ogg|listen}}).
The modern bassoon is generally made of [[maple]], with medium-hardness types such as [[sycamore maple]] and [[sugar maple]] being preferred. Less-expensive models are also made out of materials such as [[polypropylene]] and [[ebonite]], primarily for student and outdoor use; metal bassoons were made in the past but have not been in production by any major manufacturer since 1889. The bore of the instrument is conical, like that of the oboe and the saxophone, and the bottom of the instrument connects the bore in the middle with a u-shaped metal connector. Both bore and holes are precision-machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning. The walls of the instrument are sufficiently thick that the finger holes are drilled obliquely to aid in fingering, and wooden instruments are lined with a hard rubber lining along the interior of the wing and boot joints to prevent damage from moisture with extensive playing; wooden instruments are also [[stain]]ed and [[varnish]]ed. The top of the bell is frequently completed with a ring, often of plastic or [[ivory]]. The separate joints, where they connect, are wrapped in either cork or string, to aid sealing against air leaks. The bocal, which is inserted into the top of the wing joint and has one end wrapped in cork for sealing, may come in many different lengths, depending on the desired tuning. <!--The bocal, made of ... and plated with ... and must be carefully matched to the instrument.-->
Folded upon itself, the bassoon stands 134 cm (4.4 feet) tall, but the total length is 254 cm (roughly 8.3 feet). Playing is facilitated by doubling the tube back on itself and by closing the distance between the widely-spaced holes with a complex system of keywork, which extends throughout nearly the entire length of the instrument. There are also short-reach bassoons made for the benefit of young or petite players.
Bassoon players must learn three different clefs: Bass (first and foremost), Tenor, and Treble. The range of the bassoon begins at B-flat<sub>1</sub> (the first one below the bass staff) and extends upward over three octaves (roughly to the E on the treble staff). Higher notes are possible but difficult to produce and rarely called for; orchestral parts rarely go higher than the C or D, with even [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]'s famously difficult opening solo in [[The Rite of Spring]] only ascending to the D. Low A at the bottom of the range is possible with a special extension to the instrument; as its use makes the bottom B-flat impossible to play and affects the intonation of the lower notes, it is rarely called for. The Quintet for Winds by Carl Nielsen concludes with a featured use of the low A. Frequently, a paper tube or [[English horn]] bell placed correctly in the bassoon's bell is used instead of a specially made extension.
==Usage in ensembles==
===Modern ensembles===
The modern symphony orchestra typically calls for two bassoons, often with a third playing the [[contrabassoon]]. (The first work written with an independent contrabassoon part was [[Beethoven's Fifth Symphony]], although an earlier work by Mozart called for a "large bassoon" and was written below the range of the modern bassoon.) Some works call for four or more players. The first player is frequently called upon to perform solo passages. Its distinctive tone suits it for both plaintive, lyrical solos such as [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]]'s ''[[Bolero]]'' and more comical ones, such as the grandfather's theme in ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]''. Its agility suits it for passages such as the famous running line (doubled in the cello) in ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]''. In addition to its solo role, the bassoon is an effective bass to a woodwind choir, a bass line along with the cellos and double basses, and harmonic support along with the French horns.
A wind ensemble will usually also include two bassoons and sometimes contra, each with independent parts; other types of concert wind ensembles will have larger sections, with many players on each of first or second parts; in simpler arrangements there will be only one bassoon part and no contra. The bassoon's role in the wind band is similar to its role in the orchestra, though when scoring is thick it often cannot be heard about the brass instruments also in its range. ''[[La Fiesta Mexicana]]'', by [[H. Owen Reed]], features the instrument prominently, as does the transcription of [[Malcolm Arnold]]'s ''Four Scottish Dances'' which has become a staple of the band repertoire.
The bassoon is also part of the standard [[wind quintet]] instrumentation, along with the flute, oboe, clarinet, and horn; it is also frequently combined in various ways with other woodwinds. [[Richard Strauss]]'s Duet-Concertino pairs it with the clarinet as ''concertante'' instruments, with chamber strings as support.
The bassoon quartet is also gaining favor in recent times, with the [[Bubonic Bassoon Quartet]] being one of the more notable groups. The bassoon's wide range and variety of tone colors make it ideally suited to grouping in like-instrument ensembles. [[Peter Schickele]]'s "Last Tango in Bayreuth" (after themes from ''[[Tristan and Isolde]]'') is a popular work; Schickele's fictional alter ego [[P. D. Q. Bach]] exploits the more humorous aspects with his quartet "Lip My Reeds", which at one point calls for players to to perform on the reed alone.
===Earlier ensembles===
<br style="clear:both;">
<!--need use of precursors, chamber ensembles, in fact everything outside the symphony orchestra-->
The bassoon's use in the early symphony orchestra was solely as a [[continuo]] instrument. Baroque composer [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and his ''Les Petits Violons'' included oboes and bassoons along with the strings in the 16-piece (later 21-piece) ensemble, as one of the first orchestras to include winds. [[Antonio Cesti]] included a bassoon in his 1668 opera ''Pomo d'oro''. However, the use of the bassoon in the concert orchestra was sporadic until the late 17th century when winds began to make their way into the standard instrumentation, largely due to improvements in the design of wind instruments that corrected tuning problems and gave them greater ability to play chromatically (as the fretless strings were easily able to do). <!--and whatever else, cross-check with history section--> The bassoon was introduced as a regular member of the symphony orchestra as part of the basso continuo along with the cellos and bass [[viol]]s; they also filled out the choirs of wind instruments in opera orchestras, first in France and then in Italy. [[Johann Stamitz]] and his symphonies gave the winds slightly more independence by scoring them for orchestral color rather than strict doubling, but still the bassoon was not used as an independent melodic inst |
inadvertently handling firearms. These rules are part of the [[Eddie Eagle]] program developed by the [[National Rifle Association]] for preschoolers through 6th graders. If a child discovers a firearm, they should seek an adult to remove access to it as soon as possible. This may include turning it over to an appropriate law enforcement agency.
Older youth (age may vary per program) may take part in a program for safe rifle handling, such as promoted by the various organizations:
* [[Boy Scouts of America]]
* [[Americans for Gun Safety Foundation]]
* [[National Rifle Association]]
* [[Civilian Marksmanship Program]]
== History and teachers of gun safety ==
While gun safety in different forms has existed since the creation of firearms, modern gun safety is often credited to [[Jeff Cooper (colonel)|Jeff Cooper]]. Being influential in the modern handling of firearms, he formalised the above mentioned rules of gun safety.
Other teachers of gun safety include [[Massad Ayoob]], Clint Smith, Chuck Taylor, Jim Crews and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
One widely-known firearms safety program in the [[United States]] is the [[Eddie Eagle]] program developed by the [[National Rifle Association]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.thegunzone.com/therules.html Controversy over exact choice of rules for gun safety] (specifically whether or not "the gun is always loaded" is an intelligent rule).
* [http://www.nrahq.org/education/guide.asp NRA Gun Safety Rules]. Also deals with issues such as eye and ear protection.
* [http://www.nrahq.org/safety/eddie/ Eddie Eagle], an [[National Rifle Association|NRA]] program to teach gun safety to children as described above.
[[Category:Firearms]]
[[Category:Safety]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gratis</title>
<id>12017</id>
<revision>
<id>34954859</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T00:09:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mrtea</username>
<id>349005</id>
</contributor>
<comment>ah rv: many articles link "Free" to "Gratis". Suppose a disambiguation link would make more sense then</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gun/Politics</title>
<id>12018</id>
<revision>
<id>15909726</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T09:40:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gun politics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gun politics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gemini</title>
<id>12020</id>
<revision>
<id>40205619</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:20:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pepsidrinka</username>
<id>659391</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Gemini (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Gemini |
abbreviation = Gem |
genitive = Geminorum |
symbology = the [[Twin|Twins]] |
RA = 7 |
dec= 20 |
areatotal = 514 |
arearank = 30th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Pollux (star)|Pollux]] (&beta; Gem) |
starmagnitude = 1.1 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Geminids]]
*[[Rho Geminids]] |
bordering =
*[[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]
*[[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]
*[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]]
*[[Monoceros]]
*[[Canis Minor]]
*[[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 60 |
month = February |
notes=}}
'''Gemini''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[twin]]s'', symbol [[Image:Gemini_symbol.png|18px]], [[Unicode]] ♊) is one of the [[constellation]]s of the [[zodiac]]. It is part of the winter sky, lying between [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the west and the dim [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] to the east, with [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] and the near-invisible [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]] to the north and [[Monoceros]] and [[Canis Minor]] to the south. The [[Gemini program]] is named for it.
==Notable features==
Gemini includes two bright stars, named after the two twins, who correspond to the [[Dioscuri]] in [[Greek mythology]] - [[Castor (star)|Castor]] (&alpha;), a pretty telescopic [[binary star|binary]] (actually sextuple), and [[Pollux (star)|Pollux]] (&beta;), which is brighter and more southwesterly. The other stars are relatively dim - only one, [[Gamma Geminorum|&gamma; Gem]] (Alhena) is ever seen from a large city - and trace out a rectangle to the southeast.
The planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] was discovered in this constellation in 1930, near the star [[Delta Geminorum|&delta; Gem]] (Wasat).
==Notable deep sky objects==
The brightest deep sky object of Gemini is [[Open Cluster M35|M35]], an open cluster of 5th magnitude, 2 800 light-years from earth. It is northwest of &eta; Geminorum, near the western edge of the constellation.
==Mythology==
Since this constellation is easily viewable as two parallel stick figures [http://www.coldwater.k12.mi.us/lms/planetarium/myth/Gem.gif], considering faint stars visible to the naked eye, it was associated with the myth of [[Castor and Polydeuces]] (also known as the [[Dioscuri]]). A myth of these twins heavily concerns [[cattle]] theft, and may be connected to early views of the [[Milky Way]], as a herd of [[dairy]] [[cow]]s or cattle, by which they are situated.
The orientation of the constellation can vary (since they readily form stick figures whether leaning right or left), though the twins are usually viewed as left leaning. However, when right leaning, one of the twins resides in the Milky Way, and the other outside it, a situation making it appear that one of the twins is ''stealing the cattle'', and the other is observing. In this situation, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations [[Camelopardalis]] and [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]), and the other features of the area in the [[Zodiac]] sign of Gemini (i.e. [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Major]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Gemini of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[May 21]] - [[June 20]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[June 20]] - [[July 20]]).
In some cosmologies, Gemini is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and thus called an Air Sign (with [[Libra]] and [[Aquarius]]). It is also one of the four mutable signs (along with [[Virgo]], [[Sagittarius]], and [[Pisces]]). Its polar opposite is [[Sagittarius]]. It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Gemini rules the nervous system, the lungs, the hands and arms. The symbol for Gemini is the [[twin (mythology)|twins]].
==Gemini==
:Stars with proper names:
:* '''[[Castor (star)|Castor]]''' (66/&alpha; Gem) &ndash; sextuple 1.98, 2.88
:* '''[[Pollux (star)|Pollux]]''' (78/&beta; Gem) 1.16
:* ([[Gamma Geminorum|24/&gamma; Gem]]) 1.93 '''Alhena''' or '''''Almeisan'''''
:*: < ? ''al-han'ah'' The brand (on the neck of a camel)
:*: < ? '' al-maisan'' The shining one
:* ([[Delta Geminorum|55/&delta; Gem]]) 3.50 '''Wasat''' [''Wesat'']
:*: < &#1608;&#1587;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1605;&#1575; ''wasa&#355; as-sam&#257;'' Middle of the sky
:* ([[Epsilon Geminorum|27/&epsilon; Gem]]) 3.06 '''Mebsuta''' [''Melucta, Meboula'']
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1576;&#1587;&#1608;&#1591;&#1577; ''al-mabs&#363;&#355;a[h]'' The outstretched (paw of Leo)
:* ([[Zeta Geminorum|43/&zeta; Gem]]) 4.01 '''Mekbuda'''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1576;&#1608;&#1590;&#1577; ''al-maqb&#363;&#273;&#807;a[h]'' The pulled in (paw)
:* ([[Eta Geminorum|7/&eta; Gem]]) 3.31 '''Propus''' [''Praepes''] or '''''Tejat Prior'''''
:*: < &#960;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#965;&#962; The fore foot
:* ([[Iota Geminorum|60/&iota; Gem]]) (or ''Propus'', see [[Eta Geminorum|&eta; Gem]]) 3.78
:* ([[Mu Geminorum|13/&mu; Gem]]) 2.87 '''Tejat Posterior''' or '''''Nuhatai''''' or '''''Calx''''' or '''''Pish Pai'''''
:* ([[Xi Geminorum|31/&xi; Gem]]) 3.35 '''''Alzirr'''''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585; ''az-zarr/az-zir''
:* [[1 Geminorum|1 Gem]] (or ''Propus'', see [[Eta Geminorum|&eta; Gem]]) 4.16
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Theta Geminorum|34/&theta; Gem]] 3.60; [[Kappa Geminorum|77/&kappa; Gem]] 3.57; [[Lambda Geminorum|54/&lambda; Gem]] 3.58; [[Nu Geminorum|18/&nu; Gem]] 4.13; [[Omicron Geminorum|71/&omicron; Gem]] 4.89; [[Pi Geminorum|80/&pi; Gem]] 5.14; [[Rho Geminorum|62/&rho; Gem]] 4.16; [[Sigma Geminorum|75/&sigma; Gem]] 4.23; [[Tau Geminorum|46/&tau; Gem]] 4.41; [[Upsilon Geminorum|69/&upsilon; Gem]] 4.06; [[Chi Geminorum|&chi; Gem]] 4.94; [[Phi Geminorum|83/&phi; Gem]] 4.97; [[Omega Geminorum|42/&omega; Gem]] 5.20; [[65 Geminorum|65/b Gem]] 5.01; [[76 Geminorum|76/c Gem]] 5.30; [[36 Geminorum|36/d Gem]] 5.28; [[38 Geminorum|38/e Gem]] 4.73; [[74 Geminorum|74/f Gem]] 5.04; [[81 Geminorum|81/g Gem]] 4.89; [[57 Geminorum|57/A Gem]] 5.04
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[2 Geminorum|2 Gem]] 6.67; [[3 Geminorum|3 Gem]] 5.75; [[4 Geminorum|4 Gem]] 6.88; [[5 Geminorum|5 Gem]] 5.83; [[6 Geminorum|6/BU Gem]] 6.51; [[8 Geminorum|8 Gem]] 6.09; [[9 |
brity Ltd.] Featuring quick links to celebrity sites, images, wallpapers, screensavers, auctions and merchandise.
*[http://www.himnaut.com The Celebrity Search Engine]
*[http://www.necgroup.co.uk/visitor/celebcentre NEC Group Celeb Centre] celebrity database
*[http://www.celebsprofile.com/ Celebrity Profiles] celebrity profiles
*[http://www.wikicelebrities.com/ Wiki Celebrities] User-editable celebrity profiles and information.
*[http://celebs-iq.com/ Celebs-IQ] - intelligent celebrities & Celebrities GeoLocation .
*[http://www.hottestontv.com.au Hottest On TV - the hottest 600 celebs on Australian TV]
*[http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/celebrities.html Media Man Australia celebrity profiles] Celebrity Profiles
*[http://hated-celebrities.co.uk/ Hated Celebrities] Dedicated to listing hated celebrities and reasons they deserve the public's ire.
[[Category:Celebrities]]
[[de:Prominenz]]
[[he:ידוען]]
[[ja:セレブリティ]]
[[pt:Celebridade]]
[[sq:Famë dhe Dashuri]]
[[fi:Julkkis]]
[[sv:Kändis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cluster sampling</title>
<id>5797</id>
<revision>
<id>38842374</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T00:08:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ ditto</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cluster sampling''' is used when "natural" groupings are evident in the population. The total population is divided into groups or clusters. Elements within a cluster should be as homogeneous as possible. But there should be heterogeneity between clusters. Each cluster should be a small scale version of the total population. Each cluster must be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. A random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study. In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are used. In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters.
The main difference between cluster sampling and [[stratified sampling]] is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so analysis is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage). In stratified sampling, the analysis is done on elements within strata. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied. The main objective of cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency (This contrasts with stratified sampling where the main objective is to increase precision.).
One version of cluster sampling is '''area sampling''' or '''geographical cluster sampling'''. Clusters consist of geographical areas. A geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey. Greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by treating several respondents within a local area as a cluster. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the [[estimator]]s, but the savings in cost may make that feasible.
In some situations, cluster analysis is only appropriate when the clusters are approximately the same size. This can be achieved by combining clusters. If this is not possible, '''probability proportionate to size sampling''' is used. In this method, the probability of selecting any cluster varies with the size of the cluster, giving larger cluster a greater probability of selection and smaller clusters a lower probability. However, if clusters are selected with probability proportionate to size, the same number of interviews should be carried out in each sampled cluster so that each unit sampled has the same probability of selection.
==See also==
* [[sampling (statistics)]]
* [[multistage sampling]]
* [[simple random sampling]]
[[category:experimental design]]
[[category:sampling techniques]]
[[Category:Marketing research]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Closeted person</title>
<id>5798</id>
<revision>
<id>18964848</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-16T17:13:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Agentsoo</username>
<id>80866</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The closet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coming out of the closet</title>
<id>5799</id>
<revision>
<id>15903993</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-13T05:47:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brassrat</username>
<id>189983</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coming out]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholicism/Councils</title>
<id>5801</id>
<revision>
<id>15903995</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecumenical council]]
:''See also :'' [[Catholicism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholicism/Council of Trent</title>
<id>5802</id>
<revision>
<id>15903996</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Council of Trent]]
:''See also :'' [[Catholicism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholicism/Second Vatican Council</title>
<id>5803</id>
<revision>
<id>15903997</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-17T15:17:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Keep; current policy is to keep these (see discussion on WP:RfD)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Second Vatican Council]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Baudelaire</title>
<id>5804</id>
<revision>
<id>40869754</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:33:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crypticmyth</username>
<id>276896</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''"Baudelaire" redirects here. For the characters from ''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'', see [[Violet Baudelaire]], [[Klaus Baudelaire]] and [[Sunny Baudelaire]].''
[[Image:Charles_Baudelaire.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Charles Baudelaire, photograph taken by [[Nadar]].]]
<br />
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Charles Pierre Baudelaire''' ([[April 9]], [[1821]] &ndash; [[August 31]], [[1867]]) was one of the most influential [[France|French]] [[poet]]s of the nineteenth century. He was also an important [[critic]] and [[translator]].
==Life and work==
Baudelaire was born in [[Paris]]. His father, who was a senior [[civil service|civil servant]] and an amateur [[artist]], died in [[1827]], and in the following year his mother married a [[lieutenant colonel]] named Aupick, who later became a French [[ambassador]] to various [[noble court|courts]]. Baudelaire was educated in [[Lyon]] and at the [[Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Collège Louis-le-Grand]] in Paris. On gaining his [[Academic degree|degree]] in [[1839]] he decided to embark upon a literary career, and for the next two years led a somewhat irregular life. It is believed he contracted [[syphilis]] about this time. To straighten him out, his [[legal guardian|guardian]]s, in [[1841]], sent him on a voyage to [[India]]. When he returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small [[inheritance]], and his family obtained a decree to place his property in trust. It is in this period that he met [[Jeanne Duval]], who was to become his longest romantic association.
[[Image:Courbet - Bildnis Baudelaires.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait by [[Gustave Courbet]], 1848.]]
His [[art]] reviews of [[1845]] and [[1846]] attracted immediate attention for the boldness with which he propounded his views: many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, but have since been generally accepted. He took part with the [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]] in [[1848]], and for some years was interested in [[Republicanism|republican]] politics, but his political convictions spanned the anarchism of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], the history of the ''Raison d'Ėtat'' of [[Giuseppe Ferrari]], and [[ultramontanism|ultramontane]] critique of liberalism of [[Joseph de Maistre]]. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, and it was not until [[1857]] that he produced his first and most famous volume of [[poem]]s, ''[[Les fleurs du mal]]'' ("The Flowers of Evil"). Some of these had already appeared in the ''[[Revue des deux mondes]],'' when they were published by Baudelaire's friend [[Auguste Poulet Malassis]], who had inherited a [[printing]] business at [[Alençon]]. The poems found a small but appreciative audience, but greater public attention was given to their subject matter. The principal themes of [[sexuality|sex]] and [[death]] were considered scandalous, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among mainstream [[critic]]s of the day. Baudelaire, his [[publisher]], and the [[printer (publisher)|printer]] were successfully [[prosecution|prosecuted]] for creating an offense against public [[morality|morals]]. In the poem "Au lecteur" ("To the Reader") that prefaces ''Les fleurs du mal'', Baudelaire accuses his readers of [[hypocrisy]] and of being as guilty of [[sin]]s and [[lie]]s as the poet:
:... If [[rape]] or [[arson]], [[poison]], or the [[knife]]
:Has wove no pleasing patterns |
often repeated for effect, ie. ''zut, zut et zut!'') (Whether "zut" is dated or not might depend on context: where "merde" ''(wfw. "shit")'' is not polite enough, "zut", "zut alors", "zut et rezut" etc. are still in current use.)
==Only found in English==
* [[auteur]]&mdash;A film director, specifically one who controls most aspects of a film, or other controller of an artistic situation. The English connotation derives from French film theory. It was popularized in the journal ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'': auteur theory maintains that directors like Hitchcock exert a level of creative control equivalent to the author of a literary work. In French, the word originally means ''author'', but some expressions like "cinéma d'auteur" are also in use.
* [[Bondage (BDSM)|bondage]]&mdash;The sexual technique is called ''ligottage'' by [[Francophone]]s.
* [[cause célèbre]]&mdash;An issue arousing widespread controversy or heated public debate, lit. ''celebrated cause''
* [[décolletage]]—a low-cut neckline, cleavage ''(This is actually a case of "false friends": Engl. <u>décolletage</u> = Fr. <u>décolleté</u>; Fr. <u>décolletage</u> means: 1. action of lowering a female garment's neckline; 2. Agric.: cutting leaves from some cultivated roots such as beets, carrots, etc.; 3. Tech. Operation consisting of making screws, bolts, etc. one after another out of a single bar of metal on a parallel lathe.''
* [[double entendre]]&mdash;''double meaning'', for which [[Francophone]]s would use «double sens». The verb entendre, ''to hear'' (modern), originally meant ''to understand''. ''(Note: French usage: "un mot à double sens": a word with more than one meaning; "une phrase à double entente": a sentence with a hidden meaning. "À double entente" is listed in the [[Petit Larousse]] [[1994]] with no mention of its being obsolete or regional.)''
* [[encore]]&mdash;A request to repeat a performance, as in “Encore !”, lit. ''again''; also used to describe additional songs played at the end of a [[gig]]. Francophones would say «bis !» (''a second time !''); or «Une autre !» (''Another one !'') to request «un rappel» (an ''encore'').
* [[entrée]] or entree&mdash;The main dish or course of a meal (US); in French, entrée literally means ''entrance'' and refers to the appetizer (UK).
* [[faux pas]]&mdash;An embarrassing social error, lit. ''false step''; sometimes used in French to mean ''to slip''. Francophones would normally use «gaffe».
* [[femme]]—a stereotypically effeminate gay man or lesbian (slang)
* Le mot juste&mdash;The right word, lit. ''the just word''
* [[Maitre d']]- Francophones would say maître d'hôtel instead
* [[petard]]&mdash;A metaphorical trap, as in “hoist by one's own petard”, or “caught in one's own trap”. In French, pétard means ''fire-cracker'' or ''small explosive device''. In Medieval warfare, a petard was a primitive mine hoisted by a crane against a castle gate in a siege.
* Répondez s'il vous plaît. ([[RSVP]])&mdash;''Please reply''. Francophones use "prière de répondre". ''(Note: RSLP ["Réponde s'il lui plaît"] is used on old-fashioned invitations written in the 3rd person, usually in "Script" typography -- at least in Belgium.)''
* [[Résumé]]&mdash;In [[North American English]], a document listing one's qualifications for employment. Francophones call this a ''curriculum vitae'' (''CV'' for short), a [[Latin]] phrase meaning "course of life," as do speakers of [[Commonwealth English]] and some other European languages.
* [[succès de scandale]]&mdash;''Success through scandal''; Francophones might use «succès par médisance».
* [[voir dire]]—jury selection ([[Law French]]).
==French phrases in international air-sea rescue==
International authorities have adopted a number of words and phrases from French for use by speakers of all languages in voice communications during air-sea rescues. Note that the "phonetic" versions are presented as shown and not in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].
* SECURITAY (''securité'', “safety”) &ndash; the following is a safety message or warning, the lowest level of danger.
* [[Pan-pan|PAN PAN]] (''panne'', “breakdown”) &ndash; the following is a message concerning a danger to a person or ship, the next level of danger.
* [[Mayday|MAYDAY]] (''[venez] m'aider'', “come help me” ; N.B. "Aidez-moi" means "help me") &ndash; the following is a message of extreme urgency, the highest level of danger. ''(MAYDAY is used on voice channels for the same uses as SOS on [[Morse code|Morse]] channels.)''
* SEELONCE (''silence'', “silence”) &ndash; keep this channel clear for air-sea rescue communications.
* SEELONCE FEE NEE (''silence fini'', “silence is over”) &ndash; this channel is now available again.
* PRU DONCE (''prudence'', “prudence”) &ndash; silence partially lifted, channel may be used again for urgent non-distress communication.
* MAY DEE CAL (''médical'', “medical”) &ndash; medical assistance needed.
It is a serious breach in most countries, and in international zones, to use any of these phrases without justification.
''See [[Mayday]] for a more detailed explanation.''
==See also==
* [[List of English words of French origin]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[French language]]
* [[List of French phrases]]
* [[List of French proverbs]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[List of Greek phrases]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words and phrases]]
* [[List of Spanish expressions in common English]]
==External links==
*''Communications Instructions, Distress and Rescue Procedures'' [http://www.dtic.mil/jcs/j6/cceb/acps/Acp135e.pdf Combined Communications-Electronics Board] of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States. [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] document.
[[Category:French phrases|*]]
[[Category:Lists]]
[[da:Franske ord og vendinger]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Financial rand</title>
<id>11516</id>
<revision>
<id>23004794</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T23:47:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radagast</username>
<id>36250</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wiki Rand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[South Africa]]n '''financial rand''' system was abolished with effect from [[March 13]] [[1995]]. The financial rand system was instituted on [[September 1]] [[1985]] in an attempt to control the large outflows of capital from South Africa at that time. These outflows were largely the result of economic sanctions in response to [[Apartheid]]. The financial rand system provided for two exchange rates for the [[Rand (currency)|rand]], one for current account transactions, and one for capital account transactions for non-residents. Investments made in South Africa by non-residents could only be sold for financial rand, and limitations were placed on the convertibility of financial rand into foreign currencies. Financial rand had the [[ISO 4217|ISO 4217 currency code]] ZAL. The financial had a previous life, from January 1979 to February 1983. The 1985 crisis coincided with a default (then called a "standstill") on foreign debt by the Apartheid government.
{{money-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of FIPS country codes</title>
<id>11517</id>
<revision>
<id>39662764</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T00:31:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JFG</username>
<id>168812</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Who the hell changed UK to GB ??? Don't confuse FIPS wit ISO, GB is Gabon here !</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[FIPS 10-4]] [[country code]]s. There is also a [[List of FIPS region codes]]. Non-sovereign entities are in parentheses.
{| id="toc" border="0"
! {{MediaWiki:Toc}}:
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] O [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] X [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]] <br> [[#Resources|Resources]] - [[#See also|See also]]__NOTOC__
|}
==A==
* AA ([[Aruba]])
* AC [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* AE [[United Arab Emirates]]
* AF [[Afghanistan]]
* AG [[Algeria]]
* AJ [[Azerbaijan]]
* AL [[Albania]]
* AM [[Armenia]]
* AN [[Andorra]]
* AO [[Angola]]
* AQ ([[American Samoa]])
* AR [[Argentina]]
* AS [[Australia]]
* AT ([[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]])
* AU [[Austria]]
* AV ([[Anguilla]])
* AY ([[Antarctica]])
==B==
* BA [[Bahrain]]
* BB [[Barbados]]
* BC [[Botswana]]
* BD ([[Bermuda]])
* BE [[Belgium]]
* BF [[Bahamas]]
* BG [[Bangladesh]]
* BH [[Belize]]
* BK [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* BL [[Bolivia]]
* BM [[Myanmar]]
* BN [[Benin]]
* BO [[Belarus]]
* BP [[Solomon Islands]]
* BQ ([[Navassa Island]])
* BR [[Brazil]]
* BS ([[Bassas da India]])
* BT [[Bhutan]]
* BU [[Bulgaria]]
* BV ([[Bouvet Island]])
* BX [[Brunei]]
* BY [[Burundi]]
==C==
* CA [[Canada]]
* CB [[Cambodia]]
* CD [[Chad]]
* CE [[Sri Lanka]]
* CF [[Republic of the Congo]]
* CG [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* CH [[People's Republic of China]]
* CI [[Chile]]
* CJ ([[Cayman Islands]])
* CK ([[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]])
* CM [[Cameroon]]
* CN [[Comoros]]
* CO [[Colombia]]
* CQ ([[Northern Mariana Islands]])
* CR ([[Coral Sea Islands]])
* CS [[Costa Rica]]
* CT [[Central African Republic]]
* CU [[Cuba]]
* CV [[Cape Verde]]
* CW ([[Cook Islands]])
* CY [[Cyprus]]
==D==
* DA [[Denmark]]
* DJ [[Djibouti]]
* DO [[Dominica]]
* DQ ([[Jarvis Island]])
* DR [[Dominican Republic]]
==E==
* EC [[Ecuador]]
* EG [[Egypt]]
* EI [[Republic of Ireland]]
* EK [[Equa |
racteristic distance, known as the [[Schwarzschild radius]]. Below this radius, spacetime is so strongly curved that any light ray emitted in this region, regardless of the direction in which it is emitted, will travel towards the centre of the system. Because [[special relativity|relativity]] forbids anything from travelling [[faster-than-light|faster than light]], anything below the Schwarzschild radius &ndash; including the constituent particles of the gravitating object &ndash; will collapse into the centre. A [[gravitational singularity]], a region of theoretically infinite density, forms at this point. Because not even light can escape from within the Schwarzschild radius, a classical black hole would truly appear [[black]].
The Schwarzschild radius is given by
:<math>r_{\rm S} = {2\,Gm \over c^2} </math>
where ''G'' is the [[gravitational constant]], ''m'' is the [[mass]] of the object, and ''c'' is the [[speed of light]]. For an object with the mass of the [[Earth]], the Schwarzschild radius is a mere 9 [[1 E-3 m|millimeters]] &mdash; about the size of a [[marble (toy)|marble]].
The mean density inside the Schwarzschild radius decreases as the mass of the black hole increases, so while an earth-mass black hole would have a density of 2&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10<sup>30</sup>&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup>, a supermassive black hole of 10<sup>9</sup> [[solar mass]]es has a density of around 20&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup>, less than water! The mean density is given by
:<math>\rho=\frac{3\,c^6}{32\pi m^2G^3}</math>
Since the Earth has a mean radius of 6371 km, its volume would have to be reduced 4 &times; 10<sup>26</sup> times to collapse into a black hole. For an object with the mass of the [[Sun]], the Schwarzschild radius is approximately 3&nbsp;km, much smaller than the Sun's current radius of about 700,000 km. It is also significantly smaller than the radius to which the Sun will ultimately shrink after exhausting its nuclear fuel, which is several thousand kilometers. More massive stars can collapse into black holes at the end of their lifetimes.
More general black holes are also predicted by other solutions to Einstein's equations, such as the [[Kerr metric]] for a rotating black hole, which possesses a [[ring singularity]]. Then we have the [[Reissner-Nordström metric]] for charged black holes. Last the [[Kerr-Newman metric]] is for the case of a charged and rotating black hole.
There is also the Black Hole Entropy formula:
:<math>S = \frac{Akc^3}{4\hbar G}</math>
Where '''A''' is the area of the event horizon of the black hole, '''<math>\hbar</math>''' is [[Dirac's constant]] (the "reduced Planck constant"), '''k''' is the [[Boltzmann constant]], '''G''' is the [[gravitational constant]], '''c''' is the [[speed of light]] and '''S''' is the entropy.
A convenient length scale to measure black hole processes is the "gravitational radius", which is equal to
:<math>r_{\rm G} = {Gm \over c^2} </math>
When expressed in terms of this length scale, many phenomena appear at integer radii.
For example, the radius of a Schwarzschild black hole is two gravitational radii and the radius of a maximally rotating Kerr black hole is one gravitational radius. The location of the light circularization radius around a Schwarzschild black hole (where light may orbit the hole in an unstable circular orbit) is <math>3r_{\rm G}</math>. The location of the marginally stable orbit, thought to be close to the inner edge of an accretion disk, is at <math>6r_{\rm G}</math> for a Schwarzschild black hole.
==Alternative models==
Several alternate models, which behave like a black hole but avoid the singularity, are considered. But most researchers judge these concepts artificial, as they are more complicated but don't give near term observable differences from black holes (see [[Occam's razor]]). The most prominent alternative theory is the [[Gravastar]].
In March 2005, physicist [[George Chapline]] at the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in [[California]] proposed that black holes do not exist, and that objects currently thought to be black holes are actually [[dark-energy star]]s. He draws this conclusion from some quantum mechanical analyses. Although his proposal currently has little support in the physics community, it was widely reported by the media. [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050328/full/050328-8.html (report in Nature News)] [http://xxx.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0503200 (original article)].
Among the alternate models are [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v494n2/975794/975794.web.pdf clusters of elementary particles] (e.g., [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004064 boson stars]),[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0103466 fermion balls], [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805273 self-gravitating, degenerate heavy neutrinos]] and even,
[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v494n2/975794/975794.web.pdf clusters of very low mass <~0.04 Msolar) BHs]
==See also==
* [[Theory of relativity]]
* [[Schwarzschild metric]]
* [[Schwarzschild radius]]
* [[Rotating black hole]]s
* [[Compact star]]s
* [[Timeline of black hole physics]]
* [[White hole]]
* [[Neutron star]]
* [[Supermassive black hole]]
* [[Wormhole]]
* [[Schwarzschild wormholes]]
* [[IMBHs]]
* [[String theory]]
* [[Primordial black hole]]s
* [[Micro black hole]]s
* [[Dark-energy star]]s
* [[Laws of black hole mechanics]]
==External links==
* [http://arxiv.org/find/astro-ph/1/ti:+AND+black+hole*/0/1/0/all/0/1 more than 12,000 publicly available research articles on black holes]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/bh_pub_faq.html FAQ on black holes]
* [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/schwp.html Schwarzschild Geometry] on [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/ Andrew Hamilton&rsquo;s website]
* [http://www.armageddononline.org/blackhole.php An extensive look at the formation & life of a Black Hole]
* Tufts University: [http://hepguru.com/blackholes/ Student Project (Great Kid's Section)]
* Hong Kong University:[http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Space/EducationResource/Universe/framed_e/index.html Some information about Space]
* [http://www.gothosenterprises.com/black_holes/ Jillian&#8217;s Guide to Black Holes]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/active/smblack.html Supermassive Black Holes]
* [http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/blackholes.html Universe Today] Black hole news stories
* [http://timetravelportal.com/viewtopic.php?t=554 Black Holes, Singularities & Wormholes]
* [http://www.mpe.mpg.de/ir/GC/index.php Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute]
* [http://www.spacetimetravel.org/expeditionsl/expeditionsl.html Step by Step into a Black Hole] Computer simulated images show views of the night sky as seen from positions close to the event horizon of a black hole.
* [http://www.physorg.com/news9693.html Scientists Find Black Hole's 'Point of No Return' ]
* [http://www.black-holes.org/gwa2-3.html Caltech Tutorial on Relativity] &mdash; a simple, accessible discussion of black holes in the context of warped spacetime, and gravitational waves
==References==
===Popular reading===
*{{cite book | author=Hawking, Stephen | title=A Brief History of Time | publisher=Bantam Books, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0553380168}}
*{{cite book | author=Pickover, Clifford | title=Black Holes: A Traveler's Guide | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0471197041}}
*{{cite book | author=Ferguson, Kitty | title=Black Holes in Space-Time | publisher=Watts Franklin | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0531125246}}
*{{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S. | title=Black Holes and Time Warps | publisher=Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc | year=1994 | id=ISBN 0393312763}}
{{note|smolin1}} {{cite book | author=Lee Smolin | title=Three Roads To Quantum Gravity | publisher=Basic Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-465-07835-4}}
===University textbooks and monographs===
*{{cite book | author=Wald, Robert M. | title=Space, Time, and Gravity: The Theory of the Big Bang and Black Holes | publisher= University of Chicago Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0226870294}}
*{{cite book | author=Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan | title=Mathematical Theory of Black Holes | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0198503709}}
*{{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles; Wheeler, John | title=Gravitation | publisher=W. H. Freeman Company | year=1980 | id=ISBN 0716703440}}
* Carter, B. (1973). Black hole equilibrium states, in ''Black Holes'', eds. DeWitt B. S. and DeWitt C.
* Frolov, V. P. and Novikov, I. D. (1998), ''Black hole physics''.
* Hawking, S. W. and Ellis, G. F. R. (1973), ''The large-scale structure of space-time'', Cambridge University Press.
===Research papers===
* Hawking, S. W. (July 2005), Information Loss in Black Holes, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0507171 arxiv:hep-th/0507171]. Stephen Hawking's purported solution to the black hole [[unitarity]] paradox, first reported at a conference in July 2004.
* Ghez, A.M. ''et al.'' Stellar orbits around the Galactic Center black hole, ''Astrophysics J.'' '''620''' (2005). [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306130 arXiv:astro-ph/0306130] More accurate mass and position for the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way.
* Hughes, S. A. Trust but verify: the case for astrophysical black holes, [http://www.arxiv.org/hep-ph/0511217 arXiv:hep-ph/0511217]. Lecture notes from 2005 [[SLAC]] Summer Institute.
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|sk}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[Category:Black holes|*]]
[[Category:Dark matter]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
{{featured article}}
[[af:Swartgat]]
[[ar:ثقب أسود]]
[[bg:Черна дупка]]
[[bs:Crna rupa]]
[[ca:Forat negre]]
[[cs:Černá díra]]
[[da:Sort hul]]
[[de:Schwarzes Loch]]
[[et:Must auk]]
[[el:Μαύρη τρύπα |
[[United States]]. It is the largest [[river]] in volume flowing into the [[Pacific Ocean]] from [[North America]], and the second largest by volume in North America behind the Mississippi. In rare years, the river's flow may actually exceed that of the Mississippi. The mean total flow is 166,000 ft<sup>3</sup>/s (4700 m<sup>3</sup>/s). It is the largest [[hydroelectric power]] producing river in [[North America]]. From its headwaters to the Pacific Ocean it flows 1,232 miles (2,044 km), and drains 258,000 square miles (415,211 km&sup2;).
==Geography==
[[Columbia Lake]] forms the Columbia's headwaters in the [[Canadian Rockies]] of southern British Columbia. The river then flows through [[Windermere Lake (British Columbia)|Windermere Lake]] and the town of [[Invermere]], then northwest to [[Golden, British Columbia|Golden]] and into [[Kinbasket Lake]]. The river then turns (the "Big Bend") south through [[Revelstoke Lake]] and the [[Arrow Lakes]] to the BC&ndash;[[Washington]] border.
The river then flows through the east-central portion of Washington State. The last 300 miles (480 km) of the Columbia form the Washington-[[Oregon]] boundary. The river goes into the Pacific Ocean at [[Ilwaco, Washington]] and [[Astoria, Oregon]] forming the [[Columbia Bar]].
For its first 200 miles (320 km) the Columbia flows northwest; it then bends to the south, crossing from Canada into the United States, where the river meets the Clark Fork. The [[Clark Fork River]] begins near [[Butte, Montana]] and flows through western Montana before entering [[Pend Oreille Lake]]. Water draining from the lake forms the [[Pend Oreille River]], which flows across the [[Idaho]] panhandle to Washington's northeastern corner where it meets the northern Canadian fork.
[[Image:ColumbiarivergorgeJRH.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Columbia River Gorge, Oregon or South side]]
The river then runs southsouthwest through the [[Columbia Plateau]], changing to a southeasterly direction near the [[Columbia Basin]], where the magnificent [[Gorge at George]] is located. The [[Gorge Amphitheatre]], which looks out over the gorge, is a spectacular 40,000 person concert venue.
The river continues southeast until it passes the [[Hanford Nuclear Reservation]] just before it reaches the [[Snake River]]. The Columbia then makes a sharp bend to the west where it begins to form the Washington-Oregon border.
Near the town of [[Hood River, Oregon]], the river begins cutting through the [[Cascade Mountains]] at the entrance to the [[Columbia River Gorge]]. The west side of the gorge is marked by [[Crown Point (Oregon)|Crown Point]]. Constant winds of 15 to 35 mph (25 to 55 km/h) blow through this wide straight [[gorge]]. It was here in [[Hood River County, Oregon]] that [[windsurfing]] was originated.
The Columbia River is the largest river in the world that has no [[River_delta|delta]]. The river continues west with one small north-northwesterly-directed stretch near [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]; [[Vancouver, Washington]]; and the [[confluence]] with the [[Willamette River]]. On this sharp bend the river's flow slows considerably and it drops the sediment that would normally form a delta.
[[Image:Columbia.png|right|thumb|350px|Columbia River Basin, showing major dams and tributaries]]
===Major tributaries===
: For a more complete list '''''See''''' [[Tributaries of the Columbia River]]
Major tributaries, downstream from British Columbia to the Pacific Ocean:
* [[Kootenai River]]
* [[Pend Oreille River]]
* [[Yakima River]]
* [[Snake River]]
* [[John Day River]]
* [[Klickitat River]]
* [[Hood River]]
* [[Sandy River (Oregon)|Sandy River]]
* [[Willamette River]]
==History==
On [[May 11]], [[1792]], Captain [[Robert Gray]] became the first white man to see the Columbia River. Gray traveled to the [[Pacific Northwest]] to trade for fur in a privately-owned vessel named ''Columbia''; he named the river after the ship. Gray's discovery of the Columbia established a stronger belief that Americans had more of a "right" to the [[Oregon Country]], which was also claimed by [[Russia]]ns, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], [[Spain|Spanish]], and other nations.
"Ouragan" is the original name for the Columbia River. Native American and First Nations stories hold the "Ouragan" as a very spiritual place.
[[Image:Cascade Columbia River.jpg|thumb|300px|Cascade on the Columbia River]]
[[Lewis and Clark Expedition|Lewis and Clark]]'s overland expedition explored the vast, unmapped lands west of the [[Missouri River]]. On the last stretch of their expedition they traveled down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The expedition led the way in settling the west.
In 1825, on behalf of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], Dr. [[John McLoughlin]] established [[Fort Vancouver]] (currently Vancouver, Washington) on the banks of the Columbia as a [[fur trading]] headquarters in the region. The fort was by far the largest western settlement of its time. Every year ships would come from [[London]] (via the Pacific) to drop off supplies and trade goods in exchange for the furs. For many settlers the fort became the last stop on the [[Oregon Trail]] to buy supplies and land before starting their homestead. Because of its access to the Columbia river, Fort Vancouver's influence reached from [[Alaska]] to [[California]] and from the Rocky Mountains to the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
==Hydroelectric dams==
The mainstream of the Columbia River has 11 dams and 8 locks.
Nearly half of all [[hydroelectricity]] in the United States comes from the Columbia and its tributaries. The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects, the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] and the [[Chief Joseph Dam]], are also the largest in the United States. The Grand Coulee Dam is the third largest hydroelectric dam in the world. The dams also provide a secondary benefit in flood control and irrigation.
On its north-south stretch through Eastern Washington, the Columbia spans a large desert created by the Cascade Mountains' [[rain shadow]]. The dams provide water for the [[Columbia Basin Project]], one of the most extensive [[irrigation]] projects in the western United States. The project provides water to over 500,000 acres (2,000 km&sup2;) of fertile but arid lands in central Washington State. Water from the project has transformed the region from a wasteland barely able to produce subsistence levels of dry-land wheat crops to a major agricultural center. Important crops include [[Apple (fruit)|apple]]s, [[potato]]es, [[alfalfa]], [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]] (maize), [[barley]], [[hops]], [[bean]]s, and [[sugar beet]]s.
[[Image:Roll on Columbia.jpg|thumb|300px|The path of the Columbia River from Canada to the Pacific]]
Although the dams provide clean, renewable energy, they drastically alter the landscape and ecosystem of the river. At one time the Columbia was one of the top [[salmon]] producing river systems in the world. Previously active fishing sites, like [[Celilo Falls]] in the eastern Columbia River Gorge highlight the relative decline in fishing along the Columbia during the last century. The presence of dams coupled with over-fishing has played a major role in the reduction of salmon populations. [[Fish ladder]]s have been installed to help the fish journey to spawning waters. Additionally each dams' reservoirs are closely regulated by the [[Bonneville Power Administration]] to ensure one dam is not hoarding water to the detriment of habitat for salmon and other fish.
==Pollution==
Contaminants have seeped into the Columbia River from the [[Hanford Site|Hanford Nuclear Reservation]]. This Reservation was established in 1940s as part of the [[Manhattan Project]]. It is located along the river in southeastern Washington on 586 mile&sup2; (1,520 km&sup2;) of some of the most fertile land in North America; at the time of its establishment, the area was considered a wasteland. The site served as a [[plutonium]] production complex with nine [[nuclear reactor]]s and related facilities. Most of the facilities were shut down in the 1960s. The site is currently under control of the [[Department of Energy]], and is a [[CERCLA]], or superfund site. The superfund cleanup is expected to be completed in 2030.
There are also many more major problems with the Columbia, from raw [[sewage]] dumpage, to hundreds of tons of slag dumped daily. Because of the pollution problems, some people believe that the future health of the Columbia River does not look good. However, newspapers such as ''[[The Oregonian]]'' are calling attention to the problems of rivers, and there is hope that humans, industries, flora, fauna and safe water can be made to co-exist.
==Culture==
With the importance of the Columbia to the Pacific Northwest, it has made its way into the culture of the area and the nation.
From the [[Woody Guthrie]] song "[[Roll on, Columbia]]":
:''"Roll on, Columbia, roll on, roll on, Columbia, roll on''
:''Your power is turning our darkness to dawn''
:''Roll on, Columbia, roll on."''
===In the movies===
*''[[Bend of the River]]'' (with [[Jimmy Stewart]]), has a river boat scene filmed on the Columbia River in 1952.
*In 1954, some scenes of the [[television]] series [[Lassie (1954 tv series)|Lassie]] were filmed in the Columbia River Gorge.
*The Grand Coulee Dam was used in ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' (1984; [[Harrison Ford]]).
*The exterior river boat scenes from the 1994 film ''[[Maverick (film)|Maverick]]'' ([[Mel Gibson]], [[Jodie Foster]], and [[James Garner]]), were shot on the Columbia River, in the Columbia River Gorge, near the town of [[Hood River]].
*The dock scene for ''[[Snow Falling on Cedars]]'' (1999; [[Ethan Hawke]]) was filmed on the river at [[Cathlamet, Washington|Cathlamet]], [[Wahkiakum County, Washington]].
*The rock jetty ''[[Free Willy]]'' jumps over to gain his f |
us the [[Gospel#Canonical Gospels|four Gospels]] but [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] "did not so much as write to all the churches that he taught; and even to those to which he wrote he sent but a few lines." [[Bruce Metzger]] in his ''Canon of the New Testament'', 1997, draws the following conclusion about Clement:
<blockquote>Clement's Bible is the Old Testament, to which he refers repeatedly as Scripture (graphe), quoting it with more or less exactness. Clement also makes occasional reference to certain words of Jesus; though they are authoritative for him, he does not appear to enquire how their authenticity is ensured. In two of the three instances that he speaks of remembering 'the words' of Christ or of the Lord Jesus, it seems that he has a written record in mind, but he does not call it a 'gospel'. He knows several of Paul's epistles, and values them highly for their content; the same can be said of the Epistle to the Hebrews, with which he is well acquainted. Although these writings obviously possess for Clement considerable significance, he never refers to them as authoritative 'Scripture'.</blockquote>
[[Marcion of Sinope]]: c. [[150]], was the first of record to propose a definitive, exclusive, unique canon of Christian scriptures. He rejected the teachings of the [[Old Testament]], which he claimed were incompatible with the teachings of [[Jesus]]. The [[Gospel of Luke]], which Marcion called simply the "Gospel", he edited to remove any passages that connected Jesus with the Old Testament. This was because he believed that the god of the [[Jew]]s, [[YHWH]], who gave them the [[Law of Moses]], was an entirely different god than the Supreme God who sent Jesus and inspired the [[New Testament]]. By editing he thought he was removing [[judaize|judaizing]] corruptions and recovering the original inspired words of Jesus. He also used ten [[Pauline Epistles|Letters of Paul]] (excluding [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] and the [[Pastoral Epistles]]) assuming his ''Epistle to the Laodiceans'' refered to [[canonical]] [[Ephesians]] and not [[apocryphal]] [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] or another text no longer extant. To these, which he called the ''Gospel and the Apostolicon'', he added his ''Antithesis'' which contrasted the [[New Testament]] with the [[Old Testament]]. Marcion's canon and theology were soundly rejected as [[heresy|heretical]]; however, he forced other Christians to consider which texts were canonical and why. He spread his beliefs widely; they became known as [[Marcionism]]. [[Henry Wace]] in his introduction [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html] of 1911 stated: "A modern divine ... could not refuse to discuss the question raised by Marcion, whether there is such opposition between different parts of what he regards as the word of God, that all cannot come from the same author." The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] of 1913 stated: "they were perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known."
[[Muratorian fragment]] [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/muratorian.html]: this [[7th Century]] latin manuscript is often considered to be a translation of the first non-Marcion New Testament canon, and dated at between [[170]] (based on an internal reference to [[Pope Pius I]] and arguments put forth by [[Bruce Metzger]]) and as late as the end of the [[4th century]] (according to the [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Bible Dictionary]]). This partial canon lists the four gospels and the [[Pauline epistles|Letters of Paul]], as well as two books of Revelation, one of [[Book of Revelation|John]], another of [[Apocalypse of Peter|Peter]] (the latter of which it notes is not often read in the churches). It rejects the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] and Epistle to the Alexandrians both said to be forged in Paul's name to support [[Marcionism]].
[[Diatessaron]]: c. [[173]], a one-volume harmony of the four Gospels, translated and compiled by [[Tatian|Tatian the Assyrian]] into [[Syriac]]. In Syriac speaking churches, it effectively served as the only New Testament scripture until Paul's Letters were added during the 3rd century. Some believe that Acts was also used in Syrian churches alongside the Diatessaron {{fact}}, however, Eusebius' ''Ecclesiastical History'' 4.29.5 states Tatian rejected Paul's Letters and Acts. In the 4th century, the [[Doctrine of Addai]] lists a 17 book NT canon using the Diatessaron and Acts and 15 Pauline Epistles (including [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3rd Corinthians]]). The Diatessaron was eventually replaced in the 5th century by the [[Peshitta]], which contains a translation of all the books of the '''27-book NT''' except for [[2 John]], [[3 John]], [[2 Peter]], [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and is the [[Bible]] of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] where some members believe it is the original New Testament, see [[Aramaic primacy]].
[[Irenaeus of Lyons]]: c. [[185]], claimed that there were exactly four Gospels, no more and no less, as a touchstone of orthodoxy. He argued that it was illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author. In ''Against Heresies'' 3.12.12 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-60.htm#P7525_2024213] he ridiculed those who think they are wiser than the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] because they were still under [[Judaizers|Jewish influence]]. This was crucial to refuting Marcion's anti-Judaizing, as Acts gives honor to [[James the Just|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[John the Apostle|John]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] alike. At the time, [[Jewish Christians]] tended to honor James (a prominent Christian in Jerusalem described in the New Testament as an ''apostle'' and ''pillar'', and by Eusebius and other church historians as the first Bishop of Jerusalem) but not Paul, while [[Pauline Christianity]] tended to honor Paul more than James.
[[Codex Claromontanus]] canon [http://www.bible-researcher.com/claromontanus.html]: c. [[250]], a page found inserted into a [[6th Century]] copy of the Epistles of Paul and [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], has the '''27-book OT''' plus Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, 1-2,4 Maccabees, Barnabas, Hermas and the '''27-book NT''' plus [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3rd Corinthians]], Acts of Paul, Apocalypse of Peter but missing Philippians, 1-2 Thessalonians, and Hebrews.
[[Eusebius]]: c. [[300]], listed a New Testament canon in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.3 and 3.25 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002]: '''Recognized''' are four Gospels, Acts, 10 traditional Letters of Paul, [[Pastoral Epistles]], 1st Peter, 1st John; '''Disputed''' are [[Didache]], [[Epistle of Barnabas|Barnabas]], [[The Shepherd of Hermas|Hermas]], [[Diatessaron]], [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], [[Acts of Paul]], [[Epistle of James|James]], [[Second Epistle of Peter|2nd Peter]], [[Epistles of John|2-3 John]], [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]], [[Apocalypse of Peter]]; '''Rejected''' are [[Gospel of Peter]], [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Matthias]], [[Acts of Andrew]], [[Acts of John]], and unnamed others.
Cheltenham Canon ([http://www.bible-researcher.com/cheltenham.html], [http://www.ntcanon.org/Cheltenham_Canon.shtml), (also known as [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]]'s): c. [[350]], a page found inserted in a [[10th Century]] manuscript, has a 24 book OT and 24 book NT which provides syllable and line counts but omits Hebrews, Jude and James, and seems to question Epistles of John and Paul beyond the first.
[[Synod of Laodicea]]: c. [[363]], was one of the first synods that set out to judge which books were to be read aloud in churches. The decrees issued by the thirty or so clerics attending were called [[Canon law|canons]]. Canon 59 decreed that only canonical books should be read, but no list was appended in the Latin and Syriac manuscripts recording the decrees. The list of canonical books, Canon 60 [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.vii.iii.lxv.html], sometimes attributed to the Synod of Laodicea is a later addition according to most scholars and has a 22 book OT and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation).
[[Athanasius]]: in [[367]], in Festal Letter 39 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm] listed a 22 book OT and '''27-book NT''' and 7 books not in the canon but to be read: Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Didache, and the Pastor (probably Hermas). If you ignore the additional books to be read and exclusion of Esther from the canon, this list is the same as the modern Protestant canon and so Athanasius is often considered the father of the modern Protestant canon.
In c. [[380]], the redactor of the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] attributed a canon to the [[Twelve Apostles]] themselves ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Apostolic_Canons.shtml]) as the 85th of his list of such [[Canons of the Apostles|apostolic decrees]]:
:''Canon 85. Let the following books be esteemed venerable and holy by all of you, both clergy and laity. [A list of books of the Old Testament ...] And our sacred books, that is, of the New Testament, are the four Gospels, of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; the fourteen Epistles of Paul; two Epistles of Peter; three of John; one of James; one of Jude; two [[Epistles of Clement]]; and the Constitutions dedicated to you, the bishops, by me, [[Pope Clement I|Clement]], in eight books, which is not appropriate to make public before all, because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts of us, the Apostles.'' (From the Latin version.)
Some later Coptic and Arabic translations add Relevation and the Epistles of Clement.
[[Pope Damasus I]]: is often considered to be the father of the modern Catholic canon. Though purporting to date from a "[[Council of Rome]]" under Pope Damasus I in [[382]], the so |
the sea, such as [[Portland Bill]]
* [[Bill of lading]], issued by a carrier receiving goods for transport
* [[Waybill]], describing a shipment
* [[Billboard (advertising)]]
* [[Billhook]], a long-handled saw with a curved blade
* [[Pokèmon]] card which enables the player that used it to draw two cards.
* [[Bill (band)]], band from [[California]]
People,
* [[Bill Cosby]]
* [[William]], Bill is a short form of WIlliam
* [[Bill (Kill Bill)]], character in the [[Kill Bill]] films by [[Quentin Tarantino]]
* [[Bill W.]], co-founder of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
* [[Bill Gates]], founder of [[Microsoft]]
See also,
* [[Buffalo Bills]], American NFL football team
* [[Bills]], Congolese youth subculture in the late 1950s, idolising cowboy Western movies
* [[The Bill]], long-running British police drama
{{disambig}}
[[es:Billete]]
[[pt:Bill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Macy</title>
<id>4870</id>
<revision>
<id>36449054</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T02:53:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhymeless</username>
<id>58267</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+living</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Macy''' (born '''Wolf Marvin Garber''' on [[May 18]], [[1922]] in [[Revere, Massachusetts]]) is an [[United States|American]] actor, best known for his portrayal of Walter Findlay, [[Bea Arthur]]'s long-suffering husband on the [[1970s]] [[television]] [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Maude]]''.
Macy, before his success in ''Maude'', was something of an entertainment journeyman, performing in [[comedy club]]s, playing [[bit part]]s in movies as well as television shows, including ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' and ''[[All in the Family]]''. He also performed [[nudity|nude]] as a member of the original cast of ''[[Oh Calcutta]]'' in [[1969]].
An accomplished television actor, he has appeared on many shows, including ''[[Hanging In]]'' (a short-lived [[1979]] ''Maude'' [[spin-off]]), ''[[The Edge of Night]]'', ''[[St. Elsewhere]]'', ''[[Hotel (TV program)|Hotel]]'', ''[[Tales from the Darkside]]'', ''[[Highway to Heaven]]'', ''[[L.A. Law]]'', ''[[The Facts of Life]]'', ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'', ''[[Father Dowling Mysteries]]'', ''[[Matlock (television series)|Matlock]]'', ''[[Diagnosis: Murder]]'', ''[[Chicago Hope]]'', ''[[Seinfeld]]'', ''[[The Lone Gunmen]]'', ''[[Jack & Jill]]'', ''[[Two Guys, a Girl and a Pizza Place]]'', ''[[Touched by an Angel]]'', and ''[[ER (television)|ER]]''.
Additionally, Macy has also appeared in many theatrical and made-for-TV movies, notably ''[[Serial (1980 film)|Serial]]'' ([[1980]]), ''[[All Together Now]]'', ''[[Diary of a Young Comic]]'', ''[[Bad Medicine]]'', and ''[[Analyze This]]''.
He should not be confused with younger film and stage actor [[William H. Macy]].
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0534409|name=Bill Macy}}
[[Category:1922 births|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Television actors|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:American actors|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Macy, Bill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bobby Knight</title>
<id>4871</id>
<revision>
<id>42091720</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mike Halterman</username>
<id>309403</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
[[Image:Knight1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Fiery college basketball coaching legend Bob Knight.]]
'''Robert Montgomery "Bobby" Knight''' (born [[October 25]], [[1940 in sports|1940]] in [[Massillon, Ohio|Massillon]], [[Ohio]], [[USA]]) is the head men's [[college basketball|basketball]] coach at [[Texas Tech University]]. He previously held the same position at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] and the [[United States Military Academy]]. Knight is considered to be a stern disciplinarian, but a controversial figure who attracts a large amount of media attention for his behavior on and off the court.
== Coaching career ==
Bob Knight began his career as a player at Orrville High School and continued under [[Basketball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] coach [[Fred R. Taylor|Fred Taylor]] at [[The Ohio State University]] in [[1958 in sports|1958]]. He was a reserve on the Buckeyes' [[1960 in sports|1960]] [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA Division I National Championship]] team, which featured future Hall of Fame players [[John Havlicek]] and [[Jerry Lucas]]. Knight graduated with a degree in history and government in [[1962]].
After graduation in [[1962 in sports|1962]], Bob Knight coached at [[Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio|Cuyahoga Falls (Ohio)]] [[High School]] for one year, then accepted an assistant coaching position at [[United States Military Academy|Army]] in [[1963 in sports|1963]], where, two years later, he was named the head coach at the relatively young age of 24. In six seasons at West Point, Knight won 102 games. One of his players was future Hall of Fame coach [[Mike Krzyzewski]].
Knight was noticed as a rising star, and when [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] was seeking a new coach in [[1971 in sports|1971]], they turned to Knight. Knight immediately endeared himself to the basketball-mad state of [[Indiana]] with his disciplined approach to the game. Educated in military history, Knight was given the nickname "The General" by former [[University of Detroit Mercy|University of Detroit]] and [[Detroit Pistons]] coach-turned-broadcaster [[Dick Vitale]].
Within two years, Knight turned a mediocre team into a [[Big Ten Conference]] powerhouse. Indiana reached the Final Four in 1973, losing to [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]. In [[1975 in sports|1975]] the [[Indiana Hoosiers]] were undefeated. the number one team in the nation, when leading scorer and [[All-American]] [[Scott May]], the father of former [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|North Carolina]] star and current [[Charlotte Bobcats]] player [[Sean May]], broke his arm during the Hoosiers' historic defeat of arch-rival [[Purdue University|Purdue]] on [[Mackey Arena|Purdue's home court]]. Indiana subsequently suffered a heartbreaking 92-90 loss to [[University of Kentucky|Kentucky]] in the regional finals of the Division I Men's National Championship tournament despite a determined, but ultimately ineffective, May gamely playing with a heavily-braced arm. The final game between [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] and Kentucky was historic, as it was Indiana-born UCLA head coach [[John Wooden|John Wooden's]] final game.
In [[1976 in sports|1976]], the Hoosiers made history, posting a perfect 32-0 record and winning the championship, beating [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] 86-68. Immediately after the game, Knight lamented that "it should have been two." No [[NCAA Division I|Division I]] men's team has replicated the feat. Under Knight, the Hoosiers would also win championships in [[1981 in sports|1981]] and [[1987 in sports|1987]]. The 1981 team featured future Hall of Fame [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] [[point guard]] [[Isiah Thomas]], and the 1987 team featured guard [[Steve Alford]]. That championship game was won on a exhilarating last-second shot by [[Keith Smart]].
Additionally, Knight's Hoosiers won the [[1979 in sports|1979]] [[National Invitation Tournament|NIT]] championship, and Knight won the [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medal as coach of the [[Michael Jordan]]-led [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984]] team. He also won eleven Big Ten Conference titles. Knight is only one of four coaches to win NCAA, NIT, and Olympic championships, joining the legendary coaches, [[Dean Smith]] of North Carolina, [[Adolph Rupp]] of Kentucky, and [[Pete Newell]] of [[University of California, Berkeley|California]] in that achievement.
The Indiana Hoosiers were undefeated in Big Ten Conference play from [[1974 in sports|1974]] to 1976, and, in fact, only lost one game during the period (the aforementioned regional final against Kentucky).
Besides the 1975 Men's Division I tournament loss, many fans and pundits consider Bob Knight's only other true failure as Hoosiers head coach was his inability to convince future [[National Basketball Association]] legend [[Larry Bird]] to stay at Indiana. Bird, who was raised in in the small southern Indiana town of [[French Lick, Indiana|French Lick]], could not acclimate himself to the massive IU campus. He left Indiana never having attended a single practice and transferred to the far smaller [[Indiana State University]], where he led the Sycamores to the 1979 Men's Division I championship game against the [[Magic Johnson|Earvin "Magic" Johnson]]-led [[Michigan State University|Michigan State]] Spartans. The Spartans won 75-64.
== Knight's basketball philosophy ==
Bob Knight's teams feature an offense with players in constant motion, with an emphasis on having his post players set screens and his perimeter players passing the ball until a teammate becomes open for an uncontested jump shot or layup. On defense, Knight's players are required to both tenaciously guard opponents man-to-man and to help teammates when needed. This requires tough, selfless, and intelligent play by players and the sacrifice of individual glory for the sake of the team's success. Inarguably, this has become difficult in an era when underclassmen began leaving college in greater numbers for the greener pastures of the NBA. However, Bob Knight has consistently had among the highest graduation rates among the college coaching fraternity.
Knight's basketball philosophy is, arguably, a major reason why so few of his players &mdash; even the more prominent ones such as Steve Alford and Keith Smart &mdash; have had long term success in the NBA. Isiah Thomas is one of the few exceptions to the rule.
Bob Knight was ver |
The term '''finance''' may thus incorporate any of the following:
* The study of [[money]] and other [[asset]]s
* The management and control of those assets
* Profiling and managing project risks
* As a verb, "to finance" is to provide funds for [[business]].
==Examples of some basic financial concepts==
The activity of '''finance''' is the application of a set of techniques that individuals and organizations (entities) use to manage their financial affairs, particularly the differences between income and expenditure and the risks of their investments.
An [[entity]] whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a [[financial intermediary]], such as a [[bank]] or buy notes or bonds in the [[bond market]]. The lender receives [[interest]], the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders of different sizes to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space since they allow different lenders and borrowers to meet, and in time, since every borrower will eventually pay back.
A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ inc, and they have 100 shares available, you are 1/100 owner of that company. You own 1/100 of anything on the asset side of the balance sheet. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business in a process called "equity financing". Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure.
Finance is used by individuals ([[personal finance]]), by governments ([[public finance]]), by businesses ([[corporate finance]]), etc., as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to their institutional setting.
==Personal finance==
Questions in [[List_of_finance_topics#Personal_finance |personal finance]] revolve around
*How much money will be needed by an individual (or a family) at various points in the future?
*Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?
*How can people protect themselves against unforeseen events in their lives, and risk in financial markets?
*How can family assets be best transfered across generations (bequests and inheritance)?
*How do taxes (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial decisions?
Personal financial decisions involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as [[real estate]] and cars, buying [[insurance]], e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for [[retirement]].
==Business finance==
In the case of a company, managerial finance or [[corporate finance]] is the task of providing the funds for the corporations' activities. It generally involves balancing risk and profitability.
Long term funds would be provided by [[ownership equity]] and long-term [[credit (finance)|credit]], often in the form of [[bond]]s. These decisions lead to the company's [[capital structure]]. Short term funding or [[working capital]] is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit.
On the bond market, borrowers package their debt in the form of [[bond]]s. The borrower receives the money it borrows by selling the bond, which includes a promise to repay the value of the bond with interest. The purchaser of a bond can resell the bond, so the actual recipient of interest payments can change over time. Bonds allow lenders to recoup the value of their loan by simply selling the bond.
Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or [[fund management]]. An investment is an acquisition of an [[asset]] in the hopes that it will maintain or increase its value. In [[List_of_finance_topics#Investment_management|investment management]] - in choosing a [[portfolio (finance)|portfolio]] - one has to decide ''what'', ''how much'' and ''when'' to invest. In doing so, one needs to
*Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual - goals - time horizon - risk aversion - tax considerations
*Identify the appropriate strategy: active vs passive - hedging strategy
*Measure the portfolio performance
'''Financial management''' is duplicate with the financial function of the [[accounting profession]]. However, accounting is concerned with reporting of historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future of the firm.
==Finance of states==
Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called [[List_of_finance_topics#Public_finance|public finance]]. It is concerned with
*Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity
*Source(s) of that entity's revenue
*The budgeting process
*Debt issuance ([[municipal bond]]s) for public works projects
==Financial economics==
{{Main|Financial economics}}
Financial economics is the branch of [[economics]] studying the interrelation of financial [[variables]], s.a. [[price]]s, [[interest rate]]s and shares as opposed to those concerning the real economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of [[Real_vs._nominal_in_economics|real]] economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance.
It studies:
*[[List_of_finance_topics#Valuation |Valuation]] - Determination of the fair value of an asset
**How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount rate)
**What [[cash flows]] will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows)
**How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation)
**Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives, contingent claim valuation)
*[[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_markets| Financial markets and instruments]]
**Commodities - [[List_of_finance_topics#Commodity_markets | topics]]
**Stocks - [[List_of_finance_topics#Stock_market| topics]]
**Bonds - [[List_of_finance_topics#Bond_market| topics]]
**Money market instruments- [[List_of_finance_topics#Money_market| topics]]
**Derivatives - [[List_of_finance_topics#Derivatives_market| topics]]
*[[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_institutions_and_banking |Financial institutions]] and [[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_supervision,_regulation,_and_accreditation |regulation]]
==Financial mathematics==
{{Main|Financial mathematics}}
Financial mathematics is the branch of applied mathematics concerned with the financial markets. Financial mathematics is the study of [[financial data]] with the tools of [[mathematics]], mainly [[statistics]]. Such data can be movements of securities - [[stock]]s and [[bond]]s etc. - and their relations. Another large subfield is [[actuarial science|insurance mathematics]].
==See also==
* [[Funding]], a synonym of '''financing'''
* There are also over 250 other finance articles in Wikipedia. See [[list of finance topics]].
* [[List of publications in economics#Finance| Important publications in finance]]
== External links ==
<!-- -->
<!-- Do not add advertising or commercial links to this article. -->
<!-- -->
*For material covering three areas in finance - corporate finance, valuation and investment management, see [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/ Prof. Aswath Damodaran]
*For links to finance web sites, grouped by topic see [http://web.utk.edu/~jwachowi/wacho_world.html#Part%20I Web Sites for Discerning Finance Students], Prof. John M. Wachowicz
*For the introductory finance web site at the [[University of Arizona]], [http://www.studyfinance.com/ studyfinance.com]
*For introductory articles covering mathematical finance see [http://www.quantnotes.com/fundamentals/ quantnotes]
*For introductory articles, a full glossary and links to resources on behavioral finance see the [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/pgreenfinch/behavioral-finance.htm BF gallery]
<!-- -->
<!-- Do not add advertising or commercial links to this article. -->
<!-- -->
[[Category:Finance| ]]
[[be:Фінансы]]
[[de:Finanzierung]]
[[el:Χρηματοοικονομικά]]
[[fr:Finance]]
[[id:Keuangan]]
[[it:Finanza]]
[[hu:Pénzügy]]
[[nl:Financiën]]
[[ja:金融]]
[[pl:Finanse]]
[[ru:Финансы]]
[[scn:Finanza]]
[[sv:Finansväsen]]
[[th:การเงิน]]
[[tr:Finans]]
[[zh:金融学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fund management</title>
<id>11163</id>
<revision>
<id>15908927</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-27T02:51:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mydogategodshat</username>
<id>11870</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institutional fund management]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 17</title>
<id>11164</id>
<revision>
<id>41668451</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:20:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Births */ rm redlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:r |
Alps"'' by [[J.M.W. Turner]]. This famous painting is one out of several [[neoclassical]] artworks immortalizing Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps]]
Hannibal's name is also commonplace in popular culture, an objective measure of his influence on Western European history. Long after his death, his name continued to carry a portent of great or imminent danger within the [[Roman Republic]]. It was written that he taught the Romans, who claimed to be fierce descendants of [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the meaning of [[fear]]. For generations, Roman housekeepers would tell their children brutal tales of Hannibal when they misbehaved (the equivalent of the modern day ''"[[Bogeyman]]"''). In fact, Hannibal became such a figure of terror, that when ever disaster struck, the Roman Senators would exclaim ''"[[List of Latin phrases|Hannibal ad portas]]"'' (''“Hannibal is at the Gates!”'') to express their fear or anxiety. This famous [[Latin]] phrase evolved into a [[List of idioms in the English language|common expression]] that is often used when a client arrives through the door or when one is faced with calamity<sup>[http://www.alanemrich.com/Class/Class_Practical_Latin.htm]<sup>. This illustrates the psychological impact Hannibal's presence in Italy had on [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman Culture]] .
Similar to [[Robert E. Lee]] and [[Erwin Rommel]] after him, Hannibal's victories against superior forces in an ultimately losing cause won him enduring fame that outlasted his [[Carthage|native country]]. His crossing of the Alps remains one of the most monumental military feats of [[ancient warfare]] <sup>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ha/Hannibal.html]<sup> and has since captured the imagination of the Western World (romanticized by several artworks and subject to Roman [[folklore]]).
===Military history===
Hannibal's legacy also extends to the field of [[military history]], as he is universally ranked as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians of the [[Western world]], alongside [[Epaminondas]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]], [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]], [[Turenne]], [[John Churchill|The Duke of Marlborough]], [[Frederick the Great]], and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] among others. In fact, his exploits (especially his victory at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]) continue to be studied in several military academies all over the world.
[[Image:Napoleon4.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]] crossing the Alps,'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]]. Napoleon's famous crossing of the Alps during the [[Napoleon I of France#An interlude of peace|Second Italian Campaign]], is often associated with Hannibal, whose name is inscribed on the rock in the left foreground of the painting.]]
The author of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article praises Hannibal in these words: ''"As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a [[tactician]] of supreme capacity. In the use of stratagems and [[ambuscade]]s he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and [[Gauls]]. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally great, among which he singles out his more than Punic perfidy and an inhuman cruelty. For the first there would seem to be no further justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favorably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal." ''
Even his Roman chroniclers acknowledged his military genius, writing that, ''“he never required other to do what he could and would not do himself”'' <sup>[http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html]<sup>. [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] himself regarded Hannibal as a gifted strategist, describing him as ''“the most audacious of all, probably the most stunning, so hardy, so sure, so great in all things.''” [[Alfred Graf von Schlieffen]]’s eponymously-titled "[[Schlieffen Plan]]" was developed from his military studies, with particularly heavy emphasis on Hannibal's victory at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]. [[George S. Patton|Patton]] believed that he was a reincarnation of General Hannibal as well as many other people including a Roman [[legionary]]. [[Norman Schwarzkopf]], the commander of the Coalition Forces in the Gulf War, claimed that ''"The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today"''.
==="''Father of Strategy''"===
According to the military historian, [[Theodore Ayrault Dodge]], ''“Hannibal excelled as a [[tactician]]. No battle in history is a finer sample of tactics than [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]. But he was yet greater in logistics and strategy. No captain ever matched to and fro among so many armies of troops superior to his own numbers and material as fearlessly and skillfully as he. No man ever held his own so long or so ably against such odds. Constantly overmatched by better soldiers, led by generals always respectable, often of great ability, he yet defied all their efforts to drive him from Italy, for half a generation.”'' Furthermore, Dodge christened Hannibal as the "father of strategy" due to his visionary conduct of warfare<sup>[http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html]<sup>. He wrote: ''"Excepting in the case of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], and some few isolated instances, all wars up to the [[Second Punic War]], had been decided largely, if not entirely, by battle-tactics. Strategic ability had been comprehended only on a minor scale. Armies had marched towards each other, had fought in parallel order, and the conqueror had imposed terms on his opponent. Any variation from this rule consisted in ambuscades or other strategems. That war could be waged by avoiding in lieu of seeking battle; that the results of a victory could be earned by attacks upon the enemy’s communications, by flank-maneuvers, by seizing positions from which safely to threaten him in case he moved, and by other devices of strategy, was not understood . . .[However] For the first time in the history of war, we see two contending generals avoiding each other, occupying impregnable camps on heights, marching about each other's flanks to seize cities or supplies in their rear, harasssing each other with small-war, and rarely venturing on a battle which might prove a fatal disaster—all with a well-conceived purpose of placing his opponent at a strategic disadvantage. . .That it did so was due to the teaching of Hannibal"''.
==Hannibal in film==
*''[[Hannibal (2006 film)|Hannibal]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]) &mdash; starring [[Vin Diesel]].
*''The Phantom of the Opera (2005)'' &mdash; the beginning Opera being rehearsed is one about Hannibal so titled Hannibal.
*''True Story of Hannibal'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) &mdash; English documentary.
*''Hannibal: The Man Who Hated Rome'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) &mdash; English documentary.
*''The Great Battles of Hannibal'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) &mdash; English animation.
*''Annibale'' ([[1960 in film|1960]]) &mdash; starring [[Victor Mature]]. Italian.
==List of battles==
{{Campaignbox Second Punic War}}
*[[218 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of the Ticinus]]''' - Hannibal defeats the Romans under [[Publius Cornelius Scipio|Publius Cornelius Scipio the :Elder]] in a small cavalry fight.
: '''[[Battle of the Trebia]]''' - Hannibal defeats the Romans under [[Titus Sempronius Longus]].
*[[217 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of Lake Trasimene]]''' - In an ambush, Hannibal destroyed the Roman army of [[Gaius Flaminius]], who is killed.
*[[216 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of Cannae]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army led by [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]] in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art.
: '''[[Battle of Nola (216 BC)|First Battle of Nola]]''' - Roman general [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] holds off an attack by Hannibal.
*[[215 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of Nola (215 BC)|Second Battle of Nola]]''' - Marcellus again repulses an attack by Hannibal.
*[[214 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of Nola (214 BC)|Third Battle of Nola]]''' - Marcellus fights an inconclusive battle with Hannibal.
*[[212 BC]]
: '''[[Battle of Capua (212 BC)|First Battle of Capua]]''' - Hannibal defeats the consuls Q. Fulvius Flaccus and [[Appius Claudius]], but the Roman army escapes.
: '''[[Battle of the Silarus]]''' - Hannibal destroys the army of the Roman praetor M. Centenius Penula.
: '''[[Battle of Herdonia (212 BC)|First Battle of Herdonia]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of the praetor Gnaeus Fulvius.
: '''[[Battle of Capua (211 BC)|Second Battle o |
ia.com/cats/friends_trivia.php ''Friends'' trivia quizzes]
* [http://www.friendspeich.com''Friends Peich''] Spanish fansite
* [http://www.frenzo.net''Frenzo'' An Assorted Media and News Fan Site]
{{Friends}}
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:2000s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe Nominee (television)]]
[[Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (television)]]
[[Category:Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe Nominee]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe Nominee (television)]]
[[Category:Citytv network shows]]
[[Category:Friends|Friends]]
[[Category:NBC network shows]]
[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners]]
[[Category:Sitcoms]]
[[Category:Televisa network shows]]
[[bg:Приятели]]
[[bs:Friends (serija)]]
[[da:Venner]]
[[de:Friends]]
[[es:Friends]]
[[fa:دوستان(مجموعه ی تلویزیونی)]]
[[fi:Frendit]]
[[fr:Friends]]
[[he:חברים]]
[[hu:Jóbarátok]]
[[id:Friends]]
[[it:Friends]]
[[ja:フレンズ (シットコム)]]
[[ko:프렌즈]]
[[lt:Draugai (TV serialas)]]
[[nl:Friends]]
[[no:Venner for livet]]
[[pl:Przyjaciele]]
[[pt:Friends]]
[[ro:Prietenii Tăi]]
[[ru:Друзья (сериал)]]
[[simple:Friends]]
[[sk:Priatelia (TV seriál)]]
[[sv:Vänner (TV-serie)]]
[[tr:Friends]]
[[zh:老友记]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental forces</title>
<id>11316</id>
<revision>
<id>15909072</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-28T21:53:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karada</username>
<id>6817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental interaction]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental interaction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frankish</title>
<id>11317</id>
<revision>
<id>21097979</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-15T22:57:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Neutrality|Neutrality]] to last version by Bryan Derksen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Franks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FBI Most Wanted Terrorists</title>
<id>11318</id>
<revision>
<id>40507675</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T01:57:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.46.198.230</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* List of wanted suspects */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}
List of the [[FBI]]'s "'''Most Wanted Terrorists'''," is a list of people considered actively involved in [[terrorism]] within the [[United States]]. It is based on the FBI's [[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives|Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]] list.
See also [[Terrorism]], [[Terrorist incidents]].
== List of wanted suspects ==
[[World Trade Center bombing]], [[February 26]], [[1993]].
* [[Abdul Rahman Yasin]]
[[Operation Bojinka]] plot, ''foiled'' [[January 6]]-[[January 7|7]], [[1995]].
* [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]] -- arrested March [[2003]]
[[Khobar Towers bombing]] in [[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[June 25]], [[1996]]
* [[Ahmed Ibrahim al-Mughassil]]
* [[Ali Saed Bin Ali el-Houri]]
* [[Ibrahim Salih Mohammed al-Yacoub]]
* [[Abdelkarim Hussein Mohamed al-Nasser]]
[[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]] and [[Dar Es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], [[August 7]], [[1998]].
* [[Osama bin Laden]]
* [[Muhammad Atef]] -- Killed in [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]]
* [[Fazul Abdullah Mohammed]]
* [[Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil]]
* [[Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam]]
* [[Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani]] - captured in Pakistan in July 2004
* [[Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan]]
* [[Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah]]
* [[Anas Al-Liby]]
* [[Saif al-Adel]] -- [[Iran]] says that it has al-Adel in custody
* [[Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali]]
* [[Mushin Musa Matwalli Atwah]]
[[TWA 847 hijacking|Hijacking of TWA 847]], [[June 14]], [[1985]]
* [[Imad Mugniyah]]
* [[Hassan Izz-Al-Din]]
* [[Ali Atwa]]
* [[ Photo Gallery of al Qaeda terrorist suspects still at large]]
==External links==
*[http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Rewards for Justice]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/terrorists/fugitives.htm FBI Most Wanted Terrorist page]
[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation|Most Wanted Terrorists]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis Bacon</title>
<id>11319</id>
<revision>
<id>42072724</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Musical Linguist</username>
<id>233733</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.40.187.220|217.40.187.220]] ([[User talk:217.40.187.220|talk]]) to last version by Grenavitar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Francis_Bacon.jpg|thumb|250px|Sir Francis Bacon]]
{{otherpeople|Francis Bacon}}
'''Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans''', [[King's Council|KC]] ([[22 January]] [[1561]] &ndash; [[9 April]] [[1626]]) was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]], [[statesman]], [[freemason]] and [[essayist]]. He was knighted in [[1603]], created '''Baron Verulam''' in [[1618]], and created '''Viscount St Albans''' in [[1621]]; both [[peerage]] titles becoming extinct upon his death.
He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the [[scientific revolution]]. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for [[science|scientific]] inquiry, often called the ''[[Baconian method]]''. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of [[hermeticism]] and [[alchemy]].
==Early life==
Francis Bacon was born at York House [[Strand, London|Strand]], [[London]]. He was the youngest of five sons of [[Nicholas Bacon|Sir Nicholas Bacon]], [[Lord Keeper]] of the Great Seal under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. His mother, [[Ann Cooke Bacon]] was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or [[Puritan]] Church, and a daughter of Sir [[Anthony Cooke]], whose sister married [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|William Cecil, Lord Burghley]], the great minister of Queen Elizabeth.
Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. He entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], in [[1573]] at the age of 12, living for three years there with his older brother [[Anthony Bacon]].
At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper."
Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. His reverence for [[Aristotle]] conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.
On [[June 27]], [[1576]], he and Anthony were entered ''de societate magistrorum'' at [[Gray's Inn]], and a few months later they went abroad with Sir [[Amias Paulet]], the English ambassador at [[Paris]]. The disturbed state of government and society in [[France]] under [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] afforded him valuable political instruction.
The sudden death of his father in February [[1579]] necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at [[Gray's Inn]] in 1579.
==Career==
[[Image:Lord Bacon stamp.png|right|thumb|200px|Lord Bacon Postage Stamp]]
In the fragment ''De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium'' (written probably about [[1603]]) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], for some post at [[court]] which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of law, until admitted as an [[outer barrister]] in [[1582]]. In [[1584]] he took his seat in [[parliament]] for [[Melcombe]] in [[Dorset]], and subsequently for [[Taunton]] ([[1586]]). He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he set down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, ''Temporis Partus Maximus'', but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success.
In the Parliament of [[1586]] he took a prominent part in urging the execution of [[Mary Queen of Scots]]. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar, and in his receiving, in [[1589]], the reversion to the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until [[1608]].
During this period Bacon became acquainted with [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]] (1567-1601), [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]]'s favourite. By [[1591]] he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Bacon took his seat for [[Middlesex]] when in February [[1593]] Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a [[Catholic]] plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking |
[[basketball]] and [[football (soccer)|football]] teams are both called "Žalgiris" to commemorate the victorious battle [[BC Žalgiris]] and [[FK Žalgiris]].
The term ''Žalgiris'' became a symbol of the resistence to the foreign domination over Lithuania. The victories of the basketball club [[BC Žalgiris]] Kaunas against the Soviet Army sports club CSKA Moscow (in the late [[1980s]]) served as a major emotional inspiration for the Lithuanian national revival, and the consequent emergence of [[Sąjūdis]] movement that led to the collapse of [[USSR]].
===Germany===
In Germany the battle was known as the Battle of Tannenberg. In [[1914]] yet another [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]] took place between Germany and Russia, ending with a Russian defeat. In German propaganda during the WWI / WWII period the 1914 battle was put forth as a revenge for the Polish - Lithuanian victory 504 years earlier, and the battle itself was purposefuly named to suit this agenda.
===Russia and Soviet Union===
Due to participation of [[Smolensk]] squad in the battle, Soviet propaganda depicted the battle as [[Poland|Polish]]-[[Lithuania|Lithuanian]]-[[Russia|Russian]] coalition against evil [[German people|Germans]].
== Banners ==
=== Poland ===
The exact [[Order of Battle]] of the Polish forces is unknown. However, [[Ioannes Longinus]] in his ''Historiæ Polonicæ'' written after [[1455]] recorded 51 Polish [[Choragiew|banners]], together with their descriptions, blazoning and commanders. It is not certain whether the list is complete.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;"
|- style="background: #ececec;"
! Banner of
! Battle sign
! Origin
! Remarks
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Court Banners
|-
! Great Banner of [[Kraków]] and the Kingdom of Poland
| align="left" | [[Image:Choragiew Krakowska.png|40px|The Crown]] [[Coat of Arms of Poland|Arms of Poland]]
|
| Elite troops, under [[Zyndram of Maszkowice]]
|-
! "Gończa" Court Banner
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Goncza.jpg|30px|Goncza]] [[Goncza Coat of Arms]]
|
| under Andrzej of Ochocice of [[Osorya]]
|-
! Pogoń Court Banner
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon.png|40px|Pogoń]] [[Pahonia]]
|
| under Andrzej [[Ciolek Coat of Arms|Ciołek]] of Żelechów and Jan of Sprowa of [[Odrawaz Coat of Arms|Odrowąż]]
|-
! [[Saint George]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Saint_George.jpg|30px|Saint George]]
|
| Bohemian and Moravian mercenaries, under Sokol and Zbyslavek
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Regional Banners
|-
! [[Greater Poland]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Wielkopolska.jpg|30px|Greater Poland]] [[Coat of Arms of Greater Poland]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Sandomierz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Sandomierz.jpg|30px|Sandomierz]] [[Flag of Sandomierz]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kalisz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Kalisz.jpg|30px|Kalisz]] [[Flag of Kalisz]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Sieradz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Sieradz.jpg|30px|Sieradz]] [[Flag of Sieradz]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Lublin]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Lublin.jpg|30px|Lublin]] [[Jelen Coat of Arms|Jeleń]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Łęczyca]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Leczyca.jpg|30px|Leczyca]] [[Flag of Leczyca|Flag of Łęczyca]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Cuyavia]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Kujawy.jpg|30px|Cuyavia]] [[Coat of Arms of Cuyavia]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Lwów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Lwow.jpg|30px|Lwow]] [[Coat of Arms of Halicz Ruthenia|Banner of Lwów]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Wieluń]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Wielun.jpg|30px|Wielun]] [[Flag of Wielun|Flag of Wieluń]]
|
| Reinforced with mercenaries from [[Silesia]]
|-
! Land of [[Przemysl|Przemyśl]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Przemysl.jpg|30px|Przemyśl]] [[Flag of Przemyśl]]
|
|
|-
! [[Dobrzyn|Dobrzyń]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Dobrzyn1.jpg|30px|Dobrzyn]] [[Coat of Arms of Dobrzyn|Coat of Arms of Dobrzyń]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Chełm]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Chelm1.jpg|30px|Chelm]][[Coat of Arms of Chelm|Coat of Arms of Chełm]]
|
|
|-
! Three banners of [[Podolia]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Podole.png|40px|Podolia]] [[Coat of Arms of Podolia]]
|
| Split up due to large number of knights
|-
! Land of [[Halicz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Halicz.jpg|30px|Halicz]] [[Coat of Arms of Halicz]]
|
|
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Masovian Banners
|-
! Two banners of <br>Duke [[Siemowit IV of Masovia]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga_Mazowsze.jpg|30px|Masovia]] [[Coat of Arms of Masovia]]
| [[Masovia]], mostly [[Płock]] area
| [[Dukes of Masovia]]
|-
! Duke [[Janusz I of Masovia]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Banner Masovia.png|40px|Banner of Masovia as flown by the forces of Janusz I]] own
| [[Masovia]], mostly [[Warsaw]] area
| [[Dukes of Masovia]]
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Personal Banners
|-
! Archbishop of [[Gniezno]] <br>[[Mikolaj Kurowski|Mikołaj Kurowski]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Szreniawa.png|40px|Sreniawa]] [[Sreniawa Coat of Arms|Śreniawa ]]
|
|
|-
! Bishop of [[Poznań]] <br>;[[Wojciech Jastrzebiec|Wojciech Jastrzębiec]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Jastrzebiec.jpg|30px|Jastrzębiec]] [[Jastrzebiec Coat of Arms|Jastrzębiec ]]
|
| under [[Jarand of Brudzewo]]
|-
! Castellan of [[Kraków]] <br>[[Krystyn of Ostrów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Rawicz.png|40px|Rawicz]] [[Rawicz Coat of Arms|Rawicz ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Voivod]] of [[Kraków]] <br>[[Jan z Tarnowa (1367-1433)|Jan of Tarnów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa Coat of Arms|Leliwa ]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Poznań]] <br>[[Sedziwoj of Ostrorog|Sędziwój of Ostroróg]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Nalecz.png|40px|Nałęcz]] [[Nalecz Coat of Arms|Nałęcz ]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Sandomierz]] <br>[[Mikolaj of Michalowo|Mikołaj of Michałowo]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Poraj.png|40px|Poraj]] [[Poraj Coat of Arms|Poraj]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Sieradz]] <br>[[Jakub of Koniecpol]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Pobog.jpg|30px|Pobóg]] [[Pobóg]]
|
|
|-
! [[Castellan]] of [[Śrem, Poland|Śrem]] <br>[[Iwo of Obiechów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Wieniawa.jpg|30px|Wieniawa]] [[Wieniawa]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Łęczyca]] <br>[[Jan Ligeza|Jan Ligęza]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Polkozic.png|40px|Półkozic]] [[Polkozic Coat of Arms|Półkozic ]]
|
|
|-
! Castellan of [[Wojnice]] <br>[[Andrzej of Teczyn|Andrzej of Tęczyn]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Topór.png|40px|Topór]] [[Topór ]]
|
|
|-
! Marshal of The Crown <br>[[Zbigniew of Brzezie]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Zadora.jpg|30px|Zadora]] [[Zadora]]
|
|
|-
! [[Chambelain]] of [[Kraków]] <br>[[Piotr Szafraniec]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Starykon.png|40px|Starykon]] [[Starykon Coat of Arms|Starykoń ]]
|
|
|-
! Castellan of [[Wiślica]] <br>[[Klemens of Moskorzów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Pilawa.jpg|30px|Pilawa]] [[Pilawa Coat of Arms|Piława]]
|
|
|-
! Castellan of [[Śrem, Poland|Śrem]] and mayor of Greater Poland <br>[[Wincenty of Granów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa]]
|
|
|-
! [[Dobko of Olesnica|Dobko of Oleśnica]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Debno.png|40px|Dębno]] [[Debno Coat of Arms|Dębno ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Spytek z Tarnowa i Jaroslawia|Spytko of Tarnów]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa]]
|
|
|-
! Lord High Steward of [[Kalisz]] <br>[[Marcin of Slawsko|Marcin of Sławsko]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Zaremba.jpg|30px|Zaremba]] [[Zaremba]]
|
|
|-
! [[Dobrogost Swidwa|Dobrogost Świdwa]] of [[Szamotuły]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Nalecz.png|40px|Nałęcz]] [[Nalecz Coat of Arms|Nałęcz ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krystyn of Kozieglowy|Krystyn of Koziegłowy]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Lis.png|40px|Lis]] [[Lis Coat of Arms|Lis]]
|
|
|-
! Master King's Cup-Bearer <br>[[Jan Mezyk|Jan Mężyk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Wadwicz.png|40px|Wadwicz]] [[Wadwicz Coat of Arms|Wadwicz]]
|
|
|-
! Deputy Chancellor of the Crown <br>[[Mikolaj Traba|Mikołaj Trąba]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Herb Traby.jpg|30px|Trąby]] [[Traby Coat of Arms|Trąby ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Mikolaj Kmita|Mikołaj Kmita]] of [[Wisnicz|Wiśnicz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Szreniawa.png|40px|Sreniawa]] [[Sreniawa Coat of Arms|Śreniawa ]]
|
|
|-
! Gryf Clan
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Gryf.png|40px|Gryf]] [[Gryf Coat of Arms|Gryf]]
|
| Family of Gryf, under [[Zygmunt of Bobowa]]
|-
! [[Zaklika Korzkwicki|Zaklika of Korzkiew]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Syrokomla.png|40px|Syrokomla]] [[Syrokomla]]
|
|
|-
! Clan of Koźlerogi
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Jelita.png|40px|Kozlerogi]] [[Kozlerogi Coat of Arms|Koźlerogi ]]
|
| Family, under Castellan of [[Wiślica]] [[Florian of Korytnica]]
|-
! [[John of Jicin|Jan of Jičín]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Odrowaz.png|40px|Benesovec]] [[Odrowaz Coat of Arms|Benešovec ]]
| [[Moravia]]
| Volunteers from Moravia, commanded by certain Helm
|-
! Steward of the Crown and staros |
rs= [[February 24]], [[1930]]–[[June 30]], [[1941]]|
before= [[William Howard Taft]]|
after=[[Harlan Fiske Stone]] }}
{{end box}}
{{start U.S. Supreme Court composition
| CJ=[[Edward Douglass White|White]]}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1910}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1911}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1912–1914}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1914–1916}}
{{end U.S. Supreme Court composition}}
{{USSolGen}}
{{USChiefJustices}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USSecState}}
{{NYGovernors}}
{{start U.S. Supreme Court composition| CJ=[[Charles Evans Hughes|Hughes]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1930}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1930–1932}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1932–1937}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1937–1938}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1938}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1939}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1940–1941}}
{{end U.S. Supreme Court composition}}
[[Category:1862 births|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:American judges|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:American law professors|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Baptists|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Brown alumni|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Chief Justices of the United States|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Governors of New York|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Solicitor General of the United States|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of State|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
[[fr:Charles Evans Hughes]]
[[it:Charles Evans Hughes]]
[[ja:チャールズ・E・ヒューズ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caustic soda</title>
<id>7526</id>
<revision>
<id>15905590</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sodium hydroxide]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concept album</title>
<id>7527</id>
<revision>
<id>41497327</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:42:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Knucmo2</username>
<id>116082</id>
</contributor>
<comment>not even arguably the first - mccartney acknowledged there were others before him that tackled a concept album</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pepper's.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]], the most famous and one of the first concept albums in rock and roll.]]
In [[popular music]] a '''concept album''' is an [[album]] which is pre-planned (conceived), most often with all songs contributing to [[Metanarrative|a single overall theme or unified story]], this plan or story being the [[concept]]. This is in contrast to the standard practice of an artist or group releasing an album consisting of a number of unconnected songs that the members of the group or the artist have written, or have chosen to perform or cover. Given that the suggestion of something as vague as an overall mood often tags a work as being a concept album, a precise definition of the term proves highly problematic.
In the meaning attributed to the words "concept album" in the contemporary rock era (from 1966 onwards - the point at which critics started to differentiate between "pop music" and "rock music" as a more serious form) - there were broadly speaking two genres of concept album: those that were essentially thematically-linked song cycles such as [[The Beatles]]' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' which did not claim a storyline, and those that presented a narrative story that threaded the songs - such as [[The Who]]'s ''[[Tommy (rock opera)| Tommy]]''. Music critics of that era did not usually distinguish between the two genres of concept album. An album that met either criterion was commonly referred to as a concept album. However, the distinction between the two types of concept album is instructive to note in respect of claims that are made as to which album may have been the "first" concept album in the rock era. Given this legitimate distinction - there are probably several contenders in each genre.
What could very loosely be considered the first concept albums were released in the late 1930s by singer [[Lee Wiley]] on the [[Liberty Records]] label, featuring eight songs on four 78s by great [[showtunes]] composers of the day, such as [[Harold Arlen]] and [[Cole Porter]], anticipating more comprehensive efforts by [[Verve Records]] impresario [[Norman Granz]] with [[Ella Fitzgerald]] by almost two decades. In [[folk music]], [[Woody Guthrie]]'s 1940 debut album ''[[Dust Bowl Ballads]]'' is also an early possibility. In 1973 country and pop music icon Bobby Bare recorded "Lullabys, Legends and Lies" which was written by Shel Silverstein. The record was arguably the first Concept Album for country music.
[[Frank Sinatra]], both with early albums originally released as 78s for [[Columbia Records]] such as ''[[The Voice]]'' from 1945, and continuing through his thematically programmed albums of the 1950s for [[Capitol Records]] starting with the ten-inch 33s ''[[Songs for Young Lovers]]'' and ''[[Swing Easy]]'', is generally credited with both popularizing and developing the concept album, and it was at this time that the specific term was first used. <!-- This claim was in a previous version of the article. Is it true? Does anyone have a source for it? --> Perhaps the first full Sinatra concept album example is ''[[In the Wee Small Hours]]'' from 1955, where the songs – all ballads – were specifically recorded for the album, and organized around a central mood of late-night isolation and aching lost love, and the album cover strikingly reinforced that theme.
However, notion of a concept album did not really gel at that point, and was not widely imitated, aside from occasional examples such as [[country music|country]] singer [[Marty Robbins]]' ''[[Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs]]'' from 1959, or, as the first example from rock, ''[[Little Deuce Coupe]]'' from 1963 by [[The Beach Boys]], each of whose 12 songs were about America's car culture.
In 1966, several rock releases were arguably concept albums in the sense that they presented a set of themetically-linked songs - and they also instigated other rock artists to consider using the album format in a similar fashion: ''[[Pet Sounds]]'', again by the Beach Boys, a masterful musical portrayal of [[Brian Wilson]]'s would-be state of mind (and a huge inspiration to [[Paul McCartney]]); the [[Mothers of Invention]]'s sardonic farce about rock music and America as a whole, ''[[Freak Out!]]''; and ''[[Face to Face (The Kinks album)|Face to Face]]'' by [[The Kinks]], the first collection of [[Ray Davies]]'s idiosyncratic character studies of ordinary people. However, none of these attracted a wide commercial audience.
This all changed with [[The Beatles]]' celebrated 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. With this release in June of 1967, the notion of the concept album came to the forefront of the popular and critical mind, with the earlier prototypes and examples from [[classic pop]] and other genres sometimes forgotten. The phrase entered the popular lexicon. And a "concept album" - the term became imbued with the notion of artistic purpose - was inherently considered to be somehow more creative or worthy of attention than a mere collection of new songs. This perception of course related to the '''intent''' of the artist rather than the specific content.
In fact, as pointed out by many critics since its original reception, ''Sgt. Pepper'' is a concept album only by some definitions of the term. There was, at some stage during the making of the album an attempt to relate the material to an obscure radio play about the life of an ex-army bandsman and his shortcomings but this concept was lost in the final production. On it, the Beatles supposedly adopt fictionalized personae, and the title song, styled as the theme song of the fictional "Lonely Hearts Club Band", wraps around the rest of the album like bookends. However, most of the songs on the album are narratively unrelated to the theme, and the fictional characters have little life beyond the introduction of [[Ringo Starr]] as "Billy Shears" in the segue between the first two tracks. On the other hand, the slice-of-life character miniatures and short story structure of many of the songs, especially those penned primarily by [[Paul McCartney]], echo elements commonly found in other thematic works such as [[musicals]] and [[opera]]. This feeling was reinforced by the album's device use of running musical tracks one after the other (without a pause) or linked with transitions rather than the customary silent space between tracks. Even more striking was the album's opulent cover, packaged inserts, and full lyrics printed on the back, all of which suggested a unified work more than just a collection of songs. In any case, while debate exists over the extent to which ''Sgt. Pepper'' qualifies as a true concept album, there is no doubt that its reputation as such helped inspire other artists to produce concept albums of their own, and inspired the public to anticipate them. The Beatles themselves were very proud of ''Sgt. Pepper'' for its artistic achievements but both Lennon and McCartney distanced themselves from the "concept album" tag as applied to that album.
In the wake of the ''Sgt. Pepper'' triumph, concept albums became the rage among serious rock artists, with mixed results. |
nce which one is regarded as the 'primary' cause. For example, if burning an area of fairly thick forest and thus turning it into a more open, grassy environment is considered likely to impact on the viability of a large browser (an animal that eats leaves and shoots rather than grasses), the reverse is equally true: removing the browsing animals (by eating them, or by any other means) within a few years produces a very thick undergrowth which, when a fire eventually starts through natural causes (as fires tend to do every few hundred years), burns with greater than usual ferocity. The burnt-out area is then repopulated with a greater proportion of fire-loving plant species (notably [[eucalypt]]s, some [[acacia]]s, and most of the native grasses) which are unsuitable habitat for most browsing animals. Either way, the trend is toward the modern Australian environment of highly flammable open [[sclerophyllous]] forests, woodlands and grasslands, none of which are suitable for large, slow-moving browsing animals&mdash;and either way, the changed microclimate produces substantially less rainfall.
[[Category:Prehistoric marsupials]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]
[[Category:Extinct Australian animals]]
[[Category:Vombatiforms]]
[[de:Diprotodon]]
[[es:Diprotodon]]
[[fr:Diprotodon]]
[[nl:Diprotodon]]
[[pl:Diprotodon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dirk Benedict</title>
<id>8718</id>
<revision>
<id>42162286</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:52:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.127.184.36</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ltstarbuck.jpg|thumb|250px|Dirk Benedict as Lt. Starbuck on [[Battlestar Galactica (original series)|Battlestar Galactica]]]]
'''Dirk Benedict''' (born '''Dirk Niewoehner''' on [[March 1]], [[1945]]) is a [[film|movie]] and [[television]] [[actor]], perhaps best known for playing the characters Lt. Templeton "Face" Peck in ''[[The A-Team]]'' [[television series]] and Lt. Starbuck in the original ''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' movie and television series. He was born in [[Helena, Montana|Helena]], [[Montana]], [[USA]].
==Career==
At [[Whitman College]] in [[Walla Walla, Washington]], Dirk became interested in acting. During his freshman year, he accepted a dare to audition for the spring [[Musical theater|musical]] and won the lead role of Gaylord Ravenal in ''[[Show Boat]]''. He also joined the [[Phi Delta Theta]] [[fraternity]] that year, which he credits with supporting his endeavors and encouraging his development. The next three years were filled with many more musical productions. Upon graduation, Benedict began a two-year training program under [[John Fernald]], who had headed the [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] in [[London]] for fifteen years.
At that time, he started to use the stage name 'Benedict'; supposedly, whilst searching for a catchier, less ethnic name, he agreed to the suggestion of "Benedict" by his agent, who was inspired by Dirk's breakfast choice of [[Eggs Benedict]] during their early morning conversation.
Benedict then played repertory theatre in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], [[Michigan]], where he played such roles as Edmund in ''[[King Lear]]'', Tarleton in ''[[Misalliance]]'', Ensign Pulver in ''[[Mister Roberts]]'', and the lead in [[Neil Simon]]'s ''[[Star-Spangled Girl]]''. An agent sent him to an audition which resulted in a co-starring role with [[Diana Rigg]] and [[Keith Mitchell]] in ''[[Pierre Abélard|Abelard]] [[Heloise|and Heloise]]'', first on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], then in [[Los Angeles]]. Two weeks after the show closed on Broadway, Dirk was winging across the Atlantic to [[Sweden]] for his first movie, ''[[Georgia, Georgia]]'' in which he co-starred with [[Diana Sands]]. This film about draft resisters, shot entirely in Sweden, was written by [[Maya Angelou]].
On his return to New York, Benedict replaced [[Keir Dullea]] in ''[[Butterflies Are Free]]'' on Broadway where he worked with [[Gloria Swanson]] as his mother. When the New York run ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in [[Hawaii]], opposite [[Barbara Rush]]. While there, he appeared as a guest lead on ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]''. The producers of a psycho-thriller called ''[[Sssssss]]'' saw Benedict's performance in ''Hawaii-Five-O'' and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie. He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of [[Twiggy]] in her American film debut, ''[[W]]''. Benedict starred in the television series, ''[[Chopper One]]'', but his career break came when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series ''Battlestar Galactica''. Several years later, Dirk gained further popularity as a member of the [[1980s]] action television series, ''The A-Team''. There has reportedly been some speculation of his possibly appearing in a guest spot on the new Battlestar Galactica series, perhaps as Starbucks father.
==Personal==
===Family===
In [[1986]], he married [[Toni Hudson]], an actress, with whom he has two sons, George and Roland. They divorced in [[1995]]. In [[1998]], Benedict learned that he also has another son, John (born [[1968]]), from a youthful relationship.
===Health===
According to fellow ''A-Team'' actor and friend, [[Dwight Schultz]], Benedict claims to have been diagnosed with [[prostate]] [[cancer]] by a psychic in [[Italy]], who discovered the cause of Benedict's ailment by examining a photograph of him.
He claims he survived the disease without surgery, and with only the dietary help of a macrobiotic diet recommended by [[Gloria Swanson]].
== Filmography ==
*''[[Goldene Zeiten]]'' (2006) - Douglas Burnett
*''[[Waking Up Horton]]'' (1998)
*''[[Steel Stomachs]]'' (1997) - Host
*''[[Zork: Grand Inquisitor]]'' (1997) (Video Game) - Antharia Jack
*''[[Abduction of Innocence]]'' (1996) (TV) - Robert Steves
*''[[Alaska (1996 film)|Alaska]]'' (1996) - Jake Barnes
*''[[Demon Keeper]]'' (1994) - Alexander Harris
*''[[The Feminine Touch]]'' (1994) - John Mackie
*''[[Official Denial]]'' (1994) - Lt. Col. Dan Lerner
*''[[Shadow Force]]'' (1993) - Rick Kelly
*''[[Blue Tornado]]'' (1991) - Alex Long
*''[[Bejewelled]]'' (1991) (TV) - Gordon
*''[[Trenchcoat in Paradise]]'' (1989) (TV) - Eddie Mazda
*''[[Body Slam]]'' (1987) - M. Harry Smilac
*''[[Mark of the Devil (1984 film)|Mark of the Devil]]'' (1984) (TV) - Frank Rowlett
*''[[The A-Team]]'' (1983) TV Series - Lieutenant Templeton 'Face' Peck
*''[[Family in Blue]]'' (1982) (TV) - Matt Malone
*''[[Ruckus (1981 movie)|Ruckus]]'' (1981) - Kyle Hanson
*''[[Scruples]]'' (1981) (TV) - Spider Elliott
*''[[Underground Aces]]'' (1980) - Pete Huffman
*''[[The Georgia Peaches]]'' (1980) (TV) - Dusty Tyree
*''[[Scavenger Hunt]]'' (1979) - Jeff Stevens, Mr. Parker's nephew
*''[[Mission Galactica: The Cylon Attack]]'' (1978) (TV) - Lieutenant Starbuck
*''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' (1978) (TV) - Lieutenant Starbuck
*''[[Cruise Into Terror]]'' (1978) (TV) - Simon
*''[[Journey from Darkness]]'' (1975) (TV) - Bill
*''[[W]]'' (1974) - William Caulder
*''[[Chopper One]]'' (1974) TV Series - Officer Gil Foley
*''[[SSSSSSS]]'' (1973) - David Blake
*''[[Georgia, Georgia]]'' (1972) - Michael Winters
===As director===
*''[[Cahoots]]'' (2000)
*''[[Christina's Dream]]'' (1994)
===As writer===
*''[[Cahoots]]'' (2000)
===Notable TV guest appearances===
*''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (1984) playing "Gary Harling" in episode: "Frozen Stiff" (episode # 12.10) [[30 November]] [[1995]]
*''[[Walker, Texas Ranger]]'' (1993) playing "Blair" in episode: "Case Closed" (episode # 3.19) [[29 April]] [[1995]]
*''[[The Commish]]'' (1991) playing "Gil Higgins" in episode: "All That Glitters" (episode # 3.9) [[27 November]] [[1993]]
*''[[Baywatch]]'' (1989) playing "Aaron Brody" in episode: "Rookie of the Year" (episode # 3.4) [[5 October]] [[1992]]
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' (1985) playing "Dr. Rush" in episode: "In the Name of Science" (episode # 4.13) [[11 March]] [[1989]]
*''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (1984) playing "Dr. David Latimer" in episode: "Smooth Operators" (episode # 5.12) [[12 February]] [[1989]]
*''[[Hotel]]'' (1983) in episode: "Prized Possessions" 1987
*''[[Amazing Stories]]'' (1985) in episode: "Remote Control Man" (episode # 1.10) [[8 December]] [[1985]]
*''[[Hammer House of Mystery and Suspense]]'' (1984) playing "Frank Rowlett" in episode: "Mark of the Devil" 1984
*''[[The Love Boat]]'' (1977) in episode: "Putting on The Dog/Going to The Dogs/Women's Best Friend/Whose Dog Is It Anyway?" [[26 March]] [[1983]]
*''The Love Boat'' (1977) in episode: "Captain's Bird, The/That's My Dad/Captive Audience" (episode # 4.91) [[20 December]] [[1980]]
*''[[Galactica 1980]]'' (1980) playing "Starbuck" in episode: "Return Of Starbuck, The" (episode # 1.10) [[4 May]] [[1980]]
*''[[Charlie's Angels]]'' (1976) playing "Denny Railsback" in episode: "Jade Trap, The" (episode # 2.24) [[1 March]] [[1978]]
*''Charlie's Angels'' (1976) playing "Barton" in episode: "Blue Angels, The" (episode # 1.22) [[4 May]] [[1977]]
*''Charlie's Angels'' (1976) in episode: "Angels on Wheels" (episode # 1.12) [[22 December]] [[1976]]
* ''[[Donny and Marie]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]'' (1968) playing "Walter Clyman" in episode: "Chain of Events" (episode # 5.7) [[24 October]] [[1972]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0070767|name=Dirk Benedict}}
[[Category:1945 births|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:American actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:American film actors|Benedict, |
Protons and 20 Neutrons. Calcium has 20 electrons distributed as follows: 2 in the K shell (principal quantum number 1), 8 in the L shell (principal quantum number 2), 8 in the M shell (principal quantum number 3), and 2 in the N shell (principal quantum number 4). The outer shell is the valence shell, with 2 electrons in the lone 4s orbital, the 3 p orbitals being empty. See also [[electron configuration]]..
Calcium cannot be found alone in nature. Calcium is found mostly as [[limestone]], [[gypsum]] and [[fluorite]]. [[Stalagmites]] and [[stalactites]] contain [[calcium carbonate]].
==Applications==
Calcium is an important component of a [[healthy diet]]. Its minor deficit can affect bone and teeth formation, while overretention can cause kidney stones. [[Vitamin D]] is needed to absorb calcium. [[Dairy product]]s, such as milk and cheese, are a well known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of non-European descent, are [[Lactose intolerance|lactose-intolerant]], leaving them unable to consume dairy products. Fortunately, many other good sources of calcium exist. This includes seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame), beans; seafood such as oysters and shrimp; soft-boned fish; amaranth; whole wheat; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; and fortified products such as orange juice and bread.
For more information about Ca in living nature, see [[calcium in biology]] and [[calcium metabolism]].
Other uses include:
*[[Reducing agent]] in the extraction of other metals such as [[uranium]], [[zirconium]], and [[thorium]].
*Deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarburizer for various [[Iron|ferrous]] and nonferrous [[alloy]]s.
*Alloying agent used in the production of [[aluminium]], [[beryllium]], [[copper]], [[lead]], and [[magnesium]] alloys.
*Removing ice on the streets and on the sidewalks in North America.
*It is also used in making [[cement]]s and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] that are used in building.
==History==
Calcium ([[Latin]] ''calx,'' meaning "lime") was known of as early as the first century when the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] prepared lime as [[calcium oxide]]. It was not actually isolated until 1808 in [[England]] when [[Humphry Davy|Sir Humphrey Davy]] [[Electrolysis|electrolyzed]] a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide. Davy was trying to isolate calcium and when he heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also discovered/isolated [[magnesium]], [[strontium]] and [[barium]].
==Compounds==
Calcium, combined with [[phosphate]] to form [[hydroxylapatite]], is the mineral portion of human and animal bones and teeth. The mineral portion of some [[coral|corals]] can also be transformed into hydroxylapatite.
[[Calcium oxide|Quicklime]] (Ca[[oxygen|O]]) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made by heating and carefully adding water to [[limestone]]. When CaO is mixed with sand it hardens into a [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and is turned into [[plaster]] by [[carbon dioxide]] uptake. Mixed with other compounds, CaO forms an important part of [[Portland cement]].
When water percolates through limestone or other soluble [[carbonate]] rocks, it partially dissolves part of the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic [[stalactite]]s and [[stalagmite]]s and also forms [[hard water]]. Other important calcium compounds are [[calcium nitrate|nitrate]], [[calcium sulfide|sulfide]], [[calcium chloride|chloride]], [[calcium carbide|carbide]], [[calcium cyanamide|cyanamide]], and [[calcium hypochlorite|hypochlorite]].
==Isotopes==
Calcium has four stable [[isotope]]s (Ca-40 and Ca-42 through Ca-44), plus two more isotopes (Ca-46 and [[Calcium 48|Ca-48]]) that have such long half-lives that for all practical purposes they can be considered stable. It also has a [[cosmogenic isotope]], [[radioactive]] Ca-41, which has a [[half-life]] = 103,000 years. Unlike [[cosmogenic isotope]]s that are produced in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], Ca-41 is produced by [[neutron]] activation of Ca-40. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of the soil column where the cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. Ca-41 has received much attention in stellar studies because Ca-41 decays to K-41, a critical indicator of solar-system anomalies.
Naturally occurring calcium is 97% in the form of Ca-40. Ca-40 is one of the daughter products of K-40 decay, along with Ar-40. While [[K-Ar dating]] has been used extensively in the [[geology|geological]] sciences, the prevalence of Ca-40 in nature has impeded its use in dating. Techniques using [[mass spectrometry]] and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for [[Potassium|K]]-Ca age dating.
==Dietary calcium supplements==
There are conflicting recommendations about when to take calcium supplements. However, most experts agree that you should take no more than 500 mg at a time &ndash; any excess goes to waste. Spread doses throughout the day, with the last dose near bedtime. Recommended daily calcium intake varies from 1000 to 1500 milligrams, depending upon the stage of life.
*Calcium carbonate is the most common and least expensive calcium supplement. It can be difficult to digest and causes gas in some people. Taking magnesium with it can help to prevent constipation. Calcium carbonate is 40% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provides 400 mg of calcium. Take this supplement with food to aid in absorption.
*Calcium citrate is more easily absorbed, easier to digest and less likely to cause constipation and gas than calcium carbonate. It also has a lower risk of contributing to the formation of kidney stones. Calcium citrate is 21% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 210 mg of calcium. It is more expensive than calcium carbonate and more of it must be taken to get the same amount of calcium.
*Calcium phosphate costs more than calcium carbonate, but less than calcium citrate. It is easily absorbed and is less likely to cause constipation and gas than either.
*Calcium lactate and calcium aspartate are both more easily digested, but more expensive than calcium carbonate.
==See also==
*[[Disorders of calcium metabolism]]
==References==
*Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
==External links==
{{Commons|Calcium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ca/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Calcium]
*[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/sr17a301.pdf USDA National Nutrient Database, Calcium content of selected foods]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Dietary supplements]]
[[af:Kalsium]]
[[ar:كالسيوم]]
[[bg:Калций]]
[[ca:Calci]]
[[cs:Vápník]]
[[da:Calcium]]
[[de:Kalzium]]
[[et:Kaltsium]]
[[es:Calcio]]
[[eo:Kalcio]]
[[fr:Calcium]]
[[gl:Calcio (elemento)]]
[[ko:칼슘]]
[[hr:Kalcij]]
[[io:Kalcio]]
[[id:Kalsium]]
[[is:Kalsín]]
[[it:Calcio (metallo)]]
[[he:סידן]]
[[ku:Kalsiyûm]]
[[lv:Kalcijs]]
[[lt:Kalcis]]
[[jbo:bogjinme]]
[[hu:Kalcium]]
[[mi:Konupūmā]]
[[nl:Calcium]]
[[ja:カルシウム]]
[[no:Kalsium]]
[[nn:Kalsium]]
[[oc:Calci]]
[[pl:Wapń]]
[[pt:Cálcio]]
[[ru:Кальций]]
[[simple:Calcium]]
[[sl:Kalcij]]
[[sr:Калцијум]]
[[su:Kalsium]]
[[fi:Kalsium]]
[[sv:Kalcium]]
[[ta:கால்சியம்]]
[[th:แคลเซียม]]
[[vi:Canxi]]
[[tr:Kalsiyum]]
[[uk:Кальцій]]
[[zh:钙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chromium</title>
<id>5669</id>
<revision>
<id>41880816</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:12:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chiu frederick</username>
<id>59129</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>K2Cr2O7 washing glass apparatus - minor edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=24 | symbol=Cr | name=chromium | left=[[vanadium]] | right=[[manganese]] | above=- | below=[[molybdenum|Mo]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=6 | period=4 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cr,24| silvery metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|51.9961]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(6)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>5</sup> 4s<sup>1</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 13, 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.15 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.3 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=2180 | c=1907 | f=3465 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2944 | c=2671 | f=4840 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 21.0 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 339.5 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 23.35 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1656 | 1807 | 1991 | 2223 | 2530 | 2942 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 6, '''3''', 2<br />(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.66 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 652.9 | 1590.6 | 2987 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|140]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|166]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|127]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[antiferromagnetism|AFM]] (rather: [[spin density wave|SDW]]) }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 125 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 93.9 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 4.9 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 5940 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 279 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 115 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 160 }}
{{Elementb |
because programmers never commit changes that break compilation, that make existing unit tests fail, or that otherwise delay the work of their peers. Members respect their work by always striving for high quality and seeking for the best design for the solution at hand through refactoring.
== Principles ==
The principles that form the basis of XP are based on the values just described and are intended to foster decisions in a system development project. The principles are intended to be more concrete than the values and more easily translated to guidance in a practical situation.
'''Feedback''' is most useful if it is done rapidly. The time between an action and its feedback is critical to learning and making changes. In Extreme Programming, unlike traditional system development methods, contact with the customer occurs in small iterations. The customer has clear insight into the system that is being developed. He or she can give progress feedback and steer the development as needed.
Unit tests also contribute to the rapid feedback principle. When writing code, the unit test provides direct feedback as to how the system reacts to the changes one has made. If, for instance, the changes affect a part of the system that is not in the scope of the programmer who made them, that programmer will not notice the flaw. There is a large chance that this bug will appear when the system is in production.
'''Assuming simplicity''' is about treating every problem as if it can be solved "extremely simply". Traditional system development methods say to plan for the future and to code for reusability. Extreme programming rejects these ideas.
The advocates of Extreme Programming say that making big changes all at once does not work. Extreme Programming applies '''incremental changes''': for example, a system might have small releases every three weeks. By making many little steps the customer has more control over the development process and the system that is being developed.
The principle of '''embracing change''' is about not working against changes but embracing them. For instance, if at one of the iterative meetings it appears that the customer's requirements have changed dramatically, programmers are to embrace this and plan the new requirements for the next iteration.
== Activities ==
XP describes four basic activities that are performed within the software development process.
=== Coding ===
The advocates of XP argue that the only truly important product of the system development process is code (a concept to which they give a somewhat broader definition than might be given by others). Without [[coding]] you have nothing.
Coding can be drawing diagrams that will generate code, scripting a web-based system or programming an object-oriented C# program that needs to be compiled.
Coding can also be used to figure out the most suitable solution. For instance, XP would advocate that faced with several alternatives for a programming problem, one should simply code all solutions and determine with automated tests (discussed in the next section) what solution is most suitable.
Coding can also help to communicate thoughts about programming problems. A programmer dealing with a complex programming problem and finding it hard to explain the solution to fellow programmers might code it and use the code to demonstrate what he or she means. Code, say the exponents of this position, is always clear and concise and cannot be interpreted in more than one way. Other programmers can give feedback on this code by also coding their thoughts.
=== Testing ===
One cannot be certain of anything unless one has tested it. [[Software testing|Testing]] is not a perceived, primary need for the customer. A lot of software is shipped without proper testing and still works (more or less).
In software development, XP says this means that one cannot be certain that a function works unless one tests it. This raises the question of defining what one can be uncertain about.
*You can be uncertain whether what you coded is what you meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses [[Unit test|Unit Tests]]. These are automated tests that test the code. The programmer will try to write as many tests he or she can think of that might break the code he or she is writing; if all tests run successfully then the coding is complete.
*You can be uncertain whether what you meant is what you should have meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses acceptance tests based on the requirements given by the customer in the exploration phase of release planning.
=== Listening ===
Programmers don't necessarily know anything about the business side of the system under development. The function of the system is determined by the business side. For the programmers to find what the functionality of the system should be, they have to [[listen]] to business.
Programmers have to listen "in the large": they have to listen to what the customer needs. Also, they have to try to understand the business problem, and to give the customer feedback about his or her problem, to improve the customer's own understanding of his or her problem.
Communication between the customer and programmer is further addressed in The Planning Game (see below).
=== Designing ===
From the point of view of simplicity, one could say that system development doesn't need more than coding, testing and listening. If those activities are performed well, the result should always be a system that works. In practice, this will not work. One can come a far way without [[design]]ing but at a given time one will get stuck. The system becomes too complex and the dependencies within the system cease to be clear.
One can avoid this by creating a design structure that organizes the logic in the system. Good design will avoid lots of dependencies within a system; this means that changing one part of the system will not affect other parts of the system.
== Practices ==
{{details|Extreme Programming Practices}}
Extreme Programming has 12 practices, grouped into four areas, derived from the [[best practices]] of [[software engineering]]:
'''Fine scale feedback'''
* [[Pair Programming]]
* Planning Game
* [[Test-driven development|Test Driven Development]]
* Whole Team
'''Continuous process'''
* Continuous Integration
* Design Improvement
* Small Releases
'''Shared understanding'''
* Coding Standard
* Collective Code Ownership
* Simple Design
* System Metaphor
'''Programmer welfare'''
* Sustainable Pace
== Controversial aspects ==
The most controversial aspect of Extreme Programming is the [[change management]] aspect of the process. More formal software development processes require [[change request]]s to be analyzed and approved by a [[change control board]]. In Extreme Programming, the on-site customer makes changes informally, often by verbally informing the development team. Proponents of Extreme Programming claim this makes the process flexible, and saves the cost of formal overhead. Critics of Extreme Programming claim this can lead to costly [[rework]] and project [[scope creep]].
Other controversial aspects of Extreme Programming include:
* Requirements are expressed as automated acceptance tests rather than specification documents.
* Requirements are defined incrementally, rather than trying to get them all in advance.
* Software developers are required to work in pairs.
* There is no [[Big Design Up Front]]. Most of the [[design activity]] takes place on the fly and incrementally, starting with "the simplest thing that could possibly work" and adding complexity only when it's required by failing tests. Critics fear this would result in more re-design effort than only re-designing when requirements change.
* A [[customer representative]] is attached to the [[project]]. This role can become a single-point-of-failure for the project and some people have found it to be a source of stress.
It used to be thought that Extreme Programming could only work in small teams of fewer than 12 persons. However, it has been ''claimed'' that XP has been used successfully on teams of over a hundred developers. It is not that XP doesn't scale, just that few people have tried to scale it, and proponents of XP refuse to speculate on this facet of the process.
In 2003, Matt Stephens and Doug Rosenberg published a book under Apress called "Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP" which questioned the value of the XP process and suggested ways in which it could be improved. This triggered a lengthy debate in articles, internet newsgroups and web-site chat areas. The core argument of the book is that XP's practices are interdependent but that few practical organisations are willing/able to adopt all the practices; therefore the entire process fails. The book also makes other criticisms and it draws a likeness of XP's "collective ownership" model to [[socialism]] in a negative manner.
Certain aspects of XP have changed since the book was published, in particular XP now accommodates modifications to the practices as long as the required objectives are still met. It also uses increasingly generic terms for processes. Some argue that these changes invalidate previous criticisms; others claim that this is simply watering the process down.
Recently, authors have attempted to reconcile XP with the older methods that XP sought to replace (such as the [[Waterfall model|waterfall]] method) in order to offer a unified method. See http://www.lux-seattle.com/resources/whitepapers/waterfall.htm for an example.
== Application of Extreme Programming ==
Controversial aspects notwithstanding, Extreme Programming remains a sensible choice for some projects. Projects suited to Extreme Programming are those that:
* Involve new or [[prototype]] technology, where the requirements change rapidly, or some development is required to discover unforeseen implementation problems.
* Are research |
rnately, all five crosses can symbolize the five wounds of Christ during the Passion. This symbol can be seen in the [[2005]] movie ''[[Kingdom of Heaven]]'', and is also used in the [[Flag of Georgia (country)|flag of Georgia]].
|
[[Image:Crusaders.gif|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross flory'''
|
A cross with the ends of the arms flory (or fleury), i.e. having a shape somewhat like a [[fleur-de-lys]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Flory-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross fourchee'''
|
One form of the heraldic cross fourchee (fourchée, fourchy) or cross fourche (meaning "forked").
|
[[Image:Cross-Fourchee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Jerusalem cross'''
|
A variant of the Crusaders' cross with cross potent.
|
[[Image:Cross-Jerusalem-Potent-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Maltese Cross (symbol)|Maltese cross]]'''
|
With arms which narrow towards the center, and are indented at the ends. The "eight-pointed cross" (with no curved lines).
|
[[Image:Maltese-Cross-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross moline'''
|
In a cross moline, the ends of the arms are split and curved back.
|
[[Image:Cross-Moline-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross patonce'''
|
A cross patonce is more or less intermediate between a cross pattée and a cross flory.
|
[[Image:Cross-Patonce-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross pattée]]'''
|
A cross pattee (pattée, patty) has arms narrowing towards the centre, but with non-indented ends. See the [[cross pattée]] article for discussion of variant forms. See also [[Iron Cross]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Pattee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross pommee'''
|
A cross pommee (pommée, pommy) has a circular knob at the end of each arm.
|
[[Image:Cross-Pommee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross potent'''
|
This cross has a crossbar at the end of each of its arms. "Potent" is an old word for a crutch, and is used in heraldic terminology to describe a T shape.
|
[[Image:Cross-Potent-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Quadrate'''
|
A cross with a square at the intersection point.
|
[[Image:Quadrate.gif|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross triple parted and fretted'''
|
In heraldry, a "cross triple parted and fretted" (or "treble parted and fretted") is interlaced. Here, a version which is "Or on an Azure field" (gold on blue) is shown.
|
[[Image:Cross-Triple-Parted-Fretted-Or.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross voided'''
|
A "cross voided throughout", also known as the '''Gammadia''', can be seen as a Greek cross with its centre lines removed, or as composed of four angles (L shapes) separated by a thin space. So the name "gammadia" refers to its being made up of four shapes similar to a capital Greek letter [[gamma]]; the word ''gammadion'' can also refer to a [[swastika]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Voided-small-.png]]
|}
There are numerous other variations on the cross in heraldry. See [[heraldry]] for background information.
See also: [[Anchored Cross]], [[Arrow Cross|Cross barby (barbée)]], [[Fylfot]]
The semi-classic book [http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/Jpglossc.htm#Cross "A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry" by James Parker (1894)] is online, and contains much information about variants of crosses used in heraldry.
{{heraldry}}
== In flags ==
{{main articles|[[flag terminology]] and [[gallery of flags by design]]}}
Several flags have crosses, including all the nations of [[Scandinavia]], whose crosses are known as [[flag terminology|Scandinavian cross]]es, and many nations in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], which incorporate the [[Crux|Southern Cross]].
==Other noteworthy crosses==
The [[Crux]], or [[Southern Cross]], is a cross-shaped a [[constellation]] in the Southern [[Southern Hemisphere|Hemisphere]].
The tallest cross, at 152.4 meters high, is part of [[Francisco Franco]]'s monumental "Valley of the Fallen", the ''[[Monumento Nacional de Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caidos]]'' in [[Spain]].
== See also ==
* [[Iron Cross]]
* [[Knights Templar (Freemason degree)|Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Freemasonry]]
* [[Seal of the demons]]
* [[Demons and symbols]]
* [[Double cross]]
== References ==
* Koch, Rudolf (1955). ''The Book of Signs''. Dover, NY. ISBN 0486201627.
== External links ==
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570847/Cross.html MSN Encarta]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/cr/cross.html The Columbia Encyclopedia]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[Category:Heraldic ordinaries]]
[[ca:Creu]]
[[cs:Kříž]]
[[da:Kors]]
[[el:Σταυρός]]
[[es:Cruz]]
[[fr:Croix (symbole)]]
[[it:Croce]]
[[he:צלב]]
[[la:Crux]]
[[ja:十字]]
[[no:Kors]]
[[pl:Krzyż]]
[[pt:Cruz (símbolo)]]
[[ru:Крест]]
[[fi:Risti]]
[[sv:Kors]]
[[zh:十字]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complex (chemistry)</title>
<id>7304</id>
<revision>
<id>41647653</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:54:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cadmium</username>
<id>537120</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the chemical complex. For other uses of this word, see ''[[complex]]''.''
A '''complex''' in [[chemistry]] is a reversible association of [[molecule]]s, [[atom]]s, or [[ion]]s through weak non-[[covalent bond|covalent]] [[chemical bond]]s. Simple [[salt]]s are usually not considered complexes.
== Metal complexes ==
[[Image:Copper_complex.jpg|frame|right|Synthesis of copper(II)-tetraphenylporphine, a metal complex, from tetraphenylporphine and copper(II) acetate monohydrate.]]
A metal complex, also known as coordination compound, is a structure composed of a central [[metal]] [[atom]] or ion, generally a [[cation]], surrounded by a number of negatively charged ions or neutral molecules possessing [[lone pair]]s. Counter ions often surround the metal complex ion, causing the compound to have no net charge.
The ions or molecules surrounding the metal are called [[ligand]]s. Ligands are generally bound to a metal ion by a [[coordinate covalent bond]], and are thus said to be '''coordinated''' with the ion. The process of binding to the metal ion with more than one coordination site per ligand is called [[chelation]]. Compounds that bind avidly to form complexes are thus called '''chelating agents''' (for example, [[EDTA]]).
Coordination numbers, or the number of bonds formed between the metal ions and ligands, are normally between 2 and 8 but can extend higher; it becomes very difficult to measure the number of ligands after about 8, and large numbers of ligands are uncommon. The number of bonds depends on the size, charge, and [[electron configuration]] of the metal ion. Some metal ions may have more than one coordination number. Different ligand structural arrangements result from the coordination number. A coordination number of 2 corresponds with a linear geometry; a coordination number of 4 corresponds with either a tetrahedral or square planar molecular geometry; and a coordination number of 6 corresponds with an [[octahedral geometry]].
Simple [[ligand]]s like [[water]] or [[chlorine]] form only one link with the central atom and are said to be [[monodentate]]. More examples of monodentate ligands include [[hydroxide]], [[nitrite]], and [[thiocyanate]]. Some [[ligand]]s are capable of forming multiple links to the same metal atom, and are described as bidentate, tridentate etc. [[Oxalate]] and [[ethylenediamine]] (en) are examples of bidentate ligands, while diethylenetriamine (dien) is a tridentate ligand. [[EDTA]] is hexadentate, which accounts for the great stability of many of its complexes.
Typically the chemistry of complexes is dominated by interactions between s and p [[orbital]]s of the ligands and the d (or f) orbitals of the metal ions. Because of this, the simple [[octet rule]] fails in the case of complexes, and to understand the chemistry of these systems, a deeper understanding of chemical bonding rules is necessary.
One such rule is called [[electron counting]], or the rule of 18. [[Crystal field theory]], introduced by [[Hans Bethe]] in [[1929]], is a more [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanically]] based attempt at understanding complexes. But crystal field theory treats all interactions in a complex as ionic and assumes that the ligands can be approximated by negative point charges. [[Ligand field theory]], introduced in [[1935]] and built from [[molecular orbital theory]], can handle a broader range of complexes and can explain complexes in which the interactions are [[covalent]]. The chemical applications of [[group theory]] can aid in the understanding of crystal or ligand field theory, by allowing simple, symmetry based solutions to the formal equations.
=== Naming complexes ===
The basic procedure for naming a complex:
# When naming a complex ion, the ligands are named before the metal ion.
# Write the names of the ligands in alphabetical order. (Numerical prefixes do not affect the order.)
# *Multiply occurring monodentate ligands receive a prefix according to the number of occurrences: ''di-'', ''tri-'', ''tetra-'', ''penta-'', or ''hexa''. Polydentate ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine, oxalate) receive ''bis-'', ''tris-'', ''tetrakis-'', etc.
# *Anions end in ''o''. This replaces the final 'e' when the anion ends with '-ate', e.g. ''sulfate'' becomes ''sulfato''. It replaces 'ide': ''cyanide'' becomes ''cyano''.
# *Neutral ligands are given their usual name, with some exceptions: NH<sub>3</sub> becomes ''[[ammine]]''; H<sub>2</sub>O becomes ''aqua''; CO becomes ''carbonyl''; NO becomes ''nitrosyl''.
# Write the name of the central atom/ion. If the complex is an anion, the central atom's name will end in ''-ate'', and its Latin name will be used if available (except for mercury).
# If the central atom's oxidation state needs to be |
12 [[Point (typography)|pt]] [[typeface|font]].
:[[Image:Wikipedia ClearType.png|center|frame|The word "Wikipedia" rendered using ClearType]]
In this magnified view, it becomes clear that, while the overall sharpness of the text seems to improve, there is some color fringing of the text. At normal viewing distances, however, only the sharpness is perceptible, and the color fringing becomes invisible.
==ClearType and human vision==
ClearType and similar technologies work because human vision is much more sensitive to variations in intensity than it is to variations in color. The human eye can discern contrasts in intensity about three times better than it can discern contrasts in color; thus, when ClearType sacrifices color accuracy in order to improve the sharpness of light and dark, the overall effect&mdash;as seen by human eyes&mdash;is an improvement.
==Display requirements==
ClearType and allied technologies require display hardware with fixed pixels and subpixels. More precisely, the positions of the pixels and subpixels on the screen must be exactly known to the computer to which it is connected. This is the case for flat-panel displays, on which the positions of the pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the screen itself. Almost all flat panels have a perfectly rectangular array of square pixels, each of which contains three rectangular subpixels in the three primary colors, with the normal ordering being red, green, and blue. ClearType assumes this arrangement of pixels when rendering text.
ClearType does not work with flat-panel displays that are operated at resolutions other than their &ldquo;native&rdquo; resolutions, since only the native resolution corresponds exactly to the actual positions of pixels on the screen of the display.
If a display does not have the type of fixed pixels that ClearType expects, text rendered with ClearType enabled will actually look worse than type rendered without it. Some flat panels have unusual pixel arrangements, with the colors in a different order, or with the subpixels positioned differently (in three horizontal bands, or in other ways). ClearType needs to be manually tuned for use with such displays (see below). Similarly, ''displays that have no fixed pixel positions, such as [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] displays, are incompatible with ClearType.''
Additionally, when images are prepared to be display-independent (that is, when they are prepared for distribution, and not just for display on the computer with which they were prepared), ClearType should be turned off if rendered text is part of the image. For example, [[screenshot|screenshots]] should always be prepared with ClearType turned ''off.'' Image-editing programs such as [[Photoshop|Adobe Photoshop]] or [[Paint Shop Pro|Corel Paint Shop Pro]] bypass ClearType when rendering text directly, for precisely this reason.
==ClearType tuning==
Most recent versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] only allow ClearType to be turned on or off. However, there are other parameters that can be set via a tool that Microsoft makes available for free download from its site. See [http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ClearTypePowerToy.mspx Microsoft's ClearType Tuner PowerToy] for details.
==Illustrated Comparison==
A few illustrations can make the effect of ClearType rendering clear.
[[Image:ClearTypePixels.jpg|thumb|left|250px|(a) without ClearType (b) with ClearType]]
[[Image:ClearTypePixels2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|(c) with ClearType (d) without ClearType]]
On the left, an extreme close-up of a color display shows (a) text rendered without ClearType and (b) text rendered with ClearType. Note the changes in subpixel intensity that are used to increase effective resolution when ClearType is enabled&mdash;without ClearType, all pixels are completely on or completely off.
On the right, a slight magnification of normal rendered text shows the net effect of (c) rendering with ClearType enabled and (d) rendering with ClearType disabled.
''(Note: These illustrations are partially simulated in order to avoid interference with the display hardware being used to display this article. Click on the illustrations to see larger versions that make the effects of ClearType rendering more visible.)''
== External links ==
* [http://www.microsoft.com/typography/WhatIsClearType.mspx Explanation of ClearType] at Microsoft Typography
* [http://research.microsoft.com/%7Ejplatt/cleartype/ Technical Overview of ClearType Filtering] from Microsoft Research
* [http://www.grc.com/cleartype.htm Sub-Pixel Font Rendering Technology]: History and Technique Explanation by [[Steve Gibson]], includes free downloadable Windows demo.
* [http://everything2.com/?node_id=1232071 sample implementation] in the C language by [[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]] of [[Everything2]]
* "[http://www.research.microsoft.com/scripts/pubs/view.asp?PubID=719 Displaced Filtering for Patterned Displays]" by Platt et al: a research paper detailing ClearType's techniques.
[[Category:Digital typography]]
[[Category:Microsoft Windows]]
[[de:ClearType]]
[[fr:ClearType]]
[[ja:ClearType]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centriole</title>
<id>7682</id>
<revision>
<id>41625411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:40:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.155.160.139</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Centrioles.jpg|thumb|250px]] -->
A '''centriole''' in [[biology]] is a barrel shaped [[microtubule]] structure found in most [[animal]] [[cell (biology)|cells]], and cells of [[fungi]] and [[algae]] though not frequently in [[plant]]s. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplet [[microtubule]]s, although ''[[Drosophila]]'' embryos have nine doublets and ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' sperm cells and early embryos and have nine singlets.
Two centrioles are arranged perpendicularly and surrounded by further proteins (the pericentriolar material) to form the [[centrosome]]. The centrosome is also known as the [[microtubule organizing center]] (MTOC). The MTOC plays an important role in microtuble organization in the cell. All microtubules are anchored at their (-) end while they grow away from the MTOC in the (+) direction.
Centrioles are important in the [[cell division]] process, organizing the [[mitotic spindle]] upon which the [[chromosomes]] are pulled apart. Some animal cells are able to divide their [[chromosomes]] without centrioles, for instance in female [[meiosis]]. Centrioles assist the cell through the process of [[mitosis]] and in male [[meiosis]]. During cell division the centrioles are copied, so that there will be a pair for each daughter cell. In replication, each new set of centrioles is compsed of one original centriole, and a newly made centriole. If the centrioles are used in forming flagella or cilia, the oldest of the two centrioles becomes the main base for that structure. This is one reason why each set of newly replicated centrioles receives one centriole from the original cell and a newly formed centriole, so that the cell will know which one to allow to form flagella or cilia.
The proteins which make up the centrioles (the proteome) of the green algae [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] have been determined. In chlamydomonas centrioles play an important role in the formation and movement of [[flagella]]. The centriole acts as the base of the flagella, from which nine doublets of the flagellar axoneme are templated from the original 9 triplet microtubules of that centriole.
Centrioles are structurally identical to the [[basal body]].
{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]]
{{cellbio-stub}}
[[da:Centriole]]
[[de:Centriol]]
[[es:Centriolo]]
[[eo:Centriolo]]
[[fr:Centriole]]
[[ko:중심소체]]
[[is:Deilikorn]]
[[it:Centriolo]]
[[lt:Centriolė]]
[[mk:Центриола]]
[[nl:Centriool]]
[[pl:Centriola]]
[[pt:Centríolo]]
[[sk:Centriola]]
[[vi:Trung tử]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Creation science</title>
<id>7683</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41510818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:23:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScienceApologist</username>
<id>105537</id>
</contributor>
<comment>whoops... this is a needed page!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{creationism2}}
[[Image:Creation vs evolution debate.jpg|frame|right|''Creation Magazine'' is a publication supporting young-earth creationist beliefs. This issue examines whether [[dinosaur]]s perished in [[Noah's ark|Noah's flood]].]]
'''Creation Science''' is a carefully named [[creationist]] endeavor that holds that the events associated with the [[Bible|biblical]] account of [[creation according to Genesis|creation]] have [[scientific evidence]] and can be modeled through the [[scientific method]]. This view is rejected by [[scientific community|mainstream scientists]] who see it as [[pseudoscience]]. Creation science as an organized movement is concentrated within the [[United States]], primarily among [[Evangelical]] [[Christian]] denominations which hold to [[Biblical inerrancy]].
Advocates of Creation Science dispute the [[scientific theory]] of the [[common descent]] of all life via [[biological evolution]] and argue in favor of [[creation biology]]. They also depart from the [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] model of [[geology]], in favor of [[flood geology]], arguing for the historical accuracy of the [[deluge (mythology)|global flood]] of [[Noah's ark]].
Creation science has no published results or field observations in mainstream [[peer review|peer reviewed]] journals such as ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''. Creation science literature generally consists of compiling perceived weaknesses in current models of evolution and geology. The presentation of creatio |
parts, of like nature with their wholes (the ''omoiomere'' of [[Aristotle]]), had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character.
Thought arranged the segregation of like from unlike; ''panta chremata en omou eita nous elthon auta diekosmese''. This peculiar thing, called Thought (''nous''), was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but, unlike the ''[[logos]]'' of [[Heraclitus]], it stood pure and independent (''mounos ef eoutou''), a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life.
Thought causes motion. It rotated the primitive mixture, starting in one corner or point, and gradually extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts, working something like a centrifuge, and eventually creating the known cosmos. But even after it had done its best, the original intermixture of things was not wholly overcome. No one thing in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things.
It is noteworthy that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate between ''nous'' and ''psyche'', while Socrates ([[Plato]], ''Phaedo'', 98 B) objects that his ''nous'' is merely a ''[[deus ex machina]]'' to which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge.
Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in the process from original chaos to present arrangements. The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, earth and stones. The seeds of life which continued floating in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegetation. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and disruption (''diakrisis''). Thus Anaxagoras distrusted the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of reflection. Thus he maintained that there must be blackness as well as whiteness in snow; how otherwise could it be turned into dark water?
Anaxagoras marked a turning-point in the history of philosophy.
With him speculation passes from the colonies of Greece to settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory. However, his enunciation of the order that comes from reason suggested the theory that nature is the work of design.
The conception of thought causing movement in the world passed from him to Aristotle, who postulated a [[Prime mover]].
{{Presocratics}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anaxagoras}}
[[Category:500 BC births]]
[[Category:428 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient philosophers]]
[[bg:Анаксагор]]
[[bn:এনাক্সাগোরাস]]
[[bs:Anaksagora]]
[[ca:Anaxàgores]]
[[cs:Anaxagorás]]
[[de:Anaxagoras]]
[[el:Αναξαγόρας]]
[[es:Anaxágoras]]
[[eu:Anaxagoras]]
[[fr:Anaxagore de Clazomènes]]
[[gl:Anaxágoras de Clazomenas - Αναξίμανδρος]]
[[ko:아낙사고라스]]
[[hr:Anaksagora]]
[[id:Anaxagoras]]
[[it:Anassagora]]
[[he:אנכסגורס]]
[[la:Anaxagoras]]
[[nl:Anaxagoras]]
[[ja:アナクサゴラス]]
[[pl:Anaksagoras]]
[[pt:Anaxágoras de Clazômenas]]
[[ro:Anaxagora]]
[[ru:Анаксагор из Клазомен]]
[[sk:Anaxagoras]]
[[sl:Anaksagora]]
[[sr:Анаксагора]]
[[fi:Anaksagoras]]
[[sv:Anaxagoras]]
[[tr:Anaksagoras]]
[[zh:阿那克萨哥拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaxarchus</title>
<id>1738</id>
<revision>
<id>29149404</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-24T18:11:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomisti</username>
<id>348887</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anaxarchus''' (flourished around [[340 BC]]), a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] of the school of [[Democritus]], was born at [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]].
He was the companion and friend of [[Alexander the Great]] in his Asiatic campaigns. According to [[Diogenes Laertius]] (Lives 9.10.2), in response to Alexander's claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, "See the blood of a mortal, not [[ichor]], such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods."
[[Plutarch]] tells a story that at [[Bactra]], in [[327 BC]] in a debate with [[Callisthenes]], he advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian [[Cleon]].
Diogenes Laertius (Lives 9.10.3) also says that [[Nicocreon]], the tyrant of [[Cyprus]], commanded him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude and [[Cicero]] relates the same story.
His philosophical doctrines are not known, though some have inferred from the epithet ''eudaimonikos'' ("fortunate"), usually applied to him, that he held the end of life to be ''[[eudaimonia]].''
[[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]]
[[de:Anaxarch]]
[[gl:Anaxarco]]
[[pl:Anaksarchos z Abdery]]
[[fi:Anaksarkhos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancyra</title>
<id>1740</id>
<revision>
<id>15900205</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ankara]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arnold Mathew</title>
<id>1741</id>
<revision>
<id>34680794</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T23:50:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JamesReyes</username>
<id>10465</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Matthew Arnold]], the poet.}}
----
[[Image:Arnoldmathew.jpg|thumb|right|Bishop Arnold Harris Mathew]]
'''Arnold Harris Mathew''' ([[1852]]&ndash;[[1919]]) was the first [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]] [[bishop]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. He was a suspended [[Roman Catholic]] priest who became the leading prelate of the Old Catholic sect in the U.K.
Mathew was appointed in [[1908]] after the Utrecht Union of Churches approved the establishment of a mission in the U.K. Mathew convinced the continental Old Catholic prelates that he had a significant following in the U.K. which, in fact, was a rather small following. He was consecrated by Archbishop [[Gerardus Gul]] of Utrecht on [[April 28]], [[1908]]. Assisting Gul was Bishop J. J. Van Thiel of Haarlem, Bishop N. B. P. Spit of Deventer and Bishop J. Demmel of Bonn, Germany.
He then returned to England and eventually raised a number of men to the episcopacy himself, including two former Catholic priests, Howarth and Beale, who had been excommunicated by the Bishop of Nottingham for embezzling. Mathew then sent documents to [[Pope Pius X]] attesting to the consecrations. Upon receipt of these documents, Pope Pius X published the ''Bull Cravi Iamdiu Scandalo'' in which he excommunicated Mathew and condemned him as a "pseudo-bishop" and declared him ''vitandus'', a term in church law which meant that Catholics were subject to censure if they had anything to do with Mathew. Pius X also extended his sentence of excommunication to include those who had been consecrated by Mathew.
On [[December 29]], [[1910]] Mathew declared his autonomy from the continental Old Catholics due to disagrements with certain practices and disciplines that Mathew felt deviated from Catholic tradition.
Mathew later consecrated Prince Rudolph Edward de Landes Berghes, an [[Austrian]] nobleman, in [[1913]] for work in [[Scotland]].
In [[January 1916]], he announced that he would be reconciled to the [[Holy See]], but changed his mind two months later. He then sought union with the [[Church of England]] but the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] refused to give Mathew any position as an Anglican clergyman. Mathew retired to a village in the countryside and contented himself with assisting at services in an Anglican parish church as a layman.
By this time, he had been deserted by his wife and abandoned by virtually all the priests and bishops he had made. He died suddenly in [[December 1919]] and was buried as an Anglican layman. His episcopal seal and other documents disappeared after his death.
[[Category:Old Catholic bishops|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]
[[Category:1852 births|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anastasius I</title>
<id>1742</id>
<revision>
<id>15900207</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-14T13:10:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Panairjdde</username>
<id>2400</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401
*[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] -- (c. 430-518) Byzantine emperor
{{disambig}}
[[de:Anastasius I.]]
[[es:Anastasio I]]
[[fr:Anastase Ier]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anastasius II</title>
<id>1743</id>
<revision>
<id>15900208</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-11T20:26:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm category as per cfd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498
*[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] -- (d. 721) Roman emperor in the East
*[[Anastasius II of Antioch]] -- Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
|
sion>
<id>15912051</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:42:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prelude to Foundation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge</title>
<id>14506</id>
<revision>
<id>15912052</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation's Edge]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IsaacAsimov/TrantoR</title>
<id>14507</id>
<revision>
<id>15912053</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Trantor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IsaacAsimov/FoundationAndEarth</title>
<id>14509</id>
<revision>
<id>15912055</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation and Earth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IsaacAsimov/RobotBooks</title>
<id>14510</id>
<revision>
<id>15912056</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:44:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IsaacAsimov/GalacticEmpireBooks</title>
<id>14511</id>
<revision>
<id>15912057</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:45:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IgnoreAllRulesDebate</title>
<id>14512</id>
<revision>
<id>15912058</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T17:23:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Ignore all rules]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Ignore all rules]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IntelliGence</title>
<id>14513</id>
<revision>
<id>24978425</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T14:32:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndianapolisColts</title>
<id>14514</id>
<revision>
<id>15912060</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indianapolis Colts]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndependentS</title>
<id>14515</id>
<revision>
<id>23733370</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-22T06:20:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Parris</username>
<id>201578</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-dbl redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Independent]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>InterpretingStatisticalData</title>
<id>14516</id>
<revision>
<id>15912062</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ImpreciseLanguage</title>
<id>14517</id>
<revision>
<id>15912063</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imprecise language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndustrY</title>
<id>14518</id>
<revision>
<id>15912064</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndustrY/TertiarySector</title>
<id>14519</id>
<revision>
<id>15912065</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T21:41:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndustrY/PrimarySector</title>
<id>14520</id>
<revision>
<id>15912066</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T21:41:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IndustrY/SecondarySector</title>
<id>14521</id>
<revision>
<id>15912067</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T23:06:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Secondary sector of industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>InflatioN</title>
<id>14522</id>
<revision>
<id>15912068</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-06T01:39:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isolated physical system</title>
<id>14523</id>
<revision>
<id>28811831</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-20T06:37:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fresheneesz</username>
<id>247097</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Closed system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inflation (economics)</title>
<id>14524</id>
<revision>
<id>15912070</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-27T20:02:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moved to Inflation. Note that the history of this page is now actually the history of the page "Inflation"; the actual history of "Inflation (economics)" has been moved to "Inflation"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Independents</title>
<id>14525</id>
<revision>
<id>22230536</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-31T05:53:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Parris</username>
<id>201578</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Better to go for the root word</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Independent]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irina Krush</title>
<id>14526</id>
<revision>
<id>38207268</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T22:32:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Krush0301_160.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Irina Krush at the 2003 U.S. Chess Championships in Seattle, Washington]]
'''Irina Krush''' (b. [[December 24]], [[1983]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[chess]] player. Born in [[Odessa]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]] (now [[Ukraine]]), she is widely known for her series of chess training videos, the "Krushing Attacks" series.
Krush learned to play chess at age five, emigrating with her parents to [[Brooklyn]] that same year ([[1989]]).
At age 14 Krush won the [[1998]] [[US Women's Chess Championship]] to become the youngest U.S. Women's Champion ever. She holds the title of [[International Master]] (IM) and has one of three tournament results (norms) necessary to qualify for the [[International Grandmaster]] (GM) title. In the April 2005 list, Krush had a [[Elo rating system|FIDE Rating]] of 2455, 25th best among active female players.
Krush gained a measure of fame both inside and outside chess circles during the well-publicized "[[Kasparov versus The World]]" chess competition in [[1999]]. [[Garry Kasparov]] played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a [[Microsoft]] host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three other young chess experts. On the tenth move, Krush suggested a stunning novelty, for which the World Team voted. Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wa |
n possible? Yes, consider the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] -- if a sender were to be sending the word "WIKI" with the alphabet by sending "WHISKEY INDIA KILO INDIA" and this was received (with * signifying letters received in error) as "W***KEY I**I* **LO **DI*", it would be possible to correct all the errors here since there is only one word in the NATO phonetic alphabet which starts with "W" and ends in "KEY", and similarly for the other words. This idea is also present in some error correcting codes (ECC).
Error-correcting schemes also have their limitations. Some can correct a certain number of bit errors and only detect further numbers of bit errors. Codes which can correct one error are termed single error correcting (SEC), and those which detect two are termed double error detecting (DED). There are codes which can correct and detect more errors than these.
== Applications ==
=== The Internet ===
In a typical [[TCP/IP]] stack, error detection is performed at multiple levels:
* Each [[Ethernet]] [[Data frame|frame]] carries a [[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC-32]] [[checksum]]. The receiver discards frames if their checksums don't match.
* The [[IPv4]] header contains a header checksum of the contents of the header (excluding the checksum field). [[Packets]] with checksums that don't match are discarded.
* The checksum was omitted from the [[IPv6]] header, because most current [[link layer]] protocols have error detection.
* [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] has an optional checksum. Packets with wrong checksums are discarded.
* [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] has a checksum of the payload, TCP header (excluding the checksum field) and source- and destination addresses of the IP header. Packets found to have incorrect checksums are discarded and eventually get retransmitted when the sender receives a [[triple-ack]] or a [[timeout (telecommunication)|time-out]] occurs.
=== Deep Space Telecommunications ===
[[NASA]] has used many different error correcting codes. For missions between 1969 and 1977 the Mariner spacecraft used a [[Reed-Muller code]]. The noise these spacecraft were subject to was well approximated by a "bell-curve" ([[normal distribution]]), so the Reed-Muller codes were well suited to the situation.
The [[Voyager 1]] & [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft transmitted color pictures of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] in 1979 and 1980.
* Color image transmission required 3 times the amount of data, so the [[Golay code|Golay (24,12,8) code]] was used.
* This Golay code is only 3-error correcting, but it could be transmitted at a much higher data rate.
* Voyager 2 went on to [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] and the code was switched to a concatenated [[Reed-Solomon code]]-[[Convolutional code]] for its substantially more powerful error correcting capabilities.
* Current DSN error correction is done with dedicated hardware.
* For some NASA deep space craft such as those in the [[Voyager program]], [[Cassini-Hyugens]] ([[Saturn]]), [[New Horizons]] ([[Pluto]]) and [[Deep Space 1]] -- the use of hardware ECC may not be feasible for the full duration of the mission.
* A solution to the hardware-software error correction problem exists called "Deep Space Network @ Home" [http://hireme.geek.nz/dsn-at-home.html]
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:NASA_ECC_Codes-imperfection.png|thumb|600px|left|NASA's Deep Space Missions ECC Codes (code imperfectness)]]
<br style="clear:both" />
The different kinds of deep space and orbital missions that are conducted suggest that trying to find a "one size fits all" error correction system will be an ongoing problem for some time to come.
* For missions close to the earth the nature of the "noise" is different from that on a spacecraft headed towards the outer planets
* In particular, if a transmitter on a spacecraft far from earth is operating at a low power, the problem of correcting for noise gets larger with distance from the earth
=== Satellite Broadcasting ([[DVB]]) ===
The demand for satellite [[transponder]] bandwidth continues to grow, fueled by the desire to deliver television (including new channels and [[High Definition TV]]) and IP data. Transponder availability and bandwidth constraints have limited this growth, because transponder capacity is determined by the selected [[modulation]] scheme and Forward Error Correction ([[FEC]]) rate.
[[Scientific-Atlanta]] (now part of [[Cisco Systems]]) has been evaluating developing products based on [[Turbo code|Turbo Codes]] concatenated with minimal complexity [[Reed-Solomon error correction|Reed-Solomon Codes]] in its laboratories in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Toronto]], [[Canada]].
Overview
* [[QPSK]] coupled with traditional Reed Solomon and Viterbi codes have been used for nearly 20 years for the delivery of digital satellite TV.
* Higher order modulation schemes such as [[8PSK]], [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|16QAM]] and [[32QAM]] have enabled the satellite industry to increase transponder efficiency by several orders of magnitude.
* This increase in the information rate in a transponder comes at the expense of an increase in the carrier power to meet the threshold requirement for existing antennas.
* Tests conducted using the latest chipsets demonstrate that the performance achieved by using Turbo Codes may be even lower than the 0.8 [[Decibel|dB]] figure assumed in early designs.
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:Block-ECC-Codes_2D_3D_types.png|frame|left|Block 2D & 3D bit allocation models used by ECC coding systems in terrestrial telecommunications]]
<br style="clear:both" />
== Information theory and error correction and detection ==
[[Information theory]] tells us that whatever the probability of error in transmission or storage, it is possible to construct error-correcting codes in which the likelihood of failure is arbitrarily low, although this requires adding increasing amounts of [[redundancy check|redundant data]] to the original, which might not be practical when the error probability is very high. [[Shannon's theorem]] sets an upper bound to the error correction rate that can be achieved (and thus the level of [[noise]] that can be tolerated) using a fixed amount of redundancy, but does not tell us how to construct such an optimal encoder.
Error-correcting codes can be divided into [[block code]]s and [[convolutional code]]s. Other block error-correcting codes, such as [[Reed-Solomon error correction|Reed-Solomon codes]] transform a chunk of bits into a (longer) chunk of bits in such a way that errors up to some threshold in each block can be detected and corrected.
However, in practice errors often occur in [[error burst|bursts]] rather than at random. This is often compensated for by shuffling (interleaving) the bits in the message after coding. Then any burst of bit-errors is broken up into a set of scattered single-bit errors when the bits of the message are unshuffled (de-interleaved) before being decoded.
== List of error-correction methods ==
* [[Check bit]]
* [[Check digit]]
* [[Convolutional code]]s are usually decoded with [[Iterative Viterbi Decoding]] techniques
* [[Digital fountain code]]
* [[Differential space-time code]], related to Alamouti Code family of Space-Time codes.
* [[Erasure code]]
* [[Forward error correction]]
* [[Group code]]
* [[Golay code]], the [[Binary Golay code]]s are the most commonly used Golay codes
* [[Hagelbarger code]]
* [[Hamming code]]
* [[Longitudinal redundancy check]]
* [[Low-density parity-check code]]
* [[Parity bit]]
* [[Reed-Solomon error correction]]
* [[Reed-Muller code]]
* [[Sparse graph code]]
* [[Space-time trellis code]]
* [[Turbo code]]
* [[Viterbi algorithm]]
* [[Walsh code]] used in cellular telephony for its high noise immunity, not just its ECC capabilities
== See also ==
Error Correction Standardization
* [[Federal Standard 1037C]]
* [[MIL-STD-188]]
Research Conferences on Error Correction
* 4th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON TURBO CODES
# Website http://www-turbo.enst-bretagne.fr/
# Website http://www.turbo-coding-2006.org/
== External links ==
* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/ The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by David MacKay, contains chapters on elementary error-correcting codes; on the theoretical limits of error-correction; and on the latest state-of-the-art error-correcting codes, including [[low-density parity-check code]]s, [[turbo code]]s, and [[digital fountain codes]].
* Article: [http://cr.yp.to/hardware/ecc.html Memory errors and SECDED]
[[Category:Error detection and correction|*]]
[[ca:Detecció d'errors]]
[[de:Fehlerkorrekturverfahren]]
[[es:Detección de errores]]
[[fr:Code correcteur]]
[[ko:오류정정부호]]
[[nl:Kanaalcodering]]
[[pt:Error Correcting Code]]
[[ja:誤り検出]]
[[ru:Коррекция ошибок]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euclidean domain</title>
<id>10376</id>
<revision>
<id>42164149</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PiAndWhippedCream</username>
<id>274337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''Euclidean domain''' (also called a '''Euclidean ring''') is a type of [[Ring (mathematics)|ring]] in which the [[Euclidean algorithm]] can be used.
More precisely, a Euclidean domain is an [[integral domain]] ''D'' on which one can define a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''v'' mapping nonzero elements of ''D'' to non-negative [[integer|integers]] that satisfies the following division-with-remainder property:
*If ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''D'' and ''b'' is nonzero, then there are ''q'' and ''r'' in ''D'' such that ''a'' = ''bq'' + ''r'' and either ''r'' = 0 or ''v''(''r'') < ''v''(''b'').
The function ''v'' is called |
erhaps some time between [[561 BC]], the date of the last chapter (2 Kings 25), when [[Jehoiachin]] was released from captivity by [[Evil-merodach]], and [[538 BC]], the date of the decree of deliverance by [[Cyrus the Great]].
There are some portions that are almost identical to the [[Book of Jeremiah]], e.g., 2 Kings 24:18-25 and Jeremiah 52; 39:1-10; 40:7-41:10. There are also many undesigned coincidences between Jeremiah and Kings (2 Kings 21-23 and Jer. 7:15; 15:4; 19:3, etc.), and events recorded in Kings of which [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] had personal knowledge. Because of this, traditionally Jeremiah was credited the author of the books of Kings.
However, the book(s) plainly acknowledge several source texts in several places, and it is hence self evidently a compilation from earlier sources rather than an original work. A superficial examination of the Books of Kings makes clear the fact that they are a compilation and not an original composition, and the compiler (usually refered to as the ''redactor'') constantly cites certain of his sources. In the case of Solomon it is ''the book of the acts of Solomon'' (1 Kings 11:41); for the Northern Kingdom it is ''the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel'', which is cited seventeen times, i.e., for all the kings except Jehoram and Hoshea (e.g. 1 Kings 15:31); and for the kings of Judah it is ''the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah'', which is cited fifteen times, i.e., for all the kings except Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah (e.g. 1 Kings 15:7). As well as the text's own admission, the idea of the text being composed from multiple earlier sources is also supported by textual criticism. Whether the editor had access to these ''chronicles'', as they were deposited in the state archives, or simply to a history based upon them, can not with certainty be determined, though it is generally assumed that the latter was the case.
An early supposition was that [[Ezra]], after the [[Babylonian captivity]], compiled them from official court chronicles of [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Nathan]], [[Gad]], and [[Iddo]], and that he arranged them in the order in which they now exist. However, i is more usually said that Ezra was the compiler of the [[Books of Chronicles]], an alternate history of the period of the kings, which was earlier in history treated as a single book together with the [[Book of Ezra]] and the [[Book of Nehemiah]].
The majority of textual criticism is of the belief that, with the majority of [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], and [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]], these works were originally compiled into a single text, the [[Deuteronomic history]], by a single [[redaction|redactor]], the [[Deuteronomist]]. The similarities between the text of Deuteronomy and that of the [[Book of Jeremiah]] are so strong that many critical scholars view Jeremiah as the Deuteronomist, hence agreeing, in a round about sort of way, and for different reasons, with the traditional view concerning the authorship of Kings.
;Object and Method of Work.
It was not the purpose of the compiler to give a complete history of the period covered by his work; for he constantly refers to these sources for additional details. He mentions as a rule a few important events which are sufficient to illustrate the attitude of the king toward the Deuteronomic law, or some feature of it, such as the central sanctuary and the ''high places'', and then proceeds to pronounce judgment upon him accordingly. Each reign is introduced with a regular formula; then follows a short excerpt from one of his sources; after which an estimate of the character of the monarch is given in stereotyped phraseology; and the whole concludes with a statement of the king's death and burial, according to a regular formula (for example, compare 1 Kings 15:1-9 with 1 Kings 15:25-32).
The standpoint of the judgments passed upon the various kings as well as the vocabulary of the compiler indicates that he lived after the reforms of Josiah (621 B.C.) had brought the Deuteronomic law into prominence. How much later than this the book in its present form was composed, may be inferred from the fact that it concludes with a notice of Jehoiachin's release from prison by Evil-merodach (Amil-Marduk) after the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562. The book must have taken its present form, therefore, during the Exile, and probably in Babylonia. As no mention is made of the hopes of return which are set forth in Isaiah 40-55, the work was probably concluded before 550. Besides the concluding chapters there are allusions in the body of the work which imply an exilic date (e.g. 1 Kings 8:34, 9:39; 2 Kings 17:19-20, 23:26-27). To these may be added the expression ''beyond the river'' (1 Kings 5:4), used to designate the country west of the Euphrates, which implies that Babylonia was the home of the writer.
;Time of Redaction.
On the other hand, there are indications which imply that the first redaction of Kings must have occurred before the downfall of the Judean monarchy. The phrase ''unto this day'' occurs in 1 Kings 8:8, 9:21, 12:19; 2 Kings 8:22, 16:6, where it seems to have been added by an editor who was condensing material from older annals, but described conditions still existing when he was writing. Again, in 1 Kings 9:36, 15:4, and 2 Kings 8:19, which come from the hand of a Deuteronomic editor, David has, and is to have, a lamp burning in Jerusalem; i.e., the Davidic dynasty is still reigning. Finally, 1 Kings 8:29-31, 8:33, 8:35, 8:38, 8:42, 8:44, 8:48, 9:3, 11:36 imply that the Temple is still standing. There was accordingly a pre-exilic Book of Kings. The work in this earlier form must have been composed between 621 and 586. As the glamour of Josiah's reforms was strong upon the compiler, perhaps he wrote before 600. To this original work 2 Kings 24:10-25:30 was added in the Exile, and, perhaps, 23:31-24:9. In addition to the supplement which the exilic editor appended, a comparison of the [[Masoretic text]] with the [[Septuagint]] as represented in codices B and L shows that the Hebrew text was retouched by another hand after the exemplars which underlie the Alexandrine text had been made. Thus in B and L, 1 Kings 5:7 follows on 4:19; 6:12-14 is omitted; 9:26 follows on 9:14, so that the account of Solomon's dealings with Hiram is continuous, most of the omitted portion being inserted after 10:22. 2 Kings 21, the history of Naboth, precedes ch. 20, so that 20 and 22, which are excerpts from the same source, come together. Such discrepancies prove sufficient late editorial work to justify the assumption of two recensions.
;Sources.
In brief outline the sources of the books appear to have been these:
*1 Kings 1-2 are extracted bodily from the a source now known as the ''[[court history of David]]'', which largely also constitutes 2 Samuel 9-20. The redactor has added notes at 1 Kings 2:2-4 and 2:10-12.
*For the reign of Solomon the text names its source as ''the book of the acts of Solomon'' (11:41); but other sources were employed, and much was added by the redactor.
**1 Kings 3 is a prophetic narrative of relatively early origin, worked over by the redactor, who added verses 2-3, and 14-15.
**1 Kings 4:1-19 is presumably derived from the ''Chronicle of Solomon''.
**1 Kings 4:20-5:14 contains a small kernel of prophetic narrative which has been retouched by many hands, some of them later than the Septuagint.
**The basis of 5:15-7:51 was apparently a document from the Temple archives; but this was freely expanded by the redactor, and 6:11-14 also by a later annotator.
**1 Kings 8:1-13, the account of the dedication of the Temple, is from an old narrative, slightly expanded by later hands under the influence of the [[Priestly source]] of the [[Torah]].
**1 Kings 8:14-66 is in its present form the work of the redactor slightly retouched in the Exile.
**1 Kings 9:1-9 is the work of the redactor, but whether before the Exile or during it is disputed.
**1 Kings 9:10-10:29 consists of extracts from an old source, presumably ''the book of the acts of Solomon'', pieced together and expanded by later editors. The order in the Masoretic text differs from that in the Septuagint.
**1 Kings 11:1-13 is the work of the redactor;
**1 Kings 11:14-22 is a confused account, perhaps based on two older narratives;
**1 Kings 11:26-31 and 39-40 probably formed a part of a history of Jeroboam from which 12:1-20 and 14:1-18 were also taken. The extracts in chapter 11 have been set and retouched by later editors.
;Narratives and Epitomes.
From chapter 12 of 1 Kings onward, both 1&2 Kings are characterized by an alternation of short notices which give epitomes of historical events, with longer narratives extracted from various sources. The following sections are short epitomes:
*1 Kings 14:21-16:34
*1 Kings 22:41-53
*2 Kings 8:16-29
*2 Kings 10:32-36
*2 Kings 12:18-13:13
*2 Kings 13:22-17:6
In some cases short extracts are even here made in full, as in 14:8-14 and 16:10-16.
The longer narratives, which are frequently retouched and expanded by the redactor, are as follows:
*1 Kings 12:1-20, 14:1-18, from an older narrative of Jeroboam, to which 12:21-32 and 14:19-20 are additions
*12:33-13:34, a comparatively late story of a prophet
*17:1-19:21 and 21:1-29, an early prophetic narrative written in the Northern Kingdom (c.f. 19:3)
*20:1-43 and 22:1-40, an early north-Israelitish history of the Syrian war in which Ahab lost his life
*2 Kings 1:1-8:15 and 9:1-10:31, north-Israelitish narratives, not all from one hand, which are retouched here and there, as in 3:1-3, by the redactor
*11:1-12:17, a Judean narrative of the overthrow of Athaliah and the accession of Joash
*13:14-21 and 14:8-14, two excerpts from material written in the Northern Kingdom (c.f. 14:11)
*17:7-23 is the redactor's commentary on the historical notice with which the chapter opens
|
anny Hill]]'', published in 1749, mentions a flagellation scene. Other sources give a broader definition citing BDSM-like behaviour in earlier times and other cultures, such as the medieval flagellants and the physical [[ordeal ritual]]s of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] societies.
Although the names of the [[Marquis de Sade]] and [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]] are attached to the terms [[sadism]] and [[masochism]] respectively, the question remains as to whether their ways of life would meet with modern BDSM standards of informed consent.
BDSM ideas and imagery have existed on the fringes of Western culture throughout the [[twentieth century]]. [[Robert Bienvenu]] attributes the origins of modern BDSM to three sources, which he names as "European Fetish" (from 1928), "American Fetish" (from 1934), and "Gay Leather" (from 1950). Another source is the [[sexual game]]s played in [[brothel]]s, which go back into the nineteenth century if not earlier. [[Irving Klaw]], during the 1950s and 1960s, produced some of the first commercial film and photography with a BDSM theme and published comics by the now-iconic bondage artists [[John Willie]] and [[Eric Stanton]].
[[Image:Leather, Latex, and BDSM pride.png|thumb|300px|The [[Leather Pride flag]], which has become a symbol of the BDSM and fetish subculture.]]
Much of the BDSM ethos can be traced back to gay male [[leather subculture|leather culture]], which grew out of post-WWII biker culture. This subculture is epitomized by the ''Leatherman's Handbook'' by Larry Townsend, published in [[1972]], which essentially defined the "[[Old Guard leather]]" culture. This code emphasized strict formality and fixed roles (i.e. no switching), and did not really include [[lesbian]] women or heterosexuals. In [[1981]], however, the publication of ''[[Coming to Power]]'' by [[Samois]] led to a greater knowledge and acceptance of BDSM in the lesbian community.
In the mid-nineties, the [[Internet]] provided a way of finding people with specialized interests around the world and communicating with them anonymously. This brought about an explosion of interest and knowledge of BDSM, particularly on the [[usenet]] group [[alt.sex.bondage]]. When that group became too cluttered with [[spamming|spam]], the focus moved to [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&btnG=Google+Search soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm].
[[New Guard leather|New Guard]] [[leather subculture]] appeared around this time, which rejected the rigid roles and exclusion of women and heterosexuals of the Old Guard.
In addition to the [[bricks and mortar business]]es which sell sex paraphernalia, there has also been an explosive growth of online [[adult toy]] companies which specialize in leather/latex gear and BDSM toys. The first known online store specializing in bondage gear was [[JT's Stockroom]], which became a primarily-online business as early as 1990. Once a very niche market, there are now very few [[sex toy]] companies that do not offer some sort of BDSM or [[fetish]] gear in their catalog. Kinky elements seem to have worked their way into even the most "[[Vanilla_sex|vanilla]]" markets.
BDSM and fetish imagery has spread out into the mainstream of Western culture through [[avant-garde]] [[fashion]], the [[goth|gothic subculture]], [[rapping|rap]], [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] [[Music video|video clips]], and [[science fiction]] [[television]] and [[film|movies]].
The modern BDSM subculture is widespread. Most major cities in North America and western Europe have clubs and [[play party (BDSM)|play parties]], as well as informal, low-pressure gatherings called [[munch (BDSM)|munches]]. There are also conventions like [[Living in Leather]], [[TESfest]] and [[Black Rose (BDSM organization)|Black Rose]], as well as the annual [[Folsom Street Fair]] in San Francisco.
The [[Leather Pride Flag]] is a symbol used by the leather community or subculture, as well as the BDSM [[triskelion]].
== International ==
The legal situation of sadomasochistic activities varies greatly between countries. In [[Japan]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries, consensual BDSM is legal.
In the UK, BDSM activities which cause injuries which are more than 'transient or trifling' may be illegal. But the few cases since the original R v Brown 1990 ruling have been contradictory in their judgments.
In other countries it is an example of a [[consensual crime]].
At least in the western, industrialized countries and Japan, since the [[1980s]] sadomasochists have begun to form information exchange and support groups to counter the discriminatory image held by orthodox science and parts of the public. This has happened independently in the [[United States|USA]] and in several European countries.
With the advent of the web, international cooperation has started to develop - for example [[Datenschlag]] is a joint effort of sadomasochists in the three major [[German-speaking]] countries, and the mailing list [[Schlagworte]] uses the model of a [[news agency]] to connect six countries.
== See also ==
* [[Wipipedia]]
* [[Fetish club]]
* [[List of BDSM terms]]
* [[List of BDSM topics]]
* [[List of BDSM organizations]]
* [[Human sexuality]]
* [[Sexual Fetishism]]
* [[Erotic spanking]]
* [[Vanilla sex]]
* [[Body modification]]
* [[Impact play]]
* [[Swinging]]
* [[Bondage (BDSM)]]
* [[Courtly love]]
* [[Domination & submission (BDSM)]]
* [[Dungeon (BDSM)]]
* [[Humiliation (BDSM)]]
* [[Servitude (BDSM)]]
* [[Munch (BDSM)]]
* [[Kink Aware Professionals]]
* [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom]]
* [[Slave fiction]]
* [[Anal torture]]
* [[Fire play]]
* [[Wax play]]
* [[Bondage corset]]
* [[Operation Spanner]]
* [[Midori (author)]] and Fire Horse Productions (BDSM lectures)
* [[Jack McGeorge]]
=== Lists of BDSM authors, artists and photographers ===
* [[List of BDSM authors]]
* [[List of BDSM artists]]
* [[List of BDSM photographers]]
=== Publishers (fiction and non-fiction) ===
* [[Daedalus Publishing]]
* [[Greenery Press]]
* [[Mental Gears Publishing]]
=== Support groups ===
* [[Society of Janus]], pansexual, [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]
* [[The Eulenspiegel Society]](TES), [[New York City]]
* [[Black Rose (BDSM organization)|Black Rose]], [[Washington, DC]]
* [[BESS]], [Baltimore, MD]
* [http://bondage.com bondage.com] online community
* [[Alt.com]] Online Group
== Documentaries ==
* ''[[SICK: The Life & Death of Bob Flanagan, Supermasochist]]'', a documentary about the life of [[Bob Flanagan]]
* ''[[Fetishes (documentary)|Fetishes]]'' by [[Nick Broomfield]]
== References and further reading ==
* [[Guy Baldwin]], "Ties That Bind: SM/Leather/Fetish Erotic Style- Issues, Communication, and Advice" [[Daedalus Publishing]], 1993. ISBN 1-881943-09-7.
* [[Pat Califia]]. ''Sensuous Magic.'' New York, Masquerade Books, 1993. ISBN 1-56333-131-4
* [[Gloria G. Brame]], William D. Brame, and Jon Jacobs. ''Different Loving: An Exploration of the World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'' Villard Books, New York, 1993. ISBN 0-679-40873-8
* Anita Phillips, ''A Defence of Masochism'', Faber 1999.
* [[Jay Wiseman]], ''SM 101: A Realistic Introduction'', [[Greenery Press]], 2000. ISBN 0963976389.
* Philip Miller, Molly Devon, ''Screw the Roses, Send Me the Thorns: The Romance and Sexual Sorcery of Sadomasochism'', Mystic Rose Books, 1995. ISBN 0964596008.
* [[Gloria G. Brame]], ''Come Hither : A Commonsense Guide To Kinky Sex'', Fireside, 2000. ISBN 0684854627.
* [[William A. Henkin]], Sybil Holiday, ''Consensual Sadomasochism : How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', [[Daedalus Publishing]], 1996. ISBN 1881943127.
* [[Jack Rinella]], "The Compleat Slave: Creating and Living an Erotic Dominant/submissive Lifestyle", [[Daedalus Publishing]], 2002. ISBN 1-881943-13-5.
* [[Mark Thompson (author)|Mark Thompson]], "Leatherfolk: Radical sex, people, politics, and practice", [[Daedalus Publishing]] 1991. ISBN 1-881943-20-8
== External links ==
*[http://www.wipipedia.org ''Wipipedia'', the free Fetish and BDSM encyclopedia]
* [http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol8is2/beckmann.html Deconstructing myths] by Andrea Beckmann, ''Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture'', 8(2) (2001) 66-95
* [http://www.ncsfreedom.org National Coalition for Sexual Freedom] (USA)
* [http://www.nlaidvproject.us/ NLA-I Domestic Violence Project] (USA)
* [http://www.sexuality.org/ Society for Human Sexuality]
* [http://www.tes.org The Eulenspiegel Society] (USA)
[[Category:BDSM| ]]
[[cs:BDSM]]
[[da:BDSM]]
[[de:BDSM]]
[[fi:BDSM]]
[[fr:Bondage et discipline, domination et soumission et sado-masochisme]]
[[he:BDSM]]
[[it:BDSM]]
[[nl:BDSM]]
[[no:Sadomasochisme]]
[[pl:BDSM]]
[[pt:BDSM]]
[[sv:BDSM]]
[[zh:BDSM]]
[[no:Sadomasochisme]]
[[pl:BDSM]]
[[pt:BDSM]]
[[sv:BDSM]]
[[zh:BDSM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bondage</title>
<id>4546</id>
<revision>
<id>41707828</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:06:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
In its most basic sense, the word '''bondage''' refers to the state or condition of being bound to an [[unfree labor]] system, as in [[slavery]], [[indentured servitude]], or [[serfdom]]. More generally, "bondage" may refer to any state of subjection to a force, influence, or power. The word ''bondage'' is derived from the [[Middle English]] ''bonde'' ("serf"), which came from the [[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) word ''bōnda'' ("[[husbandman]]"), which itself comes from the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''bōndi'', the past participle of ''būa'' ("to l |
d ones", Potatoes and dumplings made of flour served with a creamy bacon sauce)
* [[Schwenker]] or Schwenkbraten (pork steaks, [[marinade|marinated]] in spices and onions and broiled on a grill that hangs on a chain over a wood fire)
===[[Swabia]] (''Schwaben'')===
* [[Maultasche|Maultaschen]] (A distant relative of Italian [[ravioli]])
* [[Zwiebelkuchen]] (onion pie)
* [[Käsespätzle]] ([[Spaetzle]] (a kind of noodles) and fried onions gratinated with cheese)
===[[Thuringia]] (''Thüringen'')===
* [[Thüringer sausage|Thuringian Bratwurst]], red to grey in color, stuffed in a natural casing of pig intestine, unlike the white Franconian variety
* dumplings made of raw potatoes
* hearty meat dishes with rich sauces
* Mutzbraten: pound (!) of pork, roasted on open birchwood fire, served with sauerkraut
* delicious cakes
===Other famous dishes===
{{cookbook}}
* [[Hasenpfeffer]] (peppered hare)
* Schweinshaxe (pork hock)
* Spanferkel, a grilled whole young pig
* Speckpfannkuchen (large, thin pancakes with diced, fried bacon)
* [[Sauerkraut]] (pickled shredded cabbage)
* [[Spaetzle]] (hand-made noodles used extensively in southern Germany and Alsace)
* [[Stollen]] (a bread-like cake with dried citrus peel, dried fruit, nuts, and spices such as [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]], usually eaten during the Christmas season as ''Weihnachtsstollen'' or ''Christstollen''). The best-known Stollen is from [[Dresden]] and is sold at the [[Striezelmarkt]] Christmas market, which derives its name from the cake.
* [[Marzipan]] f.e. [[Lübeck]] style (widely used in Christmas specialities)
* Bratkartoffeln (fried potatoes, often with diced bacon and/or onions)
* [[Currywurst]], warm sausage cut into slices and seasoned with ketchup and generous amounts of [[curry powder]], usually served with [[French fries]] &mdash; a popular snack originating in early 1950s [[Berlin]]. Boiled sausage is used for this in northern Germany, Bratwurst in southern Germany.
* Kartoffelsalat (potato salad, which comes in many varieties, for example in a cream or [[mayonnaise]] dressing or even in meat broth. Often served as a side dish to bratwurst or boiled sausages)
* Pfefferpotthast (pepper-beef stew)
* Rindsroulade (beef roulade, thinly pounded sirloin steak, rolled around mustard leaf and a pickle, then baked)
==Foreign influences==
With the rising influx of foreign workers after [[World War II]], many foreign dishes have been adopted into German cuisine &mdash; [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] dishes like [[spaghetti]] and [[pizza]] have become a staple of German cuisine. [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] immigrants have also had a considerable influence on German eating habits &mdash; [[Döner kebab]], a meat sandwich invented by [[Berlin]] turkish immigrants, is Germany's favourite fast food, selling twice as much as the major [[burger]] chains put together. [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] and [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] food are widely available and popular. [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and other Asian cuisines are rapidly gaining in popularity. Many of the more expensive restaurants used to serve mostly [[French cuisine|French]] dishes for many decades, but they are increasingly turning to a more refined form of German cuisine since the [[1990s]].
[[Category:German cuisine]]
[[cs:Německá kuchyně]]
[[de:Deutsche Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine allemande]]
[[nl:Duitse gerechten]]
[[ja:ドイツ料理]]
[[th:อาหารเยอรมัน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuisine of Greece</title>
<id>12486</id>
<revision>
<id>42011419</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:11:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zerida</username>
<id>454491</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Greek cuisine''' is the [[cuisine]] of [[Greece]] or perhaps of the [[Greeks]]. Given the geography and history of Greece, this style of cookery is typical of [[Mediterranean cuisine]], with strong influences from [[Italian cuisine|Italy]], [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle East]] and, to a lesser extent, from the [[Balkan cuisine|Balkans]]. The basic grain in Greece is wheat, though barley is also grown. Important vegetables include [[tomato]], [[eggplant]], [[potato]], [[green bean]]s, [[okra]], and [[onion]]s. The terrain has tended to favour the production of [[goat]]s and [[sheep]] over [[cattle]], and thus [[beef]] dishes tend to be a rarity by comparison. [[Fish]] dishes are also common, especially in coastal regions and the islands. [[Olive oil]], produced from the trees prominent throughout the region, adds to the distinctive taste of Greek food. Some dishes use [[filo pastry]]. Too much [[refinement]] is generally considered to be against the hearty spirit of the Greek cuisine, though recent trends among Greek culinary circles tend to favour a somewhat more refined approach. Traditionally, Greek dishes are served warm rather than hot.
== Appetizers ==
[[Image:Pikilia.JPG|thumb|left|Pikilia]]
[[Meze]] is a collective name for appetizers, typically served with ouzo.
Dips are served with loaf bread or [[pita]] bread. In some regions, dried bread ('paximadhi') is softened in water.
* [[Tzatziki]], [[yoghurt]] with [[cucumber]] and [[garlic]] puree, used as a [[dip]]; it comes from the [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] beverage or soup [[cacık]].
* [[Taramosalata]], [[fish]] [[roe]] mixed with boiled potatoes or moistened breadcrumbs.
* [[Spanakopita]], spinach wrapped in filo pastry.
* [[Tyropita]], [[cheese]] (usually [[feta]]) wrapped in filo pastry.
* Many other things are wrapped in filo pastry, either in bite-size triangles or in large sheets: kotopita (chicken), spanakotyropita (spinach and cheese), hortopita (greens), kreatopita (meat pie, using ground meat), ''etc.''
* [[Saganaki]], fried cheese (plain, but also including other ingredients such as shrimps).
* [[Dolma|Dolmades]] [[grape]]vine leaves stuffed either with [[meat]] or [[rice]] and vegetables. From the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] 'dolma' = 'stuffed'.
* [[Avgolemono]] soup, chicken, meat, vegetable, or fish broth thickened with [[Egg (food)|egg]]s and [[lemon]]s and rice.
[[Image:Feta Greece 2.jpg|thumb|left|A plate of [[feta cheese]], a traditional Greek [[cheese]]]]
* The so-called [[Greek Salad]] is known in [[Greece]] as Village/Country Salad (''Horiatiki''). In Greece, it consists of [[tomato]], [[cucumber]], [[onion]], and sometimes green [[bell pepper|pepper]]s garnished with [[olives]] and [[feta]] cheese, and dressed with [[olive oil]] and [[oregano]]. Abroad, it also sometimes includes lettuce (often iceberg lettuce), which is completely unknown to the original Greek version.
*'Pikilia' simply means an 'assortment'.
Some dishes served in Greek restaurants (especially outside Greece) are not Greek at all, for example [[hummus]] bi tahini, the famous Lebanese dip.
== Famous Greek dishes ==
* [[Moussaka]] ([[eggplant]] casserole). There are other variations besides eggplant, such as [[zucchini]] or rice, but the eggplant version ("melitzanes moussaka") is most popular, so "moussaka" alone is assumed to mean "with eggplant".
* Kleftiko: lamb slow-baked on the bone, first [[marinade|marinated]] in garlic and lemon juice.
* Stifado: beef-onion stew with red wine and cinnamon. Rabbit or game (e.g. hare) are also cooked stifado-style
* [[Souvlaki]], lamb and vegetables grilled on skewers, or in general, anything grilled on a skewer (chicken, pork, swordfish, shrimps).
* [[Gyros]], meat roasted on a vertically turning spit and served with sauce (often [[tzatziki]]) and garnishes (tomato, onions) on pita bread; a popular [[fast food]]. Sometimes confused with souvlaki served in a similar way. The same dish is called [[döner kebab]] in Turkish.
* Boureki, similar to kreatopita, from Turkish [[börek]].
* [[Pastitsio]], a macaroni, meat, and [[Bechamel sauce]] casserole.
== Desserts ==
[[image:baklava.jpg|thumb|right|A plate with pieces of different types of Baklava]]
* [[Baklava]], a popular sweet dessert, of filo pastry layers with nuts, sugar, honey, cloves. Related to the Turkish baklava, Lebanese baqlawa.
* [[Loukoumas]]
* [[Loukoumia]] (Turkish delight)
* [[Yoghurt]] with [[honey]]
* Galaktoboureko, [[custard]] between layers of filo. From Turkish [[börek]].
== Drinks ==
* [[Wine]] is the most common drink in Greece. Until the 1980's, most Greek wines weren't of the finest quality, but more recently they have come up to international standards.
* [[Beer]] is widely drunk; common brands include [[Heineken]], [[Amstel beer|Amstel]], [[Mythos (beer)|Mythos]], [[Henninger]], and [[Henninger|Kaiser]], all of which are produced locally, some under license.
* [[Ouzo]] (an 80-proof clear [[alcoholic beverage]] that is flavored with [[anise]]; it turns milky white with water or ice; the best said to be produced on the island of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]]). It is similar to famous Turkish drink [[Rakı]] and French [[pastis]].
* [[Tsipouro]] or (esp. in [[Crete]]) 'raki' (Mostly home-brewed, a clear drink similar to ouzo, often with higher alcohol content, and usually not flavored with herbs. The city of Volos at the centre of Greece is well-known for its Tsipouradika (literally: tsipouro places)
* [[Retsina]] (a white wine that has some [[pine]] [[tar]] added, originally as a preservative, but nowadays for the flavor; this is an [[Athens]] region specialty. It should not be aged.).
* [[Mavrodafni]] Sweet, liquor-style, red wine with higher alcohol percentage than normal.
* [[Metaxa]], a brand of sweet [[brandy]], 40% alcohol content.
* [[Greek coffee]] (usually known [[Turkish coffee]]), made by boiling finely-ground coffee beans, and is served thick and strong, and often sweetened.
== See also ==
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Tourism in Greece]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
* [[Turkish cuisine]]
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http |
t of these events, AOL drastically began reducing the responsibilities and privileges of its volunteers in 2000. The program was eventually ended on [[June 8]] [[2005]]. Current Community Leaders at the time were offered 12 months of credit on their accounts. Also for a time AOL had a bot named CATWATCH which would pop into user created private rooms where TOS violations MAY be occuring, and everyone in the room would be disconnected from AOL and get a TOS strike against their account.
===Billing disputes===
AOL has faced a number of lawsuits over claims that it has been slow to stop billing people after their accounts have been cancelled, either by the company or the user. In addition, AOL changed its method of calculating used minutes in response to a class action lawsuit. Previously, AOL would add fifteen seconds to the time a user was connected to the service and round up to the next whole minute (thus, a person who used the service for 11 minutes and 46 seconds would be charged for 13 minutes). AOL claimed this was to account for sign on/sign off time, but because this practice was not made known to its customers, the lawsuit won (some also pointed out that signing on and off did not always take 15 seconds, especially when connecting via another ISP). AOL disclosed its connection time calculation methods to all of its customers and credited them with extra free hours. In addition, the AOL software would notify the user of exactly how long they were connected and how many minutes they were being charged for.
===Account cancellation===
In response to approximately 300 consumer complaints, New York Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]]’s office began an inquiry of AOL’s customer service policies. The investigation revealed that the company had an elaborate system for rewarding employees who purported to retain or "save" subscribers who had called to cancel their Internet service. In many instances, such retention was done against subscribers’ wishes, or without their consent.
Under the system, consumer service personnel received bonuses worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could successfully dissuade or "save" half of the people who called to cancel service. For several years, AOL had instituted minimum retention or "save" percentages, which consumer representatives were expected to meet. These bonuses, and the minimum "save" rates accompanying them, had the effect of employees not honoring cancellations, or otherwise making cancellation unduly difficult for consumers.
Many consumers complained that AOL personnel ignored their demands to cancel service and stop billing.
On August 24, 2005, America Online agreed to pay $1.25 million to the state of New York and reformed its
customer service procedures. Under the agreement, AOL will no longer require its customer
service representatives to meet a minimum quota for customer retention in order to receive a bonus.
===Software===
In 2000, AOL was served with an $8 billion lawsuit alleging that its (now dated) AOL 5.0 software caused significant difficulties for users attempting to use third-party Internet service providers. The lawsuit sought damages of up to $1000 for each user that had downloaded the software cited at the time of the lawsuit. AOL later agreed to a settlement of $15 million, without admission of wrongdoing.
=== Usenet newsgroups ===
When AOL gave clients access to [[Usenet]] in 1994, they hid at least one newsgroup in standard list view: ''alt.aol-sucks''. AOL did list the newsgroup in the alternative description view, but changed the description to "Flames and complaints about America Online".
=== Terms of Service (TOS) ===
There have been many complaints over rules that govern AOL's members conduct, call the Terms Of Service, which apply/applied to everyone who used AOL, regardless of age, or where an AOL member is on the internet. Claims are that these rules are too strict to follow, do not allow swearing, or a very flexible rule called room disruption.
== Company purchases ==
As it grew, AOL purchased many other software companies, including:
*[[BookLink]] bought in December 1994.
*[[NaviSoft]]'s [[NaviServer]] (later to become [[AOLserver]]) in 1994.
*[[ImagiNation Network|ImagiNation Network (I.N.N.)]] from [[AT&T]] in 1996.
*[[CompuServe]] in February 1998.
*[[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]] (maker of [[ICQ]]) in 1998.
*PLS text-search software in 1998,
*[[Nullsoft]] (maker of [[Winamp]]), in 1999 for $86 million
*[[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]], in 1999 for $4.2 billion.
*[[Mapquest]] in 1999.
*[[Tegic]] in December 1999.
*[[Singingfish]] search engine, November 2003.
*[http://advertising.com Advertising.com], an Internet advertising agency, in June 2004.
*[http://mailblocks.com MailBlocks], a personal, Web-based email service, in August 2004.
*[http://wildseed.com Wildseed], a privately held mobile software vendor, in August 2005.
*[http://xdrive.com Xdrive], a leading provider of online storage and file sharing services, also in August 2005.
*[[Weblogs, Inc.]], a blogging network that runs such sites as [[Engadget]], [[Autoblog]], [[Cinematical]] and [[TVSquad]], in October 2005, for $30 million.
*[[Truveo, Inc.]], a leading video search company, in December 2005, for an undisclosed value.
==Notable persons associated with AOL==
*[[Jim Kimsey]] (former CEO and board chairman)
*[[Steve Case]] (former CEO and board chairman)
*[[Jan Brandt]] (former President of Marketing)
*[[Justin Frankel]] (Nullsoft founder)
*[[Ted Leonsis]] (Vice-Chairman, President AOL Audience Group)
*[[Michael Powell]] (during merging with [[Time Warner]])
*[[Marc Andreessen]] (Netscape co-founder)
*[[Jason Smathers]] (former AOL employee convicted of stealing the Internet provider's entire subscriber list -- over 30 million consumers, and their 90 million screen names -- and selling it to a known spammer.)
*[[Jason Calacanis]] (Co-founder of Weblogs, Inc.)
==AOL Computer Checkup==
AOL Computer Checkup is a service offered by AOL to AOL members. It is a performance and hardware analyzer, not unlike the scans in [[Norton Utilities]].
==McAfee==
AOL also included McAfee VirusScan and McAfee Firewall Express in some versions
==See also==
* [[AOHell]]
* [[AOHack programs]]
* [[Sessions@AOL]]
* [[AOL Browser]]
* [[GAMEY]]
* [[Ursine:AOL|AOL]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
* [[Ursine:AOL!|AOL!]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
==References==
*Klein, Alec (2003). ''Stealing Time: Steve Case, Jerry Levin, and the Collapse of AOL Time Warner''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5984-X.
*Mehta, Stephanie N. & Vogelstein, Fred (Nov. 14, 2005). "AOL: The Relaunch". ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', p. 84&ndash;88.
==External links==
*[http://www.aol.com/ AOL US]
*[http://www.aol.com.br AOL Brasil]
*[http://aol.ca AOL Canada]
*[http://aol.de AOL Germany]
*[http://aol.fr AOL France]
*[http://www.aol.com.mx/ AOL México]
*[http://aol.co.uk AOL UK]
*[http://www.jp.aol.com AOL Japan]
*[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall2000/McAtee/ AOL: A History]
*[http://staff.jccc.net/lcline/index.htm AOL Disk Collection]
*[http://www.jmusheneaux.com/8000c.htm Important Dates & A Look at AOL's Evolving Interface]
*[http://www.nomoreaolcds.com/ The "No More AOL CDs" campaign]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/alt.aol-sucks alt.aol-sucks: Anti-AOL Usenet group (via Google)]
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/02/02/aol.lawsuit.02/ CNN.com] Disgruntled AOL 5.0 users seek up to $8 billion in damages
*[http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-golden27feb27,0,4045957.column?coll=la-home-business/ AOL fraud]
{{Time Warner}}
[[Category:America Online]]
[[Category:Internet service providers]]
[[Category:Online service providers]]
[[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]]
[[de:America Online]]
[[fr:America online]]
[[it:America Online]]
[[hu:America Online]]
[[nl:America Online]]
[[ja:AOL]]
[[no:America Online]]
[[pl:AOL]]
[[pt:AOL]]
[[sv:America Online]]
[[tr:AOL]]
[[zh:美国在线]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algebra</title>
<id>1398</id>
<revision>
<id>42045821</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nikai</username>
<id>9759</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Current-Math-COTW}}
:''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''
'''Algebra''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الجبر, ''al-jabr'') is a branch of [[mathematics]] which studies [[structure]] and [[quantity]]. [[Elementary algebra]] is often taught in high school and gives an introduction into the basic ideas of algebra: studying what happens when one adds and multiplies numbers and how one can make [[polynomial]]s and find their roots.
Algebra is much broader than [[arithmetic]] and can be generalized. Rather than working on numbers, one can work over [[symbols]] or [[element (mathematics)|elements]]. Addition and multiplication are viewed as general [[operator|operations]], and their precise definitions lead to structures called [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]].
Together with [[geometry]] and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], algebra is one of the three main branches of mathematics.
==Classification==
Algebra may be roughly divided into the following categories:
* '''[[elementary algebra]]''', in which the properties of operations on the [[real number|real number system]] are recorded using symbols as "place holders" to denote [[mathematical constant|constants]] and [[variable]]s, and the rules governing [[mathematical expression]]s and [[equation]]s involving these symbols are studied (note that this usually includes the |
ve spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding "I have a higher and greater standard of principle. Washington could not lie. I can lie but I won't." Stories of national mythological value often have similar themes - that the founder of the nation, [[Deucalion]], [[George Washington]], [[Abraham]] - was a wise, virtuous and brave man.
==Tall men and their tall tales==
===Mostly mythic===
*[[Paul Bunyan]]
*[[John Henry (folklore)|John Henry]]
*[[Iron John]]
*[[John the Conqueror]]
*[[Pecos Bill]]
*[[Buffalo Bill]]
*[[Casey Jones]]
===Mostly real===
*[[Mike Fink]]
*[[Billy the Kid]]
*[[Jesse James]]
*[[Johnny Appleseed]]
*[[Kit Carson]]
*[[Davy Crockett]]
*[[Daniel Boone]]
*[[Wild Bill Hickok]]
*[[Wyatt Earp]]
*[[Doc Holliday]]
*[[Stagger Lee]]
*[[Joe Hill]]
*[[Pancho Villa]]
*[[Emperor Norton I]]
*[[Jonathan Moulton]]
==Women==
*[[Boxcar Betty]]
*[[Calamity Jane]]
*[[Harriet Tubman]]
*[[La Llorona]]
*[[Lizzie Borden]]
*[[Marie Laveau]]
*[[Maria Monk]]
*[[Molly Pitcher]] (mostly mythic)
*[[Mother Jones]]
*[[Annie Oakley]]
*[[Bonnie Parker]]
*[[Betsy Ross]]
==Native Americans==
*[[Hiawatha]]
*[[Pocahontas]]
*[[Squanto]]
*[[Geronimo]]
*[[Sacagawea]]
==Archetypes and icons==
*[[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]
*[[Cowboy]]s
*[[Entrepreneur]]s & [[Robber Barons]]
*[[Gangster]]s and [[gang]]s
*[[Hacker|Hackers]]
*[[Hillbilly|Hillbillies]]
*[[Juvenile delinquency|Juvenile delinquents]]
*[[Motorcycle gang]]s like the [[Hell's Angels]]
*[[Pioneer]]s
*[[Prospector]]s
*[[Quarterback]]s
*[[Redneck]]s
*[[Statue of Liberty]]
*[[Uncle Sam]]
==Animals and creatures==
*[[Squonk]]
*[[Beast of Busco]]
*[[Bigfoot]]
*[[Jersey Devil]]
*[[Hodag]]
*[[Chupacabra]]
*[[Skunk Ape]]
*[[Nain Rouge]]
*[[Mothman]]
*[[Jackalope]]
*[[Fur-bearing trout]]
*[[Maine Coon]] cat (''real breed'')
*[[Greys]]
*[[Babe the Blue Ox]]
*[[Rabbit's foot]]
==Literature and the arts==
*[[Horatio Alger, Jr.]]
*''[[Little House on the Prairie]]''
*[[Stephen Vincent Benét]]
*[[Washington Irving]]
*[[Robert Johnson]]
*[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
*[[Norman Rockwell]]
*[[Mark Twain]]
*[[Parson Weems]]
*[[Uncle Remus]]
==History==
*[[Scalping]]
*[[California Gold Rush]]
*[[Cowboys & Indians]]
*[[Ellis Island]]
*[[Hatfields and McCoys]]
*[[Indian captivity narratives]]
*[[The Noble Savage]]
*[[Norumbega]]
*[[Pony Express]]
*[[Paul Revere]]
*[[Salem Witch Trials]]
*[[Wagon train]]
==Contemporary folklore==
*[[Conspiracy theory]]
*[[Faxlore]]
*[[Legend tripping]]
*[[List of character-based movie franchises]]
*[[Skull and Bones]]
*[[Superhero]]
*''[[Star Trek]]''
*[[Urban legend]]
==Songs and games==
*[[jump rope]] rhymes
*[[stickball]] or [[sandlot ball]]
*[[counting-out game]]
*"[[Oh My Darling, Clementine]]"
==See also==
*[[American Dream]]
*The [[Frontier]]
==External links==
*[http://www.afsnet.org American Folklore Society]
[[Category:American culture]][[Category:American folklore|*]]
[[bg:Фолклор на САЩ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Folklore</title>
<id>2211</id>
<revision>
<id>15900643</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-12T16:37:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Folklore of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affirming the antecedent</title>
<id>2213</id>
<revision>
<id>35032214</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T16:22:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Christofurio</username>
<id>49935</id>
</contributor>
<comment>example of the logical fallacy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Affirming the antecedent''' is a valid [[argument form]] which proceeds by affirming the truth of the first part (the "if" part, commonly called the antecedent) of a [[conditional]], and concluding that the second part (the "then" part, commonly called the consequent) is true. It is commonly referred to as [[Modus ponens]], or "method of affirming."
:If ''P'', then ''Q''.
:''P''.
:Therefore, ''Q''.
In [[logical operator]] notation, this is symbolized
:<math> p \rightarrow q </math>
:<math> \vdash p, </math>
:<math> \vdash q </math>
Many people assume that this works the other way as well, so that one could say:
:If ''P'' then ''Q''.
:''Q''.
:Therefore ''P''.
In [[logical operator]] notation, this is symbolized
:<math> p \rightarrow q </math>
:<math> \vdash q, </math>
:<math> \vdash p </math>
where <math>\vdash</math> represents the [[logical assertion]].
But this is a [[Logical fallacy]] called [[Affirming the consequent]]. Since ''P'' implies ''Q'', but ''Q'' does not necessarily imply ''P''.
You can see this if we simply substitute in actual statements for ''P''. and ''Q''.
If the electrical system has failed, then it is dark in this room.
It is dark in this room.
So the electrical system has failed.
One can see intuitively that the conclusion fails, even if both premises are true, because there might be plenty of other explanations for the darkness in the room.
Sometimes ''P'' and ''Q'' entail each other, in that case we can say ''P'' if and only if ''Q''. (Sometimes the shorthand ''P'' [[iff]] ''Q'' is used rather than writing out if and only if).
[[Category:Logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri</title>
<id>2215</id>
<revision>
<id>42090269</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urhixidur</username>
<id>68509</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Inspirations */ Planetfall by Infocom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG
|title = Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri
|image = [[Image:Alpha_Centauri_cover.jpg|center|230px|Alpha Centauri box art]]
|developer = [[Firaxis Games]]
|publisher = [[Aspyr]] ([[Mac OS]]);<br />[[Electronic Arts]] ([[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]);<br />[[Loki Software]] ([[Linux]])
|distributor =
|designer =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1999]]
|genre = [[Turn-based]] [[strategy game|strategy]] ([[4X]])
|modes = [[Single player]]; [[multiplayer]] over [[IPX]], [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] or [[modem]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: Everyone (E)
|platforms = [[Linux]] ([[DEC Alpha|Alpha]]/[[PowerPC]]/[[x86]]), [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS]]
|media = [[Compact Disc|CD]] (1)
|requirements = [[Intel Pentium|P]]133 MHz [[Central processing unit|CPU]], 16MB [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], 60MB [[Hard disk|HD]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[Computer mouse|mouse]]
}}
'''''Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri''''' (sometimes abbreviated to '''SMAC''') is a [[turn-based game|turn-based]] [[strategy game|strategy]] [[4X]] [[computer game]] created by [[Brian Reynolds]] and [[Sid Meier]] under the auspices of [[Firaxis Games]] in [[1999]]. It is based on a hypothetical attempt by human beings to [[Space colonization|colonize]] a planet in the [[Alpha Centauri|Alpha Centauri star system]]. It picks up where the games [[Civilization (computer game)|''Sid Meier's Civilization I'' & ''II'']] left off. An expansion pack, ''[[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire]]'' (aka '''SMACX''' or just '''SMAX''') was later released. Both -- the original Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri and the Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire expansion pack -- were later released in a combined edition called a "Planetary Pack."
==Storyline==
According to the storyline of the game, [[Earth]] has destroyed itself through [[war]], [[disease]], [[famine]], and other [[catastrophe]]s. The [[United Nations]] manages to launch a colonization [[starship]], the ''Unity'', to [[Alpha Centauri]], where an Earth-like planet, Chiron (often just called "Planet"), has been discovered; it is hoped that the best and brightest of mankind aboard the ''Unity'' can build a perfect civilization there.
As the ''Unity'' approaches Alpha Centauri, a malfunction occurs, waking the top [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]] from suspended animation. During the crew's attempt to repair the damage, the commander, Captain Garland, is assassinated. Due to the critical damage of the ''Unity'', the ship's seven top officers each, together with likeminded crewmembers, lay claim to an escape pod and land on Chiron. These seven, with their conflicting personalities and ideologies, then begin to build seven seperate [[society|societies]] according to those ideologies - leading humanity once again to [[faction]]alism and war.
(Note: The game's intro video depicts an eighth escape pod separating from the ''Unity'', only to explode shortly thereafter, though there is no mention of an eighth faction at any point in the game.)
==Game play==
[[Image:SMACx-DiploScreenshot1.jpg|thumb|right|Alpha Centauri screenshot]]
Within the game, the player assumes the role of one of the seven [[Political faction|faction]] leaders and attempts to expand their colony and achieve victory. Players engage themselves in a race against the other factions, and are free to adopt any number of strategies in pursuit of their goal. Scientific discoveries within the game determine what technologies are available to particular factions, which in turn determines what facilities and units they can build at their colony bases. Unlike the previous [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] games and [[Civilization III]], ''Alpha Centauri'' allows the player to fully customize units. [[Civilization IV]] expanded on this system.
Also, while not unique in this regard, ''Alpha Centauri'' is an unusual civilization-building game because it is open-ended and has multiple, customizable parameters for victory. The player can choose to work toward a victory based on [[diploma |
orking on a song called "Color Pictures of a Marigold", and the two ended up jamming on it. During the sessions for ''[[In Utero]]'', the band decided to record the song, and released it as a b-side on the "[[Heart-Shaped Box]]" single, titled simply "Marigold". Earlier, as the band worked on new material for ''In Utero'', Grohl contributed the main guitar riff for what ended up becoming "[[Scentless Apprentice]]". Cobain conceded in a late 1993 MTV interview that he initially thought the riff was "kind of boneheaded", but was gratified at how the song developed (a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set ''[[With the Lights Out]]''). Cobain noted that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting.
Prior to their 1994 European tour, the band decided to schedule session time at [[Robert Lang Studios]] in Seattle to work on demos. For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs. The duo completed several of Grohl's, including future [[Foo Fighters]] songs "Exhausted", "[[Big Me]]", "February Stars", and "Butterflies". On the third day of the session, Cobain finally arrived, and the band recorded a demo of a song later named "[[You Know You're Right]]". It was the band's final studio recording.
==Foo Fighters==
{{main|Foo Fighters}}
Following Cobain's death in April of 1994, Grohl retreated, unsure of where to go and what to do with himself. Initially, Grohl believed his future might be in drumming for other bands, and took a brief turn with [[Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers]], including a memorable performance on [[Saturday Night Live]]. The band asked him to join permanently, but Grohl realized that his future lay elsewhere.
Grohl decided to schedule studio time, again at Robert Lang's Studio, and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo. With the exception of a single guitar part on "X-Static" played by Greg Dulli of the [[Afghan Whigs]], Grohl performed all of the instruments himself. Grohl began passing the demo around, and soon found himself with considerable major label interest. Nirvana's A&R rep Gary Gersh had subsequently taken over as President of [[Capitol Records]] and lured Grohl to sign with the label. Grohl's demo was given a professional mix by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and released in 1995 as the Foo Fighters' [[Foo Fighters (album)|debut album]]. Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career so he recruited other band members: former Nirvana touring guitarist [[Pat Smear]], and two members of the band [[Sunny Day Real Estate]], [[William Goldsmith]] (drums) and [[Nate Mendel]] (bass).
At the end of 1995, the Foo Fighters were asked to contribute a song to the soundtrack to the television show [[The X-Files]]. During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of [[Gary Numan]]'s "[[Down in the Park]]". In February of 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on the X-Files episode "The Pusher". (The two can be spotted entering the FBI building, with Grohl pausing to look at his watch.)
[[Image:Touch.jpg|200px|thumb|''Touch'' soundtrack album cover]]After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the [[1997]] movie ''Touch''. Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from [[Veruca Salt]] singer Louise Post on the title track, and vocals and guitar by [[X (US band)|X]]'s [[John Doe (musician)|John Doe]] on "This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)". Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined the Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up.
In the midst of the initial sessions for the Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and Goldsmith. Grohl felt that Goldsmith's efforts weren't as strong as they needed to be, and opted to re-record some of Goldsmith's drum parts himself. Goldsmith, who found himself battling [[carpal tunnel syndrome]] from years of pounding the drums, was upset by Grohl's action, and quit the band. (In subsequent interviews, Grohl conceded that the band may have moved into the studio too quickly after the lengthy touring for the debut.) Grohl and the rest of the band decided to scrap the Seattle sessions and start over in [[Los Angeles]] with Grohl behind the kit.
The effort was released in May of 1997 as the band's second album, ''[[The Colour and the Shape]]'', which eventually cemented the Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio. The album spawned several hits, including "[[Everlong]]", "[[My Hero (song)|My Hero]]", and "[[Monkey Wrench (song)|Monkey Wrench]]". Just prior to the album's release, former [[Alanis Morissette]] drummer [[Taylor Hawkins]] joined the band on drums. The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down following a lifetime of touring. Smear was subsequently replaced by Grohl's former Scream bandmate Franz Stahl. (Stahl departed the band prior to recording of the Foo's third album and was replaced by touring guitarist Chris Shiflett, who later became a full-fledged member during the recording of ''[[One by One]]''.)
Grohl's life of non-stop touring and travel continued with the Foo Fighters' popularity. During his infrequent pauses he lived in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] before returning to his native [[Alexandria, Virginia]]. It was there that he turned his basement into a recording studio where the [[1999]] album ''[[There Is Nothing Left to Lose]]'' was recorded.
In [[2000]], the band recruited [[Queen (band)|Queen]] guitarist [[Brian May]] to add some guitar flourish to a cover of [[Pink Floyd]]'s "Have a Cigar", a song which the Foo Fighters previously recorded as a b-side. The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[2001]]. Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer [[Roger Meddows-Taylor|Roger Taylor]] to perform "[[Tie Your Mother Down]]", with Grohl standing in on vocals for the late [[Freddie Mercury]]. (May later contributed guitar work for the song "Tired of You" on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called "Knucklehead".)
[[Image:DaveGrohlphoto.jpg|thumb|right|Grohl at the Roskilde Festival in 2005]]
Near the end of 2001, the Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album. After four months in the studio, with the sessions "finished", Grohl accepted an invitation to join [[Queens of the Stone Age]] and helped them to record their 2002 album ''[[Songs for the Deaf]]''. (Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song "[[No One Knows]]".) After a brief US tour with the band and feeling rejuvenated by the effort, Grohl recalled the other Foo Fighters to completely re-record their album at his studio in Virginia. The effort became their fourth album, ''[[One by One]]''. While initially pleased with the results, in another 2005 ''Rolling Stone'' interview, Dave Grohl admitted to not liking the record: "Four of the songs were good, and the other seven I never played again in my life. We rushed into it, and we rushed out of it."
Grohl and the Foo Fighters released their fifth album ''[[In Your Honor]]'' on June 14, 2005. Prior to starting work on the album, the band spent almost a year relocating Grohl's home-based Virginia studio to a brand new facility, dubbed Studio 606, located in a warehouse near Los Angeles. Featuring collaborations with [[John Paul Jones (musician)|John Paul Jones]] of [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Josh Homme]] of [[Queens of the Stone Age]] and [[Norah Jones]], the album was a departure from previous efforts, and included one rock and one acoustic disc.
==Other Projects==
Apart from his main bands, Grohl has been involved in other music projects. In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of [[The Beatles]]' early years for the movie ''[[Backbeat (film)|Backbeat]]''. Grohl played drums in an "all-star" lineup that included [[Greg Dulli]] of the [[Afghan Whigs]], indie producer Don Fleming, [[Mike Mills]] of [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], [[Thurston Moore]] of [[Sonic Youth]], and [[Dave Pirner]] of [[Soul Asylum]]. A music video was filmed for the song "[[Money (That's What I Want)]]" while Grohl was with Nirvana on their 1994 European tour, but footage of Grohl was filmed later and included.
During the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording a number of songs for a "[[Metal music|metal]]" project. Over the span of several years, Grohl recruited his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including [[Lemmy Kilmister]] of [[Motörhead]], Cronos from [[Venom (band)|Venom]], and [[Max Cavalera]] of [[Sepultura]], to perform the vocals for the songs. According to an interview published in the magazine ''[[Guitar World]]'', the project began as a self-induced backlash against the more radio-friendly material Grohl wrote for ''There Is Nothing Left to Lose''. The project was released in 2003 under the [[moniker]] [[PROBOT]].
Also in 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on [[Killing Joke]]'s [[Killing_Joke_2003_(album)|self-titled album]]. The move surprised some Nirvana fans, given that Nirvana had been accused of stealing the opening riff of "[[Come As You Are]]" from Killing Joke's [[1984]] song "Eighties". However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands. The Foo Fighters made a habit of co |
ar Wars]]''.
DePalma has refused to answer [[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]] fans whether Pacino really snorted the cocaine, and if the cocaine was real.
He is the step-father of american model and actress [[Willa Holland]]
Brian De Palma has been offered, considered for, or associated with the production of films as disparate as ''[[Demon Seed]]'' (which featured De Palma regular [[Gerrett Graham]]), ''[[Grease (film)|Grease]]'', ''[[Flashdance]]'', ''[[Cruising (film)|Cruising]]'', ''[[Prince of the City]]'', ''[[Act of Vengeance]]'', ''[[The Truman Show]]'', and the remake of ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]''. In the latter two cases, De Palma was rejected by producer [[Scott Rudin]].
==Director Trademarks==
*Split screen
*Split Diopters
*Many [[Alfred Hitchcock]] homages, using similar locations and camera techniques.
*The "Long Take" which is usually complimented by a series of elaborate tracking shots or dolly movements
*Has commissioned Hitchcockian compositions for his films, and worked with [[Bernard Herrmann]] (a composer who worked a lot with [[Alfred Hitchcock]] prior to Herrmann's death.
*Dopplegangers (or evil twin), and femme fatales appear frequently in De Palma's films.
*Often shoots 'tense' moments without any widening lens or zoom. When coupled with his trademark extended shot, it creates a feeling the viewer is in the scene.
==Filmography==
* ''[[The Black Dahlia (movie)|The Black Dahlia]]''
*''[[Femme Fatale (movie)|Femme Fatale]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Mission to Mars]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Snake Eyes (movie)|Snake Eyes]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Mission: Impossible (movie)|Mission: Impossible]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''[[Carlito's Way]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Raising Cain]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''[[The Bonfire of the Vanities]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
*''[[Casualties of War (movie)|Casualties of War]]'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]])
*''[[Wise Guys (film)|Wise Guys]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]])
*''[[Body Double (movie)|Body Double]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Scarface (1983 movie)|Scarface]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]])
*''[[Blow Out]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]])
*''[[Dressed to Kill]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
*''[[Home Movies]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]])
*''[[The Fury (film)|The Fury]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
*''[[Carrie]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]])
*''[[Obsession (movie)|Obsession]]'' (1976)
*''[[Phantom of the Paradise]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]])
*''[[Sisters (movie)|Sisters]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]])
*''[[Get to Know Your Rabbit]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]])
*''[[Dionysus (movie)|Dionysus]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]])
*''[[Hi, Mom!]]'' (1970)
*''[[The Wedding Party]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]])
*''[[Greetings (film)|Greetings]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]])
*''[[Murder a la Mod]]'' (1968)
*''[[The Responsive Eye]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]])
*''[[Show Me a Strong Town and I'll Show You a Strong Bank]]'' (1966)
*''[[Bridge That Gap]]'' ([[1965 in film|1965]])
*''[[Jennifer (1964 film)|Jennifer]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]])
*''[[Wotans Wake]]'' ([[1962 in film|1962]])
*''[[660124 The Story of an IBM Card]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]])
*''[[Icarus (movie)|Icarus]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]])
==Bibliography==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/depalma.html Brian De Palma bibliography] (via UC Berkeley)
== External links ==
* {{imdb name|id=0000361|name=Brian De Palma}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/de_palma.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* [http://www.briandepalma.net/ Directed by Brian De Palma] - Unofficial De Palma fan site
* [http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/ 24 Lies A Second] - Essays on De Palma + Discussion Board
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/palma/ De Palma à la Mod] - De Palma News of the Day
[[Category:1940 births|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic entertainers|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:American film directors|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:Newarkers|De Palma, Brian]]
[[Category:Worst Director Razzie Nominee]]
[[de:Brian De Palma]]
[[es:Brian De Palma]]
[[fr:Brian De Palma]]
[[it:Brian De Palma]]
[[nl:Brian De Palma]]
[[pt:Brian De Palma]]
[[fi:Brian De Palma]]
[[sv:Brian De Palma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-25 Mitchell</title>
<id>4218</id>
<revision>
<id>42020533</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:57:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emt147</username>
<id>545524</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Specifications (B-25J) */ oops... math hard</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
[[Image:B-25 Flying.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A B-25 Mitchell in flight during World War II<br><small>From the [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/178_Medium_Bomber.htm original image]).]]
The '''B-25 Mitchell''' was a twin-engine, [[medium bomber]] manufactured by [[North American Aviation]] in the [[United States]] and used during [[World War II]]. By the time production of the plane ended, roughly 10,000 had been built, including PBJ-1 [[United States Navy|Navy]] Patrol Bomber and F-10 [[reconnaissance]] versions.
It served in every combat theatre and was used by a number of countries other than the United States, including [[Australia]], the [[United Kingdom]] (which received more than 900), [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Soviet Union|Russia]]. Its nickname 'Mitchell' was in honour of General [[Billy Mitchell]], an early proponent of airpower.
The B-25 is most famous as the bomber used in the [[1942 in aviation|1942]] [[Doolittle Raid]], in which the raiders took off from the [[aircraft]] carrier [[USS Hornet|USS ''Hornet'']], bombed [[Tokyo]], and then ran out fuel on the way to friendly territory in [[China]]; a B-25 also collided with the [[Empire State Building]] in [[1945 in aviation|1945]].
The B-25 is the aircraft featured in the popular and influential novel ''[[Catch-22]]'' and [[Catch-22 (film)|subsequent film]].
== Development ==
The B-25 was a descendant of the aborted [[North American XB-21|XB-21]] (North American-39) project of the mid-[[List of years in aviation#1930s in aviation|1930s]]. Experience gained in making the XB-21 was used by North American in designing the B-25 (NA-40). One NA-40 was built; several modifications were made on it to test a number of potential features, including the replacement of its [[Pratt & Whitney R-1830]] [[radial engines]] with [[Wright R-2600]] radials which would become standard on the B-25.
The product of these experiments, dubbed the NA-40B, was submitted to the [[United States Army Air Corps]] for evaluation near the end of [[1939 in aviation|1939]]. It was intended to be an attack bomber, to be exported to the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], both of which had a pressing requirement for such aircraft in the early stages of World War II. However, the NA-40B was passed up in favour of the plane that would become the [[A-20 Havoc]]. Despite this loss, the NA-40B re-entered the spotlight when the Army evaluated it for use as a [[medium bomber]]. Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on [[1939 in aviation|1939]] [[April 11]]. Nonetheless, the design was ordered for production in [[1939 in aviation|1939]].
== Early production ==
Along with the [[B-26 Marauder]], the B-25 was ordered by the Army for production in 1939. An improvement on the NA-40B, dubbed the NA-62, was the basis for the first B-25 version. Due to a desperate need for [[medium bomber]]s, no experimental or service-test versions were built. Any necessary modifications were made during production runs, or to existing aircraft at field modification centres.
The most significant change was a rearrangement of the wing. In the first nine aeroplanes of the production line, a [[dihedral]] wing was used. This design had some stability issues, so the dihedral angle was nullified on the outboard section of the wing, giving the B-25 a distinct [[gull wing]] configuration. One less important change was an increase in the size of the fins and a decrease in the inward cant.
== Operational history ==
Following a number of modifications, including improved engines, a sighting blister for the navigator, more nose armament, and de-icing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C was released to the Army. It was the first mass-produced version of the B-25. The B-25D was identical, except in location: whereas the B-25C was built in [[Inglewood, California]], the B-25D was built in [[Kansas City, Kansas]]. A total of 3915 B-25Cs and B-25Ds were built by North American during the course of the war.
While the B-25 was meant originally to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was used frequently in the [[Pacific Theatre of Operations|Pacific Theater]] in treetop-level missions against Japanese airfields and for operations such as [[strafing]] and skip-bombing against enemy Japanese shipping.
Because of extreme need for durable aircraft to use in strafing missions, a version of the B-25 dubbed the B-25G was developed, in which the transparent nose was replaced by a solid nose. This housed two fixed .50-calibre [[machine guns]] and a 75 mm M4 cannon, the largest calibre weapon ever used on an American bomber. The 75 mm cannon was manually loaded by the navigator who not only had to stand inside the windowless nose filled with gunpowder smoke during attack runs but also to constantly watch for the cannon breech which recoiled into the compartment and ejected very hot brass shells. The B-25G’s successor, the B-25H, had even more firepower with the additi |
ts in Guyana. Because of the congregational polity of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), regional leaders did not have the power to intervene in a decisive manner. However, since the tragedy, the systems of accountability in all regions of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) have been strengthened.
==Prominent Members==
*[[James Garfield]], 20th [[President of the United States]] and a lay minister
*[[Lyndon Baines Johnson]], 36th President of the United States (whose family, however, had been staunchly Baptist and whose wife Lady Bird Johnson was a devoted Anglican)
*[[Ronald Reagan]], 40th President of the United States
*[[J. William Fulbright]], [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Arkansas]]
*[[John Tanner]], Congressman from Tennessee's 8th Congressional District
*[[Ike Skelton]], Congressman from Missouri's 4th Congressional District
*[[Lew Wallace]], author and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] general.
*[[Edgar Cayce]], Psychic and healer - His unorthodox "readings" clashed with his Christian beliefs
==Affiliations==
*[[Churches Uniting in Christ]]
*[[National Council of Churches]]
*[[World Convention of Churches of Christ]]
*[[World Council of Churches]]
==See also==
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian apologetics]]
==References==
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/jtbrown/coc/COC1306.HTM
| title = James A. Garfield
| work = John T. Brown's Churches of Christ
| accessdate = 2005-12-08
| year = 1904
| publisher = Memorial University of Newfoundland
| last = Green | first = F. M.
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/FAQs/Religion/religion_hm.asp
| title = Religion and President Johnson
| publisher = Lyndon B. Johnson Library and Museum
| accessdate = 2005-12-08
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/facts.html
| title = Ronald Reagan Facts
| publisher = Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
| accessdate = 2005-12-08
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.disciples.org/ Disciples of Christ]
*[http://www.disciplesworld.com/ DisciplesWorld, a journal of news, mission and opinion for the Disciples of Christ]
*[http://worldconvention.org The Christian - Churches of Christ - Disciples of Christ family of Churches XVIIth World Convention of Churches of Christ in Nashville, Tennessee in July-August 2008]
*[http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/wwarren/ccr/CCR00A.HTM One Hundredth Anniversary of the Disciples of Christ in 1909]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Restoration Movement]]
[[ru:Ученики Христа]]
[[zh:基督会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Rice Atchison</title>
<id>8662</id>
<revision>
<id>40835808</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T08:47:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tskoge</username>
<id>174597</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv edit by [[Special:Contributions/Liface|Liface]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davidriceatchison.jpg|right|frame|David Rice Atchison]]
'''David Rice Atchison''' ([[August 11]], [[1807]] - [[January 26]], [[1886]]) was a mid-19th century [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Missouri]]. Frequently serving as [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] of the Senate, he is best known as the focus of an urban legend claiming that, for one day, he was ''de jure'' [[President of the United States]].
== Early life and Senate career ==
Born in Frogtown (now named [[Kirklevington, Kentucky|Kirklevington]]), [[Fayette County, Kentucky]], Atchison was educated at [[Transylvania University]] in Lexington before becoming a lawyer and farmer in western [[Missouri]]. Through his tenure in Missouri, Atchison also served in the state legislature and as a circuit-court judge, and in 1843 was appointed to the [[United States Senate]] to replace a Missouri Senator who had just died. He held this office from 1843 to 1855. He became the first senator from western Missouri and at age 36 the youngest Missourian at that time to enter the U.S. Senate.
== "President for One Day" ==
Some claim that Atchison technically was [[President of the United States]] for one day&mdash;[[Sunday]], [[March 4]], [[1849]]. Outgoing President [[James K. Polk|James Polk]]'s term expired at noon on that day, and his successor, [[Zachary Taylor]], refused to be [[inauguration|sworn into]] office on the [[sabbath]] (Sunday). Taylor's [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] running mate, [[Millard Fillmore]], likewise was not inaugurated. As [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] from the prior [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], under the presidential succession law in place at the time Atchison could have been seen as next in line.
While it is true that the offices of [[President of the United States|President]] and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] were vacant, Atchison in fact was not next in line. While the terms of [[James K. Polk]] and Vice President [[George M. Dallas|George Mifflin Dallas]] expired at noon on [[March 4]], Atchison's tenure as [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] did as well. He also never took the oath of office, although there is no [[United States Constitution|constitutional]] requirement, then or now, for an [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] to do so. No disability or lack of qualification prevented Taylor and Fillmore from taking office, and as they had been duly certified as President-elect and Vice-President elect, if Taylor was not President because he had not been sworn in as such, then Atchison, who hadn't been sworn in either, certainly wasn't.
Atchison was sworn in for his new term as President Pro Tempore minutes before both Fillmore and Taylor, which might theoretically make him Acting President for at least that length of time; however, this also implies that any time the Vice President is sworn in before the President, the Vice President is the de facto Acting President. Since this is a common occurrence, if Atchison is considered President, so must every Vice President whose inauguration preceded that of the President. Obviously this is not the case. Therefore, while one could argue that Atchison was legally President for a few minutes (though even this much is debatable), claims that he should be considered an "official" President are most likely incorrect.
When asked what he did on [[March 4]], [[1849]], Atchison replied, "I went to bed. There had been two or three busy nights finishing up the work of the Senate, and I slept most of that Sunday." He jokingly boasted that his "presidency" was the "most honest administration this country ever had."
Atchison was 41 years and 6 months old at the time of his "presidency," which, if it had been official, would still make him the youngest President in American history. [[Theodore Roosevelt]], the youngest to serve, was 42 years and 11 months old when he was sworn in following the death of [[William McKinley]] in [[1901]], and [[John F. Kennedy]], the youngest to be elected, was 43 years and 7 months old when he was inaugurated in [[1961]].
Despite this, a museum exhibit in his honor (claiming to be the country's smallest "Presidential library") opened in [[February]] [[2006]] at the Atchsion County Historical Museum in [[Atchison, Kansas]].
[[Image:Atchison_David_Rice_-_Plattsburg_MO_3.jpg|David Atchison's Tombstone|right|frame|David Rice Atchison's tombstone.]]
== Memorials ==
He is buried in his home of [[Plattsburg, Missouri]], where a statue honors him in front of the [[Clinton County, Missouri | Clinton County]] Courthouse. His grave marker reads "President of the United States for One Day."
[[Atchison, Kansas]] is named for him. The town subsequently gave its name to the famous [[Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad]].
==See also==
;Places named for David Atchison
:*[[Atchison, Kansas]] (city)
:*[[Atchison County, Kansas]]
:*[[Atchison County, Missouri]]
==External links==
* [http://www.snopes2.com/history/american/atchison.htm Urban Legends: President for a Day]
* [http://home.nycap.rr.com/useless/atchison/index.html Useless Information: David Rice Atchison]
* [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/President_For_A_Day.htm U.S. Senate Historical Minute Essay]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the United States Senate]]|
before=[[Ambrose Hundley Sevier]]|
years=[[August 8]],[[1846]]&ndash;[[December 2]],[[1849]]|
after=[[William R. King]]|
}}
{{succession box|
title=[[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the United States Senate]]|
before=[[William R. King]]|
years=[[December 20]],[[1852]]&ndash;[[December 4]],[[1854]]|
after=[[Lewis Cass]]|
}}
{{end box}}
{{USSenPresProTemp}}
[[Category:1807 births|Atchison, David Rice]]
[[Category:1886 deaths|Atchison, David Rice]]
[[Category:People from Kentucky|Atchison, David Rice]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Missouri|Atchison, David Rice]]
[[de:David Rice Atchison]]
[[nl:David Rice Atchison]]
[[pl:David Rice Atchison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gabriel Fahrenheit</title>
<id>8663</id>
<revision>
<id>41639065</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:41:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ILovePlankton</username>
<id>935760</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV:V</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:fahr.jpg|frame|D.G. Fahrenheit.]] -->
'''Daniel |
o be used for other applications.
[[User datagram protocol|UDP]] (IP protocol number 17) is a [[connectionless]] datagram protocol. It is a "best effort" or "unreliable" protocol - not because it is particularly unreliable, but because it does not verify that packets have reached their destination, and gives no guarantee that they will arrive in order. If an Application requires these characteristics, it must provide them itself, or use [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]].
UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio and video, etc) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like [[DNS]] lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large.
[[DCCP]] is currently under development by IETF. It provides TCP's flow control semantics, while keeping UDP's datagram service model visible to the user.
Both TCP and UDP are used to carry a number of higher-level applications. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP ''[[port number]]''. By convention certain ''well known ports'' are associated with specific applications.
[[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]] is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.
RTP is a session layer that uses the UDP packet format as a basis yet is said to sit within the transport layer of the Internet protocol stack.
===The application layer===
The [[Application layer]] is the layer that most common network-aware programs use in order to communicate across a network with other programs. Processes that occur in this layer are application specific; data is passed from the network-aware program, in the format used internally by this application, and is encoded into a standard protocol.
Some specific programs are considered to run in this layer. They provide services that directly support user applications. These programs and their corresponding protocols include [[HTTP]] (The World Wide Web), [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] (File transport), [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]] (Email), [[Secure shell|SSH]] (Secure remote login), [[DNS]] (Name <-> IP Address lookups) and many others.
Once the data from an application has been encoded into a standard application layer protocol it will be passed down to the next layer of the IP stack.
At the Transport Layer, applications will most commonly make use of TCP or UDP, and server applications are often associated with a [[TCP and UDP port numbers|well-known port number]]. Ports for server applications are officially allocated by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) but developers of new protocols today often choose the port numbers themselves. As it is rare to have more than a few server applications on the same system, problems with port conflicts are rare. Application software also generally allows users to specify arbitrary port numbers as [[runtime]] [[parameters]].
Client applications connecting out generally use a random port number assigned by the operating system. Applications that listen on a port and then send that port to another copy of the application via a server to set up a peer-peer link (e.g. [[Direct Client-to-Client|dcc]] file transfers on [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]]). May also use a random port but the applications usually allow specification of a specific port range to allow the ports to be mapped inwards through a router that implements [[network address translation]].
==Development==
The Internet protocol suite came from work done by [[DARPA]] in the early [[1970s]]. After building the pioneering [[ARPANET]], DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, [[Robert E. Kahn]] was hired at the DARPA [[Information Processing Technology Office]], where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across them. In the spring of 1973, [[Vinton Cerf]], the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol for the ARPANET.
By the summer of [[1973]], Kahn and Cerf had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common [[internetwork protocol]], and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. (Cerf credits [[Hubert Zimmerman]] and [[Louis Pouzin]] (designer of the [[CYCLADES]] network) with important influences on this design.)
With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. (One popular saying has it that [[TCP/IP]], the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string", and it has in fact been [[IP over Avian Carriers|implemented using homing pigeons]].) A computer called a ''gateway'' (later changed to ''[[router]]'' to avoid confusion with [[Gateway|other types of ''gateway'']]) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards [[packet]]s back and forth between them.
The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the [[1973]]&ndash;[[1974|74]] period. (The early networking work at [[Xerox PARC]], which produced the [[PARC Universal Packet]] protocol suite, much of which was contemporaneous, was also a significant technical influence; people moved between the two.)
DARPA then contracted with BBN, Stanford, and The University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed -- TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with TCP/IP v4 -- the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today.
In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between the U.S., U.K., and Norway. Between 1978 and 1983, several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centres. A full switchover to TCP/IP on the ARPANET took place January 1, 1983. [http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm]
In 1984, the US Department of Defense made TCP/IP the standard for all military computer networking. In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, helping popularize the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.
On [[9 November]] [[2005]] Kahn and Cerf were presented with the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] for their contribution to American culture. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4415326.stm]
==How IP Kills and Eats Competitive Networks==
In the long term, IP appears to replace other networks. Here's a brief explanation. IP transmits generic data. The data can serve any purpose, and can easily replace data previously provided by proprietary data networks. Here's the usual sequence:
#A proprietary data network is developed for a specialized purpose. If it works well, users will adopt it.
#IP service is provided as a convenience, often to get e-mail or chat, usually tunneling through the proprietary data service in some fashion. The tunneling method may be quite inefficient at first, because e-mail and chat require only low bandwidth.
#IP infrastructure is emplaced by gradual investment at the edges of the proprietary data network.
#A substitute for the proprietary service is developed using IP, often by a user.
#The IP substitute spreads over the entire internet, making the IP substitute more valuable (because of [[network effect]]s) than the original proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is deprecated. Most users begin maintaining a duplicate facility that uses the IP substitute.
#IP packets have very low overheads, less than 1%, and therefore compete very effectively on cost. An inexpensive transmission medium is developed that can carry IP to most of the users of the proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is removed by most users to cut costs.
#Die-hard users of the proprietary network are therefore forced to adopt.
*
==Implementations==
*[[KA9Q]] PPJ
*[[lwIP]]
Today, most commercial operating systems include and install the TCP/IP stack by default, For most users, there is no need to look for implementations. TCP/IP is included in all commercial Unix and Linux distributions as well as with Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows and Windows Server.
==See also==
* [[OSI Model]]
* [[DoD Model]]
* [[TCP and UDP port numbers]]
==References==
*[http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm Internet History] -- Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
==External links==
* RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
* [http://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/ TCP/IP FAQ]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/ TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams]
* [http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/internet-practice-4.php The Internet in Practice]
* [http://cng.ateneo.edu/cng/wyu/classes/cs197/ Ateneo Network Research Group] TCP/IP research at the [[Ateneo de Manila University]]
* [http://www.venu4u.info/network/tcpip.html TCP/IP Directory &amp; Informational Resource.]
==TCP/IP Books==
* [[Joseph G. Davies]] and [[Thomas F. Lee]]. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. ISBN 0735612919
* [[Craig Hunt]] TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1565923227
* [[W. Richard |
dprofile.org/chron5.htm ''L. Ron Hubbard, a Profile'']. L. Ron Hubbard Library, 1995</ref> However, a medical examination performed in September 1945 records that he was suffering from poor eyesight (which was corrected with glasses) and a recurrent [[duodenal ulcer]] <ref>[http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/warhero/1945/450910.gif "Report of medical survey"], [[September 10]] [[1945]].</ref>; there is no record of any physical injuries in his medical files, which also specifically stated that he had suffered no combat injuries. <ref>[http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/warhero/crippled.htm#doc-i "Report of physical examination"], [[September 19]] [[1945]].</ref>
While at Oak Knoll, Hubbard claimed to have carried out research into [[endocrinology]] "to determine whether or not structure monitors function or function monitors structure ... using nothing but Freudian Psychoanalysis and using a park bench as a consulting room." He claimed that during his stay at the hospital - supposedly a year long <ref>Hubbard, "The Story of Dianetics & Scientology", 1958</ref> but actually only three months according to his medical record - he spent a great deal of time in the hospital's library. He would certainly have been exposed there to the works of [[Sigmund Freud]] and other psychoanalysts, but claimed to have had a long-time knowledge of Freudian thought due to a childhood friendship with a doctor who had been a student of Freud. <ref>[http://www.scientology.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/founder/pg004.html "L. Ron Hubbard: Early Studies of the Mind"]</ref>
===The emergence of Dianetics===
In January 1949, he wrote to his literary agent, [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], to inform him that he was writing a book on the "cause and cure of nervous tension", which he was going to call either ''The Dark Sword'' or ''Excalibur'' or ''Science of the Mind''. He was enthusiastic about the prospect, claiming that the book would have "more selling and publicity angles than any book of which I have ever heard." He announced his project to the general public in the same month, telling ''Writers' Markets and Methods'' magazine that he was working on a "book of psychology". <ref>Russell Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'', p. 144. Joseph, London (1988)</ref>
In April 1949, Hubbard wrote to the Gerontological Society at Baltimore City Hospital to inform them that he had "apparently made certain discoveries which seem to indicate they would have a definite effect on longevity." He stated that he was preparing a paper with the somewhat unwieldy title of ''Certain Discoveries and Researches Leading to the Removal of Early Traumatic Experiences Including Attempted Abortion, Birth Shock and Infant Illnesses and Accidents with an Examination of their Effects Physiological and Psychological and their Potential Influence on Longevity on the Adult Individual with an Account of the Techniques Evolved and Employed''. <ref>[http://dianetics.lronhubbard.org/page14.htm "Letters from the Birth of Dianetics - L. Ron Hubbard - The Dianetics Letters"], Church of Scientology International.</ref>
According to a June 1954 biographical note issued by the [[Hubbard Association of Scientologists]], Hubbard's letter was "politely received" but the Society apparently declined to become involved with his work. He is said also to have written to the [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychiatric Association]]. <ref>[http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page14.htm "Ron the Philosopher: The Birth of Dianetics"], Church of Scientology International </ref> These letters, and their responses, have not been published, though Hubbard later said that they had been negative <ref>Hubbard, [http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page75.htm "My Only Defense For Having Lived"], 1966.</ref>.
Some time apparently in the first half of 1949, Hubbard told his friend [[John W. Campbell]], the editor of [[Astounding Magazine|''Astounding Science Fiction'' magazine]] and publisher of many of Hubbard's short stories, about the work that he had been doing on Dianetics. Campbell had been one of Hubbard's early test subjects and believed that his persistent [[sinusitis]] had been cured by Hubbard's techniques. He became an enthusiastic supporter of Hubbard's work. In a letter to one of ''Astounding's'' contributors, Jack Williamson, he wrote: "I know dianetics is one of, if not the greatest, discovery of all Man's written and unwritten history. It produces the sort of stability and sanity men have dreamed about for centuries." <ref>Jack Williamson, ''Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction''. Bluejay Books, New York (1984)</ref>
In July 1949, Campbell wrote to one of ''Astounding's'' regular contributors, Dr. [[Joseph A. Winter]], a medical doctor who lived in [[Michigan]]. Winter was intrigued by Campbell's claims about Hubbard's work:
:With cooperation from some institutions, some psychiatrists, he [Hubbard] has worked on all types of cases. Institutionalized schizophrenics, apathies, manics, depressives, perverts, stuttering, neuroses - in all, nearly 1000 cases. But just a brief sampling of each type; he doesn't have proper statistics in the usual sense. But he has one statistic. He has cured every patient he worked with. He has cured ulcers, arthritis, asthma. <ref>Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 5</ref>
Although Winter was initially skeptical, Hubbard wrote what he called "an operator's manual for your use" which convinced Winter that Dianetics had some promise. In October 1949, he travelled to Hubbard's home at [[Bay Head, New Jersey]] where he joined Hubbard and Campbell to work on the development of Dianetics, an event referred to elliptically by Hubbard in a letter published by the Church of Scientology ("there are a couple of writers staying here ... They just stopped by for dinner one night around the first of October." <ref>Hubbard, [http://dianetics.lronhubbard.org/page18.htm letter to Russell Hays of [[November 14]] [[1949]]]</ref>
Winter attempted to interest some medical colleagues and psychiatrists in Dianetics but elicited little interest. He suggested to Hubbard that he should try to publish an article on Dianetics to stimulate interest in his work. Perhaps mindful of the rejection of his earlier efforts, Hubbard told Winter that "the articles you suggest would be more acceptable coming from another pen than mine." <ref>Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 8</ref>
Accordingly, some time in November or December 1949, Winter wrote a paper "giving a brief resumé of the principles and methodology of dianetic therapy" which he submitted informally to an editor of the ''Journal of the American Medical Association''. However, the editor told Winter that "the paper as written did not contain sufficient evidence of efficacy to be acceptable and was, moreover, better suited to one of the journals which dealt with psychotherapy." He revised the paper, added case histories provided by Hubbard, and submitted it to the ''American Journal of Psychiatry''. However, it was again rejected on the grounds of insufficient evidence. <ref>Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 18</ref>
It is unclear whether Hubbard and Winter independently approached the two journals at different times, or whether there was just the one approach in 1949. Hubbard claims that in 1947 "it seemed that a public presentation of this material was in order and an effort was made to present it to the American Medical Association and the American Psychiatric Association." <ref>Hubbard, "Universes", lecture of [[April 6]] [[1954]]</ref> Other Church of Scientology sources give the date as 1948 and 1949.
According to the Church of Scientology, in 1948 Hubbard issued his early research in the form of a manuscript entitled ''Dianetics: The Original Thesis''. It received a wider public release in 1951 and is now published as the book ''[[The Dynamics of Life]]''. However, Hubbard himself said that the manuscript was issued in 1949 <ref>Hubbard, "Dianetics: its background". HCO Bulletin of [[May 22]] [[1969]]</ref>, <ref>Hubbard, "Auditor attitude and the bank", lecture of [[October 10]] [[1969]]</ref>. It is not clear what this manuscript originally contained - the original text is not available for comparison with the 1951 publication - but it may have comprised the "operator's manual" written by Hubbard for Winter. The dates given by Hubbard and Winter certainly coincide, and the "operator's manual" of mid-1949 is the first independently attested codification of Dianetics. Winter writes that he made a number of copies of it and passed them to friends and colleagues, and it would not have been surprising if Campbell had done the same. Hubbard later spoke of how he had "handed out copies in a hectographed, mimeographed way to people who were cursorily interested who wanted to know what I had been doing." <ref>Hubbard, "How we have addressed the problem of the mind", lecture of [[July 4]] [[1957]]</ref>
===Dianetics in print===
At the end of 1949, Hubbard and Campbell agreed that Dianetics would be announced through an article to be printed in ''Astounding'' the following May, which would be followed shortly afterwards by the publication of a full-length book. Campbell arranged for Hermitage House, a small [[New York]] medical and psychiatric textbook publisher, to publish the book.
Dianetics was trailed in "Terra Incognita: The Mind", an article by Hubbard that was published in the winter 1949-spring 19 |
gue|American Football League's]] [[New England Patriots|Boston/New England Patriots]] called Fenway Park home from [[1963]] to [[1968]] after moving to there from [[Nickerson Field]], the direct descendant of Braves Field. The Red Sox's one-time crosstown rivals, the [[Atlanta Braves|Braves]] used Fenway Park when they were the Boston Braves and played their home games there during the [[1914 World Series]]. At various times in the past, [[Boston College]] and [[Boston University]] teams have also played football games at Fenway Park, too. In February of 2006 the Boston Herald and other news sources have reported that Boston College has shown interest in setting up a hockey rink and playing a game their in the winter of 2006-2007
==Non-baseball uses==
One of the most famous [[political campaign|campaign]] speeches in American political history was made at Fenway Park in the [[1940]] Presidential race, when [[President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] promised that he would not send American servicemen into foreign wars. During this time [[World War II]] was raging in [[Europe]], but the United States was officially [[neutral]], although it was aiding the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. This speech was noted repeatedly by Roosevelt's opponents, even after [[Japanese Navy|Japanese Imperial Naval forces]] attacked the [[United States]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]], forcing the United States to enter World War II.
Although Fenway Park was not previously a frequent venue for [[concerts]], the Red Sox' new ownership has used the venue for two concerts each year, starting in 2003 with [[Bruce Springsteen]] and the E Street Band. [[Jimmy Buffett]] performed at Fenway in 2004, followed by the [[Rolling Stones]] in 2005.
==Fenway Park on the silver screen==
The park was featured in a pivotal scene in the [[1989]] [[Kevin Costner]] film ''[[Field of Dreams]]''. It was the only location shoot outside the [[Iowa]]-[[Illinois]] area.
The 2005 movie, ''[[Fever Pitch (2005 film)|Fever Pitch]]'' included scenes shot on location during the 2004 [[American League Championship Series]] games and scenes from [[Busch Stadium]] were filmed after Game 4 of the [[2004 World Series]].
Some scenes from ''Blown Away'' ([[1994]]) and ''Little Big League'' (also 1994) were filmed at Fenway Park.
(Source: ''Shot on This Site'', by William A. Gordon (ISBN 080651647X)
==References==
*[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2005/04/16/sox_to_add_upscale_seats_sponsor_signed?pg=full ''Boston Globe'' - Sox to add upscale seats; sponsor signed]
==External links==
*[http://www.ballparkdigest.com/visits/fenway.htm Fenway Park info, including information on visiting]
*[http://ballparks.com/baseball/american/fenway.htm Fenway Park info]
*[http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/bos/ballpark/bos_ballpark_history.jsp Boston Ballpark History]. ''MLB.com''.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Boston&ll=42.346458,-71.097261&spn=0.005536,0.007693&t=k&hl=en Google Maps Aerial map]
*[http://www.savefenwaypark.com/ SaveFenwayPark.com, a fan-run movement to save and preserve Fenway Park]
{{Geolinks-US-streetscale|42.346590|-71.097}}
{{MLB Ballparks}}
[[Category:American Football League venues]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox]]
[[Category:Defunct National Football League venues]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball venues]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Boston]]
[[Category:1912 establishments]]
[[de:Fenway Park]]
[[fr:Fenway Park]]
[[ja:フェンウェイパーク]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flatulence</title>
<id>11240</id>
<revision>
<id>42161470</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:43:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Muchness</username>
<id>282514</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm nn slang</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{SignSymptom infobox |
Name = Flatulence |
ICD10 = R14 |
ICD9 = 787.3 |
}}
'''Flatulence''' is the presence of a mix of [[gas]]es known as '''flatus''' (lat. flatus = "wind") produced by [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[yeast]]s living in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] of [[mammal]]s. Flatulence is released under [[pressure]] through the [[anus]], often with a characteristic [[sound]] and offensive [[odor]], sometimes that of [[rotten eggs]], [[garbage]], [[feces]] or [[manure]]. Releasing flatulence is colloquially known as "[[fart]]ing".
==Amount and constituents==
{{unreferenced}}
The average human releases 0.5 to 1.5 [[litre]]s (1 to 3 U.S. [[pint]]s) of flatus in 12 to 25 episodes throughout the day. The primary constituents of flatulence are the non-odorous gases, in descending order of concentration, [[nitrogen]] (ingested), [[oxygen]] (ingested), [[methane]] (produced by [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic microbe]]s), [[carbon dioxide]] (produced by [[aerobic organism|aerobic microbe]]s or ingested), and [[hydrogen]] (produced by some microbes and consumed by others). Odors result from [[Trace evidence|trace amounts]] of other components (often [[sulphur]] containing, see below).
[[Nitrogen]] is the primary [[gas]] released. [[Methane]] and [[hydrogen]], lesser components, are [[flammable]], and so flatulence is susceptible to catching [[fire]]. Gas released mostly has a foul odor which mainly results from low [[molecular weight]] [[fatty acids]] such as [[butyric acid]] ([[Rancidity|rancid]] [[butter]] smell) and [[redox|reduced]] [[sulfur]] compounds such as [[hydrogen sulfide]] (rotten egg smell) and [[carbonyl sulfide]] that are the result of [[protein]] breakdown. The incidence of odoriferous compounds in flatus increases from [[herbivores]], such as [[cattle]], to [[omnivores]] to [[carnivorous]] [[species]], such as [[cat]]s.
==Causes==
Intestinal gas is composed of 90% exogenous sources (air that is ingested through the nose and mouth) and 10% endogenous sources (gas is produced within the digestive tract). The [[endogenous]] gases are produced as a by-product of digesting certain types of [[food]]. Flatulence producing foods are typically high in [[polysaccharide]]s (especially [[oligosaccharides]] such as [[inulin]]) and include [[bean]]s, [[milk]], [[onion]]s, [[sweet potato]]es, [[cheese]], [[cashew]]s, [[broccoli]], [[cabbage]], [[Jerusalem artichoke]]s, [[oat]]s, [[yeast]] in [[bread]]s, etc.
In beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from [[oligosaccharide]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s that are resistant to digestion. These pass through the upper [[intestine]] largely unchanged, and when they reach the lower [[intestine]], [[bacteria]] feed on them, producing copious amounts of flatus (McGee 1984 pp.257&ndash;8).
In the case of those with [[lactose intolerance]], intestinal [[bacteria]] feeding on [[lactose]] can give rise to excessive gas production when [[milk]] or lactose-containing substances have been consumed.
Interest in the causes of flatulence was spurred by high-altitude [[flight]] and the [[space program]]; the low [[atmospheric pressure]], confined conditions, and stresses peculiar to those endeavours were cause for concern (McGee, 1984 pp.257&ndash;8).
==Mechanism of action==
The [[noise]]s commonly associated with flatulence are caused by the [[vibration]] of the [[anal]] opening. The sound varies depending on the tightness of the [[sphincter]] [[muscle]] and [[velocity]] of the [[gas]] being propelled, as well as other factors such as [[moisture]] and body [[fat]].
Flatus is brought to the anus in the same [[peristalsis]] method as [[feces]], causing a similar feeling of urgency and discomfort. Nerve endings in the rectum learn to distinguish between flatus and [[feces]], although loose [[stool]] can confuse these [[nerves]], and sometimes results in accidental defecation.
==Remedies==
{{unreferenced}}
===Dietary===
Certain [[spice]]s counteract the production of intestinal gas, most notably [[cumin]], [[caraway]] and the closely related [[ajwain]], [[turmeric]], [[asafoetida]] (hing) and [[konbu]] [[kelp]](a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[seaweed]]). Many people report that by reducing intake of most refined [[carbohydrate]]s (such as [[rice]], [[pasta]], [[potato]]es and [[bread]]), the amount of flatulence may decrease significantly. The water-soluble oligosaccharides in beans that contribute to production of intestinal gas can be reduced through a regime of brief boiling followed by a long period of soaking, but at a cost of also leaching out other water-soluble nutrients. Some legumes also stand up to prolonged cooking, which can help break down the oligosaccharides into simple sugars. [[Fermentation]] also breaks down oligosaccharides, which is why fermented bean products such as [[miso]] and [[tofu]] are less likely to produce as much intestinal gas.
[[Probiotic]]s ([[yogurt]], [[kefir]], [[acidophilus]], bifidus, etc.) and [[prebiotic]]s (such as FOS) may also reduce flatulence if they are used to restore balance to the normal intestinal flora; used in excess, however, they may create an imbalance which increases flatulence.
Medicinal [[charcoal]] tablets have also been reported as effective in reducing both odor and quantity of flatus when taken immediately prior to food that is likely to cause flatulence later.
===Pharmacological===
[[Digestive enzyme]] supplements can significantly reduce the amount of flatulence when that flatulence is caused by some components of foods not being digested by the body and feeding the microbes in the small and large [[intestines]]. The [[enzymes]] [[alpha-galactosidase]] (brands [[Beano (dietary supplement)|Beano]], Bean-zyme), [[lactase]] (brand Lactaid), [[amylase]], [[lipase]], [[protease]], [[cellulase]], [[glucomylase]], [[invertase]], [[malt diastase]], [[pectinase]], and [[bromelain]] are available, either individually or in combination blends, in commercial products.
While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, agen |
bank's balance sheet that can be lent out, and use this as a tool for controlling the [[money supply]]. Even where the reserve ratio is not controlled by the government, a minimum figure will still be set by regulatory authorities as part of [[bank regulation]].
===Bank crises===
Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. Risks include liquidity risk (the risk that many depositors will request withdrawals beyond available funds), credit risk (the risk that those that owe money to the bank will not repay), and interest rate risk (the risk that the bank will become unprofitable if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans), among others.
Banking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks materialize for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the U.S. [[Savings and Loan crisis]] in 1980s and early 1990s, the [[Japan]]ese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the [[bank run]] that occurred during the [[Great Depression]],and the recent liquidation by the central Bank of Nigeria.where about 25 banks were liquidated
==Regulation==
{{Main|Bank regulation}}
The combination of the instability of banks as well as their important facilitating role in the economy led to banking being thoroughly regulated. The amount of capital a bank is required to hold is a function of the amount and quality of its assets. Major banks are subject to the Basel Capital Accord promulgated by the [[Bank for International Settlements]]. In addition, banks are usually required to purchase [[deposit insurance]] to make sure smaller investors are not wiped out in the event of a bank failure.
Another reason banks are thoroughly regulated is that ultimately, no government can allow the banking system to fail. There is almost always a lender of last resort&mdash;in the event of a liquidity crisis (where short term obligations exceed short term assets) some element of government will step in to lend banks enough money to avoid bankruptcy.
==Public perceptions of banks==
In [[United States history]], the National Bank was a major political issue during the presidency of [[Andrew Jackson]]. Jackson fought against the bank as a symbol of greed and profit-mongering, antithetical to the [[democratic ideals]] of the United States.
Currently, many people are outraged due to various banking policies that take advantage of consumers. Specific concerns are policies that permit banks to hold deposited funds for several days, policies that permit banks to apply withdrawals before deposits, policies that permit applying withdrawals from greatest to least, which is most likely to cause the greatest [[overdraft]], policies that allow backdating funds transfers and fee assessments, and policies that authorize electronic funds transfers despite an [[overdraft]]..
==Profitability==
Large banks in the United States are some of the most profitable corporations, especially relative to the small [[market share]]s they have. This amount is even higher if one counts the credit divisions of companies like Ford, which are responsible for a large proportion of those company's profits. For example, the largest bank, [[Citigroup]], which for the past 3 years has made more profit than any other company in the world, has only a 5% market share. Now if Citigroup were to be as dominant in its industry as a Home Depot, Starbucks, or Wal Mart in their respective industries, with a 30% market share , it would make more money than the top ten non-banking U.S. industries combined.
In the past 10 years in the United States, banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to ever-changing market conditions. First, this includes the [[Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act]], which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for "one stop shopping" by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability). Second, they have moved toward [[risk based pricing]] on loans, which means charging higher interest rates for those people who they deem more risky to [[default (finance)|default]] on loans. This dramatically helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and extends credit products to high risk customers who would have been denied credit under the previous system. Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, pre-paid cards, smart-cards, and credit cards. These products make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with under-developed financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home). However, with convenience there is also increased risk that consumers will mis-manage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest payments and fees charged to consumers and companies that accept the cards.
The banks' main obstacles to increasing profits are existing regulatory burdens, new government regulation, and increasing competition from non-traditional financial institutions.<br />
==Bank Size Information==
===Top ten banking groups in the world ranked by [[tier 1 capital]] in 2004 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Citigroup]] &mdash; 73 [[billion]]
#[[JP Morgan Chase]] &mdash; 69 billion
#[[HSBC]] &mdash; 67 billion
#[[Bank of America]] &mdash; 64 billion
#[[Crédit Agricole|Credit Agricole Group]] &mdash; 63 billion
#[[Royal Bank of Scotland]] &mdash; 43 billion
#[[Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group]] &mdash; 40 billion
#[[Mizuho Financial Group]] &mdash; 39 billion
#[[HBOS]] &mdash; 36 billion
#[[BNP Paribas]] &mdash; 35 billion
===Top ten banking groups in the world ranked by assets in 2003 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Mizuho Financial Group]] &mdash; 1,265 billion
#[[Citigroup]] &mdash; 1,097 billion
#[[Allianz]] &mdash; 1,002 billion
#[[UBS AG|UBS]] &mdash; 907 billion
#[[Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group]] &mdash; 903 billion
#[[Deutsche Bank]] &mdash; 892 billion
#[[Fannie Mae]] &mdash; 888 billion
#[[ING Group]] &mdash; 843 billion
#[[BNP Paribas]] &mdash; 835 billion
#[[Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group]] &mdash; 832 billion
===Top ten bank holding companies in the world ranked by profit in 2003 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Citigroup]] &mdash; 21 billion
#[[Bank of America]] &mdash; 15 billion
#[[HSBC]] &mdash; 10 billion
#[[Royal Bank of Scotland]] &mdash; 8 billion
#[[Wells Fargo]] &mdash; 7 billion
#[[JP Morgan Chase]] &mdash; 7 billion
#[[UBS AG]] &mdash; 6 billion
#[[Wachovia]] &mdash; 5 billion
#[[Morgan Stanley]] &mdash; 5 billion
#[[Merrill Lynch]] &mdash; 4 billion
===Top ten bank holding companies in the U.S. ranked by deposits (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
As of June 30, 2004. These are U.S. deposits only. This is not a ranking of the largest U.S. based global banks.
#[[Bank of America]] Corp. &mdash; 526 billion
#[[Wells Fargo]] & Co. &mdash; 256 billion
#[[Wachovia]] Corp. &mdash; 238 billion
#[[J.P. Morgan Chase]] & Co. &mdash; 227 billion (1)
#[[Citigroup]] Inc. &mdash; 193 billion
#[[Bank One]] Corp. &mdash; 150 billion (1)
#[[U.S. Bancorp]] &mdash; 112 billion
#[[SunTrust Banks]], Inc. &mdash; 78 billion
#[[BB&T Corporation]] &mdash; 67 billion
#[[National City Corp.]] &mdash; 64 billion
(1) Since this report, J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. has acquired Bank One Corp., making the combined 6/30/04 deposit total for the merged company $377 billion, vaulting it to second place on the list.
==History of banking==
''Main article:'' [[History of banking]]
* Florentine banking &mdash; The [[Medici]]s and [[Pitti]]s among others
* [[Banknote]]s &mdash; Introduction of paper money
* [[Bank of Amsterdam]]
* [[Bank of Sweden]] &mdash; The rise of the [[national bank]]s
* [[Bank of England]] &mdash; The evolution of modern central banking policies
* [[Bank of America]] &mdash; The invention of centralized check and payment processing technology
* [[Swiss bank]]
* [[United States Banking]]
* [[Imperial Bank of Persia]] &mdash; History of banking in the Middle-East
==See also==
* [[History of banking]]
* [[List of bank mergers in United States]]
* [[Bank regulation]]
* [[Credit union]]
* [[Finance]]
* [[Industrial Loan Company]]
* [[Islamic Banking]]
* [[Money]]
* [[Piggy Bank]]
* [[SWIFT]]
* [[IBAN]]
* [[Venture capital]]
* [[World Bank]]
* [[Bankers' bank]]
* [[Mortgage bank]]
* [[Overdraft]]
* [[Overdraft Protection]]
* [[list of banks]]
* [[list of finance topics]]
* [[list of accounting topics]]
* [[list of economics topics]]
* [[List of stock exchanges]]
==External links==
*[http://www.economist.com/markets/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4174345 List of the world's ten largest banks at the end of 2004]
*[http://www2.fdic.gov/sod/ FDIC bank market share data]
*[http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/index.php#B EH.Net Encyclopedia]
[[Category:Banks| ]]
[[Category:Banking]]
[[Category:Banking terms and equipment]]
[[Category:Legal entities]]
[[Category:Professions|Banker]]
[[ar:بنك]]
[[bg:Банка]]
[[be:Банк]]
[[cs:Banka]]
[[da:Bank]]
[[de:Kreditinstitut]]
[[el:Τράπεζα]]
[[es:Banco]]
[[eo:Banko]]
[[fa:بانک]]
[[fr:Banque]]
[[ko:은행]]
[[id:Bank]]
[[it:Banca]]
[[he:בנק]]
[[lt:Bankas]]
[[lv:Banka]]
[[ms:Bank]]
[[nl:Bank (financiële instelling)]]
[[ja:銀行]]
[[no:Bank]]
[[pl:Bank]]
[[pt:Banco]]
[[ru:Банк]]
[[simple:Bank]]
[[sk:Banka (inšti |
d the <tt>ftpfs</tt> server mounts the remote hierarchy as part of the local filesystem hierarchy, and is accessed as if the remote files were local. Another example, the mail system uses file servers that synthesize virtual files and directories to represent your mailbox as /mail/fs/mbox.
===File systems under Microsoft Windows===
[[Microsoft Windows]] developed out of an earlier operating system ([[MS-DOS]] which in turn was based on [[QDOS]] and that on [[CP/M-80]], which took many ideas from still earlier operating systems, notably several from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]), and has added both file system and user interface ideas from several other sources since its first release (Unix, OS/2, etc). As such, Windows makes use of the [[File Allocation Table]] and [[NTFS]] filesystems. Older versions of the FAT file system had file name length limits, plus had restrictions on the maximum size of FAT-formatted disks or [[partition (computing)|partitions]].
NTFS, introduced with the [[Windows NT]] operating system, allowed [[Access_control_list|ACL]]-based permission control. Hard links, multiple file streams, attribute indexing, quota tracking, compression and mount-points for other file systems (called "junctions") are also supported, though not all well-documented.
Unlike many other operating systems, Windows uses a ''drive letter'' abstraction at the user level to distinguish one disk or partition from another. For example, the [[path (computing)|path]] <tt>C:\WINDOWS\</tt> represents a directory <tt>WINDOWS</tt> on the partition represented by the letter C. The C drive is most commonly used for the primary hard disk partition, on which Windows is installed and from which it boots. This "tradition" has become so firmly ingrained that bugs came about in older versions of Windows which made assumptions that the drive that the operating system was installed on was C. The tradition of using "C" for the drive letter can be traced to MS-DOS, where the letters A and B were reserved for up to two floppy disk drives; in a common configuration, A would be the [[Floppy disk#The 3½-inch micro floppy diskette|3½-inch floppy drive]], and B the [[Floppy disk#The_5¼-inch_minifloppy|5¼-inch one]]. Network drives may also be mapped to drive letters.
Since Windows interacts with the user via a [[graphical user interface]], its documentation refers to directories as a ''folder'' which contains files, and is represented graphically with a folder icon.
===File systems under OpenVMS===
This topic is discussed here: [[Files-11]]
===File systems under MVS [IBM Mainframe]===
This topic is discussed here: [[MVS#MVS filesystem]]
== See also ==
* [[List of file systems]]
* [[Comparison of file systems]]
* [[Filename extension]]
* [[Virtual file system]]
* [[Filesystem API]]
==External links==
* [http://www.filesystems.co.nr Filesystems of Operating Systems]
* [http://www.forensics.nl/filesystems Filesystem Specifications and Technical Whitepapers]
* [http://filesystems.org/all-projects.html Interesting File System Projects]
[[Category:Computer file systems|*]]
[[Category:Data management|Computer file system]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[da:Filsystem]]
[[de:Dateisystem]]
[[es:Sistema de archivos]]
[[fr:Système de fichiers]]
[[it:File system]]
[[he:מערכת קבצים]]
[[lt:Failų sistema]]
[[nl:Bestandssysteem]]
[[ja:ファイルシステム]]
[[no:Filsystem]]
[[pl:System plików]]
[[pt:Sistema de ficheiros]]
[[ru:Файловая система]]
[[sk:Súborový systém]]
[[sl:Datotečni sistem]]
[[fi:Tiedostojärjestelmä]]
[[sv:Filsystem]]
[[uk:Файлова система]]
[[zh:文件系统]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federalism</title>
<id>11542</id>
<revision>
<id>41125162</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T05:13:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>221.185.253.16</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Federalism ''' is the idea of a group or body of members that are bound together (latin: ''foedus'', [[Covenant (disambiguation)|covenant]]) with a governing representative head. That representative head can be a [[monarch|king]] or [[God]] (as in theology), or a [[Thing (assembly)|thing]] or [[general assembly]] (as in politics).
*'''''In politics''''', federalism is the [[political philosophy]] that underlies a system of [[government]] in which sovereignty is [[constitution]]ally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces), creating what is often called a [[federation]]. Proponents are often called [[federalist]]s. In Canada and Europe, "federalist" is often used to describe those who favor a stronger federal government (or [[European Union]] government) and weaker provincial governments. The same is historically true in the United States, with those who generally favor a [[confederation]], or weaker federal government and stronger state governments, being called "[[Anti-Federalism|anti-federalist]]s". However, in recent years in America "federalism" has come to mean something closer to ''[[confederacy]]''.
*'''''In theology''''', federalism is a synonym for basic [[Covenant Theology]]. It is a commonly used term in serious theological works since the 17th century (prior to the political use) and to this day, particularly among [[Calvinism|Reformed thinkers]]. Federalism describes the relationship between the first representative man, [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], and those born of the flesh (i.e. all [[Birth|generate]] mankind), and likewise between the second and last representative man, [[Jesus|Christ]], and those who are in addition born of the Spirit (i.e. all [[Born again|regenerate]] mankind; see [[Gospel of John|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=john+3:1-8;&version=47; 3:1-8] and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+8:1-17;&version=47; 8:1-17]). This doctrine is most clearly described in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans+5:12-21;&version=47; 5:12-21] and [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=53&chapter=15&version=47&context=chapter 15:20-28, 42-49]. In theology, the two parties (i.e. the representative head and the represented members) do not share sovereignty.
== Political federalism ==
=== Characteristics ===
The earliest source of political federalism is the [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] federalism found in the [[Bible]], especially that of the [[Christian Church]] as apostolically prescribed in the [[New Testament]]. Modern forms of political federalism most closely resemble [[presbyterian church governance]].
Another source is the [[Constitution of Switzerland|Swiss constitution]] and the writings of two British observers, [[Albert Dicey]] and [[James Bryce]], have been influential in the early theory of federalism. Dicey identified two conditions for the formation of a federal state. The first was the existence of a body of countries "so closely connected by locality, by history, by race, or the like, as to be capable to bearing, in the eyes of their inhabitants, an impress of common nationality." The second condition is "the desire for national unity and the determination to maintain the independence of each man's separate State".
The distribution of powers is an essential feature of federalism. In a classic work on the subject, Professor K. C. Wheare gave this test for federal government: "Does a system of government embody predominantly a division of powers between general and regional authorities, each of which, in its own sphere, is co-ordinate with the others and independent of them?" The result of the distribution of powers is that no one authority can wield the same amount of power as under a [[unitarian state]].
Under a federal system a Constitution is the supreme power from which the state is derived. An independent [[judiciary]] is necessary to treat as void every act which is inconsistent with the Constitution. Because of this, federalism is precluded by [[legalism]]. The Constitution must necessarily be "rigid" and "inexpansive". Its law must be either legally immutable, or else capable of being changed only by some authority above and beyond the ordinary legislative bodies. The difficulty of altering the constitution tends to produce conservative sentiment.
=== Federalism and Democracy ===
The case for federalism is advanced by federalist theory, which argue that federalism provides a robust constitutional system that anchors [[pluralism|pluralist]] [[democracy]], and that it enhances democratic participation through providing dual citizenship in a compound republic.
The classic statement of this position can be found in ''[[Federalist Papers|The Federalist]]'', which argued that federalism helps enshrine the principle of [[due process]], limiting arbitrary action by the state. First, federalism can limit government power to infringe rights, since it creates the possibility that a legislature wishing to restrict liberties will lack the constitutional power, while the level of government that possesses the power lacks the desire. Second, the legalistic decision making processes of federal systems limit the speed with which governments can act.
The argument that federalism helps to secure democracy and [[human rights]] has been influenced by the contemporary [[public choice theory]]. It has been argued that in smaller political units, individuals can participate more directly than in a monolithic unitary government. Moreover, individuals dissatisfied with conditions in one State have the option of moving to another. Of course, this argument assumes that a freedom of movement between States is necessarily secured by a fe |
uch Hadham]], [[Hertfordshire]]. This was to become Moore's final home and workshop. Despite acquiring significant wealth later in life, Moore never felt the need to move to a larger home and apart from adding a number of outbuildings and workshops the house changed little.
===International recognition===
[[Image:MoorSculptureAtRochester.jpg|right|thumb|275px|A version of ''Three Piece No. 3 Vertebrae'' (~1968), Rochester, New York.]]
After the war and following several earlier miscarriages, Irina gave birth to their daughter, Mary on [[7 March]] [[1946]]. The child was named after Moore's mother, who had died a couple of years earlier. Both the loss of his mother and the arrival of a baby focused Moore's mind on the family, which he expressed in his work by producing many ''mother-and-child'' compositions, although ''reclining figures'' also remained popular. In the same year, Moore made his first visit to America when a retrospective exhibition of his work opened at the [[Museum of Modern Art]] in New York. In [[1948]] he won the International Sculpture Prize at the [[Venice Biennale]].
[[Image:Henry Moore, Family Group (1950).jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Family Group'' (1950) bronze, outside Barclay School in [[Stevenage]], was Moore's first large scale commission following the Second World War.]]
Towards the end of the war, Moore had been approached by [[Henry Morris]] who was in the process of trying to reform education with the concept of the [[village college]]. Morris had engaged [[Walter Gropius]] as the architect for his second village college at [[Impington Village College|Impington]] near [[Cambridge]] and he wanted Moore to design a major public sculpture for the site. Unfortunately, the County Council could not afford Gropius's full design, and scaled back the project when Gropius emigrated to America. Lacking funds, Morris had to cancel Moore's sculpture, which had not progressed beyond the maquette stage. Fortunately, Moore was able to reuse the design in [[1950]] for a similar commission outside a secondary school for the new town of [[Stevenage]]. This time, the project was completed and ''Family Group'' became Moore's first large scale public bronze.
In the [[1950s]], Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including one for the [[UNESCO]] building in Paris [[1957]]. With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly and he started to employ a number of assistants to work with him at Much Hadham, including [[Anthony Caro]].
[[Image:Henry_Moore_Nuclear_Energy2.jpg|thumb|275px|''Nuclear Energy'' (1967) at the [[University of Chicago]] campus, designating the location of the world's first self-sustaining nuclear reaction]]
On the campus of the [[University of Chicago]], twenty-five years to the minute (3:36 p.m., December 2, 1967) after the team of physicists led by [[Enrico Fermi]] achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's ''Nuclear Energy'' was unveiled on the site of what used to be the University's football field bleachers, beneath which the experiments had taken place. This twelve-foot-tall piece in the middle of a large, open plaza is often thought to represent a mushroom cloud topped by a massive human skull, but Moore's interpretation is far different. He once told a friend that he hoped viewers would "go around it, looking out through the open spaces, and that they may have a feeling of being in a cathedral." [http://physics.uchicago.edu/moore_sculpture.html]
===Legacy===
[[Image:HenryMoore KnifeEdgeTwoPiece02.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Sculpture &ndash; Knife Edge Two Piece|''Knife Edge &ndash; Two Piece'' (1962) bronze, sited opposite the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], [[Westminster]], London.]]
The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives around the world, notably a very prominent exhibition in the summer of [[1972]] in the grounds of the [http://www.belvederedellarte.it/en/fb/hdown.htm Forte di Belvedere] overlooking [[Florence]]. By the end of the [[1970s]], there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work.
The number of commissions continued to increase; he completed ''Knife Edge Two Piece'' in [[1962]] for a site next to the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in London. Moore commented;
:''When I was offered the site near the [[House of Lords]]... I liked the place so much that I didn't bother to go and see an alternative site in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] &mdash; one lonely sculpture can be lost in a large park. The House of Lords site is quite different. It is next to a path where people walk and it has a few seats where they can sit and contemplate it.''
[[Image:Henry moore hill arches at the NGA.JPG|left|thumb|''Hill Arches'' (1972-73) bronze, at the [[National Gallery of Australia]].]]
As his personal wealth grew dramatically, Moore began to worry about his legacy. With the help of his daughter Mary, he set up the Henry Moore Trust in [[1972]], with a view to protecting his estate from [[death duties]]. By [[1977]] he was paying about a million pounds a year, in tax. To mitigate this tax burden he established the Henry Moore Foundation as a registered charity with Irina and Mary as trustees. The Foundation was established to promote the public appreciation of art and to preserve Moore's sculptures. It now runs Hoglands as a gallery and museum of Moore's workshops.
Although Moore had turned down a [[knighthood]] in [[1951]] he was later awarded the [[Order of the Companions of Honour|Companion of Honour]] in [[1955]] and the [[Order of Merit]] in [[1963]].
Henry Moore died on [[31 August]], [[1986]], at the age of 88, in his home in Hertfordshire. His body is interred in the Artist's Corner at [[St Paul's Cathedral]].
On Thursday December 15, 2005, thieves gained access to the courtyard of the Henry Moore Foundation and stole a bronze statue worth £3m ($5.3m). The 1969/1970 work, known as ''Reclining Figure LH608'' is 3.6m long, 2m high by 2m wide and weighs 2.1 tonnes. A substantial reward has been offered by the Foundation for information leading to its recovery. It is feared it may have been stolen for melting down as scrap metal. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/news/story/0,11711,1670368,00.html]
==Permanent exhibitions==
[[Image:Henry-moore-ago.jpg|750px|center|thumb|Panorama of the [[Art Gallery of Ontario]]'s Henry Moore collection, the largest public collection of the sculptor's works in the world.]]
Moore's sculptures and drawings can be seen at numerous national art galleries around the world. Notable collections are held at
[[Image:henry.moore.locking.piece.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Locking Piece'' (1963) bronze, presented to the [[Tate Gallery]] and now sited in [[Millbank]] near the [[Tate Britain]].]]
*[[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]], largest collection of monumental bronzes in the United States
*[[Henry Moore Foundation]], [http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk], Perry Green, Much Hadham, Hertfordshire, UK
*[[Henry Moore Institute]], Leeds, UK
*[[Tate Gallery]], London, UK
*[[Art Gallery of Ontario]], Toronto, Canada
*[[Yorkshire Sculpture Park]], near Leeds, UK
*[[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]], Buffalo, New York
*[[Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts]], and dotted around the campus of [[University of East Anglia|UEA]], [[Norwich]], UK.
* Wakefield City Art Gallery, UK
*[[Paço imperial]], Rio de Janeiro, RJ
==References==
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/matrix_engine/content.php?page_id=56 Biography from the Henry Moore foundation] <!-- was http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/biography.html accessed October 2004 -->
*[http://www.sculpture.org/documents/scmag01/julaug01/moore/moore.shtml Review in Sculpture Magazine]
*[http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/MooreH.htm List of dates from Moore's biography at Britain Unlimited]
* {{cite book | author = ''Unknown Author'' | title = Henry Moore: At Dulwich Picture Gallery | id = ISBN 1857593529 | publisher = Scala Publishers | year = 2004 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[John Hedgecoe]] | title = A Monumental Vision: The Sculpture of Henry Moore | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1556706839 | publisher = Collins & Brown Ltd}}
==External links==
{{Commons|Henry Moore}}
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/ Henry Moore Foundation]
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/perrygreen/map/map.html selection of late sculptures] at the ''Henry Moore Foundation''.
*[http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/insight_sit.htm 3D model of 'Recumbent Figure'] from the Tate
{{featured article}}
<!-- en-GB, -ise -->
[[Category:1898 births|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:British sculptors|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Leeds|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Moore, Henry]]
[[de:Henry Moore]]
[[eo:Henry MOORE]]
[[es:Henry Moore]]
[[fa:هنری مور]]
[[fi:Henry Moore]]
[[fr:Henry Moore]]
[[he:הנרי מור]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・ムーア]]
[[nl:Henry Moore]]
[[pl:Henry Moore]]
[[pt:Henry Moore]]
[[ro:Henry Moore]]
[[ru:Мур, Генри Спенсер]]
[[sr:Хенри Мур]]
[[sv:Henry Moore]]
[[zh:亨利·摩尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hohenzollern</title>
<id>13849</id>
<revision>
<id>40095815</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T02:31:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Perey</username>
<id>75986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Article needed SOME sort of introduction; copied this from the category page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''House of [[Hohenzollern]]''' is a Germany dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of [[Prussia]], [[Germany]], and [[Romania]].
==Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach==
:''See [[Margrave of Ansbach]]
== Margraves of Brandenburg-Bayreuth ==
:''See [[Margrave of Bayreuth]]
There we |
A|/das/}}
|-
|how much? || ''Wie viel?'' || {{IPA|/ˌvi ˈfiːl/}}
|-
|yes || ''Ja'' || {{IPA|/ˈjaː/}}
|-
|no || ''Nein'' || {{IPA|/ˈnaɪn/}}
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''Wo ist die Toilette?'' || {{IPA|/ˈvoː ˈɪst diː to̯aˈlɛtə/}}
|-
|generic toast || ''Prosit'' <br>''Prost'' || {{IPA|/ˈproːzit/}} <br>{{IPA|/ˈproːst/}}
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Sprechen Sie Englisch?'' || {{IPA|/ˈʃprɛçən ˈziː ˈɛŋlɪʃ/}}
|-
|I do not understand || ''Ich verstehe nicht'' || {{IPA|/ˈɪç fɛrˈʃteːə ˈnɪçt/}}
|-
|Excuse me || ''Entschuldigung'' || {{IPA|/ɛntˈʃʊldɪgʊŋ/}}
|-
|I don't know || ''Ich weiß nicht'' || {{IPA|/ˈɪç ˈvaɪs ˈnɪçt/}}
|}
==Names of the German language in other languages==
Because of the turbulent history of both Germany and the German language, the names that other peoples have chosen to use to refer to it varies more than for most other languages.
In general, the names for the German language can be arranged in five groups according to their origin:
{| border="0" cellpadding="5"
|- valign="top"
| '''1.''' From the proto-Germanic word for "people", "folk":
*[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]: ''Duits''
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 德語 (''déyǔ'') or 德意志語 (déyìzhiyǔ)
*[[Danish language|Danish]]: ''tysk''
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Duits''
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]: ''týskt''
*German: ''Deutsch''
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''þýska''
*[[Italian language|Italian]]: ''tedesco''
*Medieval [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''(lingua) Theodisca''
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ドイツ語, 独逸語 (''doitsugo'')
*[[Korean language|Korean]]: 독일어, 獨逸語 (''dogireo'')
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''tysk''
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]: ''Daitya Bhaasha''
*[[Romansh language|Romansh]]: ''tudestg''
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''tyska''
*[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''tiếng Đức''
*[[Yiddish]]: טײַטש (''daytsch'' or ''daytsh'')
| '''2.''' From the name of the historical-geographical region Germany (Latin ''Germania''):
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''gjermanishte''
*[[Amharic]]: ጀርመን (''järmän'')
*[[Armenian Language|Armenian]]: գերմաներեն (''Germaneren'')
*[[English language|English]]: ''German''
*[[Esperanto]]: ''germana lingvo''
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]: გერმანული (''germanuli'')
*[[Greek language|Greek]]: Γερμανικά (''jermaniká'')
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: גרמנית (''germanit'')
*[[Hindi]]: जर्मनी की भाशा (''jarmanī kī bhāshā'')
*[[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Gearmáinis''
*[[Malay language|Malay]]/[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''bahasa Jerman''
*[[Maltese language|Maltese]]: ''Ġermaniż''
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''Germană''
*[[Thai language|Thai]]: ภาษาเยอรมัน (''phasa yerman'')
| '''3.''' From the name of the [[Saxon people|Saxonian]] tribe:
*[[Estonian language|Estonian]]: ''saksa''
*[[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''saksa''
|- valign="top"
| '''4.''' From either the Old Slavic word for "mute" or the name of the Nemetes tribe:
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: немски (''nemski'')
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''njemački''
*[[Czech language|Czech]]: ''němčina''
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''német''
*[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]: ''nemçe''
*[[Polish language|Polish]]: ''niemiecki''
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''nemţeşte''
*[[Russian language|Russian]]: немецкий (''nemetskiy'')
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]: немачки / nemački
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''nemčina''
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]: ''nemščina''
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: німецька (''nimetska'')
| '''5.''' From the name of the [[Alamanni|Alemannian]] tribe:
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ألمانية (''alimāniyyah'')
*[[Basque language|Basque]]: ''alemanera''
*[[Breton language|Breton]]: ''alamaneg''
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''alemany''
*[[French language|French]]: ''allemand''
*[[Galician language|Galician]]: ''alemán''
*[[Ilokano]]: ''Aleman''
*[[Khmer language|Khmer]]:&nbsp;[[Image:GerKh2.png|75px]]&nbsp;({{IPA|/pʰiːəsaː&nbsp;aːləmɒŋ/}})
*[[Malagasy]]: ''alema''
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]: ''alemand''
*[[Persian language|Persian]]: آلمانی (Âlmâni)
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''alemão''
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''alemán''
*[[Tagalog]]: ''Aleman''
*[[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Almanca''
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Almaeneg''
| '''6.''' Possibly from the Germanic word "folk":
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]: ''vācu''
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''vokiečių''
|}
[[Lao language|Lao]] is unique in that both under the influence of English "German" (through Thai "yeraman") and French (the colonial language) "Allemand", it chose a name in between: ພາສາເຢຍລະມັນ (''phaxa yeylaman''), which could be ranked both under category 2 and category 5.
Note: The Romanian language used to use in the past the Slavonic term "nemţeşte", but "Germană" is now widely used. Hungarian "német" is also a Slavonic loan-word. The Arabic name for Austria, النمسا ("an-namsa"), is derived from the Slavonic term.
A possible explanation for the use of "mute" to refer to German (and also to Germans) in Slavic languages is that Germans were the first people Slavic tribes encountered, with whom they could not communicate. The corresponding experience for the Germans was with the [[Volcae]], whose name they subsequently also applied to the Slavs, see [[etymology of Vlach]].
[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] traditionally (nowadays this is not the case) used the Biblical term [[Ashkenaz]] (Genesis 10.3) to refer to Germany, or to certain parts of it, and the [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are those who originate from Germany and Eastern Europe and formerly spoke [[Yiddish]] as their native language, derived from [[Middle High German]].
==See also==
* [[Umlaut]], [[ß]]
* [[German spelling reform of 1996]]
* [[Germish]]
* [[German family name etymology]]
* [[German placename etymology]]
* [[Ethnic German]]
* [[German as a Minority Language]]
* [[List of German proverbs]]
* [[Common phrases in various languages]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words and phrases]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=de}}
{{Wikibooks|German}}
*[http://forum.wordreference.com/forumdisplay.php?f=18 WordReference - German language forum]
*{{about.com|topic=German}}
* [http://www.declan-software.com/german German language learning audio software]
* [http://learno.com/german Online Learno german course] Free online German tutorial at Learno.com
*[http://www.medienhilfe.org Weltverband Deutschsprachiger Medien] - Federation of Media in German and Yiddish language worldwide
* [http://www.washjeff.edu/capl/ Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon] Free online visual lexicon of the German language with authentic photos from German speaking world.
* [http://www.sprachtausch.net Sprachtausch.net] — German website to find someone to teach you, for example German in exchange with your language.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=deu Ethnologue report for German]
* [http://www.travlang.com/languages/german/ihgg/ Internet Handbook of German Grammar]
* [http://www.lsa.umich.edu/german/hmr/ German resources] at the University of Michigan
* [http://german.languages4everyone.com Learn German Online] with this internet German course for beginners
* [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/0,1595,2469,00.html Deutsche Welle's Online German Courses]
* [http://www.videolexikon.com 450 free Lectures in German language]
* [http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Practise German with a language exchange]
* [http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/german.php German courses in Germany]
* A beginning [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/German German Language Textbook] under development at [http://wikibooks.org/ Wikibooks]
* [http://www.diwa.info/ Digital Wenker-Atlas] Project publishing the 19th century ''Linguistic Atlas of the German Empire''
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/german.htm List of online German-related resources]
* [http://eserver.org/langs/the-awful-german-language.txt That awful German language] — A humourous essay by [[Mark Twain]]
* [http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/languages/german/index.html Why learn German? A German language profile]
* [http://www.vistawide.com/german/why_german.htm Why learn German?] — 12 reasons to learn German
* [http://www.andaman.org/book/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm George Weber: The World's 10 most influential languages]
* [http://www.actilingua.com/german_courses/german_language.php Short summary on German language and varieties with a map!]
* [http://www.ielanguages.com/German.html Free German Language Tutorial from ielanguages.com]
* [http://www.passwort-deutsch.de/ Passwort Deutsch] - A German course
* [http://german.mysite.de Learn about the German language]
* [http://www.deutsch-lernen.com/ Learn German Online] containing free courses
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=1&learn-German/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in German] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
* [http://www.expatica.com/source/site_content_subchannel.asp?subchannel_id=37&name=Germany+Education Articles on learning German] Also has a service whereby learners of German can send questions to a German teacher
===Dictionary and word translations===
* [http://dict.leo.org/ The LEO Online Dictionary] German-English-German dictionary at [[Leo.org]]
* [http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/ TU Chemnitz Dictionary] a 185000+ German-English Dictionary with proverbs and pronunciations
* [http://www.dict.cc/ dict.cc: User-editable German-English-German Dictionary] works similar to Wikipedia, more than 840,000 keywords (420,000 translation pairs)
* [http://www.ilexer.org/ Ilexer.org] Ilexer: German-English-German Dictionary - main field textiles
* [http://odge.info/ Odge.info] uses dict.cc's data according to [http://odge.info/Li |
replay a sequence.
*''Conditions'' are a type used to represent errors, exceptions, and other "interesting" events to which a program may respond.
*''Classes'' are first-class objects, and are themselves instances of classes called metaclasses.
Common Lisp also includes a toolkit for [[object-oriented programming]], the Common Lisp Object System or [[CLOS]], which is one of the most powerful object systems available in any language.
===Macros===
A ''[[macro]]'' in Lisp superficially resembles a function in usage. However, rather than representing an expression which is evaluated, it represents a transformation of the program source code.
Macros allow Lisp programmers to create new syntactic forms in the language. For instance, this macro provides the <CODE>until</CODE> loop form, which may be familiar from languages such as [[Perl]]:
<pre>
(defmacro until (test &body body)
`(do ()
(,test)
,@body))
;; example
(until (= (random 10) 0)
(write-line "Hello"))
</pre>
All macros must be expanded before the source code containing them can be evaluated or compiled normally. Macros can be considered functions that
accept and return abstract syntax trees (Lisp S-expressions). These functions
are invoked before the evaluator or compiler to produce the final source code.
Macros are written in normal Common Lisp, and may use any Common Lisp (or third-party) operator available. The backquote notation used above is provided
by Common Lisp specifically to simplify the common case of substitution into
a code template.
====Variable capture and shadowing====
Common Lisp macros are capable of ''variable capture'', a situation in which symbols in the macro-expansion body coincide with those in the calling context. Variable capture is sometimes a desired effect: it allows the programmer to create macros wherein various symbols have special meaning. However, it can also introduce unexpected and unusual errors.
Some Lisp systems, such as Scheme, avoid variable capture by using macro syntax &mdash; so-called "hygienic macros" &mdash; that does not allow it. In Common Lisp, one can usually avoid unwanted capture by using [[gensym]]s: guaranteed-unique symbols which can be used in a macro-expansion without threat of capture.
Another issue is the inadvertant ''shadowing of operators'' used in a macroexpansion. For example, consider the following (incorrect) code:
(macrolet ((do (...) ... something else ...))
(until (= (random 10) 0) (write-line "Hello")))
The <code>UNTIL</code> macro will expand into a form which calls <code>DO</code> which is intended to refer to the built-in macro <code>DO</code>. However, in this context, <code>DO</code> may have a completely different meaning.
Common Lisp ameliorates the problem of operator shadowing by forbidding the redefinition of built-in operators, such as <code>DO</code> in this example. Moreover, users may separate their own code into ''packages''. Built-in symbols are found in the <code>COMMON-LISP</code> package, which will not be shadowed by a symbol in a user package.
==Comparison with other Lisps==
<!-- needs lots -->
Common Lisp is most frequently compared with, and contrasted to, [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]&mdash;if only because they are the two most popular Lisp dialects. Scheme antedates CL, and comes not only from the same Lisp tradition but from some of the same engineers—[[Guy L. Steele, Jr.|Guy L. Steele]], who with [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] designed Scheme, chaired the standards committee for Common Lisp.
Most of the Lisp systems whose designs contributed to Common Lisp—such as Zetalisp and Franz Lisp—used dynamically [[scope (programming)|scope]]d variables in their interpreters and lexically [[scope (programming)|scope]]d variables in their compilers. Scheme introduced the sole use of lexically-scoped variables to Lisp; an inspiration from [[ALGOL 68]] which was widely recognized as a good idea. CL supports dynamically-scoped variables as well, but they must be explicitly declared as "special". There are no differences in scoping between ANSI CL interpreters and compilers.
Common Lisp is sometimes termed a ''Lisp-2'' and Scheme a ''Lisp-1'', referring to CL's use of separate namespaces for functions and variables. (In fact, CL has ''many'' namespaces, such as those for go tags, block names, and <CODE>loop</CODE> keywords.) There is a long-standing controversy between CL and Scheme advocates over the tradeoffs involved in multiple namespaces. In Scheme, it is (broadly) necessary to avoid giving variables names which clash with functions; Scheme functions frequently have arguments named <CODE>lis</CODE>, <CODE>lst</CODE>, or <CODE>lyst</CODE> so as not to conflict with the system function <CODE>list</CODE>. However, in CL it is necessary to explicitly refer to the function namespace when passing a function as an argument -- which is also a common occurrence, as in the <CODE>sort</CODE> example above.
CL also differs from Scheme in its handling of boolean values. Scheme uses the special values #t and #f to represent truth and falsity. CL follows the older Lisp convention of using the symbols T and NIL, with NIL standing also for the empty list. In CL, ''any'' non-NIL value is treated as true by conditionals such as <CODE>if</CODE>. This allows some operators to serve both as predicates (answering a boolean-valued question) and as returning a useful value for further computation.
Lastly, the Scheme standards documents require [[tail recursion|tail-call optimization]], which the CL standard does not. Most CL implementations do offer tail-call optimization, although often only when the programmer uses an optimization directive. Nonetheless, common CL coding style does not favor the ubiquitous use of recursion that Scheme style prefers -- what a Scheme programmer would express with tail recursion, a CL user would usually express with an iterative expression in <CODE>do</CODE>, <CODE>dolist</CODE>, <CODE>loop</CODE>, or (more recently) with the <CODE>iterate</CODE> package.
==Implementations==
Common Lisp is defined by a specification (like [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[C programming language|C]]) rather than by a single implementation (like [[Perl programming language|Perl]]). There are many implementations, and the standard spells out areas in which they may validly differ.
In addition, implementations tend to come with library packages, which provide functionality not covered in the standard. [[Free Software]] libraries have been created to support such features in a portable way, most notably [http://common-lisp.net/ Common-Lisp.net] and the [http://clocc.sourceforge.net/ Common Lisp Open Code Collection] project.
Common Lisp has been designed to be implemented by incremental compilers. Standard declarations to optimize compilation (such as function inlining) are proposed in the language specification. Most Common Lisp implementations compile functions to native [[machine code]]. Others compile to [[bytecode]], which reduces speed but eases binary-code portability. The misconception that Lisp is a purely-interpreted language is most likely due to the fact that Common Lisp environments provide an interactive prompt and that functions are compiled one-by-one, in an incremental way.
Some [[Unix]]-based implementations, such as CLISP, can be used as script interpreters; that is, invoked by the system transparently in the way that a [[Perl]] or [[Unix shell]] interpreter is.
===List of implementations===
Freely redistributable implementations include:
* [[CMUCL]], originally from [[Carnegie Mellon University]], now maintained as [[Free Software]] by a group of volunteers. CMUCL uses a fast native-code compiler. It is available on [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] for Intel x86; Linux for Alpha; and Solaris, IRIX, and HP-UX on their native platforms.
* [[CLISP]], a bytecode-compiling implementation. It is portable and runs on a number of Unix and Unix-like systems (including [[Mac OS X]]), as well as Microsoft Windows and several other systems.
* [[Steel Bank Common Lisp]] (SBCL), a branch from CMUCL. "Broadly speaking, SBCL is distinguished from CMU CL by a greater emphasis on maintainability." [http://sbcl.sourceforge.net/cmucl-relationship.php] SBCL runs on the platforms CMUCL does, except HP/UX; in addition, it runs on Linux for PowerPC, SPARC, and MIPS, and on [[Mac OS X]]. SBCL does not use an interpreter; all expressions are compiled to native code. Recently, support for windows platform has been integrated into [[CVS]] tree.
* [[GNU Common Lisp]] (GCL), the [[GNU]] Project's Lisp compiler. Not yet fully ANSI-compliant, GCL is however the implementation of choice for several large projects including the mathematical tools [[Maxima]], AXIOM and ACL2. GCL runs under GNU/Linux on eleven different architectures, and also under Windows, Solaris, and [[FreeBSD]].
* [[Embeddable Common Lisp]] (ECL), designed to be embedded in [[C programming language|C]] applications.
* [[OpenMCL]] [http://openmcl.clozure.com/], an [[open source]] branch of Macintosh Common Lisp. As the name implies, OpenMCL is native to the Macintosh; it runs on [[Mac OS X]], Darwin, and Linux for PowerPC.
* [[Movitz]] implements a Lisp environment for [[x86]] computers without relying on any underlying OS.
* [[Armed Bear Common Lisp]] [http://armedbear.org/abcl.html] is a Common Lisp implementation that runs on the [[Java Virtual Machine]]. It includes a compiler to [[Java programming language|Java]] [[byte code]]s, and allows access to Java libraries from Common Lisp. Armed Bear Common Lisp is a component of the [http://a |
which is atypical for CMT in general.
*'''CMT type 2E''' - '''CMT2E''' - NEFL gene (8p21).
*'''CMT type 2F''' - '''CMT2F''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=606595 OMIM 606595]) - HSPB1 gene (7q11-q21).
*'''CMT type 2G''' - '''CMT2G''' - (12q12-13)
*'''CMT type 2H''' - '''CMT2H''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607731 OMIM 607731])
*'''CMT type 2J''' - '''CMT2J''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607736 OMIM 607736]) - (1q22)
*'''CMT type 2K''' - '''CMT2K''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607831 OMIM 607831]) - (8q13-q21.1)
*'''CMT type 2L''' - '''CMT2L''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=608673 OMIM 608673]) - (12q24)
===CMT Type 3 (CMT3)===
Type 3 affects a very few CMT patients.
*'''CMT type 3''' - '''CMT3''' - Rarely found. [[Autosomal recessive]]. Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: Normal (50-60m/s)
===CMT Type 4 (CMT4)===
Type 4 affects a very few CMT patients.
*'''CMT type 4A''' - '''CMT4A''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=214400 OMIM 214400]) - GDAP1 Gene ([[locus]] 8q13-q21.1) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4B1''' - '''CMT4B1''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=601382 OMIM 601382]) - MTMR2 Gene (11q22) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4B2''' - '''CMT4B2''' - CMT4B2 Gene, may be called "SBF2/MTMR13" (11p15) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4C''' - '''CMT4C''' - KIAA1985 Gene (5q32) - May lead to respiratory compromise.
*'''CMT type 4D''' - '''CMT4D''' - NDRG1 Gene (8q24.3)
*'''CMT type 4E''' - '''CMT4E''' - EGR2 (10q21.1-10q22.1) - "CMT4E" is a tentative name
*'''CMT type 4F''' - '''CMT4F''' - PRX (19q13.1-19q13.2) - "CMT4F" is a tentative name
===CMT X-Linked (CMTX)===
CMTX affects approximately 10-20% of CMT patients and is [[Dominant gene|X-linked dominant]].
*'''CMTX''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=302800 OMIM 302800]) - GJB1 Gene ([[locus]] Xq13.1) - Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 25-40[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*Other X-linked forms - Approx 10% of X-linked CMT patients have some other form than CMTX.
==Genetic testing==
Genetic testing is available for many of the different types of Charcot-Marie-Tooth. For a listing of test availabilities, see [http://www.genetests.org GeneTests.org]
==External links==
*[http://www.charcot-marie-tooth.org Charcot Marie Tooth Association]
*[http://www.hnf-cure.org/ Hereditary Neuropathy Foundation (formerly CMT World)]
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/CMT-Support/ Yahoo CMT Support and information group]
*[http://www.genetests.org GeneTests.org]
==References==
Berger, P., Young, P. and U. Suter (2002) Neurogenetics 4:1-15. http://www.springerlink.com/, accessed 060220
Krajewski, K.M., Lewis, R.A., Fuerst, D.R., Turansky, C., Hinderer, S.R., Gerbern, J., Kamholz, J. and M.E. Shy (2000) Brain 123:1516-1527
*http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/123/7/1516#SEC4, accessed 060220
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[fr:Maladie de Charcot-Marie-Tooth]]
[[nl:Hereditaire Motorische en Sensorische Neuropathieën]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central pontine myelinolysis</title>
<id>7846</id>
<revision>
<id>28746198</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-19T12:00:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stemonitis</username>
<id>156441</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wiki [[MRI</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Central pontine myelinolysis''' is a neurologic disease caused by severe damage of the [[myelin sheath]] of [[neuron|nerve cells]] in the [[brainstem]], more precisely in the area termed the ''[[pons]]''. The most common cause is the rapid correction of low blood sodium levels ([[hyponatremia]]). Some scholars postulate that the real cause might be the lack of a substance that is essential for brain activity and is lacking due to malnutrition. The fact that this condition is most frequently observed in patients with general ill health ([[alcoholism]], [[cachexia]] etc.) is in accordance with this assumption. Imaging by [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] demonstrates an area of high signal return on T2 weighted images. Frequently observed symptoms in this disorder are weakness, [[double vision]] and [[coma|loss of consciousness]].
== References ==
*Adams RA, Victor M, Mancall EL. Central pontine myelinolysis: a hitherto undescribed disease occurring in alcoholics and malnourished patients. ''Arch Neurol Psychiatry.'' 1959;81:154–72. PMID 13616772
*Gocht A , Colmant HJ. Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis: a report of 58 cases. ''Clin Neuropath.'' 1987;6:262–70. PMID 3322623
*Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Norenberg MD. Rapid correction of hyponatremia causes demyelination: relation to central pontine myelinolysis. ''Science.'' 1981;211(4486):1068-70. PMID 7466381
*Laureno R. Experimental pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis. ''Trans Am Neurol Assoc.'' 1980;105:354-8. PMID 7348981
*Menger H , Jorg J. Outcome of central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis (n=44). ''J Neurol.'' 1999;246:700–5. PMID 10460448
[[Category:Neurology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crystallographic defect</title>
<id>7849</id>
<revision>
<id>38584460</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T07:01:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.132.3.7|137.132.3.7]] ([[User talk:137.132.3.7|Talk]]) to last version by Forbsey</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Crystalline solids have a very regular atomic structure: that is, the local positions of atoms with respect to each other are repeated at the atomic scale. These arrangements are called [[crystal]] structures, and their study is called [[crystallography]]. However, most crystalline materials are not perfect: the regular pattern of atomic arrangement is interrupted by '''crystal defects'''. The various types of defects are enumerated here.
==Point defects==
* Vacancies are sites which are usually occupied by an atom but which are unoccupied. If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom. The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy. In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they can better form bonds with atoms in the other directions.
* [[Interstitial]]s are atoms which occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not an atom. They are generally high energy configurations. Small atoms in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as [[hydrogen]] in [[palladium]].
* Impurities occur because material are never 100% pure. In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure. This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a ''substitutional'' defect. The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity.
* Anti-site defects occur in an ordered alloy. For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species, for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the cube corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in center of the cubes. If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by an atom, but it is not the correct type. This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity.
* Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects. For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice. Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site.
==Line defects==
Line defects can be described by gauge theories.
* [[Dislocation]]s are linear defects around which some of the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned. There are two basic types of dislocations, the EDGE dislocation and the SCREW dislocation. ("MIXED" dislocations combining aspects of both types are also common).
Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.
The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.
The presence of dislocations results in lattice strain (distortion). The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a [[Burgers vector]] (b). For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crytallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing.
Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge.
It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the |
lant that does not produce fruit is known as '''''acarpous''''', meaning essentially "without fruit".
== Botanic fruits and culinary fruits ==
[[Image:Fruitandveg.png|thumb|300px|Venn diagram representing the relationship between fruits and vegetables]]
Many foods are botanically fruits, but are treated as vegetables in [[cooking]]. These include [[cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]]s (e.g., [[Squash (fruit)|squash]] and [[pumpkin]]), [[maize]], [[tomato]], [[cucumber]], [[aubergine]] (eggplant), and sweet [[bell pepper|pepper]], along with [[nut]]s, and some [[spice]]s, such as [[allspice]], [[nutmeg]] and [[chiles]].
Rarely, culinary "fruits" are not fruits in the botanical sense. For example, [[rhubarb]] may be considered a fruit, though only the astringent stalk or [[leaf|petiole]] is edible. In the commercial world, [[European Union]] rules define [[carrot]] as a fruit for the purposes of measuring the proportion of "fruit" contained in carrot jam.
== Fruit development ==
After an '''''ovule''''' is [[fertilize]]d in a process known as pollination, the ovary begins to expand. The [[petal]]s of the [[flower]] fall off and the ''[[ovule]]'' develops into a [[seed]]. The ovary eventually comes to form, along with other parts of the flower in many cases, a structure surrounding the seed or seeds that is the fruit. Fruit development continues until the seeds have matured. With some multiseeded fruits the extent of development of the flesh of the fruit is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.
The wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall of the flower, is called the '''''pericarp'''''. The ''pericarp'' is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the '''''exocarp''''' (outer layer - also called epicarp), '''''mesocarp''''' (middle layer), and '''''endocarp''''' (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an [[Ovary (plants)#Inferior ovary|inferior ovary]], other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the [[petal]]s, [[sepal]]s, and [[stamen]]s), fuse with the ovary and [[ripen]] with it. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an '''''[[accessory fruit]]'''''. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.
Fruits are so varied in form and development, that it is difficult to devise a classification scheme that includes all known fruits. It will also be seen that many common terms for seeds and fruit are incorrectly applied, a fact that complicates understanding of the terminology. ''Seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovularies or carpels that contain the seeds''. To these two basic definitions can be added the clarification that in botanical terminology, a '''[[nut]]''' is a type of fruit and not another term for seed.
There are three basic types of fruits:
# Simple fruit
# [[Aggregate fruit]]
# [[Multiple fruit]]
===Simple fruit===
'''Simple''' fruits can be either dry or fleshy and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary with only one [[Carpel|pistil]]. Dry fruits may be either '''[[dehiscent]]''' (opening to discharge seeds), or '''indehiscent''' (not opening to discharge seeds). Types of '''dry''', simple fruits (with examples) are:
*[[achene]] - ([[buttercup]])
*[[Capsule (fruit)|capsule]] - ([[Brazil nut]])
*[[caryopsis]] - ([[wheat]])
*[[drupe|fibrous drupe]] - ([[coconut]], [[walnut]])
*[[follicle]] - ([[milkweed]])
*[[legume]] - ([[pea]], [[bean]], [[peanut]])
*[[loment]]
*[[Nut (fruit)|nut]] - ([[hazelnut]], [[beech]], oak [[acorn]])
*[[samara (fruit)|samara]] - ([[elm]], [[Ash tree|ash]], [[maple]] key)
*[[schizocarp]] - ([[carrot]])
*[[silique]] - ([[radish]])
*[[utricle]]
Fruits in which part or all of the ''pericarp'' (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are ''simple fleshy fruits''. Types of '''fleshy''', simple fruits (with examples) are:
*[[berry]] - ([[tomato]], [[avocado]])
*Stone fruit [[drupe]] ([[plum]], [[cherry]], [[peach]], [[olive]])
*[[false berry]] - accessory fruits ([[banana]], [[cranberry]])
*[[pome]] - accessory fruits ([[apple]], [[pear]], [[rosehip]])
===Aggregate fruit===
[[Image:DewFlower.jpg|left|thumb|A [[dewberry]] flower. Note the multiple [[pistil]]s, each of which will produce a druplet. The result will be a blackberry-like [[aggregate fruit]].]]
An '''aggregate''' fruit, or ''etaerio'', develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils. An example is the [[raspberry]], whose simple fruits are termed '''''drupelets''''' because each is like a small '''[[drupe]]''' attached to the receptacle. In some [[bramble]] fruits (such as [[blackberry]]) the receptacle is elongate and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an ''aggregate-accessory'' fruit. The [[strawberry]] is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in '''[[achene]]s'''. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.
{{fruits}}
===Multiple fruit===
A '''multiple''' fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an ''[[inflorescence]]''). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the [[pineapple]], edible [[fig]], [[mulberry]], [[osage-orange]], and [[breadfruit]].
[[image:Noni_fruit_dev.jpg|thumb|232px|In some plants, such as this [[noni]], flowers are produced regularly along the stem and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening]]
In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the [[noni]] or Indian mulberry (''Morinda citrifolia'') can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a '''head''' is produced. After [[Fertilization#Fertilisation_in_plants|fertilization]], each flower develops into a '''drupe''', and as the drupes expand, they ''connate'' (merge) into a ''multiple fleshy fruit'' called a '''''syncarp'''''.
== Seedless Fruits ==
Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial [[cultivars]] of [[bananas]] and [[pineapples]] are seedless. Some cultivars of [[citrus]] fruits (especially navel [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s and [[mandarin orange]]s), table [[grapes]], [[grapefruit]], and [[watermelon]]s are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of '''''[[parthenocarpy]]''''', where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination. Most seedless citrus fruits require a pollination stimulus; bananas and pineapples do not. Seedlessness in table grapes results from the abortion of the [[embryo]]nic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as '''''[[stenospermocarpy]]''''' which requires normal pollination and fertilization.
== Seed dissemination ==
Variations in fruit structures largely relate to the [[Biological dispersal|mode of dispersal]] of the seeds they contain.
Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by [[animal]]s or to stick to the [[hair]]s of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like [[wing]]s or [[helicopter]] blades. This is an [[evolution]]ary mechanism to increase dispersal [[distance]] away from the parent.
The sweet flesh of many fruits is "deliberately" appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are "unwittingly" carried away and deposited at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of [[Nut_(fruit)|nuts]] are appealing to rodents (such as [[squirrel]]s) who [[hoarding|hoard]] them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to [[Germination|germinate]] and grow into a new plant away from their parent.
== Uses ==
Many fruits, including fleshy fruits like [[apple]]s and [[mango]]s, and [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s like [[walnut]], are commercially valuable as [[human]] food, eaten both fresh and made into [[jam]]s, [[marmalade]] and other [[food preservation|preserve]]s for future consumption. Fruits are also found commonly in such manufactured foods as [[cookie]]s, [[muffin]]s, [[yoghurt]], [[ice cream]], [[cake]]s, and many more.
==References==
{{unsourced}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Fruit}}
{{cookbook}}
*[[List of fruits]]
*[[Fruit trees]]
*[[Tutti frutti]]
*[[Fruitarianism]]
[[Category:Fruit| types00]]
[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Pollination]]
[[bg:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;]]
[[cs:ovoce]]
[[cy:Ffrwyth]]
[[da:Frugt]]
[[de:Frucht (Botanik)]]
[[eo:frukto]]
[[es:fruta]]
[[fa:&amp;#1605;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1607;]]
[[fr:Fruit]]
[[ko:열매]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;]]
[[io:frukto]]
[[it:Frutto]]
[[ja:&amp;#26524;&amp;#29289;]]
[[jv:Woh]]
[[lt:Vaisius]]
[[nl:Vrucht (biologie)]]
[[nn:frukt]]
[[no:Frukt]]
[[pl:Owoc]]
[[pt:Fruto]]
[[ro:fruct]]
[[ru:Плод (фрукт)]]
[[sr:Воће]]
[[simple:Fruit]]
[[fi:Hedelmä]]
[[sl:Plod]]
[[sv:Frukt]]
[[tr:meyve]]
[[zh:&amp;#26524;&amp;#23454;]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kóe-chí]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>French materialism</title>
<id>10844</id>
<revision>
<id>36618356</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T08:34:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv wikilinks. Are you planning to write articles on those?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''French materialism''' combined the [[associationist psychology]] and [[Empiricism]] of [[John Locke]] with the [[Totality]] of [[Isaac Newton]] to create a complex world view in diametrical opposition to the [[René Descartes|Cartesian]] [[dualist]] world vi |
seille]].) Russell felt this plan "had very great merits and showed considerable generosity, when it is remembered that America still had an unbroken nuclear monopoly." (''Has Man a Future?'', 1961). Russell later relented from this stance, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers, possibly linked to some form of [[world government]].
In [[1955]] Russell released the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], co-signed by [[Albert Einstein]] and nine other leading scientists and intellectuals, which led to the first of the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]] in [[1957]]. In [[1958]], Russell became the first president of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]]. He resigned two years later when the CND would not support [[civil disobedience]], and formed the [[Committee of 100]]. In [[1961]], when he was in his late eighties, he was imprisoned for a week for inciting civil disobedience, in connection with protests at the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] and [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].
The [http://www.russfound.org/ Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation] began work in [[1963]], in order to carry forward Russell's work for peace, human rights and social justice. He opposed the [[Vietnam War]] and, along with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], he organised a [[tribunal]] intended to expose U.S. war crimes; this came to be known as the [[Russell Tribunal]].
Russell was an early critic of the official story in the [[John F. Kennedy]] assassination; his "[[16 Questions on the Assassination]]" from [[1964]] is still considered a good summary of the apparent inconsistencies in that case.
===Communism and socialism===
Russell visited the [[Soviet Union]] and met [[Lenin]] in [[1920]], and on his return wrote a critical tract, [http://www.archive.org/details/ThePracticeAndTheoryOfBolshevism/ The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism]. He was unimpressed with the result of the [[communist revolution]], and said he was "infinitely unhappy in this atmosphere&mdash;stifled by its utilitarianism, its indifference to love and beauty and the life of impulse." He believed Lenin to be similar to a religious [[zealot]], cold and possessed of "no love of liberty."
Politically, Russell envisioned a kind of benevolent, [[democratic socialism]], not unlike the conception promoted by the [[Fabian Society]]. He was extremely critical of the [[totalitarianism]] exhibited by [[Stalin]]'s regime, and of [[Marxism]] and [[communism]] generally. Russell was an enthusiast for [[world government]], and advocated the establishment of an international or world government in some of the essays collected in ''In Praise of Idleness'' ([[1935]]), and also in ''Has Man a Future?'' ([[1961]]).
{{Quotation|One who believes as I do, that free intellect is the chief engine of human progress, cannot but be fundamentally opposed to Bolshevism as much as to the Church of Rome. The hopes which inspire communism are, in the main, as admirable as those instilled by the Sermon on the Mount, but they are held as fanatically and are as likely to do as much harm.|Bertrand Russell|The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, 1920}}
{{Quotation|For my part, while I am as convinced a Socialist as the most ardent Marxian, I do not regard Socialism as a gospel of proletarian revenge, nor even, ''primarily'', as a means of securing economic justice. I regard it primarily as an adjustment to machine production demanded by considerations of common sense, and calculated to increase the happiness, not only of proletarians, but of all except a tiny minority of the human race.|Bertrand Russell|"The Case for Socialism" (In Praise of Idleness, 1935)}}
{{Quotation|Modern methods of production have given us the possibility of ease and security for all; we have chosen, instead, to have overwork for some and starvation for the others. Hitherto we have continued to be as energetic as we were before there were machines; in this we have been foolish, but there is no reason to go on being foolish for ever.|Bertrand Russell|In Praise of Idleness, 1935}}
===Women's suffrage===
As a young man, Russell was a member of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] and wrote in favor of free trade and women's suffrage. In his [[1910]] pamphlet, ''Anti-Suffragist Anxieties'', Russell wrote that some men opposed suffrage because they "fear that their liberty to act in ways that are injurious to women will be curtailed." In [[1907]] he was nominated by the National Union of Suffrage Societies to run for [[Parliament]] in a [[by-election]], which he lost by a wide margin.
===Sexuality===
Russell wrote against [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] notions of morality. ''[[Marriage and Morals]]'' (1929) expressed his opinion that sex between a man and woman who are not married to each other is not necessarily immoral if they truly love one another, and advocated "trial marriages" or "companionate marriage", formalised relationships whereby young people could legitimately have sexual intercourse without being expected to remain married in the long term or to have children (an idea first proposed by Judge [[Ben Lindsey]]). This might not seem extreme by today's standards, but it was enough to raise vigorous protests and denunciations against him during his visit to the [[United States]] shortly after the book's publication. Russell was also ahead of his time in advocating open [[sex education]] and widespread access to [[contraception]]. He also advocated easy [[divorce]], but only if the marriage had produced no children - Russell's view was that parents should remain married but tolerant of each other's sexual infidelity, if they had children. This reflected his life at the time - his second wife Dora was openly having an affair, and would soon become pregnant by another man, but Russell was keen for their children John and Kate to have a "normal" family life.
Russell's private life was even more unconventional and freewheeling than his published writings revealed, but that was not well known at the time. For example, philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] reports that Russell often spoke of his [[sexual]] prowess and of his various conquests.
===Eugenics and race===
Some critics of Russell have pointed out racist passages in his early writings, as well as his initial praise for the then-fashionable idea of [[eugenics]]. For example, in a letter to Alys Pearsall he wrote:
{{Quotation|Thee might observe incidentally that if the State paid for child-bearing it might and ought to require a medical certificate that the parents were such as to give a reasonable result of a healthy child &mdash; this would afford a very good inducement to some sort of care for the race, and gradually as public opinion became educated by the law, it might react on the law and make that more stringent, until one got to some state of things in which there would be a little genuine care for the race, instead of the present haphazard higgledy-piggledy ways.|Bertrand Russell|on eugenics to Alys Pearsall Smith, [[2 October]] [[1894]] .(Selected Letters, vol. 1, p. 128)}}
And early editions of his book ''Marriage and Morals'' (1929) asserted:
{{Quotation|In extreme cases there can be little doubt of the superiority of one race to another.... It seems on the whole fair to regard negroes as on the average inferior to white men, although for work in the tropics they are indispensable, so that their extermination (apart from questions of humanity) would be highly undesirable.|Bertrand Russell|Marriage and Morals (1929)}}
Although Russell changed "It seems on the whole fair to ..." to "There is no reason to ..." in much later editions of the book, he did not change the sentence "women are on the average stupider than men".
Later in his life, Russell criticized eugenic programs for their impracticality (chiefly their vulnerability to corruption), and by 1932 he was to condemn the "unwarranted assumption" that "Negroes are congenitally inferior to white men" (''Education and the Social Order'', Chap. 3). Racism rapidly declined in acceptance throughout the second half of the 20th century. In fact, Russell seems to have been one of the leaders of change in this sphere. He wrote a chapter on "Racial Antagonism" in ''New Hopes for a Changing World'' (1951):
{{Quotation|It is sometimes maintained that racial mixture is biologically undesirable. There is no evidence whatever for this view. Nor is there, apparently, any reason to think that Negroes are congenitally less intelligent than white people, but as to that it will be difficult to judge until they have equal scope and equally good social conditions.|Bertrand Russell|New Hopes for a Changing World (London: Allen & Unwin, 1951, p. 108)}}
There is a much later condemnation-in-passing of racism in Russell's "[[16 Questions on the Assassination]]" (1964), in which he mentions "Senator Russell of Georgia and Congressman Boggs of Louisiana ... whose racist views have brought shame on the United States".
==Russell summing up his life==
Admitting to failure in helping the world to conquer [[war]] and in winning his perpetual intellectual battle for eternal truths, Russell wrote this in "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday", which also served as the last entry in the last volume of his [[autobiography]], published in his 98th year:
{{Quotation|I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, |
018
* Albert Pike: ''Reprints of Old Rituals''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564599833
* Albert Pike: ''Book of the Words''. Supreme Council. (http://www.srmason-sj.org/acatalog/Ritual_and_Ceremonial.html)
* Albert Pike: ''Book of the Words''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591611
* Albert Pike: ''Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591832
* Albert Pike: ''The Point Within the Circle: Freemasonry Veiled in Allegory and Illustrated by Symbols''. Holmes Pub Grou Llc, November 1, 2001. ISBN 1558183051
* Albert Pike: ''Morals and Dogma of the First Three Degrees of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite Freemasonry''. Kessinger Publishing, May 2004. ISBN 1417911085
=== Biography ===
* Walter Lee Brown: ''A Life of Albert Pike''. University of Arkansas Press, September 1, 1997. ISBN 1557284695
* Fred W. Allsopp: ''Albert Pike a Biography''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591344
== Ancestry & Family ==
Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor [[John Pike]] is as follows:
*[[John Pike]] (1572-1654)
**John Pike (1613-1689/90)
***Joseph Pike (1638-1694)
****Thomas Pike (1682-1753/4)
*****John Pike (1710-1755)
******Thomas Pike (1739-1836)
*******Benjamin Pike (1780-????)
********'''Albert Pike (1809-1891)'''
== External links ==
*[http://www.arkmason.org/albert_pike.htm A short biography of Albert Pike]
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/PP/fpi18.html Handbook of Texas Online - Albert Pike]
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/pikesphilosophy.htm Pike's Masonic philosophy]
*[http://civilwarstudies.org/features/pike.htm Albert Pike: Hero or Scoundrel?]
*[http://bessel.org/russo/m&d01.htm a modern analysis of his ''Morals and Dogma'']
*[http://www.srmason-sj.org/web/temple-files/pillars.html About room where he is entombed]
*[http://www.threeworldwars.com/albert-pike.htm Albert Pike and World War Three] ([[conspiracy theory]]&mdash;but, regarding the supposed correspondence to [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] of 1871 Aug 15, it notes that "to date, no conclusive proof exists to show that this letter was ever written.")
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/kkk.html His involvement with the KKK & KGC]
[[Category:1809 births|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:American writers|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:Confederate Army generals|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:United States Army officers|Pike, Albert]]
[[de:Albert Pike]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AlfTales</title>
<id>2372</id>
<revision>
<id>39026621</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T05:11:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.50.228.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cast */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tv_alftales.jpg|250px|right|AlfTales opening screen]]
'''''AlfTales''''' was an animated [[United States|American]] series that ran on the [[NBC]] television network on Saturdays from August [[1988]] to December [[1989]]. The show was a spinoff from the series ''[[Alf: The Animated Series]]''.
Alf also made a small appearance in the drug prevention video ''[[Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue]]''.
==Cast==
*[[Paul Fusco]] - Gordon Shumway ("Alf") (voice)
*[[Paulina Gillis]] - Augie/Rhonda (voice)
*[[Peggy Mahon]] - Flo (voice)
*[[Thick Wilson]] - Larson Petty/Bob (voice)
*[[Dan Hennessey]] - Sloop (voice)
*[[Rob Cowan]] (II) - Skip (voice)
*[[Don Francks]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marvin Goldhar]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Greg Swanson]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Debra Theraker]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Michael Lamport]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Harvey Atkin]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Greg Morton]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Stephen Ouimette]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Andrew Sachs]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[John Stocker]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Stuart Stone]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Chris Wiggins]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marilyn Lightstone]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Richard Yearwood]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Eva Almos]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Jayne Eastwood]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marla Lukofsky]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Nick Nichols]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Linda Sorensen]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Don McManus]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Ken Ryan]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Robert Bockstael]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Luba Goy]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Rick Jones]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Arnold Stang]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Wendy Brackman]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[John Koensgen]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Ron Rubin]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Peter Keleghan]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Len Carlson]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Alyson Court]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Darrin Baker]] - Additional Voices (voice)
[[Category:Animated television series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Moore</title>
<id>2375</id>
<revision>
<id>42061528</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:17:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.227.139.8</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:alanmoore.jpg|thumb|right|Alan Moore.]]
'''Alan Moore''' (born [[November 18]], [[1953]], in [[Northampton]], [[England]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] most famous for his work in [[comics]], including the acclaimed [[graphic novel]]s ''[[Watchmen]]'', ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' and ''[[From Hell]]''. He has also written a novel, ''[[Voice of the Fire]]'', and performs "workings" (one-off performance art/spoken word pieces) with the [[Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels]].
As a comics writer, Moore is renowned for bringing more mature, literary sensibilities to a medium often dismissed as juvenile and trivial. As well as including literary influences, adult themes and challenging subject matter, he also experiments with the form of comics, employing effects unique to the medium, and creating different ways to combine text and image. He brings a wide range of influences to his work, including authors such as [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Thomas Pynchon]] and [[Iain Sinclair]], [[New Wave (science fiction)|New Wave]] [[science fiction]] writers like [[Michael Moorcock]] and [[horror fiction|horror]] writers like [[Clive Barker]], and film-editing techniques from the work of directors like [[Nicolas Roeg]]. Comics artist [[Bryan Talbot]], whose ''[[The Adventures of Luther Arkwright]]'' anticipated the adult comics movement, is also undoubtedly a major influence. Some of Moore's superhero work in the 1980s borrows thematic elements from [[Robert Mayer]]'s novel ''[[Super-Folks]]''.
Moore is a practising [[magician]], and claims to worship a Roman snake-deity named [[Glykon]].
==Career==
===Early work===
[[Image:Warrior2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]''#2, art by [[Garry Leach]].]]
Having been expelled from school aged 17 for dealing [[LSD|acid]],{{ref|acid}} Moore spent the next several years in menial jobs before embarking on a career as a [[cartoonist]] in the late 1970s. He wrote and drew [[Underground comics|underground]]-style strips for music magazines like ''[[Sounds (magazine)|Sounds]]'' and the ''[[NME]]'' under the pseudonym [[Kurt Weill|Curt Vile]], sometimes in collaboration with his friend [[Steve Moore (comics)|Steve Moore]] (no relation). Under the pseudonym [[Gilles de Rais|Jill de Ray]] he began a weekly strip, ''[[Maxwell the Magic Cat]]'', for the [[Northants Post]] newspaper, which continued until 1986.
Deciding he could not make a living as an artist, he concentrated on writing, providing scripts for [[Marvel UK]], ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' and ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]''. At Marvel he wrote short strips for ''[[Doctor Who Magazine]]'' and ''[[Star Wars]] Weekly'' before beginning a celebrated run on ''[[Captain Britain]]'' with artist [[Alan Davis]], running in a variety of Marvel UK publications. At ''2000 AD'' he started by writing one-off ''[[Future Shocks]]'' and ''Time Twisters'', moving on to series such as ''[[Skizz]]'' (''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial|E.T.]]'' as written by [[Alan Bleasdale]], with [[Jim Baikie]]), ''[[D.R. and Quinch]]'' (a sci-fi take on [[National Lampoon]]'s characters O.C. and Stiggs, with Davis) and ''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]'' (the first series in the comic to be based around a female character, with [[Ian Gibson (artist)|Ian Gibson]]). The last two proved amongst the most popular strips to appear in ''2000 AD'' but Moore became increasingly concerned at his lack of creator's rights, and in 1986 stopped writing for ''2000 AD'', leaving the ''Halo Jones'' story incomplete. The theme of fallings out with publishers on matters of principle would become a common one in Moore's later career.
Of his work during this period, it is the work he produced for ''Warrior'' that attracted greater critical acclaim; ''[[Marvelman]]'' (later retitled Miracleman for legal reasons), a radical re-imagining of a forgotten 1950s [[superhero]] drawn by [[Garry Leach]] and [[Alan Davis]]; ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', a [[dystopian]] pulp adventure about a flamboyant [[anarchist]] terrorist who dresses as [[Guy Fawkes]] and fights a future [[British]] [[fascist]] government, illustrated by [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]]; and ''[[The Bojeffries Saga]]'', a comedy about a working-class English family of [[vampires]] and [[werewolves]], drawn by [[Steve Parkhouse]]. ''Warrior'' closed before these stories were completed, but he was able to continue them with other publishers.
===American mainstream===
[[Image:Killingjoke.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Cover art for ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' by [[B |
ried Jonquil Stephens on [[January 16]], [[1936]], and their son [[Justin Fritz Leiber]] was born in [[1938]]. Jonquil's death in [[1969]] precipitated a three year bout of [[alcoholism]], but he then returned to his original form with a fantasy novel set in modern-day [[San Francisco]], ''Our Lady of Darkness'' - serialised in the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]] as "The Pale Brown Thing" ([[1977]]) - in which cities were the breeding grounds for new types of [[elemental]]s called paramentals, summonable by the dark art of [[megapolisomancy]]. The short [[parallel world]]s story "Catch that Zeppelin!" (1975) added yet another Nebula and Hugo award to his collection.
Leiber was heavily influenced by [[H.P. Lovecraft]] and [[Robert Graves]] in the first two decades of his career. From the late Fifties onwards, he was increasingly influenced by the works of [[Carl Jung]], particularly by the concepts of the [[anima (Jung)| anima]] and the [[shadow (psychology)|shadow]]. Often, these concepts are mentioned openly in his stories, especially the anima, which becomes a method of exploring his fascination but estrangement from the female.
In the last years of his life, Leiber married his second wife, Margo Skinner, a journalist and poet with whom he had been friends for many years. Many people believed that Leiber was living in poverty on skid row, but the truth of the matter was that Leiber preferred to live simply in the city, spending his money on dining, movies and travel. In the last years of his life, royalty cheques from TSR, the makers of Dungeons and Dragons, who had licensed the mythos of the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser series, were enough in themselves to ensure that he lived comfortably.
Leiber's death occurred a few weeks after a physical collapse while travelling from a science-fiction convention in Toronto with Skinner. The cause of his death was given as "senile decay."
Fans awarded him the [[Gandalf Award|Gandalf]] (Grand Master) award at the [[Worldcon|World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[1975]], and in [[1981]] the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] voted him the recipient of their Grand Master award.
He was also a member of the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA)]], a loose-knit group of [[Heroic fantasy|Heroic Fantasy]] authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in [[Lin Carter|Lin Carter's]] ''[[Flashing Swords!]]'' anthologies.
He wrote a short [[autobiography]], which can be found in the collection ''The Ghost Light'' ([[1984]]). A critical biography, "Witches of the Mind" by Bruce Byfield, is available from Necronomicon Press, and an essay examining his literary relationship with Lovecraft appears in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s ''The Evolution of the Weird Tale'' (2004). Leiber's own literary criticism, including several ground-breaking essays on Lovecraft, was collected in the volume ''Fafhrd and Me'' (1990), published by Wildside Press.
He also acted in a few [[film]]s, once with his father in [[RKO]]'s ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' ([[1939]]).
==Other notable works==
* ''The Green Millennium''
* ''[[Conjure Wife]]'' - This novel relates a college professor's discovery that his wife (and all other women) are regularly using [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] against one another and their husbands. It was filmed three times:
** ''Weird Woman'' ([[1944]])
** ''Burn Witch, Burn'' (aka ''Night of the Eagle'') ([[1962]])
** ''Witches' Brew'' (aka ''Which Witch is Which?'') ([[1980]])
* ''[[Gather, Darkness!]]''
* ''The Dealings of Daniel Kesserich''
* ''[[Our Lady of Darkness]]''
==List of short stories==
;1939
:"The Jewels in the Forest"
:"Two Sought Adventure"
;1940
:"The Automatic Pistol"
:"The Bleak Shore"
;1941
:"The Howling Tower"
:"The Power of the Puppets"
:"Smoke Ghost"
:"They Never Come Back"
;1942
:"The Hill and the Hole"
:"The Hound"
:"The Inheritance"
:"The Phantom Slayer"
:"Power of the Puppets"
:"Spider Mansion"
:"The Sunken Land"
;1943
:"Conjure Wife"
:"The Mutant's Brother"
:"Thieves' House"
:"To Make a Roman Holiday"
;1944
:"Business of Killing"
:"Crazy Wolf"
:"Sanity"
:"Taboo"
:"Thought"
;1945
:"Destiny Times Three"
:"The Dreams of Albert Moreland"
:"Wanted - An Enemy"
;1946
:"Alice and the Allergy"
:"Mr. Bauer and the Atoms"
;1947
:"Adept's Gambit"
:"The Diary in the Snow"
:"Diary in the Snow"
:"The Man Who Never Grew Young"
;1949
:"The Girl with the Hungry Eyes"
:"In the X-Ray"
;1950
:"The Black Ewe"
:"Coming Attraction"
:"The Dead Man"
:"The Enchanted Forest"
:"Later Than You Think"
:"Let Freedom Ring"
:"The Lion and the Lamb"
:"Martians, Keep Out!"
:"The Ship Sails at Midnight"
:"The Wolf Pack"
:"You're All Alone"
;1951
:"Appointment in Tomorrow"
:"Claws from the Night"
:"Cry Witch!"
:"Dark Vengeance"
:"Nice Girl with Five Husbands"
:"A Pail of Air"
:"Poor Superman"
:"When the Last Gods Die"
;1952
:"Dr. Kometevsky's Day"
:"The Foxholes of Mars"
:"I'm Looking for "Jeff""
:"The Moon Is Green"
:"Yesterday House"
;1953
:"A Bad Day for Sales"
:"The Big Holiday"
:"The Night He Cried"
:"The Seven Black Priests"
;1954
:"The Silence Game"
;1957
:"The Big Trek"
:"Femmequin 973"
:"Friends and Enemies"
:"Last"
:"Time Fighter"
:"Time in the Round"
:"What's He Doing in There?"
;1958
:"Bread Overhead"
:"Bullet With His Name"
:"A Deskful of Girls"
:"The Last Letter"
:"Little Old Miss Macbeth"
:"The Number of the Beast"
:"Rump-Titty-Titty-Tum-TAH-Tee"
:"Space-Time for Springers"
:"Try and Change the Past"
;1959
:"Damnation Morning"
:"The Haunted Future"
:"The Improper Authorities"
:"Lean Times in Lankhmar"
:"The Mind Spider"
:"Our Saucer Vacation"
:"Pipe Dream"
:"The Reward"
:"Schizo Jimmie"
:"The Silver Eggheads"
;1960
:"All the Weed in the World"
:"Deadly Moon"
:"Mariana"
:"The Night of the Long Knives"
:"The Oldest Soldier"
:"When the Sea-King's Away"
:"The Wolf Pair"
;1961
:"The Beat Cluster"
:"The Goggles of Dr. Dragonet"
:"Hatchery of Dreams"
:"Kreativity for Kats"
:"Scream Wolf"
:"Scylla's Daughter"
;1962
:"The 64-Square Madhouse"
:"Be of Good Cheer"
:"The Big Engine"
:"A Bit of the Dark World"
:"The Creature from Cleveland Depths"
:"The Lone Wolf"
:"The Man Who Made Friends with Electricity"
:"Myths My Great-Granddaughter Taught Me"
:"The Secret Songs"
:"The Snowbank Orbit"
:"The Thirteenth Step"
:"The Unholy Grail"
;1963
:"237 Talking Statues, Etc."
:"Bazaar of the Bizarre"
:"The Casket-Demon"
:"The Cloud of Hate"
:"Dr. Adams' Garden of Evil"
:"Game for Motel Room"
:"A Hitch in Space"
:"Kindergarten"
:"No Great Magic"
:"The Spider"
:"Success"
:"X Marks the Pedwalk"
;1964
:"The Black Gondolier"
:"Four Ghosts in Hamlet"
:"Lie Still, Snow White"
:"Midnight in the Mirror World"
:"When the Change-Winds Blow"
;1965
:"Cyclops"
:"Far Reach to Cygnus"
:"The Good New Days"
:"Knight to Move"
:"Moon Duel"
:"Stardock"
;1966
:"The Crystal Prison"
:"Sunk Without Trace"
:"To Arkham and the Stars"
;1967
:"Answering Service"
:"Black Corridor"
:"Gonna Roll The Bones"
:"The Inner Circles"
:"The Winter Flies"
;1968
:"Crazy Annaoj"
:"In the Witch's Tent"
:"One Station of the Way"
:"The Square Root of Brain"
:"Their Mistress, the Sea"
:"The Turned-off Heads"
:"The Two Best Thieves in Lankhmar"
:"When Brahma Wakes"
:"The Wrong Branch"
;1969
:"Endfray of the Ofay"
:"Richmond, Late September, 1849"
:"Ship of Shadows"
:"When They Openly Walk"
;1970
:"America the Beautiful"
:"The Circle Curse"
:"Ill Met in Lankhmar"
:"The Price of Pain-Ease"
:"The Snow Women"
;1971
:"Gold, Black, and Silver"
;1972
:"Another Cask of Wine"
:"The Bump"
:"Day Dark, Night Bright"
:"The Lotus Eaters"
;1973
:"The Bait"
:"Cat Three"
:"The Sadness of the Executioner"
:"Trapped in the Shadowland"
;1974
:"Beauty and the Beasts"
:"Cat's Cradle"
:"Do You Know Dave Wenzel?"
:"Midnight by the Morphy Watch"
:"Mysterious Doings in the Metropolitan Museum"
:"Waif"
;1975
:"Belsen Express"
:"Catch That Zeppelin!"
:"The Glove"
:"Night Passage"
:"Trapped in the Sea of Stars"
:"Under the Thumbs of the Gods"
;1976
:"Dark Wings"
:"The Death of Princes"
:"The Eeriest Ruined Dawn World"
:"The |
kernel with EMS emulation, and no, it isn't kernel.exe (that and all Windows applications were still real mode applications, running over the protected mode kernel by using virtual 8086 mode, which is new to the 80386 and not only that, even DOS applications ran over it), it is win386.exe.
Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced legal challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the "look and feel" of its operating system and "embodie[d] and generate[d] a copy of the Macintosh" in its OS. Judge [[William Schwarzer]] dropped all but 10 of the 189 charges that Apple had sued Microsoft with on [[January 5]] [[1989]].
== Success with Windows 3.0==
Microsoft Windows scored a serious success with [[Windows 3.0]], released in [[1990]]. In addition to improved capabilities given to native applications, Windows also allowed a user to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of [[virtual memory]]. It made PC compatibles serious competitors to the Apple Macintosh. This benefited from the improved graphics available on PCs by this time (by means of VGA video cards), and the Protected/Enhanced mode which allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in any of Real, Standard or 386 Enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the [[Intel_8086|8086]]/[[Intel_8088|8088]] up to [[Intel_80286|80286]] & [[Intel_80386|80386]]. Windows tried to auto detect which mode to run in, although it could be forced to run in a specific mode using the switches: /r [[Real_mode|(real)]], /s [[standard_mode|(standard)]] and /3 ([[386 enhanced mode|386 enhanced]]) respectively. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel (again, it is not krnl386.exe, that was a program that ran in [[ring 3]] of protected mode, and switched to that mode through [[DPMI]], it is win386.exe) was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.
Due to this backwards compatibility, applications also had to be compiled in a 16-bit environment, without ever using the full 32-bit capabilities of the 386 CPU.
A limited multimedia version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released several months later. This was bundled with the first sound card / CD-ROM multimedia kits e.g. Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro along with titles such as MS Bookshelf. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in v3.1 later.
However, the features listed above, as well as the growing market support made Windows 3.0 wildly successful&mdash;selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1, Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans.
== A step sideways: OS/2 ==
During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had co-operatively been developing [[OS/2]] as a successor to DOS, to take full advantage of the aforementioned Protected Mode of the [[Intel 80286]] processor, to allow use of up to 16M of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.
A [[GUI]], called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Although some considered it to be in many ways superior to Windows, its [[application programming interface|API]] was incompatible with Windows. (Among other things, Presentation Manager placed X,Y coordinate 0,0 at the ''bottom'' left of the screen like [[Cartesian coordinates]], while Windows put 0,0 at the ''top'' left of the screen like most other computer window systems.) Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new [[file system]], [[HPFS]], to replace the DOS [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] file system used by Windows.
By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship. They co-operated with each other in developing their PC operating systems, and had access to each other's code. Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed OS/2 2.0.
This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to [[Windows NT]]. Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below).
After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the [[Intel 80386]]. Still, much of the system still had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code as well. This was one of the reasons for the almost chronic bad supply of OS/2 with up-to-date device support. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup.
At the time, it was unclear who would win the so-called "Desktop wars". But in the end, OS/2 did not manage to gain enough market share, even though IBM released several improved versions subsequently (see below).
== Windows 3.1 and NT ==
[[Image:MS Windows logo.png|right|200px|Windows 3.1x logo]]
[[Image:Windows_3.11_workspace.png|thumbnail|300px|Typical Windows 3.11 desktop]]
In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed [[Windows 3.1x#Windows 3.1|Windows 3.1]], which included several minor improvements to Windows 3.0 (such as display of [[TrueType]] scalable fonts, developed jointly with Apple), but primarily consisted of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also removed support for Real mode, and would only run on a [[80286]] or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992. Around the same time, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups included improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking. One optional download for WfW was the 'Wolverine' TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks. There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike the previous versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 only runs in 386 Enhanced mode, and requires at least an [[80386]]SX processor.
All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the [[IBM PC]]. The [[Windows API]] became the de-facto standard for consumer software.
Meanwhile Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. Microsoft hired [[Dave Cutler]], one of the chief architects of [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] at [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (later purchased by [[Compaq]], now part of [[Hewlett-Packard]]) to develop NT into a more capable operating system. Cutler had been developing a follow-on to [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] at [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and some engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued. Microsoft eventually paid $150 million US and agreed to support DEC's [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] CPU chip in NT.
Windows NT 3.1 (Microsoft marketing desired to make Windows NT appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July [[1992]] [[Professional Developers Conference]] in [[San Francisco]]. Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (code-named Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed [[Cairo (operating system)|Cairo]]. (In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated, and as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until [[Windows XP]], and still, parts of Cairo have not made it into Windows as of today. Specifically, the WinFS subsystem, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo, has now been put on hold, and will not be released with Longhorn/Vista).
Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited h |
ics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2006]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. pop.
| [[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 40th]]<br />527,216<br />148 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 24th]]<br />524,887
|-
! Ethnicity
| 99.0% White, of which 6.8% [[Cornish people|Cornish]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Politics
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;" | Cornwall County Council<br />http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/
|-
! Executive
| [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
* [[Julia Goldsworthy]]
* [[Dan Rogerson]]
* [[Colin Breed]]
* [[Andrew George]]
* [[Matthew Taylor (politician)|Matthew Taylor]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Districts
|-
| colspan=2 | <center>[[Image:CornwallScillyNumbered.png]]</center>
#[[Penwith]]
#[[Kerrier]]
#[[Carrick, Cornwall|Carrick]]
#[[Restormel]]
#[[Caradon]]
#[[North Cornwall]]
#[[Isles of Scilly]] (Unitary)
|}
{{infobox England traditional county|
|County= Cornwall
|Image= [[Image:EnglandCornwallTrad.png]]
|SizeRank= 15th
|Size= 863,065 acres
|Water= ?
|CountyTown= [[Truro]]
|ChapmanCode=CON
|detailedImage=
}}
'''Cornwall''' ([[Cornish language|Cornish]]: ''Kernow'') is a [[metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|county]] on [[England]]'s [[South West England|south west]] peninsula that lies to the west of the [[River Tamar]]. In the 20th century there has been a revival of the Cornish language and there has been some debate over the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]].
The [[county town|administrative centre]] and only [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] is [[Truro]]. Including the [[Isles of Scilly]], located 28 miles (45 km) offshore, Cornwall covers an area of 1,376 [[square mile]]s (3,563 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]). There is a population of 513,527 with a population density of 144 people per square kilometre (373/mi²) {{ref|population}}. Tourism forms a significant part of the local economy. However, it is the poorest area in the United Kingdom with the lowest contribution to the national economy. [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=582]
==History==
:{{main|History of Cornwall}}
The history of Cornwall begins with the pre-Roman inhabitants, including speakers of a Celtic language that would develop into [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] and [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. After a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule, Cornwall reverted to independent Celtic chieftains. The [[Latin language|Roman]] term for the tribe which inhabited what is now Cornwall at the time of Roman rule, the ''Cornovii'', was derived from a Brythonic tribal name which gave modern [[Cornish language|Cornish]] ''Kernow''. (For other examples of the survival of Brythonic names noted by the Romans, see [[Dyfed]] / [[Demetae]], [[Cantiaci]] / [[Kent]] , [[Gwynedd]] / ''Veneti'' and [[Durotriges]] / [[Dorset]].) The present [[English language|English language]] name of the region derives from suffixing of Old English [[Germanic placenames|''wealhas'']] ("foreigners, Britons") to the Celtic name.
The site of ancient ''Belerion'', Cornwall was the principal source of [[tin]] for the [[civilisation]]s of the ancient [[Mediterranean]], and at one time the Cornish were the world's foremost experts at [[mining]]. As Cornwall's reserves of tin began to be exhausted many Cornishmen emigrated to places such as the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa where their skills were in demand. The [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] is attributed to tin miners. The tin mines in Cornwall are now worked-out at current prices, but the expertise and culture of the Cornish tin miners lives on in a number of places around the world. It is said that, wherever you may go in the world, if you see a hole in the ground, you will find a Cornishman at the bottom of it. Several Cornish mining words are in use in English language mining terminology, such as [[costean]], [[gunnies]], and [[vug]].
Since the decline of tin mining, agriculture and fishing, the area's economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism &mdash; some of Great Britain's most spectacular coastal scenery can be found here. Nevertheless, Cornwall remains the poorest part of the United Kingdom and it has been granted [[Objective 1]] status by the [[EU]]. A political party, [[Mebyon Kernow]], MK, or 'Sons of Cornwall', was formed in [[1951]] to attempt to assert some degree of autonomy (see [[Cornish nationalism]]); while the flag of [[St Piran]] is seen increasingly across Cornwall at protests, demonstrations and generally, the party has not achieved significant success at the ballot box, although they do have a number of district councillors. Two of the current MPs to [[Westminster]] &mdash; [[Andrew George]], MP for [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]]; and [[Dan Rogerson]], MP for [[North Cornwall]] &mdash; repeated their Parliamentary oaths in Cornish. Further, there is a caucus of local county councillors who are well known locally for their persistent advocacy of Cornwall's political uniqueness.
==Physical geography==
Cornwall, being exposed to the full force of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], is composed entirely of [[resistance (geology)|resistant]] rocks, as less resistant rocks have been [[erosion|eroded]] away. The centre of the county is largely [[Devonian]] [[sandstone]] and [[slate]]. The north east of the county lies on [[Carboniferous]] sandstone. Cornwall is particularly known for its [[igneous]] outcrops, which include the [[granite]] of [[Bodmin Moor]] and the areas around [[Camborne]] and [[Land's End]], and the dark green [[serpentine]] of the [[Lizard Peninsula]]. The granite forms high treeless moors on which [[domestic sheep|sheep]] graze, and the characteristic Cornish cliffs.
Bude and Crackington Haven on the North Cornish coast have given their names to two geological formations &mdash; the Bude formation and the Crackington formation. When a tablecloth is pushed inwards, it folds upwards and overlaps; and that it has the spectacular overlapping strata of the cliffs of Bude and Crackington Haven were created during the Carboniferous era. Also of geological importance is the Lizard Peninsula; it contains metamorphic rocks from the [[Precambrian era]] (around 640 million years ago in this case) making it the oldest piece of rock in Cornwall.
Cornwall is the southernmost part of [[Great Britain]], and therefore has a relatively warm and sunny [[climate]]. However, being unprotected from the Atlantic it also has more extreme weather. The average annual temperature for most of the county is 10.2 to 12 degrees [[Celsius]] (50 to 54 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]), with slightly lower temperatures on the moors {{ref|av_temp}}. The county has relatively high rainfall, though less than more northern areas of the west coast, at 1051 to 1290 [[millimeter|mm]] (41.4 to 50.8 [[inch|in]]) per year {{ref|av_rainfall}}. Most of the county enjoys over 1541 [[hour]]s of sunshine per year {{ref|av_sunshine}}.
==Politics==
[[Image:StIvesHarbour Lifeboat.JPG|thumb|200px|St Ives harbour.]]
Parliamentary representation for Cornwall is dominated by the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. Currently all five of the Cornish MPs are Liberal Democrat. The local councils also have a large portion of Lib Dem members. Most local Liberal Democrat MPs and councillors strongly support moves for Cornish devolution, as do some [[Welsh nationalism|Welsh nationalists]].
Although Cornwall is administered as a county of England, an independence movement exists that seeks more autonomy. Additionally some groups and individuals question the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]] and its relation to the [[Duchy of Cornwall]]. Cornish nationalists have organised into two political parties: Mebyon Kernow and the [[Cornish Nationalist Party]]. In addition to the political parties the Cornish [[Stannary Parliament]] acts as a pressure group on Cornish constitutional issues and Cornwall 2000 the [[Human Rights]] organisation works with Cornish cultural issues.
In November 2000 the Cornish Constitutional Convention was formed. It is a cross-party organisation including representatives from the private, public and voluntary sectors, of all political parties and none.
Between [[5 March]] [[2000]] and December 2001, the campaign for a Cornish Assembly collected the signatures of 41,650 Cornish residents endorsing the Declaration for a Cornish Assembly, in total 50,546 including people outside Cornwall. The [[British government]] however has no plans to devolve more power to Cornwall.
==Flag==
[[Image:Flag of Cornwall.svg|thumb|[[Saint Piran's Flag]]]]
There is some dispute about whether the patron saint of Cornwall is [[Saint Michael]], [[Saint Petroc]] or [[Saint Piran]]. Saint Piran is the most popular of the three; his emblem (a vertical white cross on a black background) is recognised as the flag of Cornwall, and his day ([[5 March|March 5]]) is celebrated by Cornish people around the world. The [[Saint Piran's Flag]] features on the packaging for Ginster's [[Pasty|Cornish pasties]] to advertise their status as a Cornwall-based company.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Brown Willy Bodmin Moor.jpg|thumb|200px|Brown Willy on Bodmin Moor.]]
Cornwall's [[population]] is 513,527, and [[population density]] 144 people per square kilometre, ranking it 40th and 41st respectively compared to the other 47 counties of England. Cornwall has a relatively high level of population growth, however, at 11.2% in the [[1980s]] and 5.3% in the [[1990s]], giving it the fifth highest |
ineering.
*class diagram auto layout
*'To do' items saved for persistent cognitive support
*PNG, GIF, JPG, SVG, EPS file generation from diagrams
*fully configurable explorer perspective configurations
*usability driven property panels
*support for comments for multiple elements
*all UML 1.4 diagrams are supported
==See also==
*[[List of UML tools]]
*[[Poseidon for UML]] - a commercial descendant of ArgoUML
==External links==
*[http://argouml.tigris.org Official ArgoUML website]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Java platform software]]
[[Category:UML tools]]
[[pt:ArgoUML]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File archiver</title>
<id>2900</id>
<revision>
<id>36708456</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T23:03:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Florin Clapa</username>
<id>81584</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed dummy edit and correct [[Special:Contributions/24.141.254.148|24.141.254.148 link]] in edit summary</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''file archiver''' combines a number of [[computer file|file]]s together into one '''archive file''', or a series of archive files, for easier transportation or storage. Many file archivers use [[lossless data compression]] in order to reduce the archive's size.
The most basic archivers just take a list of files and concatenate their contents sequentially into the archive. In addition the archive must also contain some information about at least the names and lengths of the originals, so that proper reconstruction is possible. Most archivers also store [[meta-data]] about a file that the [[operating system]] provides, such as timestamps, ownership and access control.
The process of making an archive file is called ''archiving'' or ''packing''. Reconstructing the original files from the archive is termed ''unarchiving'', ''unpacking'' or ''extracting''.
== Popular archive formats ==
Ubiquitous amongst [[Unix]] and Unix-like [[operating system]]s is the [[tar file format]] ("'''t'''ape '''ar'''chive"). Originally intended for transferring files to and from tape, it is still used on disk-based storage to combine files before they are compressed. Other Unix-originated formats include [[ar (Unix)|ar]] and [[shar (file format)|shar]].
On [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] platforms, the most widely-used archive format by far is [[ZIP file format|ZIP]]; other popular formats are [[RAR]], [[ACE (file format)|ACE]] and [[ARJ]]. On [[Amiga]]s, the standard archive format is [[LHA (file format)|LHA]], while on Apple [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, [[Stuffit]] is among the most common.
=== Unix ===
Unlike integrated archival and compression tools like ZIP and RAR, the [[Unix]] tools '''ar''', '''tar''', '''cpio''' (for "archiver", "tape archiver, and "copy in/out", respectively) act as archivers but not compressors. Users of the Unix tools typically add compression by compressing the result of packing (and uncompressing before unpacking), most often using the [[gzip]] or [[bzip2]] programs. In fact modern '''tar''' programs include an option to automatically call a (de)compression program, so that it looks just as if tar itself could handle compressed archives. This approach has two advantages:
*It follows the [[Unix philosophy|Unix toolbox]] concept that each program should accomplish a ''single'' but well-done task. Once a better compressor is developed, users may use that immediately, without having to give up their archiver.
*Since the whole archive is compressed, redundancy between archived files can be detected and eliminated. An archiver compressing each archived file in isolation cannot exploit these inter-file redundancy.
Its main disadvantage is that extracting one file from a compressed archive requires all the files before it to be decompressed, which may take many minutes for a large archive. Altering the underlying archive is even more inconvenient, requiring the entire file to be uncompressed, altered and then recompressed. Archivers with integrated compression perform these operations much more quickly.
==See also==
*[[List of archive formats]]
*[[List of file archivers]]
*[[Comparison of file archivers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>African Rap</title>
<id>2902</id>
<revision>
<id>15901283</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-13T00:53:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[African hip hop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Diary of Anne Frank</title>
<id>2903</id>
<revision>
<id>22434476</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-02T23:51:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yallery Brown</username>
<id>301329</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The_Diary_of_a_Young_Girl]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al-Quabail Mountains</title>
<id>2904</id>
<revision>
<id>15901285</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-09T01:10:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BillyH</username>
<id>48653</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Proper Redirect.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qabail Mountains]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artemis</title>
<id>2905</id>
<revision>
<id>42151528</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:58:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.183.221.69</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Orion */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Diane_de_Versailles_Leochares.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The "Artemis of Versailles", a Roman copy of a [[Hellenistic]] marble sculpture, now at the [[Louvre Museum]].]]
[[Greek mythology]] '''Artemis''' ([[World Book]] ''«AHR tuh mihs»'') (Greek '''{{unicode|&#x1F08;}}ρτεμις''') is the daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]] and the twin sister of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]. In later times she was conflated with the [[goddess]] [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] of [[Roman mythology]]. In [[Etruscan mythology]], she took the form of [[Artume]].
== Worship ==
[[Image:Temple_of_Artemis.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Temple of Artemis, engraving by [[Martin Heemskerck]].]]
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
She was the virgin [[moon goddess]] of the hunt, wild animals, healing, wilderness, chastity, and [[childbirth]]. She was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in many places since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. At some point in the [[classical antiquity|Classical period]], she was identified by some with [[Hecate]], the primal, pre-Olympian feral goddess. She much later became more identified with and eventually supplanted [[Selene]] as the [[moon goddess]] to complement her twin's identification with and supplantation of [[Helios]] as the [[sun god]]. Artemis also assimilated [[Caryatis]] ([[Carya]]).
Her priestesses were addressed with the title [[Melissa]], which means "honey bee".
Artemis was not worshipped heavily in much of mainland [[Greece]]. In [[Asia Minor]], however, she was a principal deity. The city of Ephesus is probably the best known of the Asian centers of her worship, from the story in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], where the Ephesian metalsmiths who feel threatened by Paul's preaching of the new faith, zealously riot in her defense, shouting "Great is Diana of the Ephesians!" (''Acts 19:28'' KJV) In [[Roman Empire|Rome]], she was heavily venerated at [[Mount Tifata]] near [[Capua]] and in holy forests (such as [[Aricia]], [[Latium]]) Her high priest lived in Aricia; his position was passed to the person who was able to kill him with a bough, picked from a tree in the forest.
Festivals in honor of Artemis include [[Brauronia]], held in [[Brauron]] and the festival of [[Artemis Orthia]] in [[Sparta]].
Young girls were initiated into the cult of Artemis at puberty. However, before marrying (an event in which they had little say, and which occurred shortly after puberty), they were asked to lay all the accoutrements of virginity (toys, dolls, locks of their hair) on an altar to Artemis.
=== Diana ===
Diana was worshipped in a temple on the [[Aventine Hill]] where mainly lower-class citizens and slaves worshipped her. Slaves could ask for and receive asylum in her temples.
She was worshipped at a festival on [[August 13]].
Her name may have come from ''diviana'' ("the shining one").
It is often presumed that defeated peoples become a substratum beneath that of their conquerors. It seems plausible that the association of Diana worship with slaves may reflect the conquest of Goddess worshippers by, presumably, the early Romans.
=== Artemis in art ===
[[Image:Statue_of_Artemis_Ephesus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Statue of Artemis, [[Ephesus]], [[Turkey]].]]
In art, she was typically portrayed with a crescent moon above her head and her bow and arrows, created by [[Hephaestus]] and the [[Cyclopes]]. These arrows, in contrast to her role as goddess of childbirth, were said to be the cause of women dying in childbirth. Her brother [[Apollo]] exhibited contradiction as well, as he was a god of healing who brought [[leprosy]], [[rabies]] and [[gout]].
[[Image:Artemis breasts.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Closeup of statue of Artemis from Asia Minor, now in the [[Vatican Museums]], [[Rome]].]]
In [[Ephesus]], the [[Temple of Artemis]] became one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]. In Ephesus, and elsewhere in Asia Minor, she was worshipped primarily as an earth and fertility goddess, akin to [[Cybele]], unlike in mainland Greece. Statues in Greece depict her with her bow and arrow. In Asia Minor, she was often depicted wit |
clearly underscored by the Mayo Clinic. Since the late 1990s, much research has been carried out to determine how meditation affects the brain (for more information see the main article on meditation). While the effects on the mind are somewhat complex, they are often quite positive, encouraging a calm, [[reflective]] and [[rational]] state of mind which can be of great help against depression. It's notable that while many [[religion]]s actively encourage/use meditative practice, it is not necessary to be a member of any faith to partake in meditation.
===Old methods===
'''Insulin shock treatment''' is an old and currently mostly abandoned treatment of severe depressions, [[psychoses]], [[Catatonia|catatonic states]] and other [[mental disorders]]. It consists of induction of [[hypoglycemic coma]] by [[intravenous infusion]] of [[insulin]]. The treatment is potentially unsafe and can be lethal in some cases (about 1% of patients undergoing [[insulin coma]]), even with proper monitoring. That was the main reason why it was abandoned from current medical practice. In contrast, [[ECT]] is considered to be very safe.
Nevertheless, insulin shock therapy is still officially used in [[Russia]] and some other countries, and can be administered to a very treatment-resistant patient under his written consent in many [[Western countries]].
'''Atropinic shock therapy''', also known as atropinic coma therapy, is an old and currently rarely-used method. It consists of induction of [[atropinic coma]] by rapid intravenous infusion of [[atropine]].
The atropinic shock treatment is considered relatively safe but the problem with its administration is that it requires prolonged coma (4-5 hours), careful monitoring and preparation, and it has many unpleasant side effects, like blurred vision due to [[atropine]]. Thus it is rarely used now. But it can be used under written consent in Western countries in some very treatment-resistant cases, and is still officially used in Russia and some other countries.
== Relapse ==
[[Relapse]] is more likely if treatment has not resulted in the full remission of symptoms.<sup>[[Clinical depression#References|4]]</sup> In fact, current guidelines for antidepressant use recommend 4 to 6 months of continuing treatment following symptom resolution to prevent relapse of depression.
Combined evidence from many [[randomized controlled trials]] indicates that continuing antidepressant medications after recovery substantially reduces (halves) the chances of relapse. This preventative effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use.{{ref|oldref_7}}
Some anecdotal evidence exists to suggest that chronic disease is accompanied by relapses after prolonged treatment with antidepressants ([[Tachyphylaxis]]). Psychiatric texts suggest that physicians respond to this by increasing dosage, complementing the medication with a different class, or changing the medication class entirely. The reason for relapse in these cases is as poorly understood as the change in brain physiology induced by the medications themselves. Possible reasons may include ageing of the brain or worsening of the condition. Most SSRI psychiatric medications were developed for short term use (a year or less), but are widely prescribed for indefinite periods.[http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990301-000032.html] <!-- A reference was finally cited for this claim; I had to guess whether the "these drugs" in the sentence in question referred to anti-depressants or to SSRIs specifically; I took the conservative interpretation. -->
==See also==
* [[Beck Depression Inventory]]
* [[Bipolar disorder]]
* [[Chemical imbalance theory]]
* [[Cyclothymia]]
* [[Dysthymia]]
* [[Hamilton Depression Rating Scale]]
* [[Hypoadrenia]] (also covers 'adrenal exhaustion', sometimes called 'adrenal fatigue')
* [[Learned helplessness]]
* [[List of people who have suffered from depression]]
* [[Mania]]
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]
* [[Seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD)
* [[Stress (medicine)|Stress]]
== Books ==
=== Books by psychologists/psychiatrists ===
* Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1987). ''Cognitive therapy of depression''. New York: Guilford.
* Burns, David D. (1999). ''Feeling Good : The New Mood Therapy''. Avon.
* Klein, D. F., & Wender, P. H. (1993). ''Understanding depression: A complete guide to its diagnosis and treatment''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Kramer, Peter D (2005). ''Against Depression''. New York: Viking Adult
* Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). ''Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy''. New York: Basic Books.
* Sarbadhikari S. N. (2005).Ed, ''Depression and Dementia:Progress in Brain Research, Clinical Applications and Future Trends''. Hauppauge, Nova Science Publishers. [http://novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=232] ISBN 1-59454-114-0
=== Books by persons suffering or having suffered from depression ===
* Wurtzel, E. (1997) ''Prozac Nation: Young and Depressed in America: A Memoir.'' Riverhead Books. ISBN 1573225126
* Lewinsohn, P. M., Munoz, R. F, Youngren, M. A., Zeiss, A. M. (1992). ''Control your depression''. New York: Fireside/Simon&Schuster.
* [[Agate Nesaule|Nesaule, Agate]] (1995). ''A Woman in Amber: Healing the Trauma of War and Exile'' New York: Penguin Books.
*: ISBN 1-56947-046-4 (hc.); 0 14 02.6190 7 (pbk.)
* Rowe, Dorothy (2003). ''Depression: The way out of your prison''. London: Brunner-Routledge.
* Sealey, Robert (2002). ''Finding Care for Depression, Mental Episodes & Brain Disorders'', Toronto: Sear Publications www.searpubl.ca
* Shields, Brooke (2005). ''Down Came the Rain: My Journey Through Postpartum Depression''. Hyperion. ISBN: 1401301894.
* Smith, Jeffery (2001). ''Where the roots reach for water: A personal and natural history of melancholia''. New York: North Point Press.
* Solomon, Andrew (2001). ''The noonday demon: An atlas of depression''. New York: Scribner.
* [[William Styron|Styron, William]] (1992). ''Darkness visible: A memoir of madness''. New York: Vintage Books/Random House.
* [[Lewis Wolpert|Wolpert, Lewis]] (2001). ''Malignant sadness: The anatomy of depression''. London: Faber and Faber.
* [[Eckhart Tolle|Tolle, Eckhart]] (1999). ''The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment'', New World Library, October, 1999 ISBN 1577311523 (HC) ISBN 1577314808 (PB)
==Sources==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
-->
#{{Note|Schildkraut}} {{cite journal
| last = Schildkraut | first = J.J.
| date = 1965
| title = The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: a review of supporting evidence
| journal = Am J Psychiatry
| volume = 122 | issue = 5 | pages = 509-22
}}
#{{Note|Hirschfeld}} {{cite journal
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10775017&query_hl=34&itool=pubmed_docsum
| last = Hirschfeld | first = R.M.A
| date = 2000
| title = History and Evolution of the Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression
| journal = J Clin Psychiatry
| volume = 61 | issue = Suppl. 6 | pages = 4-6
}}
# {{Note|oldref_1}} {{cite journal
| url = http://www.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/PDF/1997/May/BLAND.pdf
| last = Bland | first = R.C.
| date = 1997
| title = Epidemiology of Affective Disorders: A Review
| journal = Can J Psychiatry
| volume = 42 | pages = 367–377
}}
# {{Note|oldref_5}} {{cite journal
| last = Murray | first = C.J.L.
| coauthors = Lopez, A.D.
| date = 1997
| title = Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global Burden of Disease Study
| journal = Lancet
| volume = 349 | pages = 1498–1504
}}
# {{note|manev}} {{cite journal
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15581413&query_hl=7
| title = 5-Lipoxygenase as a putative link between cardiovascular and psychiatric disorders
| last = Manev | first = R
| coauthors = Manev H
| journal = Critical Reviews in Neurobiology
| date = 2004 | volume = 16 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 181–6
}}
# {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book
| first = Felicity
| last = Lawrence
| year = 2004
| title = Not on the Label
| chapter = The Ready Meal
| editor = Kate Barker
| pages = 214
| publisher = Penguin
| id = ISBN 0-141-01566-7
}}
# {{note|durham}} {{cite web
| title = Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement
| url = http://www.durhamtrial.org/
| accessdate = January
| accessyear = 2004
}}
# {{Note|oldref_2}} {{cite journal
| first = Roberto | last = Delle Chiaie
| coauthors = Paolo Pancheri and Pierluigi Scapicchio
| year = 2002
| title = Efficacy and tolerability of oral and intramuscular S-adenosyl- L-methionine 1,4-butanedisulfonate (SAMe) in the treatment of major depression: comparison with imipramine in 2 multicenter studies
| journal = Am J Clin Nutr
| volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 1172S–1176S
}}
# {{Note|oldref_3}} {{cite journal
| last = Mischoulon
| first = D
| coauthors = Fava M.
| year = 2002
| title = Role of S-adenosyl-L-methionine in the treatment of depression: a review of the evidence
| journal = Am J Clin Nutr
| volume = 76
| issue = 5
| pages = 1158S–61S
|
ings of insanity, madness, and fantasy. The style of these ''[[Black Paintings]]'' prefigure the [[Expressionism|expressionist]] movement. He often painted himself into the foreground.
[[Image:nudemaja.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[La Maja Desnuda|''The Nude Maja'']].]]
[[Image:clotmaja.JPG|thumb|200px|right|''The Clothed Maja.'']]
Two of Goya's best known paintings are [[La Maja Desnuda|''The Nude Maja'' (''La Maja desnuda'')]] and ''The Clothed Maja'' (''La Maja vestida''). They depict the same woman in the same pose, naked and clothed respectively. He painted ''La Maja Vestida'' after outrage in Spanish society over the previous ''Desnuda''. He refused to paint clothes on her, and instead created a new painting. (See also: [[Majo]].)
In ''[[The Third of May 1808|The Third of May, 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid]]'', Goya attempted to "perpetuate by the means of his brush the most notable and heroic actions of our glorious insurrection against the Tyrant of Europe"<ref>Francisco Goya, quoted at [http://www.artchive.com/artchive/G/goya/may_3rd.jpg.html Artchive].</ref> The painting does not show an incident that Goya witnessed; rather it was meant as more abstract commentary.
Another familiar Goya work is ''Saturn Devouring His Son'', which displays a [[Classical mythology|Greco-Roman]] [[mythological]] scene of the god [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] consuming a child. This painting is one of 14 in a series called the ''[[Black Paintings]].
In 1799 he created a series of 80 prints titled ''[[Los Caprichos]]'' depicting what he called "the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual."[http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp]
{{expandsection}}
==Cinema==
[[image:GoyaBordeaux.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Remembrance plaque for Goya in Bordeaux]]
Several films portray Goya's life:
* {{imdb title|id=0210717|title=Goya in Bordeaux (1999)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0216386|title=Volavérunt (1999)}}
*''[[Goya's Ghosts]]'' (2006) In production
==References==
<references />
* ''Goya'' (a biographical novel) by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]] ISBN 8476408838
* ''Goya'' by [[Robert Studley Forrest Hughes|Robert Hughes]], 2003, ISBN 1843430541
==External links==
{{quote}}
{{Commons|Francisco de Goya y Lucientes}}
* [http://eeweems.com/goya/index.html Goya images, biography and resources]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/G/goya/goya.html Goya at Olga's Gallery]
* [http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Goya__Caprichos.pdf ''Los Caprichos''] (PDF in the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library])
* [http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Goya__Guerra.pdf ''Desastres de la Guerra''] (PDF in the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library])
* [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp ''The Sleep of Reason'' - article in World&I Magazine]
{{romanticism}}
[[Category:1746 births|Goya, Francisco de]]
[[Category:1828 deaths|Goya, Francisco de]]
[[Category:Francisco Goya|*Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish engravers|Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish painters|Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Romantic painters|Goya, Francisco]]
[[af:Francisco Goya]]
[[an:Franzisco de Goya]]
[[ca:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[de:Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[et:Francisco Goya]]
[[es:Francisco de Goya]]
[[eo:Francisco de GOYA]]
[[fr:Francisco Goya]]
[[gl:Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[hr:Francisco Goya]]
[[it:Francisco Goya]]
[[he:פרנסיסקו דה גויה]]
[[nl:Francisco Goya]]
[[nds:Francisco Goya]]
[[ja:フランシスコ・デ・ゴヤ]]
[[no:Francisco Goya]]
[[pl:Francisco Goya]]
[[pt:Francisco Goya]]
[[ro:Francisco de Goya]]
[[ru:Гойя, Франсиско Хосе де]]
[[sl:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[fi:Francisco Goya]]
[[sv:Francisco de Goya]]
[[zh:弗朗西斯哥·戈雅]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frequency probability</title>
<id>10869</id>
<revision>
<id>41225501</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:29:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dvavasour</username>
<id>55791</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:John_Venn.jpg|thumb|150px|John Venn.]]
The problems and paradoxes of the [[classical interpretation]] of [[Probability interpretations|probability]] motivated the development of the [[relative frequency]] concept of probability.
Most of the mathematics commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests are developed by statisticians who use this concept exclusively. They are usually called '''frequentists''', and their position is called '''frequentism'''. A statistician who uses traditional methods of inference is therefore referred to as a ''frequentist'' statistician. Frequentism is, by far, the most commonly held view among working statisticians, probability theorists and physicists.
Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with well-defined ''[[random]] [[experiments]]''. The outcomes of a random experiment are called its possible ''[[event (probability theory)|events]]'', and the set of all possible events is called the ''[[sample space]]'' of the experiment. The relative frequency of occurrence of an event in the sample space, when repeating the experiment, is a measure of the probability of that random event.
This is a highly technical and ''scientific'' definition of "probability" and doesn't claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages. Compare how the concept of [[force]] is used by physicists in a precise manner despite the fact that ''force'' is also a concept in many natural languages, used in religious texts for example. However, this seldom causes problem or confusion, as the context usually reveal if it's the scientific concept that is intended or not.
This school is often associated with the names of [[Jerzy Neyman]] and [[Egon Pearson]] who described the logic of [[statistical hypothesis testing]]. Other influential figures of the frequentist school include [[John Venn]], [[Ronald Aylmer Fisher|R.A. Fisher]], and [[Richard von Mises]].
==See also==
*[[probability interpretations]]
*[[Bayesian probability]]
*[[eclectic probability]]
*[[probability]]
*[[statistics]]
*[[statistical regularity]]
*[[probability axioms]]
*[[games of chance]]
==External links==
* Charles Friedman, ''The Frequency Interpretation in Probability'' [http://www.ma.utexas.edu/~friedman/freq.ps PS]
* John Venn, [http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?ht=VIEW&did=D59523&p=1 The Logic of Chance]
==Bibliography==
* P W Bridgman, ''The Logic of Modern Physics'', 1927
* Alonzo Church, ''The Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1940
* Harald Cramér, ''Mathematical Methods of Statistics'', 1946
* P Martin-Löf, ''On the Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1966
* Richard von Mises, ''Probability, Statistics, and Truth'', 1939 (German original 1928)
* Jerzy Neyman, ''First Course in Probability and Statistics'', 1950
* Hans Reichenbach, ''The Theory of Probability'', 1949 (German original 1935)
* Bertrand Russell, ''Human Knowledge'', 1948
* John Venn, ''The Logic of Chance'', 1866
[[Category:Probability and statistics]]
[[de:Frequentistischer Wahrscheinlichkeitsbegriff]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobieństwo obiektywne]]
[[su:Frequency probability]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of French language poets</title>
<id>10870</id>
<revision>
<id>41079364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:41:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dlyons493</username>
<id>335419</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Souéloum Diagho</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature}}
[[Poet]]s who have written in the [[French language]]:
*[[Guillaume Apollinaire]]
*[[Louis Aragon]]
*[[Agrippa d'Aubigné]]
*[[Charles-Pierre Baudelaire]]
*[[Jean-Antoine de Baïf]]
*[[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux]]
*[[André Breton]]
*[[Blaise Cendrars]]
*[[Jean Chapelain]]
*[[René Char]]
*[[Chrétien de Troyes]]
*[[Paul Claudel]]
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Octave Crémazie]]
*[[Alexandre Juster]]
*[[René Daumal]]
*[[Jean Daurat]]
*[[Robert Desnos]]
*[[Souéloum Diagho]]
*[[Paul Eluard|Paul Éluard]]
*[[Évariste de Forges de Parny|Évariste Desiré de Forges, vicomte de Parny]]
*[[Christine de Pisan]]
*[[Pontus de Tyard]]
*[[Paul Dirmeikis]]
*[[Joachim du Bellay]]
*[[Antoine Héroet]]
*[[Max Jacob]]
*[[Louise Labé]]
*[[Félix Leclerc]]
* [[Guillaume de Lorris]]
*[[Martin le Franc]] (1410&ndash;1461)
*[[Gherasim Luca]]
*[[Guillaume de Machaut]]
*[[François de Malherbe]]
*[[Stéphane Mallarmé]]
*[[Clément Marot]]
* [[Jeun de Meun]]
*[[Henri Michaux]]
*[[Charles, duc d'Orléans]]
*[[Francis Ponge]]
*[[Jacques Prévert]]
*[[Raymond Queneau]]
*[[Paul Reverdy]]
*[[Pierre de Ronsard]]
*[[Victor Hugo]]
*[[Melin de Saint-Gelais]]
*[[Saint-Denys Garneau]]
*[[André Salmon]]
*[[Maurice Scève]]
*[[Léopold Senghor]]
*[[Philippe Soupault]]
*[[Julien Torma]]
*[[Tristan Tzara]]
*[[François Villon]]
*[[Vincent Voiture]]
*[[Robert Wace]]
'''[[Symbolist Poets]]'''
*[[Charles Baudelaire]]
*[[Tristan Corbière]]
*[[Gustave Kahn]]
*[[Jules Laforgue]]
*[[Comte de Lautréamont]]
*[[Stéphane Mallarmé]]
*[[Arthur Rimbaud]]
*[[Paul Valéry]]
*[[Paul Verlaine]]
*[[Emile Nelligan|Émile Nelligan]]
==See also==
*[[French literature]]
*[[Francophone literature]]
*[[List of French language authors]]
*[[List of French novelists]]
*[[List of French people]]
*[[List of Canadians]]
[[Category:Lists of poets|French]]
[[Category:French poetry| ]]
[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue française]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FM-2030</title>
<id>10871</id>
<revision>
<id>41517863</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:15:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
|
may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of [[Serjeant-at-Arms]] of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Chancellor. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Sergeant-at-Arms.
==Procedure==
[[Image:House of Lords Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Benches in the House of Lords Chamber are coloured red.]]
The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red; thus, the House of Lords is sometimes referred to as the "Red Chamber". The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; supporters of the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, whilst members of the Opposition sit on the left. Neutral members, known as [[Cross-bencher]]s, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.
The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the [[State Opening of Parliament]], held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.
In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", etc.
Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as [[cloture|Closure]], and is extremely rare.
Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by [[voice vote]]; the Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "Content" (in favour of the motion) or "Not-Content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a [[division (vote)|division]] follows. Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the "Content" lobby or the "Not-Content" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker may vote from the Woolsack. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The [[quorum]] of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.
==Committees==
The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of bills. Committees of both Houses consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. In the House of Lords, the committee most commonly used for the consideration of bills is the Committee of the Whole House, which, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House. The Committee meets in the Lords Chamber, and is presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman. Different procedural rules apply in the Committee of the Whole House than in normal sessions of the Lords; in particular, members are allowed to make more than one speech each on a motion. Similar to the Committee of the Whole House are the Grand Committees, bodies in which any member of the House may participate. A Grand Committee does not meet in the Lords Chamber, but in a separate committee room. No divisions are held in Grand Committees, and any amendments to the bill require the unanimous consent of the body. Hence, the Grand Committee procedure is used only for uncontroversial bills.
Bills may also be committed to Public Bill Committees, which consist of between twelve and sixteen members each. A Public Bill Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. A bill may also be referred to a Special Public Bill Committee, which, unlike the Public Bill Committee, has the power to hold hearings and collect evidence. These committees are used much less frequently than the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.
The House of Lords also has several Select Committees. The members of these committees are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most Select Committees are permanent, but the House may also establish ''ad hoc'' committees, which cease to exist upon the completion of a particular task (for instance, investigating the reform of the House of Lords). The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.
The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees.
==Legislative functions==
[[Image:PalaceOfWestminsterAtNight.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The House of Lords meets in a lavishly decorated chamber in the Palace of Westminster (above).]]Most legislation may be introduced in either House, but, most commonly, is introduced in the House of Commons.
{{see|Act of Parliament}}
The power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the [[Royal Assent]] without the consent of the House of Lords. The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and do not have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]] known as the [[Salisbury Convention]], which means that the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election [[manifesto]].
By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or [[Supply]], nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned.
Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful chamber of Parliament.
==Judicial functions==
{{main|Judicial functions of the House of Lords}}
The judicial functions of the House of Lords originate from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects.
The judicial functions of the House of Lords are exercised not by the whole House, but by a group of "Law Lords". The bulk of the House's judicial business is conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who are specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act. The judicial functions may also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happen to have held high judicial office). No Lord |
emocrats)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[Politics of United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 27 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|([[Northern Ireland]]): [[Ulster Unionist Party]]||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 1 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|}
==See also==
* [[Political parties of the world]]
* [[Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009]]
== External links ==
* [http://epp-ed.europarl.eu.int/home/en/default.asp EPP-ED grouping in the European Parliament]
* [http://www.epp-ed.org EPP-ED Home page]
{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:European Parliament party groups]]
[[nl:Europese Volkspartij en Europese Democraten]]
[[fi:Euroopan parlamentin konservatiiviryhmä]]
[[sv:Europeiska folkpartiet (kristdemokrater) och Europademokraterna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European United Left - Nordic Green Left</title>
<id>9867</id>
<revision>
<id>41944970</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:20:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palmiro</username>
<id>105180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Member parties */ rm random character</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Logo_gue-ngl.gif|right|frame|GUE-NGL logo]]
The '''European United Left&ndash;Nordic Green Left''' is a [[socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist]] [[political]] grouping within the [[European Parliament]]. In 2005 it had 41 MEPs.
It combines the '''European United Left''' subgroup (which consists of a core of parties that are in the [[Party of the European Left]] and a periphery of unaffiliated leftist parties) and the '''Nordic Green Left''' subgroup consisting of MEPs from the [[Nordic Green Left Alliance]] parties of [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]].
It has several classes of members: Member Parties are those who are full members of the group. Several parties recently moved from being Observer Parties to Member Parties as their countries joined the EU. Associate Member Parties are from European countries not in the EU. Parties with MEPs as Associate Members are those who do not want to be full members of the group.
==Member parties==
It is made up of the following national [[political party|political parties]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Country
!National Member Party
!Subgroup
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Cyprus]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Progressive Party of Working People]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>2</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Czech Republic]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Komunistická strana Cech a Moravy|Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>2</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Finland]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Left Alliance (Finland)|Left Alliance]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Nordic Green Left Alliance|NGL]]
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[France]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[French Communist Party|Parti Communiste Français]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Germany]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb" rowspan="2"|[[Greece]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Coalition of the Left and Progress|Synaspismos]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Communist Party of Greece]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>3</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Ireland]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Sinn Féin]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>3</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb" rowspan="2"|[[Italy]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Communist Refoundation Party|Rifondazione Comunista]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Partito dei Comunisti Italiani|Party of the Italian Communists]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>2</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Netherlands]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|Socialist Party]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>3</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Portugal]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Portuguese Communist Party]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>3</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Slovakia]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Komunistickà Strana Slovenska|Communist Party of Slovakia]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>2</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Spain]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Izquierda Unida]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Sweden]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Left Party (Sweden)|Left Party]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|NGL
|-
|colspan="3"|'''Associate Parties with MEPs'''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Portugal]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Leftwing Bloc]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|colspan="3"|'''Associate Parties without MEPs'''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Luxembourg]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Déi Lénk|The Left]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|colspan="3"|'''Associate Parties from outside the EU'''
|-
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Norway]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|[[Socialist Left Party]]
|bgcolor="#ccffcc"|NGL
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Romania]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Socialist Alliance Party (Romania)|Socialist Alliance Party]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Switzerland]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|[[Swiss Labour Party]]
|bgcolor="#ffc0cb"|UEL<sup>1</sup>
|-
|colspan="3"|'''Parties with MEPs as Associate Members of the Parliamentary Group'''
|-
|bgcolor="dddddd"|[[Denmark]]
|bgcolor="dddddd"|[[Folkebevaegelsen]]
|bgcolor="dddddd"|
|}
'''Notes''''
*<sup>1</sup> - Party is a member of the [[Party of the European Left]] (PEL)
*<sup>2</sup> - Party is an observer in the PEL
*<sup>3</sup> - Party is unaffiliated to either PEL or NGLA
==External links==
*http://www.guengl.org/showPage.jsp - Official site (in English)
{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:European Parliament party groups]]
[[als:Konföderale Fraktion der Vereinigten Europäischen Linken]]
[[de:Konföderale Fraktion der Vereinigten Europäischen Linken]]
[[et:Euroopa Ühendatud Vasakpoolsed ja Põhjala Vasak-Rohelised]]
[[es:Izquierda Unida Europea - Izquierda Verde Nórdica]]
[[fr:Gauche unitaire européenne, gauche verte nordique]]
[[nl:Europees Unitair Links/Noords Groen Links]]
[[pl:Zjednoczona Lewica Europejska - Nordycka Zielona Lewica]]
[[fi:GUE/NGL]]
[[sv:Europeiska enade vänstern/Nordisk grön vänster]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Democrats</title>
<id>9868</id>
<revision>
<id>41442723</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>arrangment -> arrangement</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eurodems.jpg|right]]
The '''European Democrats''' ('''ED''') are a [[conservative]] and [[eurosceptic]] party grouping with seats in the [[European Parliament]] as part of the larger '''[[European People's Party - European Democrats|EPP-ED]]''' group. (They are not be confused with the [[European Democratic Party]], a newer [[centrist]] [[europhile|europhilic]] organization.)
==History==
The ED subgroup can trace its history back to the originally-standalone '''European Conservative Group''' formed in the European Parliament by British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] MEPs upon Britain's admission to the then-EC in 1972. In the ensuing years, the group collected additional [[right-of-centre]] members, and in 1979 it changed its name to the '''European Democratic Group'''. In the late seventies and early eighties, the EDG was the third-largest party grouping in the Parliament.
However, the group saw its membership fall sharply in the late 1980s, as many [[centre-right]] members moved to the rival [[European People's Party]] group, dominated by the German CDU and the ideology of [[christian democracy]] in general. The EDG had been somewhat further from the political centre and less [[europhile|europhilic]] than the EPP. Largely isolated, even hardline [[eurosceptic]]s like [[Margaret Thatcher]] conceded that the British Tories couldn't be effectively heard from such a peripheral group. On [[1 May]] [[1992]], the EDG (now largely composed of UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] members) dissolved, and its remaining members were accorded "associated party" status in the EPP group; that is, being part of the parliamentary group without retaining actual membership in the EPP organization. This was considered essential for the Tories, as the EPP was generally seen as quite favourable to European integration, a stance at odds with their core ideology.
The Conservative's relationship to the EPP would become a sore point in the following years, particularly for the eurosceptic general membership in Britain. [[William Hague]] hoped to put the issue to rest by negotiating a new arrangement in 1999 by which the parliamentary group would rebrand itself as "EPP-ED," with the "European Democrat" nomenclature returning after a seven year hiatus. This was intented to nominally underscore the Conservative's status apart from the rest of EPP, and it was hoped that with the coming [[enlargement of the European Union]] numerous newly involved right-wing p |
s have come a number of contributors of high rank, of whom the following may be especially mentioned: [[Ernst Kummer|Kummer]] (1844), [[Leopold Kronecker]] (1845), [[Scheffler]] (1845, 1851, 1880), [[Bellavitis]] (1835, 1852), Peacock (1845), and [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]] (1849). [[August Ferdinand Möbius|Möbius]] must also be mentioned for his numerous memoirs on the geometric applications of complex numbers, and [[Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet|Dirichlet]] for the expansion of the theory to include primes, congruences, reciprocity, etc., as in the case of real numbers.
A complex [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[Field (mathematics)|field]] is a set of complex numbers which is [[closed]] under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] studied complex numbers of the form <math>a + bi</math>, where ''a'' and ''b'' are integral, or rational (and ''i'' is one of the two roots of <math>x^2 + 1 = 0</math>). His student, [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]], studied the type <math>a + b\omega</math>, where <math>\omega</math> is a complex root of <math>x^3 - 1 = 0</math>. Other such classes (called [[cyclotomic fields]]) of complex numbers are derived from the [[roots of unity]] <math>x^k - 1 = 0</math> for higher values of <math>k</math>. This generalization is largely due to [[Kummer]], who also invented [[ideal number]]s, which were expressed as geometrical entities by [[Felix Klein]] in 1893. The general theory of fields was created by [[Évariste Galois]], who studied the fields generated by the roots of any polynomial equation
:<math>\ F(x) = 0.</math>
The late writers (from 1884) on the general theory include [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstrass]], [[Hermann Schwarz|Schwarz]], [[Richard Dedekind]], [[Otto Hölder]], [[Berloty]], [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Eduard Study]], and [[Alexander MacFarlane]].
The formally correct definition using pairs of real numbers was given in the [[19th century]].
== See also ==
* [[Circular_motion#Using_complex_numbers]]
* [[Complex geometry]]
* [[De Moivre's formula]]
* [[Euler's identity]]
* [[Hypercomplex number]]
* [[Leonhard Euler]]
* [[Local field]]
* [[Mandelbrot Set]]
* [[Phasor (physics)]]
* [[Phasor (electronics)]]
* [[Quaternion]]
* [[Riemann sphere]] (extended complex plane)
* [[Split-complex number]]
== Further reading ==
* ''An Imaginary Tale: The Story of <math>\sqrt{-1}</math>'', by Paul J. Nahin; Princeton University Press; ISBN 0691027951 (hardcover, 1998). A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis.
* ''Numbers'', by H.-D. Ebbinghaus, H. Hermes, F. Hirzebruch, M. Koecher, K. Mainzer, J. Neukirch, A. Prestel, R. Remmert; Springer; ISBN 0-387-97497 (hardcover, 1991). An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number.
* ''The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe'', by [[Roger Penrose]]; Alfred A. Knopf, 2005; ISBN 0679454438. Chapters 4-7 in particular deal extensively (and enthusiastically) with complex numbers.
== External links ==
* [[wikibooks:Complex numbers|Complex numbers at Wikibooks]]
* [http://mathforum.org/johnandbetty/ John and Betty's Journey Through Complex Numbers]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ComplexNumber.html Complex Number from MathWorld]
* [http://www.sosmath.com/complex/complex.html SOS Math - Complex Variables]
* [http://www.binarythings.com/hidigit/ Windows calculator that supports complex numbers]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/algebra/ComplexNumbers.shtml Algebraic Structure of Complex Numbers] from [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Complex numbers]]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
[[bg:&#1050;&#1086;&#1084;&#1087;&#1083;&#1077;&#1082;&#1089;&#1085;&#1086; &#1095;&#1080;&#1089;&#1083;&#1086;]]
[[bn:জটিল সংখ্যা]]
[[ca:Nombre complex]]
[[cs:Komplexní číslo]]
[[da:Komplekse tal]]
[[de:Komplexe Zahl]]
[[el:Μιγαδικός αριθμός]]
[[et:Kompleksarv]]
[[es:Número complejo]]
[[eo:Kompleksa Nombro]]
[[fa:اعداد مختلط]]
[[fr:Nombre complexe]]
[[ko:&#48373;&#49548;&#49688;]]
[[is:Tvinntölur]]
[[it:Numero complesso]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1505;&#1508;&#1512; &#1502;&#1512;&#1493;&#1499;&#1489;]]
[[lt:Kompleksiniai skai&#269;iai]]
[[nl:Complex getal]]
[[ja:&#35079;&#32032;&#25968;]]
[[nb:Komplekst tall]]
[[pl:Liczby zespolone]]
[[pt:Número complexo]]
[[ro:Număr complex]]
[[ru:&#1050;&#1086;&#1084;&#1087;&#1083;&#1077;&#1082;&#1089;&#1085;&#1086;&#1077; &#1095;&#1080;&#1089;&#1083;&#1086;]]
[[scn:Nummuru complessu]]
[[sl:Kompleksno &#353;tevilo]]
[[sr:Комплексан број]]
[[fi:Kompleksiluku]]
[[sv:Komplexa tal]]
[[th:&#3592;&#3635;&#3609;&#3623;&#3609;&#3648;&#3594;&#3636;&#3591;&#3595;&#3657;&#3629;&#3609;]]
[[tr:Karma&#351;&#305;k say&#305;lar]]
[[zh:&#35079;&#25976; (&#25976;&#23416;)]]
[[hu:Komplex számok]]
[[ta:கலப்பெண்]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cryptozoology</title>
<id>5828</id>
<revision>
<id>42102140</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:12:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Danielos2</username>
<id>931343</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Former cryptids */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryptozoology''' is the study of [[animal]]s that are presumed (at least by the [[researcher]]) to exist, but for which conclusive proof is missing; the term also includes the study of animals generally considered [[extinction|extinct]], but which are still occasionally reported. Those who study or search for such animals are called ''cryptozoologists'', while the [[hypothesis|hypothetical]] creatures involved are referred to by some as "cryptids", a term coined by John Wall in 1983.
==Overview==
Invention of the term cryptozoology (adding the Greek prefix ''kryptós'', or "hidden" to ''[[zoology]]'' to mean "the study of hidden animals") is often attributed to [[zoologist]] [[Bernard Heuvelmans]]. However, Heuvelmans himself (in his book [[In the Wake of Sea Serpents]]) attributed coinage of the term to the late Scottish explorer and adventurer Ivan T. Sanderson. Similarly, Heuvelmans' monumental [[1955]] book, ''[[On The Track of Unknown Animals]]'' is often seen as the discipline's Ur-document, even though Heuvelmans traced the scholarly origins of the discipline to [[Anthonid Cornelis Oudemans]] and his [[1892]] study, ''The Great [[sea serpent|Sea Serpent]]''. [[Loren Coleman]], the modern popularizer of cryptozoology, has chronicled the history and personalities of the science in his books.
Another notable book was [[Willy Ley]]'s ''Exotic Zoology'' (1959). Ley was best known for his books on [[rocket]]ry and related topics, but he also wrote a number of books about [[animal]]s. ''Exotic Zoology'' (which combined some of Ley's older writings with new ones) is of some interest to cryptozoology, as he discusses the [[Yeti]] and [[sea serpent]]s, as well as reports of [[relict]] dinosaurs. The book's first section (''Myth?'') entertains the possibility that some [[legendary creature]]s (like the [[sirrush]], the [[unicorn]] or the [[cyclops]]) might be based on actual animals (or misinterpretation of animals and/or their remains).
Heuvelmans argued that cryptozoology should be undertaken with [[scientific rigor]], but also with an [[wikt:open-minded|open-minded]], [[interdisciplinary]] approach. He also stressed that attention should be given to local and folkloric sources regarding such creatures. While often layered in unlikely and fantastic elements, folktales may indeed contain grains of truth and important information regarding these animals.
Some cryptozoologists align themselves with a more scientifically rigorous field like [[zoology]], while others tend toward an [[anthropology|anthropological]] slant or even a [[forteana|Fortean]] perspective. Cryptozoology is often considered a [[pseudoscience]] by mainstream zoologists and biologists.
==Justifications for cryptozoology==
Scientists have demonstrated that some creatures of [[mythology]], legend or [[local folklore]] were rooted in real animals or phenomena. Thus, cryptozoologists hold that people should be open to the possibility that many more such animals exist. In the early days of [[Western society|western]] exploration of the world, many [[native]] tales of unknown animals were initially dismissed as mythology or [[superstition]] by western scientists, but were later proven to have a real basis in biological fact.
As in other fields, cryptozoologists tend to be responsible for disproving their own objects of study. For example, some cryptozoologists have collected statistical data and studied witness accounts that challenge the validity of many [[Bigfoot]] sightings.
In the ''[[New York Times]]'', [[William J. Broad]] writes, "[[Monster]] lovers take heart. Scientists argue that so much of the planet remains unexplored that new surprises are sure to show up; if not legendary beasts like the [[Loch Ness monster]] or the [[dinosaur]]-like [[reptile]] said to inhabit [[Lake Champlain]], then animals that in their own way may be even stranger."[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02broa.html]
Cryptozoologists point out that natives often know a great deal more about their immediate environment (and the animals that inhabit it) than western investigators, and therefore suggest that, even today, thus far unproven tales and traditions regarding unknown undescribed animals in native folklore should not be summarily dismissed in the same way.
There are several animals cited as examples for continuing cryptozoological efforts:
* The [[ |
e bowler's delivery, thereby achieving more hook. It is possible to use dynamic ball balancing to achieve a stronger gyroscopic effect than static balancing alone.
The advent of dynamic ball balancing meant that bowlers could achieve "ball flare" without the need for a 3/4 roller delivery, and more hook. Additionally, balls with covers that create higher friction, such as "particle" balls, provide for more traction and hook. Bowlers are embracing these choices, buying balls whose characteristics complement or enhance their deliveries.
It is the opinion of many people in the bowling community that these advances in bowling ball technology have actually undermined bowling skill and have made it more difficult for lane maintenance personnel to lay out fair and credible conditions for participants. This is because advanced players using hi-tech balls "need" more oil to score high and might complain about the radical behavior of their balls on "dry" lanes. At the same time, less aggressive players might complain when they can't get their balls to hook. These complaints have actually been part of the game throughout USBC history. It's just been a matter of which group prevails within the USBC - or what new technology comes along next.
==See also==
*[[Skittles (sport)|Skittles]] &mdash; the sport from which "alley" based Bowling originated
*[[Skee ball]] &mdash; a game that plays similar to bowling
*[[Pin shooting]] &mdash; a pistol shooting game using bowling pins.
*[[Professional Bowlers Association]] &mdash; Ten-pin bowling's professional organization.
==External links==
*[http://www.fighttimes.com/magazine/magazine.asp?issue=4&article=121&title=The-Kegel The Kegel] - A historical game related to bowling
*[http://www.bowlingmuseum.com International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.pba.com The Professional Bowlers Association (PBA)]
*[http://www.bowl.com The United States Bowling Congress (USBC)]
*[http://www.scottishtenpinbowling.com The Scottish Tenpin Bowling Association (STBA)]
*[http://www.foundation300.com The Foundation]
*[http://www.sportbowling.com Sport Bowling]
*[http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.history history of the game]
{{Bowling}}
[[Category:Bowling|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[de:Bowling]]
[[es:Bolos]]
[[fi:Keilailu]]
[[fr:Bowling]]
[[he:כדורת]]
[[it:Bowling]]
[[nl:Bowling]]
[[ja:ボウリング]]
[[pt:Boliche]]
[[sv:Bowling]]
[[zh:保齡球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boiling point</title>
<id>4115</id>
<revision>
<id>41350287</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:50:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vary</username>
<id>208472</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41124508 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the boiling point of liquids}}
The '''boiling point''' of a substance is the temperature at which it can change its state from a [[liquid]] to a [[gas]] throughout the bulk of the liquid. A liquid may change to a gas at temperatures below the boiling point through the process of [[evaporation]]. Any change of state from a liquid to a gas at boiling point is considered [[vaporization]]. However, evaporation is a [[surface phenomenon]], in which only molecules located near the gas/liquid surface could evaporate. [[Boiling]] on the other hand is a bulk process, so at the boiling point molecules anywhere in the liquid may be vaporized, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles.
A somewhat clearer (and perhaps more useful) definition of boiling point is "the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the liquid equals the pressure of the surroundings."
== The Reaction ==
Something that should be remembered is that boiling is evidenced by the appearance of bubbles containing vapor from the liquid. [Note: The bubbles that precede real boiling in the pot on the stove are either (formerly) dissolved air or water vapor forming on the very hot bottom of the pot that will be condensed before it can get to the top of the liquid.] Production of vapor requires energy and thus does not occur without some source of energy. This source can be a hot surface or even the liquid itself. Hot liquid will boil as it rises through the bulk liquid if the pressure of the environment drops to the vapor pressure of the liquid at its temperature. This production of vapor will quickly stop because the temperature of the liquid will be reduced by the vaporization thus reducing the vapor pressure.
== Saturation Temperature ==
'''Saturation Temperature''' is another term that basically mean boiling point. Saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding [[Saturation Pressure]] at which a [[liquid]] [[boils]] into its [[vapor]] [[phase]]. The liquid can be said to be saturated with [[thermal energy]]. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase change.
If the [[pressure]] in a system remains constant ([[isobaric]]), a vapor at Saturation Temperature and Pressure will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy ([[heat]]) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at Saturation Temperature and Pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied.
The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the substance equals the ambient pressure. Thus the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Usually, boiling points are published with respect to [[standard pressure]] (101.325&nbsp;[[kilopascal]]s or 1&nbsp;[[atmospheric pressure|atm]]). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased ambient pressure up to the [[critical point]], where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing ambient pressure until the [[triple point]] is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point.
== Latent Heat ==
The process of changing from a liquid to a gas requires an amount of [[heat]] called the latent [[heat of vaporization]]. As heat is added to a liquid at its boiling point, all of this heat goes toward the phase change from liquid to gas, thus the temperature of the substance remains constant even though heat has been added. The word ''latent'', which comes from Latin and means hidden, is used to describe this "disappearing" heat that is added, but doesn't result in an increase in temperature. Since heat is added with no corresponding change in temperature, the heat capacity of the liquid is essentially infinite at the boiling point.
== Intermolecular interactions ==
In terms of [[intermolecular]] interactions, the boiling point represents the point at which the liquid [[molecules]] possess enough [[heat]] [[energy]] to overcome the various intermolecular attractions binding the molecules into the liquid (eg. [[dipole-dipole attraction]], [[instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction|instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attractions]], and [[hydrogen bond|hydrogen bonds]]). Therefore the boiling point is also an indicator of the strength of these attractive forces.
The boiling point of [[water]] is 100&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (212&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]) at standard pressure. On top of [[Mount Everest]] the pressure is about 260 [[Millibar|mbar]] (26 kPa) so the boiling point of water is 69&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]].
For purists with a knowledge of thermodynamics, the ''normal boiling point of water'' is 99.97 degrees Celsius (at a pressure of 1 atm, i.e. 101.325 kPa). Until 1982 this was also the ''standard boiling point of water'', but the [[IUPAC]] now recommends a standard pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa). At this slightly reduced pressure, the ''standard boiling point of water'' is 99.61 degrees Celsius.
== Properties of Other Elements ==
The element with the lowest boiling point is [[helium]]. Both the boiling points of [[rhenium]] and [[tungsten]] exceed 5000 [[kelvin|K]] at [[standard pressure]]. Due to the experimental difficulty of precisely measuring extreme temperatures without bias, there is some discrepancy in the literature as to whether [[tungsten]] or [[rhenium]] has the higher boiling point.
(Cf. DeVoe, Howard, Thermodynamics and Chemistry. Prentice-Hall, 2001)
==See also==
* [[Leidenfrost effect]]
* [[flash point]]
* [[boiling delay]]
* [[critical temperature]]
* [[triple point]]
* [[boiling-point elevation]]
[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[af:Kookpunt]]
[[ar:نقطة غليان]]
[[bg:Температура на кипене]]
[[ca:Punt d'ebullició]]
[[cs:Teplota varu]]
[[da:Kogepunkt]]
[[de:Siedepunkt]]
[[eo:Bolpunkto]]
[[es:Punto de ebullición]]
[[et:Keemistemperatuur]]
[[fi:Kiehumispiste]]
[[fr:Point d'ébullition]]
[[he:נקודת רתיחה]]
[[hu:Forrás (átalakulás)]]
[[is:Suðumark]]
[[it:Punto di ebollizione]]
[[ja:沸点]]
[[ko:끓는점]]
[[lt:Virimo temperatūra]]
[[mk:Точка на вриење]]
[[nl:Kookpunt]]
[[nn:Kokepunkt]]
[[no:Kokepunkt]]
[[pl:Temperatura wrzenia]]
[[pt:Ponto de ebulição]]
[[ro:Punct de fierbere]]
[[ru:Температура кипения]]
[[sk:Teplota varu]]
[[sl:Vrelišče]]
[[sr:Тачка кључања]]
[[sv:Kokpunkt]]
[[th:จุดเดือด]]
[[uk:Температура кипіння]]
[[zh:沸点]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Bang</title>
<id>4116</id>
<revision>
<id>41790638</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:49:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScienceApologist</username>
<id>105537</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv -- emerged is not a problematic word, beginning and early are contextualized by Weyl's Postulate.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Universe_expansion.png|thumb|240px|Accor |
nct [http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute/ fingerings]. However, there are a few alternate fingerings (called trill fingerings) that will assist one in playing difficult passages.
== The Indian flutes ==
The Indian flute, one of the oldest instruments of [[Indian classical music]], appears to have developed independently of the western flute. The [[Hindu]] god [[Krishna]] is said to be a master of the instrument. The Indian flutes are very simple instruments when compared with their western counterparts; they are made of bamboo and are keyless. The pitch of Indian flutes is not standardized, and is largely left to the personal preference of the artist.
Two main varieties of Indian flutes are currently used. The first is the ''[[Bansuri]]'', which has six finger holes and one blowing hole, is used predominantly in [[Hindustani music]], the music of north India. The second is the ''[[Pullanguzhal]]'', which has eight finger holes, is predominantly used in [[Carnatic music]], the music of south India. The south Indian flute had only seven finger holes till the 1970s when the legendary [[T. R. Mahalingam]] introduced the eight holed variety.
== The Diple ==
''Main artice'' [[Diple]]
==References==
*[[Theobald Boehm]], ''The Flute and Flute-Playing'' (Dover Publications, 1964)
*[[James Phelan]], ''The Complete Guide to the Flute and Piccolo'' (Burkart-Phelan, Inc., 2004)
*[[Nancy Toff]], ''The Flute Book'' (Charles's Scribners Sons, 1985). The Development of the Modern Flute.
*[[Flute repertory]]
== See also ==
* [[Western concert flute]]
* [[Carnatic Music]]
* [[Irish flute]]
* [[Divje Babe]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.FluteInfo.com FluteInfo]
*[http://www.flutes.tk Flutes.tk]
*[http://www.larrykrantz.com Larry Krantz Flute Pages] Wide range of flute related information contributed by many professional flute players. Access to information about FLUTE - email discussion group.
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/ Flute Acoustics]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/virtual/main.html The Virtual Boehm Flute] gives an immense database of standard and alternative fingerings, including quarter-tones and multiphonics.
*[http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute/ The Woodwind Fingering Guide] - A large, easy-to-navigate listing of flute fingerings
*[http://www.flutehistory.com FluteHistory.com]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/dcmhtml/dmhome.html The Dayton C. Miller Flute Collection] has many pictures of flutes through the ages, among other useful information.
*[http://www.thegalwaynetwork.com/index.html The Galway Network], home page of the popular Sir [[James Galway]]
*[http://www.shakuhachi.com Tai Hei Shakuhachi - Japanese Bamboo Flutes]
*[http://www.shakuhachi.com/Q-Models-Headjoint.html Shakuhachi Headjoint for the Silver Flute]
*[http://www.cedarflute.de Cedarflutes]
*[http://www.beginband.com/flute.shtml BeginBand.com] has information about learning to play the flute as well as a soundclip.
*[http://www.flutewise.com/fw Flutewise] is an international organisation for young flute players
*[http://www.chinastyle.cn/music/music-bells-drums.htm The Music of Bells and Drums (16th Century - 221 BC)] Discusses the oldest transverse flute.
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm The Neanderthal Flute]
*[http://www.neyneva.com/eng/reed_flute.asp www.neyneva.com/eng/reed_flute.asp] is the Turkish mistic reed flute "NEY" site.
[[Category:Flutes| ]]
[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
[[ar:فلوت]]
[[ca:Flauta]]
[[de:Flöte]]
[[es:Flauta]]
[[eo:Fluto]]
[[fr:Flûte]]
[[ko:플루트]]
[[hr:Flauta]]
[[he:חליל]]
[[nl:Fluit (muziekinstrument)]]
[[ja:笛]]
[[nn:fløyte]]
[[pl:Flet]]
[[pt:Flauta]]
[[ru:Флейта]]
[[simple:Flute]]
[[sr:Флаута]]
[[fi:Huilu]]
[[sv:Flöjt]]
[[th:ฟลุต]]
[[vi:Sáo ngang]]
[[uk:Флейта]]
[[zh:长笛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flageolet (disambiguation)</title>
<id>10554</id>
<revision>
<id>18893716</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T15:18:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pekinensis</username>
<id>158312</id>
</contributor>
<comment>trim information already available in articles; reorder</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Flageolet''' has several meanings:
* [[Flageolet]] (woodwind instrument)
* [[Flageolet bean]]
* [[Flageolet register]]
* [[Flageolet tone]], a [[tone]] of [[string instrument]]s.
** [[Natural flageolet]]
** [[Artificial flageolet]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Flageolett (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Flageolet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FoxFilmCorporation</title>
<id>10556</id>
<revision>
<id>15908360</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fox Film Corporation]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FirstNational</title>
<id>10557</id>
<revision>
<id>15908361</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[First National]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FrequencyProbability</title>
<id>10558</id>
<revision>
<id>15908362</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:01:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Frequency probability]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency probability]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FielD</title>
<id>10559</id>
<revision>
<id>15908363</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Field]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FoodAndDrinks</title>
<id>10560</id>
<revision>
<id>15908364</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:01:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cuisine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FriedrichNietzsche</title>
<id>10561</id>
<revision>
<id>15908365</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FrenchLanguage</title>
<id>10562</id>
<revision>
<id>15908366</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FilmDirectors</title>
<id>10564</id>
<revision>
<id>23313101</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-15T23:40:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film director]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FieldsMedal</title>
<id>10566</id>
<revision>
<id>15908369</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fields Medal]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FiniteMathematics</title>
<id>10567</id>
<revision>
<id>15908370</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T20:05:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[finite mathematics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Football (soccer)</title>
<id>10568</id>
<revision>
<id>42121974</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:38:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaxl</username>
<id>309415</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.17.161.67|201.17.161.67]] ([[User talk:201.17.161.67|talk]]) to last version by Phil Boswell</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Soccer redirects here. For other senses, see [[soccer (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:football_iu_1996.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The striker (wearing a red shirt) has run past the defender (in white shirt) and is about to take a shot at the goal, while the goalkeeper positions himself to attempt to stop the ball.]]
<!--
*** POLITE SUGGESTION to potential editors: The intro paragraphs should be short and to the point (refer Wikipedia Manual of Style); Details of what the sport is called where are probably better covered in the [[names of the game]] article. This article represents a compromise between many factions; please be careful in keeping the point of view neutral, no matter how correct you think you are. ***
-->
'''Football''' is a [[team sport]] played between two teams consisting of eleven players each. It is a ball game played on a rectangular grass field with a [[goal (sport)|goal]] at each end. The objective of the game is to score by maneuvering the ball into the opposing goal. Other than the goalkeepers, players may not use their hands or |
e reverse of what is often seen under ''in vitro'' conditions.
The [http://www.iubmb.unibe.ch/ International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology] has developed a [[nomenclature]] for enzymes, the [[EC number]]s; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers, preceded by "EC". The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism:
The toplevel classification is
* EC 1 ''[[Oxidoreductase]]s'': catalyze [[oxidation]]/reduction reactions
* EC 2 ''[[Transferase]]s'': transfer a [[functional group]] (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group)
* EC 3 ''[[Hydrolase]]s'': catalyze the [[hydrolysis]] of various bonds
* EC 4 ''[[Lyase]]s'': cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
* EC 5 ''[[Isomerase]]s'': catalyze [[isomer]]ization changes within a single molecule
* EC 6 ''[[Ligase]]s'': join two molecules with [[covalent bond]]s
The complete nomenclature can be browsed at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/
==Industrial Applications==
{| border=1 cellspacing="0" cellpadding=2 style="border:1px solid #aaaaaa;"
|-
| bgcolor="#C0C0C0" | <p align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF">'''Application'''</font>
| bgcolor="#C0C0C0" | <p align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF">'''Enzymes used'''</font>
| bgcolor="#C0C0C0" | <p align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF">'''Uses'''</font>
| bgcolor="#C0C0C0" | <p align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF">'''Notes and examples'''</font>
|-
|rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''[[Detergent|Biological detergent]]'''
| Primarily [[protease]]s, produced in an extracellular form from [[bacteria]]
| Used for presoak conditions and direct liquid applications helping with removal of protein stains from clothes.
|rowspan="2" | [[Image:Washingpowder.jpg|180px|center|]]
|-
| Amylase enzymes
| Detergents for machine dish washing to remove resistant starch residues.
|-
|rowspan="2" | '''[[Baking|Baking industry]]'''
| [[Fungus|Fungal]] alpha-amylase enzymes: normally inactivates about 50 degrees Celsius, destroyed during baking process
| Catalyze breakdown of starch in the [[flour]] to sugar. Yeast action on sugar produces carbon dioxide. Used in production of white bread, buns, and rolls
|[[Image:Amylose.gif|thumb|center|300px|alpha-amylase catalyzes the release of sugar monomers from starch]]
|-
| Protease enzymes
| Biscuit manufacturers use them to lower the protein level of flour.
|rowspan="2" |
|-
| '''[[Baby food]]s'''
| [[Trypsin]]
| To predigest baby foods
|-
|rowspan="6" | '''[[Brewing|Brewing industry]]'''
| Enzymes from barley are released during the mashing stage of beer production.
| They degrade starch and proteins to produce simple sugar, amino acids and peptides that are used by yeast to enhance fermentation.
|rowspan="3" |[[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|thumb|center|180px|Germinating barley used for malt.]]
|-
| Industrially produced barley enzymes.
| Widely used in the brewing process to substitute for the natural enzymes found in barley.
|-
| Amylase, glucanases, proteases
| Split polysaccharides and proteins in the [[malt]]
|-
| Betaglucosidase
| Improve the filtration characteristics.
|rowspan="4" |
|-
| Amyloglucosidase
| Low-calorie [[beer]]
|-
| Proteases
| Remove cloudiness during storage of beers.
|-
| '''[[Juice|Fruit juices]]'''
| Cellulases, pectinases
| Clarify fruit juices
|-
|rowspan="4" | '''[[Dairy|Dairy industry]]'''
| Rennin, derived from the stomachs of young [[ruminant|ruminant animals]] (calves, lambs)
| Manufacture of cheese, used to split protein
|'''Note:''' As animals age rennin production decreases and is replaced by another protease, pepsin, which is not suitable for cheese production. In recent years the increase in cheese consumption, as well as increased beef production, has resulted in a shortage of rennin and escalating prices.
|-
| Microbially produced enzyme
| Now finding increasing use in the dairy industry
|rowspan="3" | [[Image:Roquefort cheese.jpg|thumb|center|180px|Roquefort cheese]]
|-
| [[Lipase]]s
| Is implemented during the production of [[Roquefort cheese]] to enhance the ripening of the [[Danish_Blue_cheese|blue-mould cheese]].
|-
| Lactases
| Break down lactose to glucose and galactose
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''[[Starch|Starch industry]]'''
| Amylases, amyloglucosideases and glucoamylases
| Converts starch into glucose and various [[Inverted sugar syrup|syrups]]
|rowspan= "2"|<div class="thumb center">
<div style="width:308px;">
{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="0"
|[[ Image:Glucose.png |150px|]]
|[[image: Alpha-D-Fructose-structure-corrected.png |150px|]]
|-
|<div class="thumbcaption">'''Glucose'''</div>
|<div class="thumbcaption">'''Fructose'''</div>
|-
|}
</div></div>
|-
| Glucose isomerase
| Converts [[glucose]] into fructose (high fructose syrups derived from starchy materials have enhanced sweetening properties and lower [[calorie|calorific values]])
|-
| '''[[Rubber|Rubber industry]]'''
| [[Catalase]]
| To generate [[oxygen]] from [[peroxide]] to convert [[latex]] to foam rubber
|
|-
| '''[[Paper|Paper industry]]'''
| [[Amylase]]s
| Degrade starch to lower [[viscosity]] product needed for sizing and coating paper
|[[Image:InternationalPaper6413.JPG|180px|center|]]
|-
| '''[[Photography|Photographic industry]]'''
| Protease (ficin)
| Dissolve [[gelatin]] off the scrap [[Photographic film|film]] allowing recovery of [[silver]] present
|
|-
|}
== See also ==
* [[List of enzymes]]
* [[Enzyme kinetics]]
== References ==
* Koshland D. The Enzymes, v. I, ch. 7, Acad. Press, New York, 1959
* Perutz M. ''Proc. Roy. Soc.'', B (1967) 167, 448,
* Cha, Y., Murray, C. J. & Klinman, J. P. ''Science'' (1989) 243, 1325-1330 .
* [[Leonor Michaelis]] and [[Maud Menten]], Die Kinetik der Invertinwirkung, ''Biochem. Z.'' (1913) 49, 333-369.
* G. E. Briggs and [[J. B. S. Haldane]], A note on the kinetics of enzyme action, ''Biochem. J.'', (1925) 19, 339-339.
* M.V. Volkenshtein, R.R. [[Revaz Dogonadze|Dogonadze]], A.K. Madumarov, Z.D. Urushadze, Yu.I. Kharkats. Theory of Enzyme Catalysis.- ''Molekuliarnaya Biologia'', (1972), 431-439 (In Russian, English summary)
== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Enzymes}}
* [http://us.expasy.org/enzyme/ ExPASy enzyme database], links to [[Swiss-Prot]] sequence data, entries in other databases and to related literature searches
* [http://www.biochem.ucl.ac.uk/bsm/enzymes/ PDBsum] links to the known 3-D structure data of enzymes in the [[Protein Data Bank]]
* [http://www.brenda.uni-koeln.de BRENDA], comprehensive compilation of information and literature references about all known enzymes; requires payment by commercial users
* [http://bioinformatics.weizmann.ac.il/cards/ Weizmann Institute's Genecards Database], extensive database of protein properties and their associated genes.
* [http://drnelson.utmem.edu/CytochromeP450.html Cytochrome P450 enzymes] site lists over 4000 versions of enzymes from this cytochrome in plants and animals
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Enzymes|*]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]
{{Link FA|bg}}
[[bg:Ензим]]
[[ca:Enzim]]
[[cs:Enzym]]
[[da:Enzym]]
[[de:Enzym]]
[[et:Ensüüm]]
[[es:Enzima]]
[[eo:Enzimo]]
[[fa:زیمایه]]
[[fr:Enzyme]]
[[ko:효소]]
[[io:Enzimo]]
[[id:Enzim]]
[[it:Enzima]]
[[he:אנזים]]
[[lt:Fermentas]]
[[hu:Enzim]]
[[mk:Ензим]]
[[ms:Enzim]]
[[nl:Enzym]]
[[ja:酵素]]
[[no:Enzym]]
[[pl:Enzym]]
[[pt:Enzima]]
[[ru:Ферменты]]
[[simple:Enzyme]]
[[sk:Enzým]]
[[sl:Encim]]
[[sr:Ензим]]
[[su:Énzim]]
[[fi:Entsyymi]]
[[sv:Enzym]]
[[th:เอนไซม์]]
[[tr:Enzim]]
[[zh:酶]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethics</title>
<id>9258</id>
<revision>
<id>41939372</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.108.142.109|24.108.142.109]] ([[User talk:24.108.142.109|talk]]) to last version by Cunado19</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book of the same name, see [[Ethics (book)]]''
'''Ethics''' (from Greek ''[[ethos|ἦθος]]'' meaning "custom") is the branch of [[axiology]], one of the four major branches of [[philosophy]], which attempts to understand the nature of [[morality]]; to define that which is [[right]] from that which is [[wrong]]. The [[Western philosophy|Western tradition]] of ethics is sometimes called '''moral philosophy'''.
== The first social science ==
Assumptions about ethical underpinnings of human behavior are reflected in every [[social science]], including: [[anthropology]] because of the complexities involved in relating one [[culture]] to another, [[economics]] because of its role in the distribution of scarce resources, [[political science]] because of its role in allocating [[Political power|power]], [[sociology]] because of its roots in the dynamics of groups, [[law]] because of its role in codifying ethical constructs like [[mercy]] and [[punishment]], [[criminology]] because of its role in rewarding ethical behavior and discouraging unethical behavior, and [[psychology]] because of its role in defining, understanding, and treating unethical behavior.
Ethics has also been extended to the hard sciences, such as [[biology]] (as [[bioethics]]) and [[ecology]] (as [[environmental ethics]]). As these fields become more complex and deal with more situations, the application of ethics in those fields can also become more complex.
In [[analytic philosophy]], ethics is traditionally divided into three fields: [[Meta-ethics]], [[Normative ethics]] (inc |
e also known for specialising in certain areas of the law, and for giving advice in relation thereto to [[clients]] referred to them.
In the common law tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer - that is as legal adviser and advocate - were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions, the other being the office of [[solicitor]]. A parallel is often used with members of the medical profession, in that a [[solicitor]], like a [[general practitioner]] (or doctor of first instance) deals with the simpler cases and employs the aid of a [[barrister]] (or, to continue the metaphor, a [[consultant]]) for more difficult or important issues. This parallel is however inaccurate. A barrister is retained by a practitioner, who acts on behalf of a client, to carry out a required function, such as advocacy or to render a legal opinion. There is no difference in the level of complexity in the practice of law by the different branches of the profession.
Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern legal age, some countries which had a split legal profession are now characterised by having a fused profession. In others, notably in England and Wales, the separation remains clearly evident, but the respective roles of barrister and solicitor are slightly overlapped. And in others, Scotland and Ireland, there is little overlap.
A barrister is regulated by a [[Bar association|Bar]] (the [[Faculty of Advocates]] in Scotland) which he becomes qualified to join. A Bar is merely a term for the society or association which comprises all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction. Unlike solicitors, they are not necessarily officers of the courts in the jurisdiction where they are qualified, but must still maintain a balance between their duty to the court and their duty to their client.
Barristers do not normally report directly to their "lay clients". They will meet and advise them but their principal contact (the "brief") is the solicitor or "professional client" that "instructs" them. All correspondence, enquiries, invoices, etc. are addressed to the solicitor, who is primarily responsible for the barristers' fees. It is the solicitor who works directly with the client, and who is responsible for engaging a qualified and experienced barrister appropriate to the budget of the client and the nature of his or her case.
=== Regulation ===
Inns of Court (like the [[Faculty of Advocates]] in Scotland) are independent societies that are titularly responsible for the training, admission (calling) and regulation of barristers. A person may only be called to the Bar by an Inn, of which he must first become a member.
For the Bar of England and Wales, there are four Inns: [[Gray's Inn |The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn]], [[ Lincoln's Inn |The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn]], [[Middle Temple | The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple]], and [[Inner Temple |The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple]] (Each is usually referred to in short form, e.g. Inner Temple, or "Inner"). All are situated in central London, near to the Royal Courts of Justice.
In Ireland, there is a single Inn: [[Kings Inns|The Honourable Society of King's Inns]], located near to the Four Courts, the premises of the High Court and Supreme Court.
Historically, each society had sole responsibility for the training and tuition of its student barristers. In fact, call to and success at the Bar would to some extent depend upon the introductions that you made during these formative years. In England and Wales, in the 1850's, efforts were made to unify the education of a barrister which had differed between the then four Inns. A Council of Legal Education was established in 1852 - which is now known as the Inns of Court School of Law.
In [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], the [[Faculty of Advocates | Faculty]] and Inn respectively have retained (or at least have not delegated) their educational responsibilities.
== England and Wales ==
See "[[Barristers in England and Wales]]"
[[England and Wales]], whilst politically separate from each other within the federal structure of the [[United Kingdom]], form a single legal jurisdiction, and accordingly they are together served by a single Bar.
The profession of barrister in England and Wales is separate profession from that of solicitor. It is not possible carry on in practice as both, at the same time. They are regulated through a system of Inns of Court. These Inns educate prospective barristers by way of a dedicated vocational course through an institution called the Inns of Court School of Law, or through other educational institutions that are permitted to run the course.
Barristers obtain the qualification of "Barrister" on successful completion of the vocational course. At this stage they are "called to the Bar". However, before they can practice independently they must first undertake twelve-months of [[pupillage]].
In December 2004 there were just over 11,500 barristers in independent practice , of whom about ten percent are [[Queen's Counsel|QC]]s. Many barristers (about 2,800) are employed in companies as &lsquo;in-house&rsquo; counsel, or by local or national [[government]] or in academic institutions.
== Barristers in Northern Ireland ==
[[Image:barlibrary.jpg|thumb|right]]
{{main|Barristers in Northern Ireland}}
In April 2003 there were 555 barristers in independent practice in Northern Ireland. Sixty six were Queen’s Counsel ("QC's"), barristers who have earned a high reputation and are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor as senior advocates and advisers.
Those barristers who are not QC's are called Junior Counsel and are styled "B.L." or "Barrister-at-Law". The term "junior" is misleading since many members of the Junior Bar are experienced barristers with considerable expertise.
Benchers are, and have been for centuries, the governing bodies of the four Inns of Court in London and King’s Inns, Dublin. The Benchers of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland governed the Inn until the enactment of the Constitution of the Inn in 1983, which provides that the government of the Inn is shared between the Benchers, the Executive Council of the Inn and members of the Inn assembled in General Meeting.
The Executive Council (through its Education Committee) is responsible for considering Memorials submitted by applicants for admission as students of the Inn and by Bar students of the Inn for admission to the degree of Barrister-at-Law and making recommendations to the Benchers. The final decisions on these memorials are taken by the Benchers. The Benchers also have the exclusive power of expelling or suspending a Bar student and of disbarring a barrister or suspending a barrister from practice.
The Executive Council is also involved with the education; fees of students; calling counsel to the Bar although call to the Bar is performed by the Lord Chief Justice on the invitation of the Benchers; administration of the Bar Library (to which all practising members of the Bar belong); and liaising with corresponding bodies in other countries.
The Bar Council is responsible for the maintenance of the standards, honour and independence of the Bar and, through its Professional Conduct Committee, receives and investigates complaints against members of the Bar in their professional capacity.
All barristers and solicitors in NI have passed exams at the Institute of Professional Legal Studies, of Queen's University of Belfast. The exams there are different from the rest of the UK, but on the possession of a qualifiying law degree (especially from QUB, Queens), the teaching can be missed. Those with a non-qualifying degree can still do the exams, on the completion of the relevant course. After a pupillage with an experienced barrister at the Bar Library, one is then qualified.
Barristers in NI do not dine formally, as is done in England.
==Barristers in other jurisdictions==
[[Advocate|Advocates]] in [[Scotland]] are similar to barristers, but there are significant differences in professional practice.
Barristers are also found in the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Hong Kong]] (where the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name ''da lu shi'', ''&#22823;&#24459;&#24107;'' is also used), and [[Australia]] (in the states without a fused profession, namely [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], and [[Queensland]]). In [[Canada]], the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, and many lawyers refer to themselves with both names. However, in [[Quebec]], which has substantive law under the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] tradition, the practice is closer to that of the United Kingdom, with ''les avocats'' practicing before the courts, and [[civil law notary|civil law notaries]] or ''les notaires'' limited to most of the functions of solicitors.
In [[Western Australia]] and [[South Australia]], the professions of barristers and solicitors are fused, but nonetheless an independent bar is in existence, regulated by those States' Legal Practice Boards. A similar arrangement exists in [[New Zealand]]. In [[Tasmania]] (Australia) the profession is fused although a very small number of practitioners operate as an independent bar.
The [[United States]] does not draw a distinction between barristers and solicitors; all lawyers who pass the [[bar examination]] may argue in the courts of the state in which they are admitted, although some state appellate courts require attorneys to obtain a separate certificate of admission to plead and practice in the appellate court. This separate admissions process, where it exists, is usually a simple matter of paying a small application fee. Federal courts at each level (Federal District, Circuit Courts of Appeals, Supreme C |
nly a procedural device to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's detention, so long as the detention was in accordance with an [[Act of Parliament]], the petition for ''habeas corpus'' would be unsuccessful.
Since the passage of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]], the courts have been able to declare an Act of Parliament to be incompatible with the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. However, such a declaration of incompatibility has no immediate legal effect until it is acted upon by the government.
===United States===
This procedure, part of English [[common law]], was considered important enough to be specifically mentioned in the [[United States Constitution]], which says, "The Privilege of the Writ of ''Habeas Corpus'' shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it." ([[Article One (United States Constitution)|Article One]], section nine).
In the USA, the writ of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' is a civil (as opposed to a criminal) proceeding in which the court inquires as to the legitimacy of a prisoner's custody. Typically, ''habeas corpus'' proceedings investigate whether a criminal trial was conducted fairly and constitutionally after the criminal appellate process has been exhausted. ''Habeas corpus'' is also used as a legal avenue to challenge other types of custody such as pretrial detention or detention by the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement pursuant to a deportation proceeding.
The "constitutional" writ of ''habeas corpus'', which was originally understood to apply only to those held in custody by officials of the executive branch of the federal government, and not to those held by state governments, and then only within the jurisdiction of the court, should be distinguished from what can be called "statutory" ''habeas corpus''. Congress granted all federal courts jurisdiction under Title 28, Section 2241 of the [[United States Code]] to issue writs of ''habeas corpus'' to release prisoners held by any government entity (state or federal) from custody, but only when held in violation of the Constitution. Title 28 U.S.C., section 2254, is the primary ''habeas corpus'' vehicle to challenge the constitutionality of a state court conviction. A similar provision, 28 U.S.C., section 2255, (though technically not a ''habeas corpus'' statute) provides analogous relief to federal prisoners.
Sections 2254 and 2255 govern the grant of ''habeas corpus'' relief by the federal courts after a prisoner is convicted and his direct appeals (in either state or federal court, depending on which jurisdiction has convicted the prisoner) have been completed. Prisoners who have been convicted in state courts also have access to ''habeas corpus'' actions under state law and can pursue such relief in addition to federal ''habeas corpus''.
Decisions by the [[Earl Warren|Warren]] [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] greatly expanded the use and scope of the federal writ in the 1950s and 1960s. Over the last thirty years, decisions by the [[Warren Burger|Burger]] and [[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]] Courts have somewhat narrowed the writ. The [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] of [[1996]] further limited the use of the federal writ by, among other things, imposing a one-year deadline (statute of limitation) and dramatically increasing the federal judiciary's deference to decisions previously made in state court proceedings either on appeal or in a state court ''habeas corpus'' action.
Here's a simple illustration of the section 2254 (which challenges a prisoner in state prison) process: Bob was convicted in state court for rape. Bob is thrown in prison and appeals his conviction to the state appellate court and then to the state supreme court. All uphold his conviction. Within a year, Bob files a "Petition" in federal [[district court]]. The prison warden, represented by the state attorney general, will file an "Answer." Then Bob responds to the answer by filing a "Traverse." If his petition has a procedural defect, like he failed to appeal to his state's highest court, his petition will be dismissed without prejudice (Bob may refile once he finishes appealing). If his petition, however, appears like it has merit, the Magistrate Judge typically will appoint a federal [[Public Defender]] to represent Bob and hold an evidentiary hearing to determine if the writ will be granted. If the judge determines Bob's detention in state prison infringes on a constitutional right as recognized by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], the judge will order Bob be released. If not, Bob's case will be dismissed with prejudice, and it's over for him. He may appeal to the [[Federal Court of Appeals]] for a last-ditch effort to be heard.
A more recent use of the ''habeas'' petition is with cases involving [[DNA]] evidence. If new technology can prove Bob did not commit the rape, he may file a ''habeas'' petition and allege his detention was based on a misapplication of the facts. At the evidentiary hearing, Bob's attorney will present exculpatory DNA evidence, and the judge will order his release. In its most basic form, the writ of habeas corpus serves as the final chance a prisoner has to challenge his conviction, and it will only be granted based on constitutional issues.
==== Suspension during the Civil War and Reconstruction ====
''Habeas corpus'' was suspended on [[April 27]], [[1861]], during the [[American Civil War]] by [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] in Maryland and parts of midwestern states, including southern [[Indiana]]. He did so in response to riots, local militia actions and the threat that the Southern slave state of Maryland would secede from the Union leaving the nation's capital, [[Washington, D.C.]], in the south. He was also motivated by requests by generals to set up military courts to rein in "[[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]]" or Peace Democrats, and those in the Union who supported the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] cause. His action was challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court in [[Maryland]] (led by Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]]) in ''[[Ex parte Merryman|Ex Parte Merryman]]'', [[Case citation|17 F. Cas. 144]] (C.C.D. Md. 1861). Lincoln ignored Taney's order. In the Confederacy, [[Jefferson Davis]] also suspended the Habeas Corpus and imposed martial law. This was in part to maintain order and spur industrial growth in the South to compensate for the economic loss inflicted by its secession.
In [[1864]], [[Lambdin P. Milligan]] and four others were accused of planning to steal Union weapons and invade Union prisoner-of-war camps and were sentenced to hang by a military court. However, their execution was not set until May [[1865]], so they were able to argue the case after the Civil War. In ''[[Ex Parte Milligan]]'' [[Case citation|71 U.S. 2]] [[1866]] the Supreme Court of the United States decided that the suspension of the writ did not empower the President to try and convict citizens before military tribunals. The trial of civilians by military tribunals is allowed only if civilian courts are closed. This was one of the key [[Supreme Court Cases of the American Civil War]] that dealt with wartime civil liberties and martial law.
In the early 1870's, President Grant suspended ''habeas corpus'' in nine counties in South Carolina, as part of federal civil rights action against the [[Ku Klux Klan]] under the 1870 Force Act and 1871 Ku Klux Klan Act.
==== Suspension during the [[War on Terrorism]] ====
[[Illegal combatants]] imprisoned at [[Guantanamo Bay|U.S. Naval Station Guantanamo Bay]], [[Cuba]] have no apparent right to [[habeas corpus]].
The [[Enemy_combatant#September_18.2C_2001_Presidential_Military_Order|September 18, 2001 Presidential Miltary Order]] gives the [[President of the United States]] the power to declare anyone suspected of connection to terrorists or terrorism, as an [[Enemy combatant]]. As an [[Enemy combatant]] that person can be held without charges being filed against him/her. [[Enemy combatant]]s can be held indefinitely without charges or a court hearing and are not even entitled to legal consult.
Many legal and constitutional scholars would contend that these provisions are in direct opposition to [[habeas corpus]], and the [[United States Bill of Rights]].
Specifically, American citizens declared [[Enemy combatant]]s by the President may be denied their constitutional rights, as set forth in [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendments 4]], [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|5]], [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|6]] and [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|8]]. One recent example is the [[Jose Padilla]] case.
===Australia===
Although the writ of ''habeas corpus'' as a procedural remedy is part of [[Australia]]'s English law inheritance, recently proposed legislation if enacted would severely restrict the efficacy of that remedy. In October 2005, the [[Australian Federal Government]] under the leadership of [[Prime Minister]] [[John Howard]], proposed the [[Federal Anti-Terrorism Bill 2005]]. Before the bills are introduced for debate in the [[Australian Parliament]], the draft has been forwarded to the [[States and territories of Australia|States and Territories]] for approval.
The proposed legislation is currently being debated in both the federal and state parliaments and some legal experts have stated that the Act is unconstitutional because it abolishes ''habeas corpus'', [[due process]], and the [[presumption of innocence]]. Some Solicitors-General also consider the Act violates the separation of powers. Under the Act, a person can be detained without charge or trial for a period of one year. Amendments made that were proposed by some Premiers and Liberal ba |
a renewed optimism, led by companies such as [[Goldcrest Films|Goldcrest]] (and producer [[David Puttnam]]), [[Channel 4]], [[Handmade Films]] and [[Merchant Ivory Productions]]. Under producer Puttnam a generation of British directors emerged making popular films with international distribution, including: [[Bill Forsyth]] (''[[Local Hero]]'', 1983), [[Hugh Hudson]] (''[[Chariots of Fire]]'', 1981), [[Roland Joffe]] (''[[The Killing Fields (movie)|The Killing Fields]]'', 1984), [[Alan Parker]] and [[Ridley Scott]]. [[Handmade Films]], part owned by [[George Harrison]], had produced a series of modest budget comedies and gritty dramas such as ''[[The Long Good Friday]]'' (1980) that had proven popular internationally.
When the Puttnam-produced ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' (1981) won 4 Academy Awards in 1982, including best picture, its writer [[Colin Welland]] declared "the British are coming!" (quoting [[Paul Revere]]). When in 1983 ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (also produced by Goldcrest) picked up best picture it looked as if he was right. It prompted a cycle of bigger budget period films, such as the [[Merchant Ivory Productions|Merchant Ivory]] adaptations of the works of [[E. M. Forster]]. However, further attempts to make 'big' productions for the US market ended in failure, with Goldcrest losing independence after a trio of commercial flops. By this stage the rest of the new talent had moved on to Hollywood.
With the continued support of Channel 4 a number of new talents were developed in [[Stephen Frears]], [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]] and [[Neil Jordan]] while [[John Boorman]] who had been working in the US was encouraged back to Britain to make ''[[Hope and Glory]]'' (1987). Following the final winding up of the Rank Organisation, a series of company consolidations in UK cinema distribution meant that it became ever harder for British productions. Another blow was the elimination of the Eady tax concession by the Conservative Government in 1984. The concession had made it possible for a foreign film company to write off a large amount of its production costs by filming in the UK &mdash; this was what attracted a succession of blockbuster productions to UK studios in the 1970s. With Eady gone many studios closed or focused on television work.
===British cinema since 1990===
Film production in Britain hit one of its all-time lows in 1989. While cinema audiences were climbing in the UK in the early [[1990s]], few British films were enjoying significant commercial success, even in the home market. Among the more notable exceptions were the [[Merchant Ivory]] productions ''[[Howards End]]'' ([[1992]]) and ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' ([[1993]]), [[Richard Attenborough]]'s ''[[Chaplin]]'' ([[1992]]) and ''[[Shadowlands]]'' ([[1993]]) and [[Neil Jordan]]'s acclaimed thriller ''[[The Crying Game]]'' ([[1992]]). The latter was generally ignored on its initial release in Britain, but was a considerable success in the [[United States]], where it was picked up by the distributor [[Miramax]]. The same company also enjoyed some success releasing the [[BBC]] period drama ''[[Enchanted April]]'' ([[1992]]). [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s filmed [[Shakespeare]] adaptations were also gaining some attention, including his [[1989]] version of ''[[Henry V (1989 film)|Henry V]]'', and ''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'' in [[1993]].
The surprise success of the [[Richard Curtis]]-scripted comedy ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]), especially in the United States, lead to renewed interest and investment in British films, and set a pattern for British-set romantic comedies, including ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' ([[1998]]), ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'' ([[1999]]) and the [[Bridget Jones]] films. Several of these were also written by Curtis, who went on to make his directorial debut with ''[[Love Actually]]'' in [[2003]]. [[Working Title Films]], the company behind many of these films, quickly became one of the most successful British production companies of recent years, with other box office hits including ''[[Bean]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Elizabeth]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Captain Corelli's Mandolin]]'' ([[2001]]).
The enthusiastic reception given to ''[[The Madness of King George]]'' ([[1994]]) proved there was still a market for the traditional British [[costume drama]], and a large number of other period films followed, including ''[[Sense and Sensibility]]'' ([[1995]]), ''[[Restoration (movie)|Restoration]]'' ([[1995]]), ''[[Emma]]'' ([[1996]]), ''[[The Wings of the Dove]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' ([[1998]]), ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' ([[1999]]) and ''[[Gosford Park]]'' ([[2001]]). Several of these were funded by Miramax Films, who also took over [[Anthony Minghella]]'s ''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]'' ([[1996]]) when the production ran into difficulties during filming. Although technically an American production, the success of this film, including its 9 [[Academy Award]] wins would bring further prestige to British film-makers.
American productions also began to return to British studios in the mid-[[1990]]s, including ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' ([[1994]]), ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'' ([[1996]]), ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' ([[1999]]), as well as the French production ''[[The Fifth Element]]'' ([[1997]]), at the time claimed to be the most expensive film made in Britain.
After a six year hiatus for legal reasons the [[James Bond]] films also returned to production with the 17th Bond film, ''[[GoldenEye]]''. With their traditional home [[Pinewood Studios]] fully booked, a new studio was created for the film in a former [[Rolls-Royce]] aero-engine factory at Leavesden in [[Hertfordshire]].
With the introduction of public funding for British films through the new [[National Lottery]] something of a production boom occurred in the late 1990s, but only a few of these films found significant commercial success, and many went unreleased. These included several [[gangster]] films attempting to imitate [[Guy Ritchie]]'s black comedies ''[[Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Snatch (movie)|Snatch]]'' ([[2000]]).
Other new talents to emerge during the decade included the writer-director-producer team of [[John Hodge]], [[Danny Boyle]] and [[Andrew Macdonald (producer)|Andrew Macdonald]] responsible for ''[[Shallow Grave]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[Trainspotting (movie)|Trainspotting]]'' ([[1996]]) and [[Nick Park]], the creator of [[Wallace and Gromit]] and the ''[[Creature Comforts]]'' series. Park's first feature length film, ''[[Chicken Run]]'' ([[2000]]), was one of the most successful British films of its year, together with [[Stephen Daldry]]'s crowd pleasing debut ''[[Billy Elliott]]''.
The turn of the new century saw a revival of sorts of the British horror film, with ''[[The Hole (2001 film)|The Hole]]'', ''[[28 Days Later]]'', ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'', ''[[The Descent]]'' and the comedy ''[[Shaun of the Dead]]'' among the more successful examples.
By the early 2000s, the popularity of British films in the home market had grown enough to allow a spate of television spin-offs and other comedies aimed purely at the domestic audience, including ''[[Kevin and Perry Go Large]]'', ''[[Ali G in da House]]'' and the universally panned ''[[Sex Lives of the Potato Men]]''.
The new decade also saw a major new film series in the US-backed but British made [[Harry Potter]] films, beginning with ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' in [[2001]].
==Art Cinema==
The release of [[Derek Jarman|Derek Jarman's]] ''[[Jubilee (film)|Jubilee]]'' ([[1978]]) marked the beginning of a successful period of UK [[art film|art cinema]], continuing in the 1980s with film-makers like [[Peter Greenaway]] and [[Sally Potter]]. Unlike the previous generation of British film makers who had broken into directing and production after careers in the theatre or on television the Art Cinema Directors were mostly the products of Art Schools. Many of these film-makers were championed in their early career by the [[London Film Makers Cooperative]] and their work was the subject of detailed theoretical analysis in the journal ''[[Screen Education]]''. [[Peter Greenaway]] was an early pioneer of the use of computer generated imagery blended with filmed footage and was also one of the first directors to film entirely on high definition video for a cinema release.
With the launch of [[Channel 4]] and its [[Film on Four]] commissioning strand Art Cinema was promoted to a wider audience. However the Channel had a sharp change in its commissioning policy in the early nineties and the likes of Jarman and Greenaway were forced to seek European co-production financing. [[Ken Russell]] and [[Nicolas Roeg]] were two other directors whose highly personal visual styles and narrative themes might class them as 'Art Cinema' directors who also struggled during the nineties to finance their productions.
Another account for the decline of 'Art Cinema' is that with the spread of [[music video]] there is steady demand for emerging talent without the requirements of seeking feature film funding. [[Julien Temple]] and [[John Maybury]] are two examples of this. Also the widespread acceptance of [[video art]] as a form has made it possible for British artists such as [[Sam Taylor-Wood]] and [[Isaac Julian]] to make film works outside of the demands of cinema exhibition.
==Film technology==
In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as ''[[Superman (movie)|Superman]]'', ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'', ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]''. Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of [[2001: A Space Odyssey |
lifornia|San Mateo County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $104,667
# [[Portola Valley, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $99,621
# [[Newport Coast, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $98,770
# [[Hillsborough, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $98,643
# [[Diablo, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $95,419
# [[Fairbanks Ranch, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $94,150
# [[Hidden Hills, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $94,096
# [[Los Altos Hills, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $92,840
# [[Tiburon, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $85,966
# [[Sausalito, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $81,040
# [[Monte Sereno, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $76,577
# [[Indian Wells, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Riverside County, California|Riverside County]] $76,187
# [[Malibu, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $74,336
# [[Del Monte Forest, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Monterey County, California|Monterey County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $70,609
# [[Piedmont, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $70,539
# [[Montecito, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $70,077
# [[Palos Verdes Estates, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $69,040
# [[Emerald Lake Hills, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $68,966
# [[Loyola, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $68,730
# [[Blackhawk-Camino Tassajara, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $66,972
# [[Los Altos, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $66,776
{{further|[[California locations by per capita income]]}}
Note: [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] ranks as the [[Richest counties in the United States|wealthiest county]] in the United States based on per capita personal income.
===30 poorest places in California===
Many California communities rank among the poorest in the western world. The following list is ranked by increasing [[per capita income]], first number is state ranking:
1076 [[Tobin, California]] - [[Plumas County]] - $2,584 <br>
1075 [[Belden, California]] - [[Plumas County]] - $3,141 <br>
1074 [[East Orosi, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $4,984 <br>
1073 [[London, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $5,632 <br>
1072 [[Cantua Creek, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $5,693 <br>
1071 [[Indian Falls, California]] - [[Plumas County]] - $5,936 <br>
1070 [[Westley, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $6,137 <br>
1069 [[Cutler, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,254 <br>
1068 [[Mecca, California]] - [[Riverside County]] - $6,389 <br>
1067 [[Richgrove, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,415 <br>
1066 [[San Joaquin, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $6,607 <br>
1065 [[Woodville, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,824 <br>
1064 [[Kennedy, California]] - [[San Joaquin County]] $6,876 <br>
1063 [[Mettler, California]] - [[Kern County]] - $6,919 <br>
1062 [[Mendota, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $6,967 <br>
1061 [[Terra Bella, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,034 <br>
1060 [[Parlier, California]] - [[Fresno County]] -$7,078 <br>
1059 [[Orange Cove, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $7,126 <br>
1058 [[Parksdale, California]] - [[Madera County]] - $7,129 <br>
1057 [[Earlimart, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,169 <br>
1056 [[South Dos Palos, California]] - [[Merced County]] - $7,170 <br>
1055 [[Winterhaven, California]] - [[Imperial County]] - $7,220 <br>
1054 [[Shackelford, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $7,250 <br>
1053 [[Palo Verde, California]] - [[Imperial County]] - $7,275 <br>
1052 [[Biola, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $7,375 <br>
1051 [[Kettleman City, California]] - [[Kings County]] - $7,389 <br>
1050 [[Arvin, California]] - [[Kern County]] - $7,408 <br>
1049 [[Coachella, California]] - [[Riverside County]] - $7,416 <br>
1048 [[Bret Harte, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $7,481 <br>
1047 [[Traver, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,642 <br>
{{further|[[California locations by per capita income]]}}
== Education ==
{{main|List of colleges and universities in California}}
<gallery>
Image:Berkeley glade afternoon.jpg|[[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]]
Image:Stanford campus aerial photo.jpg|[[Stanford University|Stanford]]
Image:RHall.JPG|[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]
Image:USC Bovard Auditorium enh.jpg|[[University of Southern California|USC]]
</gallery>
California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires 40% of state revenues to be spent on education.
The preeminent ''state university'' is the [[University of California]], which employs more [[Nobel Prize]] winners than any other institution in the world and is considered one of the finest public higher-education systems in the country. The nine general UC campuses are in [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[University of California, Los Angeles|Los Angeles]], [[University of California, San Diego|San Diego]], [[University of California, Davis|Davis]], [[University of California, Santa Cruz|Santa Cruz]], [[University of California, Santa Barbara|Santa Barbara]], [[University of California, Irvine|Irvine]], [[University of California, Riverside|Riverside]], and [[University of California, Merced|Merced]]. The [[University of California, San Francisco]], teaches only graduate health-sciences students, and the [[Hastings College of Law]], also in San Francisco, is one of UC's four law schools. The UC system is intended to accept students from the top 12.5% of college-bound students, and provide most graduate studies and research. The University of California also administers federal laboratories for the [[United States Department of Energy|Federal Department of Energy]]: [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]], [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], and [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]].
The [[California State University]] system includes 23 universities and provides education for teachers, the trades, engineering, agriculture and industry. With over 400,000 students, the CSU system is the largest university system in the United States. It is intended to accept most college-bound high-school students, while carrying out some research, especially in applied sciences. Lower-division course credits are frequently transferable to the University of California.
The [[California Community Colleges system]] provides vocational education, remedial education, and continuing education programs. It awards certificates and associate degrees and also provides lower division general-education courses, whose credit units are transferable to the CSU and UC systems. It is composed of 109 colleges organized into 72 districts, serving a student population of over 2.9 million.
Notable ''private universities'' include [[Stanford University]], the [[University of Southern California]] (USC), [[Santa Clara University]] (SCU), the [[Claremont Colleges]], and the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) (which administers the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] for [[NASA]]).
California has hundreds more private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions. This leads to many unique entertainment and educational opportunities for residents. For example, Southern California, with one of the highest densities of post-secondary institutions in the world, has a very large base of classically trained vocalists that compete in large choir festivals. Near Los Angeles, there are numerous art and film institutes, including the [[California Institute of the Arts|CalArts Institute]].
''Public secondary education'' consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. They accept students from roughly age 14 to 18, with mandatory education ceasing at age 16. In many districts, junior high schools or middle schools teach electives with a strong skills-based curriculum, for ages from 11 to 13. Elementary schools teach pure skills, history and social studies, with optional half-day kindergartens beginning at age 5. Mandatory full-time instruction begins at age 6.
The ''primary schools'' are of varying effectiveness. The quality of the local schools depends strongly on the local tax base, and the size of the local administration. In some regions, administrative costs divert a significant amount of educational monies from instructional purposes. In poor regions, literacy rates may fall below 70%. One |
herefore, merely formalised the ''[[de facto]]'' status and placed the Allied military rule over Germany on a solid legal basis.
The actual exertion of power was carried out according to the model first laid out in the "Agreement on Control Machinery in Germany" that had been signed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on [[25 November]] [[1944]] in [[London]] based on the work of the [[European Advisory Commission]]. Germany was divided into three zones of occupation, an American, a British, and a Soviet one, and each zone was ruled by the Commander-in-Chief of the respective occupational forces. (Later a French zone was added.) "Matters that affect Germany as a whole," however, would have to be decided jointly by all three Commanders-in-Chief, who for this purpose would form a single organ of control. This authority was called the Control Council.
The purpose of the Allied Control Council was to deal with the German central administration, an idea that hardly materialised as that administration totally broke down with the end of the war, and to assure that the military administration was carried out with a certain uniformity throughout all of Germany. The [[Potsdam Agreement]] of [[2 August]] [[1945]] further specified the tasks of the Control Council.
== Operation ==
On [[30 August]] [[1945]] the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders-in-Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. The initial members of the Control Council were as follows: Marshal [[Georgy Zhukov]] for the Soviet Union, Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery]] for the United Kingdom, General [[Dwight Eisenhower]] for the United States, and General [[Jean Joseph-Marie Gabriel Lattre de Tassigny]] for France.
In the following time, the Allied Control Council issued a substantial number of laws, directives, orders, and proclamations. They dealt with the abolishment of [[Nazi]] laws and organisations, [[demilitarisation]], [[denazification]], but also with such comparatively pedestrian matters as telephone tariffs or the combat of venereal diseases. However, relations between the Western Allies (especially the United States and the United Kingdom) and the Soviet Union quickly deteriorated, and so did their cooperation in the administration of occupied Germany. Against Soviet protests, the two Anglo-Saxon powers pushed for a heightened economic collaboration between the different zones, and on [[1 January]] [[1947]] the British and American zones merged to form the [[Bizone]]. Over the course of 1947 and early [[1948]], they began to prepare the currency reform that would introduce the [[Deutsche Mark]], and ultimately the creation of an independent West German state. When the Soviets learnt about this, they claimed that such plans were in violation of the Potsdam Agreement, that obviously the Western powers were not interested in further regular four-power control of Germany, and that under such circumstances the Control Council had no purpose anymore. On [[20 March]] [[1948]], Marshal Sokolovsky, the Soviet representative, walked out of the meeting of the Council, never to attend one again.
==After the breakdown==
As the Control Council could only act with the agreement of all four members, this move basically shut down the institution, while the [[Cold War]] reached an early high point during the [[Berlin Blockade|Soviet blockade of Berlin]]. The Allied Control Council was not formally dissolved, but ceased all activity except the operations of the [[Four-Power Authorities]], namely the mangement of the [[Spandau Prison]] where persons convicted at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] were held until [[1987]], and the [[Berlin Air Safety Center]]
The Western powers instituted the [[Allied High Commission]] by September of 1949 which remained in operation until 1955. In Eastern Germany, the [[Soviet Military Administration in Germany|Soviet administration]] with its representative of the ACC was the highest authority, later this position was converted to a High Commissioner as well, until the [[German Democratic Republic]] gained sovereignty.
Germany remained under nominal military occupation until [[12 September]] [[1990]], when the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], the final [[peace treaty]], was signed by the four powers and the two German governments, restoring German sovereignty. This meant the official end of the Allied Control Council, insofar as it still existed at all.
== The building ==
During its short active life, the Allied Control Council was housed in and operated from the former building of the [[Kammergericht]], the supreme court of the state of [[Prussia]], which is situated in Berlin's [[Schöneberg]] borough in the American sector. The building itself had suffered some battle damage, losing a central tower, but had remained mostly usable. After the cessation of most Council activity in 1948, all occupying powers quickly withdrew from the building to their respective sectors of the city, leaving the facility cold, empty and dark.
Only one [[four-power organization|four-power organisation]], the [[Berlin Air Safety Center]] (BASC), remained in the building from 1945 until the fall of the wall in [[1989]]. As a symbol of the BASC's continued presence, the four national flags of the occupying powers still flew over the large front doors every day. The only other signs of occupancy were the few, sparse office lights that emanated from a small corner room of the building &mdash; the BASC Operations Room &mdash; in the evenings. Of the 550 rooms in the building, the BASC office complex and guards' quarters occupied fewer than forty.
Because of the BASC's presence, the building remained closely guarded by United States [[Embassy]] guards, with access granted only to select members of the four powers. This led to mysterious legends and ghost stories about the eerie, dark facility with its grand, granite statuary overlooking the beautiful park.
After the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], and after the Soviet troops left Berlin in [[1994]], the building was returned to the German government. In [[1997]], its erstwhile occupant, the [[Kammergericht]], moved in. It now functions as the supreme court of the state of [[Berlin]].
==See also==
* [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany]]
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[Military rule]]
==Bibliography==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/other/us-army_germany_1944-46_index.htm "The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944-1946"]; by Earl F. Ziemke. Center of Military History United States Army Washington, D. C., 1990; Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-619027; First Printed 1975-CMH Pub 30-6
==Notes==
# {{note|page_256}} ''The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946'' (see [[#Bibliography]]): page&nbsp;256
# {{note|page_109}} ''The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946'' (see [[#Bibliography]]): page&nbsp;109
==External links==
*[http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/acabldg.htm Photos from the 1970-71 Four Power negotiations on the Status of Berlin.]
[[de:Alliierter Kontrollrat]]
[[Category:World War II politics]]
[[Category:Post-World War II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artistic License</title>
<id>2161</id>
<revision>
<id>38348625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T19:44:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gronky</username>
<id>87356</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikilink "dual-licensed"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Artistic License''' is a software [[license]] used for certain [[free software]] packages, most notably the standard [[Perl]] implementation, most of [[CPAN]] modules and [[Parrot virtual machine|Parrot]], which are [[dual-licensed]] under the Artistic License and the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL).
It was written by [[Larry Wall]].
Whether or not the original Artistic License is a [[free software license]] is largely undecided. It is often heavily criticised for being ambiguous, self-contradictory, and thus virtually impossible to interpret. [[Free Software Foundation]] have gone so far to say that it is ''not'' a free software license, however, this has never been a contentious issue since all notable software that uses the original Artistic License are [[dual licensed]] along with the GPL.
There exists an '''Artistic License 2.0''', which was written in response to a Perl community [[request for comments]], which everyone agrees is a free software license. The license was written by [[Bradley Kuhn]], then working for Free Software Foundation, and seems to be scheduled for adoption by the standard Perl implementation when version 6 is released. There also exists a "Clarified Artistic License", which is also a free software license, currently being used by the [[SNEeSe]] and [[FakeNES]] [[emulators]].
The name of the licence is a reference to the concept of [[artistic licence]].
==External links==
* [http://www.perl.com/language/misc/Artistic.html The Artistic License] (the original Artistic License, the one which is still used by Perl and CPAN)
* [http://dev.perl.org/rfc/346.html The Artistic License 2.0]
* [http://www.statistica.unimib.it/utenti/dellavedova/software/artistic2.html The Clarified Artistic License]
{{software-stub}}
[[Category:Open source licenses]]
[[Category:Free software licenses]]
[[de:Artistic License]]
[[fr:Academic Free License]]
[[it:Licenza artistica]]
[[ja:アーティスティック・ライセンス]]
[[pl:Licencja Artystyczna]]
s</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afrikaans</title>
<id>2162</id>
<revision>
<id>41573217</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05 |
ndade Island|Ilha da Trindade]], [[Ilhas Martin Vaz]], and [[Saint Peter and Paul Rocks|Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo]].
Special Note: About 60% of the [[Amazon Rainforest]] is part of Brazil.
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than the US
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
15,735 km (9777 mi)
<br>''border countries:''
[[Argentina]] 1,263 km (785 mi), [[Bolivia]] 3,126 km (1942 mi), [[Colombia]] 1,644 km (1022 mi), [[French Guiana]] 655 km (407 mi), [[Guyana]] 1,298 km (807 mi), [[Paraguay]] 1,339 km (832 mi), [[Peru]] 2,995 km (1861 mi), [[Suriname]] 593 km (368 mi), [[Uruguay]] 1,003 km (623 mi), [[Venezuela]] 1,819 km (
1130 mi)
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''contiguous zone:''
24 nautical miles (44 km)
<br>''continental shelf:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
<br>''[[exclusive economic zone]]:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)
'''Vegetation:'''
[[Cerrado]], [[Atlantic Forest]]
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
Pico da Neblina 2,994 m (9,823 ft)
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
5%
<br>''permanent crops:''
1%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
22%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
58%
<br>''other:''
14% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
28,000 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
'''Geography - note:'''
largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
== Cities ==
This is an incomplete list of Brazillian cities.
* [[Anapolis]]
* [[Aracaju]]
* [[Belém]]
* [[Belo Horizonte]]
* [[Brasília]]
* [[Campinas]]
* [[Campo Grande]]
* [[Curitiba]]
* [[Florianópolis]]
* [[Fortaleza]]
* [[Goiânia]]
* [[João Pessoa]]
* [[Maceió]]
* [[Manaus]]
* [[Palmas]]
* [[Petrópolis]]
* [[Porto Alegre]]
* [[Porto Velho]]
* [[Recife]]
* [[Rio Branco]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]]
* [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]
* [[São Luís]]
* [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]]
* [[Teresina]]
* [[Vitória]]
==See also==
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil]]
* [[Politics of Brazil]]
* [[Economy of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil]]
* [[States of Brazil]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
[[Category:Geography by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil|*]]
[[fr:Géographie du Brésil]]
[[gl:Xeografía do Brasil]]
[[lt:Brazilijos geografija]]
[[no:Brasils geografi]]
[[pl:Geografia Brazylii]]
[[pt:Geografia do Brasil]]
[[sl:Geografija Brazilije]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Brazil</title>
<id>3632</id>
<revision>
<id>41753749</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:28:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Census information==
Brazil has conducted a periodical population census since 1872. Since 1940, this census has been carried out [[Wiktionary:decennial|decennially]]. Scanned versions of the forms for each census distributed in Brazil since 1960 are available on-line from IPUMS International.{{ref|BrazilCensusForms}}
==Demographics==
===Ethnic groups===
In large part, the population descends from early [[Europe]]an settlers &mdash; chiefly [[Portugal|Portuguese]], but also some [[Spain|Spaniard]], [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] &mdash;, [[African]] slaves ([[Yoruba]], [[Ewe (people)|Ewe]], [[Bantu]], and others), and assimilated indigenous peoples (mostly [[Tupi]] and [[Guarani]], but also of many other ethnic groups). Trans-ethnic marriages and concubinates have been common and well accepted ever since the first Portuguese settlers arrived. Starting in the late [[19th century]] Brazil received substantial immigration from several other countries, mainly [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Poland]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] (mostly Christians), [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]], [[Hungary]] and [[Armenia]], [[Japan]], [[China]] and [[Korea]]. [[Jewish]] people, both from [[Ashkenazi]] and [[Sephardi]] ascent, form considerably large communities, especially in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
The descendants of the European immigrants, particularly the Germans, Italians, and Poles, are largely concentrated in the southern part of the country, in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]; these states, together with the Spanish speaking countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]] have a large majority of people of European descent. In the rest of the country, most of the [[White (people)|white]] population is of older settler stock. In the mid-southern states of [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] and in the Federal District of [[Brasilia]], the number of whites is somewhat equal to the number of [[Afro-Brazilian]] and Mixed Race Brazilians. In the Northeast, which received large masses of African slaves to work in [[sugarcane]], [[tobacco]] and [[cotton]] plantations, people of African descent are dominant. The city of Salvador da [[Bahia]] is considered one of the largest black cities of the World. Many poorer people from the Northeast have migrated to the large cities of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[São Paulo]] in the south, helping improve the racial [[melting pot]] that characterizes these two megalopolises. In the Northwest (covering largely the Brazilian [[Amazon Basin|Amazon]]), great part of the population has distinguisheable ethnic characteristics that emphasize their Native Brazilian roots. In fact, it is the only region where Mixed-Race Brazilians have distinct Indian traces. This is due to recent colonization by other ethhic groups, which have merged with the Indigenous tribes that lived there. This region, however, is not very populated, and these Mixed-Race people with noticeable Indigenous origins (named "caboclos") represent only a tiny part of the entire Brazilian population.
[[Image:Z24-01963.jpg|thumb|300px|Brazilian people's diversity]]
The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] are the largest [[Asian]] group in Brazil. In fact, Brazil has the largest Japanese population outside Japan, with 1.5 million [[Japanese-Brazilian]]s, most of them living in [[São Paulo]]. Some [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Koreans]] also settled Brazil. Most Chinese came from [[mainland China]], but others came from [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]], and also from Portuguese-speaking [[Macau]]&mdash;these Chinese from [[Macau]] could speak and understand Portuguese, and it was not hard for them to adjust to Brazilian life. Those immigrant populations and their descendants still retain some of their original ethnic identity, however they are not closed communities and are rapidly integrating into mainstream Brazilian society: for instance, very few of the third generation can understand their grandparents' languages.
===Health===
According to Brazillian Government, the most serious health problems are (figures from 2002):
* High levels of childhood mortality: about 2.51% of childhood mortality reaching 3.77% in the northeast region.
* High levels of motherhood mortality: about 73.1 deaths per 100,000 born children in 2002.
* High levels of mortality by non-transmissible illness: 151.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants caused by heart and circulatory diseases, along with 72.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants caused by cancer.
* High levels of mortality caused by external causes (transportation, violence and suicide): 71.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants (14.9% of all deaths in the country), reaching 82.3 deaths in the southeast region.
[http://www.planejamento.gov.br/planejamento_investimento/conteudo/radarsocial/saude.htm]
===Religion===
About 74% of all Brazilians claim to be members of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]; most of the remaining 26% adhere to various [[Protestant]] faiths, [[Kardecism]], [[Candomblé]], [[Umbanda]], [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], and [[Buddhism]].
According to IBGE 2000 Census, these are the biggest religious denominations in Brazil (only listed those with more than a half million members):
* [[Roman Catholic Church]]: 124,980,132
: Its Charismatic Renewal branch is fast growing; the Progressive Branch (Liberation Theology) and the Conservative branch are in decline. Only 15% of its membership attends the church regularly.
* Assemblies of God (Assembléias de Deus): 8,418,140
: General Convention of the Assemblies of God: 3.6 Million. Affiliated with the American [[Assemblies of God]], Springfield, MO
: National Convention of the Assemblies of God: 2.5 Million. A.k.a. Madureira Ministry of the Assemblies of God
: Other independent Assemblies of God: 1,9 Million, such as Bethesda Assemblies of God
* [[Baptist]]:3,162,691
: Brazilian Baptist Convention: 1,2 Million adherents. Affiliated to US Southern Baptists
: National Baptist Convention: 1 Million. Charismatics Baptists
: Independent Baptist Convention: 400,000. Scandinavian Baptists
: Other Baptists: 400,000
* [[Christian Congregation of Brazil]]: 2,6 Million. Italian-Brazilian Pentecostals
* Spiritist: 2,262,401
: These includes Kardec Spiritualist; [[Afro-Brazilian]] Sincretists, New Age, etc, but with a much larger influence than their numbers
* Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus): 2 Million. Neo-Pentecostal Movement.
* Foursquare Gospel Church: 1,318,805. Classic Pentocostals in US, but second-wave pentecostals in Brazil.
* [[Adventist]]s: 1,2 Million
: [[Seventh-day Adventi |
, reborn as an Immortal, and has since vowed vengeance against Connor for his foster-father's death. He has spent the last four centuries killing all the people Connor loves, including Rachel Ellenstein, (the war orphan from the first Highlander film). He also has gathered a posse of lesser Immortals, who overpower other Immortals and allow Kell to take their heads. At the start of the film, Kell has over 600 Immortal kills, making him the most powerful Immortal on Earth, if one takes this as a metric of power.
After Rachel's death, Connor has hidden in a place called the Sanctuary, where Immortals are protected by the Watchers (a secret society introduced in the TV series) to prevent there ever being only one Immortal left.
After the flashback, Kell and his posse of Immortals attack the Sanctuary, and Connor is believed to be beheaded along with the other Sanctuary Immortals. Duncan Macleod ([[Adrian Paul]]) is given a vision of this evil act, and investigates. Eventually, he discovers Connor was spared by Kell, so as to allow the evil Immortal to make his life even more miserable. He wants to kill Duncan to torture Connor, and given the number of Quickenings he has received, this seems very likely. Therefore, Connor forces Duncan to kill him, and thereby absorbing all of Connor's power in order to defeat Kell.
There is also a sub-plot concering Duncan's Immortal wife, a woman he wedded and then murdered on their wedding night, in order that she become Immortal. However, this has driven her into the arms of Kell, and he must earn her forgiveness, or face her as part of Kell's posse.
The theatrical release of this film was relatively short (87 min.) and rather fast-paced. The DVD version is close to 2 hours in length, boasts a happy ending, and an improved sound mix and soundtrack. The DVD version also contains a rough cut of the film (whose style has an "edited for TV" feel), with a subplot involving Connor MacLeod giving a Christmas tree to an orphanage every Christmas, an activity picked up by Duncan after Connor's death.
== ''Highlander: The Source '' ==
{{future film}}
The 5th installment to the "Highlander" film series is currently being filmed. It is unknown as of yet whether there will be shown in [[movie theater]]s or if it will go [[direct-to-video|directly to DVD and VHS]].
[[Image:Duncan.gif|thumb|180px|Duncan MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod ([[Adrian Paul]])]]
== Television and Animation==
*A 1990s television series used the same basic ideas as the films, and it was simply called [[Highlander: The Series]]. Its first episode was released on [[October 6]], [[1992]]. The series centred on Connor MacLeod's much younger Immortal "clansman" Duncan MacLeod ([[Adrian Paul]]). Connor ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]]) makes only one guest appearance in the very first episode to ensure continuity.
Half of each year's production was shot in [[Canada]], the other half in [[France]], requiring considerable plot machination to get all the main characters to migrate back and forth regularly.
The show also starred [[Jim Byrnes]] as [[Joe Dawson]], a member of a [[secret society]] called "Watchers"; [[Stan Kirsch]] as [[Richie Ryan (Highlander)|Richie Ryan]], a young petty thief who Duncan MacLeod takes in and become great friends -- and early in season 2 becomes Immortal; [[Elizabeth Gracen]] as Amanda, an Immortal who is over 1,000 years old and a thief, but a great person; [[Peter Wingfield]] as [[Methos]], the oldest living Immortal, who is over 5,000 years old (the charicter established in conversation that it was 5000 years ag he took his first head before that is "a little blurry"); and the late [[Werner Stocker]] as the 2,000-year-old Immortal [[priest]] named [[Darius (Highlander)|Darius]]. The series also starred [[Alexandra Vandernoot]] as Duncan MacLeod's girlfriend named [[Tessa Noel]].
This series had six seasons, and 119 episodes. Its last episode was released on [[May 16]], [[1998]].
*A [[1994]] animated series, [[Highlander: The Animated Series]], was set in the far future, and featured the character of [[Quentin MacLeod]], voiced by [[Miklos Perlus]].
*[[Highlander: The Raven]] was a series that took one of the characters in the previous series, [[Amanda (Highlander)|Amanda]] ([[Elizabeth Gracen]]), as its central character. She was accompanied by former police officer [[Nick Wolfe]] ([[Paul Johansson]]). The first episode was released on [[November 7]], [[1998]].
*A [[2001]] animated flash series, [[The Methos Chronicles]], was an internet flash series based on [[Methos]], a character drawn from the television series. [[Peter Wingfield]] was the voice actor for the main character of the short series, which lasted only one eight-episode season. The animation quality was consider by most to be poor, but it has found a cult following.
*The producers are making a new [[anime]] series/movie called [[Highlander: Vengeance]]. It is about a new Highlander named Colin MacLeod. Set in the future, Colin has to battle Immortals and giant robots.
== Series/Film separation ==
To newcomers, the most confusing aspect of the franchise are the blatant inconsistencies and paradoxes between the television series and the films. To explain the paradoxes presented, the entire ''Highlander'' franchise may be seen as completely separate storylines, occurring in separate realities. The major realities thus being:
#The reality of the first ''Highlander'' movie, where Connor MacLeod is the Immortal who wins the prize, and thus the last Immortal. ''Highlander III'' is a direct successor to ''Highlander'', and establishes that a group of Immortals -- trapped in a cave centuries prior to The Gathering -- escape after MacLeod's fight with Kurgan, and the battle for The Prize begins again.
#The reality of the original cut of ''Highlander II'', where the Immortals were in fact aliens from another planet who were exiled to Earth. The aliens eventually kill each other off, except for Connor MacLeod, who lives into the 21st Century, when another group of aliens comes after him; thus beginning a fight for survival. ''Highlander II'' is unconnected in any way to the other films or television series. ''The Renegade Version'' attempts to fit more closely with existing continuity (''i.e.'', eliminating all references to aliens); debate still rages over how much it succeeds in this.
#The realities of the ''Highlander'' television series only, or of ''Highlander: Endgame'' only. The differences between these single realities, and yet a third "mixed" reality of ''Highlander: The Series'' and ''Highlander: Endgame'' are mainly related to information established within the series. For example, assuming for the moment that one leaves out various Immortal killings in ''Endgame'' being done on Holy Ground (which one could argue ''Endgame'' simply shows that the rules of "The Game" are not necessarily supernaturally enforced), we are still left with the fact that in ''Endgame'' it is established that Duncan once had a wife. The problem with this, though, is that in ''Highlander: The Series'', it is clearly indicated that Duncan had never been married. In the season 2 episode, "The Darkness", Duncan was hesitant to ask Tessa to marry him, partly because of what a gypsy woman had once said to him long ago..."You will have hundreds of women, but you will never marry, not me, not anyone... MacLeod, you will bury many women, but you will marry none. You will always be alone; do you hear me? Alone!" Because of this warning/curse, and since he had been told this warning/curse hundreds of years ago when he had yet to marry, there is no way to explain Duncan all of a sudden having had a wife hundreds of years ago as is stated in ''Endgame''.
#The mixed reality of the ''Highlander'' television series and ''Highlander: Endgame'', which incorporates some of the elements of the first ''Highlander'' film as well, but is not a continuation. In this reality, there are a much larger number of Immortals still living in the 20th century, with The Gathering still ongoing.
#The reality of the first, third, and fourth ''Highlander'' films, the ''Highlander'' television series, ''Highlander: The Raven'', and presumably the upcoming fifth feature film (''[[Highlander: The Source]]''). In this reality, Connor MacLeod fought against the Immortal Kane in 1994, entering into the "Sanctuary" the following year, with Duncan MacLeod slaying [[Jacob Kell]] ten years later.
#If ''Highlander: Endgame'' (Highlander IV) and ''Highlander: The Final Dimension'' (Highlander III) are in the same series continuity, then the later film ignores the life that Connor MacLeod has built for himself in HL3, namely his adopted son, John MacLeod.
The television series is now regarded by some fans to be a separate "universe," in which most of the events of the original film can be used as background, except for the facts that Connor was not the only Immortal left after defeating the Kurgan, and that Duncan is considered the main Immortal most likely to win The Prize, which is referred to by Duncan in the first season as event happening in an unknown future.
Connor's battle with the Kurgan (as alluded to in the Series pilot and in one later episode) is therefore simply viewed as an important era in his life, and not a final fight for "The Prize." The second movie (and its plots and devices) is not considered part of the series' universe, although the third film fits in without much difficulty. Fans have dubbed ''Highlanders 1,'' ''2,'' and ''3'' as the "Connor Universe," and the Television Series and ''Highlander: Endgame'' as the "Duncan Universe."
==Books and CDs==
* ''Highlander'', by Garry Kilworth — Based on the cult film classic.
* ''The Best of Highlander: The Book'', by Maureen Russell
* The Original Scores - ' |
Jason Aaronson, 1994, ISBN 1568211252
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Hasidic Judaism, Keter Publishing
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=349&letter=H Hasidim, Hasidism], jewishencyclopedia.com
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Hasidism.html Hasidism], jewishvirtuallibrary.org
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-index.html What is Chassidism?], scjfaq.org
*[http://www.pinenet.com/rooster/hasid1.html FAQ on Hasidism], hasidism.info
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/joc-index.html Hasidic Judaism Reading List], shamash.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2534 Chassidism] - chabad.org
'''Resources'''
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=109854 Large collection of Chassidic Texts in English] chabad.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=109851 Hasidic Stories], chabad.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=332484 historical and biographical studies] in Hasidic history. Chabad.org
==Footnotes==
#{{note|Besht}} Meaning "Master of the Good Name", abbreviated as ''Besht''.
[[Category:Hasidic Judaism|*]]
[[Category:Orthodox Judaism]]
[[da:Hassidisme]]
[[de:Chassidismus]]
[[eo:Ĥasidismo]]
[[et:Hassidism]]
[[fr:Hassidisme]]
[[he:תנועת החסידות]]
[[yi:חסידות]]
[[ja:ハシディズム]]
[[nl:Chassidisch jodendom]]
[[nn:Ḥasidisk jødedom]]
[[pl:Chasydyzm]]
[[pt:Judaísmo chassídico]]
[[sv:Chasidism]]
[[uk:Хасидизм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of post-Communist Russia</title>
<id>14438</id>
<revision>
<id>15911995</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-28T06:28:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paranoid</username>
<id>25394</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harmonic series (music)</title>
<id>14439</id>
<revision>
<id>40291336</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Bugle]] to [[Bugle (instrument)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[harmonic series (mathematics)]] for the (related) mathematical concept.''
Pitched [[musical instrument]]s are usually based on a [[harmonic oscillator]] such as a string or a column of air. Both can and do oscillate at numerous frequencies simultaneously. Because of the self-filtering nature of [[resonance]], these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples of the lowest possible frequency, and such multiples form the '''harmonic series'''.
== Description of the harmonic series ==
The lowest possible frequency of a [[harmonic oscillator]] is called its [[fundamental frequency]]. This frequency determines the musical [[pitch (music)|pitch]] or note that is created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column.
In nearly every musical instrument, the fundamental note is always accompanied by other, higher-frequency tones that are generally called '''overtones'''. In pitched (''i.e.,'' non-percussion) instruments, these shorter, faster [[wave|waves]] are reflected between the two ends of the string or air column. As the reflected waves interact, frequencies whose wavelengths do not divide evenly into the length of the string or air column are suppressed, and the vibrations that persist are called '''harmonics'''. Their wavelengths are 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, etc. of the length of the string or air column. To better understand this, see [[node_(physics)|node]].
Theoretically, these wavelengths produce vibrations at frequencies that are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator against which it vibrates often alter these frequencies. (See [[inharmonicity]] and [[stretched tuning]] for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The harmonic series is an [[arithmetic series]] (2×f, 3×f, 4×f, 5×f, ...). In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or [[hertz]] (Hz)), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant. But because our ears respond to sound [[logarithm|logarithmically]], we perceive higher harmonics as "closer together" than lower ones. On the other hand, the [[octave]] series is a [[geometric progression]] (2×f, 4×f, 8×f, 16×f, ...), and we hear these distances as "the same" in all ranges. In terms of what we hear, each octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly "smaller" and more numerous intervals.
The second harmonic, twice the frequency of the fundamental, sounds an [[octave]] higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a [[perfect fifth]] above the second. The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a [[perfect fourth]] above the third (two octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher). The combined oscillation of a string with several of its lowest harmonics can be seen clearly in an interactive animation at [http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/standingWaves/standingWaves1/StandingWaves1.html Edward Zobel's "Zona Land"].
[[Image:Hseries.png|frame|right|An illustration of the harmonic series as musical notation. Not all the notes are exactly in tune; see below for details.]]
For a fundamental of C1, the first 16 harmonics are notated as shown. You can listen to [[media:Harmonics 110x16.ogg|A2 (110 Hz) and 15 of its partials]] if you have [[Wikipedia:Media help|a media player capable]] of playing [[Vorbis]] files. You can also hear a sweep of the first 20 harmonics of A1 (55 Hz) in Quicktime format by [http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/hs/playback/sweep/ clicking here].
== Terminology ==
'''''Harmonic vs. partial.''''' Harmonics are often called partials. In some contexts, "partial" may refer to an [[overtone]] that is ''not'' an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, but this can be confusing in wire-stringed instruments where, due to [[inharmonicity]], ''none'' of the harmonics vibrate at ''exact'' integer multiples of the fundamental. In music, and especially among tuning professionals, the words "harmonic" and "partial" are generally interchangeable.
Likewise, many musicians use the term '''''overtones''''' as a synonym for harmonics. For others, an [[overtone]] may be any frequency that sounds along with the fundamental tone, regardless of its relationship to the [[fundamental frequency]]. The sound of a cymbal or gong includes overtones that are ''not'' harmonics; that's why the gong's sound doesn't seem to have a very definite pitch compared to the same fundamental note played on a piano.
'''''Harmonic numbering.''''' In most contexts, the fundamental vibration of an oscillating body represents its first harmonic. However, some musicians, tuners, and even developers of piano tuning software do not consider the fundamental to be a harmonic; it is just the fundamental. For them, the harmonic one octave above the fundamental (the second mode of vibration) is the first harmonic or first partial. There are logical arguments for both approaches to numbering, but in this article, the fundamental vibration is referred to as the first harmonic for simplicity.
== Harmonics and tuning ==
If the first 15 harmonics are [[transposition (music)|transposed]] into the span of one [[octave]], they approximate some of the notes in what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone. The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal [[minor second|semitones]], and in relation to that scale, many of the harmonics are slightly out of tune, and the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics are significantly so. In the late 1930s, composer [[Paul Hindemith]] ranked musical intervals according to their relative [[consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] based on these and similar harmonic relationships.
Below is a comparison between the first 20 harmonics and their equivalent frequencies in the 12-tone equal-tempered scale. Orange-tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents, which is the "[[just noticeable difference]]" for the human ear. (Because physical characteristics of musical instruments cause significant variations from these theoretical values, they should not be used for tuning without adjusting for those variations.)
<center>
{| border=1 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 1st
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C1
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 2nd
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C2
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 3rd
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G2
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 4th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C3
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 5th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E3
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;14 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 6th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G3
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 7th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | Bb3
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;31 cents
|}
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 8th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 9th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +4 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 10th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;14 cents
|-
| bg |
edonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Bulgarian (language)|Bulgarian]] ''&#1075;&#1083;&#1072;&#1075;&#1086;&#769;&#1083;&#1080;&#1094;&#1072;'' (transliterated ''glagolitsa''), in [[Croatian (language)|Croatian]] ''glagoljica'', in [[Ukrainian (language)|Ukrainian]] ''&#1075;&#1083;&#1072;&#1075;&#1086;&#1083;&#1080;&#1094;&#1103;'' (transliterated ''hlaholytsia''), in [[Belarusian (language)|Belarusian]] ''&#1075;&#1083;&#1072;&#1075;&#1086;&#1083;&#1110;&#1094;&#1072;'' (transliterated ''hlaholitsa''), in [[Slovenian (language)|Slovene]] ''glagolica'',in [[Serbian (language)|Serbian]] ''глагољица/glagoljica'' etc. <!-- other variants can be added -->
== Characteristics ==
The alphabet has two variants: round and square.
The round variant is dominated by circles and smooth curves, and the square variant features a lot of right angles, and sometimes trapezoids.
See [http://kodeks.uni-bamberg.de/AKSL/Schrift/GlagolVergleichAlphabet.htm an image of both variants (incomplete)]. Or [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb17-1/tb50zubr.pdf for more details]
The square variant lends itself to a more abundant use of [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]s than in the Latin or the Cyrillic script.
The following table lists each letter in order, giving a picture (round variant), its name, its approximate sound in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], the presumed origin (if applicable), and the corresponding modern Cyrillic letter. The names ''Jer'' to ''Jus'' are sometimes written ''Yer'' to ''Yus''. There are several letters that have no modern counterpart, such as the [[nasal vowel]]s [[Yus|Jus]].
{| border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
! Picture
! Unicode character
! [[Old Church Slavonic]] name
! [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]] name
! Sound
! Presumed origin
! Descendant in modern Russian Cyrillic
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaAz.gif|14px|Azu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C00;
| Az'
| Az
| {{IPA|/[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]/}}
| The sign of the cross, or Hebrew Alef א
| (А а) [[A (Cyrillic)|A]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaBuki.gif|14px|Bouky]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C01;
| Buky
| Buky
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]/}}
| Unknown; Samaritan /m/ is the same letter mirrored
| (Б б) [[Be (Cyrillic)|Be]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaVedi.gif|16px|Vede]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C02;
| Vede
| Vedi
| {{IPA|/[[Labiodental approximant|ʋ]]/}}
| Probably from Latin V
| (В в) [[Ve (Cyrillic)|Ve]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaGlagol.gif|16px|Glagolu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C03;
| Glagolji
| Glagoli
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]/}}
| (Γ γ) Greek [[Gamma]]
| (Г г) [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Ghe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDobro.gif|16px|Dobro]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C04;
| Dobro
| Dobro
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]/}}
| (Δ δ) Greek [[Delta (letter)|Delta]] (compare /v/ as /d/ turned upside down)
| (Д д) [[De (Cyrillic)|De]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJest.gif|10px|Jestu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C05;
| Jest'
| Jest
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]/}}
| Probably Samaritan /he/ or Greek number ''sampi'' (900)
| (Е е) [[E (Cyrillic)|E]]; see also (Є є) [[Ukrainian Ye]];
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaZhivete.gif|14px|Zhivete]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C06;
| Zhivete
| Zhivete
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]/}}
|
| (Ж ж) [[Zhe (Cyrillic)|Zhe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDzelo.gif|14px|Dzelo]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C07;
| Dzelo
| Dzelo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ʣ]]/}}
|
| (Ѕ ѕ) [[Dze|Macedonian Dze]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaZemlja.gif|14px|Zemlja]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C08;
| Zemlja
| Zemlja
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]/}}
| (Θ θ) Variant of Greek [[Theta (letter)|Theta]]
| (З з) [[Ze (Cyrillic)|Ze]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaI1.gif|18px|I]], [[Image:GlagolitsaIzhe.gif|14px|Izhe]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0A;,&nbsp;&#x2C09;
| Izhe
| Izhe
| {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal approximant|j]]/}}
| (Ι ι) Greek [[Iota (letter)|Iota]] with dieresis
| (И и) [[I (Cyrillic)|I]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaI.gif|12px|I]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0B;
| I
| I
| {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal approximant|j]]/}}
| Source unknown, probably combination of Christian symbols circle and triangle
| (І і) [[Ukrainian I|Belarusian/Ukrainian I]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDzherv.gif|16px|Gjerv]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0C;
| Djerv'
| Djerv
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|ʥ]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (Ћ ћ) Serbian [[Tshe]] or (Ђ ђ) Serbian [[Dje |Ðerv]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaKako.gif|8px|Kako]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0D;
| Kako
| Kako
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]/}}
| From Hebrew Qof ק
| (К к) [[Ka (Cyrillic)|Ka]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaLjudi.gif|18px|Ljudie]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0E;
| Ljudije
| Ljudi
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]/}}
| (Λ λ) Greek [[Lambda]]
| (Л л) [[El (Cyrillic)|El]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaMislete.gif|24px|Myslite]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C0F;
| Mislete
| Mislete
| {{IPA|/[[Bilabial nasal|m]]/}}
| (Μ μ) Greek [[Mu (letter)|Mu]]
| (М м) [[Em (Cyrillic)|Em]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaNash.gif|10px|Nashi]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C10;
| Nash'
| Nash
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar nasal|n]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (Н н) [[En (Cyrillic)|En]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaOn.gif|10px|Onu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C11;
| On'
| On
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|&#596;]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (О о) [[O (Cyrillic)|O]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaPokoj.gif|12px|Pokoi]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C12;
| Pokoji
| Pokoj
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]/}}
| (Π π) Greek [[Pi (letter)|Pi]]
| (П п) [[Pe (Cyrillic)|Pe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaRtsi.gif|10px|Rici]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C13;
| Rtsi
| Rtsi
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar trill|r]]/}}
| (Ρ ρ) Greek [[Rho (letter)|Rho]]
| (Р р) [[Er (Cyrillic)|Er]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaSlovo.gif|12px|Slovo]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C14;
| Slovo
| Slovo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]/}}
| Source unknown, probably combination of Christian symbols circle and triangle
| (С с) [[Es (Cyrillic)|Es]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaTverdo.gif|18px|Tvrido]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C15;
| Tvrdo
| Tverdo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]/}}
| (Τ τ) Greek [[Tau]]
| (Т т) [[Te (Cyrillic)|Te]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJer.gif|14px|Jeru]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C16;
| Uk'
| Uk
| {{IPA|/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]/}}
| Ligature of on and izhitsa
| (У у) [[U (Cyrillic)|U]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaFert.gif|12px|Fritu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C17;
| Frt'
| Fert
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]/}}
| (Φ φ) Greek [[Phi (letter)|Phi]]
| (Ф ф) [[Ef (Cyrillic)|Ef]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaKher.gif|10px|Heru]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C18;
| Kher'
| Kher
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]/}}
| Unknown, compare /g/ and Latin ''h''
| (Х х) [[Ha (Cyrillic)|Ha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaOht.gif|14px|Otu]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C19;
| Oht'
| Oht
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|&#596;]]/}}
| Ligature of on and its mirrored image
| ({{unicode|Ѿ ѿ}}) [[Ot (Cyrillic)|Ot]] (only used to transcribe Greek)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaShta.gif|14px|Shta]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1B;
| Shta
| Shta
| {{IPA|/ʃt/}}
| Ligature of Sha on top of Tverdo
| (Щ щ) [[Shcha (Cyrillic)|Shcha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaTsi.gif|14px|Ci]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1C;
| Tsi
| Tsi
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|ʦ]]/}}
| (צ ץ) Hebrew [[Tsade]] צ
| (Ц ц) [[Tse (Cyrillic)|Tse]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaCherv.gif|12px|Chrivi]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1D;
| Chrv'
| Cherv
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]]/}}
|
| (Ч ч) [[Che (Cyrillic)|Che]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaSha.gif|16px|Sha]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1E;
| Sha
| Sha
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]/}}
| (ש) Hebrew [[Shin (letter)|Shin]] ש
| (Ш ш) [[Sha (Cyrillic)|Sha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJer.gif|14px|Jeru]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1F;
| Jer'
| Jer
| {{IPA|/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]]/}}
|
| (Ъ ъ) [[hard sign]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJery.gif|28px|Jery]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C1F;&#x2C0A;
| Jery
| Jery
| {{IPA|/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]/}}
|
| (Ы ы) [[Yery]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJerj.gif|14px|Jeri]]
| style=&quo |
''). The claims of the patent, once granted, would then have to be translated into all European Union languages. However, the patent will not be enforceable against an entity until it is provided with a copy of it in its own national language. The Community Patent Regulation will also establish a court holding exclusive jurisdiction to invalidate issued patents; thus, a Community Patent's validity will be the same in all EU member states. This court will be attached to the present [[European Court of Justice]] and [[Court of First Instance]] through use of provisions in the [[Treaty of Nice]].
Discussion regarding the Community Patent had made clear progress in [[2003]] when a political agreement was reached on [[March 3]], 2003. However, one year later in March [[2004]] under the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|presidency]], the [[Competitiveness Council]] failed to agree on the details of the Regulation. In particular the time delays for translating the claims and the authentic text of the claims in case of an infringement remained problematic issues throughout discussions and in the end proved insoluble.
Thus, in [[2005]], the Community Patent looked unlikely to be implemented in the near future. However, on [[January 16]], [[2006]] the [[European Commission]] "launched a public consultation on how future action in patent policy to create an EU-wide system of protection can best take account of stakeholders' needs." The Community Patent is one of the issues the consultation focuses on. [http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/38&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en]
=== Reactions to the failure ===
After the council in March 2004, [[European Commission|EU Commissioner]] [[Frits Bolkestein]] said
: "The failure to agree on the Community Patent I am afraid undermines the credibility of the whole enterprise to make Europe the most competitive economy in the world by [[2010]]."
and further
: "It is a mystery to me how Ministers at the so-called 'Competitiveness Council' can keep a straight face when they adopt conclusions for the Spring European Council on making Europe more competitive and yet in the next breath backtrack on the political agreement already reached on the main principles of the Community Patent in March of last year. I can only hope that one day the vested, [[protectionism|protectionist]] interests that stand in the way of agreement on this vital measure will be sidelined by the over-riding importance and interests of European manufacturing industry and Europe's competitiveness. That day has not yet come."
Jonathan Todd, Commission's Internal Market spokesman, declared:
:"Normally, after the common political approach, the text of the regulation is agreed very quickly. Instead, some Member States appear to have changed their positions. (...) It is extremely unfortunate that European industry’s competitiveness, innovation and R&D are being sacrificed for the sake of preserving narrow vested interests." [http://aoi.cordis.lu/article.cfm?article=1310]
European Commission President [[Romano Prodi]], asked to evaluate his five-year term, cites as his weak point the failure of many EU governments to implement the "[[Lisbon Agenda]]", agreed in [[2001]]. In particular, he cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent, or even the languages to be used for such a patent, "because member states did not accept a change in the rules; they were not coherent" ([[Wall Street Journal]], [[October 25]], 2004).
=== Support for the Regulation ===
There is support for the Community Patent from various quarters. From the point of view of the European Commission the Community Patent is an essential step towards creating a level playing field for trade within the European Union. For smaller businesses, if the Community Patent achieves its aim of providing a relatively inexpensive way of obtaining patent protection across a wide trading area, then there is also support.
For larger businesses, however, other issues come into play, which have tended to dilute overall support. In general, these businesses recognise that the current European Patent system provides the best possible protection given the need to satisfy national sovereignty requirements such as regarding translation and enforcement. The Community Patent proposal was generally supported if it was to do away with both of these issues, but there was some concern about the level of competence of the proposed European Patent Court. A business would be reluctant to obtain a Europe-wide patent if it ran the risk of being revoked by an inexperienced judge. Also, the question of translations would not go away - unless the users of the system could see significant change in the position of some of the countries holding out for more of a patent specification to be translated on grant or before enforcement, it was understood that larger businesses (the bulk of the users of the patent system) would be unlikely to move away from the tried and tested European Patent.
== See also ==
* [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]
* [[Convention on the Unification of Certain Points of Substantive Law on Patents for Invention|Strasbourg Convention]] (1963)
* [[European Patent Convention]]
== External links ==
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/ Official European Union Community Patent Homepage]
* Community Patent Convention (1975)
** ...
* Amended Community Patent Convention (1989)
**[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=41989A0695(01)&model=guichett 1989's Agreement relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=41989A0695(02)&model=guichett Implementing Regulations to the Convention for the European patent for the common market]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=41989A0695(03)&model=guichett Protocol on the settlement of litigation concerning the infringement and validity of Community Patents (Protocol on litigation)]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=41989A0695(04)&model=guichett Protocol on privileges and immunities of the common appeal court relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=41989A0695(05)&model=guichett Protocol on the statute of the common appeal court relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=41989A0695(06)&model=guichett Protocol on a possible modification of the conditions of entry into force of the Agreement relating to Community patents]
* Regulation (1997)
** [http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/paten.pdf Green Paper on the Community Patent and patent system in Europe] (presented by the Commission) (pdf)
** [http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/412en.pdf Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (presented by the Commission)] (August 1, 2000) (pdf)
** [http://register.consilium.eu.int/pdf/en/04/st07/st07119.en04.pdf Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (Council of the European Union)] (March 8, 2004) (pdf)
*[http://patlaw-reform.european-patent-office.org/community_patent/ European Patent Office page on the Community Patent]
*[http://wiki.ael.be/index.php/CommunityPatent AEL wiki on the Community Patent]
[[Category:European patent law]]
[[Category:European Union laws]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corporations law</title>
<id>6762</id>
<revision>
<id>36428185</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T23:57:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdfawcett</username>
<id>829975</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Qualified "a corporation is a legal entity that is legally treated as a person" with "in certain instances". The legal fiction of corporate law is provisional, not categorical.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{BusinessLaw}}
'''Corporations law''' or '''corporate law''' is the field of [[law]] concerning the creation and regulation of [[corporation]]s and other [[business organization|business organizations]]. A corporation is a [[legal entity]] that is legally treated, in certain instances, as a person; the corporation can own [[property]], execute [[contract|contracts]], sue, and be sued. In British practice, corporate law is more often called '''company law'''.
Corporate law also includes the law governing the relationships among various constituents of a corporation such as [[shareholder|shareholders]], [[board of directors|directors]] and [[management]]. By way of illustrative example, the following are questions of corporate law:
* Under what circumstances may a corporation engage in a transaction (such as renting property) with a director? (see: [[conflict of interest]])
* How are the directors and officers of a corporation chosen?
* What responsibilities does a director, an officer, or a majority shareholder owe to the corporation or to other shareholders? (see: [[fiduciary duty]])
* What actions may be undertaken by the officers of a corporation in their capacity as such, and what actions require the approval of the directors or of the shareholders? (see: [[corporate governance]])
* How may one corporation [[mergers and acquisitions|merge]], consolidate with, or otherwise acquire another?
* What are the procedures for calling and holding a meeting of the shareholders or of the directors of a corporation?
* How may a corporation be dissolved, and what are the conseq |
llan Dwan''' ([[April 3]], [[1885 in film|1885]] &ndash; [[December 21]], [[1981 in film|1981]]) was a pioneering [[Canada|Canadian]]-born American [[film|motion picture]] [[film director|director]], producer and screenwriter.
Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], his family moved to the [[United States]] when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in [[California]] where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in [[1911]], Dwan began working part time in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. While still in New York, in [[1917 in film|1917]] he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].
Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies, he directed fellow Canadian, [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed [[1922 in film|1922]] ''[[Robin Hood]]''.
Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in [[1937 in film|1937]] he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' the following year.
Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the [[1949 in film|1949]] box office smash, ''[[The Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. His last movie was in [[1961]].
Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last "discovered" great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]].
He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]].
Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]].
==Selected films==
As director:
*''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916)
*''[[Fairbanks Fine Arts]]'' (1916)
*''[[Fairbanks Fragments]]'' (1916-1918) also screenwriter
*''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922)
*''The Iron Mask'' (1929)
*''[[Heidi]]'' (1937)
*''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel]]'' (1938)
*''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938)
*''[[The Three Musketeers (film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939)
*''The Gorilla'' (1939)
*''[[Young People]]'' (1940)
*''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer
*''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942)
*''Around the World'' (1943) also producer
*''[[Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944)
*''[[Abroad With Two Yanks]]'' (1944)
*''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter
*''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945)
*''Driftwood'' (1947)
*''Calendar Girl'' (1947)
*''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer
*''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949)
*''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952)
*''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954)
*''[[Passion (1954 movie)|Passion]]'' (1954)
*''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954)
*''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955)
*''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955)
*''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955)
*''[[Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956)
*''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957)
*''[[Enchanted Island]]'' (1958)
See also: [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}}
[[Category:1885 births|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American film directors|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American film producers|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Ontario writers|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Torontonians|Dwan, Allan]]
[[de:Allan Dwan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algeria/Background</title>
<id>345</id>
<revision>
<id>15899079</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-15T17:30:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
<id>34793</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algeria/Geography</title>
<id>346</id>
<revision>
<id>15899080</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.227.230.147</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Algeria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algeria/People</title>
<id>347</id>
<revision>
<id>15899081</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algeria/Government</title>
<id>348</id>
<revision>
<id>15899082</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T22:05:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>more removals</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Algeria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Algeria</title>
<id>349</id>
<revision>
<id>40484200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:28:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Economy of Algeria table}}
In the '''economy of Algeria''' the [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. [[Algeria]] has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in [[1992]] as the country became embroiled in political turmoil.
Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in April [[1994]] and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended [[30 April]], [[1998]]. Some progress on economic reform, [[Paris Club]] [[debt rescheduling]]s in [[1995]] and [[1996]], and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since [[1999]]. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in [[1999]] to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in [[1999]]-[[2000]] and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the [[November 10]], [[2001]] floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for [[2002]]-[[2003|03]] more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards.
[[President Bouteflika]] has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy.
The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]]; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the [[World Trade Organization]].
===[[Agriculture]]===
Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km&sup2;) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian well]]s in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals. A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and of [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, is exported.
A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern |
ms of gas and dust will be flying through the space near the newly formed giant elliptical galaxy. Out of the gas ejected from the merger, new globular clusters and maybe even new dwarf galaxies may form and become the halo of the elliptical. The globulars from both M31 and the Milky Way will also form part of the halo; globulars are so tightly held together that they are largely immune to large scale galactic interactions. On the stellar scale, little will happen. If anybody is around to watch the merger, it will be a slow, but magnificent event, with the sight of a distorted M31 spectacularly spanning the entire sky. M31 is actually already distorted: the edges are [[warp (disambiguation)|warp]]ed. This is probably because of interactions with its own galactic companions, as well as possible mergers with dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the recent past - the remnants of which are still visible in the disk populations.
In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ([[groups and clusters of galaxies|clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s) are still assembling. This "bottom-up" picture is referred to as ''hierarchical structure formation'' (similar to the SZ picture of galaxy formation, on a larger scale).
While we have learned a great deal about ours and other galaxies, the most fundamental questions about formation and evolution remain only tentatively answered.
== See also ==
* [[Bulge (astronomy)]]
* [[Disc (galaxy)]]
* [[Galactic coordinate system]]
* [[Galactic corona]]
* [[Galactic halo]]
* [[Galaxy rotation problem]]
==External links==
* [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0685.html Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31)] - from:
* [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/galaxies.html NOAO gallery of galaxy images]
* [http://www.astro.yale.edu/dokkum/evocalc/ javascript passive evolution calculator] of [[early type galaxy|early type (elliptical) galaxies]] - Dokkum & Franx
==References==
{{note|ELS}}Eggen, OJ, Lynden-Bell, D., & Sandage, AR 1962, ''[[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]]'', 136, 748
{{note|SZ}}Searle L , Zinn R . 1978. ''[[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]]'' 225:357–79.
{{Astronomy-footer}}
[[Category:Galaxy formation and evolution| ]]
[[Category:Galaxies|Formation]]
[[Category:Astrophysics]]
[[it:Formazione ed evoluzione delle galassie]]
[[pl:Powstawanie galaktyk]]
[[pt:Formação e evolução de galáxias]]
[[sk:Vznik a vývoj galaxií]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnu Privacy Guard</title>
<id>11972</id>
<revision>
<id>15909681</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.128.90.172</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>correcting capitalization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Privacy Guard]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Generation X</title>
<id>11973</id>
<revision>
<id>41783774</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:51:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OriginalResearch}}
{{Totallydisputed}}
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{otheruses}}
'''Generation X''' is a term for the generation of people born in the [[Western world]] (especially people born in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) following the [[post-World War II baby boom]] generation. While the exact dates bounding this age demographic are highly debated, those born from the [[1960s]] to the early [[1980s]] are generally agreed-upon as possibly members of this group. The term is used in [[demography]], the [[social sciences]], [[marketing]], but mainly, in [[Popular_culture|popular culture]]. Their influence over pop culture began in the [[1980s]] and has only grown in the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]].
Although the origins of the term "Generation X" go back at least as far as the early [[1960s]], it was popularized by [[Douglas Coupland]]'s [[1991]] novel ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'', in which Coupland describes the angst of those born between roughly 1960 and 1965, who, while technically part of the Baby Boom Generation, feel no connection to its cultural icons. In Coupland's usage, the "X" of Generation X referred to the namelessness of a generation that was coming into an awareness of its existence as a separate group while at the same time feeling completely dwarfed and culturally overshadowed by the Baby Boom generation of which it was ostensibly a part. The term Generation X has come to mean something else in popular usage (see below), having been appropriated by the generation following the Baby Boomers -- leaving Coupland's Generation X once again nameless.
The term Generation X is now popularly associated with the people born between the early to mid-1960s and the early 1980s {{ref|strausshowe}}<!-- this is the popular definition, as stated by Strauss and Howe - the article states right here that it's disputed, so there is no need to keep changing these dates -->, although this is disputed. Generation X has also been described as a generation consisting of those people whose teen years were touched by the 1980s, although many who are considered part of this generation had their teenage years stretching into the 1990s.
Another common description of Generation X includes within it those people who grew up in a period of transition ([[1945]]&ndash;[[1990]]) beginning with the end of [[World War II]] and the decline of [[Colonialism|colonial imperialism]] and ending with the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] and the end of the [[Cold War]]. Thus, the transition between colonialism and [[globalization]] is thought to separate the Baby Boomers from the [[Baby Busters]], a sub-generation of Generation X made up of the earliest born members.
==The history of the term==
The term was coined as a result of a [[1964]] study of [[United Kingdom|British]] youth by [[Jane Deverson]]. Initially, Deverson was asked by the editor of the magazine ''Woman's Own'' to conduct a series of interviews with [[teenager]]s of the time. The study revealed teenagers who "sleep together before they are married, don't believe in God, dislike the Queen and don't respect parents" which, due to being a new phenomenon, was deemed unsuitable for the magazine. Deverson, in an attempt to save her research, worked with Hollywood correspondent Charles Hamblett to create a book about the study. Hamblett would decide to name it ''Generation X''.{{ref|observer}}
In 1976, the phrase was picked up as the name of a [[Generation X (band)|punk rock band]] featuring [[Billy Idol]], which released three albums before disbanding in 1981.{{ref|amg}} The term Generation X was later popularized in 1991 when [[Douglas Coupland]]'s popular novel ''Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture'' was published. Coupland took the X from [[Paul Fussell]]'s 1983 book ''Class'', where the term "class X" designated a region of America's social hierarchy, rather than a generation.{{ref|genxorigin}} However, this term has transcended its roots in that country and expanded into other areas of the West.
Coupland first wrote of Generation X in September, 1987 (''Vancouver'' magazine, "Generation X", p. 164), which was a precursor to the novel and slightly preceded the term "twentysomething". The main character Kevin is a Canadian "trailing edge" baby boomer who denies cohort affiliation with his older sister and friends, all boomers. Kevin and his cohorts are all over-educated, under-employed, and pay sky-rocketing living expenses, which forces some to move back home to live with their parents. Unlike Boomers, they were too young to march for peace (Vietnam protests ended with the draft in 1973 with protestors typically aged 16-25) and either weren't born or were too young to recall [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's]] assassination in 1963 (long term memory starting at age 5). Coupland referred to those in born from 1958 to 1966 (in Canada) and 1958 to 1964 (in the United States). As the term Generation X later became somewhat interchangeable with "twentysomething", he later revised his notion of Generation X to include anyone known as "twentysomething" in the years 1987 to 1991.{{ref|coupl2030}}
As Coupland explained in a 1995 interview, "In his final chapter, Fussell named an 'X' category of people who wanted to hop off the merry-go-round of status, money, and social climbing that so often frames modern existence." It was after the publication of Coupland's book (and the subsequent popularity of [[grunge music]]) that the term began being used as a name for the generation by the media and later by the general public. The media introduced Generation X as a group of flannel-wearing, alienated, overeducated, underachieving [[slacker]]s with [[body piercing]]s, who drank franchise-store coffee and had to work at [[McJob]]s, concepts that had some truth to them but were in many cases stereotypes. In fact, while Coupland's book is often seen as being an accurate description of the generation, Coupland maintains that the book was meant to show the lack of a single description for it.
==Global factors defining Generation X==
[[Japan]] has a generation with similar characteristics to Generation X, ''shin jin rui''.
[[Developing countries]], too, have a Generation X, but it differs from that in the West, due to poor education and little disposable income. The version of Generation X that the developing nations experience essentially came out of the end of [[World War II]] and the subsequent decline of colonial occupation, the changes demanded on [[social hierarchy]] that it accompanied among the second generation born since the Second World War, and the dualit |
:Falkland Adaları]]
[[zh:福克兰群岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Falkland Islands</title>
<id>10689</id>
<revision>
<id>39001677</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T01:29:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ShiningEyes</username>
<id>768276</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Falkland Islands]] were uninhabited when discovered by [[Europe]]ans, but the recent discovery of the remains of a [[wood]]en [[canoe]] is strong evidence that they had previously been visited, most probably by the [[Yaghan]] people of [[Tierra del Fuego]]. It has also been suggested that the [[Falkland Island fox]]es, or warrahs, found on the [[island]]s were introduced by the Yaghans, bearing as they did a resemblance to the [[culpeo]] or Fuegian [[fox]].
An [[archipelago]] in the region of the Falkland Islands appeared on [[map]]s from the early [[16th century]], suggesting they may have been sighted by [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s or another expedition of the [[1500s]]. [[Amerigo Vespucci]] is believed to have sighted the islands in [[1502]], but did not name them. Both explorers were in [[Spain|Spanish]] service. In [[1519]] or [[1520]], [[Esteban Gómez]] of the "San Antonio", one of the captains in the expedition of Magellan, deserted this enterprise and encountered several islands, which members of his crew called "Islas de Sansón y de los Patos" ("Islands of Samson and the Ducks"). Although these islands were probably the [[Jason Islands]], a group northwest of West Falkland, the names "Islas de Sansón" ('''or''' "San Antón," "San Son," and "Ascensión") were used for the Falklands on Spanish maps during this period.
When [[England|English]] explorer [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]], commander of the "Desire", one of the ships belonging to [[Thomas Cavendish]]'s second expedition to the [[New World]], separated from Cavendish off the coast of what is now southern [[Argentina]], he decided to make for the [[Strait of Magellan]] in order to find Cavendish. On [[August 9]] [[1592]] a severe storm battered his ship, and Davis drifted under bare masts, taking refuge "among certain Isles never before discovered." Consequently, for a time the Falklands were known as "Davis Land" or "Davis' Land."
In [[1594]], they were visited by English commander [[Richard Hawkins]], who, combining his own name with that of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen,"]] gave the islands the name of "Hawkins' Maidenland."
In [[1600]], [[Sebald de Weert]], a [[Netherlands|Dutchman]], visited them and called them the Sebald Islands (in Spanish, "Islas Sebaldinas" or "Sebaldes"), a name which they bore on some Dutch maps into the [[19th century]].
English Captain [[John Strong]] sailed between the two principal islands in [[1690]] and called the passage "Falkland Channel" (now [[Falkland Sound]]), after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland]] ([[1659]]-[[1694]]), who as Commissioner of the [[Admiralty]] had financed the expedition and later became First Lord of the Admiralty. From this body of water the island group later took its collective name.
==Colonisation==
The islands were first settled by [[France]], in [[1764]], when she established a colony at [[Port Louis, Falkland Islands|Port Louis]], on [[East Falkland]]'s [[Berkeley Sound]] coast. The [[French language|French]] name ''Îles Malouines'' was given to the islands &mdash; ''malouin'' being the adjective for the [[Brittany|Breton]] [[seaport|port]] of [[Saint-Malo]]. The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''Islas Malvinas'' is a translation of the [[French language|French]] denomination.
In [[1765]], Capt. [[John Byron]], who was unware of the French in the east, explored [[Saunders Island (Falkland Islands)|Saunders Island]], in the west, named the harbor [[Port Egmont]], and claimed this and other islands for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] on the ground of prior discovery. The next year [[Captain]] [[John McBride, English seaman|John McBride]] established a British settlement on Port Egmont. These events were nearly the cause of a war between Britain and Spain, both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren but strategically important [[sovereignty]]. In 1766 France agreed to leave, Spain aggreeing to reimburse de Bougainville for his expenditures. The Spaniards assumed control in [[1767]], and re-named Port Louis as ''Port Soledad''. Meanwhile, the British presence in the west continued, until interrupted from [[July]], [[1770]] to [[January 22]] [[1771]] by Spain. Like the [[Mascarene Islands]] but without their intrinsic resources, the island group was well placed as a base for [[pirate]] and [[privateer]] raids. Britain voluntarily abandoned her colony in [[1774]], while leaving a plaque asserting her continuing sovereignty over the islands; But henceforward Spain ruled these uncontestedly from [[Buenos Aires]] until [[1811]]. On her withdrawal, like Britain earlier, Spain also left behind a plaque with her claims of sovereignty. The Islands were left uninhabited.
[[Image:Stamp Falkland Islands 1891 0.5p.jpg|thumb|left|Halfpenny postage stamp, issued 1891]]
[[Argentina]] claimed the group at its [[independence]] in [[1816]], and began settlement activity in [[1820]]. In [[1823]], Argentina granted [[fishing]] rights to Jorge Pacheco and [[Luis Vernet]], who finally succeeded on establishing a permanent settlement three years later. On [[June 10]], [[1829]], Argentina formally designated [[Luis Vernet]] as Governor of the Islands. [[Luis Vernet|Vernet]] was also granted a monopoly on [[hunting]] rights, which led him to capture the [[United States|American]] ships "Harriet", "Superior" and "Breakwater".
As a reprisal, the [[United States]] sent Captain [[Silas Duncan]] of the [[USS Lexington (1825)|USS ''Lexington'']] to recover the confiscated property. After finding what he considered proof that at least four [[United States|American]] fishing ships had been captured, plundered, and even outfitted for war, Duncan took seven prisoners onboard Lexington and charged them with piracy.
Also taken on board, [[Silas Duncan|Duncan]] reported that "were the whole of the (Falklands') population consisting of about forty persons, with the exception of some ''gauchos'', or cowboys who were encamped in the interior." The group, principally [[Germany|German]] citizens from [[Buenos Aires]], "appeared greatly rejoiced at the opportunity thus presented of removing with their families from a desolate region where the climate is always cold and cheerless and the soil extremely unproductive".
Vernet's and Brisbane's capture caused quite a stir among government officials in Buenos Aries, and a long dispute between U.S. and Argentine diplomats followed.
Afterwards, [[Major]] [[Esteban Mestivier]] was commissioned by the [[Buenos Aires]] government, as the new Governor of the Islands, to set up a penal colony. He arrived at his destination on [[November 15]], [[1832]] but, unfortunately, his soldiers [[mutiny|mutinied]] and killed him. [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[José María Pinedo]] quelled the rebellion and took charge as Governor.
These events provided the spur for Britain to finally and permanently return to the islands, (''See [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]''), removing [[Argentina|Argentine]] settlers on [[3 January]] [[1833]] and refounding Port Louis as a naval garrison and civilian settlement. An interesting episode for those investigating the [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands|sovereignty claims]] is the true story of "El Gaucho Rivero". In [[August]] 1833 [[Antonio Rivero]] was involved in an incident where a number of important figures on the islands were murdered. Rivero was taken to [[London]] to be judged, however when the case came before the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] it was dismissed because the court felt that the [[British monarchy|British Crown]] had no authority over the islands at this time, and Rivero was returned to [[Argentina]].
Work on [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] started in [[1843]] and it became the capital of the islands in [[1845]].
==Twentieth century==
Their strategic significance was confirmed by the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands|second major naval engagement]] of the [[World War I|First World War]]. [[Admiral]] [[Graf Maximilian von Spee]]'s East Asia [[Cruiser Squadron]] called at the islands on their trip from the [[Pacific Ocean]] back to [[Germany]] intending to destroy the [[Royal Navy]] radio relay station and coaling depot there. Unknown to Spee, a British [[squadron]], including two [[battlecruiser]]s considerably more powerful than his forces had been sent to hunt down his squadron and happened to be in the harbour coaling. In the one-sided battle which followed, most of Spee's squadron was sunk.
===[[Falklands War]]===
{{main articles|[[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] and [[Falklands War]]}}
[[Argentina]] invaded the islands on [[April 2|2 April]] [[1982]]. The British responded with an expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce fighting forced the Argentine garrison to surrender on [[June 14|14 June]] [[1982]].
Following the war, Britain increased its military presence on the islands and invested heavily in improving facilities in Stanley and transportation around the islands, tarmacking many roads. The population has risen, due to the growth of [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], but has declined in ''camp'' (the countryside).
==Timeline==
*[[1504]]: [[Amerigo Vespucci]] ([[Florence]]/[[Spain]])
*[[1520]]: [[Esteban Gómez]] (Spain)
*[[1540]]: [[Ferdinand Camargo]] (Spain |
s ''Wes Craven Presents Dracula 2000''. [[Wes Craven]] was an executive producer. It was released in the UK as ''Dracula 2001''. To discover how to destroy Dracula, Van Helsing (portrayed by [[Christopher Plummer]]) keeps himself alive with injections of Dracula's blood. When thieves steal the vampire and crash near [[New Orleans]], Van Helsing and his ward must track down the vampire and save Van Helsing's daughter Mary.
In 2002, Canadian cult film director [[Guy Maddin]] released his screen adaptation of the Royal Winnipeg Ballet's version of the count's tale, a [[ballet]] set to the music of [[Gustav Mahler]] and titled ''[[Dracula: Pages from a Virgin's Diary]]''.
The character of Mina Harker appeared in the 2003 film adaptation of the [[graphic novel]] ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' as a vampiric heroine played by [[Peta Wilson]].
''[[Van Helsing]]'' is a film based on the vampire-hunter Van Helsing from the book, only reinvented as an immortal action hero assigned by the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] to kill monsters. [[Richard Roxburgh]] portrays Dracula in this reinvigoration of the 1930s and 1940s Universal Horror monsters which also featured new versions of the [[Frankenstein Monster]] and [[The Wolf Man]]. In this movie, Dracula is somewhat of a super vampire and cannot be killed by the normal methods that can kill a vampire.
A character named Drake serves as the primary antagonist in ''[[Blade: Trinity]]'', in which a group of vampires summon him in order to finally defeat Blade. While he is not confirmed directly to be Dracula, Drake is implied to have lived under several different aliases and personalities, one of which may have been the infamous vampire.
[[2005]] saw the premiere of Dracula's most recent play incarnation, an adaptation by playwright [[P. Shane Mitchell]]. A French Canadian musical production ("Dracula: Entre l'amour et la mort"[http://www.zone3.ca/dracula/index.htm]) opened in Montreal in January 2006, starring Bruno Pelletier.
==Popular culture==
Like ''Frankenstein'', ''Dracula'' has inspired many literary tributes or parodies, including [[Stephen King]]'s ''[[Salem's Lot]]'', [[Kim Newman]]'s ''[[Anno Dracula]]'', [[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', [[Elizabeth Kostova]]'s ''[[The Historian]]'', [[Fred Saberhagen]]'s ''The Dracula Tape'', [[Wendy Swanscombe]]'s [[pornography|erotic]] parody ''[[Vamp (movie)|Vamp]]'', and [[Dan Simmons]]'s ''Children of the Night''. [[Loren D. Estleman]]'s novel ''The Case of the Sanguinary Count'' pits Dracula against that equally venerable Victorian-era character, [[Sherlock Holmes]]. [[Freda Warrington]]'s ''Dracula the Undead'' is a sequel to ''Dracula''.
Dracula has been a recurring character in many [[comic book]]s, most notably, the [[Marvel comic]] ''[[Tomb of Dracula]]'' written primarily by [[Marv Wolfman]] (following two issues each by [[Gerry Conway]], [[Archie Goodwin]] and [[Gardner Fox]]) and drawn by [[Gene Colan]] for [[Marvel Comics]] in the [[1970s]]. Mina Harker is a member of the ''[[League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', a [[pastiche]] [[comic book]], and film featuring numerous [[Victorian era|Victorian]] characters. One popular [[Elseworlds]] book by [[DC Comics]] is ''[[Batman and Dracula]]: Red Rain'', which features the caped crusader fighting Dracula, who has come to [[Gotham City]]. An animated movie called ''The Batman vs. Dracula'' pitting the two characters against one another aired on Cartoon Network and has been released on DVD.
In most [[videogame]]s of the ''[[Castlevania]]'' series (known as "Akumajo Dracula" in [[Japan]]), Count Vlad Tepes Dracula, as he is known in the series, is the ultimate source of evil that the protagonists must confront, after adventuring through Dracula's [[castle]]. The other aspect in relations to the Count is his son, Adrian Farenheights Tepes, commonly known as "[[Alucard]]", who has dedicated his life to insure the survival of the human race and the preventing of his father's tyranny. Now-defunct software company [[CRL Group PLC|CRL]] produced a series of games in the 1980s featuring classic horror classics including Dracula. These were the first game titles in the UK to receive [[British Board of Film Classification|BBFC]] certification (they were rated "15"), normally reserved for films and videos. There were two adventure games, Dracula: Resurrection and The Last Sanctuary. Both took place after the novels end and continued Jon and Mina's fight against the Count.
In the [[manga]] and [[anime]] series ''[[Hellsing]]'', the vampire [[Alucard]] (note: Dracula spelled backwards) is Dracula himself, having been magically bound into servitude to the [[Integra Hellsing|Hellsing family]] rather than being destroyed outright. Dracula has also appeared as a villain on the series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]].''
In the manga and anime series ''[[Vampire Hunter D]]'' which takes place ten thousand years in the future, D's adversary Count Magnus discovers that D is the son of Dracula, the Ancient Ancestor.
Dracula has even been adapted for children's literature and entertainment, serving as the basis for several vampire cartoon characters over the years. Dracula (or at least his portrayal by Bela Lugosi) is the basis for the [[Muppet]] character named [[Count von Count]] on ''[[Sesame Street]].'' Cartoon vampires based upon Dracula also include [[Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[Count Duckula]]'', [[Filmation]]'s ''[[Quackula]]'', and [[Count Chocula]], the animated mascot of the [[breakfast cereal]] of the same name.
In addition, Dracula, The Wolf Man, The Mummy, Frankenstein's Monster, and the Creature from the Black Lagoon all appeared in a 1980s movie called ''The Monster Squad'' in which a magical amulet, and it's survival or destruction every hundred years, will turn the tide one way or the other in the neverending struggle between the forces of good and evil. Dracula is at his deadly best in this film, surviving all the way to the end of the film, where he is shown battling Abraham Van Helsing in his final scene in the film.
The association of the book with the [[Yorkshire]] fishing village of [[Whitby]] has led to the staging of the twice-yearly [[Whitby Gothic Weekend]], an event that sees the town visited by [[Goth|Goths]] from all over Britain and occasionally from other parts of the world.
==See also==
*[[Elizabeth Báthory]]
*[[Sheridan le Fanu|Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu]]
*[[Vlad III Dracula]]
*[[Tsutomu Miyazaki]]
*[[Alucard]], Dracula spelled backwards
*[[Blacula]]
==Further reading==
* [[Christopher Frayling]] - ''Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula'' (1992) ISBN 0571167926
==External links==
* [http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/evil.html Dracula in cinema]
* [http://www.spirit.ro/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=33&Itemid= The Politics of Count Dracula]
{{wikisource}}
* {{gutenberg|no=345|name=Dracula}}
* [http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/bram-stoker/dracula/ ''Dracula''] - [[HTML]] version of this classic book
* [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/ Elizabeth Miller's Dracula Page - details on her Dracula theories]
* [http://home.kc.rr.com/technoir Dracula's Gallery - Images from the various film and stage adaptations of Bram Stoker's novel]
*[http://www.pilotguides.com/destination_guide/europe/hungary_and_romania/dracula.php Pilot guides: The real Count Dracula]
* [http://www.dreamsmith-graphics.com/wizglass/vlad.html Vlad Dracul (1390? - 1447)]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_131 The Straight Dope: Did Dracula really exist?]
* [http://sabin.ro/gallery/album233 Pictures of Bran Castle in Transylvania, Romania - known as Dracula's Castle according to the legend]
* [http://www.cus.cam.ac.uk/~jrh11/DracParNEW.doc ''The Tale of Dracula'' Russian manuscript circa 1490, with translation (MS Word format)]
[[Category:1897 books]]
[[Category:Fictional shapeshifters]]
[[Category:Film villains]]
[[Category:Gothic novels]]
[[Category:Horror novels]]
[[Category:Literature villains]]
[[Category:North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Public domain characters]]
[[Category:Universal Monsters]]
[[Category:Vampires in written fiction]]
[[Category:Christopher Lee-portrayed characters]]
[[da:Dracula]]
[[de:Dracula (Roman)]]
[[eo:Drakulo (literaturo)]]
[[es:Drácula]]
[[fi:Dracula]]
[[fr:Dracula]]
[[he:דראקולה (ספר)]]
[[hr:Drakula]]
[[hu:Drakula]]
[[it:Dracula]]
[[ja:ドラキュラ]]
[[nl:Dracula]]
[[pl:Drakula]]
[[pt:Drácula]]
[[ro:Dracula]]
[[sr:Дракула]]
[[sv:Dracula (litterär figur)]]
[[zh:德拉库拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Descriptive Statistics</title>
<id>7924</id>
<revision>
<id>15905957</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Descriptive statistics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Hume</title>
<id>7925</id>
<revision>
<id>41999384</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sethmahoney</username>
<id>10116</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Practical reason: instrumentalism and nihilism */ fix link to instrumentalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophy |
era = [[18th-century philosophy]], |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = DavidHume.jpg |
image_caption = David Hume |
<!-- Information -->
name = David Hume |
birth = [[April 26]], [[1711]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
death = [[August 25]], [[1776]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
school_tradition = [[Empiricism]],<br>[[Scottish |
of which would be known as British Nationals (Overseas). Article 4(2) of the Order provided that adults and minors who had a connection to Hong Kong were entitled to make an application to become British Nationals (Overseas) by ''registration''.
Becoming a British National (Overseas) was therefore not an automatic or involuntary process and indeed many eligible people who had the requisite connection with Hong Kong never applied to become British Nationals (Overseas). Acquisition of the new status had to be voluntary and therefore a conscious act. To make it involuntary or automatic would have been contrary to the assurances given to the Chinese government which led to the words "eligible to" being used in paragraph (a) of the [http://www.info.gov.hk/trans/jd/jd6.htm United Kingdom Memorandum] to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]. The deadline for applications passed in 1997. Any person who failed to register as a British Nationals (Overseas) by [[1 July]] [[1997]] and would thereby be rendered stateless, automatically became a British Overseas citizen under [http://www.britishcitizen.info/StatelessReductionProvisions.pdf article 6(1) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. However, former BDTCs (also holding PRC citizenship) who failed to register as a BN(O) became solely PRC citizens on [[1 July]] [[1997]].
After the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], people urged the British Government to grant full British citizenship to all Hong Kong BDTCs — but this request was never accepted. However, it was considered necessary to devise a [[British Nationality Selection Scheme]] to enable some of the population to obtain British citizenship. The United Kingdom made provision to grant citizenship to 50,000 families whose presence was important to the future of Hong Kong under the [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900034_en_1.htm British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990].
After reunification, all PRC citizens with the right of abode in Hong Kong (holding Hong Kong permanent identity cards) are eligible to apply for the HKSAR passport issued by the Hong Kong Immigration Department. As the number of visa-free-visit destinations of the HKSAR passport surprassed the BN(O) passport and the application fee for the former is lower, the HKSAR passport is becoming more popular among residents of Hong Kong. However many Hong Kong people who are eligible for both HKSAR and BN(O) passports have applied for both passports, as they are both [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizen]] and [[British National (Overseas)]].
Hong Kong residents who were not born in Hong Kong (and had not naturalised as a BDTC) could only apply for the [[Certificate of Identity]] (CI) from the colonial government as travel document. They are not issued (by neither the British nor Chinese authorities) after handover. Former CI holders holding PRC Citizenship (e.g. born in mainland China or Macau) and are permanent residents of Hong Kong are now eligible for the HKSAR passports, making the HKSAR passports more popular.
Recent changes to India's Citizenship Act, 1955 (see [[Indian nationality law]]) will also allow some [http://www.britishcitizen.info/ children of Indian origin, born in Hong Kong after [[7 January]] [[2004]]], who have a solely BN(O) parent to automatically acquire British Overseas citizenship at birth under the provisions for reducing statelessness in [http://www.britishcitizen.info/StatelessReductionProvisions.pdf article 6(2) or 6(3) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. If they have acquired no other nationality after birth, they will be entitled to [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/pdvn/lds04/text/41220w04.htm#column_WA123 subsequently register for full British citizenship] with right of abode in the UK.
See also: [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]], [[nationality]], [[citizenship]]
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Hong Kong|Elections in Hong Kong}}
{{main|Hong Kong legislative election, 2004}}
{{Hong Kong legislative election, 2004}}
The three main political parties are as follows. Each holds a significant portion of LegCo. Twelve members are registered as affiliated with the DAB, ten with the Liberal Party, nine with the Democratic Party and six with the Civic Party. There are also many unofficial party members: politicians who are members of political parties but have not registered such status in their election applications. There are two major blocs: the democratic camp and the pro-Beijing camp.
* [[Civic Party]] (ruled by Temporary Executive Committee)
* [[Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong]] (DAB) ([[Ma Lik]], chairman)
* [[Democratic Party (Hong Kong)|Democratic Party]] ([[Lee Wing Tat]], chairman)
* [[Liberal Party (Hong Kong)|Liberal Party]] ([[James Tien|James Tien Pei-chun]], chairman)
''Others include:''
* [[Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood]] ([[Frederick Fung Kin-kee]], chairman)
* [[Citizens Party (Hong Kong)|Citizens Party]] (Alex Chan Kai-chung, chairperson)
* [[The Frontier (Hong Kong)|The Frontier]] ([[Emily Lau Wai-hing]], convenor)
* [[Hong Kong Progressive Alliance]] ([[Ambrose Lau Hon-chuen]], chairman) (merged with the DAB [[16 February]] [[2005]])
* [[Hong Kong Frontline]] (Mr. Chong, chairman)
==Political pressure groups and leaders==
* [[Article 45 Concern Group]]
* [http://www.cgcc.org.hk Chinese General Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.cma.org.hk Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong]
* [[Confederation of Trade Unions|Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions]] ([http://www.labour.org.hk/can_lau.html Lau Chin-shek], President; [http://www.labour.org.hk/can_lee.html Lee Cheuk-yan], General Secretary)
* [http://www.fhki.org.hk Federation of Hong Kong Industries]
* [[Hong Kong Federation of Students]]
* [[Federation of Trade Unions|Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions]] ([http://www.info.gov.hk/ce/exco/eng/members.htm#ytcheng Cheng Yiu-tong], President)
* [[The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China]] ([[Szeto Wah]], Chairman)
* Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council
* [http://www.chamber.org.hk Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.hkptu.org Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union]([http://www.cheungmankwong.org.hk Cheung Man-kwong], President)
* Liberal Democratic Federation (Hu Fa-kuang, Chairman)
==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[flag of Hong Kong]]
* [[foreign relations of Hong Kong]]
* [[One country, two systems]]
* [[District Council of Hong Kong]]
* [[Politics of the People's Republic of China]]
==External links==
* [http://www.info.gov.hk HKSAR Government web site]
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/ce/exco/eng/members.htm Executive Council]
* [http://www.legco.gov.hk Legislative Council]
* [http://www.olympicwatch.org/news.php?id=63 Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on the status of Hong Kong]
{{Hong Kong parties}}
[[Category:Political parties in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Politics of Hong Kong|Politics of Hong Kong]]
[[zh:香港政治]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Hong Kong</title>
<id>13409</id>
<revision>
<id>38682790</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T23:19:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tommy kwan</username>
<id>899073</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Hong Kong}}
The '''economy of [[Hong Kong]]''' has often been cited by people such as [[Milton Friedman]] and the [[Cato Institute]] as an example of the benefits of [[laissez-faire capitalism]]. Many analysts believe that this characterization of the Hong Kong economy is not entirely accurate, as the Hong Kong government, both under British and Chinese rule, have occasionally intervened in the economy, for example by determining the amount of land to be sold and in maintaining the peg to the U.S. dollar.
After a slump caused by the regionwide [[Asian financial crisis]] that began in [[1997]], Hong Kong's economy has been on the rebound. Real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth was 3.1% in 1999 and reached double digits in the first half of 2000. In 2004, real GDP grew by 8.1%, the second fastest since 1988.
After peaking at 6.3% in 1999, the unemployment rate eased back to 4.8% in mid-2000. As of October 2005, the unemployment rate was 5.3%, with an underemployment rate of 3.0%.
In August 1998, the government intervened in the stock, futures, and currency markets to fend off "manipulators." The banking sector remains solid, and the government is committed to the U.S.-[[Hong Kong dollar]] link.
Hong Kong's [[Victoria harbour]] has facilitated rapid development of foreign trade. Hong Kong's principal trading partners include [[Mainland China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Taiwan]], [[Germany]], [[Singapore]], and [[South Korea]].
Hong Kong enjoyed economic growth in the past because of its strong manufacturing sector, but in recent years the service sector has surpassed it in importance and now accounts for 85% of GDP. The major components of Hong Kong's service trade are shipping, civil aviation, tourism, and various financial services. Hong Kong has one of the world's most sophisticated telecommunications and information technology infrastructures and functions as a major regional and international financial and commercial center.
'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $226.8 billion (2005 est.)
<br>'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 8.1% (2004)
<br>'''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $32,300 (2005 est.)
<br>'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:'' 0.1%
<br>''industry:'' 13.4%
<br>''services:'' 86.5% (2001 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:''' NA%
<br>'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:'' NA%
< |
ay of Our Language (Limba Noastra)
* [[Malaysia]] - [[Hari Merdeka]], a [[National Day]] ([[Independence Day|independence]] within the Commonwealth, [[1957]])
* [[Kyrgyzstan]] - [[Independence Day]] (from USSR, [[1991]])
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Independence Day]] (from Great Britain, [[1962]])
<!--* [[United Kingdom]] - the cut-off day which defines the [[school year]] for students.-->
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/31 BBC: On This Day]
-----
[[August 30]] - [[September 1]] - [[July 31]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:31 Augustus]]
[[ar:31 أغسطس]]
[[an:31 d'agosto]]
[[ast:31 d'agostu]]
[[bg:31 август]]
[[be:31 жніўня]]
[[bs:31. avgust]]
[[ca:31 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 31]]
[[cv:Çурла, 31]]
[[co:31 d'aostu]]
[[cs:31. srpen]]
[[cy:31 Awst]]
[[da:31. august]]
[[de:31. August]]
[[et:31. august]]
[[el:31 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:31 de agosto]]
[[eo:31-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 31]]
[[fo:31. august]]
[[fr:31 août]]
[[fy:31 augustus]]
[[ga:31 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:31 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 31일]]
[[hr:31. kolovoza]]
[[io:31 di agosto]]
[[id:31 Agustus]]
[[ia:31 de augusto]]
[[ie:31 august]]
[[is:31. ágúst]]
[[it:31 agosto]]
[[he:31 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:31 Agustus]]
[[ka:31 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:31 zélnika]]
[[ku:31'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:31 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 31]]
[[lb:31. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 31]]
[[mk:31 август]]
[[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ് 31]]
[[ms:31 Ogos]]
[[nap:31 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:31 augustus]]
[[ja:8月31日]]
[[no:31. august]]
[[nn:31. august]]
[[oc:31 d'agost]]
[[pl:31 sierpnia]]
[[pt:31 de Agosto]]
[[ro:31 august]]
[[ru:31 августа]]
[[sco:31 August]]
[[sq:31 Gusht]]
[[scn:31 di austu]]
[[simple:August 31]]
[[sk:31. august]]
[[sl:31. avgust]]
[[sr:31. август]]
[[fi:31. elokuuta]]
[[sv:31 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 31]]
[[tt:31. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 31]]
[[th:31 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:31 tháng 8]]
[[tr:31 Ağustos]]
[[uk:31 серпня]]
[[ur:31 اگست]]
[[wa:31 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 31]]
[[zh:8月31日]]
[[pam:Agostu 31]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autpert Ambrose</title>
<id>1714</id>
<revision>
<id>36265001</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T21:29:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Necrothesp</username>
<id>64853</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Autpert Ambrose (Ambroise)''' (d. [[778]]), was a [[Franks|Frankish]] [[Benedictine]] monk.
He became abbot of San Vicenzo on the Volturno in South Italy in the time of [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]]. Autpert's election as [[abbot]] caused internal dissent at St. Vicenzo, and both [[Pope Stephen III]] and [[Charlemagne]] intervened. The disagreement was based both on objections to Autpert's personality and to his Frankish origin.
He wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the [[Apocalypse]], on the [[Psalms]], and on the [[Song of Solomon]]; Lives of Saints Paldo, Tuto and Vaso; [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] of the Virgin; and a ''Combat between the Virtues and the Vices''.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02143b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
[[Category:Frankish people]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abu Bakr</title>
<id>1715</id>
<revision>
<id>41303401</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:44:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rebelguys2</username>
<id>406178</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.218.239.202|217.218.239.202]] ([[User_talk:217.218.239.202|talk]]) to last version by Zora</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
:''For the entry on Persian philosopher Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi, see [[Al-Razi]].''
'''Abu Bakr''' ({{lang-ar|&#1575;&#1576;&#1608; &#1576;&#1603;&#1585;}}, alternative spellings, '''Abubakar''', '''Abi Bakr''', '''Abu Bakar''') (''ca''. [[573]] &ndash; [[August 23]], [[634]]) ruled as the first of the [[Muslim]] [[caliph]]s ([[632]] &ndash; [[634]]).
==Early life==
Abu Bakr was born in [[Mecca]] (Makkah), a [[Quraish]]i of the [[Banu Taim]] clan. According to early Muslim historians, he was a [[merchant]], and highly esteemed as a [[judge]], as an interpreter of [[dream]]s, and as one learned in Meccan traditions. He was one of the last people anyone would have expected to convert to the faith preached by his kinsman [[Muhammad]]. Yet he was one of the [[Identity of first male Muslim | first converts]] to [[Islam]] and instrumental in converting many of the Quraish and the residents of Mecca.
Originally called ''Abd-ul-Ka'ba'' ("servant of the [[Kaaba]]"), on his conversion he assumed the name of ''Abd-Allah'' (servant of God). However, he is usually styled ''Abu Bakr'' (from the Arabic word ''bakr'', meaning a young [[camel]]) due to his interest in raising camels. [[Sunni]] Muslims also honor him as Al-Siddiq ("the truthful"). His full name was '''Abd-Allah ibn Abi Quhaafah'''.
==During the lifetime of Muhammad==
Abu Bakr was one of Muhammad's companions. When Muhammad fled from Mecca in the [[migration to Medina]] of [[622]], Abu Bakr alone accompanied him. Abu Bakr was also linked to Muhammad by marriage: Abu Bakr's daughter [[Aisha]] married Muhammad soon after the migration to [[Medina]]. He was a trusted lieutenant, high in Muhammad's councils.
==Rise to the Caliphate==
During the prophet's last illness, it is said by some traditions that Muhammad allowed Abu Bakr to lead prayers in his absence, and that many took this as an indication that Abu Bakr would succeed Muhammad. Soon after the latter's death (on [[8 June]] [[632]]), a gathering of prominent ''[[Ansar]]'' and some of the ''[[Muhajirun]]'', in Medina, acclaimed Abu Bakr as the new Muslim leader or ''[[caliph]]''. What happened at this meeting, called [[Saqifah]], is much disputed.
Abu Bakr's assumption of power is an extremely controversial matter, and the source of the first [[schism]] in Islam, between [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam]]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], was his designated successor, while Sunnis believe that Muhammad deliberately declined to designate a successor. They argue that Muhammad endorsed the traditional Arabian method of ''[[shura]]'' or ''consultation'', as the way for the community to choose leaders. Designating one's successor was the sign of kingship, or ''[[mulk]]'', which the independence-minded tribesmen disliked. Whatever the truth of the matter, Ali gave his formal ''[[bay'ah]]'', or submission, to Abu Bakr and to Abu Bakr's two successors. (The Sunni depict this ''bay'ah'' as enthusiastic, and Ali as a supporter of Abu Bakr and [[Umar]]; the Shi'a argue that Ali's support was only ''pro forma'', and that he effectively withdrew from public life in protest). The Sunni/Shi'a schism did not erupt into open warfare until much later. Many volumes have been written on the affair of the succession. A detailed treatment can be found at [[Succession to Muhammad]].
==The Ridda Wars==
Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Various Arab tribes of [[Hejaz]] and [[Nejd]] rebelled against the ''caliph'' and the new system. Some withheld the ''[[zakat]]'', the alms tax, though they did not challenge the prophecy of Muhammad. Others [[apostatize]]d outright and returned to their pre-Islamic religion and traditions, classified by Muslims as [[idolatry]]. The tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined the Muslim religious community, of which he was the new head. Apostasy is a capital offense under traditional interpretations of [[Islamic law]], and Abu Bakr declared war on the rebels. This was the start of the ''[[Ridda wars]]'', [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of [[Apostasy]]. The severest struggle was the war with [[Ibn Habib al-Hanefi]], known as "Musailimah the Liar", who claimed to be a prophet and Muhammad's true successor. The Muslim general [[Khalid bin Walid]] finally defeated al-Hanefi at the [[Battle of Akraba]].
==Expeditions to the north==
After suppressing internal dissension and completely subduing [[Arabia]], Abu Bakr directed his generals towards the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] empires. Khalid bin Walid conquered [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] in a single campaign, and a successful expedition into [[History of Syria|Syria]] also took place. [[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', argues that Abu Bakr's "foreign" expeditions were merely an extension of the Ridda Wars, in that he sent his troops against Arab tribes living on the borders of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Given that the [[steppe]]s and [[desert]]s over which [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speaking tribes roamed extended without break from southern Syria down to [[Yemen]], any polity that controlled only the southern part of the steppe was inherently insecure.
==The ''Qur'an''==
Some traditions about the origin of the ''Qur'an'' say that Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving Muhammad's revelations in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musailimah, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] (the later ''Caliph'' Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the ''Qur'an'' from the lips of the prophet had died in battle. Abu Bakr asked Umar to oversee the collection of the revelations. The record, when completed, was deposited with [[Hafsa bint Umar]], daughter of Umar, and one of the wives of Muhammad. Later it became the basis of [[Uthman ibn Affan]]'s definitive text of the ''Qur'an''. However, other historians give Uthman the prin |
30, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 9.066 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 8.86 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1802 | c=1529 | f=2784 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3141 | c=2868 | f=5194 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 19.90 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 280 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 28.12 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1504 | 1663 | (1885) | (2163) | (2552) | (3132) | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />([[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.24 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 589.3 | 1150 | 2194 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|226]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly) 0.860 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 14.5 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly)<br />12.2 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2830 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 69.9 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 28.3 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 44.4 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.237 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 589 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 814 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-52-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=erbium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=160 | sym=Er
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|28.58 h]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=0.330 | pn=160 | ps=[[holmium|Ho]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=162 | sym=Er | na=0.14% | n=94 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=164 | sym=Er | na=1.61% | n=96 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=165 | sym=Er
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E4 s|10.36 h]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=0.376 | pn=165 | ps=[[holmium|Ho]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=166 | sym=Er | na=33.6% | n=98 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=167 | sym=Er | na=22.95% | n=99 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=168 | sym=Er | na=26.8% | n=100 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=169 | sym=Er
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=9.4 [[day|d]]
| dm=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.351 | pn=169 | ps=[[thulium|Tm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=170 | sym=Er | na=14.9% | n=102 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=171 | sym=Er
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=7.516 [[hour|h]]
| dm=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=1.490 | pn=171 | ps=[[thulium|Tm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=172 | sym=Er
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=49.3 [[hour|h]]
| dm=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.891 | pn=172 | ps=[[thulium|Tm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
'''Erbium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Er''' and [[atomic number]] 68. A rare silvery metallic [[lanthanide]] [[rare earth]] element, erbium is associated with several other rare elements in the [[mineral]] [[gadolinite]] from [[Ytterby]] in [[Sweden]].
== Notable characteristics ==
A [[trivalent]] element, pure erbium [[metal]] is malleable, soft yet stable in air and does not [[oxidation|oxidize]] as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its [[salt]]s are rose-colored and the element gives a characteristic sharp [[absorption spectra]] in [[visible light]], [[ultraviolet]], and near [[infrared]]. Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths. Its sesqui[[oxide]] is called [[erbia]]. Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role but is thought by some to be able to stimulate [[metabolism]].
== Applications ==
Erbium's everyday uses are varied. It is commonly used as a photographic [[filter]] and because of its resilience it is useful as an metallurgical additive. Other uses:
*Used in [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] technology as a [[neutron]] absorber.
*Used as a [[dopant]] in [[optical amplifier|fiber optic laser amplifier]]s.
*When added to [[vanadium]] as an [[alloy]] erbium lowers hardness and improves workability.
*[[Erbium oxide]] has a pink color and is therefore sometimes used as a [[glass]] and [[porcelain]] enamel glaze colorant. The glass is then often used in [[sunglasses]] and cheap [[jewelry]].
== History ==
Erbium (for [[Ytterby]], a town in [[Sweden]]) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]] in [[1843]]. Mosander separated "yttria" from the mineral [[gadolinite]] into three fractions which he called [[yttria]], [[erbia]], and [[terbia]]. He named the new element after the town of Ytterby where large concentrations of yttria and erbium are located. Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time. After [[1860]], terbia was renamed erbia and after [[1877]] what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia. Fairly pure Er<sub>2</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub> was independently isolated in [[1905]] by [[Georges Urbain]] and [[Charles James]]. Reasonably pure metal wasn't produced until [[1934]] when workers reduced the [[anhydrous]] [[chloride]] with [[potassium]] vapor.
== Occurrence ==
Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is found bound [[monazite]] sand ores. It has historically been very difficult and expensive to separate rare earths from each other in their ores but [[ion-exchange]] production techniques developed in the late [[20th century]] have greatly brought down the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and their [[chemical compound]]s. The principal commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals [[xenotime]] and [[euxenite]]. Metallic erbium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard.
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable [[isotope]]s, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er-167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant (33.6% [[natural abundance]]). 23 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being Er-169 with a [[half life]] of 9.4 days, Er-172 with a half-life of 49.3 hours, Er-160 with a half-life of 28.58 hours, Er-165 with a half-life of 10.36 hours, and Er-171 with a half life of 7.516 hours. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 3.5 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has 6 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Er-167m (t<sub>½</sub> 2.269 seconds).
The isotopes of erbium range in [[atomic weight]] from 144.957 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Er-145) to 173.944 amu (Er-174). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, Er-166, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before Er-166 are element 67 ([[holmium]]) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 ([[thulium]]) isotopes.
== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, erbium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail.
== References ==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/68.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Erbium]
* ''Guide to the Elements &ndash; Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele068.html It's Elemental &ndash; Erbium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Erbium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Er/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Erbium] (also used as a reference)
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]
[[ca:Erbi]]
[[cs:Erbium]]
[[de:Erbium]]
[[et:Erbium]]
[[el:Έρβιο]]
[[es:Erbio]]
[[eo:Erbio]]
[[fr:Erbium]]
[[ko:어븀]]
[[io:Erbio]]
[[it:Erbio]]
[[he:ארביום]]
[[lt:Erbis]]
[[hu:Erbium]]
[[nl:Erbium]]
[[ja:エルビウム]]
[[nn:Erbium]]
[[pl:Erb]]
[[pt:Érbio]]
[[ru:Эрбий]]
[[sl:Erbij]]
[[sr:Ербијум]]
[[fi:Erbium]]
[[sv:Erbium]]
[[th:เออร์เบียม]]
[[uk:Ербій]]
[[zh:铒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Einsteinium</title>
<id>9479</id>
<revision>
<id>42046883</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41969002 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=99 | symbol=Es | name=einsteinium | left=[[californium]] | right=[[fermium]] | above=[[holmium|Ho]] | below=(Uqe) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(252)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>11</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 29, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.84 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1133 | c=860 | f=1580 }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 619 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7429-92-7 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=einst |
ouncillor]]'s Corridor, containing councillors' mailboxes and decorated in Italian [[faience]], leads to the Committee Rooms, where formal business committees meet, and an impressive library.
From the corridor one passes through into the Council Chamber. This is where the Council meets formally, and is one of the most impressive rooms in the City Chambers. There are seats for each of the 79 councillors, all facing the [[Lord Provost]] (the Glasgow equivalent of the [[Mayors in the United Kingdom|lord mayor]] found in London and other cities), his Depute, and the Chief Executive, who are seated behind the [[mace]]. A [[public gallery]] looks down on the proceedings, and a small [[press gallery]] is located at the side.
The Lord Provost's main office is decorated in the same [[Venice|Venetian]] style as the rest of the building. Many famous visitors, including the [[Royal family]] have signed the visitor book here.
The municipal mace is kept in an ante-room leading to the Lord Provost's office. Part of the ritual of the Council's proceedings is that the mace is carried by the Council Officer when leading the Lord Provost into the Council Chamber to chair full council meetings. The mace is made from gold-plated [[silver]], and was presented to the council in [[1912]].
Next to the Council Chamber, you come across three rooms used for civic functions and large meetings: the [[Satinwood]] Salon, Octagonal Room, and [[Mahogany]] Salon. These rooms are decorated in fine woods as their names imply, and also house a selection of fine paintings.
The grandest room in the Chambers is the Banqueting Hall. Its magnificence has impressed [[heads of state]], and it has witnessed many different types of events, from formal civil ones to record launches, fashion shows, children's Christmas parties and private functions. [[Nelson Mandela]] received his [[Freedom of the City]] here in [[1993]].
The hall is 33.5m long by 14.6m wide and 15.8m high. The carpet comes in three sections which are rotated regularly to prevent wear. The carpet design reflects the ornate pattern of the roof. Huge murals decorate the walls, depicting the granting of the city's charter, its history and culture, and the four main Scottish rivers. The hall's electric chandeliers, or "electroliers", were designed in [[1885]].
The daily tours of the Chambers conclude with the Upper Gallery on the third floor, which lets one see the detail on the beautiful dome visible from the other floors, as well as portraits of former Lord Provosts.
The City Chambers of [[Glasgow]], then, are well worth inclusion in any traveller's visit to the city, and its architectural features and position as a seat of local [[government]] will also ensure its appeal to locals and other Scots.
The Chambers were used as part of the location for "[[The House of Mirth]]" an adaption of the novel by [[Edith Wharton]] by [[Terence Davies]] starring [[Gillian Anderson]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]].
[[Category:Glasgow]]
[[Category:Government buildings in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Glasgow]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Glasgow]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gone with the Wind</title>
<id>12995</id>
<revision>
<id>41896012</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:05:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Walloon</username>
<id>35201</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv: this is the article about the book, not the film</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the book|the 1939 film|Gone with the Wind (film)}}
[[Image:Stamp-ctc-gwtw.jpg|thumb|''Gone with the Wind'' was an instant success. The text on the back of the stamp reads: "Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel, Gone With The Wind, portrayed the Old South during the Civil War and Reconstruction. It was a number one bestseller for two years and continues to be sold throughout the world. ''Celebrate the Century - 1930s''"]]
'''''Gone with the Wind''''', an [[United States|American]] [[novel]] by [[Margaret Mitchell]], was published in [[1936]] and won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in [[1937]]. The novel is one of the most popular of all time, and an American [[Gone with the Wind (film)|film adaptation of the same name]] released in [[1939]] became the highest-grossing film in the history of [[Hollywood]] and received a record-breaking number of [[Academy Award]]s.
Mitchell's work relates the story of a rebellious [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] woman named [[Scarlett O'Hara]] and her travails with friends, family and lovers in the midst of the [[antebellum]] [[U.S. South|South]], the [[American Civil War]], and the [[Reconstruction]] period. It also tells the story of the love that blossoms between [[Scarlett O'Hara]] and [[Rhett Butler]].
The title is taken from the first line of the third stanza of the poem ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'' by [[Ernest Dowson]]: "I have forgot much, Cynara! gone with the wind." Alternatively, the line also appears in the novel. When Scarlett escapes Atlanta's bombing by the forces of the north, she flees back to her family's [[plantation]], [[Tara Plantation|Tara]]. At one point, she wonders "Was Tara still standing? Or was Tara also gone with the wind which had swept through Georgia?"
Critics and historians regard the book as having a strong ideological commitment to the cause of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] and a romanticized view of the culture of the antebellum South. This is apparent from the book's opening pages, which describe how Scarlett's beaux, the Tarleton twins, have been expelled from university and are accompanied home by their elder brothers out of a sense of honor: a [[metaphor]] for the South's viewpoint on the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act|statehood of Kansas]].
Nevertheless, the book includes a vivid description of the fall of [[Atlanta]] in [[1864]] and the devastation of war (some of it absent from the 1939 film), and shows a considerable amount of historical research. Mitchell's sweeping narrative of war and loss helped the book win the [[Pulitzer Prize]] on [[May 3]], [[1937]].
[[Alexandra Ripley]] wrote the novel ''[[Scarlett (novel)|Scarlett]]'', in [[1991]], as the authorized sequel to Mitchell's novel.
In [[2000]], the copyright holders attempted to suppress publication of [[Alice Randall]]'s ''[[The Wind Done Gone]]'', a book that retold the story from the point of view of the slaves. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an [[injunction]] against publication in ''[[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin]]'' (2001), on the basis that the book was [[parody]] protected by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. The parties subsequently settled out of court to allow the book to be published.
== Structure ==
=== Part One ===
''Chapters I to VII''
From [[Tara Plantation|Tara]] to Ashley's birthday [[barbecue]] where his engagement to Melanie is announced and [[Fort Sumter]] spurs the beginnings of the [[American Civil War]].
=== Part Two ===
''Chapters VIII to XVI''
From Tara to Scarlett's early years of the war in Atlanta with Aunt Pitty and Melanie.
=== Part Three ===
''Chapters XVII to XXX''
Scarlett's escape just before September 1864's [[Surrender of Atlanta]] back to Tara and the hardships there.
=== Part Four ===
''Chapters XXXI to XLVII''
Post-bellum, [[carpetbagger]] taxes force Scarlett to return to Atlanta where she ends up married to Frank.
=== Part Five ===
''Chapters XLVIII to LXIII''
Her marriage to [[Rhett Butler]] and realization that she never could love Ashley.
== Historical Sources for the Characters ==
While Margaret Mitchell used to say that her ''Gone with the Wind'' characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in Mitchell's own life as well as to individuals she knew or she heard of. [[Rhett Butler]] is thought to be based on Mitchell's first husband, Red Upshaw, who she married in 1922, but divorced after it was revealed that he was a [[bootlegger]].
Another at least partial character source for [[Scarlett O'Hara]] might have been [[Martha Bulloch|Martha Bulloch Roosevelt]], the mother of US president [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. Roosevelt biographer, [[David McCullough]], discovered that Mitchell conducted an interview with one of Martha's closest friends and bridesmaid, Evelyn King Williams, at age 87, while a reporter for ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution|The Atlanta Journal]]''. In that interview, Martha's physical appearance, beauty, grace and intelligence were described in great detail. The similarities between Martha, who was also called Mittie, and Scarlett are striking.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.gwtw.org/gonewiththewind.html The story behind ''Gone with the Wind'']
*Study Guides
** [http://www.bookrags.com/summary-gonewind.html BookRags]
** [http://pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/monkeynotes/pmGoneWInd01.asp MonkeyNotes]
[[Category:1936 books]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels]]
[[ca:Allò que el vent s'endugué]]
[[de:Vom Winde verweht]]
[[es:Lo que el viento se llevó (película)]]
[[fr:Autant en emporte le vent]]
[[ko:바람과 함께 사라지다]]
[[io:Omno ton forportas la vento]]
[[id:Gone with the Wind]]
[[he:חלף עם הרוח]]
[[nl:Gejaagd door de wind]]
[[ja:風と共に去りぬ]]
[[pl:Przeminęło z wiatrem (film)]]
[[simple:Gone with the Wind]]
[[fi:Tuulen viemää]]
[[sv:Borta med vinden]]
[[vi:Cuốn theo chiều gió]]
[[zh:乱世佳人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Group 1 element</title>
<id>12996</id>
<revision>
<id>15910640</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alkali metal]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
|
roots in [[Tang Dynasty]] China) and enabled him to take on certain professional projects while he was living in Japan.
Snyder decided not to become a monk and planned eventually to return to the United States to 'turn the wheel of the dharma'. He was married for a few years to another American poet, [[Joanne Kyger]], who lived with him in Japan.
During this time, he published a collection of his poems from the early to mid '50s, ''Myths & Texts'' (1960), and ''Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1965). (This last was the beginning of a project that he was to continue working on until the late 1990s.) Much of Snyder&#8217;s poetry expresses experiences, environments, and insights involved with the work he has done for a living: logging, fire lookout, steam-freighter laboring, translation of texts, carpentry, and life on-the-road presenting his poetry, among other such subjects.
Ever the participant-observer, during his years in Japan Snyder not only immersed himself in Zen practice in monasteries but also was initiated into [[Shugendo]], a form of ancient Japanese [[animism]]. (See also [[Yamabushi]].) As well, in the early '60s he travelled for some months through India with wife Joanne and [[Allen Ginsberg]]. Snyder and Joanne Kyger separated soon after the travel in India, and were later divorced.
He continued to educate himself – on subjects like [[geomorphology]] and [[forestry]]. These sorts of interests have probably surfaced as much or more in his essays and interviews as in his poetry.
Snyder lived for a time with a group of Japanese back-to-the-land drop-outs on Suwanose (a small Japanese island in the East China Sea), where they beachcombed, gathered edible plants, and fished. On the Island, he married Masa Uehara, the mother of Snyder's two sons.
In 1968 his book ''The Back Country'' appeared, again mainly a collection of poems stretching back over abiut 15 years. Snyder devoted a section at the end of the book to his translations of 18 poems by Miyazawa Kenji (died 1933). Toward the end of the '60s, Snyder and his wife moved to the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] where their second son was born. In 1971 they moved onto rural land in the [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains of Northern California, where they and friends built a house — that drew on rural-Japanese and Native-American architectural ideas.
==Later life and writings==
''Regarding Wave'' — a stylistic departure offering poems that were more emotional, metaphoric, and lyrical — appeared in 1969. In the late 1960s and after, the content of Snyder's poetry increasingly had to do with family, friends, and community. He continued to publish poetry throughout the 1970s, much of it reflecting his re-immersion in life on the American continent and his involvement in the re-inhabitation (or [[back to the land]]) movement in the Sierra foothills. His 1974 book ''Turtle Island'', titled after the aboriginal name for the North American continent, won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]].
Snyder also wrote numerous essays setting forth his views on poetry, culture, social experimentation, and the environment. Many of these were collected in ''Earth House Hold'' (1969), ''The Old Ways'' (1977), ''The Real Work'' (1980), ''The Practice of the Wild'' (1990), ''A Place in Space'' (1995), and ''The Gary Snyder Reader'' (1999). In 1979, Snyder published ''He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth'', based on his Reed thesis. Snyder's journals from his travel in India in the mid 1960s appeared in 1983 under the title ''Passage Through India''.
In interviews and in articles about him, Snyder provided much food for thought, starting back in the mid 1960s. In these, his wide-ranging interests in cultures, natural history, religions, social critique, contemporary America, and hands-on aspects of rural life, as well as his ideas on literature, were given full-blown articulation. In 1967, for instance (in a taped round-table discussion in the ''[[San Francisco Oracle]]''), Snyder's friend Alan Watts brought up the world problem posed by the population explosion. Snyder's comment was the "change or bend of mind that seems to be taking place in the West, today especially, is going to result — can result ultimately — in a vast leisure society in which people will voluntarily reduce their number." It was a prediction that would prove accurate.
In the 1980s and ’90s, he expressed a lot of these sorts of ideas in public lectures and in essays, including ones published in major outdoor and environmental magazines (and later collected in books).
In 1985, Snyder became a professor in the writing program at the [[University of California, Davis]]. Here he began to influence a new generation of authors interested in writing about the Far East. Snyder is now professor emeritus of English.
As Snyder's involvement in environmental issues and his teaching grew, he seemed to move away from poetry for much of the 1980s and early 1990s. However, in 1996 he published the complete ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', which, in its mixture of the lyrical and epic modes celebrating the act of inhabitation on a specific place on the planet, is both his finest work and a summation of what a re-inhabitory poetic stands for. This work was written over a 40-year period. It has been translated into Japanese and French. In 2004 Snyder published ''Danger on Peaks'', his first collection of new poems in twenty years.
Along the way, Gary Snyder was awarded the Levinson Prize from ''Poetry'' journal, the American Poetry Society Shelley Memorial Award (1986), was inducted into the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] (1987), and won the 1997 Bollingen Prize for Poetry.
==Snyder's poetics==
Gary Snyder uses mainly common speech patterns as the basis for his lines, though his style has been noted for its "flexibility" and the variety of different forms his poems have taken. He does not typically use conventional meters nor intentional rhyme. "Love and respect for the primitive tribe, honour accorded the Earth, the escape from city and industry into both the past and the possible, contemplation, the communal" – such, according to Glyn Maxwell, is the awareness and commitment behind the specific poems (Maxwell in "the Online Companion to the ''Anthology of Modern American Poetry''").
Snyder has always maintained that his personal sensibility arose from his interest in Native Americans (“Indians”) and their involvement with nature and knowledge of it; indeed, their “ways” seemed to resonate with his own. And he has sought something kindred to this through Buddhist practices, Yamabushi initiation, and other experiences and involvements. However, since youth he has been quite literate, and he has written about his appreciation of writers of similar sensibilities, like [[D.H. Lawrence]], [[W.B. Yeats]], and some of the great ancient Chinese poets. [[William Carlos Williams]] was another influence, especially on Snyder’s earliest published work.
"I have some concerns that I'm continually investigating that tie together [[biology]], [[mysticism]], [[prehistory]], general [[systems theory]]," Snyder once said in interview (''New York Quarterly'' "Craft Interview," 1973). Besides 'non-human nature', sexuality is something often expressed or contemplated in Gary Snyder's poetry. A self-admitted and somewhat famed ladies' man through most of his life, Snyder has also been married four times.
Aside from content and style, Snyder's interests in anthropology and Native cultures, along with his [[Buddhism]] and [[environmentalism]], have formed his ''attitude'' to [[poetry]]. He has often spoken of the poem as work-place, and, for him, the work to be done there is learning to be in the world.
Snyder argues that poets, and humans in general, need to adjust to very long timescales, especially when judging the consequences of their actions. His poetry examines the gap between nature and culture so as to point to ways in which the two can be more closely integrated.
== Is Gary Snyder “a Romantic”? ==
Many people would say that poetry, inherently, is ”[[romanticism|romantic]].” Certainly there are many aspects of Gary Snyder’s work that might smack of romanticism, ''besides'' just that he writes poetry: his love of the untamed wilds of the Earth and the play of natural forces; his interest in, and often enthusiasm for, foreign cultures and his devotion to ancient things; his belief in the importance of intuition in his life path; his openness to the validity of magic and “the unexplained.” Deeply interested in primitive or tribal peoples, Snyder seemed so sympathetic to them in his writings of the 1970s that he seemed scarcely able to imagine bullies, selfish individuals, or spiteful miscreants as ever having lived among them.
The "re-tribalization" of the modern world envisioned by [[Marshall McLuhan]], with all of the ominous, dystopian possibilities that McLuhan warned of — and subsequently accepted by many modern intellectuals — is not the future that Snyder expects or works toward. Snyder's is a positive interpretation of the tribe and of the possible future.
Be these things as they may, in Snyder’s work what some of his critics may deem romanticism is balanced by an evident devotion to facts, appreciation of human practicality and capability, expressions of joy found in physical work, interest in science, and continual rumination on responsibility.
==Is Gary Snyder "a Beat"?==
Gary Snyder is widely regarded as a member of the [[Beat Generation]] circle of writers: he was one of the poets that read at the famous ''Six Gallery'' event mentioned above, and was
written about in one of Kerouac's most popular novels, ''Dharma Bums''. Some critics argue that Snyder's connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that h |
f the Eleventh Siege of Gibraltar (a map on the situation of attacking forces can be seen in {{ref|map}})
: The exact beginning of the English/British occupation of Gibraltar has been over the time imprecise. From the 18th century, Spanish sources reported that immediately after the takeover of the city, Sir [[George Rooke]], the British admiral, on his own initiative caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession of the Rock in name of [[Anne I of the United Kingdom|Queen Anne]], whose government ratified the occupation. On the other hand, even the British or the Gibraltarians sometimes date the beginning of British sovereignty in 1704 (for instance, in its speech at the United Nations in 1994, the Gibraltar Chief Minister at the time, [[Joe Bossano]], stated that ''Gibraltar has been a British colony ever since it was taken by Britain in 1704'' {{ref|bossano}}). Also, some British sources have accounted the flag story (''He [Rooke] had the Spanish flag hauled down and the English flag hoisted in its stead'' {{ref|tercentenary}}; ''Rooke's men quickly raised the British flag ... and Rooke claimed the Rock in the name of Queen Anne'' {{ref_label|radio4|1|a}}; or ''Sir George Rooke, the British admiral, on his own responsibility caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose government ratified the occupation'' {{ref|britannica}}).
[[Image:Gibraltar harbor antique engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr, c.1704.jpg|thumb|right|310px|Gibraltar antique engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr, c.1704. From his rare "Curioses Staats- und Kriegs-Theatrum".]]
: However, it is proved by present-day historians, both Spanish and British, that this version is apocryphal since no contemporary source accounts it. Isidro Sepúlveda {{ref|Sepulveda1}}, William Jackson {{ref|Jackson1}} and George Hills {{ref|Hills1}} explicitly refute it (Sepúlveda points out that if such a fact had actually happened, it would have caused a big crisis in the Alliance supporting the Archduke Charles; George Hills explains that the story was first accounted by the Marquis of San Felipe, who wrote his book "Comentarios de la guerra de España e historia de su rey Phelipe V el animoso" in 1725, more than twenty years after the fact; the marquis was not an eye-witness and cannot be considered as a reliable source for the facts that took place in Gibraltar in 1704. As Hills concludes: "''The flag myth ... may perhaps be allowed now to disappear from Anglo-Spanish polemics. On the one side it has been used to support a claim to the Rock 'by right of conquest'; on the other to ... pour on Britain obloquy for perfidy''" {{ref_label|Hills1|9|a}}).
: What does seem nowadays proved is that the British troops who had landed on the South Mole area raised their flag to signal their presence to the ships, and avoid being fired upon by their own side.
*[[1704]] [[August 7]]. A large column of inhabitants of the city (4,000 according to most of the sources, such as Hills {{ref|Hills2}} or Jackson {{ref|Jackson2}}), with Queen Isabella's banner at their head, and led by the Spanish Governor, Diego de Salinas, the Spanish garrison and the members of the city council, abandoned the city. Most of them took refuge in the proximity of the Chapel of [[Saint Roch|San Roque]], possibly hoping for a rapid reconquest of the town, where the Gibraltar council was re-established two years later, founding a new town named [[San Roque (Cádiz)|San Roque]] (therefore San Roque official [[motto]] is "The town of San Roque, where that of Gibraltar lives on", in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: 'La Ciudad de San Roque, donde reside la de Gibraltar' {{ref|sanroquemotto}}. The refugees took with them the symbols and objects of Gibraltar's history: the council and ecclesiastical records, including the historical documents signed by the Spanish [[Catholic Monarchs]] in 1502, granting Gibraltar's coat of arms, and the statue of the Holy Crowned [[Virgin Mary]]{{ref_label|Hills2|10|a}}{{ref_label|Jackson2|11|a}}. These objects remain nowadays in San Roque {{ref|sanroquesymbols}}. Others settled down in what today is [[Los Barrios]] or even further away, in the ruins of the abandoned city of [[Algeciras]]. Only about seventy people remained in the town, most of them religious, people without family or belonging to the [[Genoa|Genovese]] trader colony {{ref|Sepulveda2}}{{ref|Hills3}} (see list in {{ref|oldinhabitants}}). The traditions of the villages that received those refugees still talk of this departure as the ''Exodus of Gibraltar'' (''Éxodo de Gibraltar'').
*[[1704]] [[August 24]] - The Alliance fleet, under the command of Rooke, set sail from Gibraltar and intercepted a joint Spanish-French fleet that attempted to recover Gibraltar by the coast of [[Málaga]] ([[battle of Málaga]]). The result was uncertain, with heavy losses on both sides, but anyway the Spanish-French fleet was stopped and prevented from arriving at Gibraltar.
===The first Spanish siege (Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar)===
*[[1704]] [[September 5]] - Troops of [[France]] and [[Spain]] under the [[Francisco Castillo Fajardo, marquis of Villadarias|marquis of Villadarias]], General Captain of Andalusia, started to besiege Gibraltar to try to recover it (this one would be the Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar). In the town, the Marine brigade, still under the command of the British admiral Sir [[John Leake]], and the governor, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt (who had commanded the land forces in August), and reinforced shortly before by a further 400 [[Royal Marines]], held the fortress against repeated attacks.
*[[1704]] [[November 11]] - A notable incident during the siege: 500 French and Spanish volunteer [[grenadier]]s tried to surprise the garrison. Captain Fisher of the Marines with 17 of his men successfully defended the Round Tower against their assault. A contemporary report of this noted defence says, "Encouraged by the Prince of Hesse, the garrison did more than could humanly be expected, and the English Marines gained an immortal glory".
*1705 January - Philip V replaced Villadarias with by the [[Marshal of France]] [[René de Froulay, Count de Tessé|de Tessé]].
*[[1705]] [[February 7]] - The last assault before the arrival of de Tessé was executed. The Gibraltar wall was damaged, but French troops refused to go on until the arrival of de Tessé (who arrived the day after). The assault becomes unsuccessful.
*[[1705]] [[March 31]] - The Count de Tessé gave up the siege and retired.
===During the rest of the war===
Although nominally in the hands of the Archduke Charles, Britain began to monopolize the rule of the town. Even if the formal transfer of sovereignty would not take place until the signature of the Treaty of Utrecht, the British Governor and garrison become the ''de facto'' rulers of the town.
*[[1705]] [[August 2]] - The Archduke Charles stopped over in Gibraltar in his way to the territories of the [[Crown of Aragon]]. The Prince of Hesse joined him, thus leaving the town (he would die one month later in the siege of [[Barcelona]]). The English Major General [[John Shrimpton]] was left as governor (appointed by the Archduke Charles on the recommendation of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]).
*[[1706]] [[February 17]] - [[Anne I of the United Kingdom|Queen Anne]], though she has no powers to do so, declared Gibraltar a free port (upon request of the Sultan of Morocco, who wanted Gibraltar being given this status in return for supplying the town){{ref|Jackson3}}.
*[[1707]] [[24 December]] - The first British Governor directly appointed by the Queen Anne, [[Roger Elliott]], took up residence in the Convent of the Franciscan Friars.
*1711 - The British government, then in the hands of the [[tory|tories]], covertly ordered the British Gibraltar governor, [[Thomas Stanwix]], to expel any foreign (not British) troops (to foster the Great Britain's sole right to Gibraltar in the negotiations running up between Britain and France). Although he answered positively, he allowed a Dutch regiment to stay. It remained there until March 1713. {{ref_label|Jackson3|17|a}}
==British rule==
===Treaty of Utrecht===
[[Image:Allegory of the Peace of 1714.jpg|right|thumb|Allegory of the Peace of 1714]]
*1713 - The territory was subsequently ceded to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in perpetuity by [[Spain]] in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaties of Utrecht]]. Despite some military attempts by the Spanish to retake it in the 18th century, most notably in the Great Siege of 1779-1783, the Rock has remained under British control ever since.
:In that treaty, Spain ceded Great Britain "''the full and entire propriety of the town and castle of Gibraltar, together with the port, fortifications, and forts thereunto belonging ... for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever.''"
:The Treaty stipulated that no overland trade between Gibraltar and Spain was to take place, except for emergency provisions in the case that Gibraltar is unable to be supplied by sea. Another condition of the cession was that "''no leave shall be given under any pretence whatsoever, either to Jews or Moors, to reside or have their dwellings in the said town of Gibraltar.''" This was never enforced and Gibraltar has had for many years an established Jewish community, along with Muslims from North Africa.
:Finally, under the Treaty, should the British crown wish to dispose of Gibraltar, that of Spain should be offered the territory first.
===Until the Peninsular Wars===
*1721 March - Philip V of Spain requested the restitution of Gibraltar to proceed to the renewal of the trade licenses of Great Britain with the Spanish possessions in America.
*1721 [[June 1]] - [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] sent a letter to Philip V promising "''to make use of the first favourable Opportunity to regulate this Article (the Demand touchi |
e]].
*[[2004]] - IEEE Computer Society 2004 [[Computer Entrepreneur Award]]
==Books==
* ''[[The C++ Programming Language]]'' by Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; 3rd edition (February 15, 2000); ISBN 0201700735
* ''[[The Design and Evolution of C++]]'' by Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; 1st edition (March 29, 1994); ISBN 0201543303
* ''[[The Annotated C++ Reference Manual]]'' by Margaret A. Ellis & Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; (January 1, 1990); ISBN 0201514591
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/homepage.html Bjarne Stroustrup's homepage]
* [http://www.att.com/attlabs/other/stroustrup_sm.mov Meet Bjarne Stroustrup (Video)]
* [http://public.research.att.com/~bs/interviews.html List of interviews with Bjarne Stroustrup]
* [http://artlung.com/smorgasborg/Invention_of_Cplusplus.shtml Hoax interview transcript with IEEE's <i>Computer</i> magazine that is gaining popularity but should be noted as a hoax.]
[[Category:1950 births|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Living people|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:C++|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Danish computer scientists|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[bg:Бярне Стровструп]]
[[cs:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[da:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[de:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[es:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[eo:Bjarne STROUSTRUP]]
[[fr:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[ko:비야네 스트롭스트룹]]
[[it:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[nl:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[ja:ビャーネ・ストロヴストルップ]]
[[no:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[pl:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[pt:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[ro:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[ru:Строуструп, Бьярне]]
[[sr:Бјарне Стрoуструп]]
[[fi:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[sv:Bjarne Stroustrup]]
[[tr:Bjarne Stroustrup]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BSD (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3714</id>
<revision>
<id>37296013</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:59:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Genesis</username>
<id>72450</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] avoid redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BSD''' can refer to any of the following acronyms:
*[[Berkeley Software Distribution]], a [[free software|free]] [[Unix|Unix-like]] [[operating system]], and the [[BSD license]].
*[[Birsa Seva Dal]], a political group in [[India]].
*[[Blue Screen of Death]], a computer [[jargon]] phrase related to [[Microsoft Windows]].
*[[Black Spiral Dancer]]s, a Tribe of evil-aligned werewolves in the [[White Wolf]] produced role-playing game [[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]].
*[[Bermuda Shorts Day]], a party at [[University of Calgary]] to celebrate end of classes.
*[[Bellevue School District]], the school district of Bellevue, WA.
*[[Big Swinging Dick]], term of praise for a particularly brash [[financier]] popularized by [[Michael Lewis]]'s [[Liar's Poker]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:BSD]]
[[fr:BSD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berkeley</title>
<id>3715</id>
<revision>
<id>36266931</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T21:44:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.238.48.34</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Berkeley''' is the name of several places, all eventually deriving from [[Berkeley Castle]] in [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire]], [[UK]], from whom the noble family of '''Berkeley''' derive their name, and for which several vessels of the British [[Royal Navy]] have been christened "[[HMS Berkeley Castle]]". Any of the holders of several titles in the British Peerage may be known as [[Lord Berkeley]], including [[Baron Berkeley]]. There are also the [[Berkeley Baronets]]. The former '''Berkeley House, London,''' has given its name to [[Berkeley Square]], London, which inspired a 1933 movie ''[[Berkeley Square (movie)|Berkeley Square]]'' which inspired a [[Berkeley Square (TV miniseries)|TV miniseries, "Berkeley Square"]]. "[[A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square]]" is a popular British song.
In the US there are numerous places named '''Berkeley'''. They honour either Sir [[William Berkeley]], governor of [[Virginia]] and co-proprietor of [[New Jersey]], in whose honour [[Berkeley Plantation]] in Tidewater Viginia was named; or Bishop [[George Berkeley]].
*[[Berkeley, California]]
**'''"Berkeley"''' may refer to the [[University of California, Berkeley]], also known as "UC Berkeley" or "Cal", but should not be confused with [[Berkeley College]], [[Berkeley College, (Yale)|Berkeley College at Yale]], or [[Berklee College of Music]].
***the [[Berkeley Mafia]] of Indonesian economists, trained at UC Berkeley
***the [[Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton]], a robotic prosthesis, also developed there.
*[[Berkeley, Illinois]]
*[[Berkeley, Missouri]]
*[[Berkeley, Virginia]]
*[[Berkeley Heights, New Jersey]]
*[[Berkeley Lake, Georgia]]
*[[Berkeley Township, New Jersey]]
*[[Berkeley County, South Carolina]]
*[[Berkeley County, West Virginia]]
In Canada there is:
*[[Berkeley, Ontario]]
See also places named [[Berkley]], an alternative spelling of the name.
'''Berkeley''' is a surname of:
*"Anthony Berkeley" a pseudonym of [[Anthony Berkeley Cox]], writer
*[[Busby Berkeley]], film [[choreographer]]
*[[Elizabeth Berkeley]], wife of [[Charles Somerset, 4th Duke of Beaufort|Charles Noel Somerset, 4th Duke of Beaufort]]
*Bishop [[George Berkeley]], [[idealist]] [[philosopher]]
*[[Humphry Berkeley]], [[politician]]
*Sir [[Lennox Berkeley]], [[composer]]
*[[Michael Berkeley]], [[composer]] and son of Sir Lennox
*[[Miles Joseph Berkeley]], [[botanist]]
*[[Theresa Berkeley]], [[London]] [[madam]]
*Sir [[William Berkeley]]
*[[Xander Berkeley]], [[actor]]
In addition, '''Berkeley''' may refer to:
* either of two British car manufacturers (see [[Berkeley cars]]).
*[[Berkeley DB]], an embedded database system by [[Sleepycat Software]].
*[[Berkeley Fast File System]].
*[[Berkeley Software Distribution]]
*the [[Berkeley Pit]], a former copper mine in [[Butte, Montana]], the largest [[Superfund]] site.
*the [[Berkeley (ferryboat)|''Berkeley'']], a ferryboat from the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and now a museum ship in [[San Diego]].
*the [[USS Berkeley (DDG-15)]], named for General Randolph Carter Berkeley USMC, a Virginian.
*the [[Berkeley Carroll School]], a [[private school]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]].
Places in England and English people called Berkeley are pronounced /{{IPA|ˈbɑː.kliː}}/ while American places named Berkeley are pronounced /{{IPA|ˈbəɹ.kli}}/ possibly by derivation from an Irish pronunciation, /{{IPA|ˈbɑɹ.kli}}/.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Berkeley (flertydig)]]
[[de:Berkeley]]
[[es:Berkeley]]
[[fr:Berkeley]]
[[nl:Berkeley]]
[[ja:バークリー]]
[[pl:Berkeley (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Berkeley]]
[[ru:Беркли]]
[[sv:Berkeley]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy</title>
<id>3716</id>
<revision>
<id>15902031</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T14:04:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirected to lowercase version</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brain</title>
<id>3717</id>
<revision>
<id>42072215</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DV8 2XL</username>
<id>146684</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert back to last by Semiconscious</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other articles about other subjects named brain see [[brain (disambiguation)]]. For information on the [[human brain]] specifically, please see its article.}}
[[Image:Brains.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Comparative brain sizes]]
In [[animal]]s, the '''brain''', or ''encephalon'' ([[Greek (language)|Greek]] for "in the head"), is the control center of the [[central nervous system]]. In most animals, the brain is located in the head close to the primary sensory apparatus and the mouth. While all [[vertebrate]] [[nervous system]]s have a brain, [[invertebrate]] nervous systems have either a centralized brain or collections of individual [[ganglion|ganglia]]. The brain is an extremely complex organ; for example, the human brain contains 100 billion [[neuron]]s, each linked with up to 25,000 others [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/facts.html]. This huge number of interconnecting neurons—often referred to as a [[neural ensemble]]—is what allows the brain to conduct such complex processes.
The brain controls and coordinates most [[sensory system]]s, [[movement]], [[behavior]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. The brain is the source of [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[memory]], and [[motor learning|motor]], and other forms of [[learning]]. Many behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under [[spinal cord]] control alone.
Most brains exhibit a visible distinction between [[grey matter]] and [[white matter]]. Grey matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while the white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) that connect neurons. The entire outer visible layers of the brain is called the [[cerebral cortex|cortex]] which consists primarily of grey matter. However, deeper grey matter structures called [[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]] also exist throughout the central nervous system. The axons of this white matter are surrounded by a [[fat|fatty]] [[insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]], giving the white matter its distinctive color.
The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding |
he indigenous. In the [[16th century]], Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.
Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall situation. The last one, which sought outright independence from Spain, sprang up around [[1810]]. Eventually being led by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]], the rebellion finally succeeded in [[1819]], when the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the [[Republic of Gran Colombia]], as a Confederation with [[Ecuador]] and [[Venezuela]]. Modern day [[Panama]], which subsequently remained a Colombian department until [[1903]]- when it became independent, was also included in this union
Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of [[Venezuela]] and [[Quito]] (today's [[Ecuador]]) in [[1830]]. At this time, the so-called "Department of [[Cundinamarca]]" adopted then the name "[[Nueva Granada]]", which it kept until [[1856]] when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Grenadine Confederation). In [[1863]] the "United States of Colombia" was created, lasting until [[1886]], when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained, occasionally igniting very bloody [[civil war]]s and, eventually, contributing to setting the stage for the [[United States|U.S.]]-sponsored secession of [[Panama]] in [[1903]]. Afterwards, the country achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict which took place between the late [[1940s]] and the early [[1950s]], known as ''[[La Violencia]]'' ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly due to mounting tensions between partisan groups, reignited by the murder of [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], and it claimed the lives of at least 180,000 to more than 200,000 Colombians.
To replace the previous [[1886]] document, a new constitution was made in [[1991]], after being drafted by the [[Constituent Assembly of Colombia]]. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights, which have been gradually put in practice, though uneven developments, surrounding controversies, and setbacks have persisted.
In recent decades the country has been plagued by the effects of the influential [[Illegal drug trade|drug trade]] and by [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[insurgent]]s such as the ''Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia'' (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), or [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]], and illegal [[counter-insurgency]] [[paramilitary]] groups such as the ''Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia'' (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia), or [[Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia|AUC]], which along with other minor factions have been engaged in a bloody internal [[Colombian Armed Conflict|armed conflict]]. The different irregular groups often resort to [[kidnapping]] and [[drug smuggling]] to fund their causes, tend to operate in large areas of the remote rural countryside and can sometimes disrupt communications and travel between different regions. Since the early [[1980s]], attempts at reaching a negotiated settlement between the government and the different rebel groups have been made, either failing or achieving only the partial demobilization of some of the parties involved. One of the last such attempts was made during the administration of President [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]], which negotiated with the FARC between [[1998]] and [[2002]].
In the late [[1990s]], President Andrés Pastrana implemented an initiative named [[Plan Colombia]], with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong [[narcotic|anti-narcotic]] strategy. The most controversial element of the Plan, which also included a smaller number of funds for institutional and alternative development, was considered to be its anti-narcotic strategy, consisting on an increase in aerial [[fumigation]]s to eradicate [[coca]]. This activity came under fire from several sectors, which claimed that fumigation also damages legal crops and has adverse health effects upon population exposed to the [[herbicides]]. Critics of the initiative also claim that the plan represents a [[military]] approach to problems that have additional roots in the social inequalities of the country.
During the presidency of [[Alvaro Uribe]], who was elected on the promise to apply military pressure on the FARC and other criminal groups, some security [[indicators]] have improved, showing a decrease in reported [[kidnappings]] (from 3700 in the year [[2000]] to 1441 in [[2004]]) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between [[July 2002]] and [[May 2005]]. It is argued that these improvements have favored economic growth.
Analysts and critics inside Colombia agree that there has been a degree of practical improvement in several of the mentioned fields, but the exact reasons for the figures themselves have sometimes been disputed, as well as their specific accuracy. Some [[opposition]] sectors have criticized the government's security strategy, claiming that it is not enough to solve Colombia's complex problems and that it has contributed to creating a favorable [[environment]] for the continuation of some [[human rights abuses]].
== Politics ==
:''Main article:'' [[Politics of Colombia]]
Colombia is a republic where the executive branch dominates government structure. Up until recently, the president was elected together with the vice-president by popular vote for a single four-year term, which functioned as both [[head of government]] and [[head of state]]. However, on October 19, 2005 the Colombian Congress amended the constitution, which now allows Colombian presidents to serve up to two consecutive four-year terms. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Nariño's House.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Nariño's House]] -->
Colombia's bicameral parliament is the Congress of Colombia or ''Congreso'', which consists of the 166-seat House of Representatives of Colombia and the 102-seat Senate of Colombia. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Colombia is also a member of the [[South American Community of Nations]].
In the [[1990s]], the Colombian judicial system underwent significant reforms and is undergoing a process of migration from an [[inquisitorial]] system to an [[adversarial system]]. Parts of the coffee growing region of Colombia and Bogotá have already adopted the adversarial system, with the rest of the country following suit starting on [[January 1]], [[2006]].
== Geography ==
:''Main article:'' [[Geography of Colombia]]
Located in the North of [[South America]] (4 00 N, 72 00 W) and part of [[Caribbean South America]]. The only South American country with coast in both oceans ([[Atlantic]] or [[Caribbean Sea]] with 1,760 kilometres (1,094&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) and [[Pacific Ocean]] with 1,448 kilometres (900&nbsp;mi). Borders: North with the Caribbean Sea (sea borders with [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]] and [[Dominican Republic]]). West with [[Panama]] (225&nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;140&nbsp;mi) and sea borders with [[Costa Rica]] both in the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean and [[Guatemala]]. South with [[Ecuador]] (590&nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;118&nbsp;mi), [[Peru]] (1,496&nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;930&nbsp;mi) and [[Brazil]] (1,643&nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;1,021&nbsp;mi). East with Brazil and [[Venezuela]] (2,050 &nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;1,274&nbsp;mi).
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Mountains_Colombia.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Parque Nacional]] -->
Colombia has a total area of 1,138,910 [[square kilometre]]s (439,736&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) being the fourth biggest country in South America after Brazil, [[Argentina]] and Peru and the seventh one in the [[The Americas|American Continent]]. From this area, the land has 1,038,700 square kilometres (401,044&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi) and the water area has 100,210 square kilometres (38,691&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi). It has also an archipelago in the Caribbean sea (San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina) that forms the territory of the department [[San Andrés and Providencia|San Andrés y Providencia]].
Mainland territory divided into four major geographic regions: Andean highlands (composed of three mountain ranges and intervening valley lowlands); Caribbean lowlands; Pacific lowlands; and Ilanos and tropical rainforest of eastern Colombia. Colombia also possesses small islands in both Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean.
Striking variety in temperature resulting principally from differences in elevation; little seasonal variation. Habitable areas consist of hot (below 900&nbsp;[[meter|m]]&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,950&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] in elevation), temperate (between 900 & 1,980&nbsp;m or 2,950 & 6,500&nbsp;ft), and cold (from 1,980&nbsp;m to about 3,500&nbsp;m or from 2,950&nbsp;ft to 11,500&nbsp;ft) climatic zones. Precipitation generally moderate to heavy, with highest levels in Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia; considerable year-to-year variations recorded.
The Andes range is located in Colombia from Southwest (Ecuador boarder) toward Northeast (Venezuela boarder) and is divided in the [[Colombian Massif]] (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Range, Centre Range and West Range) that form two long valleys, [[Magdalena]] and [[Cauca]] follow by the rivers of the same name. The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5,775&nbsp;m or 18,947&nbsp;ft) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation).
<!-- I |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.