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alled [[CISC]]) may offer particularly fast implementations of common performance-demanding tasks, may use memory (and thus [[cache]]) more efficiently, and be somewhat easier to program directly in assembly. See [[instruction set]] for a fuller discussion of this point. ==Assembly language directives== In addition to codes for machine instructions, assembly languages have extra directives for assembling blocks of data, and assigning address locations for instructions or code. They usually have a simple symbolic capability for defining values as symbolic expressions which are evaluated at assembly time, making it possible to write code that is easier to read and understand. Like most computer languages, comments can be added to the [[source code]]; these often provide useful additional information to human readers of the code but are ignored by the assembler and so may be used freely. They also usually have an embedded [[macro language]] to make it easier to generate complex pieces of code or data. In practice, the absence of comments and the replacement of symbols with actual numbers makes the human interpretation of disassembled code considerably more difficult than the original (high level) source would be. ==Usage of assembly language== Historically, a large number of programs have been written entirely in assembly language. A classic example was the early IBM PC [[spreadsheet]] program [[Lotus 123]]. Even into the 1990s, the majority of console video games were written in assembly language, including most games written for the [[Sega Genesis]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]]. The popular arcade game [[NBA Jam]] (1993) was also coded entirely using assembly language. There is some debate over the continued usefulness of assembly language. It is often said that modern compilers can render higher-level languages into codes that run as fast as hand-written assembly, but counter-examples can be made, and there is no clear consensus on this topic. It is reasonably certain that, given the increase in complexity of modern processors, effective hand-optimization is increasingly difficult and requires a great deal of knowledge. However, some discrete calculations can still be rendered into faster running code with assembly, and some [[Low-level programming language|low-level]] programming is actually easier to do with assembly. Some system-dependent tasks performed by [[operating system|operating systems]] simply cannot be expressed in high-level languages. In particular, assembly is often used in writing the low level interaction between the operating system and the hardware, for instance in [[device driver|device drivers]]. Many compilers also render high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for debugging and optimization purposes. It's also common, especially in relatively low-level languages such as [[C programming language|C]], to be able to embed assembly language into the source code with special syntax. Programs using such facilities, such as the [[Linux kernel]], often construct abstractions where different assembly language is used on each platform the program supports, but it is called by portable code through a uniform interface. Many [[embedded system|embedded systems]] are also programmed in assembly to obtain the absolute maximum functionality out of what is often very limited computational resources, though this is gradually changing in some areas as more powerful chips become available for the same minimal cost. Another common area of assembly language use is in the system [[BIOS]] of a computer. This low-level code is used to initialize and test the system hardware prior to booting the OS and is stored in [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. Once a certain level of hardware initialization has taken place, code written in higher level languages can be used, but almost always the code running immediately after power is applied is written in assembly language. This is usually due to the fact that system [[RAM]] may not yet be initialized at power-up and assembly language can execute without explicit use of memory, especially in the form of a [[stack (computing)|stack]]. Assembly language is also valuable in [[reverse engineering]], since many programs are distributed only in machine code form, and machine code is usually easy to translate into assembly language and carefully examine in this form, but very difficult to translate into a higher-level language. Tools such as the [[Interactive Disassembler]] make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose. [[MenuetOS]], a floppy-based operating system with a fully functional GUI is written entirely in assembly. A 64bit version is also available. The author claims that only through assembly language could he produce his system in less than 1.4 megabytes.<!-- Lots of systems are programmed in assembler; why is MenuetOS notable? Because MenuetOS is written ENTIRELY in assembly, that's why. --> ==Example listing of assembly language source code== {| style="margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: solid 1px" |• '''Addr''' |• '''Label''' |• '''Instruction''' • |• '''Object code''' • |{{ref|Murdocca}} |- | | |<tt>.begin</tt> | |- | | |<tt>.org 2048</tt> | |- | |<tt>a_start</tt> |<tt>.equ 3000</tt> | |- | <tt>2048</tt> | |<tt>ld [length],&r1</tt> |<tt>11000010 00000000 00101000 00101100</tt> |- | <tt>2052</tt> | |<tt>ld [address],%r2  </tt> |<tt>11000100 00000000 00101000 00110000</tt> |- | <tt>2056</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r3,%r0,%r3  </tt> |<tt>10000110 10001000 11000000 00000000</tt> |- | <tt>2060</tt> |<tt>loop:</tt> |<tt>addcc %r1,%r1,%r0  </tt> |<tt>10000000 10001000 01000000 00000001</tt> |- | <tt>2064</tt> | |<tt>be done </tt> |<tt>00000010 10000000 00000000 00000110</tt> |- | <tt>2068</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r1,-4,%r1  </tt> |<tt>10000010 10000000 01111111 11111100</tt> |- | <tt>2072</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r1,%r2,%r4  </tt> |<tt>10001000 10000000 01000000 00000010</tt> |- | <tt>2076</tt> | |<tt>ld %r4,%r5  </tt> |<tt>11001010 00000001 00000000 00000000</tt> |- | <tt>2080</tt> | |<tt>ba loop  </tt> |<tt>00010000 10111111 11111111 11111011</tt> |- | <tt>2084</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r3,%r5,%r3  </tt> |<tt>10000110 10000000 11000000 00000101</tt> |- | <tt>2088</tt> |<tt>done:</tt> |<tt>jmpl %r15+4,%r0  </tt> |<tt>10000001 11000011 11100000 00000100</tt> |- | <tt>2092</tt> |<tt>length:</tt> |<tt>20  </tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00010100</tt> |- | <tt>2096</tt> |<tt>address:</tt> |<tt>a_start  </tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00001011 10111000</tt> |- | | |<tt>.org a_start  </tt> | |- | <tt>3000</tt> |<tt>a:</tt> |<tt>25  </tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00011001</tt> |- | <tt>3004</tt> | |<tt>-10  </tt> |<tt>11111111 11111111 11111111 11110110</tt> |- | <tt>3008</tt> | |<tt>33  </tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00100001</tt> |- | <tt>3012</tt> | |<tt>-5  </tt> |<tt>11111111 11111111 11111111 11111011</tt> |- | <tt>3016</tt> | |<tt>7  </tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00000111</tt> |- | | |<tt>.end  </tt> | |- |} Example of a selection of instructions (for a [[Universal Virtual Computer|virtual computer]] {{ref|wwwPOCA}}) with the corresponding [[Memory address|address]] in memory where each instruction will be placed. These addresses are not static, see [[memory management]]. Accompanying each instruction is the generated (by the assembler) object code that coincides with the virtual computer's architecture (or [[Instruction set|ISA]]). ==See also== * [[Assembler]] ==Books== *[http://cs.smith.edu/~thiebaut/ArtOfAssembly/artofasm.html The Art of Assembly Language Programming], by [[Randall Hyde]] *[http://www.computer-books.us/assembler.php Computer-Books.us], Online Assembly Language Books *[http://www.drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/redir.php?file=pcasm-book-pdf.zip PC Assembly Language] by [[Dr Paul Carter]]; *[http://drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/ PC Assembly Tutorial using NASM and GCC] by Paul Carter *[http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/pgubook/ Programming from the Ground Up] by Jonathan Bartlett ==External links== {{Wikibookspar||Programming:Assembly}} *[http://www.menuetos.net/ MenuetOS - hobby Operating System for the PC written entirely in 64bit assembly language] * [http://home.comcast.net/~dtgm/asm_links.html List of resources; books, websites, newsgroups, and IRC channels] * [http://asm.sf.net Linux Assembly] * [http://www.int80h.org/ Unix Assembly Language Programming] * [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?LearningAssemblyLanguage PPR: Learning Assembly Language] * [http://www.codeteacher.com CodeTeacher] * [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html Assembly Language Programming Examples] * [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/talc/ Typed Assembly Language (TAL)] * [http://www.grc.com/smgassembly.htm
ntal bronzes which can be seen in many places around the world as public works of art. The subjects are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically ''mother-and-child'' or ''reclining figures''. Interestingly, apart from a flirtation with family groups in the 1950s, the subject is nearly always a female figure. Characteristically, Moore's figures are pierced, or contain hollow voids. Many interpret the undulating form of his reclining figures as references to the landscape and hills of Yorkshire where Moore was born. When Moore's niece asked why his sculptures had such simple titles, he replied: :''All art should have a certain mystery and should make demands on the spectator. Giving a sculpture or a drawing too explicit a title takes away part of that mystery so that the spectator moves on to the next object, making no effort to ponder the meaning of what he has just seen. Everyone thinks that he or she looks but they don't really, you know.'' Moore's early work focused on [[direct carving]] in which the form of the sculpture evolves as the artist repeatedly whittles away at the block (see [http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ViewWork?workid=10226 ''Half-figure''] 1932). In the [[1930s]] Moore's transition into [[Modernism]] paralleled that of [[Barbara Hepworth]] with both sculptors bouncing new ideas off each other and several other artists living in [[Hampstead]] at the time. Moore made many preparatory sketches and drawings for each sculpture. Most of these sketchbooks have survived, providing an insight into his development. By the end of the [[1940s]] Moore increasingly produced sculptures by modelling, working out the shape in clay or plaster before casting the final work in bronze using the [[Casting#Lost wax casting process|lost wax]] technique. After the [[Second World War]] Moore's Bronzes took on their monumental scale, particularly suited for the public art commissions he was receiving. As a matter of practicality he largely abandoned direct carving, and took on several assistants to help produce the [[maquette]]s. At his home in [[Much Hadham]], Moore built up a collection of natural objects; skulls, driftwood, pebbles and shells, which he would use to provide inspiration for organic forms. For his largest works, he often produced a half-scale, working model before scaling up for the final moulding and casting at a bronze foundry. Sometimes a full-scale plaster model was constructed, allowing Moore to refine the final shape and add surface marks before casting. ==Biography== [[Image:HenryMooreTorontoCH1.jpg|thumb|right|225px|''Three Way Piece No. 2 (The Archer)'' (1964-65) bronze, [[Nathan Phillips Square]], [[Toronto]].]] ===Early life=== Moore was born in [[Castleford]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]], the seventh of eight children to Raymond Spencer Moore and Mary Baker. His father was a mining engineer who rose to be under-manager of the Wheldale colliery in Castleford. He was an autodidact with an interest in music and literature, and he saw formal education as the route to advancement for his children. Moore decided to become a sculptor when he was only eleven and was encouraged by his art teacher to begin modelling in clay and carving in wood whilst at secondary school. Despite early promise, his parents were against a career as a sculptor, seeing it as manual labour. In [[1917]], on turning 18, Moore was drafted to fight in [[World War I]]. The youngest man in his regiment, the Civil Service Rifles, he saw action in the [[Battle of Cambrai]] but was injured in a gas attack. He made a speedy recovery, however, and saw out the remainder of the war as a physical training instructor. In stark contrast to many of his contemporaries, Moore's wartime experience was largely untroubled; he recalled the time saying, ''for me the war passed in a romantic haze of trying to be a hero.'' After the war, Moore received an ex-serviceman's grant to continue his education and became the first student of sculpture at [[Leeds School of Art]] in [[1919]] — the school had to set up a sculpture studio especially for him. ===College education=== [[Image:HenryMoore5PieceFigure.jpg|thumb|left|225px|"Large Four Piece Reclining Figure" (1973) bronze, [[San Francisco]]'s [[Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall]]]] Whilst at Leeds, Moore met fellow art student [[Barbara Hepworth]], beginning a friendship which would last for many years. Moore was also fortunate to be introduced to African tribal sculpture, by Sir [[Michael Sadler]], the [[Vice-Chancellor]] at the Leeds School. In [[1921]] Moore won a scholarship to study at the [[Royal College of Art]] (RCA) in [[London]], where Hepworth had gone the year before. Whilst in London, Moore extended his knowledge of primitive art and sculpture, studying the ethnographic collections at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] and the [[British Museum]]. Both Moore and Hepworth's earliest sculptures followed standard teaching in romantic Victorian style; subjects were natural forms, landscapes and figurative modelling of animals. Moore increasingly felt uncomfortable with these classically derived ideas. With his knowledge of primitivism and the influence of sculptors such as [[Constantin Brancusi|Brancusi]], [[Jacob Epstein|Epstein]] and [[Frank Dobson|Dobson]] he started to develop a style of [[direct carving]] in which imperfections in the material and tool marks are incorporated into the finished sculpture. In doing so he had to fight against his academic tutors who did not appreciate the modern approach. In one exercise set by [[Derwent Wood]], the professor of Sculpture at the RCA, Moore was supposed to reproduce a marble relief of [[Domenico Rosselli|Rosselli]]'s ''The Virgin and Child'', by first modelling the relief in plaster then reproducing it in marble using the mechanical technique of '[[pointing]]'. Instead, Moore carved the relief directly, even marking the surface to simulate the surface prick marks that would have been left by the pointing machine. [http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/workchronology.html] Nevertheless, in [[1924]], Moore won a six month travelling scholarship which he spent in Northern Italy studying the great works of [[Michelangelo]], [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] and several other Old Masters. Since Moore had already started to break away from the classical tradition, it is not clear that he drew much influence from this trip, though in later life he would often claim Michelangelo as an influence. ===Life in Hampstead=== [[Image:HenryMoore WestWind.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Moore's first public commission, ''West Wind'' (1928-29) was one of the eight 'winds' reliefs high on the walls of [[London Underground]]'s headquarters at [[55 Broadway, London|55 Broadway]]. The other 'winds' were carved by contemporary sculptors including [[Eric Gill]].]] On returning to London, Moore began a seven-year teaching post at the RCA. He was only required to teach two days a week, which gave him plenty of time to spend on his own work. In July [[1929]], he married Irina Radetsky, a painting student at the RCA — Irina was born in Kiev on [[26 March]] [[1907]] to Russian-Polish parents. Her father disappeared in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] and her mother was evacuated to Paris where she married a British army officer. Irina was smuggled to Paris a year later and went to school there until she was 16, after which she was sent to live with her stepfather’s relatives in [[Buckinghamshire]]. With such a troubled childhood, it is not surprising that Irina had a reputation of being quiet and a little withdrawn. However, she found security in her marriage to Moore and was soon posing for him. Shortly after getting married the pair moved to a studio in [[Hampstead]], joining a small colony of avant-garde artists who were starting to take root there. Shortly afterwards, Hepworth and her partner [[Ben Nicholson]] moved into a studio around the corner from Moore, whilst [[Naum Gabo]] and the art critic [[Herbert Read]] also lived in the area. This led to a rapid cross-fertilisation of ideas that Read would publicise, helping to raise Moore's public profile. In the early [[1930s]], Moore took up a post as the Head of the Department of Sculpture at the [[Chelsea School of Art]]. Artistically, Moore, Hepworth and other members of the [[7 and 5 Society]] would develop steadily more abstract work, partly influenced by their frequent trips to [[Paris]] and contact with leading French artists, notably [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], [[George Braque|Braque]], [[Jean Arp|Arp]] and [[Alberto Giacometti|Giacometti]]. Moore flirted with [[Surrealism]], joining [[Paul Nash]]'s [[Unit One Group]] in [[1933]]. Both Moore and [[Paul Nash]] were on the organizing committee of the London International Surrealist Exhibition, which took place in [[1936]]. At this time Moore gradually transitioned from direct carving to casting in bronze, modelling preliminary [[maquette]]s in clay or plaster. [[Image:Henry Moore - Two Piece Reclining Figure 5 - Kenwood.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Sculpture – Two Piece Reclining Figure No. 5|''Two Piece Reclining Figure No. 5'', Bronze (1963–64), in the grounds of [[Kenwood House]], London.]] ===War artist=== This inventive and productive period was brought to an end by the outbreak of the [[Second World War]]. The Chelsea School of Art evacuated to Northampton and Moore resigned his teaching post. During the war, Moore was commissioned as a war artist, notably producing powerful drawings of Londoners sleeping in the London Underground whilst sheltering from the blitz [http://www.tate.org.uk/magazine/issue2/moore.htm]. These drawings helped to boost Moore's international reputation, particularly in America. After their Hampstead home was hit by bomb shrapnel, he and Irina moved out of London to live in a farmhouse called Hoglands in the hamlet of Perry Green near [[M
ood]] director, well-known for his [[wuxia]] film ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000). He completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the [[University of Illinois]] and received his [[MFA]] from [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]], where in 1984 he made a thesis film called ''Fine Line''. He was a classmate of [[Spike Lee]] and worked on the crew of the latter Lee's thesis film, ''Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads''. ==Career== Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. Lee's films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay-themed films ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993), ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), the martial arts epic ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) and the comic book adaptation ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) He received the Dartmouth Film Award in 2002, along with [[Meryl Streep]]. Lee's film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) won the best film award at the Venice International Film Festival and was named 2005's best film by the Los Angeles film critics. It also won the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Motion Picture — Drama, with Lee winning the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Director. Lee also won the Best Director award for the film at the 2006 British Academy Awards (BAFTAs). In January 2006, Brokeback scored a leading 8 [[Academy Award]] nominations including Lee for Best Director. The film is considered to be the frontrunner for the March 5, 2006 ceremony. He taught [[Meryl Streep]]'s son and [[Kai Christophe Wong]], initially scheduled for the lead in ''[[Dark Matter]]''. ==Private life== His wife, Jane, is a microbiologist; they have two children, Haan and Mason. He is a huge fan of the [[Vancouver Canucks]] of the [[National Hockey League]]. He kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non-practical career like film. ==Films== === Director === * ''[[Hulk 2]]'' (2007) * ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) * ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) * ''[[The Hire]]'' (BMW Short Movies) - Chosen (2002) * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Ride with the Devil]]'' (1999) * ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (1997) * ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]'' (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) * ''Fine Line'' (1984) * ''Shades of the lake'' (1982) * ''I Love Chinese Food'' (1981) * ''Beat the Artist'' (1981) * ''The Runner''' (1980) * ''One Day of Ma-Chuan Chen'' (Chinese: 陳媽勸的一天) * ''Laziness in a Saturday Afternoon'' (Chinese: 星期六下午的懶散) ''See Also:'' [[:Category:Films directed by Ang Lee|Films directed by Ang Lee]] === Writer === * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Actor === * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[The Hulk]]''(2003) === Editing === * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Producer === * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000487|name=Ang Lee}} * [http://www.thecheappop.com/heath.html Ang Lee on Brokeback] * [http://movie.cca.gov.tw/PEOPLE/people_inside.asp?rowid=70&amp;id=1 Ang Lee] (Chinese) [[Category:1954 births|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Living people|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:American film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Hulk|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese Americans|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Best Director Golden Globe]] [[Category:Best Director Oscar nominees]] [[de:Ang Lee]] [[es:Ang Lee]] [[et:Ang Lee]] [[fi:Ang Lee]] [[fr:Ang Lee]] [[hr:Ang Lee]] [[it:Ang Lee]] [[ja:アン・リー]] [[ka:ანგ ლი]] [[nl:Ang Lee]] [[pt:Ang Lee]] [[zh:李安]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AutoRacing</title> <id>338</id> <revision> <id>15899073</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auto racing]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ayn Rand</title> <id>339</id> <restrictions>edit=sysop:move=sysop</restrictions> <revision> <id>40260861</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T08:35:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Woohookitty</username> <id>159678</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{protected}} {{Infobox_Philosopher | &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt; &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt; region = Western Philosophy | era = [[Contemporary philosophy]], | color = #B0C4DE | &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt; image_name = Ayn_Rand1.jpg| image_caption = Ayn Rand: novelist and philosopher| &lt;!-- Information --&gt; name = Ayn Rand | birth = [[February 2]], [[1905]] | death = [[March 6]], [[1982]]| school_tradition = [[Objectivist philosophy]] | main_interests = [[Objectivist metaphysics]], [[Objectivist ethics]]| influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Nietzsche]] | influenced = [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Ridpath]], [[Tara Smith]], [[David Kelley]], [[Dr. Frank R. Wallace]]| notable_ideas = |[[Rational self-interest]]}} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|ajn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} &amp;ndash; [[March 6]] [[1982]]), born '''Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum''', was best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] and her novels ''[[We the Living]]'', ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'', ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, the concepts of [[individualism]], rational [[egoism]] (&quot;[[Objectivist ethics|rational self-interest]]&quot;), and [[capitalism]], which she believed should be implemented fully via ''[[Laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]. Her politics has been described as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]], though she never used the first term and detested the second. Her novels were based upon the projection of the Randian [[hero]], a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses, but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal, and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes. She believed: *That man must choose his values and actions by reason; *That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and *That no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Rand was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]], and was the eldest of three daughters of a [[Jew]]ish family. Her parents were [[agnostic]] and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother taught her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a [[Rudyard Kipling]]-style story called &quot;The Mysterious Valley&quot;. Throughout her youth, she read the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered [[Victor Hugo]] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Petrograd]]. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of [[Edmond Rostand]], [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of [[Nietzsche]], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''. Though an early fan of Nietzsche, she eventually became critical, seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason. Nevertheless, as Allan Gotthelf points out in book ''On Ayn Rand'', &quot;the influence was real.&quot; She did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas, and quoted Nietzsche in the introduction to the 25th aniversary edition of ''The Fountainhead'': &quot;''The noble soul has reverence for itself.''&quot; Her greatest influence by far is [[Aristotle]], especially ''Organon (Logic)''. Although Leonard Peikoff, promoter of her ideas, says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived, she herself considered Aristotle the greatest philosopher ever, and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her (this is probably because, as she has stated, she did n
usinessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field. After the season, Art Modell officially transferred his remaining 51% ownership to Bisciotti ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner. Modell still has an office at the Ravens' headquarters in Owings Mills Maryland and acts as a consultant. The Ravens looked like they had traded for [[Terrell Owens]] in the 2004 offseason, but the NFLPA filed a grievance with the NFL, claiming Terrell Owens should have been granted free agency. Just before a judge made a decision in the case, the NFL and NFLPA came to a settlment, which set up a 3 way trade between the Eagles, 49ers, and Ravens. Owens went to the Eagles, and the Ravens received the pick they traded to the 49ers back and were also granted a 6th round draft pick. Boller remained quarterback through the entire season. [[Ed Reed]] became a full-fleged star on defense, with nine interceptions. Baltimore remained in playoff contention the entire season, but a 2-4 slide in their last six games ultimately forced them out of the postseason at 9-7. In the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second-worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing [[Derrick Mason]] from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver [[Mark Jermain Clayton|Mark Clayton]] in the first round of the [[2005 NFL Draft]]. The 2005 season (the Ravens' 10th Anniversary season) began as the featured [[Sunday Night Football]] game televised by [[ESPN]]. This game against the [[Indianapolis Colts]] led the announcer to state, &quot;What a wonderful way to begin the season, the game between the team that plays here now and the team which used to play here.&quot; The game's first half was a defensive slugfest, with the score at the half 3-0 Colts, but the second half saw the Ravens fall apart and starting QB [[Kyle Boller]] was lost to a foot injury (Colts 24, Ravens 7). In the 2nd week road opener versus historic rival Tennessee, backup QB [[Anthony Wright]] failed to spark the offense and the defense couldn't hold the Titans back, allowing the second straight loss (25-10). During the team's bye week, coach Billick tried to install the idea that after the bye, the season starts anew and they forget about their past losses. This strategy led the Ravens to a Week 4 Win against the Jets (13-3), but the Ravens fell apart against the Lions (35-17), setting a franchise record for penalties in a single game (21). The Ravens rebounded at home the next week against the Cleveland Browns, with a final score of 16-3. However, from Week 7 to Week 10, the Ravens would lose to the [[Chicago Bears]] (10-6), the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (20-19), the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (21-9), and the Jacksonville Jaguars (30-3). The Ravens would get things working for them in a Week 11 rematch with the Steelers at home by winning 16-13 in OT, but in a week later, they would get season-swept by the Bengals 42-29. The Ravens would win a week later against the hapless [[Houston Texans]] 16-15, but they would lose a week later on the road against the [[Denver Broncos]] 12-10. Then, they Ravens played their final two home games under the prime time light. First, they man-handled the [[Green Bay Packers]] on Monday Night 48-3. Then, they destroyed any playoff chance that the [[Minnesota Vikings]] had by winning on Sunday Night 30-23. Despite the recent resurgence of Kyle Boller, they couldn't carry their momentum entirely. Despite leading the Browns 13-6 at halftime, they lost the lead in the 3rd Quarter and trailed for the rest of the game. They lost 20-16. The Ravens ended their season at 6-10. Despite having the same regular season record as the [[Cleveland Browns]], the Ravens are technically third in the AFC North, since they beat the Browns on Division Records. In the AFC North, the Ravens are 2-4, while the Browns are 1-5. ==Logo controversy== [[Image:Bwings.gif|left|frame|Baltimore Ravens logo from 1996-1998. It was changed due to [[copyright infringement]].]] [[Image:RavensdrawingBouchat.jpg|right|frame|The original sketch, which was plagarized for the original Ravens logo.]] From 1996-1998, the team originally used a logo that featured raven wings flanking a shield with the letter &quot;B&quot;. However, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit|United States Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals]] ruled that the logo [[Copyright infringement|infringed]] on the [[copyright]] rights of [[Frederick E. Bouchat]], a Maryland amateur artist and security guard. Bouchat sued the Ravens, claiming that he was the first one to design the &quot;B&quot; shield shortly after the team announced their intentions to move to Baltimore. The team defended themselves claiming that the logo was made independently. But the court ruled in favor of Bouchat, stating that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat's work: Bouchat had faxed a copy of his design to then-chairman of the Maryland Stadium Authority John Moag, who shared the same office building as Modell. [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=4th&amp;navby=case&amp;no=991617P&amp;exact=1] {{-}} ==Season-by-season records== {{Start NFL SBS}} {{NFL SBS season|1996|4|12|0|5th AFC Central}} {{NFL SBS season|1997|6|9|1|4th AFC Central}} {{NFL SBS season|1998|6|10|0|4th AFC Central}} {{NFL SBS season|1999|8|8|0|3rd AFC Central}} {{NFL SBS season|2000|12|4|0|2nd AFC Central| playoffs = Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 21, Denver Broncos 3|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Denver Broncos|Denver]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 24, Tennessee Titans 10|Divisional playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Tennessee]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 16, Oakland Raiders 3|Conference Championship]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Oakland]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[Super Bowl XXXV]] ([[New York Giants]])}} {{NFL SBS season|2001|10|6|0|2nd AFC Central| playoffs = Won [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 20, Miami Dolphins 3|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Miami]])&lt;br&gt;Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02#AFC: Pittsburgh Steelers 27, Baltimore Ravens 10|Divisional playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]])}} {{NFL SBS season|2002|7|9|0|3rd AFC North}} {{NFL SBS season|2003|10|6|0|1st AFC North| playoffs = Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04#AFC: Tennessee Titans 20, Baltimore Ravens 17|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Tennessee]])}} {{NFL SBS season|2004|9|7|0|2nd AFC North}} {{NFL SBS season|2005|6|10|0|3rd AFC North}} {{end box}} So far, after the [[2005 NFL season]], the Ravens All-Time Record is 83-83-1 (including the playoffs). ==Players of note== ===Current players=== {{Template:Baltimore Ravens roster}} &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt; {| class=&quot;Talk-Notice&quot; |- |align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Note''': The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens. For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and not to be forgotten players who played for Baltimore teams, see [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]].'' |} ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== '''None''' ===Retired numbers=== The Ravens have not yet honored any player by retiring his jersey. ====Ring of Honor==== The Ravens have a &quot;Ring of Honor&quot; which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&amp;T Bank Stadium, including a sign with the names and dates of play viewable from the seats. The ring currently honors the following: [http://www.baltimoreravens.com/gameday/ringOfHonor.jsp] * 21 [[Earnest Byner]], Running back, played for Modell in both Cleveland and Baltimore, inducted 2001. * [[Johnny Unitas]] and the [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]], inducted in 2002 following the death of Unitas. The numbers of the following [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] Colts players are honored: ** 19 [[Johnny Unitas]] ** 24 [[Lenny Moore]] ** 70 [[Art Donovan]] ** 77 [[Jim Parker]] ** 82 [[Raymond Berry]] ** 83 [[Ted Hendricks]] ** 88 [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]] ** 89 [[Gino Marchetti]] * [[Art Modell]], original owner, inducted 2003. * 99 [[Michael McCrary]], defensive lineman, inducted 2004 ===Not to be forgotten=== *[[Derrick Alexander]], WR *[[Tony Banks (quarterback)|Tony Banks]], QB *[[Gary Baxter]], CB *[[Jeff Blake]], QB *[[Rob Burnett]], DE *[[Ben Coates]], TE *[[Trent Dilfer]], QB *[[Marques Douglas]], DE *[[Sam Gash]], FB *[[Elvis Grbac]], QB *[[Edgerton Hartwell]], LB *[[Kim Herring]], S *[[Priest Holmes]], RB *[[Qadry Ismail]], WR *[[Michael Jackson (NFL)|Michael Jackson]], WR *[[Brian Kinchen]], TE *[[Jermaine Lewis]], WR *[[Jeff Mitchell]], C *[[Bam Morris]], RB *[[Casey Rabach]], OL *[[Chris Redman]], QB *[[Errict Rhett]], RB *[[Deion Sanders]], CB *[[Shannon Sharpe]], TE *[[Jamie Sharper]], LB *[[Tony Siragusa]], DT *[[Duane Starks]], CB *[[Brandon Stokley]], WR *[[Duane Starks]], CB *[[Travis Taylor]], WR *[[Vinny Testaverde]], QB *[[Eric Turner]], CB *[[Rod Woodson]], S ==Head Coaches== *[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1996-1998) *[[Brian Billick]] (1999-present) ===Current Staff=== *General Manager - [[Ozzie Newsome]] *Head Coach - [[Brian Billick]] *Offensive Coordinator - [[Jim Fassel]] *Defensive Coordinator - [[Rex Ryan]] *Special Teams Coach - [[Frank Gansz Jr.]] *Quarterbacks Coach - [[Rick Neuheisel]] *Running Backs Coach - [[Tony Nathan]] *Wide Receivers Coach - [[Mike Johnson (football coach)|Mike Johnson]] *Tight Ends Coach - [[Wade Harman]] *Offensive Line Coach - [[Chris Foerster]] *Defensive Line Coach - [[Clarence Brooks]] *Linebackers Coach - [[Jeff FizGerald]] *Defensive Backs Coach - [[Mark Carrier (defensive back)|Mark Carrier]] *Strength and Conditioning - [[Jeff Friday]] ==References== #{{note|baltsun}} Morgan, Jon. [http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-modell020996,1,1050941.story Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore], ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', [[February 9]], [[1996]]. #{{note|Modellorg}} Scocca, Tom. [http://www.city
hematician [[Diophantus]], who lived in Egypt and is often considered as the &quot;father of algebra&quot;, writes his famous ''[[Arithmetica]]'', a work featuring solutions of algebraic equations and on the theory of numbers. *[[499]]: Indian mathematician [[Aryabhata]], obtains whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern one. *[[628]]: Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]], invents the method of solving indeterminate equations of the second degree, gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations, and discovers negative solutions for the [[quadratic equation]]. [[Indian mathematicians]] at the time recognized that [[quadratic equation]]s have two [[root]]s, and included [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] as well as [[irrational number|irrational]] roots. *[[820]]: The word ''algebra'' is derived from operations described in the treatise first written by [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]] [[Al-Khwarizmi]] titled: ''[[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]]'' meaning ''The book of summary concerning calculating by transposition and reduction''. The word ''al-jabr'' means ''&quot;reunion&quot;''. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered as the &quot;father of modern algebra&quot;, much of whose works on reduction was included in the book and added to many methods we have in algebra now. *Circa [[1000]]: [[Abu Bakr al-Karaji]], in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', extends Al-Khwarizmi's methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities. *[[1114]]: Indian mathematician [[Bhaskara II]], who wrote the text ''Bijaganita'' (''Algebra''), recognizes that a positive number has two [[square root]]s, and also solves quadratic indeterminate equations and quadratic equations with more than one unknown. *[[1202]]: Algebra is introduced to [[Europe]] largely through the work of [[Leonardo Fibonacci]] of [[Pisa]] in his work ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' . ==References== *Ziauddin Sardar, Jerry Ravetz, and Borin Van Loon, ''Introducing Mathematics'' (Totem Books, 1999). *Donald R. Hill, ''Islamic Science and Engineering'' (Edinburgh University Press, 1994). *George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock : The Non-European Roots of Mathematics'' (Princeton University Press, 2000). ==See also== {{book}} * [[Fundamental theorem of algebra]] (which is really a theorem of [[mathematical analysis]], not of algebra) * [[Diophantus]], &quot;father of algebra&quot; * Mohammed [[al-Khwarizmi]], also known as &quot;father of modern algebra&quot;. [http://www.math.umd.edu/~czorn/hist_algebra.pdf] * [[Computer algebra system]] ==External links== *[http://www.mathleague.com/help/algebra/algebra.htm Explanation of Basic Topics] *[http://www.sparknotes.com/math/#algebra1 Sparknotes' Review of Algebra I and II] *[http://www.jamesbrennan.org/algebra/ ''Understanding Algebra.''] An online algebra text by James W. Brennan. *[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Salgeb1.htm Algebra--the basic ideas] &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; First of 6 parts in a short course on basic algebra at the high school level. * [http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~sxw8045/history.htm Highlights in the history of algebra] * [http://www.exampleproblems.com ExampleProblems.com] Example problems and solutions from [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Algebra basic] and [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Abstract_Algebra abstract] algebra. [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[af:Algebra]] [[ar:جبر]] [[ast:Álxebra]] [[bg:Алгебра]] [[bn:বীজগণিত]] [[ca:Àlgebra]] [[co:Algebra]] [[cs:Algebra]] [[cy:Algebra]] [[da:Algebra]] [[de:Algebra]] [[et:Algebra]] [[es:Álgebra]] [[eo:Algebro]] [[fa:جبر]] [[fr:Algèbre]] [[ko:대수학]] [[io:Algebro]] [[id:Aljabar]] [[is:Algebra]] [[it:Algebra]] [[he:אלגברה]] [[la:Algebra]] [[lt:Algebra]] [[mk:Алгебра]] [[ms:Algebra]] [[nl:Algebra]] [[ja:代数学]] [[no:Algebra]] [[pl:Algebra]] [[pt:Álgebra]] [[ru:Алгебра]] [[sco:Algebra]] [[simple:Algebra]] [[sk:Algebra]] [[sr:Алгебра]] [[fi:Algebra]] [[sv:Algebra]] [[tl:Aldyebra]] [[vi:Đại số]] [[tr:Cebir]] [[uk:Алгебра]] [[zh:代数]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ADHD</title> <id>1399</id> <revision> <id>35049757</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T19:28:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wknight94</username> <id>352579</id> </contributor> <comment>ADHD most often means the disorder. Will put a link to the band there</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anno Domini</title> <id>1400</id> <revision> <id>41673027</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:54:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|AD}} '''Anno Domini''' (&quot;In the Year of the Lord&quot;), abbreviated as '''AD''' or '''A.D.''' defines an [[epoch]] based on the traditionally-reckoned year of the birth (or actually [[Incarnation#Christianity|Incarnation]]) of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. This is the designation used to number years in the '''Christian Era''', conventionally used with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] and [[Gregorian calendar]]s. &lt;br&gt; &quot;Before Christ&quot;, abbreviated as '''BC''' or '''B.C.''' is now usually used to denote years before Anno Domini years in [[English language]]. &lt;br&gt; More extensive, the years may be also designed by ''Anno Domini Nostri Iesu Christi,'' in English translation from [[Latin]]: &quot;In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ&quot;. This Christian era is currently dominant all around the world in both commercial and scientific use. &lt;br&gt; Presently, it is the common, international standard, recognised by international institutions such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[Universal Postal Union]]. &lt;br&gt; This is due both to the [[tradition]] and to the fact that the solar [[Gregorian calendar]] has long time been considered to be astronomically correct.{{Ref|gregorian}} The English usage adheres to the traditional practice of placing the abbreviation before the year, as in Latin (e.g., 64 BC, but AD 2001). [[image:scriptorium.jpg|frame|[[Dionysius Exiguus]] invented ''Anno Domini'' years to [[computus|date Easter]].]] == Synonyms == === Common Era === Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the [[Common Era]] (''CE'') instead. This term is often preferred by those who want to avoid the association with the Christian era. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that &quot;B.C.E./C.E. ... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D.&quot; When the [[People's Republic of China]] abolished the [[Republic of China]] era in [[1949]], it adopted Western years, calling that era ''gōngyuán'', 公元, which literally means Common Era. === Anno Salutis === Anno Salutis (often translated from [[Latin]] as ''in the year of salvation'') is a dating style used up until the eighteenth century, which like Anno Domini dates years from the birth of [[Christ]]. It can be explained in the context of Christian belief, where the birth of Jesus saved mankind from [[eternal damnation]]. It is often used in a more elaborate form such as Anno Nostrae Salutis (''in the year of our salvation''), Anno Salutis Humanae (''in the year of human well-being''), Anno Reparatae Salutis (''in the year of accomplished salvation''). == Numbering of years == Historians do not use a [[year zero]] — AD 1 is the first year or epoch of the Anno Domini era, and 1 BC immediately precedes it as the first year before the epoch. This is a problem with some calculations; so in [[astronomical year numbering]] a zero is added, and the 'AD' and 'BC' are dropped. In keeping with 'standard decimal numbering', a negative sign '−' is added for earlier years, so counting down from year 2 would give 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, and so on. This results in a one-year shift between the two systems (eg −1 equals 2 BC). This article, however, is about the civil usage without a year zero. == Earlier calendar epochs == ''Anno Domini'' dating was not adopted in Western Europe until the eighth century. Like the other inhabitants of the [[Roman Empire]], early Christians used one of several methods to indicate a specific year — and it was not uncommon for more than one to be used in the same document. This redundancy allows historians to construct parallel regnal lists for many kingdoms and polities by comparing chronicles from different regions, which include the same rulers. ===Consular dating=== The earliest and most common practice was Roman '[[consul]]ar' dating. This involved naming both ''consulares ordinares'' who had been appointed to this office on [[January 1]] of the civil year. Sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until November or December of the previous year, and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the Roman empire for several months into the current year; thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as &quot;after the consulate&quot; of a pair of consuls. ===Dating from the founding of Rome=== Another method of dating, rarely used, was to indicate the year ''[[ab urbe condita]]'', or &quot;from the foundation of the City&quot; (abbreviated AUC), where &quot;the City&quot; meant [[Rome]]. Several epochs were in use by Roman historians. Modern historians usually adopt the epoch of [[Varro]], which we place in 753 BC. About AD 400 the Iberian historian [[Orosius]] used the ''ab urbe condita'' era. Pope [[Boniface IV]] (about AD 600) may have been the first to use both the ''ab urbe condita'' era and the ''Anno Domini'' era (he put AD 607 = AUC 1360). ===Regnal years of Ro
anity|Christian]] [[theology]]. According to classical Christian theology, the creation is originally all-good and the work of a single benevolent creator. Consequently, it rejects outright the notion that [[Satan]] (or any equivalent being) could create the physical universe. As has been noted, the Platonic concept of the Demiurge contradicts this Christian [[cosmogony]], because it presupposes the ''pre-existence'' of passive, constituent matter (in a chaotic form), conflicting with the concept of an all-powerful creator who fashioned the universe out of nothingness, that is, &quot;''ex nihilo''&quot;. ==Gnosticism== Like Plato, Gnosticism also presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable &quot;alien God&quot; and the demiurgic &quot;creator&quot; of the material. However, in contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Creator: his act of creation occurs in unconscious imitation of the divine model, and thus is fundamentally flawed, or else is formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine ''in'' materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the [[problem of evil]]. In the [[Apocryphon of John]] (several versions of which are found in the [[Nag Hammadi library]]), the Demiurge has the name &quot;Yaltabaoth&quot;, and proclaims himself as God: :''&quot;Now the [[archon]] who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is [[Saklas]], and the third is [[Samael]]. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come.&quot;'' &quot;Yaldabaoth&quot; literally means &quot;Child, come here&quot; in a [[Semitic]] language. For example, the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for &quot;child&quot; is &quot;yeled&quot;, and for &quot;go&quot; is &quot;bo&quot;. Thus, most probably &quot;yalda&quot; and &quot;baoth&quot; are declensions of &quot;child&quot; and &quot;go&quot;, together meaning &quot;child, come hither&quot; (the language's identification as Hebrew itself is doubtful). [[Gnostic]] myth recounts that [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]] (Greek, literally meaning &quot;wisdom&quot;), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the divine [[Pleroma]] or &quot;Fullness&quot;, desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place. The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See [[Sethian|Sethian Gnosticism]].) &quot;Samael&quot; may equate to the [[Judaism|Judaic]] [[Death (personification)#Death .28angels.29 in religion|Angel of Death]], and corresponds to the Christian [[demon]] of [[Samael|that name]], as well as [[Satan]]. Literally, it can mean &quot;Blind God&quot; or &quot;God of the Blind&quot; in [[Aramaic]] ([[Syriac]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel''). Another alternative title for Yaldabaoth, &quot;Saklas&quot;, is Aramaic for &quot;fool&quot; (Syriac ''sækla'' &quot;the foolish one&quot;). Some Gnostic philosophers (notably [[Marcion of Sinope]]) identify the Demiurge with [[Yahweh]], the [[God]] of the [[Old Testament]], in opposition and contrast to the God of the [[New Testament]]. Still others equated the being with [[Satan]]. [[Catharism]] apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism. The Gnostic conception of the Demiurge was apparently criticised by the Neoplatonist philosopher [[Plotinus]]. The nine tractate of the second of the [[Enneads]] - the works of Plotinus compiled and edited by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], his successor - is titled &quot;Against Those that Affirm the Creator of the ''[[cosmos|Kosmos]]'' and the ''Kosmos'' Itself to Be Evil&quot; (generally quoted as &quot;Against the Gnostics&quot;). Therein, Plotinus criticises his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato: :From Plato come their punishments, their rivers of the underworld and the changing from body to body; as for the plurality they assert in the Intellectual Realm- the Authentic Existent, the Intellectual-Principle, ''the Second Creator and the Soul'' - all this is taken over from the Timaeus. (Ennead 2.9.vi; emphasis added) Of note here is the remark concerning the second Creator and Soul. Plotinus criticises his opponents for &quot;all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own&quot; which, he declares, &quot;have been picked up outside of the truth&quot;; they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, the which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments. Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato's original intentions. The majority view tends to understand Plotinus' opponents as being a Gnostic sect - certainly, several such groups were present in [[Alexandria]] and elsewhere about the [[Mediterranean]] during Plotinus' lifetime, and several of his criticisms bear distinct similarity to Gnostic doctrine (the doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge is most notable amongst these similarities). Scholars of note who have held this view include [[A.H. Armstrong]], who published a highly influential translation of the ''Enneads'' in [[1966]], through the [[Harvard University]] Press. However, other scholars, such as [[Christos Evangeliou]], have contended that Plotinus' opponents might be better described as simply &quot;early Christian&quot;, for the reason that several of Plotinus' criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as they are to Gnosticism. Thus, though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus' opponents as Gnostic is not without contention. ==Comparisons== ===Cerinthus=== According to the doctrine of [[Cerinthus]] (who shows [[Ebionite]] influence), the ancient Hebrew term [[Elohim]] (the &quot;uni-plural name&quot;, often used for God througout [[Genesis]] 1, can be interpreted as indicating that a hierarchy of ancient spirits (&quot;[[angels]] or gods&quot;) were co-creators with a Supreme Being, and were partially responsible for creation within the context of a &quot;master plan&quot; exemplified theologically by the Greek word [[Logos|Lōgos]]. [[Psalm]] 82.1 describes a plurality of gods (''ʔelōhim''), which an older version in the [[Septuagint]] calls the &quot;assembly of the gods&quot;; however, it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation. Also according to this theory, an abstract similarity can be found between the Logos (as applied to Jesus in the [[Gospel of John|Gospel according to St John]]) and Plato's Demiurge. However, in John 1:1, which reads: &quot;in the beginning was the [[Logos|Word]] (''lōgos''), and the Word was with God and the Word was God,&quot; the Logos is clearly one single being, not an assembly or group. Further, typical Christian theology identifies Jesus as the second person in the holy and undivided [[Trinity]], thus rejecting the notion that the world was created by an ignorant or even malevolent demiurge (&quot;uni-plural&quot; or not) in co-action with a separate, higher and unknowable god. ===Iamblicus=== The figure of the Demiurge also emerges in the theoretic of [[Iamblichus of Chalcis|Iamblichus]], in which it acts as a conjunction between the transcendent, incommunicable &quot;One&quot; that resides at the summit of his system, and the material realm. The initial [[dyad]] that Iamblicus describes consists of the One, a [[monad]] whose first principle is intellect (&quot;''nous''&quot;); between this monad and &quot;the many&quot; that follow it, Iamblicus posited a second, superexistent &quot;One&quot; that is the producer of intellect or soul (&quot;''psyche''&quot;), completing the dyad mentioned above. The former and superior &quot;One&quot; is further distinguished by Iamblicus into the spheres of the intelligible and the intellective; the latter sphere is the domain of thought, while the former comprises the objects of thought. Thus, a [[triad]] is formed of the intelligible ''nous'', the intellective ''nous'', and the ''psyche''. Of this intellectual triad Iamblicus assigned the third rank to the Demiurge. The figure is thus identified with the perfected ''nous'', the intellectual triad being increased to a ''[[hebdomad]]''. As in the theoretic of Plotinus, ''nous'' produces nature by the mediation of the intellect, so here the intelligible gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods. ===Vedic tradition=== Within the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] Vedic tradition, [[Brahma]], a member of the [[Trimurti]], is a secondary creator of the universe. According to [[Purana]]s he is &quot;self-born&quot; (without [[mother]]) in the [[nelumbo|lotus]] which grows from the navel of [[Vishnu]] at the beginning of the universe. He is surrounded by d
y, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the [[peritoneum]]. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may cover only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the latter type of organs ''retroperitoneal.'' == Surface landmarks of the abdomen == In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from the ensiform cartilage/[[xiphoid process]] above to the [[symphysis pubis]] below, representing the [[linea alba]] in the abdominal wall. At about its midpoint sits the umbilicus or navel. On each side of it the broad recti muscles stand out in muscular people. The outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the [[lineae transversae]]. There is usually one about the [[ensiform cartilage]], one at the [[umbilicus]], and one between. It is the combination of the linea alba and the linea transversae which form the abdominal &quot;six-pack&quot; sought by body builders. The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) joining one another. The lower lateral limit is the anterior crest of the [[ilium]] and [[Poupart's ligament]], which runs from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the [[pubis]]. These lower limits are marked by visible grooves. Just above the pubic spines on either side are the external abdominal rings, which are openings in the muscular wall of the abdomen through which the [[spermatic cord]] emerges in the male, and through which an [[inguinal hernia]] may rupture. One method by which the location of the abdominal contents can be appreciated is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines. The highest of the former is the [[transpyloric line]] of C. Addison, which is situated half-way between the [[suprasternal notch]] and the top of the symphysis pubis, and often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid-line. The [[hilum]] of each [[kidney]] is a little below it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the [[spleen]]. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind. The second line is the subcostal, drawn from the lowest point of the [[subcostal arch]] (tenth rib). It corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and it is an inch or so above the umbilicus. It indicates roughly the [[transverse colon]], the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the transverse (3rd) part of the [[duodenum]]. The third line is called the intertubercular, and runs across between the two rough [[tubercle]]s, which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches (60 mm) from the anterior superior spine. This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and passes through or just above the [[ileo-caecal valve]], where the [[small intestine]] joins the [[large intestine|large]]. The two vertical or mid-Poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side, vertically upward to the costal margin. The right one is the most valuable, as the [[ileo-caecal valve]] is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line. The orifice of the [[vermiform appendix]] lies an inch lower, at [[McBurney's point]]. In its upper part, the vertical line meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the [[gallbladder]] is situated. The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the [[descending colon]]. The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the [[liver]], while the right nipple is about half an inch above the upper limit of this [[viscus]]. These three horizontal and two vertical lines divide the abdomen into nine &quot;regions.&quot; These regions are: the left and right [[hypchondria]] the left and right lateral regions, the left and right [[inguinal]] regions, the [[epigastrium]], the umbilical region, and the pubic region. ==See also== * [[Waist]] * [[List of muscles of the human body]] * [[Alimentary canal]] * [[Abdominal pain]] ==References== *Tortora, Gerard J., Anagnostakos, Nicholas P. (1984) ''Principles of Anatomy and Physiology'', Harper &amp; Row Publishers, New York ISBN 0-06-046656-1 *Gray, Henry, (1977) ''Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (Gray's Anatomy)'' Bounty Books *Taber, Clarence Wilber, (1981) ''Taber's Cyclopedic medical dictionary 14 Edition'', F.A Davis Company, Philadelphia ISBN 0-8036-8307-3 [[Category:Abdomen]] [[Category:Human anatomy]] {{human anatomical features}} [[de:Abdomen]] [[es:Abdomen]] [[fr:Abdomen]] [[gl:Abdome]] [[it:Addome]] [[he:בטן]] [[lt:Pilvelis]] [[nl:Buik]] [[pl:Odwłok]] [[pt:Abdómen]] [[simple:Abdomen]] [[tl:Abdomen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abdominal surgery</title> <id>1303</id> <revision> <id>29398876</id> <timestamp>2005-11-27T18:37:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nephron</username> <id>321400</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+gen surg</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''abdominal surgery''''' broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the [[abdomen]]. Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see [[stomach]], [[kidney]], [[liver]], etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names (e.g. [[appendicitis]]). The three most common abdominal surgeries are described below. *Exploratory [[Laparotomy]] -- This refers to the opening of the [[abdominal cavity]] for direct examination of its contents, for example, to locate a source of bleeding or [[Physical trauma|trauma]]. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem. *[[Appendectomy]] -- Surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the [[vermiform appendix|appendix]]. Typically performed as definitive treatment for [[appendicitis]], although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure. *[[Laparoscopy]] -- A [[minimally invasive]] approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room. The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure. The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional &quot;open&quot; [[cholecystecomy]]. Complications of abdominal surgery include [[hemorrhage|bleeding]], [[infection]], [[shock]], and ileus (short-term paralysis of the bowel.) Sterile technique, [[aseptic]] post-operative care, [[antibiotics]], and vigilant post-operative [[monitoring]] greatly reduce the risk of these complications. Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions. The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from [[trauma]], substantially increases the risk of infection. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdominal surgery}} ==See also== *[[Abdominoplasty]] *[[General Surgery]] [[Category:Types of surgery]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abduction</title> <id>1304</id> <revision> <id>39531714</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:05:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dcfleck</username> <id>81021</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Removing redlink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|abduction}} '''Abduction''' may refer to: * [[Kidnapping]], as a near synonym in criminal law, but sometimes used particularly in cases involving a woman or child * [[Abduction (physiology)]], a type of movement involving a change in organ or limb position * [[Abductive reasoning]], a method of reasoning in logic * [[Child abduction]], the abduction or kidnapping of a young child (or baby) by an older person * [[Abduction phenomenon]], an umbrella term used to describe a number of hypotheses, claims or assertions stating that extraterrestrial creatures kidnap individuals * [[North Korean abductions of Japanese]] or [[North Korean abductions of South Koreans]], a policy of abduction during the 1970s and 1980s pursued by the North Korean government * [[Abduction: The Megumi Yokota Story]], a 2005 American documentary film {{disambig}} [[ca:abducció]] [[de:Verschleppung]] [[fr:Abduction]] [[nl:Ontvoering]] [[ja:拉致]] [[ru:Абдукция]] [[tl:Abduksyon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abensberg</title> <id>1305</id> <revision> <id>38478174</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:36:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tsca.bot</username> <id>601940</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot adding: nl, pl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abensberg''' is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It used to be a spa town located at {{coor dm|48|49|N|11|51|E|type:city(12500)_region:DE-BY}}, on the Abens, a tributary of the [[Danube]], 18 m. S.W. of [[Regensburg]], with which it is connected by rail and motorway (A93). Pop. (2004) about 12500. It has a small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and gout. The water is not used any more. The town is the Castra Abusina of the Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neigh
<comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aircraft carrier]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Actress</title> <id>648</id> <revision> <id>15899175</id> <timestamp>2002-06-12T19:07:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arraignment</title> <id>649</id> <revision> <id>41736393</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:08:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acerperi</username> <id>173184</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}} '''Arraignment''' is a [[common law]] term for the formal reading of a [[crime|criminal]] [[complaint]], in the presence of the [[defendant]], to inform him of the charges against him. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a [[plea]]. Acceptable pleas vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but they generally include &quot;guilty&quot;, &quot;not guilty&quot;, and the [[peremptory pleas]] (or pleas in bar), which set out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. In addition, [[United States|US]] jurisdictions allow pleas of &quot;[[nolo contendere]]&quot; (no contest) and the &quot;[[Alford plea]]&quot; in some circumstances. In the [[UK]] arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each individual charge. ==Guilty and Not Guilty pleas== If the defendant pleads guilty an [[preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During that hearing the judge will assess the offense, [[mitigating factor]]s, and the defendant's character; and then pass [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty]], a date will be set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or [[Jury trial|trial]]. ==What if the defendant enters no plea?== In the past, a defendant who refused to plea (or, &quot;stood mute&quot;) would be subjected to [[Crushing|peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for &quot;strong and hard punishment&quot;). But today in all common law jurisdictions, defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered for them on their behalf. ==The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure== The US ''[[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]]'' state: &quot;...arraignment shall...[consist of an] open...reading [of] the [[indictment]]...to the defendant...and calling on him to plead thereto. He shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he is called upon to plead.&quot; [[category:legal terms]] [[Category:Prosecution]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abbeville France</title> <id>650</id> <revision> <id>15899177</id> <timestamp>2003-04-03T12:12:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbeville]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>America the Beautiful</title> <id>651</id> <revision> <id>39174236</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T05:26:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pusher robot</username> <id>718079</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Sources/external links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''America the Beautiful'''&quot; is an [[United States|American]] [[patriotic song]] which rivals &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]&quot;, the [[national anthem]] of the United States, in popularity. It is often found in [[Christian]] [[hymn]]als in a wide variety of churches in the United States, and may be sung as part of a Christian service of worship to [[The Trinity|God]]. ==History== The words are by [[Katharine Lee Bates]], an English teacher at [[Wellesley College]]. She had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], [[Colorado]] in [[1893]] to teach a short summer school session at [[Colorado College]], and several of the sights on her trip found their way into her poem: *The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], the &quot;White City&quot; with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings. *The wheat fields of [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on [[July 4]]. *The majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from atop [[Pike's Peak]]. On that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in ''[[The Congregationalist]]'', to commemorate the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1913. Several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem. The [[hymn]] ''Materna'', composed in [[1882]] by [[Samuel A. Ward]], was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Ward had been similarly inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in [[New York City]] after a leisurely summer day, and he immediately wrote it down. Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Miss Bates was more fortunate, as the song's popularity was well-established by her death in 1929. At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; legal status either as a national hymn, or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot;, but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner.&quot; Some prefer &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; over &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot; due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. (Others prefer &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot; for the same reason.) While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans. Popularity of the song soared following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. [[Ray Charles]] is credited with the song's most well known rendition in current times (although [[Elvis Presley]] had a good success with it in the 70´s). His recording is very commonly played at major sporting events, such as the [[Super Bowl]]. His unique take on it places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. In the third verse (see below), the author scolds the [[materialistic]] and self-serving [[robber baron]]s of her day, and urges America to live up to its noble ideals and to honor, with both word and deed, the memory of those who died for their country...a message that resonates just as strongly today.&lt;!-- Agreed. Also see the entire set of 1913 lyrics (source listed below) where this antimaterialist, God-centered theme is repeated in one of the forgotten to most American's ears &quot;extra&quot; lyrics. --&gt; An amusing oddity of the song is that its meter (technically &quot;[[Common metre|common meter double]]&quot; or 8-6-8-6-8-6-8-6) is identical to that of ''[[Auld Lang Syne]]''. The two songs can be sung perfectly with lyrics interchanged. ==Lyrics== Oh beautiful, for spacious skies,&lt;br /&gt; For amber waves of grain,&lt;br /&gt; For purple mountain majesties&lt;br /&gt; Above the fruited plain!&lt;br /&gt; ''America! America! God shed his grace on thee,''&lt;br /&gt; ''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea.''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Oh beautiful, for pilgrims' feet&lt;br /&gt; Whose stern, impassioned stress&lt;br /&gt; A thoroughfare for freedom beat&lt;br /&gt; Across the wilderness!&lt;br /&gt; ''America! America! God mend thine ev'ry flaw;''&lt;br /&gt; ''Confirm thy soul in self control, thy liberty in law!''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Oh beautiful, for heroes proved&lt;br /&gt; In liberating strife,&lt;br /&gt; Who more than self their country loved&lt;br /&gt; And mercy more than life!&lt;br /&gt; ''America! America! May God thy gold refine,''&lt;br /&gt; '''Til all success be nobleness, and ev'ry gain divine!''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Oh beautiful, for patriot's dream&lt;br /&gt; That sees beyond the years!&lt;br /&gt; Thine alabaster cities gleam&lt;br /&gt; Undimmed by human tears!&lt;br /&gt; ''America! America! God shed his grace on thee,''&lt;br /&gt; ''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea!'' ==Takeoffs== A song as popular and familiar as &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; inevitably gets used out of its proper context or time frame, for humorous effect. As the song seems to have &quot;always been there&quot;, it is often presented as if [[Christopher Columbus]] had written it when he arrived at the [[New World]] (though in fact, Columbus never set foot on [[North America]]; all his voyages were to the [[Caribbean|Caribbean islands]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]]). Some examples: *In 1971, the song inspired the cross-country [[Cannonball Baker Sea-To-Shining-Sea Memorial Trophy Dash]] race from New York to Los Angeles that later was the topic of several movies with [[Burt Reynolds]] *A ''[[Far
| '''Ң ң''' || О о || '''Ө ө''' || П п |- | Р р || С с || '''{{Unicode |Ҫ ҫ}}''' || Т т || У у || '''Ү ү''' || Ф ф || Х х || '''Һ һ''' || Ц ц || Ч ч || |- | Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || '''Ә ә''' || Ю ю || Я я |} ===== Chuvash ===== The Cyrillic alphabet is used for the [[Chuvash language]] since the late 19th century, with some changes in 1938. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-seven letters of the Soviet-era Chuvash alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Chuvash alphabet |- | А а || {{Unicode|Ӑ ӑ}} || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || {{Unicode|Ӗ ӗ}} || Ж ж || З з |- | И и || Й й || К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || {{Unicode|Ҫ ҫ}} |- | Т т || У у || {{Unicode|Ӳ ӳ}} || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы |- | Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я |} ===== Kazakh ===== [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] is also written with the Latin alphabet (in [[Turkey]], but not in [[Kazakhstan]]), and modified [[Arabic alphabet]] (in [[China]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]). {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Forty-two letters of the Kazakh alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kazakh alphabet |- | А а || Ә ә || Б б || В в || Г г || Ғ ғ || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з |- | И и || Й й || К к || Қ қ || Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п |- | Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ұ ұ || Ү ү || Ф ф || Х х || Һ һ || Ц ц || Ч ч |- | Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || İ і || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я |} * Ә ә = {{IPA|/æ/}} * Ғ ғ = {{IPA|/ʁ/ }} (uvular [[fricative]]) * Қ қ = {{IPA|/q/}} (uvular [[plosive]]) * Ң ң = {{IPA|/ŋ/}} * Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}} * У у = {{IPA|/uw/}}, {{IPA|/yw/}},{{IPA|/w/}} * Ұ ұ = {{IPA|/u/}} * Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}} * Һ һ = {{IPA| /h/}} * İ і = {{IPA|/i/}} The Cyrillic letters Вв, Ёё, Цц, Чч, Щщ, Ъъ, Ьь and Ээ are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans. ===== Kyrgyz ===== [[Kyrgyz language |Kyrgyz]] has also been written in Latin and in Arabic. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kyrgyz alphabet |- | А а || Б б || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к |- | Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у |- | Ү ү || Х х || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Э э || Ю ю || Я я |} * Ң ң = {{IPA|/[[velar nasal|ŋ]]/}} * Ү ү = {{IPA|/[[close front rounded vowel|y]]/}} * Ө ө = {{IPA|/[[open-mid front rounded vowel|œ]]/}} ===== Uzbek ===== The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Uzbek language]] from 1940 to 1992. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Soviet-era Uzbek alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к |- | Л л || М м || Н н || О о ||П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ч ч |- | Ш ш || Ъ ъ || Э э || Ю ю || Я я || Ў ў || Қ қ || Ғ ғ || Ҳ ҳ |} Table comparing Cyrillic with Roman alphabets, with IPA equivalents {| cellpadding=4 summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Soviet-era Uzbek alphabet, compared with Roman and IPA&quot; |- | а | a | {{IPA|/a/}} |- | б | b | {{IPA|/b/}} |- | в | v | {{IPA|/w/}} |- | г | g | {{IPA|/g/}} |- | д | d | {{IPA|/d/}} |- | е | (y)e | {{IPA|/(j)e/}} |- | ё | yo | {{IPA|/jo/}} |- | ж | j | {{IPA|/dʒ/}} |- | з | z | {{IPA|/z/}} |- | и | i | {{IPA|/i/}} |- | й | y | {{IPA|/j/}} |- | к | k | {{IPA|/k/}} |- | л | l | {{IPA|/l/}} |- | м | m | {{IPA|/m/}} |- | н | n | {{IPA|/n/}} |- | о | o | {{IPA|/ɒ/}} |- | п | p | {{IPA|/p/}} |- | р | r | {{IPA|/r/}} |- | с | s | {{IPA|/s/}} |- | т | t | {{IPA|/t/}} |- | у | u | {{IPA|/u/}} |- | ф | f | {{IPA|/φ/}} |- | х | x | {{IPA|/χ/}} |- | ч | ch | {{IPA|/tʃ/}} |- | ш | sh | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} |- | ъ | ’ | {{IPA|/ʔ/}} |- | э | e | {{IPA|/e/}} |- | ю | yu | {{IPA|/ju/}} |- | я | ya | {{IPA|/ja/}} |- | ў | o‘ | {{IPA|/ø/}} |- | қ | q | {{IPA|/q/}} |- | ғ | g‘ | {{IPA|/ʁ/}} |- | ҳ | h | {{IPA|/h/}} |} ==== Moldovan ==== {{main |Moldovan alphabet}} The [[Moldovan language]] used the Cyrillic alphabet between 1946 and 1989. Nowadays, this alphabet is still official in the unrecognized republic of [[Transnistria]]. ==== Mongolian ==== The [[Mongolian language|Mongolic]] languages include [[Khalkha]] (in [[Mongolia]]), [[Buryat]] (around [[Lake Baikal]]) and [[Kalmyk]] (northwest of the [[Caspian Sea]]). Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol vertical alphabet]], which is being slowly reintroduced in Mongolia. ===== Khalkha ===== {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-five letters of the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Khalkha Mongolian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й |- | К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у |- | Ү ү || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э |- | Ю ю || Я я |} * В в = {{IPA|/w/}} * Е е = {{IPA|/jɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jœ/}} * Ё ё = {{IPA|/jo/}} * Ж ж = {{IPA|/ʤ/}} * З з = {{IPA|/dz/}} * Н н = {{IPA|/n-/}}, {{IPA|/-ŋ/}} * Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}} * Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}} * Ы ы = {{IPA|/iː/}} (after a hard consonant) * Ь ь = {{IPA|/ĭ/}} (extra short) * Ю ю = {{IPA|/ju/}}, {{IPA|/jy/}} The Cyrillic letters Кк, Фф and Щщ are not used in native Mongolian words, but only for Russian loans. ===== Buryat ===== The [[Buryat]] (буряад) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-two letters of the Buryat Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Buryat Mongolian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й |- | Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ү ү |- | Х х || Һ һ || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я |} * Е е = {{IPA|/jɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jœ/}} * Ё ё = {{IPA|/jo/}} * Ж ж = {{IPA|/ʤ/}} * Н н = {{IPA|/n-/}}, {{IPA|/-ŋ/}} * Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}} * Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}} * Һ һ = {{IPA|/h/}} * Ы ы = {{IPA|/ei/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}} * Ю ю = {{IPA|/ju/}}, {{IPA|/jy/}} ===== Kalmyk ===== The [[Kalmyk language|Kalmyk]] (хальмг) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha, but the letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially. In Kalmyk, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = xaʎmag). {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-four letters of the Kalmyk Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kalmyk Mongolian alphabet |- | А а || Ә ә || Б б || В в || Г г || Һ һ || Д д || Е е || Ж ж || Җ җ || З з |- | И и || Й й || К к || Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р |- | С с || Т т || У у || Ү ү || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю |- | Я я |} * Ә ә = {{IPA|/æ/}} * В в = {{IPA|/w/}} * Һ һ = {{IPA|/γ/}} * Е е = {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jɛ-/}} * Җ җ = {{IPA|/ʤ/}} * Ң ң = {{IPA|/ŋ/}} * Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}} * Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}} == Cyrillic in Unicode == Main article: [[Cyrillic characters in Unicode]]. In [[Unicode]], the Cyrillic block extends from U+0400 to U+052F. The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are basically the characters from [[ISO 8859-5]] moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script. [[Unicode]] does not include accented Cyrillic letters, but they can be [[Combining diacritical mark|combined]] by adding U+0301 (&quot;combining acute accent&quot;) after the accented vowel (e.g., ы́ э́ ю́ я́). Some languages (e.g., modern [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]]) still are not fully supported. {| |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&lt;code&gt;0&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;1&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;5&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;C&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;D&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;E&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;400&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||{{Unicode|Ѐ}}||Ё||Ђ||Ѓ||Є||Ѕ||І||Ї||Ј||Љ||Њ||Ћ||Ќ||Ѝ||Ў||Џ |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;410&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||А||Б||В||Г||Д||Е||Ж||З||И||Й||К||Л||М||Н||О||П |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;420&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Р||С||Т||У||Ф||Х||Ц||Ч||Ш||Щ||Ъ||Ы||Ь||Э||Ю||Я |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;430&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||а||б||в||г||д||е||ж||з||и||й||к||л||м||н||о||п |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;440&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||р||с||т||у||ф||х||ц||ч||ш||щ||ъ||ы||ь||э||ю||я |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;450&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||ѐ||ё||ђ||ѓ||є||ѕ||і||ї||ј||љ||њ||ћ||ќ||ѝ||ў||џ |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;460&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ѡ||ѡ||Ѣ||ѣ||Ѥ||ѥ||Ѧ||ѧ||Ѩ||ѩ||Ѫ||ѫ||Ѭ||ѭ||Ѯ||ѯ |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;code&gt;470&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ѱ||ѱ||Ѳ||ѳ||Ѵ||ѵ||Ѷ||
that the document conforms to the Strict DTD of HTML 4.01, which is purely structural, leaving formatting to Cascading Style Sheets. In some cases, the presence or absence of an appropriate DTD may influence how a web browser will display the page. In addition to the Strict DTD, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs. The Transitional DTD was intended to gradually phase in the changes made in the Strict DTD, while the Frameset DTD was intended for those documents which contained frames. ==Separation of style and content== Efforts of the web development community have led to a new thinking in the way a web document should be written; XHTML epitomizes this effort. Standards stress using markup which suggests the structure of the document, like headings, paragraphs, block quoted text, and tables, instead of using markup which is written for visual purposes only, like &amp;lt;font&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;b&amp;gt; (bold), and &amp;lt;i&amp;gt; (italics). Some of these elements are not permitted in certain varieties of HTML, like HTML 4.01 Strict. CSS provides a way to separate the HTML structure from the content's presentation, by keeping all code dealing with presentation defined in a CSS file. See [[separation of style and content]]. ==Publishing HTML with HTTP== The [[World Wide Web]] is primarily composed of HTML documents transmitted from a [[web server]] to a web browser using the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP). However, HTTP can be used to serve images, sound and other content in addition to HTML. To allow the web browser to know how to handle the document it received, an indication of the [[file format]] of the document must be transmitted along with the document. This vital [[metadata]] includes the [[MIME]] type (&lt;tt&gt;text/html&lt;/tt&gt; for HTML 4.01 and earlier, &lt;tt&gt;application/xhtml+xml&lt;/tt&gt; for XHTML 1.0 and later) and the character encoding (see [[Character encodings in HTML]]). In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document affects how the document is interpreted. A document sent with an XHTML MIME type, or ''served as application/xhtml+xml'', is expected to be [[XML#Well-formed documents|well-formed]] XML and a syntax error may cause the browser to fail to render the document. The exactly same document sent with a HTML MIME type, or ''served as text/html'', might get displayed since the web browser are more lenient with HTML. If the MIME type is not recognized as HTML, the web browser should not attempt to render the document as HTML, even if the document is prefaced with a correct Document Type Declaration. Nevertheless, some web browsers do examine the contents or URL of the document and attempt to infer the file type. Such behaviour is discouraged due to security problems; even the most notorious offender, [[Internet Explorer]], has mostly abandoned the practice in recent versions (as of 2005). ==HTML Email== Some graphical [[e-mail]] clients allow the use of a (often ill-defined) subset of HTML as a pure display language. Many of these clients include a [[GUI]] HTML editor for composing emails and a rendering engine for displaying them once received. Use of HTML in email is quite controversial due to a variety of issues. The main benefit is the ability to decorate an email with presentational attributes (bold headings etc). However, there are a number of disadvantages, which include: * the recipient may not have an email client that can display HTML * the email has larger size because lots of formatting will be much larger than the plain text equivalent. This issue is made slightly worse by the fact that, for compatibility, most clients send a plaintext version as well. * overuse of formatting (there was at one stage a craze for making [[letterhead]]s using HTML and sending them as part of every e-mail) * potential security issues of deluding the recipient to accept an email as being from an authoritative source (such as a bank) when this is not the case; this is related to [[phishing]] scams. * potential security issues of simply rendering a complex format like HTML. For these reasons many [[Electronic mailing list|mailing list]]s deliberately block HTML email either stripping out the HTML part to just leave the plain text part or rejecting the entire message. == HTML as a hypertext format == HTML is the basis of a comparatively weak hypertext implementation. Earlier hypertext systems had features such as [[typed link]]s, [[transclusion]] and [[source tracking]]. Another feature lacking today are [[fat link]]s. Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular webbrowsers until now, such as the [[link]] element and editable webpages. Sometimes web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings. For instance, members of the modern social software landscape such as the [[wiki web]] and [[nuke]]s allow surfers to edit the web pages they visit. See also: [http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20050103.html Jacob Nielsen on advanced hypertext for the World Wide Web]. ==See also== *[[Alt attribute]] *[[Character encodings in HTML]] *[[Cascading Style Sheets]] *[[Dynamic HTML]] *[[HTML editor]] *[[HTML element]] *[[HTML reference]] *[[HTML scripting]] *[[Parsing]] *[[Tim Berners-Lee]] *[[Unicode and HTML]] *[[Web colors]] *[[List of document markup languages]] *[[Comparison of document markup languages]] *[[Comparison of layout engines (HTML)]] *[[XHTML]] *[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Usability/HTML]] ==External links== {{wikibooks}} ===W3C Specifications=== *[http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/ HTML 4.01 Specification] *[http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0 Specification] *[http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-media-types/ XHTML Media Types] ===Validators=== *[http://validator.w3.org/ W3C's Markup Validator] *[http://www.htmlhelp.com/tools/validator/ WDG HTML Validator] *[http://uitest.com/en/analysis/ Validators and checkers] ([http://uitest.com/en/check/ Site Check]) ===Selected Tutorials/Guides=== *[http://www.2kweb.net/html-tutorial/ Beginners HTML Tutorial] *[http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/ HTMLSource: HTML Tutorials] *[http://htmldog.com/ HTML Dog] &lt;!-- we are intentionally keeping this list very short; please use the discussion page to nominate new entries --&gt; [[Category:HTML| ]] [[Category:ISO standards]] [[Category:Markup languages]] [[Category:Technical communication]] [[Category:W3C standards]] [[af:HTML]] [[als:HTML]] [[ar:HTML]] [[bg:HTML]] [[bs:HTML]] [[br:HTML]] [[ca:HTML]] [[cs:HTML]] [[da:Hypertext Markup Language]] [[de:Hypertext Markup Language]] [[et:HTML]] [[es:HTML]] [[eo:HTML]] [[eu:HTML]] [[fa:اچ‌تی‌ام‌ال]] [[fr:Hypertext Markup Language]] [[fy:HTML]] [[gl:HTML]] [[ko:HTML]] [[hr:HTML]] [[id:HTML]] [[ia:HTML]] [[is:HTML]] [[it:HTML]] [[he:HTML]] [[lv:HTML]] [[lt:HTML]] [[hu:HTML]] [[nl:HyperText Markup Language]] [[ja:HyperText Markup Language]] [[no:HTML]] [[pl:HTML]] [[pt:HTML]] [[ro:HTML]] [[ru:HTML]] [[simple:HTML]] [[sk:Hypertext markup language]] [[sl:HTML]] [[sr:HTML]] [[fi:HTML]] [[sv:HTML]] [[tl:HTML]] [[th:HTML]] [[vi:HTML]] [[tr:Hiper Metin İşaret Dili]] [[uk:HTML]] [[uz:HTML]] [[yi:HTML]] [[zh:HTML]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hacking</title> <id>13192</id> <revision> <id>37148772</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:07:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CatherineMunro</username> <id>8316</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to [[Hack]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hack]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HLMenckeN</title> <id>13193</id> <revision> <id>15910822</id> <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:30:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H. L. Mencken]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HistoryOfLevant</title> <id>13194</id> <revision> <id>15910823</id> <timestamp>2002-09-12T14:44:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>two-step redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Levant]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HalleysFifthConcerto</title> <id>13195</id> <revision> <id>15910824</id> <timestamp>2003-03-20T12:55:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ams80</username> <id>7543</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HaikuPoem</title> <id>13196</id> <revision> <id>15910825</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haiku]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HelenOfTroy</title> <id>13201</id> <revision> <id>15910827</id> <timestamp>2002-09-06T22:35:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tucci528</username> <id>3671</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Helen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HomePageDefinition</title> <id>13202</id> <revision> <id>15910828</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T23:09:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homepage]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Holl
ridge (vampire) *''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' - [[Jack Skellington]] (voice) (also voiced Jack in the [[Computer and video games|video games]] ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' and ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge]]'') *''[[Loggerheads]]'' *''[[Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind]]'' - Kurotowa (voice) ===Television=== *''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' - &quot;[[Rivals (DS9 episode)|Rivals]]&quot; *''[[Charmed]]''- &quot;[[Necromancer/Armand]]&quot; ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0001697|name=Chris Sarandon}} * {{memoryalpha}} {{US-film-actor-stub}} &lt;!-- Dog Day Afternoon --&gt; [[Category:1942 births|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Living people|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:American actors|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Greek-Americans|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Film actors|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Star Trek actors|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Kingdom Hearts voice actors|Sarandon, Chris]] [[Category:Greek-American actors|Sarandon, Chris]] [[fr:Chris Sarandon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christopher Guest</title> <id>7182</id> <revision> <id>40785564</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:24:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grenavitar</username> <id>142208</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ merge boxes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:cguest.jpg|thumb|Christopher Guest as Nigel Tufnel in ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]''.]] --&gt; '''Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron Haden-Guest''' (born [[February 5]], [[1948]] in [[New York]], [[USA]]), known as '''Christopher Guest''', is an actor, writer, director, composer, and musician. He is best known for his portrayal of [[Nigel Tufnel]] in the [[mockumentary]] [[film]] ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'', and his time as a cast member on [[NBC]]'s ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' ([[History of SNL:1980-1985#1984-85 Season|1984-1985]]). Guest made his first appearance as Tufnel on the [[1980]] album ''[[Lenny and the Squigtones]]'' by &quot;Lenny and Squiggy&quot;' (comedians [[Michael McKean]] and [[David Lander]]). He also appeared as Count Rugen in ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'', and as Dr. Stone in the [[1992]] film ''[[A Few Good Men]]''. His directorial debut was for the film ''[[The Big Picture (film)|The Big Picture]]''; he went on to write, act in, and direct several heavily [[Improvisational comedy|improvised]] mockumentaries: *''[[Waiting for Guffman]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]) - as Corky St. Clair *''[[Best in Show (film)|Best in Show]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) - as Harlan Pepper *''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) - as Alan Barrows *He also had a cameo role in the [[1986]] remake of [[Little Shop of Horrors]] starring [[Rick Moranis]] In [[April 2005]], he announced he would no longer make mockumentaries, because he didn't find them funny anymore. However, it has since been confirmed that another mockumentary is planned. The film, ''[[For Your Consideration (film)|For Your Consideration]]'', has been confirmed by actors Michael McKean and [[Ricky Gervais]]. Guest will be playing the character of Jay Berman, along with his usual writing and directing duties. In a [[2005]] poll to find ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', he was voted amongst the top 50 comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. ==Personal life== Guest was born in [[New York City]], the son of [[England|English]]-born [[Peter Haden-Guest, 4th Baron Haden-Guest|4th Baron Haden-Guest]], and onetime [[CBS]]-executive, Jean Pauline Hindes ([http://www.thepeerage.com/p12485.htm#i124845]]), a [[Jewish]] [[United States|American]]. Guest married [[Jamie Lee Curtis]] in [[1984]], at the home of their mutual friend [[Rob Reiner]]. They have two [[adoption|adopted]] children: Anne (born in 1986) and Thomas (born in 1996). Guest became the [[Baron Haden-Guest|5th Baron Haden-Guest]], of [[Saling]] in the [[Essex|County of Essex]], when his father died in [[1996]]. According to an article in ''[[The Guardian]]'', Guest attended the [[House of Lords]] regularly until the passage of the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] barred most hereditary peers from their seats. In the article Guest remarked: {{cquote|There's no question that the old system was unfair. I mean, why should you be born to this? But now it's all just sheer cronyism. The Prime Minister can put in whoever he wants and bus them in to vote. The Upper House should be an elected body, it's that simple.}} As Guest's children are adopted, they cannot inherit his Barony under the terms of the [[letters patent]] that created it. The current [[heir presumptive]] to the title is Guest's brother, [[Nicholas Haden-Guest]]. ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0001302|name=Christopher Guest}} *[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,6737,1118875,00.html Interview for release of ''A Mighty Wind''] {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Weekend Update]] as Saturday Night News | before=[[Brad Hall]]| after=[[Dennis Miller]]| years=1984&amp;ndash;1985}} {{incumbent succession box | title=[[Baron Haden-Guest]] | before=[[Peter Haden-Guest, 4th Baron Haden-Guest|Peter Haden-Guest]] | start=1996}} {{end box}} [[Category:1948 births|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Living people|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Adoptive parents|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:American actors|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:American film directors|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Haden-Guest, Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron]] [[Category:English Americans|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Film actors|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Jewish American actors|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Jewish American directors|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Saturday Night Live cast members|Guest, Christopher]] [[Category:Television actors|Guest, Christopher]] [[de:Christopher Guest]] [[ja:クリストファー・ゲスト]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carol Kane</title> <id>7183</id> <revision> <id>41010059</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:28:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Caps in headers</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarolKane.jpg|thumbnail|150px|Carol Kane]] '''Carol Kane''' (born '''Carolyn Laurie Kane''' on [[June 18]], [[1952]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] from [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. Kane is best known for her portrayal of Simka Dahblitz-Gravas, wife of Latka Gravas ([[Andy Kaufman]]), on the American television series ''[[Taxi (TV series)|Taxi]]'' from [[1981]] to [[1983]]. Kane earned two [[Emmy Award]]s for her work in the series. Kane is currently starring in the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]] ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]'', playing [[Madame Morrible]], a role which she had previously played in the show's first national tour. She has guest-starred on a [[1994]] episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'' and had a supporting role in the short-lived [[1996]]-[[1997]] [[sitcom]] ''Pearl'', which starred [[Rhea Perlman]]. ==Partial filmography== * ''[[The Pacifier]]'' (2005) - Helga * ''[[Man on the Moon]]'' (1999) - Herself/Simka Dahblitz * ''[[Jawbreaker (film)|Jawbreaker]] (1999) - Ms. Sherwood * ''Big Bully'' (1996) - Faith Bigger * ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' (1993) - Grandmama * ''[[Scrooged]]'' (1988) - The Ghost of Christmas Present * ''[[License to Drive]]'' (1988)- Mrs. Anderson * ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' (1987) - Valerie * ''[[Jumpin' Jack Flash (film)|Jumpin' Jack Flash]]'' (1986) - Cynthia * ''[[When a Stranger Calls (1979 film)|When a Stranger Calls]] (1979)- Jill Johnson * ''[[Dog Day Afternoon]]'' (1975) - Jenny * ''[[Hester Street]]'' (1975) - Gitl * ''[[The Last Detail]]'' (1973) - Young Whore * ''[[Carnal Knowledge]]'' (1971) - Jennifer ==Partial other works== * ''[[The Happy Elf]]'' (2005) - Gilda (voice) * ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]'' (2005) - [[Madame Morrible]] ([[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]]) * ''[[Seinfeld]]'' (1994) - &quot;Corinne&quot; in episode: &quot;The Marine Biologist&quot; * ''[[Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1990) - &quot;Judy&quot; in episode: &quot;Judy, You're Not Yourself Today&quot; * ''[[Cheers]]'' - (1984) &quot;Amanda Boyer&quot; in episode: &quot;A Ditch in Time&quot; * ''[[Taxi (TV series)|Taxi]]'' - (1980) &quot;Simka Dahblitz&quot; ==External links== * [http://imdb.com/name/nm0001406/ Carol Kane] at the [[Internet Movie Database]] * [http://www.open.org/~glennab/carolkanefanpage.htm Carol Kane Unofficial Fan Page] * [http://voicechasers.com/database/showactor.php?actorid=3461 Carol Kane] at [http://voicechasers.com VoiceChasers] [[Category:1952 births|Kane, Carol]] [[Category:American film actors|Kane, Carol]] [[Category:American television actors|Kane, Carol]] [[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Kane, Carol]] &lt;!-- Hester Street --&gt; [[Category:Jewish American actors|Kane, Carol]] [[Category:Living people|Kane, Carol]] [[Category:People from Ohio|Kane, Carol]] [[de:Carol Kane]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>C*-algebra</title> <id>7184</id> <revision> <id>39385395</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T20:48:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shanes</username> <id>94147</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Abstract characterization */ wfy</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''C*-algebras''' are an important area of research in [[functional analysis]], a branch of [[mathematics]]. A C*-algebra can be defined concretely as a [[complex number|complex]] [[algebra over a field|a
of a [[Tabbed Document Interface|tabbed]] or tree interface, support for multiple [[server]]s, and a high level of configurability. Both [[command line interface|command line]] and [[graphical user interface|graphical]] versions are available, although use of the graphical version far outweighs use of the command line version. It is licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]] and uses the [[GTK+]] toolkit for its interface. == Plug-ins == X-Chat can be scripted with [[plug-in]]s in a number of programming languages: [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]], and [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], which are available as external plugins and contain a binary module interface, usually for the [[C programming language]]. Plug-ins are capable of hooking into numerous types of events:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xchat.org/docs/plugin20.html XChat 2.0 Plugin Interface]&lt;/ref&gt; * Server events like &lt;code&gt;NOTICE&lt;/code&gt; or numeric codes defined in RFC 1459 such as &lt;code&gt;376&lt;/code&gt; for end of [[motd]] * Command events such as &lt;code&gt;mycmd&lt;/code&gt; which allow for adding new commands (run in the input dialog with &lt;code&gt;/command arg1, arg2, ...&lt;/code&gt;) or replacing internal commands such as &lt;code&gt;say&lt;/code&gt;, the command which implicitly gets run when the user sends messages * Print events listed in the &quot;Text Events&quot; dialog * Timeout events to be called every n [[millisecond]]s * Socket or file descriptors In the case of events like server, command and print events plug-ins can specify whether or not they wish to replace existing functionality or not. == Shareware controversy == As of [[August 23]], [[2004]], the [http://www.xchat.org/windows/ official Windows build of X-Chat] has become shareware, and must be purchased for [[United States dollar|USD]]$20 or [[Australian dollar|AUD]]$25 after a 30-day trial period. There has been a great deal of discussion about the legality of this move. Since the X-Chat project has not required copyright assignment, the maintainer of the X-Chat project does not actually hold copyright to the entirety of the code. While he has offered to remove and rewrite any patches, provided the author of the patches asks him to, there are many who feel that he is still in violation of the GPL, especially since the code for the shareware enforcement is not disclosed. [http://silenceisdefeat.org/~b0at/xchat/win32 Unofficial Windows builds of X-Chat] are made available (at no cost) by contributors, who maintain binaries of the latest release, and also compile frequently from [[Concurrent_Versions_System|CVS]]. ==See also== *[[List of IRC clients]] *[[Comparison of IRC clients]] == References == &lt;references/&gt; ==External links== ===Support=== *[http://www.xchat.org/ X-Chat website] **[http://www.xchat.org/faq/ FAQ] **[http://forum.xchat.org/ Forum] **[http://wiki.linuxquestions.org/wiki/Xchat linuxquestions.org wiki], very useful information, goes beyond the [http://www.xchat.org/faq/ FAQ] *[http://xchataqua.sourceforge.net/ X-Chat Aqua website] *[irc://irc.freenode.net/#xchat/ X-Chat support channel on Freenode network.] *[irc://irc.efnet.info/#xchat/ X-Chat support channel on EFNET network.] ===Unofficial Versions and Builds=== *[http://xchataqua.sourceforge.net/ X-Chat Aqua] for [[Mac OS X]] *[http://xchat-gnome.navi.cx/ X-Chat Gnome] ====Windows Builds (GPL)==== [http://www.silenceisdefeat.org/~b0at/xchat/win32/ X-Chat on Windows Build Lineup] Builds that are still being updated: *[http://daemon404.eth0.ws/ Daemon404 build] *[http://www.silverex.org/ SilvereX build] ([http://www.silverex.info/ alternate]) Builds that are no longer being updated: *[http://www.xchat-free.pt.vu/ Pu7o build] *[http://www.geocities.com/eatdeadmonkeys/ Stryker build] *[http://www.sencesa.com/xchat/index.htm Sencesa Build] *[http://jensge.org/index.php?id=47 Jensge Build] *[http://www.psyon.org/projects/xchat-win32/ Psyon build] ===Third-Party Plugins=== ====Programming Languages==== *[http://www.scriptkitties.com/tclplugin/ Tcl Plugin for X-Chat] *[http://xchat-ruby.sourceforge.net/ Ruby Plugin for X-Chat] *[http://www.cliki.net/X-Chat%20Common%20Lisp%20Plugin Common Lisp Plugin for X-Chat] *[http://www.linuxirc.com/download/xchat-guile-0.1.tar.gz Scheme Plugin for X-Chat] *[http://www.lessequal.com/software/xcdscript/ DMDScript (ECMAScript) Plugin for X-Chat] ====System Tray==== *[http://forums.sinisterdevelopments.com/index.php?showforum=7 xTray for X-Chat on Windows] *[http://blight.altervista.org//index.php?s=&amp;act=Systray Systray for Windows and Linux] ([http://sourceforge.net/projects/xchat2-plugins/ sourceforge project page]) [[Category:IRC clients]] [[Category:Free software]] [[cs:X-chat]] [[de:XChat]] [[fr:X-Chat]] [[hr:X-chat]] [[it:X-Chat]] [[lt:XChat]] [[nl:XChat]] [[no:XChat]] [[nn:XChat]] [[pl:XChat]] [[pt:X-Chat]] [[fi:XChat]] [[sv:XChat]] [[zh:X-Chat]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IrcII</title> <id>14719</id> <revision> <id>23683964</id> <timestamp>2005-09-21T16:52:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=ircII}} '''ircII''' is a [[Unix]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]] that is made available completely free of charge, and is available in source form. [[Image:Ircii.png|right|thumb|ircII screen capture]] Designed to run in a [[Command line interface|text-mode]] environment, '''ircII''' is not pretty -- it has no sounds, graphics, menus, pop-ups, etc. It is, however, fast, stable, lightweight, portable, and easily backgrounded using virtual terminals such as Unix &quot;[[GNU Screen|screen]]&quot;. As the [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems evolved and increased in popularity, more, newer [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] clients have been developed for them as well. Perhaps the most common are [[BitchX]] and [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|EPIC]], both variants of the ircII client with greater functionality built into them at some stage in their development. At one time, the ircII client set the standard against which all other clients were developed and measured. While this may still hold true to some extent today, the [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] client [[mIRC]] has largely taken over that position. ==External links== *[http://www.eterna.com.au/ircii/ Home page] *[http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircii/ Installation, Scripts] *[http://irc.pages.de/ircII/ Script updates] from the original author of the ircII scripts [[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]] [[Category:Free software]] [[fr:IrcII]] [[hu:IrcII]] [[fi:IrcII]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IRC takeover</title> <id>14720</id> <revision> <id>37369470</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T15:52:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Incognito</username> <id>96557</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[IRC takeover war]] to [[IRC takeover]]: cleaner name</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Channel takeovers''', when an unrelated group of people would gain [[IRC channel operators|channel operator]] status in an [[IRC]] channel they do not own were a problem which plagued [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] networks for a long time. Takeovers caused problems beyond loss of channels, because attackers would often use [[bandwidth]]-intensive [[Denial-of-service attack|Denial of Service]] attacks to cause server splits, which would then be abused. ==Methods== ===Riding the split=== Primary method of causing a takeover was to [[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]] a design flaw in the IRC [[network protocol|protocol]], which allowed gaining [[IRC channel operators|channel operator]] status under certain conditions after a [[netsplit]]. When one of the servers has no users in a channel during a split, the channel does not exist. According to an early IRC [[network protocol|protocol]] specification, channel operators on both sides of a split should retain their status. To abuse this, people could connect to the split server and re-create a channel by joining it and thus gain channel operator status. When the servers merged, these new users on the smaller end of a split would retain operator status and could kick out the original channel operators, ''taking over'' the channel. This method is commonly referred to as ''riding the split''. The simplest way to prevent this from happening, known as TS (''timestamp'') first implemented by [[Undernet]] and now commonplace in IRC2 IRCds (such as: Bahamut, Hybrid, ircu and others), is to check which channel is newer when two merging servers each have a channel with the same name. If they were both created at the same time, they were the same channel, and operators on both sides should be kept. If one channel is newer than the other, this channel was created later, possibly as a takeover attempt. In this case, the special status of any users in the newer channel is removed when merging. ===Nick collision=== Another popular form of takeover abused a protection system where a user on one side of a netsplit would take the nickname of a target on the other side. When the network reconnected, the servers would &quot;collide&quot; the nicknames, knocking both off the network. The attacker would typically have a second client which would quickly change its name while the original user was reconnecting, and would proceed to [[jupe (IRC)|jupe]] the target's nickname for a period of time. There are two popular methods of stopping nickname collisions - ''TS'' (similar to Channel TS, see above) and ''nickhold''. TS involves checking when the nickname was made use of on each server. The connected user that had the nickname first would remain on the server, while the
they are released, although walls and cattle grids (a pit in the road covered with metal bars - impassable to hoofed animals) provide an additional level of control. Dartmoor has given its name to two breeds of sheep - the [[Whiteface Dartmoor and Greyface Dartmoor|Whiteface Dartmoor and the Greyface Dartmoor]] - which are descended from breeds which have roamed on the moor since at least the [[17th century]]. They are still to be found there, but are now vastly outnumbered by the [[Scottish Blackface]]. Less common species such as [[Exmoor Horn]] and [[Cheviot sheep|Cheviot]] are also to be found on Dartmoor. The most common cattle are the [[Galloway (cattle)|Galloway]] and [[Angus cattle|Aberdeen Angus]]. Reptiles include: [[Grass Snake]]s, [[Crossed Viper|adders]], [[slow worm]]s and [[Common Lizard]]s. Amphibians include: [[Common frog]]; [[Common toad]] With its range of high grassy moorland, bogs, farmland and deep wooded valleys, Dartmoor also provides a range of habitats for rare birds. Some of those you will find (plus their favoured nesting spots) include: *[[Common Buzzard|Buzzard]] (trees and hedgerows) *[[Coal tit]] (pine plantations) *[[Great Cormorant|Cormorant]] (reservoirs) *[[Common Crossbill|Crossbill]] (pine plantations) *[[Eurasian Curlew|Curlew]] (valley bogs) *[[White-throated Dipper|Dipper]]s (rivers and streams) *[[Dunlin]] (bogs) *[[Goldcrest]] (pine plantations) *[[Eurasian Golden Plover|Golden Plover]] (bogs) *[[Common Merganser|Goosander]] (rivers and streams) *[[Grasshopper Warbler]] (farmland) *[[Grey Heron]] (rivers and streams) *[[House martin]] (farm buildings) *[[Meadow pipit]] (upland heathland) *[[European Nightjar|Nightjar]] (pine plantations) *[[Owl]]s (farm buildings) *[[Peregrine falcon]] ([[tor]]s and rocky outcrops) *[[Pied flycatcher]] (woodland) *[[Common Raven|Raven]] (tors and rocky outcrops) *[[Common Redstart|Redstart]] (woodland) *[[Reed bunting]] (farmland) *[[Ring ouzel]] (tors and rocky outcrops) *[[Eurasian Siskin|Siskin]] (pine plantations) *[[Skylark]] (upland heathland) *[[Common Snipe|Snipe]] (farmland and valley bogs) *[[Song thrush]] (hedgerows and dry stone walls) *[[European Stonechat|Stonechat]] (upland heathland) *[[Barn Swallow|Swallow]] (farm buildings) *[[Northern Wheatear|Wheatear]] (grass moorland, tors and rocky outcrops) *[[Whinchat]] (grass moorland) *[[Whitethroat]]s (grass moorland) *Wild [[duck]]s (reservoirs) *[[Wood warbler]] (woodland) *[[Yellowhammer]] (grass moorland) Many of the rivers and streams support the fish species commonly to be found in Britain and Ireland; [[salmon]] and [[trout]] are also to be found in some, though less frequently than in previous times. [[Category:Dartmoor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Double planet</title> <id>8454</id> <revision> <id>38835951</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:23:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Drae</username> <id>897178</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_128&amp;diff=38828480&amp;oldid=38477045</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''double planet''' is an informal term with several accepted usages which share the meaning of two interacting planets of comparable mass. There are also '''double [[asteroid]]s''' (or double [[minor planet]]s), such as [[90 Antiope]]. == Two planets orbiting one another == In the most common usage, a double planet is a set of two [[planet|planets]] of comparable mass orbiting one another. [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] and [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] have consistently been recognized in the literature as representing the only real double planet system in our [[Solar System]] today. === Debate === In this usage, there has been some debate on precisely where to draw the line between a double planet and a planet-moon system. In most cases, it's simply not an issue because the moon is of very small mass relative to its host planet. In particular, the Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon systems are the only examples in our present Solar System where the mass of a moon is larger than one fortieth of one percent of the mass of the host planet (i.e. mass ratio of 0.00025 or less). On the other hand, the [[Earth]] and the [[Moon]] have a mass ratio of 0.01230, and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] and its moon [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] have a mass ratio of 0.147. A commonly accepted cutoff point is when the center of mass that the two objects orbit around (the [[barycenter]]) is not located under the surface of either body, in which case the barycenter is in space between the two bodies. This literally makes the difference between whether one body orbits around the other body, or whether both bodies orbit about a point in space between them. By this definition, Pluto and Charon qualify as a double planet and Earth and Moon do not. (The issue of whether Pluto should be [[definition of planet|defined as a planet]] at all, or is instead simply a very large [[Kuiper belt object]]s, is a separate matter). == Two planets colliding with each other == The second usage for the term double planet, in the context of the theory of the origin of [[the Moon]] (i.e. Earth's Moon), is a set of two planets of comparable mass that collide with each other - i.e. with at least transiently overlapping orbits. A double planet in this sense occurred in the very early [[Solar System]], consisting of the [[proto-Earth]] and a second, [[Mars]]-sized planet that collided with it at an oblique angle, in the consensus theory of the formation of the [[Earth]]-[[Moon]] system. The second body was not a proto-Moon because most of its mass was incorporated into the Earth, while the Moon formed from a small fraction of debris kicked up from the Earth by the collision. These double planet precursor bodies to the Earth-Moon system had roughly comparable mass - i.e. a mass ratio in the neighborhood of 10:1. This happens to be similar to the mass ratio of Pluto-Charon. == Two planets orbiting a star == A third usage has arisen since 1995 when we began to discover [[extrasolar planets]] in other Solar Systems. In this context, the term double planet system is used to refer to another Solar System in which two planets have been discovered orbiting the star. [[As of 2003]], there were ten known star systems outside our own with at least two detected planets, qualifying at least as double planet systems. Multiple planet systems with more than two planets have been discovered as well, including the [[Upsilon Andromedae]], Rho-1 Cancri (or [[55 Cancri]]), and [[Mu Arae]] systems. == Asimov's proposed definition == The late [[Isaac Asimov]] suggested a distinction between planet-moon systems and double-planet systems based on what he called a ''tug-of-war (TOW)'' value that describes whether the presumed satellite is more firmly under the gravitational influence of the presumed planetary primary or the Sun. In the case of the Moon, the Sun &quot;wins&quot; the tug of war, ''i.e.,'' its gravitational hold on the Moon is greater than that of Earth. The opposite is true for other presumed satellites in the Solar System (with a few exceptions), including the Pluto-Charon system. By this definition, the Earth and Moon form a double-planet system, but Pluto and Charon represent a true primary with a satellite. This definition has not received wide attention in the professional literature. ==References== *[http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v385/n6619/full/385778a0.html&amp;content_filetype=PDF] - &quot;[[Clyde Tombaugh]] (1906-97) Astronomer who discovered the Solar System's ninth planet&quot;, ''[[Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'' 385 (1997) 778 (Pluto and Charon are &quot;the only known example of a true double planet&quot;.) *[http://www.nature.com/dynasearch/app/dynasearch.taf?sp-w=Exact&amp;_action=search&amp;search_fulltext=%22double+planet%22&amp;search_category=&amp;sp-p=Any&amp;search_volume=&amp;search_startpage=&amp;search_title=&amp;search_author=&amp;search_abstract=&amp;issue_start_month=&amp;issue_start_year=&amp;issue_end_month=&amp;issue_end_year=&amp;pickerCount=You+have+selected+1+journal+to+search.&amp;rolloverMessage=&amp;sp_k=NATURE] - &quot;It's not easy to make the Moon&quot;, ''Nature'' 389 (1997) 327 (comparing double planet theory of Moon formation and Pluto-Charon as double planet) *[http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v338/n6210/abs/338029a0.html] - &quot;Geochemical implications of the formation of the Moon by a single giant impact&quot;, ''Nature'' 338 (1989) 29 *[http://www.arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0308/0308127.pdf] - &quot;Occurrence and Stability of Apsidal Resonance in Multiple Planetary Systems&quot;, ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'' 598 (2003) 1290 [[Category:Planets]] [[de:Doppelplanetensystem]] [[it:Pianeta doppio]] [[nl:Dubbelplaneet]] [[ja:二重惑星]] [[pl:Planeta podwójna]] [[sk:Dvojplanéta]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Denaturation (biochemistry)</title> <id>8456</id> <revision> <id>40314036</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:26:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marcika</username> <id>42989</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: &quot;the the&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fried egg, sunny side up.jpg|thumb|150px|Irreversible egg protein denaturation and loss of solubility, caused by the high temperature (while [[cooking]] it)]] In [[biochemistry]], '''denaturation''' is a structural change in [[biomolecule]]s such as [[nucleic acid]]s and [[protein]]s, such that they are no longer in their [[native state]], and their shape which allows for optimal activity. This change is usually caused by [[heat]], [[acid]]s, [[base (chemistry)|base]]s, [[detergent]]s, alcohols, heavy metal salts, reducing agents or certain chemicals such
==The Ashes today== The Ashes is one of the most fiercely contested competitions in cricket today, rivalling the intensity of the other great international cricket rivalry between [[Indian cricket team|India]] and [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] . The failure of England to regain the Ashes for 16 years from 1989, coupled with the global dominance of the Australian team, had dulled the lustre of the series in recent years. But the close results in the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]], and the overall high quality and competitiveness of the cricket, have boosted the popularity of the sport in Britain and considerably enhanced the profile of the Ashes around the world. Whilst the tension of the matches has caused an occasional angry moment, the matches were generally played with good spirit, and [[sportsmanship]] of the players of both sides has been high, with commentators often highlighting [[Andrew Flintoff]] consoling [[Brett Lee]] at the end of the second Test as epitomising this. In interviews following the final match, players from both sides were quick to congratulate their opponents, both the individual players and the team as a whole. ==Match venues== The series alternate between England and Australia, and within each country each of the (usually) five matches is held at a different [[List of Test cricket grounds|cricket ground]]. In '''Australia''', the grounds currently used are the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] (first staged an England-Australia Test in the 1876-77 season), the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]] (1881-82), [[Adelaide Oval]] (1884-85), [[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]] (1932-33) and [[WACA|The WACA, Perth]] (1970-71). One Test was held at the [[Exhibition Ground|Brisbane Exhibition Ground]] in 1928-29. In '''England''' the grounds used are [[The Oval]] (since 1880), [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] (1884), [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] (1884), [[Trent Bridge]] (1899), [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]] (1899) and [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] (1902). One Test was held at [[Bramall Lane|Bramall Lane, Sheffield]] in 1902. ==The Ashes outside cricket== The popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to many other events taking the name for England against Australia contests. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the [[rugby league]] contest between [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]] (see [[Rugby League Ashes]]). The contest first started in 1908, the name being suggested by the touring Australians. Another example is in the British television show ''[[Gladiators]]'', where two series were based around the Australia&amp;ndash;England contest. The trophy is also featured in the [[science-fiction]] [[comedy]] [[novel]] ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', the third &quot;[[Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy]]&quot; book by [[Douglas Adams]]. In the cinema, the Ashes featured in the [[film]] ''The Final Test'', released in 1953, based on a television play by [[Terence Rattigan]]. It stars [[Jack Warner]] as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film contains cameo appearances from prominent contemporary Ashes cricketers including [[Jim Laker]] and [[Denis Compton]]. ==See also== *[[History of Test cricket (to 1883)]] *[[History of Test cricket (1884 to 1889)]] *[[History of Test cricket (1890 to 1900)]] *[[Portal:Cricket]] &amp;mdash; for more coverage of all things Cricket. ==Notes== # {{note|Terminology}} In 1998, Lord Darnley’s 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law’s veil, not a bail. Other evidence suggests a ball. The precise origin of the ashes, therefore, is the subject of some dispute. # {{note|poem}} [http://www.334notout.com/ashes/ashbegin.htm Ashes &amp;mdash; The Beginning], [http://www.334notout.com/ 334 Not out] #{{note|stats1}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=summary;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype] #{{note|stats2}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=series;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype] #{{note|Benaud}}Bob Chaundry (2005) &quot;So Long Sport&quot;, ''BBC News Magazine'' [online]&lt;br&gt; Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4227822.stm. [Accessed [[14 September]] [[2005]]]. = = References = = * {{cite book | last = Birley | last = D. | year = 2003 | title = A Social History of English Cricket | location = London | publisher = Aurum Press | id = ISBN 1-85410-941-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Frith | last = D. | year = 1990 | title = Australia versus England: a pictorial history of every Test match since 1877 | location = Victoria (Australia) | publisher = Penguin Books | id = ISBN 0-670-90323-X }} * {{cite book | last = Gibb | last = J. | year = 1979 | title = Test cricket records from 1877 | location = London | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN 0-00411-690-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Gibson | last = A. | year = 1989 | title = Cricket Captains of England | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-395-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Green | last = B. | year = 1979 | title = Wisden Anthology 1864-1900 | location = London | publisher = M &amp; J/QA Press | id = ISBN 0-356-10732-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Munns | last = J. | year = 1994 | title = Beyond reasonable doubt - Rupertswood, Sunbury - the birthplace of the Ashes | location = Australia | publisher = Joy Munns | id = ISBN 0-646-22153-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 1987 | title = Lord's 1787-1945 | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-112-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 2004 | title = How we recovered the Ashes : MCC Tour 1903-1904 | location = London | publisher = Methuen | id = ISBN 0-413-77399-X }} * {{cite book | last = Wynne-Thomas | last = P. | year = 1989 | title = The complete history of cricket tours at home and abroad | location = London | publisher = Hamlyn | id = ISBN 0-600-55782-0 }} '''Other''' *''Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{portalpar|Cricket}} *[http://www.abcofcricket.com/A_Legend_Is_Born/a_legend_is_born.htm Ashes Series, A Legend is Born] *[http://www.cricinfo.com Cricinfo] *[http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive] *[http://www.games.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&amp;grid=&amp;xml=/sport/2005/04/23/smmix23.xml Six Curiosities from the MCC Museum, by Ricky Ponting in the Telegraph] *[http://www.lawsonmenzies.com.au/pr15.html The Ashes Tray] *[http://www.xan.co.uk/volume_28.php England Win The Ashes]Crowd sounds and interviews with supporters. Recorded at The Oval, London, Monday, [[12 September]] [[2005]] [[Category:Australian culture|Ashes, The]] [[Category:British culture|Ashes, The]] [[Category:Cricket in Australia|Ashes, The]] [[Category:Cricket in England|Ashes, The]] [[Category:History of cricket|Ashes, The]] [[Category:International cricket competitions|Ashes]] [[Category:The Ashes| ]] [[Category:Australian sporting events|Ashes, The]] [[de:Ashes]] [[fr:Les Ashes]] [[scn:The Ashes]] [[sv:The Ashes]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anne Rice</title> <id>1133</id> <revision> <id>42037562</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KenL</username> <id>465210</id> </contributor> <comment>Added more info on her name.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AC LgPic Gen2.jpg|thumb|Anne Rice]] '''Anne Rice''' (born [[October 4]], [[1941]]) is a best-selling [[United States|American]] author of horror/fantasy books. She was born '''Howard Allen O'Brien''', the second daughter in a Catholic Irish-American family. Rice's works have had a major influence on the &quot;[[Goth]]&quot; movement, and she has also published a number of works with [[sado-masochistic]] themes. She was married to the late poet [[Stan Rice]] and is the mother of novelist [[Christopher Rice]]. Her daughter, Michele, was born on [[September 21]], [[1966]] and died of [[leukemia]] on [[August 5]] [[1972]]. Anne's sister, [[Alice Borchardt]], is also a noted genre author. Rice was born and spent most of her life in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], the city that forms the background against which most of her stories take place. About her unusual given name, Rice said: &quot;My birth name is Howard Allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me Howard. My father's name was Howard, she wanted to name me after Howard, and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do. She
ment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Australia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia/People</title> <id>1118</id> <revision> <id>15899622</id> <timestamp>2002-08-21T10:43:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>-- April</username> <id>166</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Australia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Australia</title> <id>1119</id> <revision> <id>41231741</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:16:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grumpyyoungman01</username> <id>846078</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Added political blogs in australia to see also section</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ac.johnhoward.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[John Howard]] MP, Prime Minister of Australia and leader of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]]]] [[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Kim Beazley]] MP, Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the [[Australian Labor Party]]]] The '''[[politics]] of [[Australia]]''' take place within the framework of [[democracy|parliamentary democracy]]. The government of Australia is a [[federation]], and Australians elect state and territory legislatures as well as a [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of Australia]] based on the [[Westminster System]]. At the national level, elections are held at least once every three years. The [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] can advise the Governor-General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the [[Australian Constitution|Constitution]]. The last general election was in [[October]] [[2004]]. The [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia]] consists of two [[bicameralism|chambers]]: * The [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has 150 members, elected for a three year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of alternative vote known as [[instant-runoff voting | preferential voting]]. * The [[Australian Senate|Senate]] has 76 members, elected through a preferential system in 12-seat state [[constituency|constituencies]] and two-seat territorial [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of single non-transferable vote. Electors choose territorial senators for a three-year term. The state senators serve for a six-year term, with half of the seats renewed every three years. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Australia|Elections in Australia}} {{Australian legislative election, 2004}} More info: [[Australian legislative election, 2004]]'' Three political parties dominate Australian politics. Of these, two govern together in a [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]]: *The [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] is a party of the centre-right which broadly represents business, the suburban middle classes and many rural people. *Its junior coalition partner is the [[National Party of Australia]], formerly the Country Party and now known for electoral purposes as &quot;The Nationals&quot;, a [[conservative]] party which represents rural interests. *The [[Australian Labor Party]] (ALP) is a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party founded by the [[trade union]] movement and broadly represents the urban working class, although it increasingly has a base of middle class support. Minor parties include: *The [[Australian Democrats]], a party of middle-class [[liberals]] *The [[Australian Greens]], a [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] party *The [[Country Liberal Party]], a party which only represents the Northern Territory. It is part of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]/[[National Party of Australia|National]] [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] *The [[Family First Party]], a party appealing to conservative [[Christianity|Christian]]s. The proportional representation system allows these parties to win seats in the [[Australian Senate]] and in the state upper houses, but they have usually been unable to win seats in the House of Representatives (the Greens won a House seat at a [[2002]] [[by-election]], but lost it in the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 general election]]). The Liberal/National coalition came to power in the March [[1996]] election, ending 13 years of Labor government and making [[John Howard]] Prime Minister. He was subsequently re-elected in October [[1998]], November [[2001]] and October [[2004]]. The coalition now holds a comfortable majority in the House of Representatives. In the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition was in a minority until the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], but from July [[2005]] it has a working majority there. Until [[2004]], lacking a majority in the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition relied on negotiations with the smaller parties and independents to secure the passage of legislation. Since its election, Howard's conservative coalition has moved to reduce the government's fiscal deficit and the influence of [[Australian labour movement|organised labour]], placing more emphasis on [[Enterprise Bargaining Agreement|workplace-based collective bargaining]] for wages. The Howard government also accelerated the pace of privatisation of government-owned enterprises that began with the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] Labor government. During its first two terms, the government's most sweeping change was the introduction of a [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|goods and services tax]]. With the re-election of the Howard government in 2004, several significant and controversial bills have been passed, due to the government's newly-acquired Senate majority. These major changes have included a [[Australian industrial relations legislation, 2005|radical revamp of industrial relations laws]], an introduction of [[voluntary student unionism]], and the full privatisation of telecommunications company [[Telstra]]. These changes have sparked major debate within Australia, forcing many critics to question whether the Howard government has lived up to its promise to use its Senate majority wisely. The Howard government has reversed the foreign policy of its predecessor, placing renewed emphasis on relations with Australia's traditional allies, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and downgrading support for the [[United Nations]] in favour of bilateralism. Both major parties support maintaining good relations with regional powers such as [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Indonesia]], although issues such as the independence of [[East Timor]] have sometimes made this difficult. Australia has become increasingly involved in the internal difficulties of its smaller neighbours, such as [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Fiji]] and [[Nauru]]. The [[list of political parties in Australia]] comprises the names and federal leaders of significant political parties as well as the names of other parties, including formerly significant parties. ==Administrative divisions== In the [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]], elections are held at least once every four years (except in [[Queensland]], which has three-year terms). In [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], election dates are fixed by legislation. However, the other [[Premiers of the Australian states|state premiers]] and territory Chief Ministers have the same discretion in calling elections as the Prime Minister at the national level. (See ''Main articles: [[Australian electoral system]], [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]''). Regional or local government within each state is handled by [[Local Government Area]]s and unlike other equivalent forms of local government such as those of the [[United States]], have relatively little power compared to the state governments (See ''Main article: [[Local government in Australia]]''). ==See also== {{portalpar|Politics}} *[[List of Australian politicians]] *[[Politics of Australia and Canada compared]] *[[Politics of Australia and New Zealand compared]] *[[Political blogs in Australia]] {{Politics of Australia}} {{Oceania in topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Australia|*]] [[lb:Politik vun Australien]] [[lt:Australijos politinė sistema]] [[pl:Ustrój polityczny Australii]] [[pt:Política da Austrália]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia/Economy</title> <id>1120</id> <revision> <id>15899624</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:26:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Economy of Australia</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Australia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia/Communications</title> <id>1121</id> <revision> <id>15899625</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T10:15:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Australia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia/Transportation</title> <id>1122</id> <revision> <id>15899626</id> <timestamp>2004-12-31T10:33:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jguk</username> <id>145867</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Australia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia/Transnational issues</title> <id>
}} # {{Note|oldref_4}} {{cite journal | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/289/23/3152 | last = Keller | first = M.B. | date = 2003 | title = Past, Present, and Future Directions for Defining Optimal Treatment Outcome in Depression | journal = JAMA | volume = 289 | pages = 3152–3160 }} # {{Note|oldref_6}} {{cite journal | last = Martin | first = JL | coauthors = Barbanoj MJ, Schlaepfer TE, Thompson E, Perez V, Kulisevsky J | title = Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of depression. [[Systematic review]] and [[meta-analysis]] | journal = British Journal of Psychiatry | date = June 2003 | volume = 182 | pages = 480-91 | id = PMID 12777338 }} # {{Note|oldref_7}} {{cite journal | last = Geddes | first = JR | coauthors = Carney SM, Davies C, Furukawa TA, Kupfer DJ, Frank E, Goodwin GM | title = Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a [[systematic review]] | journal = Lancet | date = 22 February 2003 | volume = 361 | issue = 9358 | pages = 653–61 | id = PMID 12606176 }} ==External links== {{Wikibookspage|Demystifying Depression}} * {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Mood/Depression|Depression}} [[Category:Medical emergencies]] [[Category:Mood disorders]] [[ar:كآبة]] [[de:Depression]] [[es:Depresión]] [[fi:Masennus]] [[fr:Dépression (médecine)]] [[he:דיכאון]] [[hr:Klinička depresija]] [[ja:鬱病]] [[nl:Klinische depressie]] [[no:Depresjon (sykdom)]] [[pl:Depresja (choroba)]] [[pt:Depressão nervosa]] [[ru:Большая депрессия]] [[simple:Depression (illness)]] [[sv:Depression]] [[vi:Trầm cảm]] [[zh:抑郁症]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Don Delillo</title> <id>8390</id> <revision> <id>15906393</id> <timestamp>2002-10-08T08:07:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>K.lee</username> <id>4367</id> </contributor> <comment>made redirect to &quot;Don DeLillo&quot;; all credible sources seem to agree on the mixed-caps spelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Don DeLillo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diana (mythology)</title> <id>8391</id> <revision> <id>41401622</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:11:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Womaningreen</username> <id>997362</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DianaLouvre.jpg|thumb|200px|Classical Roman statue of Diana.]] [[Image:Swanson4715.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Statue of Diana by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.]] In [[Roman mythology]], '''Diana''' was the [[virgin]] [[goddess]] of the [[hunting|hunt]], the [[Greek deities and their Roman and Etruscan counterparts|equivalent]] of the [[Greek mythology|Greek goddess]] [[Artemis]]. Born with her [[twin]] brother [[Apollo]] on the island of [[Delos]], Diana was the daghter of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and [[Latona]]. Diana was the perpetually virginal huntress goddess, associated with wild animals and woodlands. She also later became a [[moon goddess]], supplanting [[Luna]], and was an emblem of [[chastity]]. [[Oak]] groves were especially sacred to her. She was praised for her strength, athletic grace, beauty and hunting skill. She made up a trinity with two other Roman deities: [[Egeria (mythology)|Egeria]] the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and [[Virbius]], the woodland god. Diana was worshipped in a temple on the [[Aventine Hill]] and at the city of [[Ephesus]], where the [[Temple of Artemis]] stood. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the [[pomerium]], meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a 'foreign' one, like that of [[Bacchus]]; she was never officially 'transferred' to Rome as [[Juno]] was after the sack of [[Veii]]. It seems that her cult originated in [[Aricia]], where her priest, the [[Rex Nemorensis]] remained. Diana was regarded with great reverence by lower-class citizens and [[slavery|slaves]]; slaves could receive asylum in her temples. She was worshipped at a festival on [[August 13]], when King [[Servius Tullius]], himself born a slave, dedicated her shrine on the Aventine. Diana is usually depicted by the side of a deer. This is because Diana is said to have converted a man she found spying on her while taking a bath into a deer when he tried to flee her. ==Modern Day== Diana remains an important figure in some modern mythologies. In [[Freemasonry]], she is considered a symbol of imagination, sensibility, and the creative insanity of poets and artists. Those who believe that prehistoric peoples lived in [[matriarchy|matriarchal societies]] consider Diana to have originated in a [[mother goddess]] worshipped at that time, and she is still worshiped today by women practicing the religion known as [[Dianic Wicca]]. &lt;br clear=all&gt; ==External links== {{commons|Artemis}} * [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=7&amp;id=130 ''Landscape with Diana and Callisto'' painting] * [http://www.wga.hu/art/d/domenich/diana.jpg ''Diana and her Nymphs'' painting] &lt;br clear=all&gt; {{Roman myth (major)}} [[Category:Lunar goddesses]] [[Category:Hunting goddesses]] [[Category:Roman goddesses]] [[bg:Диана (богиня)]] [[da:Diana (gudinde)]] [[de:Diana (Mythologie)]] [[eo:Diana]] [[es:Diana (mitología)]] [[fi:Diana]] [[fr:Diane]] [[he:דיאנה (מיתולוגיה)]] [[it:Diana (mitologia)]] [[ja:ディアナ]] [[la:Diana]] [[nl:Diana (godin)]] [[pl:Diana (bogini)]] [[pt:Diana (mitologia)]] [[ro:Diana]] [[sr:Дијана]] [[sv:Diana]] [[zh:狄安娜]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev</title> <id>8395</id> <revision> <id>32418105</id> <timestamp>2005-12-22T23:17:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 11</title> <id>8396</id> <revision> <id>41759147</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:16:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Matchups</username> <id>634576</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Events */ Remove redundancy in [[2005 Sydney race riots]] item</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 11''' is the 345th day (346th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 20 days remaining. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== *[[1282]] - [[Llywelyn ap Gruffydd]] or Gruffudd (b. c. 1228) the last native [[Prince of Wales]], was killed at [[Cilmeri]], near [[Builth Wells]], south [[Wales]]. He was the last prince of an independent Wales before its conquest by King [[Edward I]] of England. Some would say he was the penultimate, but in effect he was the last ruler. In [[Welsh]], he is remembered by the alliterative soubriquet [[Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf]] (Llywelyn, Our Last Leader). *[[1602]] - A surprise attack by forces under the command of the [[Duke of Savoy]] and his brother-in-law, [[Philip III of Spain]], is repelled by the citizens of [[Geneva]]. (This actually takes place after midnight, in the early morning of [[December 12]], but commemorations/celebrations on [[L'Escalade|Fête de l'Escalade]] are usually held on December 11 or the closest weekend.) *[[1792]] - [[French Revolution]]: King [[Louis XVI of France]] is put on trial for treason by the [[National Convention]]. *[[1816]] - [[Indiana]] becomes the 19th [[U.S. state]]. *[[1872]] - [[P.B.S. Pinchback]] is sworn in as the first black member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]. *[[1927]] - [[Guangzhou Uprising]]: [[Communist]] militia and worker [[Red Guards (China)|red guards]] launch an uprising in the [[China|Chinese]] city of [[Guangzhou]], taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou [[Soviet (council)|Soviet]]. *[[1931]] - The [[British Parliament]] enacts the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]], which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]], the [[Dominion of Canada]], the [[Irish Free State]], [[Newfoundland]], the [[Dominion of New Zealand]], and the [[Union of South Africa]]. *[[1934]] - A fire at the Hotel Kerns in [[Lansing, Michigan]], kills 34 people. *[[1936]] - [[Abdication Crisis]]: [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]]'s abdication as King of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], the [[Commonwealth Realm|British Dominions beyond the Seas]], and [[Emperor of India]] becomes effective. *[[1937]] - [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]: [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italy]] leaves the [[League of Nations]] *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italy]] declare war on the [[United States]]. *[[1946]] - The [[United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund]] (UNICEF) is established. *[[1951]] - [[Joe Dimaggio]] announces his retirement from baseball. *[[1954]] - The [[American Nuclear Society]] is founded. *[[1958]] - [[Upper Volta]] declares its independence from [[France]], and becomes an autonomous republic in the [[French Community]]. *[[1970]] - [[John Lennon]] releases the album ''[[Plastic Ono Band]]''. *[[1971]] - The [[United States Libertarian Party]] is formed. *[[1972]] - [[Apollo 17]] becomes the sixth mission to land on the [[Moon]]. *[[1981]] - In his last fight, [[Muhammad Ali]] is defeated by [[Trevor Berbick]]. * 1981 - [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] becomes [[UN Secretary-General]] * 1981 - [[El Mozote massacre]]: Salvadoran armed forces kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the country's civil war. * 1981 - [[Clube de Regatas do Flamengo]] defeat [[Liverpool F.C]] in the final of the [[Intercontinental Cup]] in [[Tokyo]]. *[[1990]] -
r with us. Professor Sumner and his team have a detector at the bottom of [[Europe]]'s deepest mine in [[Cleveland]], [[England]]. There he hopes [[cosmic ray]]s and surface particles will not distort the result. Currently nothing has been found. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml] ==Evidence for dark matter== At present, the density of ordinary [[baryon|baryons]] and [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] in the universe is estimated to be equivalent to about one hydrogen atom per cubic meter of space. However, dark matter and [[dark energy]] are together said to account for 96% of all matter in the universe. This means that only about 4% of all matter can be directly observed. Some hard-to-detect baryonic matter (see [[baryonic dark matter]]) makes a contribution to dark matter, but constitutes only a small portion [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0007444] [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0002058]. Since it cannot be directly detected via optical means, many aspects of dark matter remain speculative. The [[DAMA/NaI]] experiment has claimed to directly detect dark matter passing through the Earth, though most scientists remain sceptical since negative results of other experiments are (almost) incompatible with the DAMA results if dark matter consists of [[neutralino|neutralinos]]. Recent research reported in January 2006 from the [[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]] would explain the previously mysterious warp in the disk of the Milky Way by the interaction of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds and the predicted 20 fold increase in mass of the Milky Way taking into account dark matter. ===Galactic rotation=== Much of the evidence for dark matter comes from the study of the motions of [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Many of these appear to be fairly uniform, so by the [[virial theorem]] the total kinetic energy should be half the total gravitational binding energy of the galaxies. Experimentally, however, the total kinetic energy is found to be much greater: in particular, stars far from the center of galaxies have much higher velocities than predicted by the virial theorem. Galactic [[rotation curve]]s, which illustrate the velocity of rotation versus the distance from the galactic center, cannot be explained by only the visible matter. Assuming that the visible material makes up only a small part of the cluster is the most straightforward way of accounting for this. Galaxies show signs of being composed largely of a roughly spherical [[galactic halo|halo]] of dark matter with the visible matter concentrated in a disc at the center. [[Low surface brightness galaxy|Low surface brightness dwarf galaxies]] are important sources of information for studying dark matter, as they have an uncommonly low ratio of visible matter to dark matter, and have few bright stars at the center which impair observations of the rotation curve of outlying stars. In 1974 [[Vera Rubin]], now of [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], found that most [[star]]s in [[Spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]] orbit at roughly the same speed. This is known as the [[galaxy rotation problem]]. This problem suggests that either [[Gravity|Newtonian gravity]] does not apply universally or that there is dark matter. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml] Recently, astronomers from [[Cardiff University]] claim to have discovered a [[galaxy]] made almost entirely of dark matter, 50 million light years away in the [[Virgo Cluster]], which was named [[VIRGOHI21]] ([[Wikinews:Dark matter galaxy discovered|Wikinews]], [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7056 New Scientist]). Unusually, VIRGOHI21 does not appear to contain any visible stars: it was seen with radio frequency observations of hydrogen. Based on rotation profiles, the scientists estimate that this object contains approximately 1000 times more dark matter than hydrogen and has a total mass of about 1/10th that of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]] we live in. For comparison, the Milky Way is believed to have roughly 10 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter. Models of the [[Big Bang]] and [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|structure formation]] have suggested that such dark galaxies should be very common in the universe, but none have previously been detected. If the existence of this dark galaxy is confirmed, it provides strong evidence for the theory of galaxy formation and poses problems for alternative explanations of dark matter. Dark matter is believed to affect [[Groups and clusters of galaxies|galaxy clusters]] as well. The galaxy cluster [[Abell 2029]] is composed of thousands of galaxies enveloped in a cloud of hot gas, and an amount of dark matter equivalent to more than 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; Suns. At the center of this cluster is an enormous, elliptically shaped galaxy that is thought to have been formed from the mergers of many smaller galaxies. More info is available here: [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/abell2029/] . ===Structure formation=== A significant amount of non-[[Baryon|baryonic]], cold matter is necessary to explain the [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large-scale structure of the universe]]. Observations suggest that [[structure formation]] in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures, such as stars, forming first, and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. In the universe, it is thought that the first structures that form are [[quasar]]s, which are supermassive black holes. This, ''bottom up'' model of structure formation requires something like cold dark matter to succeed. Ordinary [[Baryon|baryonic]] matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the big bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the [[Jeans mass|Jeans]] instability. Large computer simulations of billions of dark matter particles have been used to confirm that the cold dark matter model of structure formation is consistent with the structures observed in the universe through galaxy surveys, such as the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]] and [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]], as well as observations of the [[Lyman-alpha forest]]. These studies have been crucial in constructing the [[Lambda-CDM model]] which measures the cosmological parameters, including the fraction of the universe made up of baryons and dark matter. Another important tool for future dark matter observations is [[gravitational lensing]], in particular a technique called weak lensing that allows astrophysicists to characterize the distribution of dark matter by statistical means. ==Composition== Data from a number of lines of evidence, including [[galaxy rotation problem|galaxy rotation curves]], gravitational lensing, structure formation, and the fraction of baryons in clusters and the cluster abundance combined with independent evidence for the baryon density, indicate that 85-90% of the mass in the universe does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This &quot;dark matter&quot; is evident through its gravitational effect. Several categories of dark matter have been postulated. *[[Hot dark matter]] *[[Warm dark matter]] *[[Cold dark matter]] *[[Baryonic dark matter]] Hot dark matter consists of particles that travel with [[special relativity|relativistic]] velocities. One kind of hot dark matter is known, the [[neutrino]]. Neutrinos have a very small mass, do not interact via either the [[electromagnetic]] or the [[strong nuclear force]] and so are incredibly difficult to detect. This is what makes them appealing as dark matter. However, bounds on neutrinos indicate that ordinary neutrinos make only a small contribution to the density of dark matter. Hot dark matter cannot explain how individual galaxies formed from the Big Bang. The [[microwave background radiation]] as measured by the [[COBE]] and [[WMAP]] satellites, while incredibly smooth, indicates that matter has clumped on very small scales. Fast moving particles, however, cannot clump together on such small scales and, in fact, suppress the clumping of other matter. Hot dark matter, while it certainly exists in our universe in the form of neutrinos, is therefore only part of the story. To explain structure in the universe it is necessary to invoke cold (non-relativistic) dark matter. Large masses, like galaxy-sized black holes can be ruled out on the basis of [[gravitational lensing]] data. Possibilities involving normal [[baryon]]ic matter include [[brown dwarf]]s or perhaps small, dense chunks of heavy elements; such objects are known as [[massive compact halo object]]s, or &quot;MACHOs&quot;. However, studies of [[big bang nucleosynthesis]] have convinced most scientists that [[baryon|baryonic matter]] such as MACHOs cannot be more than a small fraction of the total dark matter. At present, the most common view is that most dark matter is made of one or more elementary particles other than the usual [[electron]]s, [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s, and ordinary [[neutrinos]]. Currently, the most commonly considered particles are [[axion]]s, [[sterile neutrinos]], [[Simp|SIMPs]] (Strongly Interacting Massive Particles), and [[WIMP]]s (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) (which include [[neutralino]]s). None of these are part of the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]]. Instead, particles in this last category are frequently suggested by theorists proposing [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] extensions of the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]]. In such theories, the WIMP involved is usually the [[neutralino]]. Another candidate is so-called sterile neutrinos. Sterile neutrinos can be added to the [[standard model]] to explain the small neutrino mass. These sterile neutrinos are expected to be heavier than the ordinary neutrinos, and are a candidate for dark matter. In research due to be fully published in spring [[2006]], researchers from the [[University of Cambridge
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&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1950s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1960s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1970s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1980s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1990s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[21st century]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2000s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2010s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2020s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2030s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2040s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2050s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2060s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2070s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2080s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2090s]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; [[Category:Decades]] [[be:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1103;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1110;]] [[da:Årti]] [[de:Jahrzehnt]] [[et:Aastakümned]] [[es:Década]] [[eo:Jardekoj]] [[fr:Décennie]] [[id:Dekade]] [[it:Decennio]] [[nl:Decennium]] [[ja:10&amp;#24180;&amp;#32000;]] [[lt:De&amp;#353;imtme&amp;#269;iai]] [[no:Tiår]] [[pt:Década]] [[ro:Decenii]] [[simple:Decade]] [[sl:Desetletja]] [[sv:Decennium]] [[zh:&amp;#24180;&amp;#20195;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Douglas Engelbart</title> <id>8081</id> <revision> <id>42042557</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:53:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.42.42.233</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Douglas engelbart.jpg|thumb|300px|Douglas Engelbart]] '''Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart''' (born [[January 30]], [[1925]] in [[Oregon]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]] of [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian descent]]. He is best known for inventing the [[computer mouse]] (in a joint effort with [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]]); as a pioneer of [[human-computer interaction]] whose team developed [[hypertext]], networked computers, and precursors to [[graphical user interface|GUIs]]; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of [[computers]] and [[computer network|networks]] to help cope with the world's increasingly more urgent and complex problems (which [[Horst W. J. Rittel]] and others since have called [[wicked problems]]). ==Education== Engelbart received a [[Bachelor's degree]] in electrical engineering from [[Oregon State University]] in 1948, a Bachelor of Engineering degree from UC Berkeley in 1952, and a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]]. from [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] in 1955. While at Oregon State, he was a member of [[Sigma Phi Epsilon]] social fraternity. As a [[World War II]] naval radio [[technician]] based in the [[Philippines]], Engelbart was inspired by [[Vannevar Bush]]'s article &quot;[[As We May Think]]&quot;. After the war, Engelbart studied at UC Berkeley, where he earned a Ph.D. in 1955. He spent over a year trying to create an unsuccessful [[startup]], Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctorate research into storage devices, then was hired to work in [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/allmagnetic-logic.html magnetic logic] devices at the [[Stanford Research Institute]], now headquartered in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]], while the organization was still affiliated with [[Stanford University]]. ==Career and accomplishments== [[Image:firstmouseunderside.jpg|frame|The first [[computer mouse]] held by Engelbart showing the wheels which directly contact the working surface.]] [[Historian]] of science [[Thierry Bardini]] has persuasively argued that Engelbart's complex personal [[philosophy]] (which drove all his research endeavors) foreshadowed the modern application of the concept of [[coevolution]] to the philosophy and use of [[technology]]. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the [[principle of linguistic relativity]] developed by [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]]. Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies. He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work. Engelbart's philosophy and research agenda is most clearly and directly expressed in the 1962 research report which Engelbart refers to as his 'bible': [http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework]. The concept of network augmented intelligence is attributed to Engelbart based on this pioneering work. At SRI, Engelbart was the primary force behind the design and development of the [[On-Line System]], or NLS. He and his team at the [[Augmentation Research Center]] (the lab he founded) developed computer-interface elements such as bit-mapped screens, multiple windows, groupware, [[hypertext]] and precursors to the [[graphical user interface]]. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas back in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most individuals were kept away from computers, and could only use computers through intermediaries (see [[batch processing]]), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems. [[Image:Apple Macintosh Plus mouse.jpg|200px|thumb| An [[Apple Ma
<minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business_school]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BusinessSchools/UnitedStates</title> <id>3309</id> <revision> <id>15901659</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T06:54:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_the_United_States]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_the_United_States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BusinessSchools/Europe</title> <id>3310</id> <revision> <id>15901660</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T06:54:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_Europe]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_Europe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BusinessSchools/Asia</title> <id>3311</id> <revision> <id>15901661</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T06:55:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_Asia]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_business_schools_in_Asia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BusinessSchools/ColumbiaUniversity</title> <id>3314</id> <revision> <id>15901662</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zundark</username> <id>70</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect (will not work until bug is fixed)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Columbia Business School]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BirthofaNation</title> <id>3317</id> <revision> <id>15901663</id> <timestamp>2002-08-06T05:46:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>correcting redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Birth of a Nation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BoethiuS</title> <id>3318</id> <revision> <id>23623923</id> <timestamp>2005-09-20T20:58:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dvyost</username> <id>200464</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius link corrected</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BrainEvent</title> <id>3320</id> <revision> <id>15901665</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brain event]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BusinessSchool</title> <id>3322</id> <revision> <id>15901666</id> <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:25:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business_school]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BritneySpears</title> <id>3323</id> <revision> <id>15901667</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Britney Spears]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BabyOneMoreTime</title> <id>3326</id> <revision> <id>30557587</id> <timestamp>2005-12-08T04:29:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ianblair23</username> <id>145927</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to [[...Baby One More Time]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[...Baby One More Time]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BinomialDistribution</title> <id>3327</id> <revision> <id>15901670</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BinomialDistributuin/Revisited</title> <id>3328</id> <revision> <id>15901671</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T06:55:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BinomialDistribution/Revisited</title> <id>3329</id> <revision> <id>15901672</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zundark</username> <id>70</id> </contributor> <comment>another futile attempt at getting the redirect to work</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BioChemistry</title> <id>3330</id> <revision> <id>15901673</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biochemistry]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BioStatistics</title> <id>3331</id> <revision> <id>15901674</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biostatistics]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ballroom dance</title> <id>3332</id> <revision> <id>41792231</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:02:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>192.77.198.12</ip> </contributor> <comment>accid. deleted some historical info prev edit, restored. Verbose folk dance section re-worded. Dislike the tangent to line dances under &quot;classic ballroom&quot;...left alone as others may find useful?</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ballroom dance''' is a style of [[partner dance]] which originated in the [[Western world]] and is now enjoyed both [[social dance|socially]] and [[competitive dance|competitively]] around the globe. Its [[performance dance|performance]] and [[entertainment]] aspects are also widely enjoyed on [[Theater|stage]], in [[film]], and on [[television]]. The term &quot;ballroom dancing&quot; is derived from the word ''[[Ball (dance)|ball]]'', which in turn originates from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''ballare'' which means &quot;to dance&quot;. The definition of ballroom dance also depends on the era. Balls have featured [[Minuet]], [[Quadrille]], [[Polonaise]], [[Pas de Gras]], [[Mazurka]], and other popular dances of the day, which are considered to be [[historical dance]]s. In times past, ballroom dancing was &quot;[[Social dance|social dancing]]&quot; for the privileged, leaving &quot;[[folk dancing]]&quot; for the lower classes. These boundaries have since become blurred, and it should be noted even in times long gone, many &quot;ballroom&quot; dances were really elevated folk dances. Ballroom dancing has been in continual use as a social art form since its inception with one exception in the 20th century. Dance historians usually mark the appearance of the ''Twist'' in the mid [[1960s]] as the end of social partner dancing, and they credit what was then called the ''Latin Hustle'' for bringing it back in the late [[1970s]]. [[Image:TangoLesson6.jpg|frame|right|1914 dance illustration]] ==Competitive dancing== In spite of its historical image as a pastime for the privileged; formal competitions, sometimes referred to as [[DanceSport]], often allow participation by less advanced dancers at various proficiency levels. In the United States, amateur dance proficiency levels are defined by [[USA Dance]] (formerly United States Amateur Ballroom Dance Association [USABDA]) as Bronze-&gt;Silver-&gt;Gold for syllabus dancers, and Novice-&gt;Prechampionship-&gt;Championship for open competitors. These levels roughly correspond to the &quot;E&quot; to &quot;S&quot; levels in Europe and Australia. Among professionals, levels classify into Rising Star and Open Professional. Eligibility and &quot;leveling up&quot; requirements will vary greatly between countries and sometimes within. For instance, in addition to USA Dance competitions, amateur dancers in the United States often participate in competitions sanctioned by NDCA or YCN (Youth Collegiate Network), each with its own distinct culture in addition to differing definitions of level and eligibility requirements. The [[International Olympic Committee]] now recognizes [[competitive dance|competitive]] ballroom dance. However, it has yet to be included in an [[Olympic Games]] but is among the ones in serious consideration to be added for 2012. Ballroom dancing competitions in the former USSR also included the [[Soviet Ballroom dances]], or ''Soviet Programme.'' A
out, Weber had a 1934 0042G. &quot;The G means gut-string model setup...the neck was a little bit wider, and it wasn't really designed for steel strings,&quot; says Weber, &quot;although it was strong enough to support them.&quot; When Odegard told David about Weber's guitar, David then asked if Odegard could assemble a group of musicians for a recording session; David also told Odegard of Dylan's intentions to re-record some material for his next album. Odegard quickly assembled a band with guitarist Kevin Odegard, bassist Billy Peterson, keyboardist Gregg Inhofer, and drummer Bill Berg, and in the end, he was able to convince David to grant him permission to bring Weber to the session. (Reportedly, David relented in order to ease the sale of Weber's guitar; Dylan would ultimately buy Weber's guitar.) The musicians reported to Studio 80 in [[Minneapolis]] on Friday, December 27th, where Weber showed Dylan his guitar. Weber and Dylan sat in the studio's glass vocal recording booth, where Dylan was able to hear the instrument better, and as they talked, Dylan asked if Weber wrote anything. Weber played him a piece called &quot;'A' Rag,&quot; a performance that convinced Dylan of Weber's instrumental abilities. Dylan then played &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; to Weber and asked him if he could learn it and teach it to the other musicians. &quot;Because he wanted to keep it fresh and didn't want to have to keep going over it,&quot; recalls Weber. &quot;So he laid down a C minor chord...[and] he proceeded to teach me the progression of the song 'Idiot Wind'...In a few minutes we worked out the song. I suggested an A minor seventh chord instead of the A seventh chord that he had been playing, and he said, 'Leave that in there; that sounds nice.' I learned the song, we left the booth, and I went out and taught it to the band.&quot; Dylan proceeded to re-record &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; backed by these local musicians, and after Dylan punched in a few vocals, Peterson had to leave for his regular, pre-arranged performance at a local jazz club. There would be no time for a replacement, but sometime after Peterson's departure, rather than end the session, Dylan informed engineer Paul Martinson that he wanted to record &quot;You're a Big Girl Now.&quot; &quot;I remember 'You're a Big Girl Now' in particular,&quot; recalls Inhofer. &quot;I couldn't play the organ part the way [Dylan] wanted it because I wasn't very well versed in Hammond B-3 at the time...he said, 'No, man - here, you go play the piano, I'll play the organ.' And so I was learning the song on the piano and he was standing next to me when I played a third in the bass, an F sharp over the D chord, and he said, 'Hey, what's that? That's cool, I like that, keep that in.&quot; Two complete takes of &quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; were recorded when Weber suggested a twelve-string guitar to &quot;give it a lot more fullness.&quot; Dylan almost sent Weber on an errand to retrieve a twelve-string guitar, but by then it was getting late, and they decided to call it a night. Master takes of &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; and &quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; were later selected from this session would ultimately replace the 'New York' master take on the final album. Dylan was pleased with the results from the 27th, and the same musicians were asked to return to Studio 80 for a second session. This time, Weber brought mandolin player Peter Ostroushko and banjo player Jim Tardoff &quot;because Bob had mentioned on Friday that he really wanted this to be an acoustic album, a return to his roots...So he was open to other traditional acoustic instruments.&quot; On December 30th, the local musicians, with Ostroushko and Tardoff, re-convened at Studio 80, where Dylan proceeded to re-record &quot;Tangled Up in Blue,&quot; &quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts,&quot; and &quot;If You See Her, Say Hello.&quot; During the New York sessions, Dylan recorded &quot;Tangled Up in Blue&quot; in the key of E with an open-tuning configuration. When he began sessions in Minneapolis, Dylan raised the pitch, performing the song in the key of G. Dylan was pleased with this new key, but when he asked Odegard what he thought of the new arrangement, he was taken aback when Odegard called it &quot;passable.&quot; Odegard would later claim that he was so relaxed, he did not realize the impact of his casual response until seconds later. Fearing his termination was imminent, Odegard quickly added that &quot;it would be better, livelier, if we moved it up to A with capos. It would kick ass up a notch.&quot; Dylan thought it over and said, &quot;All right, let's try it.&quot; Odegard and Weber then moved their capos up two frets while Dylan simply adjusted his fingered bar-chord positions. The new key also prompted Dylan to sing with more force in order to hit the higher notes. After a successful run-through with this new key, Odegard then suggested a new guitar lick. Odegard had been experimenting with a new guitar lick similar to one he had heard on a Joy of Cooking song called &quot;Midnight Blues.&quot; &quot;It was a 'ring-a-ding-ding' figure that seemed to work well as an intro and a repeating figure on the front of each verse, so I stuck with it,&quot; recalls Odegard. With Dylan's approval, Odegard applied this lick to &quot;Tangled Up in Blue,&quot; where it ultimately remained. &quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts&quot; was arranged in the key of D, and when Dylan realized that the harmonicas he brought were not in the same key, Weber called his wife and asked her to go to their music store and retrieve the appropriate harmonica. Meanwhile, Dylan worked with Berg and Peterson on the song's rhythmic structure. Before Weber's wife arrived with a number of different harmonicas, the arrangement was essentially finished, and after a quick rehearsal, Dylan launched the band into a recorded take using one of his incorrect harmonicas. &quot;Not the ''wrong'' harmonica necessarily,&quot; recalls Weber, &quot;but it was certainly the wrong key for the song...Dylan used an A harmonica on the song and can be heard throughout the introduction scrambling to find notes that worked on the mismatched instrument, which harmonized neither in the tonic position nor in a blues configuration, or 'cross-harp' styling.&quot; By the time Weber's wife arrived, the recording was completed, and it would be the first and only take recorded; despite the ''wrong'' harmonica, it was eventually set aside as the new 'master take.' &quot;If You See Her, Say Hello&quot; was the last song recorded at the January 30th session; once again, Peterson had to leave in mid-session due to a pre-arranged performance at a local jazz club, and therefore was unable to participate in the song's recording. Master takes selected from the December 30th session would replace the 'New York' master takes on the final album, but not before some major overdubbing. &quot;He overdubbed on every single song [recorded at the Minneapolis sessions],&quot; recalls Odegard. &quot;He even overdubbed a mandolin on 'If You See Her, Say Hello,' borrowed it from Peter Ostroushko to play what's called a 'butterfly' part, in a higher register; Peter played his part, but Dylan played it as well. And Dylan overdubbed the flamenco guitar parts on 'You're a Big Girl Now' and 'If You See Her, Say Hello,' too.&quot; The revised edition of ''Blood on the Tracks'' was eventually released on January 17th, 1975, but test pressings of the original version were eventually replicated and heavily bootlegged. When ''Blood on the Tracks'' was released, the original album credits were not changed, omitting the Minneapolis musicians from the sleeve notes. Columbia allegedly wanted to exhaust their supply of album sleeves (printed before Dylan's decision to hold additional sessions at Studio 80), after which new sleeves would be printed with the correct album credits. However, this was never done, and subsequent re-issues of ''Blood on the Tracks'' still incorrectly list Deliverance as the only musicians involved. In the early [[1980s]] a [[CX(audio)|CX]] encoded version was released making it the only CX encoded Dylan album. ==The Songs== [[Salon.com]] critic Bill Wyman writes that &quot;the apogee of [Dylan's] career is perhaps ''Blood on the Tracks''. In his infrequent interviews, Dylan snaps when people ask if the record is the account of his breakup with Sara. In any case, with 15 years of fame behind him and the failure of a decade-long marriage in front of him, it is true that Dylan on this album looks at the world through blood-spattered glasses. The losses he is singing about seem fatal; his anger on songs like 'Idiot Wind' is Lear-like... &quot;Early one morning the sun was shining,' the album begins. Dylan's voice is quieter and silkier than it ever sounded, or ever would again; each line, each word, on the record is articulated and, seemingly, meant. More than 25 years after its release it provides unexpected and moving moments. A title like 'You're a Big Girl Now' seems as if the track will be of a piece with his most condescending love songs; yet it turns out to be arranged, performed and sung in the gentlest of ways. Two lines in, Dylan sings, 'I'm back in the ''rain'',' and a minute later, at some last emotional end, he whispers, 'I can change I ''swear''' - an ineffable moment in his most vulnerable song. &quot;'Idiot Wind' is about truth, love, hatred and the Grand Coulee Dam; 'Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts' is a meticulously constructed abstract western. The last track, 'Buckets of Rain,' is a throwaway -- rain imagery permeates the album. It seems innocent, until you listen closely and hear the easygoing guitar line that anchors the song echo and break, the strings buzzing against the guitar neck, the guitarist's hands snapping off the frets. And then you notice the album's over.&quot; &quot;In the first verse of 'Tangled Up in
to 125 lb) stockiness of the bigger canid. The coyote is an extremely lean animal and may appear underfed even if healthy. The northeast coyote and the Cape Cod coyote are thought to be a 50% mix with the [[Red Wolf]]. Coyotes can also hybridize and produce fertile offspring with [[Gray Wolf|Gray Wolves]] and domestic dogs. However practical constraints such as the timing of [[estrus cycle]]s and the need for both parents to care for the pups limit such crosses in the wild. Hybrids between coyotes and Domestic Dogs are known as &quot;[[Coydog]]s&quot;. == Behavior == [[Image:Coyote in forest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coyote in a forest]] Coyotes are highly adaptable and live in a variety of different niches. Their behavior can vary widely depending on where they live, but in general they live and hunt singly or in monogamous pairs in search of small mammals including rabbits, mice, shrews, voles, and foxes. It is an omnivore and adapts its diet to the available food sources including fruits, grasses, and vegetables along with small mammals. In [[Yellowstone National Park]], before the reintroduction of the [[wolf]], they began to fill the wolf's ecological niche, and hunted in packs to bring down large prey. Coyotes mate for life. They breed around the month of February and 4&amp;ndash;6 pups are born in late April or early May. Both parents (and sometimes undispersed young from the previous year) help to feed the pups. At three weeks old the pups leave the den under close watch of their parents. Once the pups are eight to twelve weeks old they are taught to hunt. Families stay together through the summer but the young break apart to find their own territories by fall. They usually relocate within ten miles. The young are sexually mature at 1 year of age. [[Image:Coyote closeup.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coyote with a ruddy tint in its fur]] Hearing a coyote is much more common than seeing one. The calls a coyote makes are high-pitched and variously described as howls, yips, yelps and barks. These calls may be a long rising and falling note (a howl) or a series of short notes (yips). These calls are most often heard at dusk or night, less often during the day. Although these calls are made throughout the year, they are most common during the spring mating season and in the fall when the pups leave their families to establish new territories. Many people find these calls eerie or disturbing. As well, its howl can be very deceiving: due to the way the sound carries, it can seem as though it is in one place, when the coyote is really elsewhere. In rural areas, coyotes will respond to human calls. This is most often after the coyotes have started a howling session. They will also respond to recorded howls. In some of these areas, the coyotes will stop and wait for the humans to stop before resuming their howling session, once they've figured out that it isn't one of them that's been calling to them. In areas where the coyotes have grown accustomed to humans calling back to them, they tend to continue with simpler calls back to the humans and return to more complex calls when the humans get tired of calling to them. Playing a recorded wolf howl will make them stop for up to an hour before they start in again (probably because wolves prey upon coyotes.) Coyotes may also thrive in urban settings. A study by scientists at The [[Ohio State University]] yielded some surprising findings in this regard. Researchers studied Coyote populations in [[Chicago, IL]] over a six year period, proposing that coyotes have adapted well to living in densely populated urban environments while avoiding contact with humans. They found, among other things, that urban coyotes tend to live longer than their rural counterparts, help humans by killing vermin and other small animals, and live anywhere from parks to industrial areas.{{ref|URB}} The scientists estimate that there are up to 2,000 coyotes living in [[Chicagoland]] and that this circumstance may well apply to many other urban landscapes in North America.{{ref|URB}} == Character in mythology == {{main|Coyote (mythology)}} Many myths from [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] peoples that include a character named &quot;Mika&quot; or just &quot;Coyote&quot;. He can play the role of [[trickster]] or [[culture hero]] (or both), and also often appears in [[creation myth]]s and [[just-so story|just-so stories]]. == Fictional coyotes == [[Image:Coyote in grass.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coyote]] *[[Road Runner cartoon|Wile E. Coyote]] is a [[Warner Brothers]] cartoon coyote who is endlessly trying to catch and eat an extremely fast [[Greater Roadrunner|Road Runner]] with his tricks, many of which involve technology or [[Rube Goldberg#Rube_Goldberg_machines|Rube Goldberg machines]]. His efforts are always futile, and he usually harms himself in the effort. It is likely that the stereotype of Coyote-as-trickster helped form the basis of this protagonist. The cartoon character Wile E. Coyote has a comically exaggerated nose, tail and ears, inspired by the appearance of the real animal. * Coyotes feature prominently in the novel ''The Book of Sorrows'', by Walter Wangerin Jr, sequel to the award-winning ''The Book of the Dun Cow''. The coyote Ferric is a skinny, scared creature struggling to feed his wife Rachael and their three pups, and to protect them from the cruel, wild world outside the den. As he travels far from home looking for food in the barren winter, he accidently sets in motion a chain of events that bring Heaven and Hell crashing down upon him, and on every living thing in the land. * The [[San Antonio Spurs]] NBA basketball team has used a Coyote as its mascot for more than 22 years. The character was created by Tim Derk. * The mascots of the Phoenix NHL hockey team are the [[Phoenix Coyotes]]. * Coyote the [[trickster]] appears as a major character in the novel ''[[Coyote Blue]]'' by [[Christopher Moore]]. He is the companion of the [[protagonist]], a [[Crow Indian]] used-car salesman. A number of traditional Crow stories about Coyote are used as [[vignette]]s in the story. *Coyote, trickster and creator, is a central character in Ursula Le Guin's ''Buffalo Gals'', and also plays a role in Thomas King's ''Green Grass, Running Water''. *In the [[Disney Channel|Disney]] cartoon show [[Gargoyles]], Coyote is the name of a series of robots of human level intelligence created by Xanatos and having his personality. Also, the mythical Coyote the [[trickster]] makes an appearance in the episode &quot;Cloud Fathers&quot;, and is portrayed as one of [[Oberon's children]]. *''[[Sky Coyote]]'' is the role taken by the [[cyborg]] Joseph in the book of that title by [[Kage Baker]], to convince the [[Chumash]] tribe of [[California]] to evacuate before white men could wipe them out in 1700. ==Vocalization== The coyote is one of the few wild animals whose vocalizations are commonly heard. At night coyotes both howl (a high quavering cry) and emit a series of short, high-pitched yips. Howls are used to keep in touch with other coyotes in the area. Sometimes, when it is first heard, the listener may experience a tingling fear of primitive danger, but to the seasoned outdoorsman, the howl of the coyote is truly a song of the West. '''Howling''' - communication with others in the area. Also, an announcement that “I am here and this is my area. Other males are invited to stay away but females are welcome to follow the sound of my voice. Please answer and let me know where you are so we don't have any unwanted conflicts.” '''Yelping''' - a celebration or criticism within a small group of coyotes. Often heard during play among pups or young animals. '''Bark''' - The scientific name for coyotes means &quot;Barking dog,&quot; Canis latrans. The bark is thought to be a threat display when a coyote is protecting a den or a kill. '''Huffing''' - is usually used for calling pups without making a great deal of noise. == External links == {{commons|Coyote}} * [http://www.sinapu.org/Pages/Coyotes/Coyotes.htm Coyotes in the Southern Rockies] * [http://www.coyoterescue.org/ Indiana Coyote Rescue Center] * [http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/iMovieTheater216.html/ Coyote Video] by Mooncusser Films. * [http://digital-desert.com/wildlife/coyote.html Coyotes in the Mojave Desert food chain] * [http://landoftheshuswap.com/msite/legend.php Stseptekwle – Stories of the Secwepemc] including several coyote legends. ==References== # {{note|URB}} &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://www.world-science.net/othernews/060105_coyotefrm.htm]. ''Thriving under our noses, stealthily: coyotes'' URL accessed on [[January 9th]], [[2006]].&lt;/span&gt; [[Category:Canines]] [[Category:Fauna of Mexico]] [[Category:Wildlife of North America]] [[bg:Койот]] [[da:Prærieulv]] [[de:Kojote]] [[es:Canis latrans]] [[fr:Coyote (animal)]] [[io:Koyoto]] [[it:Canis latrans]] [[he:קויוט]] [[ja:コヨーテ]] [[la:Coiotes]] [[lt:Kojotas]] [[nah:Coyōtl]] [[nl:Coyote]] [[pl:Kojot]] [[pt:Coiote]] [[ru:Койот]] [[fi:Kojootti]] [[sv:Prärievarg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Compressor</title> <id>6711</id> <revision> <id>38034774</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T19:15:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Baryonic Being</username> <id>226242</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compressor''' has several meanings: * A [[gas compressor]] is a mechanical device that takes in a [[gas]] and increases its [[pressure]] by squeezing a volume of it into a smaller volume. See [[refrigerator]], [[electric motor]]. * A device or computer program that reduces the [[dynamic range]] of a signal. In audio production, a compressor is often applied to the final mix as part of the [[audio mastering|mastering]] process. See [[audio level compression]]. * [[Apple Computer]] distributes a [[DVD]] vi
ing indigenous Arab population. According to this view, Palestinians were forcibly expelled from their homes by Jewish militias before and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war (see [[Palestinian exodus]].) Those who remained in Israel face various forms of discrimination, such as housing and employment discrimination. Many job opportunities in Israel are open only to those with previous military service, typically non-''[[haredi]]'' Jews, [[Druze]], [[Circassians]] and [[Bedouins]]. Those who do not serve in the IDF (typically [[Israeli Arab]]s and ''haredi''-Jews) are denied those opportunities. Some Palestinian Christians are of the opinion that the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] has led to the diminishment of their population[http://christianactionforisrael.org/antiholo/hate_jews.html][http://www.amconmag.com/2004_05_24/article.html]. Others, like [[Abe Ata]] are of the opinion that American [[Christianity|Christians]] have &quot;turned their backs&quot; on them by supporting Israel [http://www.natcath.com/NCR_Online/archives/112202/112202r.htm]. Some Palestinian Christians have alleged that Israel does not give them permission to visit holy places in Jerusalem.[http://www.amin.org/eng/daoud_kuttab/2005/may20.html] ====Legitimacy of war against Israel==== As the refugees' exile continued, some Palestinian groups chose war, considering it as a necessary way to regain what they saw as their rights over the land they came from. The failure of these efforts to improve the Palestinians' condition fueled increased hostility. Many Palestinians distinguish between violent resistance against Israeli military occupation, and violent acts against Israeli civilians. They hold that the former is legitimate resistance under the [[laws of war]], while the latter comprise illegitimate acts of terrorism.&lt;!-- However, opinion polls consistently show these Palestinians to be in the minority. --&gt; Other Palestinian voices reject violence altogether and look to exclusively non-violent resistance as a solution. Palestinians making the case for purely non-violent resistance, or for armed resistance against only military targets but not Israeli civilians, invoke both practical arguments that such tactics are counterproductive, as well as moral and legal arguments against the use of violence, especially against civilians. Most Palestinians claim that Israel's occupation engenders routine violence against Palestinian civilians that is institutionalized and carried out on a much larger scale than anything Israelis experience. They often question what they see as the media's one-sided use of the word &quot;terror&quot; in cases where Palestinians are perpetrators and Israelis are victims, while ignoring what they view as state terrorism carried out by Israel against the Palestinian population. Some Palestinian and Arab leaders believe that Palestinians are justified in using violence against any Israeli, seeing all Israelis as illegal occupants, and arguing that Israel's universal conscription renders almost all Israelis potential combatants. They see these illegal occupants as the source of tens of thousands of deaths, and millions of refugees. Some claim that trusting the international community to help them to get their rights back is useless, suggesting that, in recent history, as long as Palestinians were peaceful no state made any serious efforts to solve their problem. In their opinion, only when other countries see Palestinian problems as causing problems to themselves do they help Palestine. They also argue that the civilian deaths caused by their operations are dwarfed by those dismissed as &quot;[[collateral damage]]&quot; caused by the full scale military campaigns done by various world powers. Some see the innocent deaths caused by such operations as regrettable, but as an only option to solve the problems of millions of Palestinians. Furthermore, they point to the use of violence against non-combatants by most other independence struggles, including, they say, the [[American War of Independence]]. Despite having underlying grievances in common, the relationships between the [[PLO and Hamas]] and other Palestinian factions is rife with philosophical and tactical differences, as well as frequent power struggles, all of which tend to work to Israel's advantage and weaken Palestinians' ability to influence the outcome of the conflict. ====Treatment of Palestinians==== Restrictions on Palestinian movements were introduced to increase levels of security within Israel and have been of variable severity over time. The international community often views these as punishments of the masses because of the actions of a few. This perception of unjust persecution provides a continuing rationale for hostility toward Israel. Bulldozing of houses and destruction of infrastructure within Palestinian residential areas in the name of Israeli security add to the perceived poor conditions and lack of opportunities for the Palestinians. This is a frequently-used point of indignation used against Israel by Palestinian sympathizers. Arab publications and others have compared [[Zionism]] to German [[Nazism]] and other historical examples of oppression and ethnic cleansing. Many Arabs, and others, believe Israel practices a form of &quot;[[apartheid]]&quot; against the Palestinian people, as bad as, or worse than, that practised by [[South Africa]], and that Zionism is a form of &quot;[[colonialism]]&quot; and has been carried out through extensive &quot;ethnic cleansing&quot;. Pro-Israel advocates reply that these claims are non-factual and the comparisons are specious, or with assertions that such claims are hypocritical, since Arabs have created twenty-two Arab states, in some of which the remaining Jews are discriminated against. Palestinians hold that the existence of other Arab nations is irrelevant; they want to have the land they owned back, rather than being forced to throw themselves on others' charity in foreign countries. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics half of Jordan's population is ethnically Palestinian (former refugees and their descendants [http://www.pcbs.org/Portals/_pcbs/PressRelease/endyrrelse05e.pdf]) but the country is ruled by the Hashemite [[Bedouin]] family. In the 1970s, the PLO attempted to launch a [[Black September in Jordan|coup against the Jordanian monarchy]], which led to the death of some 20,000 Palestinians and the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan to Lebanon. Israel's Family Reunification Law allows Interior Minister to grant permanent resident status to West Bank Palestinians who have family members in Israel. In his comment to the Knesset Interior Affairs committee on [[July 19]] [[2005]], [[Shin Bet]] Chief Yuval Diskin stated that &quot;11% of those involved in terror attacks are Palestinians who entered Israel via the Family Reunification Law.&quot; [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/FPRI-6EFGS8?OpenDocument] [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3115064,00.html] ====Refugee issues==== [[UN General Assembly Resolution 194]] calls for &quot;the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property&quot;. Israel has blocked the return of these refugees and confiscated their land as &quot;absentee&quot;. The supporters of Israel argue that the return of Palestinian refugees and millions of their descendents would mean the end of Jewish [[self-determination]] and assert the historical necessity for Jews to have a [[safe haven]]. See also [[Jewish refugees]]. ====Jewish settlements in West Bank and Gaza==== Palestinians point out that Israel accelerated the expansion of settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip throughout the Oslo peace process. These settlements are off limits to Palestinians and other Arabs, while any Jewish citizen of Israel can at any time choose to settle there. In 2000, at [[Camp David]], the Palestinians were offered a nominally independent state composed of discontiguous parts of most of Gaza and the West Bank, with Israeli control over its airspace, borders and trade. Led by Arafat, the Palestinians rejected this offer, claiming that this state would be a &quot;[[Bantustan]]&quot; (a state divided in many pieces) without sovereignty. President Clinton and the Israelis asked the Palestinians to offer a counter-proposal, but Arafat declined and returned to the West Bank. Later, further negotiations did take place, but they were terminated by the Israeli side. In his book ''The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace'', [[Dennis Ross]], the American ambassador and facilitator, asserts that the idea the Palestinian state would be a &quot;Bantustan&quot; was a myth, and provides maps showing an offer that included contiguous territory. [http://www.motherjones.com/news/qa/2004/10/09_404.html]&lt;!--Palestinians counter that Dennis Ross is not a credible source and a paid Israeli advocate.[http://www.pmwatch.org/pmw/cast/ross.asp]--&gt;&lt;!--This source no-where claims that Ross's maps are incorrect, or that a Palestinian state would indeed have been a &quot;Bantustan&quot;.--&gt; During Fateh Central Committee meeting on [[September 5]] [[2005]], &quot;[r]eferring to the lands Israel would evacuate in Gaza Strip, President Abbas said that 97.5 % of these lands were state-owned lands&quot;[http://www.ipc.gov.ps/ipc_new/english/details.asp?name=10285]. ====Arab willingness to make peace==== In 2002, Saudi Arabia offered a [[Arab Peace Initiative|peace plan]] in the [[New York Times]] and at a summit meeting of the [[Arab League]] in [[Beirut]]. The plan is based on, but goes beyond [[UN Security Council Resolution 242]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 338|Resolution 338]]. It essenti
905. This paper introduced the [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]], a theory of time, distance, mass and energy which was consistent with [[electromagnetism]], but omitted the force of [[gravity]]. While developing this paper, Einstein wrote to Mileva about &quot;our work on relative motion&quot;, and this has led some to ask whether Mileva played a part in its development. A few historians of science believe that Einstein and his wife were both aware that the famous Frenchman [[Henri Poincaré]] had already published the equations of Relativity, a few weeks before Einstein submitted his paper; most believe their work independent, especially given Einstein's isolation at this time. A fourth paper, &quot;''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?''&quot;, (&quot;''Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?''&quot;) published late in 1905, showed one further deduction from relativity's [[axiom]]s, the famous equation that the [[energy]] of a body at rest (''E'') equals its mass (''m'') times the speed of light (''c'') squared: ''[[E=mc²|E&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;mc&amp;sup2;]]''. &lt;!-- whether this is correct or should be included seems dubious: , this equation having been first correctly published by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900), for the case of mass equivalence of electromagnetic [[radiation]]. Max Planck(1907) questioned the reasoning in Einstein's derivation, and H.E.Ives(1953) called Einstein's derivation a tautology. --&gt; ===Middle years=== [[Image:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg|frame|right|Einstein at the 1911 [[Solvay Conference]].]] In 1906, Einstein was promoted to technical examiner second class. In 1908, Einstein was licensed in [[Bern]], Switzerland, as a [[Privatdozent]] (unsalaried teacher at a university). Einstein's second son, [[Eduard Einstein|Eduard]], was born on [[July 28]], [[1910]]. At this time, he described why the sky is blue in his paper on the phenomenon of [[critical opalescence]], which shows the cumulative effect of [[scattering]] of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/] In 1911, Einstein became first associate [[professor]] at the [[University of Zurich]], and shortly afterwards full professor at the (German) [[University of Prague]], only to return the following year to [[Zurich]] in order to become full professor at the [[ETH Zurich]]. At that time, he worked closely with the [[mathematician]] [[Marcel Grossmann]]. In 1912, Einstein started to refer to [[time]] as the [[fourth dimension]] (although [[H.G. Wells]] had done this earlier, in 1895 in ''[[The Time Machine]]''). In 1914, just before the start of [[World War I]], Einstein settled in [[Berlin]] as professor at the local [[University of Berlin|university]] and became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]]. He took German citizenship. His [[pacifism]] and [[Jew]]ish origins irritated German nationalists. After he became world-famous, nationalistic hatred of him grew and for the first time he was the subject of an organized campaign to discredit his theories. From 1914 to 1933, he served as director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] for Physics in Berlin, and it was during this time that he was awarded his [[Nobel Prize]] and made his most groundbreaking discoveries. He was also an extraordinary professor at the [[Leiden University]] from 1920 until officially 1946, where he regularly gave guest lectures. In 1917, Einstein published &quot;''On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation''&quot; (&quot;''Zur Quantenmechanik der Strahlung''&quot;, Physkalische Zeitschrift 18, 121-128). This article introduced the concept of [[stimulated emission]], the physical principle that allows light amplification in the [[laser]]. He also published a paper that year that used the general theory of relativity to model the behavior of the entire universe, setting the stage for modern [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. In this work he created his self-described &quot;worst blunder&quot;, the [[cosmological constant]]. Einstein divorced Mileva on [[February 14]], [[1919]], and married his cousin [[Elsa Löwenthal]] (born Einstein: Löwenthal was the surname of her first husband, Max) on [[June 2]], [[1919]]. Elsa was Albert's first cousin (maternally) and his second cousin (paternally). She was three years older than Albert, and had nursed him to health after he had suffered a partial nervous breakdown combined with a severe stomach ailment; there were no children from this marriage. The fate of Albert and Mileva's first child, Lieserl, is unknown. Some believe she died in infancy, while others believe she was given out for adoption. They later had two sons: Eduard and Hans Albert. Eduard intended to practice as a [[psychoanalyst|Freudian analyst]] but was institutionalized for [[schizophrenia]] and died in an asylum. [[Hans Albert Einstein|Hans Albert]], his older brother, became a professor of [[hydraulic engineering]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], having little interaction with his father. [[Image:Einstein theory triumphs.png|thumb|left|222px|&quot;Einstein theory triumphs,&quot; declared the ''[[New York Times]]'' on [[November 10]] [[1919]].]] ====General relativity==== In November 1915, Einstein presented a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of gravity, known as [[general relativity]]. The final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity, the Field Equation, which was first derived from a variational principle by [[David Hilbert]]. This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force (as it is in Newton's law of gravity) but is a consequence of the curvature of [[space-time]]. The theory provided the foundation for the study of [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were discovered well after Einstein's death. A truly revolutionary theory, general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics. Initially, scientists were skeptical because the theory was derived by mathematical reasoning and rational analysis, not by experiment or observation. But in 1919, predictions made using the theory were confirmed by [[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Arthur Eddington]]'s measurements (during a [[solar eclipse]]), of how much the light emanating from a star was [[Gravitational lens|bent]] by the [[Sun]]'s gravity when it passed close to the Sun, an effect called gravitational lensing. The observations were carried out on [[May 29]], [[1919]], at two locations, one in [[Sobral, Ceará]], [[Brazil]], and another in the island of [[Principe]], in the west coast of [[Africa]]. On [[November 7]], ''[[The Times]]'' reported the confirmation, cementing Einstein's fame. Many scientists were still unconvinced for various reasons ranging from disagreement with Einstein's interpretation of the experiments, to not being able to tolerate the absence of an absolute frame of reference. In Einstein's view, many of them simply could not understand the mathematics involved. Einstein's public fame which followed the 1919 article created resentment among these scientists some of which lasted well into the 1930s. In the early 1920s Einstein was the lead figure in a famous weekly physics colloquium at the University of Berlin. On [[March 30]], [[1921]], Einstein went to [[New York City|New York]] to give a lecture on his new Theory of Relativity, the same year he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Though he is now most famous for his work on relativity, it was for his earlier work on the [[photoelectric effect]] that he was given the Prize, as his work on general relativity was still disputed. The Nobel committee decided that citing his less-contested theory in the Prize would gain more acceptance from the scientific community. Sir Edmund Whittaker(1953) stated that [[David Hilbert]] published the theory of general relativity ''nearly simultaneously'' with Einstein. ====The &quot;Copenhagen&quot; interpretation==== [[Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]] sparred over [[quantum theory]] during the 1920s.]] Einstein's postulation that light can be described not only as a wave with no kinetic energy, but also as massless discrete packets of energy called quanta with measurable kinetic energy (now known as photons) was a landmark break with the classical physics. In 1909 Einstein presented his first paper on the quantification of light to a gathering of physicists and told them that they must find some way to understand waves and particles together. In the mid-1920s, as the original quantum theory was replaced with a new theory of [[quantum mechanics]], Einstein balked at the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of the new equations because it settled for a probabilistic, non-visualizable account of physical behaviour. Einstein agreed that the theory was the best available, but he looked for a more &quot;complete&quot; explanation, i.e., more [[scientific determinism|deterministic]]. He could not abandon the belief that physics described the laws that govern &quot;real things&quot;, the belief which had led to his successes with atoms, photons, and gravity. In a 1926 letter to [[Max Born]], Einstein made a remark that is now famous: : ''Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But an inner voice tells me it is not yet the real thing. The theory says a lot, but does not really bring us any closer to the secret of the Old One. I, at any rate, am convinced that He does not throw dice.'' To this, [[Niels Bohr|Bohr]], who sparred with Einstein on quantum theory, retorted, &quot;Stop telling God what He must do!&quot; The [[Bo
analysis]] ==External links== * [http://www.americancomm.org American Communication Association] * [http://www.stikom-bdg.com School of Communication] * [http://www.onethousandandone.com.au Unique and memorable communications] * [http://www.hains.net/communication/studying.html Studying Communication: An introduction to the field, by R.C. Hains] *[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/technology/index.php?cat=32 Innovative Communication Technologies] * [http://all-communication.info/ Communication articles] * [http://www.uiowa.edu/~commstud/resources/ University of Iowa - Communication Studies Resources] * [http://www.bizcom-pro.info/ A Weblog about Business Communication] * [http://www.unm.edu/~emmons/communications.html UNM General Library Communication Studies] * [http://www.teleclick.ca/ Communications Technology News] [[Category:Communication| ]] [[Category:Cybernetics]] {{Technology-footer}} [[an:Comunicazions]] [[bg:Комуникации]] [[br:Kemennadur]] [[ca:Comunicació]] [[cs:Dorozumívání]] [[da:Kommunikation]] [[de:Kommunikation]] [[et:Kommunikatsioon]] [[el:Επικοινωνία]] [[es:Comunicación]] [[eo:Komunikado]] [[fa:ارتباطات]] [[fr:Communication]] [[gl:Comunicación]] [[ko:통신]] [[id:Komunikasi]] [[it:Comunicazione]] [[he:תקשורת]] [[lb:Kommunikatioun]] [[li:Kommunikasie]] [[mk:Комуникација]] [[ms:Komunikasi]] [[nl:Communicatie]] [[ja:コミュニケーション]] [[no:Kommunikasjon]] [[nn:Kommunikasjon]] [[pt:Comunicação]] [[ru:Общение]] [[simple:Communication]] [[su:Komunikasi]] [[tl:Komunikasyon]] [[th:การสื่อสาร]] [[tr:İletişim]] [[uk:Комунікація]] [[zh:通信]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Classics</title> <id>5178</id> <revision> <id>39923282</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:23:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Petrouchka</username> <id>304347</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Western Classical Reference Library */ OCD 2nd ed -&gt; 3rd ed.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Classics (disambiguation)]].'' '''''Classics''''', particularly within the [[Western world|Western]] University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Rome|Roman]] culture during the time frame known as [[classical antiquity]]. As a plural noun '''&quot;classics&quot;''' can refer to texts written in the ancient Mediterranean world. The study of classics is a primary subject for the [[humanities]], and the people reading classics are sometimes called [[humanist]]s but are more often referred to as ''classicists''. Symmetrically, in [[China]]'s cultural [[sphere of influence]], the [[Chinese_character|character]] &amp;#32147; (''jing'' in [[pinyin]]) refers to a set of texts written during [[Chinese antiquity]] and the study of the language, literature, history and philosophy of [[ancient China]], mostly through this corpus of [[Chinese classics|Chinese classical texts]], can be described as studying classics. Chinese men of letters sharing [[Confucian]] values can also be paralleled with Western humanists. == Western Classics == The word is derived from the [[Latin]] [[adjective]] ''classicus'' which literally means &quot;belonging to the highest class of citizens&quot;, and has further connotations of superiority, authority and even perfection. The first recorded use of the word was by [[Aulus Gellius]], a Roman author of the [[second century]] who in his [[miscellany]] ''Noctes Atticae'' (19, 8, 15) refers to ''classicus scriptor, non proletarius''. He was ranking writers according to the classification of the Roman taxation classes. This method was started when the Greeks were constantly ranking their cultural work. The word they used was ''[[wikt:canon|canon]]''; ancient Greek for a carpenter's rule. Moreover, early [[Christianity|Christian]] Church Fathers used this term to classify authoritative texts of the [[New Testament]]. This rule further helped in the preservation of works since writing platforms of vellum and papyrus and methods of reproduction was not cheap. The title of ''canon'' placed on a work meant that it would be more easily preserved for future generations. In modern times, a [[Western canon]] was collated that defined the best of [[Western culture]]. At the Alexandrian Library, the ancient scholars coined another term for canonized authors, ''hoi enkrithentes''; &quot;the admitted&quot; or &quot;the included&quot;. Classical studies incorporate a certain type of methodology. The Rule of the classical world and of Christian culture and society was Philo's rule: :&quot;Philo's rule dominated Greek culture, from Homer to Neo-Platonism and the Christian Fathers of late antiquity. The rule is: &quot;&amp;mu;&amp;epsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;chi;&amp;alpha;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;epsilon; &amp;tau;&amp;omicron; &amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;mu;&amp;alpha;&quot; (&quot;metacharatte to theion nomisma&quot;). It is the law of strict continuity. We preserve and do not throw away words or ideas. Words and ideas may grow in meaning but must stay within the limits of the original meaning and concept that the word has.&quot; Classical education was considered the best training for implanting the life of moral excellence [[arete (excellence)|arete]], hence a good citizen. It furnished students with intellectual and aesthetic appreciation for &quot;the best which has been thought and said in the world&quot;. Copleston, an Oxford classicist said that classical education &quot;communicates to the mind...a high sense of honour, a disdain of death in a good cause, (and) a passionate devotion to the welfare of one's country&quot;. [[Cicero]] commented, &quot;All literature, all philosophical treatises, all the voices of antiquity are full of examples for imitation, which would all lie unseen in darkness without the light of literature&quot;. At [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Classics is known as ''[[Literae Humaniores]]'', comprising the study of Ancient Greek and Latin language and literature, Greek and Roman art and archaeology, history and philosophy. It is sometimes known as '''Greats''' after the nickname for the final examinations. ==Quotations== *&quot;Nor can I do better, in conclusion, than impress upon you the study of Greek literature, which not only elevates above the vulgar herd but leads not infrequently to positions of considerable emolument.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;mdash;Thomas Gaisford, Christmas sermon, Christ Church, Oxford. ==See also== {{Portal}} *[[:Category:Classical scholars|Classical scholars]] *[[Classics basic topics]] *[[Literae Humaniores]] *[[:Category:Ancient Greece|Ancient Greece]] *[[:Category:Ancient Rome|Ancient Rome]] *[[Philology]] *[[Humanism]] *[[Western culture]] *[[Western World]] ==Bibliography== *''The Oldest Dead White European Males, And Other Reflections on the Classics'', Bernard Knox, W. W. Norton &amp; Co., NY, London, l993. *''Classical Pasts: The Classical Traditions of Greece and Rome'', James I. Porter, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2005. *&quot;Classicism in Literature&quot;, René Wellek, ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas'', ed. by Philip P. Wiener, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY, l968, l973. ===Western Classical Reference Library=== *''Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'', ed. by Harry Thurston Peck, Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1st pub. 1896, 2nd ed. 1897, reprinted l962. (1701 pages) *''The New Century Classical Handbook'', ed. by Catherine B. Avery, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., Ny, l962. (1162 pages) *''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', ed. by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, revised 3rd ed., Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 2003. (1640 pages) ISBN 0198606419 *''The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature'', ed. by M.C. Howatson, Oxford University Press, NY, l989. (615 pages) *[[Loeb Classical Library]] ===Misc. Bibliography=== *Beard, Mary; Henderson, John. ''Classics: A very short introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 (paperback, ISBN 0192853139); 2000 (new edition, paperback, ISBN 0192853856). *Briggs, Ward&amp;nbsp;W.; Calder,&amp;nbsp;III, William&amp;nbsp;M. ''Classical scholarship: A biographical encyclopedia (Garland reference library of the humanities)''. London: Taylor&amp;nbsp;&amp; Francis, 1990 (ISBN 0824084489). *Macrone, Michael. ''Brush Up Your Classics''. NY: Gramercy Books, l991. (Guide to famous words, phrases and stories of Greek classics.) *''Dictionary of British classicists, 1500–1960'' by Richard&amp;nbsp;B. Todd (General editor). Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 (ISBN 1855069970). ==Classical links== {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Classics}} *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/ The Ancient Library] *[http://www.apaclassics.org/ American Philological Association] *[http://www.annee-philologique.com/aph/ L'Année philologique] *[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/augusta.html Bibliotheca Augustana] *[http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/faculty/associationsw.html Classical associations worldwide] at the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge. *[http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/faculty/departments.html Classical departments worldwide] at the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge. *[http://www.ut.ee/klassik/links/pages/ Classical Resources on Internet] at the Chair of Classical Philology, University of Tartu. *[http://www.roman-emperors.org/ De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors] *[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/index/resources.html Electronic Resources for Classicists] by the University of California, Irvine. *[http://www.roman-empire.net/ Illustrated History of the Roman Empire] *[http://www.nfhdata.de/premium/datenbasis-information/pages/International_News_Service_for_Hi
[1771]] - [[Sir Walter Scott]], Scottish historical novelist and poet (d. [[1832]]) *[[1777]] - King [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies]] (d. [[1830]]) *1777 - [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], Danish physicist (d. [[1851]]) *[[1840]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychologist (d. [[1902]]) *[[1851]] - [[Doc Holliday]], American gambler and gunfighter (d. [[1887]]) *[[1861]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (d. [[1955]]) *[[1863]] - [[Ernest Thayer]], American poet (d. [[1940]]) *[[1865]] - [[Guido Castelnuovo]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1952]]) *[[1866]] - [[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1962]]) *[[1867]] - [[John Galsworthy]], English writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1933]]) *[[1876]] - [[Aleksandar Obrenović]], [[monarch|King]] of [[Serbia]] *[[1881]] - [[Francis Ford (actor)]], American actor *[[1882]] - [[Gisela Richter]], English art historian (d. [[1972]]) *[[1910]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1911]] - [[Vethathiri|Shri Vethathiri Maharishi]], Indian yogi *[[1916]] - [[Wellington Mara]], Co-Owner of the New York Football Giants *[[1925]] - [[Russell Baker]], American columnist *[[1926]] - [[René Goscinny]], French comic-strip author (d. [[1977]]) *1926 - [[Lina Wertmüller]], Italian film director *[[1930]] - [[Earl Weaver]], baseball manager *[[1933]] - [[Richard R. Ernst]], Swiss chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1935]] - [[John Brodie]], American football player *[[1940]] - [[Dash Crofts]], American musician ([[Seals and Crofts]]) *[[1941]] - [[David Crosby]], American guitarist and songwriter *[[1943]] - [[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]], American football player and broadcaster *[[1945]] - [[Steve Martin]], American comedian and actor *1945 - [[Wim Wenders]], German-born film director *[[1946]] - [[Antonio Fargas]], American actor *1946 - [[Susan Saint James]], American actress *[[1947]] - [[Danielle Steel]], American novelist *[[1950]] - [[Bob Backlund]], American professional wrestler *1950 - [[Gary Larson]], American cartoonist *[[1952]] - [[Carl Lumbly]], American actor *1952 - [[Debbie Meyer]], American swimmer *[[1953]] - [[James Horner]], American composer *1953 - [[Cliff Johnson]], computer game author *[[1954]] - [[Mark Fidrych]], baseball player *[[1956]] - [[Rusty Wallace]], American race car driver *[[1959]] - [[Marcia Gay Harden]], American actress *1959 - [[Magic Johnson|Earvin &quot;Magic&quot; Johnson]], American basketball player *[[1960]] - [[Sarah Brightman]], English soprano *[[1961]] - [[Susan Olsen]], American actress *[[1964]] - [[Brannon Braga]], American scriptwriter and director *[[1965]] - [[Emmanuelle Béart]], French actress *[[1966]] - [[Halle Berry]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[Darren Clarke]], Northern Irish professional golfer *[[1973]] - [[Jared Borgetti]], Mexican footballer *1973 - [[Jay-Jay Okocha]], Nigerian footballer *1973 - [[Kieren Perkins]], Australian swimmer *[[1977]] - [[Juan Pierre]], baseball player *[[1983]] - [[Elena Baltacha]], Ukrainian-born tennis player *1983 - [[Mila Kunis]], Ukrainian-born actress *[[1986]] - [[Terin Humphrey]], American gymnast ==Deaths== *[[1167]] - [[Rainald of Dassel]], Archbishop of Cologne *[[1204]] - [[Minamoto no Yoriie]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1182]]) *[[1390]] - [[John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel]], English soldier (b. [[1364]]) *[[1430]] - [[Philip I, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1404]]) *[[1433]] - King [[John I of Portugal]] (b. [[1357]]) *[[1464]] - [[Pope Pius II]] (b. [[1405]]) *[[1573]] - [[Saito Tatsuoki]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1548]]) *[[1691]] - [[Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel]], Irish rebel (b. [[1630]]) *[[1704]] - [[Roland Laporte]], French protestant leader (b. [[1675]]) *[[1727]] - [[William Croft]], English composer (b. [[1678]]) *[[1774]] - [[Johann Jakob Reiske]], German scholar and physician (b. [[1716]]) *[[1784]] - [[Nathaniel Hone]], Irish-born painter (b. [[1718]]) *[[1856]] - [[Constant Prévost]], French geologist (b. [[1787]]) *[[1860]] - [[André Marie Constant Duméril]], French zoologist (b. [[1774]]) *[[1905]] - [[Simeon Solomon]], British artist (b. [[1840]]) *[[1938]] - [[Hugh Trumble]], Australian Test Cricketer (b. [[1876]]) *[[1941]] - [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]], French chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1854]]) *[[1943]] - [[Joe Kelley]], baseball player (b. [[1871]]) *[[1951]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American newspaper magnate (b. [[1863]]) *[[1955]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1861]]) *[[1956]] - [[Bertolt Brecht]], German writer (b. [[1898]]) *[[1958]] - [[Frédéric Joliot]], French physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1900]]) *[[1972]] - [[Oscar Levant]], American actor, composer, and musician (b. [[1906]]) *[[1980]] - [[Dorothy Stratten]], Canadian actress and model (b. [[1960]]) *[[1981]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (b. [[1894]]) *[[1984]] - [[J. B. Priestley]], English novelist and playwright (b. [[1894]]) *[[1985]] - [[Gale Sondergaard]], American actress (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[Enzo Ferrari]], Italian car maker (b. [[1898]]) *[[2000]] - [[Alain Fournier]], French-born [[computer graphics]] researcher (b. [[1943]]) *[[2002]] - [[Dave Williams]], American singer ([[Drowning Pool]]) (b. [[1972]]) *[[2003]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (b. [[1929]]) *[[2004]] - [[Czeslaw Milosz|Czes&amp;#322;aw Mi&amp;#322;osz]], Polish-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1911]]) *[[2005]] - [[Coo Coo Marlin]], American race car driver (b. [[1932]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Morocco]] - [[Allegiance]] of [[Oued Eddahab]] or [[Río de Oro]] *[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Maximilian Kolbe]] (Polish Franciscan priest martyred by Nazis in [[1941]]) *[[Pakistan]] - [[Independence Day]] *[[United States]] - National [[Code talker|Code Talkers]] Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/14 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 13]] - [[August 15]] - [[July 14]] - [[September 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:14 Augustus]] [[ar:14 أغسطس]] [[an:14 d'agosto]] [[ast:14 d'agostu]] [[bg:14 август]] [[be:14 жніўня]] [[bs:14. august]] [[ca:14 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 14]] [[cv:Çурла, 14]] [[co:14 d'aostu]] [[cs:14. srpen]] [[cy:14 Awst]] [[da:14. august]] [[de:14. August]] [[et:14. august]] [[el:14 Αυγούστου]] [[es:14 de agosto]] [[eo:14-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 14]] [[fo:14. august]] [[fr:14 août]] [[fy:14 augustus]] [[ga:14 Lúnasa]] [[gl:14 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 14일]] [[hr:14. kolovoza]] [[io:14 di agosto]] [[id:14 Agustus]] [[ia:14 de augusto]] [[ie:14 august]] [[is:14. ágúst]] [[it:14 agosto]] [[he:14 באוגוסט]] [[jv:14 Agustus]] [[ka:14 აგვისტო]] [[csb:14 zélnika]] [[ku:14'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 14]] [[lb:14. August]] [[li:14 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 14]] [[mk:14 август]] [[ms:14 Ogos]] [[nap:14 'e aùsto]] [[nl:14 augustus]] [[ja:8月14日]] [[no:14. august]] [[nn:14. august]] [[oc:14 d'agost]] [[pl:14 sierpnia]] [[pt:14 de Agosto]] [[ro:14 august]] [[ru:14 августа]] [[sco:14 August]] [[sq:14 Gusht]] [[scn:14 di austu]] [[simple:August 14]] [[sk:14. august]] [[sl:14. avgust]] [[sr:14. август]] [[fi:14. elokuuta]] [[sv:14 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 14]] [[tt:14. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 14]] [[th:14 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:14 tháng 8]] [[tr:14 Ağustos]] [[uk:14 серпня]] [[ur:14 اگست]] [[wa:14 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 14]] [[zh:8月14日]] [[pam:Agostu 14]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Absolute zero</title> <id>1418</id> <revision> <id>41558959</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:38:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Melchoir</username> <id>454640</id> </contributor> <comment>rv; that didn't make sense</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Absolute zero''' is a fundamental lower bound on the [[temperature]] of any macroscopic [[system]]. It is a temperature of [[kelvin|0 K]], [[Celsius|&amp;minus;273.15&amp;deg;C]], &lt;!-- Exactly! Celsius is defined as kelvin minus 273.15 these days. --&gt; or [[Fahrenheit|&amp;minus;459.67&amp;deg;F]]. It is unachievable in practice but it exists as a limit for real [[physical phenomenon|physical phenomena]], and it was inferred by [[extrapolation]] from [[kinetic theory]], and from other considerations in [[theoretical physics]]. One would like to define it as the temperature at which all [[motion]] ceases, but even at absolute zero some motion remains due to the requirements of [[quantum mechanics]]. Alternate definitions are that absolute zero is the temperature at which no further [[energy]] can be extracted from a [[physical body]], or the temperature at which the [[entropy|entropies]] of perfect [[crystal]]s vanish, or the temperature at which the entropy change of an [[adiabatic]] [[process]] vanishes. A state of '''absolute zero''' was first proposed by [[Guillaume Amontons]] in [[1702]] who was investigating the relationship between [[pressure]] and temperature in [[gas]]es. He lacked accurate and precise [[thermometers]] so his results were only semi-[[quantitative]], but he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one-third between &quot;cold&quot; temperatures and the [[boiling point]] of [[water]]. His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. The problem is that all [[ideal gas|real gases]] [[liquid|liquefy]] during the approach to absolute zero. In [[1848]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] proposed an [[thermodynamic temperature|absolute thermodynamic temperature]] scale in which equal reduction in measured temperature gave rise to equal reduction in the heat of a [[body]]. This freed the concept from the constraints of the [[gas laws]] and established absolute zero as the temperature
as graphical elements. With a mind for visually impaired users, who may be using extreme text magnification that makes non-resizing graphics largely irrelevant, others are moving away from this approach. Unfortunately, the DOM interfaces in various browsers differ and don't always match the [[W3C]] DOM standards. Rather than write different variants of a JavaScript function for each of the many browsers in common use today, it is usually possible, by carefully following the W3C DOM Level 1 or 2 standards, to provide the required functionality in a standards-compliant way that most browsers will execute correctly. Care must always be taken to ensure that the web page [[Dignified die|degrades gracefully]] and so is still usable by any user who * has JavaScript execution disabled - for example as a security precaution * has a browser that does not understand the JavaScript - for example on a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] or [[mobile phone]] * is visually or otherwise disabled and may be using an unusual browser, a speech browser or may have selected extreme text magnification. For more information on this, see the [[Web Accessibility Initiative]] Other examples of JavaScript interacting with a web page's DOM have been called [[Dynamic HTML|DHTML]] and [[Single Page Application|SPA]]. A different example of the use of JavaScript in web pages is to make calls to web and web-service servers after the page has loaded, depending upon user actions. These calls can obtain new information, which further JavaScript can merge with the existing page's DOM so that it is displayed. This is the basis of [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] programming, which is seen by many to be an important part of [[Web 2.0]]. Outside of the Web, JavaScript interpreters are embedded in a number of tools. [[Adobe Systems|Adobe]] [[Adobe Acrobat|Acrobat]] and Adobe Reader support JavaScript in [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] files. The [[Mozilla]] platform, which underlies several common web browsers, uses JavaScript to implement the user interface and transaction logic of its various products. JavaScript interpreters are also embedded in proprietary applications that lack scriptable interfaces. [[Dashboard (software)|Dashboard Widgets]] in Apple's [[Mac OS X v10.4]] are implemented using JavaScript. Microsoft's [[Active Scripting]] technology supports JavaScript-compatible [[JScript]] as an operating system scripting language. [[JScript .NET]] is a [[Common Language Infrastructure|CLI]]-compliant language that is similar to JScript, but has further object oriented programming features. Tools in the [[Adobe Creative Suite]], including [[Adobe Photoshop|Photoshop]], allow scripting through Javascript. Each of these applications provides its own object model which provides access to the host environment, with the core JavaScript language remaining mostly the same in each application. ==Syntax== :''Main article: [[JavaScript syntax]]'' &lt;!-- Need a brief summary about the syntax of JavaScript, and possibly a Hello World example --&gt; ==Debugging== Depending on the development environment [[debugging]] used to be difficult. Since errors in JavaScript only appear in run-time (i.e., there is no way to check for errors without executing the code), and since JavaScript is interpreted by the web browser as the page is viewed, it may be difficult to track the cause for errors. However nowadays both [[Internet Explorer]] and the [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers come with a reasonably good [[debugger]]. Gecko browsers use the [[Venkman]] debugger, while for Internet Explorer there are two versions: the [[Microsoft Script Debugger]] (free), and the [[Microsoft Script Editor]] (paid). Also, since the arrival of integrated toolbars and plugins, more and more support for JavaScript debugging is becoming available. The Gecko browsers have a native [[DOM]] inspector; for Internet Explorer a DOM inspector is integrated in the [[Web Developer toolbar]]. [[Scripting language]]s are especially susceptible to bugs for the inexperienced programmer. Because JavaScript is interpreted, loosely-typed, and has varying environments (host applications), implementations and versions the programmer has to take exceptional care to make sure the code executes as expected. Each script block is parsed separately. On pages where JavaScript in script blocks is mixed with HTML, syntax errors can be identified more readily by keeping discrete functions in separate script blocks, or (for preference), using many small linked .js files. This way, a syntax error will not cause parsing/compiling to fail for the whole page, and can enable a [[dignified die]]. ==Related languages== There is no real relationship between [[Java programming language|Java]] and JavaScript; their similarities are mostly in syntax (that is, both derived from [[C programming language|C]]). Their semantics are quite different: notably, their object models are unrelated and largely incompatible. Also worth mentioning is Microsoft's own [[VBScript]], which, like JavaScript, is mainly used in web pages. VBScript has syntax derived from [[Visual Basic]] and is only available on Internet Explorer. Due to the success of JavaScript, [[Microsoft]] developed a ''compatible'' language known as [[JScript]]. JScript was first supported in the [[Internet Explorer]] browser version 3.0 released in August, 1996. When web developers talk about using JavaScript in the IE browser, they usually mean JScript. The need for common specifications for the two languages was the basis of the ECMA 262 standard for [[ECMAScript]] (see [[#External links|external links]] below), three editions of which have been published since the work started in November [[1996]] (and which in turn set the stage for the standardization of [[C Sharp programming language|C#]] a few years later). Implementations of ECMAScript include JavaScript, JScript, and [[DMDScript]]. One term often related to JavaScript, the [[Document Object Model]] (DOM), is actually not part of the ECMAScript standard; it's a separate standard, developed by the [[W3C]], closely related to [[XML]]. [[ActionScript]], the [[programming language]] used in [[Macromedia Flash]], bears a resemblance to JavaScript. ActionScript has similar syntax to JavaScript, but the object model is dramatically different. [[JSON]], or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange format that is defined as a subset of JavaScript. [[JavaScript OSA]] (JavaScript for OSA, or JSOSA), is a [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] scripting language based on the [[Mozilla]] 1.5 JavaScript implementation, [[SpiderMonkey]]. It is a freeware component made available by [[Late Night Software]]. Interaction with the operating system and with third-party applications is scripted via a ''MacOS'' object. Otherwise, the language is virtually identical to the core Mozilla implementation. It was offered as an alternative to the more commonly used [[AppleScript]] language. Of only historical interest now, ECMAScript was included in the [[VRML97]] standard for scripting nodes of VRML scene description files. JavaScript is in fact rather similar in semantics to the [[functional programming language|functional programming languages]] such as [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] and [[Ocaml]], having [[closure (computer science)|closures]] and supporting [[higher-order function]]s. [http://www.crockford.com/javascript/little.html The Little Javascripter] shows the relationship with [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] in more detail. ==See also== {{Wikibookspar||Programming:JavaScript}} *[[Client-side JavaScript]] *[[Server-side JavaScript]] *[[JavaScript engine]] *[[List of JavaScript engines]] *[[CorbaScript]] *[[Dynamic HTML]] *[[LiveConnect]] *[[Single Page Application]] *[[XMLHttpRequest]] == References == * Nigel McFarlane: ''Rapid Application Development with Mozilla'', Prentice Hall Professional Technical References, ISBN 0131423436 * David Flanagan, Paula Ferguson: ''JavaScript: The Definitive Guide'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 0596000480 * Danny Goodman, Scott Markel: ''JavaScript and DHTML Cookbook'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 0596004672 * Danny Goodman, Brendan Eich: ''JavaScript Bible'', Wiley, John &amp; Sons, ISBN 0764533428 * Andrew H. Watt, Jinjer L. Simon, Jonathan Watt: ''Teach Yourself JavaScript in 21 Days'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0672322978 * Thomas A. Powell, Fritz Schneider: ''JavaScript: The Complete Reference'', McGraw-Hill Companies, ISBN 0072191279 * Scott Duffy: ''How to do Everything with JavaScript'', Osborne, ISBN 0072228873 * Andy Harris, Andrew Harris: ''JavaScript Programming'', Premier Press, ISBN 0761534105 * Joe Burns, Andree S. Growney, Andree Growney: ''JavaScript Goodies'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0789726122 * Gary B. Shelly, Thomas J. Cashman, William J. Dorin, Jeffrey Quasney: ''JavaScript: Complete Concepts and Techniques'', Course Technology, ISBN 0789562332 * Nick Heinle, Richard Koman: ''Designing with JavaScript'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 1565923006 * Sham Bhangal, Tomasz Jankowski: ''Foundation Web Design: Essential HTML, JavaScript, CSS, PhotoShop, Fireworks, and Flash'', APress L. P., ISBN 1590591526 * Emily Vander Veer: ''JavaScript For Dummies, 4th Edition'', Wiley, ISBN 0764576593 ==External links== *[http://www.mozilla.org/js/ JavaScript home page] at mozilla.org. ===Reference Material=== * References for Core JavaScript versions [http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Core_JavaScript_1.5_Reference 1.5] and [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/CoreReferenceJS14/ 1.4] * [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/ClientReferenceJS13/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.3 Reference] * [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/jsref/ JavaScript 1.2 Reference] * [http://wp.netscape.com/eng/mozilla/3.0/handbook/javascript/ Guide for JavaScript 1.1] as used by Netscape Navigator 3.x * [http://e-pla.net/documen
e national question. The majority of Greeks continued to live under Ottoman rule, and Greeks dreamed of liberating them all and reconstituting a state embracing all the Greek lands, with [[Constantinople]] as its [[capital]]. This was called the Great Idea (''[[Megali Idea]]''), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, particularly [[Crete]], [[Thessaly]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. But Greece was too poor and too weak to wage war on the Ottoman Empire, and Britain, to whom Greece was heavily in debt, opposed any attempt to enlarge the national territory. During the [[Crimean War]] the British occupied [[Piraeus]] to prevent Greece declaring war on the Ottomans as a Russian ally. A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Othon's continuing interference in government. In [[1862]] the King dismissed his Prime Minister, the former admiral [[Konstantinos Kanaris|Constantine Canaris]], the most prominent politician of the period. This provoked a military rebellion, and Othon accepted the inevitable and left the country. The Greeks then asked Britain to send [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s son [[Duke Alfred of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Alfred]] as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other powers. Instead a young Danish Prince became [[George I of Greece|King George I]]. George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith. As a reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British King, Britain ceded the [[Ionian Islands]] to Greece. ==Reign of King George I (1864&amp;ndash;1913)== At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted a much more democratic constitution in 1864. The powers of the King were reduced and the Senate was abolished. The franchise was extended to all adult males. But Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it has been ever since. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis occurred repeatedly as Prime Minister. Two broad parties existed: liberals, led first by [[Charilaos Trikoupis]] and later by [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], and conservatives, led initially by [[Theodoros Deligiannis]] and later by [[Thrasivoulos Zaimis]]. Trikoupis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century. His governments favoured protective tariffs and progressive social legislation. He competed with Deligiannis in promoting Greek nationalism and the ''Megali Idea''. Greece remained a very poor country through the 19th century. Its only important export commodities were currants and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and [[Piraeus]] became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses. By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and poverty in the rural areas and the islands was eased only by large-scale emigration to the [[United States]]. There was little education in the rural areas. Nevertheless there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and fine public buildings were erected in Athens. Another political issue in 19th century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a simple form of Greek called [[Modern Greek| Demotic]]. Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of [[Ancient Greek]]. Government documents and newspapers were published in ''[[Katharevousa]]'' (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives, the University and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts. When the [[New Testament]] was translated into Demotic in [[1901]], there were riots in Athens and the government fell. The Liberals promoted Demotic and the Conservatives promoted ''Katharevousa''. This issue plagued Greek politics until the [[1970s]]. All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in [[1877]], Greece rallied to Russia's side, but was too poor, and too afraid of British intervention, to make much contribution. Nevertheless the [[Treaty of Berlin]] of [[1881]] gave Greece [[Thessaly]] and parts of [[Epirus]], while frustrating Greek hopes of rescuing [[Crete]] from oppressive Ottoman rule. Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in [[1897]] a Greek nationalist government under Deligiannis declared war on the Ottomans. But the Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans and no territory was gained (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)]]). Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the [[1890s]] there were constant disturbances in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. Here the Greeks were in conflict not only with the Ottomans but with the Slav Macedonians and the Bulgarians, who also claimed the region, with its ethnically mixed population. The Cretan Greeks, led by [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], rebelled again in [[1908]], provoking another crisis. When the Greek government led by [[Dimitrios Rallis]] refused to go to the rescue of the Cretans, the army and navy rebelled and forced his resignation in May [[1909]]. Venizelos, a crusading Liberal, was brought from Crete to lead the revolt and in [[1910]] he became Prime Minister. Venizelos was to dominate Greek politics for the next 20 years. ==Wars and crises (1913&amp;ndash;1920)== [[Image:Benizelos.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Eleftherios Venizelos]]]] Venizelos formed a secret alliance with [[Bulgaria]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Serbia]], and in October [[1912]] they all declared war on the Ottomans (see [[Balkan Wars]]). The Ottomans were rapidly defeated, and the four allies rushed to grab as much territory as they could. The Greeks occupied [[Thessaloniki]] and found themselves in a race with the Bulgarians to capture Constantinople. But the great powers intervened to save the Ottomans, and peace was agreed to in December. The four allies soon fell out over their new territories, and in June [[1913]] Greece and Serbia went to war with Bulgaria. There was a final peace treaty in August. Greece gained southern [[Epirus]], coastal [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Crete]] and the Aegean islands &amp;mdash; except the [[Dodecanese]], which had been grabbed by [[Italy]]. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population. Nevertheless Greek nationalist sentiment was not satisfied. Greeks resented the fact that northern Epirus had been given to [[Albania]], parts of Macedonia to Serbia and Bulgaria, [[Thrace]] to Bulgaria, the Dodecanese to Italy and two islands ([[Gokceada and Bozcaada (Imbros and Tenedos)|Imbros and Tenedos]]) to the Ottomans. Above all, the Greeks wanted Constantinople, and they now believed that the Ottomans were so weak that the attainment of the ''Megali Idea'' was within reach. So when [[World War I]] broke out in August [[1914]], Greek opinion was keen to resume the war with the Ottomans and liberate the remaining Greek territories. In March [[1913]], Ioannis Schinas, an anarchist, assassinated George I in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as [[Constantine I of Greece| Constantine I]], the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox. Constantine, however, was married to the sister of [[Wilhelm II of Germany |Kaiser Wilhelm]], and was considered pro-German. While Venizelos wanted to enter the war on the side of Britain and France, the King favoured neutrality, claiming that the country was tired after two Balkan wars. The British offered Venizelos [[Smyrna]] and [[Cyprus]] if Greece entered the war: later the offer was increased to include at least the possibility of Constantinople, although Britain's ally Russia also coveted the city. After a resignation on the part of the government and the subsequent reelection of Venizelos, he invited the Allies to land troops in Thessaloniki. The king then dismissed him, bringing the country to the edge of civil war. In October [[1915]] Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally, and the Allies landed in Thessaloniki and occupied Macedonia, using Venizelos's invitation as their pretext. Constantine was now ruling outside the constitution through a puppet Prime Minister, and Venizelos returned to Crete. During the August of 1916 some Greek army and gendarmerie officers (see [[Cretan Gendarmerie]]) forced a coup d' etat in Thessaloniki and called Venizelos to establish a revolutionary pro-Allied government in Thessaloniki under French protection. In December [[1916]] the French occupied [[Piraeus]], bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired on them. This led to an Allied ultimatum. Constantine left the country, without actually abdicating, and his son [[Alexander of Greece (king)|Alexander]] became &quot;acting King.&quot; Venizelos entered Athens in triumph in June [[1917]]. Greek troops joined the war on the Allied side and helped drive the Bulgarians out of Macedonia. These events increased the division of Greek people into Royalists and [[Venizelism|Venizelists]]. The Ottoman Empire collapsed with the end of the war in November [[1918]], and Greece now expected the Allies to deliver on their promises. The [[Treaty of Sevres]] of August [[1920]] gave Greece all of Thrace and a large area of western [[Anatolia]] around [[Smyrna]]. The future of Constantinople was left to be determined. But the Treaty was never ratified, because a [[Turkish National Movement|nationalist movement]] had arisen in [[Turkey]], led by [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustapha Kemal]] (later Kemal Ataturk), who set up a rival government in [[Ankara]]. The Kemalists repudiated the Treaty and when the Greeks tried to occupy their new territories, Ataturk led
er 19]], [[1356]] |place=Near [[Maupertuis]], south of [[Poitiers]], [[France]] |result=Decisive English Victory |combatant1=[[England]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Gascony]] |combatant2=[[France]] |commander1=[[Edward, the Black Prince]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Captal de Buch]] |commander2=[[John II of France]] |strength1=9,000 |strength2=12,000 |casualties1=Minimal |casualties2=2,500&lt;br&gt; killed or wounded }} {{Campaignbox Hundred Years' War}} The '''Battle of Poitiers''' was fought between [[England]] and [[France]] on [[September 19]], [[1356]], resulting in the second of the three great English victories of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. On [[August 8]], [[1356]], [[Edward, the Black Prince]] began a great ''chevauchée'' (raid) north from the English base in [[Aquitaine]], in efforts to relieve allied garrisons in central [[France]], as well as to raid and destroy the countryside. His sortie worked without much resistance, his Anglo-Gascon forces burning numerous towns to the ground and living off the land, until they reached the River [[Loire]] at [[Tours]], where his army was unable to take the castle; nor could they burn the town due to a heavy downpour. His delay there allowed [[John II of France|John II, King of France]], to attempt to catch his army and eliminate it. The King, who had been confronting [[John of Gaunt|John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster]], in Normandy, arranged the bulk of his army at [[Chartres]] to the north of the besieged Tours, dismissing around 15,000&amp;ndash;20,000 of his low-grade infantry to speed the chase to the Black Prince's position. This made the two armies surprisingly similar in size, an unusual occurrence in the Hundred Years War. [[Image:Battle poitiers maneuvering.gif|thumb|200px|Pre-battle maneuvers prior to the Battle of Poitiers]] [[Image:Battle poitiers.gif|thumb|200px|Map of the Battle of Poitiers]] Upon receiving the reports of the French army on the move, Edward decided a retreat was in order. He marched south being pursued in earnest by John. The French caught up to the English a few miles southwest of [[Poitiers]]. A veteran of the [[Battle of Crecy|battle of Crécy]], at which he fought when he was only sixteen years old, the Black Prince decided on the same tactical scheme employed at that battle. He adopted for his troops a strongly defensive position, in a plane ground surrounded with natural obstacles, such as a creek on the left and a wood on the back. The luggage wagons, with a great amount of plunder, remained along the old Roman road, the main route from Poitiers to Bordeaux, to ensure protection on his weak right side. All men dismounted and were organized in two, perhaps three units, with the Welsh [[english longbow|longbowmen]] placed in a V-formation in both flanks. The Black Prince kept a small cavalry unit, commanded by Jean de Grailly, the [[Captal de Buch]], hidden in the woods at the rear. The attacking French forces were divided in four parts. At the front were around 300 elite knights, commanded by general Clermont and accompanied by German mercenaries (pikemen). The purpose of this group was to charge on the English archers and eliminate the threat they posed. These were followed by three groups of infantry (dismounted cavalry, in this case) commanded by the [[Charles V of France|Dauphin, (later Charles V of France)]], the [[Duke of Orléans]] and King John. Right at the beginning of the battle, the English simulated flight on their left wing. This provoked a hasty charge by the French knights against the archers. However, they were expecting this and quickly attacked the enemy, especially the horses, with a shower of arrows. Froissart writes that the French knight's armour was invulnerable to the English arrows, that the arrowheads either skid off the armour or shattered on impact. The armour on the horses, however, was weak on the sides and back, so the English archers moved to the sides of the cavalry and shot the horses in the flanks. The results were devastating. This attack was followed by the Dauphin's infantry, who engaged in heavy fighting, but withdrew to regroup. The next wave of infantry under Orléans, seeing that the Dauphin's men were not attacking, turned back and panicked. This stranded the forces that were led by the King himself. This was a formidable fighting force, and the Welsh archers were out of arrows: the archers joined the infantry in the fight and some of both groups picked up horses to form an improvised cavalry. Combat was hard, but the Black Prince had still a mobile reserve hidden in the woods, which were able to circle around and attack the French in the flank and rear. The French were fearful of this encirclement and attempted to flee. King John was captured with his immediate entourage. The result was a decisive French defeat, not only in military terms, but it was also an economic defeat: France would be asked to pay a [[ransom]] equivalent to twice the country's yearly income to have her king back, an impossible sum, and he would eventually die a prisoner in England. In many ways Poitiers was a repeat of the [[Battle of Crécy]] showing once again that tactics and strategy can overcome a minor difference in numbers. ==See also== * The [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]] is sometimes called the &quot;Battle of Poitiers&quot; as well. ==External links== *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/froissart1.html ''On The Hundred Years War'', a primary source written by Jean Froissart] ==References== *Green, David. ''The Battle of Poitiers 1356'', (2004), ISBN 0752425579 *Nicolle, David. ''Poitiers 1356: The Capture of a King'', (2004), ISBN 1841765163 [[Category:1356]] [[Category:Battles of the Hundred Years' War|Poitiers 1356]] [[ca:Batalla de Poitiers]] [[de:Schlacht bei Maupertuis]] [[es:Batalla de Poitiers (1356)]] [[fr:Bataille de Poitiers (1356)]] [[io:Poitiers-batalio (1356)]] [[it:Battaglia di Poitiers (1356)]] [[pl:Bitwa pod Poitiers (1356)]] [[pt:Batalha de Poitiers (1356)]] [[ru:Битва при Пуатье (1356)]] [[fi:Poitiersin taistelu (1356)]] [[sv:Slaget vid Poitiers (1356)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Backbone cabal</title> <id>4505</id> <revision> <id>39823858</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:48:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BalooUrsidae</username> <id>103137</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''backbone cabal''' was a group (or [[cabal]]) of large-site administrators who pushed through the [[Great Renaming]] and reined in the chaos of [[Usenet]] during most of the 1980s. [[Gene Spafford|Gene &quot;Spaf&quot; Spafford]] is said to have organized the backbone in [[1983]] to stabilize the Usenet propagation. [http://www-cse.stanford.edu/classes/cs201/projects-98-99/controlling-the-virtual-world/history/rename.html], [http://www.vrx.net/usenet/history/rename/] While many news servers operated during night time to save the cost of long distance communication, servers of the backbone were available 24 hours a day. During most of its lifetime, the Cabal (sometimes [[majuscule|capitalized]]) steadfastly denied its own existence; it was almost obligatory for anyone privy to their secrets to respond &quot;[[There Is No Cabal|There is no Cabal]]&quot; whenever the existence or activities of the group were speculated on in public. The result of this policy was an attractive aura of mystery. Even a decade after the cabal mailing list disbanded in late 1988 following a bitter internal catfight, many people believed (or claimed to believe) that it had not actually disbanded but only gone deeper underground with its power intact. This belief became a model for various paranoid theories about various Cabals with dark nefarious objectives beginning with taking over the Usenet or [[Internet]]. These paranoias were later satirized in ways that took on a life of their own. Follow-ons include the [[Eric Conspiracy]] of mustached [[hacker]]s named &quot;Eric&quot;; and the [[Lumber Cartel]] putatively funding anti-[[spamming|spam]] efforts to support the paper industry. ==External links== *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/B/backbone-cabal.html Jargon File entry] *[[Ursine:Backbone cabal]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]. *[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/usenet/cabal-conspiracy-FAQ/ Cabal Conspiracy FAQ] *[http://www.catb.org/esr/jargon/html/L/Lumber-Cartel.html Lumber Cartel] [[Category:Usenet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bongo (antelope)</title> <id>4506</id> <revision> <id>40810162</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:58:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.142.8.163</ip> </contributor> <comment>cleanup link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''For other articles titled &quot;Bongo&quot; refer to the [[Bongo|disambiguation page]].'' {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Bongo | status = {{StatusEndangered}} | image = Bongo Burger Zoo.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = A Bongo, courtesy of [http://www.animalport.com Animal Portal] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Artiodactyla]] | familia = [[Bovidae]] | subfamilia = [[Bovinae]] | genus = '''''[[Tragelaphus]]''''' | species = '''''T. eurycerus''''' | binomial = ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'' | binomial_authority = ([[William Ogilby|Ogilby]], [[1837]]) }} The '''Bongo''' is a type of [[antelope]] that lives in rain forests in Central, East, and West [[Africa]]. Its scientific name is ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'', in the [[subgenus]] ''boocerus'', which is sometimes made a full [[genus]]. The bongo has red-brown fur with a black belly and white stripes on its sides. It has white spots on its cheeks and a ridge of fur along its back. It has large ears and can weigh as much as 900 pounds (400 kg). Both male and female bongos have spiral horn
does not have to transfer all rights completely. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy and/or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time. A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective; see section 239 of the Australia ''Copyright Act 1968'' (Cth). Under Australian law, it is not enough to pay for a work to be created in order to also own the copyright. The copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Copyright may also be [[license]]d. Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a [[statutory license]] (e g. musical works in the United States). This is also called a [[compulsory license]], because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made. Failure to follow the proper procedures would then result in the copyist being vulnerable to an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following this process for every individual work, [[copyright collective]]s or [[collecting societies]] and [[performing rights organisation|performing rights organization]]s (such as [[ASCAP]], [[Broadcast Music Incorporated|BMI]], [[RIAA]] and [[MPAA]]) have been formed to sell the rights to hundreds of works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work that collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what the avoidance of procedural hassle would justify. ===Brief comparison with similar legal rights=== In general, copyright law covers the creative or artistic expression of an idea, patent law covers [[invention]]s, trademark law covers distinctive [[sign (semiotics)|sign]]s which are used in relation to [[product (business)|products]] or [[services]] as indicators of origin, registered designs law covers the look or appearance of a manufactured or functional article and the [[trade secret|law of confidential information]] covers secret or sensitive knowledge or information. Although copyright and trademark laws are theoretically distinct, more than one type of them may cover the same item or subject matter. For example, in the case of the Mickey Mouse cartoon, the image and name of Mickey Mouse would be the subject of trademark legislation, while the cartoon itself would be subject to copyright. Titles and character names from books or movies may also be trademarked while the works from which they are drawn may qualify for copyright. Another point of distinction is that a copyright (and a patent) is generally subject to a statutorily-determined term, whereas a trademark registration may remain in force indefinitely if the trademark is periodically used and renewal fees continue to be duly paid to the relevant jurisdiction's trade marks office or [[registry]]. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the [[public domain]] and may be freely used or exploited by anyone, as courts in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have rejected the doctrine of a [[common law copyright]]. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publically available. It is completely incorrect, for instance, that simply posting material on the Internet places the material into the public domain such that anyone can freely copy, adapt or commercially exploit the work. Apart from anything else, the material may have been posted by someone who had no right to do so, let alone the power to waive copyright. ===How long copyright lasts=== Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions, with different categories of works and the length it subsists for also depends on whether a work is published or unpublished. In most of the world the default length of copyright for many works is either life of the author plus 50 years, or plus 70 years. Copyright in general always expires at the end of the year concerned, rather than on the exact date of the death of the author. In the United States, all books and other items published before 1923 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. In the US, government documents, regardless of date, are all public domain. ===Moral rights=== :''Main article: [[Moral rights]]'' Many countries recognize certain moral rights of the author of a copyrighted work, following adoption of the [[WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (which in turn requires, inter alia, the implementation of the relevant provisions in the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]]). Two key moral rights are the right not to have the work altered or destroyed without consent, and the right to be attributed as the author of the work. The [[Monty Python]] comedy troupe famously managed to rely on moral rights in 1975 in [[lawsuit|legal proceedings]] against American TV network [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for airing re-edited versions of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. The American exclusive rights tradition is inconsistent with the notion of moral rights as it was constituted in the Civil Code tradition stemming from France's revolution. In the United States, exclusive rights are statutory and granted by Congress. The first major copyright case in the United States, Wheaton v. Peters, established that copyright was not a natural right or a common law right. Although the case was later nullified when the Supreme Court declared it null and void, it soon became a symbol for the morality of copyright. When the United States signed the Berne Convention, they stipulated that the Convention's &quot;moral rights&quot; provisions were addressed sufficiently by other statutes, such as laws covering libel and slander. In most of Europe it is not possible for authors to assign their moral rights (unlike the copyright itself, which is regarded as an item of property which can be sold, licensed, lent, mortgaged or given like any other property). They can agree not to enforce them (and such terms are very common in contracts in Europe). There may also be a requirement for the author to 'assert' these moral rights before they can be enforced. In many books, for example, this is done on a page near the beginning, in amongst the British Library/Library of Congress data. Some European countries also provide for artist resale rights, which mean that artists are entitled to a portion of the appreciation of the value of their work each time it is sold. These rights are granted on the background of a different tradition, which granted ''droits d'auteur'' rather than copyright, also granting all creators various moral rights beyond the economic rights recognized in most copyright jurisdictions (see also [[parallel import]]). ===Typefaces=== In the [[United States]], [[typeface]] designs are not covered by copyright, but may be covered by [[patent]]s if sufficiently novel. [[Germany]] (in 1981) and the [[United Kingdom]] (in 1989) have passed laws making typeface designs copyrightable. The British law, unlike the German, is retroactive, so designs produced before 1989 are also copyrighted if the copyrights would not have already expired. ===Unusual copyright grants=== On rare occasions, rights can be granted outside of usual legislation. When the [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom|current UK copyright legislation]] was debated in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], former [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[James Callaghan|Lord Callaghan of Cardiff]] successfully proposed an amendment entitling the [[Great Ormond Street Hospital|Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children]] to indefinitely retain the rights to payments of [[royalties]] for performances of [[Peter Pan]]. This privilege can be seen explicitly written into [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/Ukpga_19880048_en_28.htm#sdiv6 Schedule 6] of the Act. The [[King James Version]] of the Bible also has an [[Crown copyright|unusual status]]: While it is in the public domain throughout most of the world, production in the UK must be authorized by the Crown. [[William Lily|Lily]]'s Latin Grammar was also under perpetual crown copyright as of 1911.[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CO/COPYRIGHT.htm] ==Registering copyright in the United States== While copyright in the United States automatically attaches upon the creation of an original work of authorship, registration with the copyright office puts a copyright holder in a better position if litigation arises over the copyright. A copyright holder desiring to register his or her copyright should do the following: #Obtain and complete appropriate [http://www.copyright.gov/forms/ form.] #Prepare clear renditon of material being submitted for copyright #Send both documents to U.S. Copyright Office in Washington, D.C. ==See also== ===Related concepts=== *CONTU (The National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyright Works) *[[Copyleft]] *[[Copyright education]] *[[Copyright infringement]] *[[Copyright infringement of software]] *[[Copyright on religious works]] *[[Creative Commons]] *[[Digital rights management]] *[[Digital watermarking]] *[[Copyright treaty table|List of copyright treaty membership]] *[[List of leading legal cases in copyright law]] *[[List of countries' copyright length]] *[[Paracopyright]] *[[Reproduction fees]] *[[Software copyright]] ===Critique=== *[[Anti-copyright]] *[[Copyleft]] *[[Copynorm]] *[[Copyright-free]] *[[Crypto-anarchism]] *''[[Free Culture|Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Cult
ion outside the Indo-Iranian branch. In the 1850s [[Max Müller]] theorized that the word originated as a denotation of farming populations, since he thought it likely that it was related to the root {{PIE|*arh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;}}, meaning &quot;to plough&quot;. Other 19th century writers, such as Charles Morris, repeated this idea, linking the expansion of PIE speakers to the spread of agriculturalists. Most linguists now consider {{PIE|*arh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;}} to be unrelated. ==Indo-Iranian== ''Main article: [[Indo-Iranians]].'' The most probable date for Proto-Indo-Iranian unity is roughly around [[2500 BC]]. In this sense of the word ''Aryan'', the Aryans were an ancient culture preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures. Candidates for an archaeological identification of this culture are the [[Andronovo]] and/or [[Srubnaya]] Archaeological Complexes. ===Indo-Aryan=== ''See also [[Arya]], [[Indo-Aryans]], [[Indo-Aryan languages]], [[Indo-Aryan migration]], [[Aryan invasion theory]].'' There is evidence of speakers of Indo-Aryan in [[Mesopotamia]] around [[1500s BC|1500 BC]] in the form of loanwords in the [[Mitanni]] dialect of Hurrian, the speakers of which, it is speculated, may have once had an Indo-Aryan ruling class. The Indo-Aryans inhabiting northern India, the bearers of the [[Vedic civilization]] are sometimes called [[Vedic Aryans]]. Contemporary speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are spread over most of the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]]. The only Indo-Aryan branch surviving outside the Indian Subcontinent and the [[Himalayas]] is the [[Romani]] language, the language of the [[Roma people]]. ===Iranian=== ''See also [[Iranian peoples]], [[Iranian languages]], [[Achaemenid dynasty]] Since ancient times, [[Persian people|Persians]] (Iranians) used the term ''Aryan'' to describe their lineage and their [[language]], and this [[tradition]] has continued into the present day amongst [[Modern world|modern]] [[Iran]]ians. In fact, the name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and means ''&quot;Land of the Aryans.&quot;'' &lt;ref&gt;http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm&lt;/ref&gt; [[Darius the Great]], King of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] ([[521 BC|521]]–[[486 BC]]), in an inscription in [[Naksh-i Rustam]] (near [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] in present-day [[Iran]]), proclaims: ''&quot;I am [[Darius]] the great King… A [[Persia]]n, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage...&quot;''. He also calls his language the &quot;Aryan language,&quot; commonly known today as [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]]. The word has become a [[term of art|technical term]] in the [[theology|theologies]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], but has always been used by [[Iran]]ians in the ethnic sense as well. In 1967, Iran's [[Pahlavi]] [[dynasty]] added the title [[Āryāmehr]] ''&quot;Light of the Aryans&quot;'' to those of the [[monarch]], known at the time as the [[Shah|Shahanshah]] (''King of Kings''). The term remains also a frequent element in modern Persian personal names, including ''Arya'' (a boy's name), ''Aryana'' (a common surname), ''Iran-dokht'' (Aryan daughter), ''Aryanpur'' (or ''Aryanpour''), ''Aryaramne'', among many others. ==Linguistic Terminology== During the [[19th century]], following [[Max Müller]]'s '[[Aryan invasion theory]]', the term gained an added meaning, being used in the West to refer to what are now called the '[[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]', and, by extension, to the [[Indo-European studies|Indo-European speaking peoples]] as a whole. In linguistics, the term ''Aryan'' currently refers only to the [[Indo-Iranian]] language sub-family. The [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] language evolved into the family of [[Indo-Iranian languages]], of which the oldest-known members are [[Avestan]], [[Vedic language|Vedic]], and another Indo-Aryan language, known only from loan-words found in the [[Mitanni]] language. To prevent confusion because of its several meanings, the term is often avoided today in the Western World. It has been replaced by the well-defined ''Proto-Indo-European'', ''Proto-Indo-Iranian'', ''Indo-Iranian'', ''Iranian'' or ''Indo-Aryan'' terms. ==Proto-Indo-European== [[Max Müller]] and other [[19th century]] linguists (see also [[Indo-European studies]]) theorised that the term ''*arya'' was used as the self-description of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]. The nomadic Iranians of the north western steppes, however, especially those settled in Europe, are extensively covered by the classical writers; they are also attested in a very large number of archaeological excavations in Eastern Europe; these Iranian peoples are known in the West as Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, and finally Ossets; it must be emphasised that all these names refer to the successive migratory waves of the same people, who probably called themselves by a name derived from the word Airya, as the Alans did, and the Ossets still do. ==Indo-European== In the 19th century the term &quot;Aryan&quot; was used as shorthand for &quot;Indo-European&quot;, even though many of the writers who adopted this usage accepted that it was not strictly accurate, given that the term was unattested in western branches of the languages. Because of [[ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]] arguments about connections between peoples and cultural values, &quot;Aryan&quot; peoples were often considered to be distinct from [[Semitic]] peoples. By the end of the nineteenth century this usage was so common that &quot;Aryan&quot; was often used as a [[synonym]] for &quot;[[gentile]]&quot;. This usage was particularly common in Germany. Among [[White supremacists]] the term still sometimes functions as a synonym for non-Jewish &quot;white person&quot;. ==Racist connotations== {{main|Aryan race}} The '''Aryan race''' was a term used in the nineteenth century by European racial theorists who believed strongly in the division of humanity into biologically distinct races with differing characteristics. Such writers took the view that the Proto-Indo-Europeans consituted a specific race that had expanded across Europe, Iran and India. This meaning was, and still is, common in theories of racial superiority which were embraced by [[Nazi]] Germany. This usage tends to merge the Avestan/Sanskrit meaning of &quot;noble&quot; or &quot;elevated&quot; with the idea of distinctive ancestral ethnicity marked by language distribution. In this interpretation, the Aryan Race is ''both'' the highest representative of mankind and the purest descendent of the Proto-Indo-European population. From the 1880s a number of writers had argued that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had been of &quot;Nordic&quot; race. This idea was taken up by the Nazis. According to [[Alfred Rosenberg]]'s ideology the &quot;[[Nordic theory|Aryan-Nordic&quot;]] (''arisch-nordisch'') or &quot;Nordic-Atlantean&quot; (''nordisch-atlantisch'') race was thus a [[master race]], at the top of a racial hierarchy, pitted against a &quot;[[Jewish]]-[[Semitic]]&quot; (''jüdisch-semitisch'') race, deemed to be a racial threat to Germany's homogeneous Aryan civilization, thus rationalizing Nazi [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]]. Nazism portrayed their interpretation of an &quot;Aryan race&quot; as the only race capable of, or with an interest in, creating and maintaining culture and civilizations, while other races are merely capable of conversion, or destruction of culture. These arguments derived from late nineteenth century racial hierarchies. Some Nazis were also influenced by [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]]'s ''[[The Secret Doctrine]]'' ([[1888]]) where she postulates &quot;Aryans&quot; as the fifth of her &quot;[[Root Race]]s&quot;, dating them to about a million years ago, tracing them to [[Atlantis]], an idea also repeated by Rosenberg, and held as doctrine by the [[Thule Society]]. Such theories were used to justify the introduction of the so-called [[Nuremberg laws|&quot;Aryan laws&quot;]] by the Nazis, depriving &quot;non-Aryans&quot; of citizenship and employment rights, and prohibiting marriage between Aryans and non-Aryans. Though [[Mussolini]]'s [[fascism]] was not originally characterised by explicit anti-Semitism, he too eventually introduced laws pressed upon him by Hitler, prohibiting mixed-race marriages between &quot;Aryans&quot; and Jews. Because of historical [[racism|racist]] use of ''Aryan'', and especially use of ''Aryan race'' in connection with the [[mythology|myths]] and [[propaganda]] of [[Nazism]], the word is sometimes avoided in the West as being tainted, in the same manner as the [[swastika]] symbol. In the English language, the use of the word &quot;Aryan&quot; when referring to an ethnic group or race (or even a linguistic group) is no longer in technical use and is sometimes considered unacceptable because of the Nazi associations. In India the term continues to be used. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html] According to Michael Witzel in his paper ''Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts'', &quot;the use of the word Arya or Aryan to designate the speakers of all Indo-European (IE) languages or as the designation of a particular ''race'' is an aberration of many writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and should be avoided.&quot; [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf] ==See also== * [[Aryan race]] * [[Aryanization]] * [[Aryavarta]] * [[History of Iran]] * [[History of India]] * [[History of Pakistan]] * [[History of Afghanistan]] * [[India]] * [[Iran]] * [[Indo-Iranians]] * [[Japhetic]] * [[Kurgan]] * [[Kushan Empire]] * [[Proto-Indo-European language]] * [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] * [[Vedic Civilization]] * [[Tocharians]] ==Notes and references== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt; &lt;references/&gt; &lt;/div&gt
s, more and more anxious, and on June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time, while the king, too ill to speak, confined himself to move his hand. The day after, Alexander was dead. The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that [[Cassander]], son of [[Antipater]], viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, [[Iollas]], brother of Cassander, administered it. Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and [[strychnine]]. In [[Robin Lane Fox|R. Lane Fox]]'s opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available (though this discounts the possibility of multiple doses). However, the warrior culture of Macedon favored the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like [[Plutarch]] and [[Arrian]], maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes. Instead, it is likely that Alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon. Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including [[acute pancreatitis]] or the [[West Nile virus|West Nile]] virus. Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease. [[Hellebore]], believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results. Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in [[India]] that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him. No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries, and each generation offers a new take on it. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 10 or 11 of 323 BC. On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. Since Alexander had only one heir, it was a question of vital importance. He answered famously, &quot;the strongest.&quot; Before dying, his final words were &quot;I foresee a great funeral contest over me.&quot; Alexander's 'funeral games', where his marshals fought it out over control of his empire, lasted for nearly forty years. Alexander's death has been surrounded by as much controversy as many of the events of his life. Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, making it incredibly hard for a modern historian to sort out the propaganda and the half-truths from the actual events. No contemporary source can be fully trusted because of the incredible level of self-serving recording, and as a result what truly happened to Alexander the Great may never be known. Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropid [[sarcophagus]], which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armor, in a gold carriage which had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The decoration of the carriage was very rich and is described in great detail by Diodoros. According to legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of [[honey]] (which acts as a preservative) and interred in a glass [[coffin]]. According to Aelian (''Varia Historia'' 12.64), [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] stole the body and brought it to [[Alexandria]], where it was on display until Late Antiquity. It was here that [[Ptolemy IX of Egypt|Ptolemy IX]], one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after Ptolemy IX was killed. Its current whereabouts are unknown. The so-called &quot;Alexander Sarcophagus,&quot; discovered near [[Sidon]] and now in the [[Istanbul Archaeological Museum]], is now generally thought to be that of [[Abdylonymus]], whom Hephaestion appointed as the king of Sidon by Alexander's order. The sarcophagus depicts Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians. ==Legacy and division of the empire== {{main|Diadochi}} [[Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an [[Aramaic language]] inscription.]] After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his officers, mostly with the pretense of first preserving a united kingdom. Later, his officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states. Ultimately, the conflict was settled after the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in [[Phrygia]] in [[301 BC]]. Alexander's empire was divided at first into four major portions: Cassander ruled in [[Macedon]], [[Lysimachus]] in [[Thrace]], [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Iran]], and [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] in the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]]. [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] ruled for a while in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]] but was eventually defeated by the other generals at Ipsus ([[301 BC]]). Control over [[India]]n territory was short-lived when Seleucus was defeated by [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the first [[Mauryan]] emperor. By [[270 BC]], [[Hellenistic]] states consolidated, with: :*The [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Empire]] centered on Macedon. :*The [[Seleucid Empire]] in Asia :*The [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic kingdom]] in Egypt, Palestine and [[Cyrenaica]] By the [[1st century BC]] though, most of the Hellenistic territories in the West had been absorbed by the [[Roman Republic]]. In the East, they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the [[Parthian Empire]] and the secession of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom. Alexander's conquests also had long term [[cultural]] effects, with the flourishing of [[Hellenistic civilization]] throughout the [[Middle-East]] and [[Central Asia]], and the development of [[Greco-Buddhist art]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. ===Influence on [[Ancient Rome]]=== [[Image:Mosaica.jpg|thumb|200px|A mural in [[Pompeii]], depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC. The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.]] Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements, although very little is known about Roman-Macedonian diplomatic relations of that time. [[Julius Caesar]] wept in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander's statue and [[Pompey the Great]] rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which the Roman general then wore as the costume of greatness. However in his zeal to honor Alexander, [[Octavian Augustus]] accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero's shrine in Alexandria, Egypt. The unbalanced emperor [[Caligula]] later took the dead king's armor from that tomb and donned it for luck. The Macriani, a Roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the [[3rd century]] A.D., always kept images of Alexander on their persons, either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments. Even their dinnerware bore Alexander's face, with the story of the king's life displayed around the rims of special bowls[[#Notes|&amp;sup1;]]. In the summer of [[1995]] during the archaeological work of the season centered on excavating the remains of domestic architecture of early-Roman date a statue of Alexander was recovered from the structure, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the 1st century A.D. and occupied until the 3rd century[[#Notes|&amp;sup2;]]. ====Notes==== &lt;small&gt;1- Frank L. Holt. Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. &lt;small&gt;2- [http://www.egyptology.com/kmt/fall96/nile.html Salima Ikram. Nile Currents] ==General timeline== {{atg-timeline}} ==Alexander's character== {{npov-section}} [[Image:Ac alexanderstatue.jpg|thumb|250px|Equestrian statue of [[Alexander the Great]], on the waterfront at [[Thessaloniki]], capital of [[Greek Macedonia]].]] Modern opinion on Alexander has run the gamut from the idea that he believed he was on a divinely-inspired mission to unite the [[human race]], to the view that he was a [[Narcissism|megalomaniac]] bent on [[Global domination|world domination]]. Such views tend to be [[Anachronism|anachronistic]], however, and the sources allow for a variety of interpretations. Much about Alexander's personality and aims remains enigmatic. Alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in [[Europe]] and much of both [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], where he is known as '''Iskander''' or '''Iskandar Zulkarnain'''. To [[Zoroastrians]], on the other hand, he is remembered as the destroyer of their first great empire and as the leveller of [[Persepolis]]. Ancient sources are generally written with an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate his actual character. Most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following Gaugamela, but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the Greek [[stereotype]] of an orientalizing king. The murder of his friend [[Clitus the Black|Clitus]], which Alexander deeply and immediately regretted, is often cited as a sign of his paranoia, as is hi
rican government administrator *[[Felix Yussupov|Yussupov, Felix]], (1887-1967), Russian assassin = Yv - Yz = *[[Gilbert Yvel|Yvel, Gilbert]], (born 1976), Dutch martial arts teacher *[[Raul Yzaguirre|Yzaguirre, Raul]], (born c. 1950), Mexican-American activist *[[Steve Yzerman|Yzerman, Steve]], (born 1965), Canadian hockey player [[de:Liste der Biografien/Y]] [[es:Lista de biografías (Y)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - Y]] [[nl:Biografielijst Y]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - Y]] [[pt:Biografias: Y]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: Y]] [[zh:人名表/Y]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: W</title> <id>3888</id> <revision> <id>22191716</id> <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:41:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeonardoRob0t</username> <id>389639</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people W}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/W]] [[es:Lista de biografías (W)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - W]] [[nl:Biografielijst W]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - W]] [[pt:Biografias: W]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: W]] [[zh:人名表/W]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: V</title> <id>3889</id> <revision> <id>22191719</id> <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:42:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeonardoRob0t</username> <id>389639</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people V}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/V]] [[es:Lista de biografías (V)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - V]] [[nl:Biografielijst V]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - V]] [[pt:Biografias: V]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: V]] [[zh:人名表/V]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: U</title> <id>3890</id> <revision> <id>39884941</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:36:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jerzy</username> <id>21860</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Ur */ Subdiv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people}} __FORCETOC__ == People named U == *[[U Aung San]], Burmese activist &lt;!-- Commander in Chief of the [[Burma Independence Army]] --&gt; *[[U Ba Maw]], Burmese politician &lt;!-- prime minister during Japanese occupation --&gt; *[[U Nu]],&lt;!-- 3-time --&gt; Burmese politician &lt;!-- prime minister --&gt; *[[U Thant]], Burmese politician &amp; international diplomat &lt;!-- UN Secretary General --&gt; == Ua - Uh == *[[Raoul Ubac|Ubac, Raoul]], (1910-1985), painter *[[Paolo Uccello|Uccello, Paolo]], (1397-1475), Italian painter *[[Emperor Uda]], emperor of Japan &lt;!-- , (867-931) --&gt; *[[Mark Udall|Udall, Mark E.]] (1950-) *[[Mo Udall|Udall, Morris King &quot;Mo&quot;]] (1922-1998) *[[Stewart Udall|Udall, Stewart Lee]] (born 1920) *[[Tom Udall|Udall, Thomas Stewart &quot;Tom&quot;]] (1948-) *[[Albert Uderzo|Uderzo, Albert]], (born 1927), French cartoonist &lt;!-- of ''[[Asterix]]'' fame --&gt; *[[Ernst Udet|Udet, Ernst]], German WWI fighter ace *[[Narayan Udit|Udit, Narayan]], Indian &lt;!-- Playback --&gt; singer *[[Joze Udovic|Udovic, Joze]], (1912-1986), poet *[[Peter Ueberroth|Ueberroth, Peter]] (born 1937), American sports administrator &lt;!-- head of [[1984 Summer Olympics|Los Angeles Olympic]] Organizing Committee, Commissioner of Baseball --&gt; *[[Yasutsune Uehara|Uehara, Yasutsune]], (born 1949), Japanese boxer *[[Nobuo Uematsu|Uematsu, Nobuo]], (born 1959), Japanese composer *[[Naomi Uemura|Uemura, Naomi]], (1941-1984), Japanese climber &lt;!-- and adventurer --&gt; *[[Kisshomaru Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Kisshomaru]], (1921-1999), martial arts practitioner &lt;!-- 2nd [[Aikido Doshu|doshu]] of [[aikido]] --&gt; *[[Morihei Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Morihei]] (1883-1969), Japanese martial arts practitioner &lt;!-- founder of [[aikido]] --&gt; *[[Moriteru Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Moriteru]] (born 1951), martial arts practitioner &lt;!-- 3rd [[Aikido Doshu|doshu]] of [[aikido]] --&gt; *[[Fritz von Uhde|Uhde, Fritz von]], (1848-1911), German painter *[[Charlotte Uhlenbroek|Uhlenbroek, Charlotte]] (born 1968), British zoolologist &amp; television presenter == Ul - Um == *[[Stanislaw Ulam|Ulam, Stanislaw]], Polish *[[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam|Ulam, Stanislaw Marcin]] (1909-1984), Polish-born American astronomer *[[Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova|Ulanova, Galina Sergeyevna]], (1910-1988), Russian ballerina *[[Walter Ulbricht|Ulbricht, Walter]], (1893-1973), German politician *[[Sabine Ulibarrí|Ulibarrí, Sabine]], American poet *[[Kent Ullberg|Ullberg, Kent]], (born 1945) *[[Gustaf Ullman|Ullman, Gustaf]], Swedish writer *[[Tracey Ullman|Ullman, Tracey]] (born 1959), British-born comedian *[[Gebhard Ullmann|Ullmann, Gebhard]], musician *[[Liv Ullmann|Ullmann, Liv]], (born 1938), Swedish-born actress *[[Guntis Ulmanis|Ulmanis, Guntis]], president *[[Karlis Ulmanis|Ulmanis, Karlis]], president *[[James 'Blood' Ulmer|Ulmer, James 'Blood']], musician *[[Sarah Ulmer|Ulmer, Sarah]] (born 1976), New Zealand cyclist *[[Ulrich of Strassburg]], scholastic philosopher *[[Björn Ulvaeus|Ulvaeus, Björn]], Swedish songwiter and ex-member of ABBA *[[Tana Umaga|Umaga, Tana]], (born 1973), New Zealand rugby union player *[[Yoshijiro Umezu|Umezu, Yoshijiro]], Japanese general == Un - Up == *[[Miguel de Unamuno|Unamuno, Miguel de]] (1864-1936), Spanish writer &lt;!-- : ''Niebla'', ''San Manuel Bueno Martir'' --&gt; *[[Joseph A. Unanue|Unanue, Joseph A.]] (born 1925), American grocery entrepreneur &lt;!-- former president of [[Goya Foods]] --&gt; *[[Captain John Underhill|Underhill, John]] (1609-1672), American sesttler &amp; soldier *[[Frederick D. Underwood|Underwood, Frederick D.]] (fl. 1920s), American railroader &lt;!-- president of the [[Erie Railroad]] [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]] --&gt; *[[Ron Underwood|Underwood, Ron]] (born 1953), American film director *[[Sigrid Undset|Undset, Sigrid]] (1882-1949), &lt;!-- ''Kristin Lavransdatter'' --&gt; *[[Giuseppe Ungaretti|Ungaretti, Giuseppe]], Italian poet *[[William Unger|Unger, William]] (1837-1932), painter *[[Mattias Alexander von Ungern-Sternberg|Ungern-Sternberg, Mattias Alexander von]], Swedish soldier &lt;!-- field marshal --&gt; *[[Ungern von Sternberg|Ungern von Sternberg, Roman Fyodorovich]] (1886-1921) Russian soldier &amp; politician &lt;!-- military commander, Mongolian warlord --&gt; *[[Gabrielle Union|Union, Gabrielle]] (born 1973), American actress *[[Johnny Unitas|Unitas, Johnny]] (1933-2002), American football player *[[Unpatar-Naprisha]] (c. 1240- c. 1235 BCE) *[[Bill Unruh|Unruh, Bill]] (born 1945), Canadian physicist *[[Al Unser|Unser, Al]], American race driver &lt;!-- 4-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race --&gt; *[[Al Unser Jr.|Unser Jr., Al]], American race driver &lt;!-- 2-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race --&gt; *[[Alfred Unser|Unser, Alfred]], race driver *[[Bobby Unser|Unser, Bobby]], American race driver &lt;!-- 3-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race *[[Untash-Naprisha]] (c. 1275-c. 1240 BCE) *[[Michelangelo Unterberger|Unterberger, Michelangelo]] (1695-1753), painter *[[Louis Untermeyer|Untermeyer, Louis]], American editor &lt;!-- (Treasury of Erotic Poetry) --&gt; *[[Carl Herman Unthan|Unthan, Carl Herman]], Austrian violinist American race driver &lt;!-- without hands --&gt; *[[Henry Unton|Unton, Henry]] (c. 1557-1596), English diplomat *[[Stanley Unwin (publisher)|Unwin, Stanley]], publisher &lt;!--[[George Allen and Unwin]]--&gt; *[[Stanley Unwin (comedian)|Unwin, Stanley]], comedian &lt;!--[[gobbledegook]] language--&gt; *[[John Updike|Updike, John]] (born 1932), author &lt;!-- of ''[[Rabbit Run]]'' and sequels. --&gt; *[[Charles Upham|Upham, Charles]] (1908-1994), New Zealand soldier &lt;!-- war hero --&gt; *[[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|Uqlidisi]] (920-990), mathematician == Ur == === Ura - Uri === *[[Pablo Uranga|Uranga, Pablo]] (1861-1934), Spanish painter *[[Pope Urban I|Urban I, Pope]], (222-230) *[[Pope Urban II|Urban II, Pope]], (1088-1099) *[[Pope Urban III|Urban III, Pope]], (1185-1187) *[[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV, Pope]], (1261-1264) *[[Pope Urban V|Urban V, Pope]], (1362-1370) *[[Pope Urban VI|Urban VI, Pope]], (1378-1389) *[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII, Pope]] (1590) *[[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII, Pope]], (1623-1644) *[[Midge Ure|Ure, Midge]] (b. 1953), singer-songwriter *[[Modest Urgell|Urgell, Modest]] (1839-1919) Spanish painter and illustrator *[[Leon Uris|Uris, Leon]], (1924-2003), US writer *[[Moisei Uritsky|Uritsky, Moisei Solomonovich]] (1873-1918) === Uro - Ury === *[[Stefan Uros I|Uros, Stefan, I]], (1243-1276), Serbian monarch *[[Stefan Uros V|Uros, Stefan, V]], (1355-1371), Serbian monarch *[[Emma Maree Urquhart|Urquhart, Emma Maree]], (born 1991), British writer *[[Feargus Urquhart|Urquhart, Feargus]] *[[Jane Urquhart|Urquhart, Jane]] (born 1949), novelist *[[Roy Urquhart|Urquhart, Robe
the cultivation of poorer land, benefited first and foremost the landowners because they would receive the rent payments either in money or in product. The Theory of Wages, simply stated said that wages in the long run will approximate the level needed to keep workers alive. Ricardo believed that an increase in the price of food would raise the &quot;natural price of labor&quot; which is not fixed. A rise in wages leads to a rise in the population level which leads to an increase in the supply of labor thus decreasing wages. In his Theory of Profit, Ricardo stated that as money wages increase, profits decrease because the price of manufactured goods remains at an established level. He said in his ''Essay'' ''on'' ''Profits'' &quot;Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food.&quot; ==Publications== Ricardo's publications included: * ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' ([[1810]]), which advocated the adoption of a metallic [[currency]] * ''Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock'' ([[1815]]), which argued that repealing the [[Corn Laws]] would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society * ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' ([[1817]]), an analysis that concluded that [[land (economics)|land]] rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of [[comparative advantage]], which showed that all nations could benefit from [[free trade]], even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners. ==References== *Case, Karl E. &amp; Fair, Ray C. (1999). ''Principles of Economics'' (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-961905-4. *[[Samuel Hollander]] - The Economics of David Ricardo (University of Toronto Press, 1979) ==see also== * [[List of international trade topics]] ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} * [http://www.econlib.org/library/Ricardo/ricP.html &lt;i&gt;On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation&lt;/i&gt;], by David Ricardo. Complete, fully-searchable text at the Library of Economics and Liberty. * [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Ricardo.html Biography], at the &lt;i&gt;Concise Encyclopedia of Economics&lt;/i&gt; * [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ricardo.htm Biography] at New School University * [http://www.tutor2u.net/newsmanager/templates/?a=722&amp;z=58 Biography on Ricardo for A level students] on tutor2u [[Category:1772 births|Ricardo, David]] [[Category:1823 deaths|Ricardo, David]] [[Category:British economists|Ricardo, David]] [[Category:Utilitarians|Ricardo, David]] [[Category:International trade]] [[category:International economics]] [[bn:ডেভিড রিকার্ডো]] [[ca:David Ricardo]] [[da:David Ricardo]] [[de:David Ricardo]] [[et:David Ricardo]] [[es:David Ricardo]] [[fr:David Ricardo]] [[it:David Ricardo]] [[he:דייוויד ריקארדו]] [[lt:Davidas Rikardas]] [[hu:David Ricardo]] [[nl:David Ricardo]] [[ja:デヴィッド・リカード]] [[no:David Ricardo]] [[nn:David Ricardo]] [[pt:David Ricardo]] [[sr:Давид Рикардо]] [[fi:David Ricardo]] [[sv:David Ricardo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Delphinus</title> <id>8471</id> <revision> <id>38749244</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T10:46:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses2|Delphinus}} {{Infobox Constellation| name = Delphinus | abbreviation = Del | genitive = Delphini | symbology = [[Dolphin]] | RA = 20.7 | dec= +13.8 | areatotal = 189 | arearank = 69th | numberstars = 0 | starname = Rotanev (&amp;beta; Del) | starmagnitude = 3.63 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Vulpecula]] *[[Sagitta]] *[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] *[[Aquarius]] *[[Equuleus]] *[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]] | latmax = 90 | latmin = 70 | month = September | notes=}} '''Delphinus''', being [[Latin]] for ''[[Dolphin]]'', is a rather small (ranked 69th) northern [[constellation]] very close to the [[celestial equator]]. It was already included in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations and also forms part of the modern list of 88 constellations approved by the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]. It looks remarkably like a leaping dolphin and thus can easily be recognized in the sky. Delphinus is surrounded (clockwise from north) by the little fox [[Vulpecula]], the flying arrow [[Sagitta]], the eagle [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], the water carrier [[Aquarius]], the little horse [[Equuleus]] and finally the flying horse [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]. ==Notable features== Here are some of its stars: *[[Alpha Delphini|&amp;alpha; Del]] (Sualocin): B9&amp;nbsp;IV, 3.77m (multiple star system with 6 components) *[[Beta Delphini|&amp;beta; Del]] (Rotanev): F5&amp;nbsp;IV, 3.63m *[[Gamma Delphini|&amp;gamma; Del]]: one of the finest double stars in the sky. **&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Del: F7&amp;nbsp;V, 5.14m **&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Del: K1&amp;nbsp;IV, 4.27m *[[Delta Delphini|&amp;delta; Del]]: A7&amp;nbsp;IIIp, 4.43m *The above mentioned stars form an [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] called ''Job's Coffin''. *[[Epsilon Delphini|&amp;epsilon; Del]] (Deneb Dulfim, or the ''tail of the Dolphin'') is a star of spectral class B6&amp;nbsp;III with a magnitude of 4 *[[R Delphini|R Del]]: Mira-type variable star with a period of 285.5 days; magnitude range between 7.6 and 13.8 ==Notable deep sky objects== *NGC 6891: [[Planetary nebula]]; 10.5m *NGC 6934: This [[globular cluster]] is of magnitude 9.75 *NGC 7006: at a distance of about 185,000 light-years this globular cluster is extremely remote; 11.5m ==History== The names of the two brightest stars of this constellation, Sualocin (Alpha Delphini) and Rotanev (Beta Delphini), are not, as one might expect, names dating from Antiquity, but instead are quite new. They first appeared in a star catalogue of 1814 that was published at the Palermo Observatory in Italy. When read backwards they form the name Nicolaus Venator which is the latinized version of the name of the assistant director of that observatory at that time: Niccolò Cacciatore (both Cacciatore and Venator mean hunter). ==Mythology== There are two major stories from Greek mythology behind this constellation. According to the first one, Greek god [[Poseidon]] wanted to marry [[Amphitrite]], a [[nereid]]. She, however, wanting to protect her virginity, fled to the Atlas mountains. Her suitor then sent out several searchers, among them a certain Delphinus. Delphinus accidentally stumbled upon her and was able to persuade Amphitrite to accept Poseidon's wooing. Out of gratitude the god placed the image of a dolphin among the stars. The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth. Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy. On his way home from [[Tarentum]] his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him. Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge. This he did and while doing so flung himself into the Sea from where he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music. The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left. ==Stars== :Stars with proper names: :* ([[Alpha Delphini|9/&amp;alpha; Del]]) 3.77 '''Sualocin''' [''Scalovin, Svalocin, Nicolaus''] :*: &lt; Nicolaus [backwards]. One &quot;Nicolaus Venator&quot; ad-libbed these names. :* ([[Beta Delphini|6/&amp;beta; Del]]) 3.63 '''Rotanev''' [''Rotanen, Venator''] :*: &lt; Venator [backwards] :* ([[Epsilon Delphini|2/&amp;epsilon; Del]]) 4.03 '''Deneb Dulfim''' [Deneb, ''Al Dhanab al Dulfim''] :*: &lt; &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; ''ðanab ad-dulf&amp;#299;n''Tail of the Dolphin :Stars with Bayer designations: ::[[Gamma1 Delphini|12/&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Del]] 5.15; [[Gamma2 Delphini|12/&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Del]] 4.27; [[Delta Delphini|11/&amp;delta; Del]] 4.43; [[Zeta Delphini|4/&amp;zeta; Del]] 4.64; [[Theta Delphini|8/&amp;theta; Del]] 5.69; [[Eta Delphini|3/&amp;eta; Del]] 5.39; [[Iota Delphini|5/&amp;iota; Del]] 5.42; [[Kappa Delphini|7/&amp;kappa; Del]] 5.07 :Stars with Flamsteed designations: ::[[1 Delphini|1 Del]] 6.03; [[10 Delphini|10 Del]] 6.01; [[13 Delphini|13 Del]] 5.57; [[14 Delphini|14 Del]] 6.32; [[15 Delphini|15 Del]] 6.01; [[16 Delphini|16 Del]] 5.54; [[17 Delphini|17 Del]] 5.19; [[18 Delphini|18 Del]] 5.51 ==See also== *[[Poseidon]] *[[Dolphin]] &lt;!-- Source of values for stars: www.alcyone.de; mainly from catalogues BSC/HR --&gt; &lt;!-- Source of values for &quot;nebulae&quot;: mainly RNGC --&gt; {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Delphinus (constellation)}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/delphinus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Delphinus] [[Category:Delphinus constellation| ]] [[ca:Dofí (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Delfín (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Delfinen]] [[de:Delfin (Sternbild)]] [[es:Delphinus (constelación)]] [[fr:Dauphin (constellation)]] [[ga:An Deilf]] [[ko:돌고래자리]] [[it:Delphinus]] [[la:Delphinus (sidus)]] [[lt:Delfinas (astronomija)]] [[hu:Delfin (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Dolfijn (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:いるか座]] [[nn:Delfinen]] [[pl:Delfin (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Delphinus]] [[ru:Дельфин (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Delfín]] [[fi:Delfiini (tähdistö)]] [[sv:Delfinen]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวโลมา]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Disk storage</title> <id>8472</id> <revision> <id>41980920</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:30Z</timestamp> <cont
ontributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atlas shrugged cover.jpg|thumbnail|200px|''Atlas Shrugged'' cover by [[Nick Gaetano]]. ]] '''''Atlas Shrugged''''' is a novel by Russian-born writer and philosopher [[Ayn Rand]], first published in [[1957]] in the [[United States|USA]], and Rand's last work of fiction before concentrating her writings exclusively on philosophy. Most regard ''Atlas Shrugged'' as Rand's most famous work, her ''tour de force'', and most [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivists]] hold it to be, objectively (as in factually), the greatest novel of all time. Its theme (as stated by Rand) is &quot;the importance of the individual's reasoning mind in human life.&quot; It is a highly philosophical and [[allegory|allegorical]] story that deals with themes of Rand's own [[Objectivism]], though she was not yet known as a philosopher when it was written. Whether or not she had philosophical intentions, and to what extent or sense the novel is an allegory, are controversial subjects. In fact, the ideas behind the book, and their extremism, as well as its relative popularity have made it one of the most controversial novels of the [[20th century]]. It is also one of the [[List_of_longest_novels|longest novels]] ever written, totaling one-thousand pages or more (depending on the publication). {{spoiler}} ==Philosophy and writing== The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is that independent, rational thought is the motor that powers the world. In the book, &quot;men of the mind&quot; go on [[Strike action|strike]], allowing the collapse of what only they hold together &amp;#8212; a peaceful cohesiveness Rand claims that humans, particularly those whose productive work comes from mental effort, may create wherever forceful human interference is absent. Given no alternative, they remove themselves from the &quot;looters.&quot; The title is an analogy: the rational men, like the Greek God Atlas, hold the world on their shoulders; in the form of a strike, they have chosen to 'shrug.' The book is rooted in [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]], the philosophical system founded by Rand. Rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized, and that, inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement. Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is rewarded best when [[private property]] is respected strictly. She advocated [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire capitalism]] as the [[political system]] that is most consistent with these beliefs. These considerations make ''Atlas Shrugged'' a highly political book, especially in its portrayal of [[fascism]], [[socialism]] and [[communism]], or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs, as fatally flawed. However, Rand claimed that it is not a ''fundamentally'' political book, but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society. Rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world, and should be embraced. Her worldview requires a &quot;[[rationality|rational]]&quot; [[moral code]]. She disputes the notion that [[self-sacrifice]] is a virtue, and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a [[divinity|god]] or higher being. The book positions itself against [[Christianity]] specifically, often directly within the characters' dialogue. == Setting == Exactly when ''Atlas Shrugged'' is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague. In [[Wikibooks:Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, the population of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York City]] is given as 7 [[million]]. The historical New York City reached 7 million people in the [[1930s]], which might place the novel sometime after that. There are many early [[20th century]] technologies available, but the political situation is clearly different from actual history. One interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred (or perhaps ''hundreds'') of years in the future, implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass, a global-wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth, population growth, and indeed growth of ''any'' kind; the wars, economic depressions, and other events of the 20th century would be a distant memory to all but [[scholar]]s and [[academician]]s. This would be in line with Rand's ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies. Furthermore, this is also in line with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with ''Playboy'' magazine in which Rand states &quot;What we have today is not a capitalist society, but a mixed economy -- that is, a mixture of freedom and controls, which, by the presently dominant trend, is moving toward dictatorship. The action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship. When and if this happens, that will be the time to go on strike, but not until then.&quot;, thus implying that her novel takes place at some point in the future. The concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of Rand's works, ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]''. All countries outside the US have become, or become during the novel, &quot;People's States&quot;. There are many examples of early 20th century [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|technology]] in ''Atlas Shrugged'', but no post-war advances such as [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[helicopter]]s, or [[computer]]s. [[Jet plane]]s are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology. [[Television]] is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance, while [[radio]] broadcasts are prominent. Though Rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing, she introduces some advanced, fictional inventions (e.g., sound-based [[weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]], torture devices, as well as power plants). Most of the action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' occurs in the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]]. However, there are important events around the world, such as in the People's States of [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[Argentina]], and [[piracy]] at sea. ==Plot== A section by section analysis of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is available on [[Wikibooks:Atlas Shrugged|Wikibooks]]. The novel’s plot, split into three sections (though the story is coherent apart from these,) is extremely complex. The first two sections, and to some extent the last, follow Dagny Taggart, a no-nonsense railroad executive, and her attempt to keep the company alive despite the fact that society is falling towards collectivism/altruism/statism. All throughout the novel people repeat a platitude Dagny greatly resents: ‘Who is John Galt?’ It is a reflection of their helplessness, as the saying means ‘Don’t ask important questions, because they don’t have answers.’ The geniuses of the world seem to be disappearing, and the apparent decline of civilization is making it more and more difficult for her to sustain her life-long aspirations of running the trans-continental railroad, which has been in her family for several generations. She deals with other characters such as Hank Rearden, a self-made businessman of great integrity whose career is hindered by his false feelings of obligation towards his wife. Francisco d'Anconia, Dagny’s childhood friend, first love, and king of the copper industry, appears to have become a worthless playboy who is purposely destroying his business. As the novel progresses: the myths about the real John Galt, as well as Francisco d'Anconia’s actions, become more and more a reflection of the state of the culture, and seem to make more and more sense; and, Hank and Dagny begin to experience the futility of their attempts to survive in a society that hates them and those like them for their greatness. During their plight, Dagny and Hank find the remnants of a motor that turns atmospheric energy into kinetic energy, an astounding feat; they also find evidence that the minds (the ‘Atlases’) of the world are disappearing because of one particular ‘destroyer’ taking them away. Dagny and Hank deal with the irrationalities and apparent contradictions of their atmosphere, and search for the creator of the motor as well as ‘the destroyer’ who is draining the world of its prime movers, in an effort to secure their ability to live rational lives. All of this leads to an elaborate action-based explanation and eventual climax, presenting an understanding of all of the issues explored, and breaking everything down into one basic conflict. The final parts of the novel involve a speech by the story's true protagonist, and a resolution concerning the fate of society. The question 'Who is John Galt' is also answered. * [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Characters]] ** [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Minor Characters]] * [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Companies]] * [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Concepts]] * [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Places]] * [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Technology]] * [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Things]] * [[Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged|Topics of note]] ==Film adaptation== Rights to the novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' were purchased by the Baldwin Entertainment Group in [[2003]] with the intent of producing a feature-length film. Company leader [[Howard Baldwin]] was quoted in September 2004 as saying &quot;...everything is on track and [the movie] hasn’t been held up one bit... I assure you that this will be a big movie and ''it will get made''.&quot; Two works of Rand's&amp;mdash;''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[We the Living]]''&amp;mdash;have been adapted into movies so far. ==External links== * http://www.aynrand.org * http://www.atlassociety.org/news_atlas-movie-updated050304.asp * http://www.cor
man Empire]] in western Europe, which was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. Charlemagne went on to adopt the title 'Augustus' from earlier Roman times. The name of the Empire, in various languages spoken within its confines: * [[German language|German]]: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich'' {{Audio|De-Heiliges_Römisches_Reich-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}} (later: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich deutscher Nation'') * [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Sacro Romano Impero'' * [[Latin]]: ''Sacrum Romanum Imperium'' * [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Sveto rimsko carstvo njemačkoga naroda'' * [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Svatá říše římská (later: Svatá říše římská národa německého)'' * [[French language|French]]: ''Saint Empire Romain Germanique'' * [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego'' * [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Heilige Roomse Rijk'' * [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ''Sveto rimsko cesarstvo'' (or full name ''Sveto rimsko cesarstvo nemške narodnosti'') * [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ''Sveto rimsko carstvo nemačke narodnosti'' * [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Német-Római Császárság'' * [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''Heilaga rómverska keisaraveldið'' Contemporary terminology for the Empire varied greatly over the centuries. The term ''Roman Empire'' was used in [[1034]] to denote the lands under [[Conrad II of the Holy Roman Empire|Conrad II]], and ''Holy Empire'' in [[1157]]. The use of the term ''Roman Emperor'' to refer to [[Northern Europe]]an rulers started earlier with [[Otto II]] (Emperor 973&amp;ndash;983). Emperors from [[Charlemagne]] (c. 742 or 747 &amp;ndash; 814) to [[Otto I the Great]] (Emperor 962&amp;ndash;973) had simply used the phrase ''[[Imperator]] Augustus'' (&quot;August Emperor&quot;). The precise term ''Holy Roman Empire'' dates from [[1254]]; the final version ''Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation'' ([[German language|German]] ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'') appears in [[1512]], after several variations in the late [[15th century]]. Contemporaries did not quite know how to describe this entity either. In his famous [[1667]] description ''De statu imperii Germanici'', published under the alias Severinus de Monzambano, [[Samuel Pufendorf]] wrote: ''&quot;Nihil ergo aliud restat, quam ut dicamus Germaniam esse irregulare aliquod corpus et monstro simile ...&quot;'' (&quot;We are therefore left with calling Germany a body that conforms to no rule and resembles a monster&quot;). [[Voltaire]] later described it as &quot;neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire&quot;. In ''[[Faust]] I,'' in a scene written in [[1775]], the German author [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe| Goethe]] has one of the drinkers in Auerbach's Cellar in [[Leipzig]] ask &quot;Our Holy Roman Empire, lads, what still holds it together?&quot; Goethe also has a longer, not very favourable essay about his personal experiences as a trainee at the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'' in his autobiographical work ''[[Dichtung und Wahrheit]]''. == Structure and institutions == From the [[High Middle Ages]] onwards, the ''[[Reich]]'' was stamped by a most peculiar coexistence of the Empire with the struggle of the [[duke]]s of the local territories to take [[power (sociology)|power]] away from it. As opposed to the rulers of the [[West]] [[Frankish]] lands, which later became [[France]], the Emperor never managed to gain much control over the lands that he formally owned. Instead, the Emperor was forced to grant more and more powers to the individual dukes in their respective territories. This process began in the [[12th century]] and was more or less concluded with the [[1648]] [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Several attempts were made to reverse this degradation of the ''Reich's'' former glory, but failed. Formally, the ''Reich'' comprised the King, to be crowned Emperor by the pope (until 1508), on one side, and the ''Reichsstände'' (imperial estates) on the other. ===King of the Romans (German king)=== [[Image:Holy Roman Empire crown dsc02909.jpg|thumb|200px|The crown of the Holy Roman Empire (2nd half of the 10th century), now held in the [[Vienna]] [[Schatzkammer]].]] The pope's crowning of [[Charlemagne]] as [[Augustus]] in [[800]] formed the example that later kings would follow: it was the result of Charlemagne having defended the pope against the rebellious inhabitants of [[Rome]], which initiated the notion of the ''Reich'' being the protector of the western [[church]]. Becoming Emperor required becoming [[King of the Romans]] (''Rex romanorum''/''römischer König'') first. German kings had been elected since [[time immemorial]]: in the 9th century by the leaders of the five most important tribes: the [[Salic Franks]] of Lorraine, the [[Riparian Franks]] of Franconia, and the [[Saxon people|Saxons]], [[Bavaria]]ns, and [[Swabia]]ns, later by the main lay and clerical dukes of the kingdom, finally only by the so-called [[Prince-elector|''Kurfürsten'']] (electing dukes, electors). This college was formally established by a [[1356]] decree known as the [[Golden Bull]]. Initially, there were seven electors: the [[Count Palatine of the Rhine]], the [[King of Bohemia]], the [[Duke of Saxony]], the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]], and the Archbishops of [[Köln]], [[Mainz]], and [[Trier]]. During the [[Thirty Years War]], the [[Duke of Bavaria]] was given the right to vote as the eighth elector. In order to be elected king, a candidate had to first win over the electors, usually with bribes or promises of land. Until [[1508]], the newly-elected king then travelled to Rome to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. In many cases, this took several years while the King was held up by other tasks: frequently he first had to resolve conflicts in rebellious northern Italy or was in quarrel with the Pope himself. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders: after the late [[15th century]], the [[Reichstag (institution)|''Reichstag'']] established itself as the legislative body of the Empire, a complicated assembly that convened irregularly at the request of the Emperor at varying locations. Only after [[1663]] would the ''Reichstag'' become a permanent assembly. ===Imperial estates=== An entity was considered ''Reichsstand'' (imperial estate) if, according to [[feudal law]], it had no authority above it except the Holy Roman Emperor himself. They included: * Territories governed by a prince or duke, and in some cases kings. (Rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the King of Bohemia (an elector), were not allowed to become King within the Empire, but some had kingdoms outside the Empire, as was, for instance, the case in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], where the ruler was also the [[Prince-elector]] of [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]].) * feudal territories led by a clerical dignitary, who was then considered a [[prince of the church]]. In the common case of a [[Prince-Bishop]], this temporal territory (called prince-bishopric) frequently overlapped his -often larger- [[ecclesiastical]] diocese ([[bishopric]]), giving the Bishop both worldly and clerical powers. An example, among many others, was the [[Bishopric of Osnabrück]]. The most prominent Prince-Bishop (''Fürstbischof'') within the Holy Roman Empire were the three Archbishops who were generally styled after the worldy rank of [[Prince-elector]], and their prince-archbishoprics rather electorates: Cologne (his large temporal estates did not include his cathedral city, so Bonn became his princely residence), Trier and the [[Archbishop of Mainz]] with his [[episcopal see|see]] at [[Mainz Cathedral]]. * [[Imperial Free Cities]] The number of territories was amazingly large, rising to several hundred at the time of the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Many of these comprised no more than a few square miles, so the Empire is aptly described as a &quot;patchwork carpet&quot; (''Flickenteppich'') by many- see [[Kleinstaaterei]]. For a list as in 1792, see [[List of Reichstag participants (1792)]]. ===Reichstag=== The Reichstag was the legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire. It was divided into three distinct classes: * The [[Council of Electors]], which included the [[Electors of the Holy Roman Empire]]. * The [[Council of Princes]], which included both laypersons and clerics. ** The Secular Bench: Princes (those with the title of [[Prince]], [[Grand Duke]], [[Duke]], [[Count Palatine]], [[Margrave]], or [[Landgrave]]) held individual votes; some held more than one vote on the basis of ruling several territories. Also, the Council included [[Count]]s or [[Graf]]s, who were grouped into four Colleges: [[Wetterau]], [[Swabia]], [[Franconia]], and [[Westphalia]]. Each College could cast one vote as a whole. ** The Ecclesiastical Bench: Bishops, certain Abbots, and the two Grand Masters of the [[Teutonic Order]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Order of St John]] had individual votes. Certain other Abbots were grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College held one collective vote. * The [[Council of Imperial Cities]], which included representatives from Imperial Cities grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College had one collective vote. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully equal to the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories. ===Imperial courts=== The ''Reich'' also had two courts: the ''Reichshofrat'' (also known in English as the [[Aulic Council]]) at the court of the King/Emperor (that is, later in [[Vienna]]), and the [[Imperial Chamber Court|''Reichskammergericht'' (Imperial Chamber Court)]], established with the [[Imperial Reform]] of [[1495]]. ===Imperial circles=== As part of th
la]] :I still express, yo, I don't smoke [[cannabis (drug)|weed]] or cess :Cause it's known to give a brother brain damage :And brain damage on the mic don't manage - NUTHIN :but makin' a sucka and you equal :Don't be another sequel.. (NWA, &quot;Express Yourself&quot;) Dr. Dre enjoyed significant success in N.W.A.. After a dispute with [[Eazy-E]], a founding member of N.W.A. and [[Ruthless Records]], Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in [[1991]] to form Death Row Records with Suge Knight. Dr. Dre released his first solo single, &quot;[[Deep Cover (single)|Deep Cover]],&quot;(AKA 187) in the spring of [[1992]]. This was the beginning of his collaboration with rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg (who is now simply known as &quot;Snoop Dogg&quot;, following his departure from [[Death Row Records]],) a young man who had recorded some homemade tapes with Dre's stepbrother [[Warren G]]. Warren G played Dre some of Snoop's [[mixtape]]s and Dre arranged a meeting with the young man, beginning a lifelong association. [[Image:Dr.DreTheChronicalbumcover.jpg|frame|Dr. Dre's Chronic|right]] Snoop's voice appeared on Dre's [[1992]] debut album ''[[The Chronic]]'' as much as Dre's did. Thanks to the single &quot;[[Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang]],&quot; and hits like &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; and &quot;Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')&quot;, ''The Chronic'' became a multi-platinum seller, making it virtually impossible to hear mainstream hip-hop that wasn't affected in some way by Dr. Dre. Shortly after its release, [[The Chronic]] became one of the biggest-selling hip hop albums in history. The song &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; won Dre the 1993 Grammy for Best Rap Solo Performance. &quot;The Chronic&quot; was followed shortly by a string of multi-platinum albums from Dre’s protégés, including Snoop Dogg’s debut album [[Doggystyle]] and [[Warren G]]’s ''[[Regulate... G Funk Era]]''. The following year, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album ''Doggystyle'', with similar subject matter and musical style. ''Doggystyle'' achieved phenomenal success, being the first debut album for an artist to debut at #1 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] charts. In [[1996]], the song &quot;California Love,&quot; a highly successful collaboration with [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] artist [[Tupac Shakur]], helped further establish [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] and Dr. Dre as a major force in the music industry. By the end of the year, however, the success of [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] had taken a reverse turn, following the death of [[Tupac Shakur]] and [[racketeering]] charges against [[Suge Knight]]. Foreseeing the label's collapse, Dr. Dre left [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] to form his own [[Aftermath Entertainment]] label. The ''[[Dr. Dre Presents...The Aftermath]]'' album, released at the end of the year, featured songs by the newly signed [[Aftermath Entertainment | Aftermath]] artists, and a solo track &quot;Been There, Done That&quot;. The track was intended as a symbolic good-bye to [[gangsta-rap]], in which Dre suggested that he is moving on to another level of music and lifestyle. While going platinum, the album was considered a commercial disappointment by Dre's standards, and was a critical failure as well. In 1997, Dre produced ''[[Nas, Foxy Brown, AZ, and Nature Present The Firm: The Album]]''; while also going platinum, the album met with similarly negative reviews from critics. The turning point for Aftermath came in [[1998]], when Dre signed aspiring Detroit rapper Eminem to his label, producing his controversial album ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' in [[1999]], followed by the even more successful and controversial ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' in [[2000]]. Though he was heavily involved in the latter, producing five beats with collaborator [[Mel-Man]], by the time ''[[The Eminem Show]]'' was released in [[2002]], Eminem was producing the bulk of his output himself. However, ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' featured substantially increased production involvement from Dre. He released his second solo album, ''[[Dr. Dre 2001]]'' (sometimes referred to by fans as ''&quot;The Chronic 2001: No Seeds&quot;''), or more often simply '2001' in 1999. Once again, the album featured about as much of Dre's voice as the voices of numerous collaborators, including [[Devin the Dude]], [[Hittman]], Snoop Dogg, and Eminem. The album was highly successful, thus reaffirming a recurring theme featured in its lyrics, stating that Dre is still a force to be reckoned with, despite the lack of major releases in the previous few years. In 2000, Dr. Dre won the Grammy award for Producer Of The Year, for his work on &quot;[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]&quot; and &quot;2001&quot;. The albums followed a new musical direction, characterised by high-pitched piano and string melodies over a deep and rich [[bassline]]. The style was also prominent in his following production work for other artists, including hits such as &quot;Let Me Blow Ya Mind&quot; by Eve and [[Gwen Stefani]] (whom he would produce again on the Stefani and Eve track &quot;Rich Girl&quot;), &quot;Break Ya Neck&quot; by Busta Rhymes, and &quot;Family Affair&quot; by [[Mary J. Blige]]. Dr. Dre has also appeared in the movies ''[[Set It Off]]'', ''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]'' and ''[[Training Day]]'', though he later stated that he does not intend to pursue a career in acting. A song of his, &quot;Bad Intentions&quot; (featuring [[Knoc-Turn'Al]]) and produced by Mahogany, was featured on the [[soundtrack]] to ''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]''. Dre also appeared on two other songs &quot;On the Blvd.&quot; and &quot;The Wash&quot; along with his co-star Snoop Dogg. In [[2003]], Dr. Dre and Eminem produced the major-label debut ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' for [[Queens]] rapper 50 Cent, featuring the Dre-produced hit single &quot;[[In Da Club]].&quot; The release of ''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'', which was to be Dre's final solo album, was planned for [[2004]]. The project was declared to be cancelled for a while, as Dre decided to put all his effort into producing the artists on his [[Aftermath Entertainment | Aftermath]] label, including Eminem, 50 Cent, Eve, The Game, Stat Quo, and Busta Rhymes; former N.W.A member [[Ice Cube]] is currently negotiating a contract with the label. However, in [[November]] 2004, Dre and [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] confirmed that ''Detox'' was still in the works and is currently scheduled to be released in late [[2006]]. On Eminem's song &quot;[[Encore (song)|Encore]]&quot;, featuring Dre himself, Eminem mentions that the Eminem crew will &quot;make&quot; him do the album. Dre will also be producing Snoop Dogg's next album, ''[[The Blue Carpet Treatment]]'' which will be released in 2006. ==Albums Discography== ===With N.W.A=== *''[[N.W.A. and the Posse]]'', [[Ruthless Records]], 1987. *''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'', Ruthless Records, 1989. *''[[100 Miles and Runnin']] '', Ruthless Records, 1990. *''[[Efil4zaggin]] (&quot;Niggaz4life&quot; spelled backwards)'', Ruthless Records, 1991. ===Solo=== *''[[The Chronic]]'', [[Death Row Records]], [[1992]] #3 US (4x Platinum) *''[[Concrete Roots]]'' Hitman Music, [[1994]] Exec. Prod.[[DJ Flash]] *''[[Greatest Hits (Dr. Dre album)|Greatest Hits]]'', Central Station , [[1996]] *''[[Dr. Dre Presents...The Aftermath]]'', [[Aftermath Records]], 1996 *''[[First Round Knock Out]]'', Triple X, [[1996]] — collection of early recording and Dre-produced material *''[[Back 'N The Day]]'', Blue Dolphin, 1996 — Budget-priced compilation of mid-1990s remixes of pre-N.W.A Dre tracks *''[[2001 (album)|2001]]'', Aftermath Records, 1999 #2 US (6x Platinum), #4 UK *''[[Maximum Dr. Dre]]'', Orchard, [[2001]] *''[[Chronicle: Best of the Work]]'', Death Row Records, 2002 *''[[Greatest Hits V.2]]'', Central Station, 2004 *''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'', [[Aftermath Records]], official release date T.B.A. ===Production=== *Eazy E - '' [[Eazy Duz It]]'', [[Ruthless Records]], [[1989]] (2x Platinum) (Producer) *The D.O.C - '' [[No One Can Do It Better]]'', Ruthless/Interscope, 1989 (Platinum) (Producer) *Snoop Doggy Dogg - ''Doggystyle'', Death Row/Interscope, [[1993]] (4x Platinum) (Producer) *The Firm - ''[[Nas, Foxy Brown, AZ, and Nature Present The Firm: The Album]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, [[1997]] (Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *Eminem - ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, 1999 (4x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *Eminem - ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, 2000 (9x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *Eminem - ''[[The Eminem Show]]'', [[Shady Records|Shady]]/Aftermath/Interscope, 2002 (8x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *50 Cent - ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2003 album)|Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'', Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, [[2003]] (6x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *Eminem - ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'', Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2004 (4x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *The Game - ''[[The Documentary]]'', [[G-Unit Records|G-Unit]]/Aftermath/Interscope, [[2005]] (5x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *50 Cent - ''[[The Massacre]]'', G-Unit/Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2005 (6x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) *50 Cent - ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005 album)|Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' (soundtrack,) G-Unit/Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2005 (Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer) ===Mixtapes=== *''[[Detox - Millennium Of Aftermath]]'' (by [[DJ Rukiz]]), Pickwick, 2005. #183 UK *''[[Pretox]]'' 2005 *''[[Dretox]]'' 2005 ==Singles Discography== * &quot;Surgery&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1984) * &quot;Rapping 100 Speakers&quot; ([[Daniel Sofer]]/[[The Unknown DJ|Unknown DJ]]/[[Dr. Dre]]) (1984) * &quot;Juice&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1985) * &quot;World Class (Remix)&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1985) * &quot;House Calls&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1987) * &quot;
i-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0027&amp;layout=&amp;loc=2&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 2] ''ditto'' *[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0028&amp;layout=&amp;loc=2&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 3] ''ditto'' *[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0029&amp;layout=&amp;loc=&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Extra Volume] ''ditto'' [[Category:1812 births|Mayhew, Henry]] [[Category:1887 deaths|Mayhew, Henry]] [[Category:English journalists|Mayhew, Henry]] [[Category:british magazine editors|Mayhew, Henry]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants</title> <id>13254</id> <revision> <id>41779681</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:18:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Awaggener</username> <id>529633</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Hallucinogen&quot; redirects here. For the psychedelic trance project of Simon Posford, see [[Hallucinogen (musician)]].'' Certain [[Psychoactive drugs|drug]]s can affect the subjective qualities of [[perception]], [[thought]] or [[emotion]], resulting in altered interpretations of sensory input, alternate states of [[consciousness]], or [[hallucination]]s. This general group of [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] agents can be divided into three broad categories: '''psychedelics''', '''dissociatives''' and '''deliriants'''. All of these agents act as [[neurotransmitter]] mimics, often as [[agonist]]s or [[antagonist]]s at neurotransmitter [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]. Their primary effects are markedly different from those of [[stimulant]]s like [[cocaine]] or [[amphetamine]]s, although most do have stimulating effects. The term '''hallucinogen''' is often broadly applied, especially in current scientific literature, to some or all of these substances. The term is attracting increasing criticism, however, for being ethnocentric, dependent upon too broad a definition of hallucination, and implying that certain symptoms that are actually only associated with some substances are applicable to all of them. In all but a tiny minority of psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants, hallucinations of various kinds are only one of many effects produced. The nature of the hallucinations produced is dependent on the specific compound. Broadly speaking, psychedelics more often have various visually distorting effects, deliriants are a class of drug that commonly cause extremely strong, often overpowering and unwanted visual and auditory hallucinations. These substances have a millennial history of traditional use in medicine and religion, where they have been prized for their perceived ability to enhance certain abilities and promote physical and mental healing. Together with other plant agents, like [[tobacco]], they are thought to be the primary tools of [[shamans]] and other [[hierophant|hierophants]]. [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] practitioners using [[peyote]] have reported success against [[alcoholism]], and [[Mazatec]] practitioners routinely use [[psychedelic mushroom|psilocybin mushroom]]s for healing and divination. == Psychedelics == :''Main article: [[psychedelic drug]]'' The ''psychedelic'' (mind manifesting) drugs are classified as those whose primary action is that of enhancing or amplifying the thought processes of the brain typically through the disabling of filters which block or suppress unimportant or undesired signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain, including but not limited to the senses, emotions, memories and the unconscious (or subconscious) mind. This effect is sometimes referred to as ''mind expanding'', or ''consciousness expanding'' as the conscious mind becomes aware of (or sometimes assaulted by) things normally inaccessible to it. At high levels this can become very overwhelming, and can result in achieving a dissociative state. Classic psychedelics include [[LSD]] (acid), [[psilocybin]] (magic mushrooms), [[mescaline]] (peyote), [[ergoline|LSA]] (morning glory seeds) and also [[Ayahuasca]] ([[yage]]). Some of the synthetic &quot;club drugs&quot; such as [[MDMA]] (ecstasy), [[2C-B]] (nexus), [[2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine|DOM]] (STP) and [[5-MeO-DIPT]] (Foxy Methoxy) which have much more specific action to particular aspects of the psyche are also classed as psychedelics, as well as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana). Some psychedelics (namely LSD, psilocybin and cannabis) are extremely non-toxic, making it nearly impossible to physically overdose. :''See also: [[Serotonergic psychedelics]]'' == Dissociatives == :''Main article: [[dissociative drug]]'' A ''dissociative'' is a drug which reduces (or blocks) signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain, typically (but not necessarily, or limited to) the physical senses. Such a state of [[sensory deprivation]] can facilitate self exploration, hallucinations, and dreamlike states of mind which may resemble some psychedelic mindstates. Essentially similar states of mind can be reached via contrasting paths -- psychedelic or dissociative. That said, the entire experience, risks and benefits are markedly different. The primary dissociatives are similar in action to [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] (angel dust) and include [[Ketamine]] (an anaesthetic), and [[DXM]] (the active ingredient in cough syrup). Also included are [[nitrous oxide]], [[salvia divinorum]], and [[muscimol]] from the [[amanita muscaria]] (fly agaric) mushroom. Some dissociatives also have [[central nervous system|CNS]] [[depressant]] effects, thereby carrying similar risks as [[opioids]] to slowing breathing or heart rate to levels resulting in death (when using very high doses). This does not appear to be true in other cases, toxic effects do not appear to exist in the case of salvia divinorum, and the principal risk of nitrous oxide seems to be due to [[Hypoxia (medical)|oxygen deprivation]]. Long term use of dissociative anesthetics such as [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] and [[Ketamine]] (and possibly [[Dextromethorphan|DXM]]) have been suspected to cause [[Olney's lesions]], though these lesions have never been demonstrated in primates to date. == Deliriants == :''Main article: [[deliriant]]'' The ''deliriants'' (or [[anticholinergic]]s) are a special class of dissociative which are antagonists for the [[acetylcholine receptor]]s (unlike muscimol which is an agonist of this receptor). Deliriants are considered to be ''true hallucinogens'' as users will have conversations with people who aren't there, or become angry with a 'person' mimicking their actions, not realizing it is their own reflection in a mirror (which could be dangerous if they became aggressive towards a glass mirror). Where the cholinergics like amanita muscaria have effects akin to lucid dreaming (where one is consciously aware they are dreaming), the anticholinergics have effects akin to sleepwalking (where one doesn't remember what transpired during the experience). Included in this group are such plants as [[atropa belladonna|deadly nightshade]], [[mandrake (plant)|mandrake]], [[henbane]] and [[datura]], as well as a number of pharmaceutical drugs when taken in very high doses such as the antihistamine [[diphenhydramine]] (Benadryl) and the antiemetic [[dimenhydrinate]] (Dramamine or Gravol). In addition to the danger of being far more &quot;out of it&quot; than with other drugs, and retaining a truly fragmented dissociation from regular consciousness without being immobilized, the anticholinergics are toxic, can cause death due to overdose, and also include a number of uncomfortable side effects. These side effects include [[dehydration]] and [[mydriasis]]. == [[Etymology]] and alternative terms == A variety of different, imprecise terms have also been used to refer to drugs of this type. One of the first terms used in English to describe these substances was &quot;''Phantastica''&quot;, coined in [[1928]] by [[Louis Lewin]] in his ground-breaking [[monograph]] of the same name. The term was applied to plants that &quot;''bring about evident cerebral excitation in the form of hallucinations, illusions and visions ... followed by unconsciousness or other symptoms of altered cerebral functioning.''&quot; Lewin complained that the word &quot;does not cover all that I should wish it to convey&quot;, and indeed with the advent of the discovery of [[LSD]] and the widespread scientific experimentation with it and similar drugs, numerous supposedly improved terms were constructed, including hallucinogen, [[psychedelic]], psychotomimetic, psycholytic, schizophrenogenic, cataleptogenic, mysticomimetic and psychodysleptic. Of all the terms created, &quot;hallucinogen&quot;, meaning roughly &quot;generating delusions and false notions&quot; (particularly in the form of sensory distortions), probably enjoys the most widespread and accepted usage. &quot;Psychedelic&quot;, meaning &quot;mind manifesting&quot; and emphasizing the introspective potential of the drugs, and &quot;[[entheogen]]&quot;, meaning &quot;becoming divine within&quot;, are also widely used, particularly among those with positive attitudes towards their usage. In some cases, authors who otherwise use these terms have felt themselves pressured to use &quot;hallucinogen&quot; or &quot;psychotomimetic&quot; (or sometimes &quot;psychomimetic&quot;, in either case meaning &quot;mimicking [[psychosis]]&quot;) in scientific publications. The terms &quot;empathogen&quot; and &quot;entactogen&quot; (see [[Empathogen-Entactogen]]) are also applied to certain drugs (notably those similar to [[MDMA]]) that are also sometimes classed as hallucinogens. The [[World Health Organization]] effectively endorses the &quot;psychotomimetic&quot; point of view, defining a
Park and Preserve]] ===National monuments=== *[[Colorado National Monument]] *[[Dinosaur National Monument]] *[[Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument]] *[[Hovenweep National Monument]] *[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]] ===National recreational areas=== *[[Arapaho National Recreational Area]] *[[Curecanti National Recreational Area]] ===National forests=== *[[Arapaho National Forest]] *[[Grand Mesa National Forest]] *[[Gunnison National Forest]] *[[Pike National Forest]] *[[Rio Grande National Forest]] *[[Roosevelt National Forest]] *[[Routt National Forest]] *[[San Isabel National Forest]] *[[San Juan National Forest]] *[[Uncompahgre National Forest]] *[[White River National Forest]] [[Image:wiki_colorado.JPG|thumb|350px|Greetings from Colorado]] ===National grasslands=== *[[Comanche National Grassland]] *[[Pawnee National Grassland]] ===Wilderness areas=== *[[Collegiate Peaks Wilderness|Collegiate Peaks Wilderness Area]] *[[Flat Top Wilderness Area]] *[[Great Sand Dunes National Monument and Wilderness Area]] *[[Hunter-Fryingpan Wilderness Area]] *[[La Garita Wilderness Area]] *[[Lizard Head Wilderness|Lizard Head Wilderness Area]] *[[Lost Creek Wilderness|Lost Creek Wilderness Area]] *[[Maroon Bells Snowmass Wilderness Area]] *[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness|Mount Sneffels Wilderness Area]] *[[Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area]] *[[Rawah Wilderness Area]] *[[Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Area]] *[[Uncompahgre Wilderness|Uncompahgre Wilderness Area]] *[[Weminuche Wilderness Area]] *[[West Elk Wilderness Area]] ===National historic sites=== *[[Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site]] 1833-1849 trading fort in Colorado *[[Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site]] Nov. 29, 1864 US massacre of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian Innocents ==Education== ===Colleges and universities=== {| |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | *[[Adams State College]] *[[Colorado Christian University]] *[[Colorado College]] *[[Colorado School of Mines]] *[[Colorado State University System]] **[[Colorado State University]] **[[Colorado State University - Pueblo]] *[[Colorado Technical University]] *[[Denver Seminary]] *[[Fort Lewis College]] *[[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute]] *[[Iliff School of Theology]] *[[Jones International University]] *[[Mesa State College]] *[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]] *[[Naropa University]] *[[National Technological University]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | *[[Nazarene Bible College]] *[[Regis University]] *[[Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design]] *[[United States Air Force Academy]] *[[University of Colorado System]] **[[University of Colorado at Boulder]] **[[University of Colorado at Colorado Springs]] **[[University of Colorado at Denver]] **[[University of Colorado Health Sciences Center]] *[[University of Denver]] *[[University of Northern Colorado]] *[[Western State College]] |} ==Professional sports teams== [[As of 2005]], Colorado is least populous state with a franchise in each of the [[major professional sports league]]s. In fact, as of the [[2000]] census Colorado was also the least populous state to have more than one major league team, let alone four. The state is able to support the teams because it contains a large [[metropolitan area]], with a much higher population than any other city in over 500 miles. Therefore, many of the residents in the surrounding states support the teams in Denver, as show by the reach of the Broncos' radio network[http://www.denverbroncos.com/page.php?id=1637]. Colorado has since surpassed [[Louisiana]] in population, although the effects of [[Hurricane Katrina]] have made the futures of that state's teams uncertain. The [[Canadian province]] of [[Alberta]] is the only less populous jurisdiction in North America besides the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] to have more than one major league team. ===Major league teams=== *[[Colorado Rockies]], [[Major League Baseball]] *[[Denver Nuggets]], [[National Basketball Association]] *[[Denver Broncos]], [[National Football League]] *[[Colorado Avalanche]], [[National Hockey League]] ===Other teams=== *[[Colorado Rapids]], [[Major League Soccer]] *[[Colorado Crush]], [[Arena Football League]] *[[Colorado Mammoth]], [[National Lacrosse League]] *[[Denver Outlaws]], [[Major League Lacrosse]] *[[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]], [[Minor League Baseball]] (AAA) *[[Colorado Eagles]], [[Central Hockey League]] *[[Colorado Chill]], [[National Women's Basketball League]] ==Major highways== {| |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | *[[Interstate 25]] *[[Interstate 70]] *[[Interstate 76 (west)|Interstate 76]] *[[U.S. Highway 6]] *[[U.S. Highway 24]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | *[[U.S. Highway 34]] *[[U.S. Highway 36]] *[[U.S. Highway 40]] *[[U.S. Highway 50]] *[[U.S. Highway 85]] *[[U.S. Highway 87]] *[[U.S. Highway 285]] |} ==References== *[[U.S. Census Bureau]]. **[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/08000.html Colorado QuickFacts]. Geographic and demographic information. **[http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab20.pdf Colorado - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1860 to 1990] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) ==See also== *[[Tibetan American]] ==Further reading== *&lt;cite&gt;Explore Colorado, A Naturalist's Handbook&lt;/cite&gt;, The Denver Museum of Natural History and Westcliff Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1-56579-124-X for an excellent guide to the ecological regions of Colorado. *&lt;cite&gt;The Archeology of Colorado, Revised Edition&lt;/cite&gt;, E. Steve Cassells, Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, 1997, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-193-9. *&lt;cite&gt;Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains&lt;/cite&gt;, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-227-7. *&lt;cite&gt;[[The Tie That Binds]]&lt;/cite&gt;, [[Kent Haruf]], 1984, hardcover, ISBN 0030719798, a fictional account of farming in Colorado. *&lt;cite&gt;Railroads of Colorado: Your Guide to Colorado's Historic Trains and Railway Sites&lt;/cite&gt;, Claude Wiatrowski, Voyageur Press, 2002, hardcover, 160 pages, ISBN 0-89658-591-3 ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Colorado}} * {{wikitravel|Colorado}} * [http://www.colorado.gov/ The Official Colorado State Website] * [http://www.colorado.com/ Official tourism Website] * [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/south-west/colorado/ Photos of Colorado - Terra Galleria] * [http://www.rootsweb.com/~coyuma/city/index.html Colorado place names] * [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/colorado Colorado Newspapers] * [http://www.countymapscolorado.com County Maps Colorado] Full color county maps. List of County seats, cities and towns {{Colorado}} {{United_States}} [[Category:1876 establishments]] [[Category:Colorado|*]] [[Category:States of the American West]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[ang:Colorado]] [[ar:كولورادو]] [[ast:Colorado]] [[bg:Колорадо]] [[ca:Colorado]] [[cs:Colorado]] [[da:Colorado]] [[de:Colorado]] [[et:Colorado]] [[es:Colorado (estado)]] [[eo:Koloradio]] [[fr:Colorado]] [[gd:Colorado]] [[gl:Colorado, Estados Unidos de América]] [[ko:콜로라도 주]] [[id:Colorado]] [[is:Colorado]] [[it:Colorado]] [[he:קולורדו]] [[ka:კოლორადო (შტატი)]] [[ks:Kālarēḍō]] [[lv:Kolorādo]] [[lt:Koloradas]] [[lb:Colorado (Bundesstaat)]] [[hu:Colorado]] [[mk:Колорадо]] [[mr:कॉलोराडो]] [[nl:Colorado (staat)]] [[ja:コロラド州]] [[no:Colorado]] [[nn:Colorado]] [[os:Колорадо]] [[pl:Kolorado]] [[pt:Colorado]] [[ru:Колорадо]] [[sq:Colorado]] [[simple:Colorado]] [[sk:Colorado (štát USA)]] [[sl:Kolorado]] [[sr:Колорадо (држава)]] [[fi:Colorado]] [[sv:Colorado]] [[th:มลรัฐโคโลราโด]] [[tr:Colorado]] [[uk:Колорадо]] [[zh:科羅拉多州]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Countries of the World</title> <id>5400</id> <revision> <id>15903610</id> <timestamp>2005-04-27T21:25:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wilfried Derksen</username> <id>42636</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Changed redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carboniferous</title> <id>5401</id> <revision> <id>41888583</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:07:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Carboniferous''' is a major division of the [[geologic timescale]] that extends from the end of the [[Devonian]] period, about 359.2 [[annum|Ma]] (million years ago), to the beginning of the [[Permian]] period, about 299.0 Ma ([[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]] 2004). As with most older [[geology|geologic]] periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by 5–10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive [[coal]] beds of that age found in [[Great Britain]] and Western [[Europe]]. The first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] [[geologic time scale|epoch]], and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]]. Conifer trees were introduced in this important and well-known time period. {{Paleozoic Footer}} {{Carboniferous Footer}} ==Subdivisions== The Carboniferous is usually broken into Lower and Upper subdivisions. The [[faunal stage|Faunal stages]] from youngest to oldest are: ===Gzhelian (most recent)=== *Noginskian/Virgilian ===Kasimovian=== *Klazminskian *Dorogomilovksian/Virgilian *Chamovnicheskian/Cantabrian/Missourian *Krevyakinskian/Cantabrian/Missourian ===Moscovian=== *Myachkovskian/Bolsovian/Desmoinesian *Podolskian/Desmoinesian *Kashirskian/Atokan *Vereiskian/Bolsovian/Atokan ===Bashkirian/Morrowan=== *Melekesskian/Duckmantian *Cheremshanskian/Langsettian *Yeadonian *Marsdenian *Kinderscoutian ===Serpukhovian=== *Alportian *Choki
10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt;||a||[[atto]] |&amp;#28218; mi&amp;#462;o||&amp;#38463; à||&amp;#38463; à |- |10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;||z||[[zepto]] |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#20164; zè||&amp;#20171; jiè |- |10&lt;sup&gt;-24&lt;/sup&gt;||y||[[yocto]] |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#24186; y&amp;#257;o||&amp;#25912; y&amp;#333;u |} ==Suzhou (蘇州) or ''huāmǎ'' (花碼) numerals== Just like Ancient Englishman used the Roman numerals for doing mathematics or commerce, Ancient Chinese used the [[rod numerals]] which is a positional system. The ''huāmǎ'' system is a variation of the rod numeral system. Rod numerals are closely related to the [[counting rods]] and the [[Chinese abacus|abacus]], which is why the numeric symbols for 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 in the ''huāmǎ'' system are represented in a similar way as on the abacus. Nowadays, the ''huāmǎ'' system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices. According to the [[Unicode]] standard version 3.0, these characters are called [[Hangzhou]] style numerals. This indicates that it is not used only by Cantonese in Hong Kong. In the Unicode standard 4.0, an erratum was added which stated: :The [[Suzhou]] numerals (Chinese su1 zhou1 ma3 zi) are special numeric forms used by traders to display the prices of goods. The use of &quot;HANGZHOU&quot; in the names is a misnomer. The misnomer remains in the Unicode standard. In the ''huāmǎ'' system, special symbols are used for digits instead of the Chinese characters. The digits are positional. When written horizontally, the numerical value is written in two rows. For example: {| | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||align=center| 〤〇〢二&lt;br&gt;拾元 |} The top row contains the numeric symbols, for example, 〤〇〢二 stands for 4022. The bottom row consists of one or more Chinese characters that represents the unit of the first digit in the first row. The first part in the bottom row indicates the order of the first digit in the top row, e.g. qian1 ([[Wiktionary:千|千]]) for thousand, bái ([[Wiktionary:百|百]]) for hundred, shí ([[Wiktionary:拾|拾]]) for ten, blank for one etc. The second part denotes the unit of measurement, such as yuán ([[Wiktionary:元|元]] for dollar) or máo ([[Wiktionary:毫|毫]] or [[Wiktionary:毛|毛]] for 10 cents) or xiān ([[Wiktionary:仙|仙]] for 1 cent) or lǐ ([[Wiktionary:里|里]] for the Chinese mile) or any other measurement unit. If the characters ''shí yuán'' ([[Wiktionary:拾|拾]][[Wiktionary:元|元]], &quot;10 dollars&quot;) are below the digits 〤〇〢二, it is then read as forty dollars and twenty two cents. Notice that the decimal point is implicit when the first digit '4' is set at the 'ten' position. This is very similar to the modern [[scientific notation]] for [[floating point]] numbers where the significant digits are represented in the mantissa and the order of magnitude is specified in the exponent. When written vertically, the above example is written thus: {| |align=center| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||align=center| 〤&lt;br&gt;〇&lt;br&gt;〢&lt;br&gt;二&lt;br&gt;拾&lt;br&gt;元 |} The digits of the Suzhou numerals are defined between U+3021 and U+3029 in [[Unicode]]. Zero is represented by a circle, probably the numeral '0', letter 'O' or character [[Wiktionary:〇|〇]] may work well. Leading and trailing zeros are unnecessary in this system. Additional characters representing 10, 20, 30 and 40 exist: [[Wiktionary:十|十]], [[Wiktionary:卄|卄]], [[Wiktionary:卅|卅]], [[Wiktionary:卌|卌]]. For those who cannot see the Unicode glyphs in the web browser, here are the descriptions of the appearance of these digits: * 0 is a circle ([[Wiktionary:〇|〇]]) * 1 is one horizontal ([[Wiktionary:一|一]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〡|〡]]) stroke * 2 is two horizontal ([[Wiktionary:二|二]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〢|〢]]) strokes * 3 is three horizontal ([[Wiktionary:三|三]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〣|〣]]) strokes * 4 is a cross that looks like X ([[Wiktionary:〤|〤]]) * 5 is a loop ([[Wiktionary:〥|〥]]) * 6 is a dot (which signifies 5 the same way as on an abacus) on top of one horizontal stroke ([[Wiktionary:〦|〦]]) * 7 is a dot on top of two horizontal strokes ([[Wiktionary:〧|〧]]) * 8 is a dot on top of three horizontal strokes ([[Wiktionary:〨|〨]]) * 9 is a dot on top of a variant of the 〤 (4) symbol ([[Wiktionary:〩|〩]]); this symbol looks like the Chinese character for &quot;jiǔ ([[Wiktionary:久|久]])&quot;, compare to the formal character '9' &quot;jiǔ ([[Wiktionary:玖|玖]])&quot;. (''Some web browsers, e.g. IE 5.5, display this character incorrectly as the &quot;fǎn wén&quot;, or reverse &quot;wén&quot; radical (夂 &amp; 攵 &amp; 夊 &amp; 文), click [http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=3029 here] to see the correct graphic glyph.'') The digits 1 to 3 come in the vertical and horizontal version so that they can alternate if these digits are next to each other. The first digit usually use the vertical version. e.g. 21 is written as ||— instead of || | which can be confused with 3. ==Hand gestures== ''Main article at: [[Chinese number gestures]].'' There is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten. While the five digits on one hand can express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day-to-day communication. ==Miscellaneous== During [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties (when [[Arabic numerals]] were first introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits. After Qing dynasty, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by [[Arabic numerals]] in mathematical writings. Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in [[Japan]]. In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common. Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures. Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document. [[de:Chinesische Zahlen]] [[es:Numeración china]] [[fr:Numération chinoise]] [[ko:한자 숫자]] [[nl:Chinese cijfers]] [[fi:Kiinalaiset numerot]] [[ru:Китайские цифры]] [[zh:中文数字]] [[category:Numeration]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer program</title> <id>5783</id> <revision> <id>42160707</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:34:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jonnyapple</username> <id>724455</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Programs vs. data */ fixed link (prev went to speech impediment)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The terms '''computer program''', '''software program''', ''[[application software|applications program]]'', ''[[system software]]'', or just '''program''' are used to refer to either an [[executable]] program (by both lay people and [[computer programmer]]s) or the collection of [[source code]] from which an executable program is created (eg, [[compiled]]). ==Terminology== [[Software]] programs (collections of programs and related resources) are most frequently referred to as [[Application software|applications]] by end-users, as these people are focused on the abilities of application software (application programs) rather than [[system software]]. In general discussion among [[computer programmer]]s the context is invariably sufficient to distinguish which of the two possible meanings of the term are intended. &lt;!-- which out of a choice of one? --&gt; Note: The [[United Kingdom|British English]] spelling ''programme'' is, for the most part, no longer used to refer to ''computer programs'', as most internationally-used computing terms use the words (and spelling conventions) adopted in the [[U.S.]]. ==Program execution== A modern day computer program is loaded into memory (usually by the [[operating system]]), interpreted and then executed (&quot;run&quot;) instruction by instruction until &quot;program [[Termination|termination]]&quot;, either with success or through software or hardware error. Some primitive types of computers ran instructions encoded in various ways, an example would be [[Punch card|punch cards]]. Before a computer can execute any sort of program (including the operating system which is also a program) the [[Computer hardware|computer hardware]] must be initialized. This is done by a piece of software stored on [[Programmable read-only memory|programmable memory]] chips installed by the manufacturer called the [[BIOS]]. The BIOS will attempt to initialize the [[boot sequence]] making the computer ready for miscellaneous program execution. ==Programs vs. data== The [[source code]] of a program is often treated as being different from the [[data]] it operates on. In some cases this distinction is blured with programs creating, or modifying data, which is subsequently executed as part of the same program (this is a common occurrence for programs written in [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]). [[Neural network]]s are another example where this distiction between code and data is not clear cut. ==Programming== A program is likely to contain a variety of different [[algorithm]]s. Creating a computer program is the iterative process of writing new [[source code]] or modifying existing source code, followed by testing, analyzing and refining this code. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer [[programmer]] or software developer. The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is now referred to as &quot;software development&quot; or [[software engineering]]. The latter becoming more popular due to the increasing maturity of the discipline. (see [[Software engineering#Debate over who is a software engineer|Debate over who is a software engineer]]) Two other forms of modern day approaches are [[team programming]] where each member of the g
e rebound feelings grow into true love, and Robin will discover he loves Raven even more then he ever loved Starfire. A fandom with many alternate pairings is the anime [[InuYasha]], largely due to the tangled nature of the characters' love lives in the canon. ====Slash==== Slash is a subgenre of the Alternate Pairings paradigm that addresses a relationship (or [[Shipping (fandom)|&quot;ship&quot;]]) between characters of the same gender. The expression comes from the use of the &quot;/&quot; symbol to designate, for example, a [[James T. Kirk|Kirk]]/[[Mr. Spock|Spock]] romance (rather than friendship fic, which used an ampersand &quot;&amp;&quot;) in the very early days of ''[[Star Trek]]'' fanzines. Stories with male/male parings are the most common. &quot;Femmeslash&quot; (also commonly spelt &quot;Femslash&quot;) designates more specifically stories centered on a lesbian relationship, though some homosexual female fan writers now prefer the term &quot;Saffic&quot; (from '[[Sapphic]]' and '[[Fiction]]') for their romantic or erotic fiction, as they feel that the word &quot;femmeslash&quot; makes female/female fiction into a special case of male/male. Slash fiction varies from innocent romance to explicit erotica. Some hold the opinion that a homoerotic or homoromantic fan fiction story is only slash if it is a non-canon pairing and neither character is canonically homo- or bisexual. ''See also: [[Shipping (fandom)]], [[Shōnen-ai]], [[Yaoi]], [[Yuri (animation)]]'' ===Songfic=== ''Main article: [[Songfic]]'' A songfic is a story, often a [[one-shot]] (a fanfic with only one chapter), where the lyrics to a song, or sometimes a poem, are included in the body of the writing, and in someway are connected to the story. For example, characters may be performing the actions described in the song, or going through the emotions described in the song. The lyrics may be used to reveal a depth to the character, or explain complex emotions. Other times it is used merely to set the general mood for the story. In some fandoms, especially ones inspired by printed, literary fiction, songfics are critically unpopular (much like Mary Sues). However, other fandoms, especially those inspired by fiction which normally attracts a teenage audience (such as TV teen dramas, like [[The OC]] or [[One Tree Hill]] etc.), accept songfics completely and are at times vastly popular in that fandom. ===Het=== &quot;Het&quot; classifies a story which has as its main focus a relationship ([[Shipping (fandom)|&quot;ship&quot;]]) between two characters of different genders. The expression is derived from the word &quot;heterosexual&quot; and is used in contrast to [[slash fiction]] and gen(eral). Het varies from innocent romance to explicit erotica. ''See also: [[Shipping (fandom)]]'' ===Lemon and lime=== Explicit sex stories, especially in anime fan fiction, are known as [[lemon (anime)|lemon]]. [[Lime (anime)|Lime]] is a moderated version of the lemon, sexual but not necessarily explicit. Lemons without much plot other than sex are also referred to as smutfics or [[PWP (fanfiction)|PWP]]s (&quot;Porn Without Plot&quot; or &quot;Plot? What Plot?&quot;). ===Virtual seasons=== ''Main article: [[Virtual season]]'' Since television is responsible for a large part of fanfiction, it's no surprise that people have also written [[virtual season]]s on their favorite shows. In this instance, multiple fanfiction writers will usually come together to produce a compilation of original fanfiction stories. Often, these writers and enthusiasts will elect among themselves [[Television producer|producer]]s, [[head writer]]s, [[editor]]s, and other traditional roles to aid in the coordination of the virtual season's material, direction, and continuity. ===Alternative universe=== ''Main article: [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)]]'' If a ''fanfiction'' story at some point completely changes the original's [[Canon (fiction)|canonical]] storyline or premise (such as killing-off the main character, changing characters' motives or alliances, changing the setting, and so forth), it is known as an [[alternative universe (fan fiction)|alternative universe]] fan fiction, or ''''AU'''' for short. &quot;Minor changes&quot; to characters, like personality (in particular mental and emotional changes) are not considered an alternate universe in themselves; instead these changes are called [[out of character]], or ''''OOC'''' fanfiction. Generally, to be considered an ''alternative universe'' story, the change must be extremely improbable to ever happen within the canon, or must be contradicted by new canon information that was not released when the fic was first written. An example of the former might involve a character becoming a rock star (in a story where such would be very unlikely). An example of the latter is writing a fanfic sequel which includes characters who are killed off in later canon installments of a series. Fan fiction is limited only by the author's imaginations. Draco Malfoy might find himself as a private detective in Los Angeles, hired by Harry Potter. Buffy might end up as a soap opera actress in Prague. Billy and Mandy might change personalities. [[Invader Zim|Zim]] could be the Almighty Tallest. ===Continuation=== ''Continuation'' is when fanfiction is created after a series has finished, with the series being a television series ([[series finale]]), a cinematic trilogy, a series novel, and so forth (although the series' [[spin off (television)|spin off]]s and other franchises may continue). The ''continuation'' fanfiction then creates tangential storylines with the characters, or may elaborate on perceived incomplete storylines from the discontinued ''canon'' of the series. ===Real person fiction=== ''Main article: [[Real person fiction]]'' [[Real person fiction]] is a type of fanfiction written about real people such as actors, politicians, athletes and musicians. [[FanFiction.Net]] was once the largest archive of this subgenre on the internet. On [[September 12]], [[2002]], they enacted a policy change which eliminated most real person fiction from the site. The site still accepts real person fiction in several categories including the [[Christian Bible]], [[Diary of Anne Frank]] and ''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]''. As a result of [[FanFiction.Net]]'s policy changes, several different tools were used by the fannish community to archive real person fiction. These sites include [[FanDomination.Net]], [[LiveJournal]], [[Soup Fiction]], [[AdultFanFiction.Net]], [[EFanFiction.Net]] and [[FanWorks.Org]]. ( [[Fanartcentral.Net]] has a small collection of fanfic as well.) ===Original fanfiction=== It is worth noting that there is no such thing as an &quot;original fanfic&quot;. The term is a [[misnomer]] that is sometimes applied to completely original works published online. It is inaccurate, however, because the work is not intentionally based on any previously existing story and is therefore not fanfiction. Not all amateur fiction is fan fiction, regardless of the fact that the popular site [[FanFiction.Net]] once had a section of original works (which has since been moved to [[FictionPress]]). Among [[anime]]/[[manga]] fans, 'original fanfic' is used to refer to an original work that borrows heavily from anime/manga themes and plot devices, and is often set in [[Japan]], with the characters having Japanese names. In other forms, original fanfiction commonly refers to a story which takes place in an established universe, such as ''Star Wars'' or ''Lord of the Rings'', but uses none of the characters. Note, however, that some fanfiction authors at times publish a piece of fiction they have titled 'Original Fanfiction'; this mostly derives from the concept that these works, conceptually independent, have a (normally small) reference to some fandom (i.e., a normal dramatic [[romance]] story which starts with a character taking a train at [[Kings Cross railway station|King's Cross Station]] in [[London]], the [[United Kingdom]] can be considered as an 'Original Fanfiction' in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' fandom). ===&quot;Über&quot; Fanfiction=== ''Main article: [[Überfic]]'' Similar to &quot;original fanfic&quot;, &quot;Uber&quot; stories originated within and are still most common among the ''[[Xena]]'' fan fiction community. In recent years, the Über trend has spread to other fanfic communities, most notably the ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[InuYasha]]'' communiites. A typical Xena Über story is generally romantic or erotic in theme, and features characters with the ''appearance'' of the central duo of Xena and Gabrielle, but placed in contemporary settings, with different backgrounds, names, personalities, etc. Über stories rarely make any specific mention of or allusion to anything within the ''Xena'' canon but instead, center around the duo's relationship as perceived by the Xena fan community. There are many Über stories with reincarnation as part of the theme and most Über stories contain a sense of repeated destiny regarding the duo's relationship. Outside Xena fandom, Über stories are also referred to as &quot;AU,&quot; short for &quot;alternate universe&quot; or &quot;another universe.&quot; As explained above, AU authors only use the characters and their relationships (sometimes not even that) and place them in totally new backgrounds. Though some old characteristics of the character may stay behind, usually their entire background is changed. ===Fanfic as pastiche=== There is also fan fiction in the form of independent, fan-produced [[pastiche]]s and [[parody|parodies]] of established works, including [[film]] and [[video]]. One of the best known is ''[[Troops (film)|Troops]]'', a parody of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Cops (television)|Cops]]'' starring ''[[Star Wars]]'' [[Imperial Stormtrooper]]s on patrol. Another lesser known film is ''Batman: Dead End'', by Sandy Collora. It's small, but
gasias]] [[fi:Agasias]] [[ru:Агасий]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander Emanuel Agassiz</title> <id>1548</id> <revision> <id>36366879</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T15:40:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mrfish33</username> <id>691583</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander Agassiz pers0118.jpg|thumb|right|Alexander Agassiz]] '''Alexander Emanuel Agassiz''' ([[December 17]], [[1835]] &amp;ndash; [[March 27]], [[1910]]), son of [[Louis Agassiz]], was an [[United States|American]] scientist and engineer. He was born in [[Neuchâtel]], [[Switzerland]] and emigrated to the [[United States]] with his father in [[1849]]. He graduated at [[Harvard]] in [[1855]], subsequently studying [[engineering]] and [[chemistry]], and taking the degree of [[bachelor of science]] at the [[Lawrence scientific school]] of the same institution in [[1857]]; and in [[1859]] became an assistant in the [[United States Coast Survey]]. Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine [[ichthyology]], but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of [[mining|mine]]s. [[E. J. Hulbert]], a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, [[Quincy Adams Shaw]], had discovered a rich copper lode known as the [[Calumet conglomerate]] on the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]] [[Lake Superior]] in [[Michigan]]. He persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the [[Calumet &amp; Hecla Mining Company]] based in [[Calumet, Michigan]]. Up until the summer of [[1866]], Agassiz worked as an assistant in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise. Over the winter of 1866 and early [[1867]], mining operations began to falter due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines, and he returned to the mines in March of 1867 with his wife and young son. At that time, Keweenaw Peninsula was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations. Agassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progess in stablizing the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in [[1868]] before winter closed navigation. The mines continued to prosper and in May, [[1871]], several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet &amp; Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August, 1871, Shaw &quot;retired&quot; to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death. Agassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of 4,000 feet. He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time year-round attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard. Out of his copper fortune, he gave some $500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative [[zoology]] and other purposes. In [[1875]] he surveyed [[Lake Titicaca]], [[Peru]], examined the [[copper]] mines of Peru and [[Chile]], and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], of which he was [[curator]] from [[1874]] to [[1885]]. He assisted [[Charles Wyville Thomson]] in the examination and classification of the collections of the ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' exploring expedition, and wrote the ''Review of the Echini'' (2 vols., 1872&amp;ndash;1874) in the reports. Between [[1877]] and [[1880]] he took part in the three [[dredging]] expeditions of the steamer ''Blake'' of the Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them in two volumes ([[1888]]). Of his other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in [[1865]] (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]], his step-mother) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'', a work at once exact and stimulating, and in [[1871]] ''Marine Animals of [[Massachusetts]] Bay''. He served as a president of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. He died in [[1910]] onboard the [[SS Adriatic|SS ''Adriatic'']]. == Works == * (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]]) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'' ([[1865]]) * ''North American Acalephs'', (1865) * ''[[Marine Animals of Massachusetts|Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay]]'' ([[1871]]) * ''Revision of the Echini'' (2 vols., [[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1874]]) * ''North American Starfishes'', ([[1877]]) * ''Report on the Echini of the Challenger Expedition'', ([[1881]]) * ''Explorations of Lake Titicaca'' * ''List of the Echinoderms'' * ''Three Cruises of the ''Blake ([[1888]]) * ''Pacific Coral Reefs'' * ''Coral Reefs of the Maldives'' * ''Panamic Deep Sea Echini'' [[Category:1835 births|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:1910 deaths|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:American zoologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:History of Michigan|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:Ichthyologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agathon</title> <id>1549</id> <revision> <id>33292451</id> <timestamp>2005-12-30T20:52:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ravenous</username> <id>296838</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>linked to Thesmophoriazusae</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agathon''' (c. [[448 BCE|448]]-[[400 BCE|400 BCE]]) was an Athenian tragic poet and friend of [[Euripides]] and [[Plato]]. He is best known from his mention by [[Aristophanes]] in his ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' and in Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]],'' which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy ([[416 BCE|416]]). He was the long time (10-15 years) beloved of Pausanias, also mentioned in the ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' and ''[[Protagoras (Plato)|Protagoras]]''. Pausanias followed Agathon to the court of [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus]], king of [[Macedon]], who was recruiting playwrights. This is where Agathon probably died. He introduced certain innovations, and [[Aristotle]] (''Poetica,'' 9) tells us that the plot of his ''Antho'' was original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects. He is introduced, by Plato, as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of [[Athens]], and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The [[Epideixis]], in praise of love, which he recites in the Symposium, is full of the artificial and rhetorical expressions which might be expected from a former pupil of [[Gorgias]]. Aristotle tells us that he was the first to introduce into the drama arbitrary choral songs, which had nothing to do with the subject, and that he wrote pieces with fictitious names, which appear to have been half way between the idyl and comedy. His intimacy with Aristophanes doubtless saved him from many well-deserved strictures, though in one of his comedies, the latter burlesques his flowery style, representing him as a delicate and effeminate youth, and it may be only for the sake of punning on his name that he makes Dionysus call him a noble poet. Agathon was a friend of [[Euripides]], accompanying him to the court of Archelaus of Macedon, where he died about 402 BCE. He had all the faults, without the genius, of his famous contemporary, and these he carried to excess, attempting to surprise the spectators with unexpected developments and strange, improbable dénouments. Add to this his fondness for [[epigram]], antitheses and other rhetorical embellishments, after the fashion of Gorgias, and no wonder that whatever he possessed of ability was smothered beneath his mannerisms. Yet, of the latter, he appears to have been proud, considering them essential to his verse; for when asked to purge himself of such blemishes, he replied: &quot;You do not see that that would be to purge Agathon's play of Agathon.&quot; His poetry was full of trope, inflection and metaphor; glittering with sparkling ideas and flowing softly along, with harmonious words and nice construction, but lacking in the element of truly virile expression and deficient in manly thought and vigor. With him begins the decline of tragic art in its higher sense. See: Aristophanes, ''Thesmoph.'' 59, 106, ''Eccles.'' 100 ==References== *''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', volume 1, by [[Alfred Bates]]. ([[London]]: [[Historical Publishing Company]], [[1906]]) [[Category:Ancient Athenians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]] [[de:Agathon von Athen]] [[fr:Agathon (poète)]] [[hu:Agathón]] [[pl:Agaton (tragediopisarz)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agesilaus II</title> <id>1550</id> <revision> <id>39538651</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T04:04:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Akendall</username> <id>764469</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Plutarch's lives}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agesilaus II''', or '''Agesilaos II''' ([[Greek l
previous generation ([[Jonathan Swift]] and [[John Gay]], in particular). He followed this up with ''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' ([[1742]]), an original work supposedly dealing with Pamela's brother, Joseph. Although also begun as a parody, this work developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fielding's debut as a serious novelist. In [[1743]], he published a novel in the ''Miscellanies'' volume III (which was the first volume of the Miscellanies). This was ''The History of the Life of the Late Mr Jonathan Wild the Great.'' This novel is sometimes thought of as his first because he almost certainly began composing it before he wrote &quot;Shamela&quot; and &quot;Joseph Andrews.&quot; It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between Walpole and [[Jonathan Wild]], the infamous gang leader and highwayman. He implicitly compares the [[Whig]] party in [[Parliament]] with a gang of thieves, being run by Walpole, whose constant desire to be a &quot;Great Man&quot; (a common epithet for Walpole) should culminate only in the apotheosis of greatness: being hanged. His greatest work was ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'' ([[1749]]), a meticulously constructed [[picaresque novel]] telling the convoluted and hilarious tale of how a foundling came into a fortune. His first wife, Charlotte, on whom he later modeled the heroines of both ''Tom Jones'' and ''Amelia'', died in [[1744]]. Three years later Fielding married her former maid, Mary, disregarding public opinion. Despite this, he became London's Chief Magistrate and his literary career went from strength to strength. Joined by his younger half-brother [[John Fielding|John]], he helped found London's first [[police]] force, the [[Bow Street Runners]] in [[1750]]. However, his health had deteriorated to such an extent that he went abroad in [[1753]] in search of a cure. He died in [[Lisbon]] in [[1754]]. Despite being blind, John Fielding succeeded him as Chief Magistrate. ==Partial list of works == * ''Love in Several Masques'' - play, 1728 * ''Rape upon Rape'' - play, 1730. Adapted by [[Bernard Miles]] as ''Lock Up Your Daughters!'' in 1959, filmed in 1974 * ''The Temple Beau'' - play, 1730 * ''The Author's Farce'' - play, 1730 * ''The Tragedy of Tragedies; or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb'' - play, 1731 * ''Grub-Street Opera'' - play, 1731 * ''The Modern Husband'' - play, 1732 * ''Pasquin'' - play, 1736 * ''The Historical Register for the Year 1736'' - play, 1737 * ''[[An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews]]'' - novel, 1741 * ''The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and his Friend, Mr. Abraham Abrams'' (''[[Joseph Andrews]]'') - novel, 1742 * ''The Life of Jonathan Wild the Great'' - novel, 1743, ironic treatment of [[Jonathan Wild]], the most notorious underworld figure of the time. * ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' - novel, 1749 * ''A Journey from This World to the Next'' - 1749 * ''[[Amelia (novel)|Amelia]]'' - novel, 1751 * ''The Covent Garden Journal'' - 1752 * ''Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon'' - travel narrative, 1755 * ''Tom Thumb N.D.'' == External links == {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Fielding | name=Henry Fielding}} [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:English novelists|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:English satirists|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:Old Etonians|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:1707 births|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:1754 deaths|Fielding, Henry]] [[Category:Natives of Somerset|Fielding, Henry]] [[cs:Henry Fielding]] [[de:Henry Fielding]] [[eo:Henry FIELDING]] [[fr:Henry Fielding]] [[hr:Henry Fielding]] [[it:Henry Fielding]] [[he:הנרי פילדינג]] [[ja:ヘンリー・フィールディング]] [[nl:Henry Fielding]] [[pt:Henry Fielding]] [[zh:亨利·菲尔丁]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hate crime</title> <id>13547</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42154255</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>142.161.89.237</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Against */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Jew]]ish cemetery in [[France]] after being defaced by [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazis]].]] '''Hate crimes''' are [[crimes]] (such as [[violent crime]], [[hate speech]] or [[vandalism]]) that are motivated by feelings of [[Enmity|hostility]] against any identifiable group of people within a society. If systematic, rather than spontaneous, instigators of such crimes are sometimes organized into [[hate groups]]. ==In the United States== The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] defined in [[1992]] a hate crime as a crime in which &quot;the defendant's conduct was motivated by [[hate|hatred]], bias, or prejudice, based on the actual or perceived [[race]], [[skin color|color]], [[religion]], [[nationality|national origin]], [[ethnicity]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender identity]] of another individual or group of individuals&quot; (HR 4797). In [[1994]], the [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act]] added [[disability|disabilities]] to the above list. In the last decade of the 20th century, legislation in many [[U.S. state]]s has established harsher penalties for a number of crimes when they are also considered hate crimes; interestingly, however, very few of these statutes make it more likely for a [[murder]] to trigger the [[death penalty]] when it is found to have also been a hate crime. While some claim that these hate crimes laws exist because women and certain minorities have been victims and require special protection, others say that they exist because crimes motivated by hate deserve a harsher punishment. [[California Penal Code]] section 422.6 offers a wider interpretation of hate crime, defining it as those acts &quot;committed because of the victim's actual or perceived race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, disability, gender, or sexual orientation. The actions considered criminal are using force or threat of force to willfully injure, [[Intimidation|intimidate]], interfere with, [[Oppression|oppress]], or threaten any other person in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to him or her by the Constitution or laws of the State or country.&quot; ===Distinguishing features of hate crimes=== It can be difficult to distinguish a hate crime from other crimes. Usually, a hate crime is detected by a background investigation of the accused person or eyewitness reports of the crime. In some cases, circumstantial evidence shows the intent of the accused. For example, journals or record might describe the hatred and contain plans for crimes to be committed against the targeted group. In other cases, classification of a hate crime is by the judgment of [[law enforcement]] and [[prosecutor]]s. It can be much harder to convict for a hate crime than a normal crime. This may affect whether the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the hate crime statute. The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] sets forth very strict rules that prosecutors use in order to decide whether a crime qualifies as a hate crime. While the hate crime definition used by the FBI for purposes of crime statistics includes sexual orientation, disability, and gender as protected categories, this is not the case for all hate crime laws. As of October 2001, the federal hate crime law 18 USC 245 (b)(2), passed in [[1969]], protects religion, race and national origin, and applies only if the victim is engaged in one of six protected activities. Seven states have no hate crime laws, 20 states have hate crime laws that do not protect sexual orientation, and 24 states have hate crime laws that include sexual orientation. There have been two attempts in 2001 and in 2004 to amend the current federal hate crime law to include homosexuals. Currently, these attempts have been unsuccessful. The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] in [[1948]] requires all signatories to criminalize incitement to [[genocide]]. ===Arguments for and against hate crime laws=== ==== For ==== Many support hate crime laws, stating that their enactment gives individuals greater discouragement from committing hate crimes. Supporters also claim that all laws are subjective, and that if society can determine that one crime deserves more punishment than another (e.g. [[murder]] vs. involuntary [[manslaughter]]) then it can also determine what motivations deserve harsher [[punishment]]s. Some supporters reason that one who can be moved to violence by hatred of a ''class'' of people presents a greater danger to society than one who merely hates an individual. Their position states that if normal punishments are inadequate deterrents, then additional punishments may deter crimes motivated by hate. Other proponents of hate crime legislation consider that socially sanctioned hate is a problem, and that specific legislation is needed to protect those who are often perceived to be less worthy of protection. Another argument sometimes advanced by supporters of hate-crime laws is that violent acts motivated by political or similar reasons are characteristic of earlier, less enlightened societies, and toleration would result in a regress to an earlier stage of social development. Proponents point out that it is not unusual to make thoughts or states of mind ([[mens rea]]) elements of a crime. For example, the distinction between [[first-degree murder]], [[second-degree murder]], and [[manslaughter]] depends on the degree to which the killing was deliberate or premeditated. The definition of [[fraud]] requires [[scienter]] -- that the perpetrator ''knowingly'' defraud the victim. ==== Against ==== Many oppose hate crime laws, stating that imposing a greater penalty on an act committed in hate would thus make hating illegal, citing the novel [[1984 (novel)|Ninetee
[[Category:British television presenters|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Coronation Street actors|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Liverpudlians|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Living people|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Radio DJs in the UK|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Red Dwarf actors|Charles, Craig]] [[Category:Soap opera actors|Charles, Craig]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>County Mayo</title> <id>5830</id> <revision> <id>41783043</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:45:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Djegan</username> <id>49447</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>partial rv - use common spellings</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox| county_name = County Mayo | Irish_name = Contae Mhaigh Eo| crest_image = MOwik.PNG| county_map = IrelandMayo.png | area = 5,397 km² | county town = [[Castlebar]] | code = MO | population = 117,428 | census_yr = 2002 | Province = Connacht | |}} '''County Mayo''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Contae Mhaigh Eo'', the plain of the yews) is a [[county]] on the west coast of [[Ireland]]. It is in the province of [[Connacht]]. The county town of Mayo is [[Castlebar]], which is also the largest town. [[Ballina]] is the second largest town. Mayo is bordered to the south by [[County Galway|Galway]], to the east by [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]], and to the north-east by [[County Sligo|Sligo]]. The [[shrine]] of [[Knock]] is in Mayo close to the border with [[County Roscommon]]. Mayo is also home to [[Croagh Patrick]] a mountain where [[St. Patrick]] is said to have fasted for forty days and nights. The highest point in Mayo and Connacht is [[Mweelrea]] (814 metres). The river [[River Moy|Moy]] in the northeast of the county is renowned for its [[salmon]] [[fishing]]. Ireland's largest island, [[Achill]], is in Mayo. Mayo is also noted for its [[Gaelic Football]] team, and their struggle to capture the All-Ireland Football Title in recent years. They last won the [[Sam Maguire]] Cup in [[1951]]. Mayo's most recent All-Ireland final losses have been in 1989, 1996, 1997 and 2004. [[Michael Davitt]], founder of the [[Land League]], was born in Mayo. The [[Michael Davitt Bridge|bridge to Achill]] is named after him. The south of [[Inishturk]] island has a small secessionist movement which seeks to join with [[County Galway]] to the south, although so far they have made little progress. ==Politics in County Mayo== In July and August 2005, at [[Rossport]] in the north of the county, there have been protests at the decision of [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] to refine [[natural gas]] from the [[Corrib Gas Field]] onshore. This would entail piping the gas through inhabited areas without the chemical that allows people to smell the gas when there is a leak. Five men were jailed for refusing to allow the pipeline through their lands. They have become known as the [[Rossport Five]]. ==Towns and villages in County Mayo== *[[Achill Sound]] (Gob an Choire), [[Aughagower]], [[Aughleam]] (An Eachléim) *[[Balla]], [[Ballina]], [[Ballindine]], [[Ballinrobe]], [[Ballintubber]], [[Ballycastle, County Mayo|Ballycastle]], [[Ballyhaunis]], [[Bangor Erris]], [[Bekan]], [[Bellavary]], [[Belderrig]] (Béal Deirg), [[Belmullet]] (Béal a' Mhuirthid) *[[Carrowteige]] (Ceathrú Thaidhg), [[Castlebar]], [[Castlehill]], [[Charlestown, County Mayo|Charlestown]], [[Claremorris]], [[Cong, County Mayo|Cong]], [[Cregganbaun]], [[Cross, County Mayo|Cross]], [[Crossmolina]] *[[Foxford]] *[[Glenhest]] *[[Hollymount]] *[[Keel, County Mayo|Keel]], [[Kilkelly]], [[Killala]], [[Kilmaine]], [[Kilsallagh]], [[Kiltamagh]], [[Knock]] *[[Lahardane]], [[Lecanvey]], [[Louisburgh, County Mayo|Louisburgh]] *[[Mayo, County Mayo|Mayo]], [[Mulrany]], [[Murrisk]] *[[Neale]], [[Newport, County Mayo|Newport]] *[[Partry]], [[Pontoon, County Mayo|Pontoon]] *[[Ross Port]] (Ros Dumhach) *[[Shrule]], [[Strade]], [[Swinford]] *[[Toormakeady]] (Tuar Mhic Éadaigh) *[[Westport, County Mayo|Westport]] ==Other places in County Mayo== * [[Ashford Castle]] * [[Achill Island]] * [[Ballintubber Abbey]] * [[Clare Island]] * [[Croagh Patrick]] * [[Ireland West Airport Knock|Knock International Airport]] * [[Lough Mask]] * [[Mullet Peninsula]] * [[Nephin Beg Mountains]] * [[Partry Mountains]] * [[Rockfleet Castle]] ==See also== *[[Castlebar transmitter]] *[[Connacht Irish]] ==External links== * [http://www.mayococo.ie/ Mayo County Council's website] * [http://www.mayo-ireland.ie/MotM.htm Tourism in West Ireland] * [http://www.mayo-online.com/ Mayo Web Directory] * [http://www.shamrockcottages.co.uk/maps/mayo.jpg Map of Mayo] * [http://www.westernpeople.ie/ Western People] {{Ireland_counties}} [[Category:Counties of Ireland|Mayo]] [[ast:Condáu de Mayo]] [[ca:Comtat de Mayo]] [[de:Mayo]] [[es:Condado de Mayo]] [[fr:Comté de Mayo]] [[ga:Contae Mhaigh Eo]] [[it:Mayo (contea)]] [[nl:County Mayo]] [[no:Mayo (grevskap)]] [[pl:Mayo (hrabstwo)]] [[pt:Condado de Mayo]] [[ro:Comitatul Mayo]] [[sv:Mayo (grevskap)]] [[uk:Майо]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>County Fermanagh</title> <id>5833</id> <revision> <id>40693111</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T09:53:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Setanta747</username> <id>469399</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Industry and Tourism */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox| county_name = County Fermanagh | Irish_name = Contae Fhear Manach| crest_image = Fermanagh crest.PNG| county_map = NorthernIrelandFermanagh.png | area = 1,691 km² | county town = [[Enniskillen]] | code = | population = 55,000 | census_yr = estimate | Province = Ulster | |}} '''County Fermanagh''' (''Contae Fhear Manach'' or ''Fear Manach'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]), is the westernmost of the six counties that form [[Northern Ireland]]. It belongs to the province of [[Ulster]]. Fermanagh is often referred to as [[Ireland]]'s [[Lake District]]. The county is approximately 120 km from [[Belfast]] and 160 km from [[Dublin]]. In Northern Ireland the county borders [[County Tyrone]] to the north-east, and in the [[Republic of Ireland]] the county borders [[County Monaghan]] to the south-east, [[County Cavan]] and [[County Leitrim]] to the south-west and [[County Donegal]] to the north-west. Fermanagh is the only county of Northern Ireland not to border [[Lough Neagh]]. == Administration == [[Fermanagh District Council]] is the one of the 26 district councils in Northern Ireland that contains all of the county it is named after, plus a small section of [[County Tyrone]] in the [[Dromore, County Tyrone|Dromore]] and [[Kilskeery]] road areas. Fermanagh is part of the [[Fermanagh and South Tyrone (UK Parliament constituency)|Fermanagh and South Tyrone Parliamentary Constituency]], renowned for high levels of voting and for electing [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] [[hunger strike|hunger-striker]] [[Bobby Sands]] as a [[Member of Parliament]] in a [[Fermanagh &amp; South Tyrone by-election, 1981 (April)|by-election]] shortly before his death in [[1981]]. == Geography == [[image:www.wesleyjohnston.com-users-ireland-maps-counties-fermanagh.gif|left|thumb|Map from www.irelandstory.com]] County Fermanagh is a predominantly rural region with its geography dominated by two lakes: Upper Lough Erne and Lower Lough Erne. This 70-km stretch of lakes, known collectively as [[Lough Erne]], is now linked to the [[River Shannon]] and its waterways via the [[Shannon-Erne Waterway]] [[canal]], making the entire system the longest navigable inland [[waterway]] in [[Europe]]. Smaller lakes in the county include [[Lough Scolborn]]. In addition, Fermanagh shares many lakes: [[Lough Melvin]] (with the Republic of Ireland), [[Lough Macnean Upper]] and [[Lough Macnean Lower]] (both lying on the [[County Cavan|Cavan]] border). The peak of [[Cuilcagh]], part of the Cuilcagh Mountains range, on the Fermanagh/Cavan border is the highest point in Fermanagh (665 metres, 2,182 feet). Other mountains/ranges include [[Belmore Mountain]], [[Tappghan Mountain]] (on the border with Tyrone), [[Brougher Mountain]] (on the border with Tyrone), [[Molly Mountain]], [[Slieve Rushen]] (on the border with Cavan), [[Derrin Mountain]] and [[Slieve Beagh]] (on the Tyrone border). Much of the western and eastern areas of the county are forested. ==Industry and Tourism== Agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh. The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs and some poultry. Most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops. The waterways are extensively used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft and anglers. The main town of Fermanagh is [[Enniskillen]] (''Inis Ceithleann'', Ceithleann's island). The island town hosts a range of attractions including the [[Castle Coole]] Estate and [[Enniskillen Castle]], which is home to the [[museum]] of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the [[5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards]]. Attractions outside of Enniskillen include: * The [[Belleek]] [[Belleek Pottery|Pottery]] * Crom Estate * [[Devenish Island]] * [[Florence Court]] * Loughnavar Forest Park * The [[Marble Arch Caves]] * [[Necarne]] Castle == Notable People == Famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh. * [[John Armstrong]], US congressman * [[Denis P Burkitt]], doctor - discoverer of [[Burkitt's lymphoma]] * [[Roy Carroll]], footballer * [[Nigel Dodds]], politician * [[Adrian Dunbar]], actor * [[Neil Hannon]], musician * [[Bobby Kerr]], athlete &amp; Olympic Gold Medalist * [[Ciarán McMenamin]], actor * [[Sean Quinn]], entrepreneur * [[Sinead Quinn]], singer (Fame Academy runner up 2003) * [[Gordon Wilson (peace campaign
ot;) or the even simpler [[Form 1040EZ]] (the &quot;easy form&quot;) instead of Form 1040. The actual form itself is colored blue (though not the case when tax return software packages are used). Income tax returns for calendar year taxpayers are due by [[April 15]] of the next year. Should April 15 fall on a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday, the returns are due on the first succeeding day that is not a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday. If [[Patriots Day]] in Massachusetts falls on the Monday in question, then filers in New England have until Tuesday to file. Generally, income tax returns for fiscal year taxpayers (an individual taxpayer may choose a fiscal year other than the calendar year, though this is uncommon) are due on or before the 15th day of the fourth month following the close of the fiscal year (if the 15th falls on a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday, the return must be filed by the next business day). Form 1040 is truly the &quot;long form.&quot; Form 1040 consists of two full pages not counting attachments. The first page collects information about the taxpayer(s), dependents, income items, and adjustments to income. The second page calculates the allowable deductions and credits, tax due given the income figure, and applies funds already withheld from wages or estimated payments made towards the tax liability. Form 1040 has 11 attachments, called &quot;schedules&quot; (Schedules A and B are printed opposite sides of the same sheet) which may need to be filed depending on the taxpayer: *Schedule A [[Itemized deduction|itemizes allowable deductions]] against income; instead of filling out Schedule A, taxpayers may choose to take a [[standard deduction]] of between $5,000 and $10,000, depending on age and filing status. *Schedule B enumerates [[interest]] or [[dividend]] income, and is required if either interest or dividends received during the tax year exceed $1,500 from all sources. *Schedule C lists income and expenses related to self-employment, and is used by sole proprietors. (Schedule C has a smaller version, the C-EZ, which is used for very simple self-employment situations.) *Schedule D is used to describe [[capital gains]] and losses incurred during the tax year, and to calculate the tax amount due given the special reduced tax rates applied to capital gains. *Schedule E is used to report income and expenses arising from the rental of real property, royalties, or from pass-through entities (like trusts, estates, partnerships, or [[S corporations]]). *Schedule EIC is used to document a taxpayer's eligibility for the [[Earned Income Credit]]. *Schedule F is used to report income and expenses related to farming. *Schedule H is used to report taxes owed due to the employment of household help. *Schedule J is used when averaging farm income over a period of several years. *Schedule R is used to calculate the Credit for the Elderly or the Disabled. *Schedule SE is used to calculate the self-employment tax owed on income from self-employment (such as on a Schedule C or Schedule F, or in a partnership). In most situations, other [[Internal Revenue Service]] or [[Social Security Administration]] forms such as [[Form W-2]] must be attached to the Form 1040, in addition to the Form 1040 schedules. There are other, specialized forms which may need to be completed along with Schedules and the Form 1040. ==See also== * [[Form 1040X]] * [[Form 1099]] * [[Taxation in the United States]] ==External links== * [http://www.irs.gov/ United States Internal Revenue Service] - includes downloadable forms and publications * [http://www.marketwatch.com/News/Story/2V15Kw0C9KB1KR6hHBdx9fq?siteid=mktw&amp;dist=TNMostRead The Form 1040 lines that lead to the most mistakes - MarketWatch] [[Category:Internal Revenue Service|1040]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FET</title> <id>11030</id> <revision> <id>28381000</id> <timestamp>2005-11-15T08:43:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ja</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''FET''' can mean: * FET, [[field effect transistor]] * [[Mazda F engine#FET|FET]], a [[Mazda]] [[piston engine]] * Flaming Eternity {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:FET]] [[ja:FET]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:WikiProject Football clubs</title> <id>11032</id> <revision> <id>30361713</id> <timestamp>2005-12-06T17:16:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Juyukichi</username> <id>296081</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ja</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{inactive}} What each wikipedia article on a [[football (soccer)|football]] club should contain. *Full club name *The town/city in which they play *The league in which they currently play *Stadium information *Kit colours *Nicknames *History *Famous players *List of honours *Official website *wins and losses Optimally, the article should also contain brief details relating to how the stadium may be reached by most common modes of transport. (For an example of how this might be done see [[Plymouth Argyle F.C.]]). For smaller clubs, famous or noteworthy supporters might also be worth a mention, but for larger clubs the list may become too unwieldy. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Football/Clubs]] is a suggested template to use. == Infobox == {{Football club infobox | clubname = Arsenal | image = | fullname = Arsenal Football Club | nickname = The Gunners | founded = [[1886]] | ground = [[Arsenal Stadium]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Highbury]], [[London]] | capacity = 38,500 | chairman = [[Peter Hill-Wood]] | manager = [[Arsène Wenger]] | league = [[FA Premier League]] | season = [[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003-04]] | position = Premier League, 1st | pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=| leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000| pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=| leftarm2=0000AA|body2=0000AA|rightarm2=0000AA|shorts2=0000AA|socks2=0000AA| }} See [[Template_talk:Football club infobox]]. [[ja:Wikipedia:ウィキプロジェクト サッカークラブ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Douglass</title> <id>11033</id> <revision> <id>42012759</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:25:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ccson</username> <id>214608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Death */ removing duplicate link for anacostia, the first link is in the first paragraph of article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Douglass.jpg|thumb|220px|Frederick Douglass]]'''Frederick Douglass''' ([[February 14]]{{fn|1}}, [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[February 20]], [[1895]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], [[editor]], [[orator]], [[author]], [[statesman]] and [[reformer]]. Called &quot;The Sage of [[Anacostia]]&quot; and &quot;The Lion of Anacostia,&quot; Douglass was among the most prominent [[African American]]s of his time, and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history. ==Career== Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, who later became known as Frederick Douglass, was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland near Hillsborough, twelve miles from Easton. He was separated from his mother, Harriet Bailey, when he was still an infant. She died when Douglass was about nine years old. The identity of Douglass' father is obscure; Douglass originally stated that his father was a white man, perhaps his master, Captain Aaron Anthony, but later said that he knew nothing of his father's identity. When Anthony died, Douglass was given to Mrs. Lucretia Auld, wife of Captain Thomas Auld; the young man was sent to Baltimore to serve the Captain's brother, Hugh Auld. When Douglass was thirteen, Hugh Auld's wife, Sophia, broke the law by teaching Douglass to read. Douglass later referred to this in his first abolitionist speech. In 1837, Douglass met Anna Murray, who sold a poster bed to buy sailor's papers needed for Frederick Douglass's escape. Douglass escaped Slavery on September 3, 1838 boarding a train to Havre de Grace, Maryland dressed in a sailor's uniform and carrying identification papers provided by a free black seaman. After crossing the Susquehanna River by ferry boat at Havre de Grace, Douglass continued by train to Wilmington, Delaware. From there Douglass went by steamboat to &quot;Quaker City&quot; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His escape to freedom eventually led him to New York, the entire journey taking less than twenty-four hours. Douglass continued reading. He joined various organizations in New Bedford, including a black church. He regularly attended Abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to [[William Lloyd Garrison]]'s weekly journal, the ''Liberator'', and in 1841, he heard Garrison speak at the Bristol Anti-Slavery Society's annual meeting. Douglass was inspired by Garrison, later stating, &quot;no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments (the hatred of slavery) as did those of William Lloyd Garrison.&quot; Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass, and mentioned him in the ''Liberator''. Several days later, Douglass gave his first speech at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention in Nantucket Island. Twenty-three years old at the time, Douglass later said that his legs were shaking. He conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his life as a slave. In 1843, Douglass participated in the American Anti-Slavery Society's Hundred Conventions project, a six month tour of meeting halls throughout the east and middle west of the [[United States]]. He participated in the [[Seneca Falls Convention]], the birthplace of the American feminist movement, and was a signatory of its [[Declaration of Sentiments]]. Douglass later became the publisher o
olerant policies. On [[February 26]], after twenty-four days of considerable media pressure, Bush also wrote a formal letter of apology to Cardinal [[John Cardinal O'Connor|John O'Connor]] of [[New York]] for failing to denounce Bob Jones University's history of strongly anti-[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] statements (among other things, the university's founder once called the Roman Catholic Church a &quot;[[satan]]ic cult&quot;). At a news conference following the letter's release, Bush stated: &quot;I make no excuses. I had an opportunity and I missed it. I regret that.&quot; and &quot;I wish I had gotten up then and seized the moment to set a tone, a tone that I had set in Texas, a positive and inclusive tone.&quot; On [[March 3]], the school issued a &quot;Letter to the Nation&quot; defending their position and arguing that the real issue of the media pressure was [[religious freedom]]. [http://www.bju.edu/aboutbju/special_articles/response/response.html] In December 2002, [[Trent Lott]] expressed &quot;regret&quot; for supporting the school's aim to maintain tax exempt status (eventually denied by the US Supreme Court) 20 years after he filed a brief defending the school that maintained a ban on interracial dating.[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2002/12/11/national1950EST0835.DTL] ====John McCain controversy==== According to the book [[Bush's Brain]], during the 2000 Republican primaries, a professor at Bob Jones started the rumor that [[John McCain]] had fathered a [[illegitimate]] black child. (The McCains have an adopted daughter from [[Bangladesh]].)[http://readerweekly.org/issue/329/Ed_Raymond.html] In fact, &quot;one e-mail came from Bob Jones University Professor [[Richard Hand]] who wrote to fellow South Carolinians that McCain ' ''chose to sire children with out marriage''.' ”[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0002/14/ip.00.html][http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/03/21/the_anatomy_of_a_smear_campaign/][http://www.newshounds.us/2005/04/29/fox_news_ignores_frist_hypocrisy.php][http://www.phxnews.com/comment.php?cid=35831] ===2004 Election=== Shortly after George W. Bush won relection in 2004, Bob Jones III sent a letter to Bush to congratulate him and told him &quot;you have been given a mandate. ... Put your agenda on the front burner and let it boil. You owe the liberals nothing. They despise you because they despise your Christ.&quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6850482/from/RL.5/] ==People associated with BJU== ===Notable graduates=== *[[Ed Dobson]] is pastor of Calvary Church, Grand Rapids, MI and co-author of ''Blinded by Might''. [http://www.ctlibrary.com/ct/1997/aug11/7t926a.html] *[[Glenn Hamilton]] is a member of the South Carolina House of Representatives. *[[Terry Haskins]] was the Speaker Pro Tempore of the South Carolina House of Representatives. *[[Katherine Helmond]] is an actress best known as playing the family matriarch on ''[[Soap]]'' and &quot;Mona&quot; on ''[[Who's the Boss?]]'' *[[Asa Hutchinson]] an Arkansas lawyer, former U.S. Representative and Under Secretary for Border &amp; Transportation Security with the Department of Homeland Security, and currently running for governor of Arkansas. *[[Tim Hutchinson]] is an Arkansas pastor, former U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator. *[[Billy Kim]] is the president of the [[Baptist World Alliance]]. *[[Tim LaHaye]] is a best-selling author of [[Eschatology|eschatological]] prophecy. *[[Peter Ruckman]], Baptist minister, teacher, artist, and writer who is critical of BJU's stance on Biblical translation. *[[David Stertzbach]], is pastor of Trinity Baptist Church in Williston, VT and president of the Vermont Defense of Marriage Committee, a political action committee opposing civil unions for gays. ===Notable Faculty=== *[[Richard Hand]] - Professor of law who in the 2000 Republican primaries &quot;wrote to fellow South Carolinians that [[John McCain| [John] McCain]] 'chose to sire children with out marriage',&quot; which was false.[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0002/14/ip.00.html][http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/03/21/the_anatomy_of_a_smear_campaign/][http://www.newshounds.us/2005/04/29/fox_news_ignores_frist_hypocrisy.php][http://www.phxnews.com/comment.php?cid=35831] ===Other alumni=== *[[Billy Graham]], evangelist, attended for one year *[[John F. MacArthur]], pastor, author, and radio preacher *[[Fred Phelps]], pastor of the [[Westboro Baptist Church]], whose association with the school ended abruptly after two semesters there. Phelps claims he left in opposition to the school's racial policies; school employees told the Topeka Capital Journal newspaper in 1994 that Phelps was in essence expelled due to mental instability. *[[Cliff Barrows]], associate of Billy Graham *Barry Rogers, a.k.a. [[Johnny Rahm]], adult film actor ===Notable honorary degree recipients=== *[[Vic Eliason]], founder of [[VCY America]] *[[Billy Graham]], evangelist [http://www.middletownbiblechurch.org/separate/billgram.htm] *[[Jesse Helms]], [[U.S. Senator]] *[[Chiang Kai-shek]], leader of [[Kuomintang]] *[[Lester Maddox]], governor of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] *[[Ian Paisley]], a [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]], leader of the [[Democratic Unionist Party]] and [[Moderator]] of the [[Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster]]. *[[Strom Thurmond]], U.S. Senator from [[South Carolina]] *[[George Wallace]], governor of [[Alabama]] *[[John Ashcroft]], [[Attorney General of the United States]] ===Benefactors=== *[[Bibb Graves]], Grand Dragon of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan and Governor of Alabama from 1926 - 1930 and again from 1934 - 1938 helped Bob Jones, Sr. raise start-up funds for the school. Graves sat on BJU's board of trustees. A dormitory is named in his honor. *[[Agnes Moorehead]], of ''[[Bewitched]]'' fame, willed her [[Ohio]] estate to BJU. ===Mentions in movies and television=== * [[LA Law]] (1993-94) - The character Jane Halliday, played by Alexandra Powers, was a graduate of Bob Jones University. * [[The Ladykillers]] (2004) - The remake of the movie included a character who sent money to Bob Jones University on a regular basis. The joke was that she was an elderly African-American woman who was clearly oblivious to the school's prior stance in support of segregation and against interracial dating. * [[The O.C.]] (2005) - The April 2005 episode, [[The Return of the Nana]], featured a Bob Jones university student and his &quot;Bible Study Buddies&quot; on spring break who were out to get one of the main characters, Seth Cohen because he participated in a contest where he had to eat whipped cream off of the Bob Jones student's girlfriend. * [[Al Franken]] (2005) Al Franken with a young male assistant posed as a father and son considering application to the University, then asking questions that were generally skeptical of the policies of the school during an interview with the admissions director. This was written about in Franken's book, [[Lies_and_the_Lying_Liars_Who_Tell_Them|''Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them'']] ==External links== ===Official links=== *[http://www.bju.edu/ Bob Jones University website] *[http://www.bjup.com Bob Jones University Press] *[http://www.bju.edu/academics/cas/undergrad/divns/creation/ BJU creation science home] ===News Stories=== *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/04/AR2005050402413.html Taking the Bob Out of Bob Jones U.] *[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/110/53.0.html Bob Jones University Drops Interracial Dating Ban] ===Commentary=== *[http://www.studentsreview.com/SC/BJU_c.html#comments/ Reviews of the Bob Jones Experience by Students and Alumni] *[http://www.killingthebuddha.com/damn_nation/being_bobjones.htm &quot;Being Black at Bob Jones U.: A fundamentalist university enters the age of integration. Sort of.&quot;] *[http://www.troyandjessica.com/article/17/bob-jones-university-urban-legends.html BJU Urban Legends] [[Category:Christian fundamentalism]] [[Category:Christian universities and colleges]] [[Category:Seminaries and theological colleges]] [[Category:Unaccredited institutions of higher learning]] [[Category:Universities and colleges in South Carolina]] [[sv:Bob Jones University]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Hebrews</title> <id>4720</id> <revision> <id>15902978</id> <timestamp>2003-04-01T21:47:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toby Bartels</username> <id>1078</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Epistle to Hebrews]] -&gt; #REDIRECT [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>British Empire</title> <id>4721</id> <revision> <id>42134119</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:18:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.252.128.139|24.252.128.139]] ([[User talk:24.252.128.139|talk]]) to last version by Sandertje</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Use en-GB spelling--&gt; The '''British Empire''' was, at one time, the foremost [[global power]], and the most extensive empire in the history of the world. It was a product of the [[European]] [[Age of Discovery]] that began with the global maritime explorations of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] in the late [[15th century]]. By [[1921]] the British Empire held sway over a population of about 470&amp;ndash;570 million people; roughly a quarter of the world's population. It covered about 14.3 million [[square miles]] (more than 37 million km²), about a quarter of the world's total land area. Though it has since almost completely evolved into the [[Commonwealth
hich was published in 1999, a year that was exceptional in that he did not appear in any film. His distinctive voice can be heard in television commercials from time-to-time, notably for [[United Airlines]], [[GTE]], [[CNN]], and more recently for [[Oppenheimer Funds]] and [[Lowe's|Lowe's Home Improvement]]. ==Private life== Hackman's first wife was Fay Maltese. They had three children, but they divorced in 1986 after 30 years of marriage. In 1991, Hackman married Betsy Arakawa. They live in [[Beverly Hills]] and [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. Betsy is co-owner of an upscale retail home-furnishing store in Santa Fe, called Pandora's, Inc. On [[July 7]], [[2004]], Hackman gave a rare interview to [[Larry King]], in which he announced that he had no future film projects lined up, and believes his acting career is finished. ==Filmography== *'' [[Welcome to Mooseport]]'' (2004) *'' [[Runaway Jury]]'' (2003) *'' [[Behind Enemy Lines (movie)|Behind Enemy Lines]]'' (2001) *'' [[The Royal Tenenbaums]]'' (2001) *'' [[Heist (film)|Heist]]'' (2001) *'' [[Heartbreakers]]'' (2001) *'' [[The Mexican]]'' (2001) *'' [[The Replacements (film)|The Replacements]]'' (2000) *'' [[Under Suspicion (2000 film)|Under Suspicion]]'' (2000) *'' [[Enemy of the State]]'' (1998) *'' [[Twilight (movie)|Twilight]]'' (1998) *'' [[Absolute Power (film)|Absolute Power]]'' (1997) *'' [[The Chamber (movie)|The Chamber]]'' (1996) *'' [[Extreme Measures]]'' (1996) *'' [[The Birdcage]]'' (1996) *'' [[Get Shorty]]'' (1995) *'' [[Crimson Tide (film)|Crimson Tide]]'' (1995) *'' [[The Quick and the Dead]]'' (1995) *'' [[Wyatt Earp (film)|Wyatt Earp]]'' (1994) *'' [[Geronimo: An American Legend]]'' (1993) *'' [[The Firm (film)|The Firm]]'' (1993) *'' [[Unforgiven]]'' (1992) *'' [[Company Business]]'' (1991) *'' [[Class Action (1991 movie)|Class Action]]'' (1991) *'' [[Loose Cannons]]'' (1990) *'' [[Postcards from the Edge]]'' (1990) *'' [[The Narrow Margin|Narrow Margin]]'' (1990) *'' [[The Package]]'' (1988) *'' [[Bat*21]]'' (1988) *'' [[Mississippi Burning]]'' (1988) *'' [[No Way Out (1987 movie)|No Way Out]]'' (1987) *'' [[Another Woman]]'' (1987) *'' [[Superman IV: The Quest For Peace]]'' (1987) *'' [[Hoosiers]]'' (1986) *'' [[Power (movie)|Power]]'' (1986) *'' [[Target (movie)|Target]]'' (1985) *'' [[Twice In A Lifetime]]'' (1985) *'' [[Eureka (film)|Eureka]]'' (1984) *'' [[Misunderstood (film)|Misunderstood]]'' (1984) *'' [[Uncommon Valor]]'' (1983) *'' [[Under Fire (film)|Under Fire]]'' (1983) *'' [[Reds]]'' (1981) *'' [[Superman II]]'' (1981) *'' [[All Night Long (1981 film)|All Night Long]]'' (1981) *'' [[Superman: The Movie|Superman]]'' (1978) *'' [[The Domino Principle]]'' (1978) *'' [[A Bridge Too Far]]'' (1977) *'' [[March Or Die]]'' (1977) *'' [[French Connection II]]'' (1975) *'' [[Lucky Lady]]'' (1975) *'' [[Night Moves (1975 film)|Night Moves]]'' (1975) *'' [[The Conversation]]'' (1974) *'' [[Zandy's Bride]]'' (1974) *'' [[Bite the Bullet]]'' (1974) *'' [[Young Frankenstein]]'' (1974) *'' [[Scarecrow (1973 film)|Scarecrow]]'' (1973) *'' [[The Poseidon Adventure]]'' (1972) *'' [[Prime Cut]]'' (1972) *'' [[The Hunting Party]]'' (1971) *'' [[The French Connection]]'' (1971) *'' [[I Never Sang for My Father]]'' (1970) *'' [[Downhill Racer]]'' (1969) *'' [[Marooned (movie)|Marooned]]'' (1969) *'' [[The Gypsy Moths]]'' (1969) *'' [[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]'' (1967) *'' [[Hawaii (1966 movie)|Hawaii]]'' (1966) *'' [[Lilith (film)|Lilith]]'' (1964) *'' [[Mad Dog Coll (film)|Mad Dog Coll]]'' (uncredited) (1961) ==External links== * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gene_hackman/ Gene Hackman Yahoo Group] *{{imdb name | id=0000432 | name=Gene Hackman}} * [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/hackman.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Gene Hackman] * [http://www.celebritypro.com/news/gene_hackman Daily Gene Hackman News] [[Category:1930 births|Hackman, Gene]] [[Category:American film actors|Hackman, Gene]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- The French Connection --&gt; [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- Bonnie and Clyde (movie), I Never Sang for My Father --&gt; [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- Unforgiven --&gt; [[Category:English Americans|Hackman, Gene]] [[Category:Living people|Hackman, Gene ]] [[Category:Superman actors|Hackman, Gene]] [[Category:United States Marines|Hackman, Gene]] [[bg:Джийн Хекман]] [[da:Gene Hackman]] [[de:Gene Hackman]] [[es:Gene Hackman]] [[fr:Gene Hackman]] [[ja:ジーン・ハックマン]] [[nl:Gene Hackman]] [[no:Gene Hackman]] [[pl:Gene Hackman]] [[sv:Gene Hackman]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gregor Mendel</title> <id>12562</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42081823</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:26:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Awolf002</username> <id>39067</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv (name change)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Mendel}} [[image:mendel.png|frame|right|Gregor Johann Mendel]] '''Gregor Johann Mendel''' ([[July 20]]{{ref|bday}}, [[1822]] &amp;ndash; [[January 6]], [[1884]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[monk]] who is often called the &quot;father of [[genetics]]&quot; for his study of the [[biological inheritance|inheritance]] of [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s in [[pea]] plants. Mendel showed that there was particulate inheritance of traits according to his [[Mendelian inheritance|laws of inheritance]]. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the [[20th century]]. Its rediscovery prompted the foundation of genetics. == Biography == [[Image:Gregor-Johann-Mendel-memorial-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|Johann Gregor Mendel - memorial plaque in Olomouc]] Mendel was born into a German-speaking family of [[Hynčice|Heinzendorf]], [[Moravia]], [[Austrian Empire]] (now Hynčice (part of Vražné), district of Nový Jičín, [[Czech Republic]]). During his childhood Mendel worked as a gardener, and as a young man attended the [[Philosophical Institute]] in [[Olomouc]]. In [[1843]] he entered the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[Abbey]] of [[Thomas (apostle)|St. Thomas]] in [[Brno]]. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering monastic life. In [[1847]] he was [[ordination|ordained]] as a [[priest]]. In [[1851]] he was sent to the [[University of Vienna]] to study, returning to his abbey in [[1853]] as a teacher, principally of [[physics]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm] Gregor Mendel was inspired by both his professors at university and his colleagues at the monastery to study variation in plants. He commenced his study in his monastery's experimental garden. Between [[1856]] and [[1863]] Mendel cultivated and tested some 28,000 [[pea]] plants. His experiments brought forth two generalizations which later became known as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's Laws of Inheritance]]. Mendel's attraction to research was based on his love of nature. He was not only interested in plants, but also in meteorology and theories of evolution. Mendel often wondered how plants obtained atypical characteristics. On one of his frequent walks around the monastery, he found an atypical variety of an ornamental plant. He took it and planted it next to the typical variety. He grew their progeny side by side to see if there would be any approximation of the traits passed on to the next generation. This experiment was &quot;designed to support or to illustrate [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s views concerning the influence of environment upon plants.&quot; He found that the plants' respective offspring retained the essential traits of the parents, and therefore were not influenced by the environment. This simple test gave birth to the idea of heredity. Mendel read his paper, &quot;[[Experiments on Plant Hybridization]]&quot;, at two meetings of the [[Natural History Society of Brunn in Bohemia]] in [[1865]]. When Mendel's paper was published in [[1866]] in ''[[Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn]]'', it had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years. Elevated as [[abbot]] in [[1868]], his scientific work largely ended as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm] Mendel died on [[January 6]], [[1884]], in [[Brno]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Czech Republic]]), from chronic [[nephritis]]. == Rediscovery of Mendel's work == It was not until the early [[20th century]] that the importance of his ideas was realized. In [[1900]], his work was rediscovered by [[Hugo de Vries]], [[Carl Correns]], and [[Erich von Tschermak]]. His results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage quickly worked out. Biologists flocked to the theory, as while it was not yet applicable to many phenomena, it sought to give a [[genotype|genotypic]] understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity which focused on [[phenotype|phenotypic]] approachs. Most prominent of these latter approaches was the [[biometric school]] of [[Karl Pearson]] and [[W.F.R. Weldon]], which was based heavily on stastical studies of phenotype variation. The strongest opposition to this school came from [[William Bateson]], who perhaps did the most in the early days of publicizing the benefits of Mendel's theory (the word &quot;[[genetics]]&quot;, and much of the discipline's other terminology, originated with Bateson). This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the twentieth century, with the biometricians claiming statistical and mathematical rigor, while the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology. In the end, the two approaches were synthesized as [[the modern
the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] effectively permits [[Digital rights management|DRM]] (Digital Rights/Restrictions Management) to prevent manufacture, importation, or distribution of recording devices if the device bypasses an access or copy control. It is absolutely vital to remember that copyright regimes can differ greatly between countries. It would be dangerous to assume that an activity permitted by the laws of one country is necessarily permitted elsewhere. ==Critiques== :''Main article: [[Philosophy of copyright]]'' Critics of copyright as a whole fall broadly into two camps: Those who assert that the very concept of copyright has never been of net benefit to society, and has always served simply to enrich a few at the expense of creativity; and those who assert that the existing copyright regime must be reformed to maintain its relevance in the new [[Information society]]. The [[French copyright law|French ''droit d'auteur'']] (&quot;Rights of the Author&quot;), which influenced the 1886 [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]], must also be noted as a significant alternative to the concept of copyright. Among the latter group, there are also some who continue to agree with copyright as a concept to grant authors rights, but feel that it &quot;outlives its welcome&quot; by granting copyright for too long, far beyond the lifetime of the author, and is therefore of little direct benefit to him or her. This is typically attributed to corporate [[lobbying]]. To most critics, the general problem is that the current (international) copyright system undermines its own goal (Boyle 1996, 142). The concepts of the [[public domain]] and the intrinsic freedom of information are necessary precepts for creators to be able to build on published expression. But these are gradually being eroded, as copyright terms are repeatedly extended to last beyond the lifetime of the audience which experienced and knows of the original work. Other copyright scholars believe that irrespective of contemporary advances in technology, copyright remains the fundamental way by which authors, sculptors, artists, musicians and others can fund the creation of new works, and that absent legal protection of their material interests, many valuable books and pieces of art would not be created. This interest is arguably served even by repeated extension of copyright terms to encompass multiple generations beyond the copyright holder's life, not only because many &quot;authors&quot; and copyright holders are corporations, but also because the right of an author's heirs to continue to profit from a copyrighted work may provide a substantial part of the incentive to create. Another effect of the repeated extension of copyright term is that current authors are shielded from competition from a wide public domain. By the time works currently enter the public domain, they almost always have become obsolete. The recent success of [[free software]] projects such as [[Linux]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], and the [[Apache web server]] has demonstrated that quality works can be created even in the absence of copyright-enforced monopoly rents[http://www2.cio.com/consultant/report2214.html]. Instead, these products use copyright to enforce their license terms, which are designed to ensure the free nature of the work, rather than securing exclusive rights for the holder for monetary gain; such a license is called a ''[[copyleft]]'' or ''[[free software license]]''. Copyrighted works replicated onto digital media are easily and trivially copied via [[file sharing]]. Attempts to prevent this have been largely unsuccessful, and file sharing almost never results in severe consequences for the violators. Producers of copyrighted material often attribute losses in their sales to online copying, yet they generally continue to produce material and make profits. This lack of apparent effect has been gradually eroding the belief that copyright as presently constructed is indispensable. A few artists actually support the file sharing of their own works, arguing that it expands their audience to include people who would not otherwise be able or willing to legally purchase their material. It can be argued that, rather than criminalize the many millions of file sharers around the world who now routinely use the internet to commit acts that breach copyright (given that copyright laws have proven unenforceable), copyright holders use the legal system to apply extortion by charging for products that are readily available for free. [[Bill Gates]] is on record as saying that there is no way technically of preventing copyrighted digital material being replicated, so future attempts to enforce copyrights may become uneconomic, as well as unpopular politically. In the meantime, companies or indviduals held by a court to have infringed copyright may be required to pay substantial amounts in damages. A recent and highly visible example is the Australian [[Kazaa]] case, ''Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Sharman License Holdings Ltd'' [2005] FCA 1242 ([[5 September]] [[2005]]); the company operating the Kazaa file-sharing system and individuals associated with it were held to have authorised infringement of copyright in musical recordings. The recording industry is expected to seek multimillion dollar damages. &lt;!-- this needs a reference: Even in the United States the majority of people already believe that unauthorised online distribution of music should not be illegal. There is an irony here that open source file sharing networks like eMule are of far higher user quality than commercially funded operations - because they are devoid of adware! --&gt; Copyright can also be used to stifle political criticism. For example, in the US the contents of talk shows and similar programs are covered by copyright. [[Robert Greenwald]], a director of ''Uncovered: The Whole Truth About the Iraq War'' documentary was refused the right to use a clip of a [[George W. Bush]] interview from [[NBC]]'s ''Meet the Press''. Although the fair use provisions may apply in such cases, the risks and the pressure from insurance companies usually prevents the use of materials without permission. In the US in 2003, controversial changes implemented by the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] extending the length of copyright under [[U.S. copyright law]] by 20 years were constitutionally challenged unsuccessfully in the [[United States Supreme Court]]. The Court, in the case called [[Eldred v. Ashcroft]], held inter alia that in placing existing and future copyrights in parity in the CTEA, Congress acted within its authority and did not transgress constitutional limitations. Other jurisdictions may have enacted legislation to provide for similar extensions of the copyright term. Some online authors, such as [[Cory Doctorow]], retain the copyright to their work but license it for free distribution (for example under a [[Creative Commons License]]). This has the benefit of providing a structured scheme under which authors can loosen some of the barriers that copyright imposes on others, allowing them to partially contribute the work to the community (in the form of giving a general grant on copying, reproduction, use or adaptation subject to certain conditions) while retaining other exclusive rights they hold in it. :''Main article: [[Copyright social conflict]]'' Copyright is also conceived by some as an &quot;artificial barrier&quot; in that &quot;expressions&quot; could be freely exchanged between individuals and groups if there were no copyright or other legal restrictions preventing. Such people believe that as the [[state]] does not necessarily possess the moral authority to enact copyright laws, individuals may vary in their observation of such laws. Copyright concepts are perceived to be under challenge in the modern technological era, from the increasing use of peer to peer filesharing, to the downward trend in profits for major [[record labels]] and the [[Big Ten (movie studios)|movie industry]]. [[Public interest]] groups, major corporations and their like are entering the public education system to teach the curriculum from their perspectives. The lobbying group for the [[MPAA]] have a curriculum entitled [http://www.mediainfocenter.org/story.asp?story_id=61684893 What's the Diff?] taught by a group of volunteers called Junior Achievement. The [[Business Software Alliance]] also has their own curriculum program called [http://www.playitcybersafe.com Play it Cybersafe], which is distributed to school children through a magazine called ''[[The Weekly Reader]]''. There seems to be a general consensus in the USA that there needs to be some curriculum materials for school-aged children on copyright. A public-wiki has been installed by Downhill Battle to build a copyright curriculum called [http://www.copyrightcurriculum.com Copyright Curriculum] for teachers to download and use in their classrooms. [http://www.ala.org The American Librarian Association] will also be releasing their own curriculum for librarians to distribute in winter 2004. ==Other aspects== ===Transfer and licensing=== Copyright may be assigned or transferred from one party to another. For example, a musician who records an album will sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyrights in the recordings to the company in exchange for royalties and other terms. One might ask why a copyright holder would ever give up his rights. The answer is that large companies generally have production and marketing capabilities far beyond that of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed for a minimal cost through the [[Internet]], however the [[record industry]] attempts to provide the service of promoting and marketing the artist so that the work can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder
ment of the area, is both named after and based in the town, although it also encompasses the surrounding smaller towns and villages. ==History== The name derives from a corruption of the words 'Burnt Wood', the name Burntwood can still be seen on some old maps. This old name describes the presumed reason for settlement in the part of [[Epping Forest]] that would have covered the area. [[Robert Graves]] claims that Brentwood was the site of the battle where [[Claudius]] defeated the [[Ancient Britons]] in [[44|44AD]]. Brentwood was also the meeting place of some of the instigators of the [[Peasants' Revolt]] such as [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]]. They, apparently, met regularly in local pubs and inns. One such pub is the White Hart, one of the oldest buildings in Brentwood, and a pub has stood on the site for over 500 years (in 2004 it was converted to a Thai restaurant). Brentwood is also the site of the 12th Century ruin of [[Thomas à Becket]] Chapel. A popular stopping point for pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, indeed one local village is called [[Pilgrims Hatch]], which means 'Pilgrims Gate.' The ruin stands in the centre of the High Street, next to the Tourist Information office -- itself a building of much historical interest. ==Business== It is the former home of [[Thermos]], the manufacturers of the [[vacuum flask]]s, and still has [[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]] and [[Amstrad]], the computers and electricals company. Brentwood was also the home of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]'s Elephant training school - the site, based in Warley, is now headquarters of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] UK. The engineering company [[NV Tools]] famous for creating the SOSS hinge originated in Brentwood. ==Boring town== In the mid 1990s there sparked a controversy that has plagued Brentwood ever since. Is Brentwood boring? This question even made the national news, and sparked amused debate nationwide, especially when it was noticed that Brentwood is in fact an anagram of 'Bored Town.' The comments were initially sparked by [[David McClucky]], the manager of Brentwood Theatre at the time who, while being interviewed by a local reporter about what theme he was choosing for the upcoming Brentwood Festival (a parade and general street festival which now seems sadly defunct), that it was &quot;hard to pick something interesting about Brentwood&quot; to celebrate. He later said he had meant it was hard to pick from the many interesting historical events in Brentwood's history. Some people have speculated that his true meaning was portrayed correctly, and his later comments were backtracking. Either way Brentwood now has this spectre hanging over it. The demise of its local cinema around that time did not help matters. Even today -- while overstocked with pubs, bars, and restaurants -- Brentwood still seems to have these events hanging over its head, and the residents seems split as to which side is correct. ==Other information== The town is served by a community radio station, [[Phoenix FM]]. The station was formed in [[August 1996]] and broadcast ten trial broadcasts under a Restricted Service Licence, each lasting 28 days; the first starting on [[29 December]] [[1996]] and the last ending on [[25 February]] [[2006]]. On [[16 February]] [[2006]] the group received an announcement from Ofcom that it had been successful in its application for a permanent radio licence. [[Brentwood Cathedral]] is the seat of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Bishop of Brentwood]]. The Brentwood Theatre is just off the High Street and has a growing reputation for high quality productions. Mark Reed and David Zelly work hard to keep the theatre going - without any subsidy. On the same site sits The Hermitage, the centre for Brentwood Youth Service, with which the theatre is very much involved. The Youth Service operates its own cafe/youth club and a live music venue called The Hermit, which has had bands such as [[Motorhead]] and [[InMe]] play there. InMe in fact were heavily supported in their early years by the venue, whose purpose is to promote and encourage youth bands. It also plays host to private events such as a weekly Jazz Club that was, until his death, run by the famous saxophonist [[Spike Robinson]] Both venues co-host The [[Brentwood Blues Festival]], a well respected music event that has played host to The [[Blockheads]], [[Bill Wyman]] and many more. ==Notable institutions== *[[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]] ==Nearest places== *[[Hutton]] *[[Ingrave]] *[[Herongate]] *[[Ongar]] *[[Pilgrims Hatch]] *[[Greensted Church]] *[[Shenfield]] *[[Warley, Essex|Warley]] ==Nearest railway station== *[[Brentwood railway station]] *[[Shenfield railway station]] ==External links== *[http://www.phoenixfm.com/ Phoenix FM] *[http://www.boredtown.co.uk/ Bored Town] - a website dedicated to how boring Brentwood is. [[Category:Towns in Essex]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Braveheart</title> <id>4560</id> <revision> <id>41756884</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:56:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tommyt</username> <id>273563</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Plot Synopsis */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name =Braveheart | image =Braveheart.jpg| director =[[Mel Gibson]] | producer =[[Bruce Davey]] &lt;BR \&gt; Mel Gibson &lt;BR \&gt; [[Alan Ladd Jr.]] | writer =[[Randall Wallace]] | starring =Mel Gibson &lt;BR \&gt; [[Sophie Marceau]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Patrick McGoohan]] | distributor =[[20th Century Fox]] [[Paramount Pictures]] | music =[[James Horner]] | released =[[May 24]], [[1995]] | runtime =177 min. | language =English | budget =$53,000,000 | music = | awards = | imdb_id =0112573 | |}} '''''Braveheart''''' is an epic [[United States|American]] [[motion picture]] released in [[1995]] based on the life of [[William Wallace]], a [[national hero]] in [[Scotland]]. [[Mel Gibson]] played Wallace and also [[film director|directed]] the film. {{spoiler}} ==Plot Synopsis== The film opens with a narrator telling us &quot;I shall tell you of William Wallace. Historians from England will say I am a liar, but history is written by those who have hanged heroes.&quot; In the first scene a young William Wallace seeing the hanged bodies of Scotsmen and boys who had traveled to a meeting with representatives of [[King Edward I|Edward I]], popularly known as Longshanks. Edward I was a ruler of unlimited cruelty, whose intention is to destroy the indigenous population of [[Scotland]] through war or by breeding. He invokes an ancient law, [[primae noctis]] (“first night&quot;), which allows lords the first sexual rights to any common woman on her wedding night. William’s father and older brother leave home to do battle with Edward's army. Both are killed and their bodies are returned home to an orphaned William. Following the funerals, William’s uncle, Argyle, adopts William and takes him on a 20 year journey across [[Europe]], a journey that becomes William’s education. When William returns to his homeland Longshanks’ son has married Isabelle, a French princess, in a political ploy that Edward believes will increase his power over [[France]]. William hopes to rebuild his father’s farm, marry, and raise a family. He reunites with his childhood love, Murron, and they marry in secret to avoid Longshanks’ law of prime nocte. However, when Murron is attacked by the local English guards, William fights them and retreats into hiding. Murron, unable to escape with William, is captured and brutally executed in public by the local magistrate seeking to set an example against dissension, but more directly to provoke her husband. William rides back to the village on horseback, feigning surrender but at the last second he instead attacks the English soldiers, his one man fight is soon joined by his friend Hamish, Hamish's father Campbell, and the local townsfolk who kill every soldier in the magistrate's fortress. Bound by revenge, William kills the magistrate in the same fashion that the man killed Murron. Shortly after, William captures an even larger English garrison. The loss of this second base angers the King who sent an army to fight Wallace but word has already spread and highlanders come in droves to fight this invading force. Their first victory in this war comes at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge|Battle of Stirling]] . William, leading an outnumbered army, boosts their confidence with a charismatic speech. They outwit the English [[cavalry]] with long spears and slaughter the remaining infantry and their general. Though awarded the post of “High protector of Scotland” by the Scots nobles, William is still unable to convince them to solidly unite and invade England to ensure their victory and drive Longshanks from Scotland forever. The highest ranking noble, [[Robert the Bruce]], a possible heir to the [[throne of Scotland]], tells William that his efforts are directed more out of rage and vengeance, rather than the preservation of his homeland. William agrees but also sees the Bruce as the kind of leader Scotland needs and bids him to unite the clans. William makes the decision to invade [[England]] himself and his army marches several hundred miles to the city of [[York]]. They successfully raid the city and seize control of it. The local magistrate is beheaded and his head is sent to London as a message to Longshanks. Longshanks sends the [[Princess of Wales]], [[Isabella_of_France|Isabelle]], to York to negotiate a truce with William. He meets with her but refuses to accept Longshanks demands. He cites Longshanks longstanding cruel treatment of Scotland and his attempts at [[genocide]].
und gold mine in Victoria, Australia]] [[Image:GoldOreUSGOV.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Gold ore]] Economic [[gold extraction]] can be achieved from ore grades as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 ppm) on average in large easily mined deposits, typical ore grades in [[open-pit mining|open-pit]] mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg (1-5 ppm), ore grades in underground or [[hard rock mining|hard rock]] mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm) on average. Ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before gold is visible to the naked eye, therefore in most gold mines you will not see any gold. It is claimed, that all the gold that has been mined throughout the history of mankind could be incorporated in a solid ball with a diameter of 27 [[metre]]s. Since the 1880s [[South Africa]] has been the source for a large proportion of the world's gold supply. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,000 tonnes, however production in 2004 was 342 tonnes. This decline was due to the increasing difficulty of extraction and changing economic factors affecting the industry in South Africa. The city of [[Johannesburg]] was built atop the world's greatest gold finds. Gold fields in the [[Orange Free State]] and the [[Transvaal]] are deep and require the world's deepest mines. The [[Second Boer War]] of [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]] between the [[British Empire]] and the white [[Boers]] was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa. Other major producers are [[Canada]], [[United States]] and [[Western Australia]]. Mines in [[South Dakota]] and [[Nevada]] supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. [[Siberian]] regions of the [[USSR]] also used to be significant in the global gold mining industry. [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in [[India]] is another example of a city being built on the greatest gold deposits in [[India]]. In South America, the controversial project [[Pascua Lama]] aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of [[Atacama]], at the border between [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]. After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the [[Wohlwill process]] or the [[Miller process]]. Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include [[parting and inquartation]] as well as [[cuppelation]], or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in [[aqua regia]]. The world's oceans hold a vast amount of gold, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1-2 parts per billion). [[Fritz Haber]] (the German inventor of the [[Haber process]]) attempted commercial extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following the [[First World War]]. Unfortunately, his assessment of the concentration of gold in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination. The effort produced little gold and cost the German government far more than the commercial value of the gold recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified. [[Gold synthesis]] is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future. Typical gold mining costs are $238 per [[troy ounce]] on average but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality. At the end of 2001, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled 145,000 tonnes. In 2001, global mine production amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total gold demand in that year [http://www.gold.org/discover/knowledge/faqs/]. ==Price== {{Main articles|[[Gold as an investment]] and [[Gold standard]]}} [[Image:3sovriegns.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Three [[gold sovereign|Gold Sovereign]]s with a [[Krugerrand]]]] [[Image:Goldkey_logo_removed.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Swiss minted 1 kg [[gold bar]].]] Like other precious metals, gold is measured by [[troy weight]] and by [[gram]]s. When it is alloyed with other metals the term ''[[carat (purity)|carat]]'' or ''karat'' is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a [[gold bar]] can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the [[millesimal fineness]], such as 0.995. The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the [[Gold Fixing]] in [[London]], originating in 1919, provides a twice-daily benchmark figure to the industry. Historically gold was used to back currency in an economic system known as the [[gold standard]] a certain [[weight]] of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one [[troy weight|troy ounce]] was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in [[1934]] the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand. On [[March 17]] [[1968]], economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical [[official gold reserves|gold reserves]] as a [[store of value]] although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the [[U.S. Federal Reserve Bank]], in [[New York]]. Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on [[21 January]] [[1980]], to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on [[21 June]] [[1999]] (London Fixing). Prices have risen to the $570/oz ($18,300/kg) mark in early 2006 [http://kitco.com/LFgif/au3650nyb.gif]. ==Restrictions on gold ownership== Because of its use as a reserve store of value, the possession of gold is sometimes restricted or banned. Within the United States, the private possession of gold except as jewelry and coin collecting was banned between 1933 and 1975. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] expropriated gold by [http://www.the-privateer.com/1933-gold-confiscation.html Executive Order 6102], and President [[Richard Nixon]] closed the gold window by which foreign countries could exchange American dollars for gold at a fixed rate. ==Compounds/isotopes== Although gold is a [[noble metal]], it can form many compounds, auric chloride (Au[[chlorine|Cl]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and chlorauric acid ([[hydrogen|H]]AuCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) being the most common. Gold compounds can be aurous (univalent, +1) or auric (trivalent, +3). Gold also can under extreme conditions form a +5 state with fluorine (gold pentafluoride, AuF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), as well as (unusually for a metal), a -1 state. Such compounds containing the Au&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; [[anion]] are called ''aurides'' and include [[caesium]] auride, CsAu, rubidium auride, [[rubidium|Rb]]Au, and tetramethylammonium auride, (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Au&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;. Gold also forms: *The AuCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ion after dissolving in [[aqua regia]] *[[Gold halide]]s ([[fluorine|F]],[[chlorine|Cl]],[[bromine|Br]],[[iodine|I]]) *[[Gold chalcogenides]] ([[oxygen|O]], [[sulfur|S]], [[selenium|Se]],[[tellurium|Te]]) *[[Gold cluster compound]]s *Gold [[hydrazine|hydrazide]]: an olive-green powder, AuN&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, one of several explosive compounds known archaically as ''aurum fulminans'' There is only one stable [[isotope]] of gold, and 18 [[radioisotope]]s with Au-195 being the most stable with a [[half-life]] of 186 days. ==Precautions== The human body does not absorb gold very well, thus compounds of gold are not normally very toxic. [[Liver]] and [[kidney]] damage has, however, been reported for up to 50% of arthritis patients treated with gold-containing drugs. Gold used in dentistry is widely regarded as the safest form of restorative material, as well as the most successful. ==Symbolism== Gold has been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and great sanctity throughout history. The [[Golden Calf]] is a widely-recognised symbol of [[idolatry]] and revolt against God. In [[Communist]] [[propaganda]], the golden [[pocket watch]] and its fastening golden chain were the characteristic accessories of the class enemy, the bourgeois and the industrial [[tycoon]]s. On the other hand, eminent [[orator]]s such as [[John Chrysostom]] were said to have a ''mouth of gold with a silver tongue''. Gold is associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a 50 year cycle, such as a golden [[wedding anniversary]], [[golden jubilee]], etc. Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of medals and decorations. Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the gold medal (such as the [[Olympic Games]] and the [[Nobel Prize]]), while many award statues are depicted in gold (such as the [[Academy Awards]], the [[Emmy Awards]] and the [[British Academy Film Awards]]). Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of [[anointing|sacred oil]] and a golden crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a [[Christian]] king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of gold; since it is long-lasting and unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as well as a metaphor for the relationship. In [[Orthodox Christianity]], the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites. The symbolic value
ry</title> <id>2853</id> <revision> <id>41848983</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:21:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BDAbramson</username> <id>196446</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved the article back to original title using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AberdeenBestiaryFol56rPhoenix.jpg|thumb|200px|Folio 56r of the Aberdeen Bestiary has a miniature of the [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]].]] '''Aberdeen Bestiary''' (Aberdeen University Library MS 24) is a [[12th century]] [[bestiary]] that was first listed in [[1542]] in the inventory of the [[Old Royal Library]] at the [[Palace of Westminster]]. Information about its origins and patron are circumstantial. It probably comes from the [[12th century]] and was owned by an ecclesiastical patron of the north or south province. The Aberdeen Bestiary is related to other bestiaries of the [[Middle Ages]] and especially the [[Ashmole Bestiary]]. Some even argue that the Aberdeen Bestiary might be the older of the two. ==See also== *[[The Physiologus]]. == External links == * [http://www.abdn.ac.uk:/bestiary Online version of the bestiary] {{Commons|Category:Aberdeen Bestiary}} {{art-stub}} {{book-stub}} [[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]] [[he:&amp;#1505;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arts and Crafts</title> <id>2854</id> <revision> <id>15901238</id> <timestamp>2002-06-17T20:25:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Karen Johnson</username> <id>1300</id> </contributor> <comment>moving</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arts and crafts]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ALADI</title> <id>2855</id> <revision> <id>31055103</id> <timestamp>2005-12-12T15:19:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración&quot; +&quot;Latin American Integration Association&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Latin American Integration Association]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Latin American Integration Association</title> <id>2856</id> <revision> <id>40360119</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración''' (the '''Latin American Integration Association'''; known as '''ALADI''' or, occasionally, by the English acronym '''LAIA''') is a [[Latin America]]n trade integration association, based in [[Montevideo]]. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region. Its members are [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Mexico]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]]. The [[1980 Montevideo Treaty]], signed on [[August 12]] [[1980]], is the global legal framework that establishes and governs ALADI. It sets the following general principles: pluralism, convergence, flexibility, differential treatment and multiplicity. The ALADI promotes the creation of an area of economic preferences in the region, aiming at a Latin American common market, through three mechanisms: *Regional tariff preference granted to products originating in the member countries, based on the tariffs in force for third countries *Regional scope agreement, among member countries *Partial scope agreements, between two or more countries of the area Either regional or partial scope agreements may cover tariff relief and trade promotion; economic complementation; agricultural trade; financial, fiscal, customs and health cooperation; environmental conservation; scientific and technological cooperation; tourism promotion; technical standards and many other fields. As the Montevideo Treaty is a &quot;framework treaty&quot;, by subscribing to it, the governments of the member countries authorize their representatives to legislate through agreements on the economic issues of greatest importance to each country. A system of preferences &amp;mdash; which consists of market opening lists, special cooperation programs (business rounds, preinvestment, financing, technological support) and countervailing measures on behalf of the landlocked countries &amp;mdash; has been granted to the countries deemed to be less developed (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay), to favour their full participation in the integration process. Any Latin-American country can join the 1980 Montevideo Treaty. [[Cuba]] was the last to accede, becoming a full member on [[August 26]], [[1999]]. In addition, ALADI is also open to all Latin American countries through agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent, as well as to other developing countries or their respective integration areas outside Latin America. As the institutional and normative &quot;umbrella&quot; of regional integration that shelters these agreements as well as the subregional ones ([[Andean Community]], [[MERCOSUR]], [[G-3 Free Trade Agreement]], etc.) it is the aim of the Association to support and favour every effort in order to create a common economic area. ==External links== * [http://www.aladi.org/NSFALADI/SITIO.NSF/INICIO ALADI web site] [[es:Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración]] [[pl:ALADI]] [[Category:Latin America]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aircraft spotting</title> <id>2858</id> <revision> <id>41869040</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arpingstone</username> <id>7095</id> </contributor> <comment>WP does not link to forums so link removed, and giving founders of the other links is not WP style</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aircraft spotting''' or '''Plane spotting''' is a [[hobby]] involving the enjoyment, observation and photography of [[aircraft]]: [[glider|gliders]], powered aircraft, large balloons, [[airship|airships]], [[helicopter|helicopters]], and microlights. [[image:virginatl.over.heathrow.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Virgin Atlantic Airbus A340. The picture was taken from Myrtle Avenue, an excellent '''aircraft spotting''' location at the south east corner of [[London Heathrow Airport]].]] When spotting planes, observers notice the key attributes of an aircraft. They may notice a distinctive noise from its engine(s) or the number of vapour trails it is leaving against a blue sky. They will assess the size of the plane and the number, type and position of its engines. Another clue is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. Are the wings above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint? Perhaps it is a [[biplane]] or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are also clues to its type. If it is an antique or light aircraft it might have a tail wheel. Some aircraft types have a fixed [[undercarriage]] whilst others have retractable wheels. Other features may come into view, the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the plane. Taken together these clues will rapidly hasten the correct identification of a plane. Obviously some types are easily confused whilst others have a more distinctive appearance. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, he or she is more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity - they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. Some spotters will note the markings, a national insignia or [[airline]] livery or logo perhaps, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military craft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. [[Camouflage]] markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate. [[image:aircraft.spotting.srilankan.arp.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Spotters enjoying the landing of a SriLankan Airlines Airbus A340 at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]] Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic transmissions (where that is legal), liaising with other &quot;spotters&quot; to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places, and the drawing, painting, filming, tape-recording or photographing of aircraft. The more enthusiastic hobbyists might travel great distances in order to visit a different airport fom their usual one, to see an unusual aircraft or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Some such &quot;wrecks and relics&quot; may eventually be placed in the care of museums - or perhaps be cannibalised in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved. Some spotters may go on to work in the aviation industry or air traffic control service. During [[World War II|WWII]] and the subsequent [[Cold War]] some countries encouraged their citizens to become &quot;plane spotters&quot; in an &quot;observation corps&quot; or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the [[Royal Observer Corps]] which operated between 1925 and 1995. Some spotters are quite competitive and may get
e were a workman’s tools, not worthy of a scholar. This dictum led to a deep study of the possible [[ruler and compass constructions]], and three classic ruler-and-compass problems: how to use these tools to trisect an angle, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. The proofs of the impossibility of these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the deep structure of the real number system. [[Aristotle]] (384-322 B.C.), Plato’s greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see [[Logic]]) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century. ==Hellenistic geometry (c. 300 B.C - 500 C.E.)== ===Euclid=== [[Euclid]] (c. 325-265 B.C.), of [[Alexandria]], probably a student of one of Plato’s students, wrote a treatise in 13 books (chapters), titled ''[[Euclid's Elements|The Elements of Geometry]]'', in which he presented geometry in an ideal [[axiom]]atic form, which came to be known as [[Euclidean geometry]]. The treatise is not a compendium of all that the [[Hellenistic]] mathematicians knew at the time about geometry; Euclid himself wrote eight more advanced books on geometry. We know from other references that Euclid’s was not the first elementary geometry textbook, but it was so much superior that the others fell into disuse and were lost. He was brought to the university at Alexandria by [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy I]], King of Egypt. ''The Elements'' began with definitions of terms, fundamental geometric principles (called ''axioms'' or ''postulates''), and general quantitative principles (called ''common notions'') from which all the rest of geometry could be logically deduced. Following are his five axioms, somewhat paraphrased to make the English easier to read. # Any two points can be joined by a straight line. # Any finite straight line can be extended in a straight line. # A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius. # All right angles are equal to each other. # If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by another straight line (called the transversal), and the interior angles between the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add up to less than two right angles, then on that side of the transversal, the two lines extended will intersect (also called the [[parallel postulate]]). It was soon observed, and no doubt Euclid himself knew, that his fifth axiom could be replaced by the shorter statement “Given a line and a point not on the line, there is only one line through the given point and in the same plane with the given line that does not intersect the given line.” This is called Playfair’s Axiom, after the British teacher who proposed to make the replacement in all the school textbooks. The axioms, according to Plato, should be simple and self-evident principles, so clearly true that they need no proof. Euclid’s first four axioms meet this criterion, but the fifth, even if replaced by Playfair’s Axiom, is not simple, and most would say not self-evident like the first four. The fifth resembled more the theorems that Euclid proved from the axioms. Furthermore, Euclid developed a substantial part of his theory of triangles without using the Fifth Axiom. The speculation arose, probably during Euclid’s lifetime, that the Fifth Axiom can and should be proved as a theorem from the first four, and thus is unnecessary as an axiom. Thus began many centuries of attempts to prove the Fifth Axiom, and the question was not settled until the 19th century. ===Archimedes=== [[Archimedes]] (287-212 B.C.), of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]], when it was a [[Greek city-state]], is often considered to be the greatest of the Greek mathematicians, and occasionally even named as one of the three greatest of all time (along with [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]). Had he not been a mathematician, he would still be remembered as a great physicist, engineer, and inventor. In his mathematics, he developed methods very similar to the coordinate systems of analytic geometry, and the limiting process of integral calculus. The only element lacking for the creation of these fields was an efficient algebraic notation in which to express his concepts. ===After Archimedes=== After Archimedes, Hellenistic mathematics began to decline. There were a few minor stars yet to come, but the golden age of geometry was over. [[Proclus]] (410-485), author of ''Commentary on the First Book of Euclid'', was one of the last important players in Hellenistic geometry. He was a competent geometer, but more importantly, he was a superb commentator on the works that preceded him. Much of that work did not survive to modern times, and is known to us only through his commentary. The Roman Republic and Empire that succeeded and absorbed the Greek city-states produced excellent engineers, but no mathematicians of note. The great [[Library of Alexandria]] was later burned. There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one. The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure. Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later. Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the fourth century. The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign. ==Islamic geometry (c. 700 - 1500)== The [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate ([[Islamic Empire]]) established across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Afghanistan]] and parts of [[Pakistan]], began around [[640|640 CE]]. [[Islamic mathematics]] during this period was primarily algebraic rather than geometric, though there were important works on geometry. Scholarship in Europe declined and eventually the [[Hellenistic]] works of [[antiquity]] were lost to them, and survived only in the Islamic centers of learning. Although the Muslim mathematicians are most famed for their work on [[algebra]], [[number theory]] and [[number system]]s, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, [[trigonometry]] and mathematical [[astronomy]], and were responsible for the development of [[algebraic geometry]]. Geometrical magnitudes were treated as &quot;algebraic objects&quot; by most Muslim mathematicians however. The successors of [[Al-Khwarizmi]] (born [[780]]) undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose. [[Al-Mahani]] (born [[820]]) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Al-Karaji (born [[953]]) completely freed algebra from geometrical operations and replaced them with the [[arithmetic]]al type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. ===Thabit ibn Qurra=== Although [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] (born [[836]]) contributed to a number of areas the most important of his work was in mathematics where he played an important role in preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to ([[positive]]) [[real number]]s, [[integral calculus]], theorems in [[spherical trigonometry]], [[analytic geometry]], and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. In astronomy Thabit was one of the first reformers of the [[Ptolemaic system]], and in mechanics he was a founder of [[statics]]. An important geometrical aspect of Thabit's work was his book on the composition of ratios. In this book, Thabit deals with arithmetical operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities. The Greeks had dealt with geometric quantities but had not thought of them in the same way as numbers to which the usual rules of arithmetic could be applied. By introducing arithmetical operations on quantities previously regarded as geometric and non-numerical, Thabit started a trend which led eventually to the generalisation of the number concept. In some respects, Thabit is critical of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, particularly regarding motion. It would seem that here his ideas are based on an acceptance of using arguments concerning motion in his geometrical arguments. ===After Thabit ibn Qurra=== [[Ibrahim ibn Sinan]] (born [[908]]), who introduced a method of integration more general than that of [[Archimedes]], and [[al-Quhi]] (born [[940]]) were leading figures in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. These mathematicians, and in particular [[al-Haytham]], studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from [[conic section]]s. Astronomy, time-keeping and [[geography]] provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research. For example Ibrahim ibn Sinan and his grandfather [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] both studied curves required in the construction of sundials. [[Abu'l-Wafa]] and [[Abu Nasr Mansur]] both applied [[spherical geometry]] to astronomy. ===Omar Khayyám=== [[Omar Khayyám]] (born [[1048]])
e followed by involuntary movements and the appearance of a typical diagnostic electroencephalogram tracing. The symptoms of CJD are caused by the progressive death of the brain's [[neuron|nerve cells]], which is associated with the build-up of abnormal prion [[proteins]]. When brain tissue from a CJD patient is examined under a [[microscope]], many tiny holes can be seen where whole areas of nerve cells have died. The word 'spongiform' in 'transmissible spongiform encephalopathies' refers to the 'spongy' appearance of the brain tissue. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of CJD is suspected when there are typical clinical symptoms and signs such as rapidly progressing dementia with myoclonus. Further investigation can then be performed to support the diagnosis including * [[Electroencephalography]] - often has characteristic triphasic spikes * [[Cerebrospinal fluid]] analysis for [[14-3-3 protein]] * [[MRI]] of the brain - often shows high signal intensity in the caudate nucleus and putamin bilaterally on T2-weighted images In one third of patients with sporadic CJD, deposits of [[PrpSc|PrP&lt;SUP&gt;Sc&lt;/SUP&gt;]] can be found in the skeletal muscle and/or the spleen. Diagnosis of vCJD can be supported by biopsy of the tonsils, which harbour significant amounts of PrpSc; However, [[biopsy]] of brain tissue is definitive diagnostic test ==variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)== A new variant of the disease (usually called just '''variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)''' but sometimes '''new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (nvCJD)''') is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of [[psychiatric]] and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of [[bovinae|bovines]] with so-called mad cow disease ([[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]]), although there is no definite proof of this association as yet. It has been shown, however, that PRP&lt;SUP&gt;Sc&lt;/SUP&gt; particles accumulate in gastrointestinal lymphoid tissue (specifically, [[Peyer's patches]]) in animals after oral infection (Maignien et al 1999; Beekes and McBride, 2000; Shmakov and Ghosh, 2001; Ghosh 2002). Furthermore, ''in vitro'' studies have shown the uptake of these particles by human gastrointestinal tract cells (Morel et al, 2005). Further suggestive of an oral route of transmission in humans is the fact that over 95% of identified cases of vCJD are in Britain, which suffered a mad cow disease epidemic in the mid-80s. ==Treatment== As of this writing, there is no cure for CJD, a fatal disease, and the search for viable treatments continues. An experimental treatment was given to a Northern Irish teenager, [[Jonathan Simms]] in January 2003. The drug, called [[pentosan polysulphate]] (PPS) and commonly used to treat [[cystitis]], was infused into the patient's (L) cerebral ventricle. Simms has remained stable since the treatment. The drug may slow or halt the progress of the disease but does not improve the patient's health and is not widely available in the UK.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4092363.stm] ==Transmission== The defective protein can be transmitted by [[human growth hormone]] products, [[cornea]]l grafts, dural grafts or [[electrode]] implants (acquired or [[iatrogenic]] form: iCJD), it can be inherited (hereditary or familial form: fCJD) or it may appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form: sCJD). In the hereditary form, a [[mutation]] occurs in the [[gene]] for PrP, [[PRNP]]. From 10 to 15 percent of CJD cases are inherited. (CDC) The disease has also been shown to result from usage of [[Human growth hormone|HGH]] drawn from the [[pituitary gland]]s of [[cadaver]]s who died from Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease [http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,62998,00.html], though the known incidence of this cause is (as of April 2004) quite small. The risk of infection through cadaveric HGH usage in the U.S. only ceased when the medication was withdrawn in [[1985]]. [[Cannibalism]] has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions, causing the disease known as [[Kuru epidemic|Kuru]], found primarily among women and children of the [[Fore Tribe|Fore tribe]] in [[Papua New Guinea]]. ===Blood donor restrictions=== In [[2004]] a new report published in the [[The Lancet|Lancet]] medical journal showed that vCJD can be transmitted by blood transfusions (Peden, 2004). The finding alarmed healthcare officials because a large epidemic of the disease might arise in the near future. There is no test to determine if a blood donor is infected and is in the latent phase of vCJD. In reaction to this report, the British government banned anyone who had received a blood transfusion since January 1980 from donating blood. On [[May 28]], [[2002]], the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] instituted a policy that excludes from donation anyone who lived in high-risk areas of Europe from 1980 to the mid-1990s. Given the large number of U.S. military personnel residing in Europe, it was expected that over 7% of donors would be deferred due to the policy. {{ref|BCP}} ==History== The disease was first described by two German [[neurologist]]s, [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]] and [[Alfons Maria Jakob]]. Some of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that at least two of the patients in their initial studies were suffering from a different disorder. ==Victims== Many Americans first learned about the disease when the famed choreographer [[George Balanchine]] died of it in [[1983]]. ==See also== *[[Scrapie]], a similar disease which affects sheep. ==References== * Beekes M, McBride PA (2000). Early accumulation of pathological PrP in the enteric nervous system and gut-associated lymphoid tissue of hamsters orally infected with scrapie. ''Neurosci Lett'' '''278''':181-184 PMID 10653023 * Johnson RT, Gibbs CJ (1998). Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. ''N. Engl. J. Med.'' '''339''' (27), 1994-2004 PMID 9869672 * Morel E, et al (2005). Bovine prion is endocytosed by human enterocytes via the 37 kDa/67 kDa laminin receptor. ''Am J Pathol''. '''167(4)''':1033-42 PMID 16192638 * Peden AH, et al (2004). Preclinical vCJD after blood transfusion in a PRNP codon 129 heterozygous patient. ''Lancet'' '''364''', 527-29 PMID 15302196 * Todd NV, Morrow J, Doh-ura K, Dealler S, O'Hare S, Farling P, Duddy M, Rainov NG, (2005) Cerebroventricular infusion of pentosan polysulphate in human variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, '' Journal of Infectious Diseases'', '''50(5)''':394-6. PMID 15907546 * Maignien T, Lasmezas CI, Beringue V, Dormont D, Deslys JP (1999). Pathogenesis of the oral route of infection of mice with scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy agents. ''J Gen Virol'' '''80''':3035-3042 PMID 10580067 * Shmakov AN, Ghosh S (2001). Prion proteins and the gut: une liaison dangereuse? ''Gut'' '''48''':443-447 PMID 11247881 * Ghosh S (2002). Intestinal entry of prions. ''Z Gastroenterol'' '''40''':37-39. PMID 11803499 ==External links== * [http://www.cjd.ed.ac.uk/ National Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit], UK CJD surveillance unit at Western General Hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland * [http://www.cjdalliance.org.uk/ CJD Alliance] CJD Alliance, Scotland * [http://www.mad-cow-facts.com Mad Cow Facts], Beef industry view on BSE links to vCJD * [http://www.bloodcenters.org/press/001.htm &quot;Mad Cow&quot; Blood Donor Restrictions] - Blood Centers of the Pacific * [http://www.AIDSCJDUK.info forecast information on vCJD and HIV/AIDS in the UK] [[Category:Eponymous diseases]] [[Category:Prions]] [[Category:Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] [[Category:Foodborne illnesses]] [[da:CJD]] [[de:Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Krankheit]] [[es:Enfermedad de Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] [[fr:Maladie de Creutzfeldt-Jacob]] [[he:מחלת קרויצפלד יקוב]] [[it:Malattia di Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] [[nl:Ziekte van Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] [[no:Creutzfeldt-Jakobs sykdom]] [[ja:クロイツフェルト・ヤコブ病]] [[pl:Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba]] [[pt:Doença de Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] [[sv:Creutzfeldt-Jakobs sjukdom]] [[zh:克雅二氏病]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clockwork Orange</title> <id>5618</id> <revision> <id>38080995</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T01:11:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Aim Here</username> <id>438422</id> </contributor> <comment>try another link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A Clockwork Orange (film)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cerebral Palsy</title> <id>5619</id> <revision> <id>15903820</id> <timestamp>2002-04-27T16:39:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>*#redirect[[Cerebral palsy]] no talk to move</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Cerebral palsy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cerebrovascular Accident</title> <id>5620</id> <revision> <id>25553205</id> <timestamp>2005-10-15T01:50:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RN</username> <id>201597</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Stroke]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Stroke]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carl XVI Gustaf</title> <id>5621</id> <revision> <id>15903822</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:33:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>C. Northcote
and systems programming'' ('''Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference''', Vol 34, pp 557-566, 1969) * Martin Richards, Arthur Evans, Robert F. Mabee, ''The BCPL Reference Manual'' (MAC TR-141, Project MAC, Cambridge, 1974) * Martin Richards, C. Whitby-Strevens, ''BCPL, the language and its compiler'' (Cambridge University Press, 1980) ISBN 0-521-28681-6 == External links== * [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/mr/BCPL.html Martin Richards' BCPL distribution] * [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bcpl.html Martin Richards's BCPL Reference Manual] by Dennis M. Ritchie also includes some fascinating commentary from him about BCPL's influence on C * [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/B/BCPL.html BCPL entry] in the [[Jargon File]] [[Category:Historical programming languages]] [[Category:Systems programming languages]] [[da:BCPL]] [[de:BCPL]] [[es:BCPL]] [[fr:BCPL]] [[it:BCPL]] [[ja:BCPL]] [[pl:BCPL]] [[pt:Linguagem de programação BCPL]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battleship</title> <id>4054</id> <revision> <id>41884635</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:09:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Buldożer</username> <id>418340</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* &quot;All-big-guns&quot; */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the type of warship. See also [[Battleship (game)]].'' [[Image:Battleship1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] in [[1884]].]] &lt;!-- the dreadnought pic is in the article later in a more appropriate place--&gt; '''Battleship''' was the name given to the most powerfully [[naval artillery|gun-armed]] and most heavily [[armor|armor]]ed classes of [[warship]]s between the [[15th century|15th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]]. Battleships evolved from [[northern Europe]]an [[cog (ship)|cog]]s, and included [[carrack]]s and [[galleon]]s in the 16th Century, [[ships of the line]] in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th Centuries]], broadside [[ironclads]] in the [[19th Century]], and [[Dreadnought]]s in the 20th Century. During [[World War II]] (1939-45) they were superseded as the deciding factor at sea by [[aircraft carrier]]s. Battleships were designed to engage similar enemy warships with direct or indirect fire from an arsenal of main guns. As a secondary role, they were capable of bombarding targets on and near an enemy coast to support infantry assaults. After World War II some continued to be used for shore bombardment and as [[missile]] platforms until the early [[1990s]]. The word &quot;battleship&quot; originated with the development of the [[line of battle|line-of-battle]] tactic, in which ships usually followed each other single-file and engaged the enemy ships to one side, in the mid [[17th century]]. Ships expected to form part of this line were called [[ship of the line|''ships-of-the-line-of-battle'']] or ''line-of-battle ships'', eventually reducing to ''battleship''. They were divided into several classes - [[first-rate|first-]], [[second-rate|second-]] and [[third-rate]]s. Fourth- and fifth-rates were [[frigate]]s, and sixth-rates were [[sloop-of-war|sloops]] (strictly &quot;sloops-of-war&quot;). These vessels were used for communications and reconnaissance and did not usually fight in fleet encounters. Although this classification worked well in the [[18th Century]], from the middle of the [[19th Century]], the terminology became confused by the introduction of large steam-powered armoured single-deck ships with a small number of very powerful guns. These were technically frigates because they had a single gundeck, but they were designed to fight as ships of the line, and were the most potent warships of their time. ==Early battleships== [[Image:Spanish Galleon.jpg|thumb|right|A [[16th century]] Spanish [[galleon]].]] The origin of the concept of the battleship can be found in the &quot;great ships&quot;, such as [[galleons]], which had existed in several [[Europe]]an countries since around [[1410]]. These large Western ships were themselves preceded by the great sailing [[Junk (sailing)|junks]] of the [[Chinese Empire]], described by various travelers to the East such as [[Marco Polo]] and [[Niccolò Da Conti]], and used during the travels of Admiral [[Zheng He]] in the early 15th century, by the various cogs and busses in the Baltic Sea region, and galleasses and mahons in the Mediterranean Sea, but it was in northern Europe and Spain that these vessels developed. They had natural advantages over the commonly-used galleys, in that they were more suited to the rough weather outside the Mediterranean and Baltic seas (where the galley hung on until the 1800s), and their high stature allowed boarding and scouting advantages. Following the development of the [[line of battle]], first used by [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[England]] in the early [[17th century]], battleships became for over 300 years the main instrument of [[naval warfare]] by European countries, allowing nations such as the [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], to create and maintain trade-based overseas empires. In the 17th century [[Naval fleet|fleet]]s could consist of almost a hundred ships of various sizes, but by the mid [[18th century]], ship-of-the-line design had settled on a few standard types: older [[two-decker]]s (i.e. with two complete decks of guns firing through side ports) of 50 guns (which were too weak for the battle-line but could be used to escort [[convoy]]s), two-deckers of between 64 and 90 guns which formed the main part of the fleet, and larger [[three-decker|three]]- or even four-deckers with 98&amp;ndash;144 guns which were used as admirals' command ships. Fleets consisting of perhaps 10&amp;ndash;25 of these ships, with their attendant supply ships and scouting and messenger frigates kept control of the sea-lanes for major European naval powers whilst restricting sea-borne trade of enemies. Although Spain, the Netherlands and France built huge fleets, they were rarely able to match the skill of British naval crews. British crews excelled, in part, because they spent much more time at sea, were generally better fed, and were generally more competent as the [[Royal Navy]] based promotion on merit rather than lordship. In addition, with no large land army to support, the United Kingdom was always free to devote more resources to her prized navy. In the [[North Sea]] and [[North Atlantic Ocean]] the fleets of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France and Spain fought numerous battles in support of their land armies and to deny the enemy access to trade routes. In the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], the Netherlands and [[Russia]] did likewise, while in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] Russia, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]], [[Venice]], the United Kingdom and France battled for control of the [[Balkans]], [[Egypt]] and [[Malta]]. [[Image:HMS Howe (1859).jpg|thumb|300px|HMS ''Howe'' (1860)|[[HMS Howe (1860)|HMS ''Howe'']] in the late 19th Century]] During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[United Kingdom]] defeated Europe's major naval powers at battles such as at [[Battle of Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] and [[Trafalgar]], allowing the Royal Navy to establish itself as the world's primary naval power. Spain, Denmark and Portugal largely stopped building battleships during this time under duress from the British. The United Kingdom emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in [[1815]] with the largest and most professional navy in the world, composed of hundreds of wooden, sail-powered ships of all sizes and classes. The [[Royal Navy]] had complete naval supremacy across the world following the Napoleonic Wars, and demonstrated this superiority during the [[Crimean War]] in the [[1850s]]. ==Industrial Age== However, from the early [[1840s]] onwards, several technological innovations started to revolutionize the conception of warships. Reliable [[steam power]] made warships much more maneuverable, and became the obvious choice against sail as soon as the issue of long-distance travel and re-coaling was solved. Naval guns with exploding shells, capable of penetrating wooden hulls and setting them on fire, were invented by the French Admiral [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]], and adopted from [[1841]] by the navies of France, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States. Their efficacy, largely proven during the [[Crimean War]] in turn led to the development of the first ironclad warships in [[1859]], and the subsequent generalization of [[Wrought iron|iron]] hulls. In the [[1860s]] major naval powers built &quot;armoured frigate&quot; type ships, which, although having only one gundeck, were used as battleships, not frigates. The first [[steel]]-hulled ships then appeared in [[1876]], with the launch of the French [[French ship Redoutable (1876)|''Redoutable'']]. ===Explosive-shell naval guns=== Although explosive shells had long been in use in ground warfare (in [[howitzer]]s and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s), they could only be fired at high angles in elliptical [[trajectory|trajectories]] and with relatively low [[velocity|velocities]], which rendered them impractical for marine combat. Naval combat had required flat-trajectory guns in order to have some odds of hitting the target, so that naval warfare had consisted for centuries in encounters between flat-trajectory cannons using inert cannonballs, which a wooden boat could rather easily absorb. The French general [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]] developed a time-delay mechanism which, for the first time, allowed shells to be fired safely by high-powered and hence flat-trajectory guns. The effect of explosive shells against wooden hulls causing fires was devastating. The first Paixhans guns were produced in 1841 and France, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States adopted the new naval guns in the 1840s. The change on nava
nuary 1961, en route to Minneapolis from Chicago, he changed course and went to [[New York City]] to perform and to visit his ailing musical idol [[Woody Guthrie]] in a [[New Jersey]] hospital. Initially playing mostly in small &quot;basket&quot; clubs for little pay, he gained some public recognition after a review [http://www.bobdylanroots.com/shelton.html] in the ''[[New York Times]]'' by critic [[Robert Shelton]], while [[John Hammond]], a legendary music business figure, signed him to [[Columbia Records]] that September. At the time his voice, musicianship and songwriting were still raw. His performances, like his first Columbia album ([[1962 in music|1962]]'s ''[[Bob Dylan (album)|Bob Dylan]]''), consisted of familiar folk, blues and gospel material seasoned with a few of his own songs. As he continued to record for Columbia, he also recorded more than a dozen songs for [[Broadside Magazine]] (a folk music magazine and record label), under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt. In [[August]] [[1962]], Robert Allen Zimmerman went to the [[Supreme Court]] building in New York, and changed his name to Robert Dylan. By the time his next record, ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]'', was released in [[1963 in music|1963]] he had begun to make his name as both a singer and songwriter, specializing in [[protest song]]s, inspired partly by [[Joe Hill]] and initially in the style of Guthrie but soon practically developing his own genre. His most famous songs of the time are typified by &quot;[[Blowin' In The Wind]]&quot;, its melody partially derived from the traditional slave song &quot;No More Auction Block&quot;, coupled with Dylan's original lyrics challenging the social and political status quo. &quot;Blowin' In The Wind&quot; itself was widely recorded and was an international hit for [[Peter, Paul and Mary]], setting an enduring precedent for other artists. While Dylan's topical songs solidified his early reputation, somewhat overlooked among them on ''Freewheelin''' was a mixture of finely crafted bittersweet love songs (&quot;Don't Think Twice, It's Alright&quot;, &quot;Girl From the North Country&quot;) and jokey, frequently surreal talking blues (&quot;[[Talking World War III Blues]]&quot;, &quot;I Shall Be Free&quot;). Humor was a large part of Bob Dylan's persona. The ''Freewheelin''' song &quot;[[A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall]]&quot;, built melodically from a loose adaptation of the stanza tune of the folk [[ballad]] [[Lord Randall]], with its veiled references to [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] [[apocalypse]], gained even more resonance as the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Cuban missile crisis]] developed only a few weeks after Dylan began performing it. Soon after the release of ''Freewheelin'' Dylan emerged as a dominant figure of the so-called &quot;new folk movement&quot; headquartered in Lower Manhattan's [[Greenwich Village]]. [[The Beatles]], amongst others, listened to this album and 1964's ''[[The Times They Are A-Changin']]'' repeatedly and realized that entire albums of boy-meets-girl songs were now, at one blow, outmoded. [[Image:Joan Baez Bob Dylan.jpg|thumb|With [[Joan Baez]] during the Civil Rights March on [[Washington D.C.]], 1963]] While undeniably a fine interpreter of traditional songs, Dylan's singing voice was unusual and untrained and his phrasing as a vocalist was eccentric. He sang his songs with an arrogance and aggression that was anathema to the music industry of the time. Many of his most famous early songs first reached the public through versions by other performing musicians who were more immediately palatable. [[Joan Baez]], regarded at the time as the reigning queen of folk, became Dylan's advocate as well as his lover. In addition to jumpstarting Dylan's performance career by inviting him onstage during her concerts, she chose to record several of his early songs. Given her considerable fame at the time, her recordings of Dylan's songs were influential in bringing Dylan to national and international prominence. Others who recorded and released his songs around this time included [[The Byrds]], [[Sonny and Cher]], [[The Hollies]], [[Manfred Mann]], [[The Brothers Four]], [[Judy Collins]] and [[Herman's Hermits]], most attempting to impart more of a pop feel and rhythm to the songs where Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk pieces keying rhythmically off the vocals. So ubiquitous were these covers by the mid-1960s that [[CBS]] started to promote him with the tag: &quot;Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan&quot;. Paradoxically, many new artists sprang up at this time with singing styles suspiciously similar to Dylan's, typically using his inflections and tone while dispensing with the &quot;mumbly&quot; and gruff qualities (see [[Donovan| Donovan Leitch]]). ===Protest and another side=== By [[1963 in music|1963]], Dylan was becoming increasingly prominent in the [[civil rights]] movement, singing at rallies including the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]] where [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] gave his &quot;[[I have a dream]]&quot; speech. In January, he appeared on [[British television]] in the [[BBC]] play '' [[Madhouse on Castle Street]]'', featuring as a [[Greek chorus]]-type figure. Dylan's next album, ''[[The Times They Are A-Changin']],'' reflected a more sophisticated, politicized and cynical Dylan. This bleak material, concerned with such subjects as the murder of civil rights worker [[Medgar Evers]] and the despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities (&quot;Ballad of Hollis Brown&quot;, &quot;North Country Blues&quot;), was tempered by two enduring love songs, &quot;Boots of Spanish Leather&quot; and &quot;One Too Many Mornings&quot;, and the epic renunciation of &quot;Restless Farewell&quot;. The [[Bertolt Brecht|Brechtian]]-influenced &quot;[[The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll]]&quot;, a highlight of the album, describes a young socialite's killing of a hotel maid. Never explicitly mentioning race, the song leaves no doubt that the killer is white, the victim black. As a sign of the political influence of Dylan's lyrics, in 1969 the militant [[Weatherman (organization)|Weatherman]] radical group took their name from a line in &quot;[[Subterranean Homesick Blues]]&quot; (&quot;You don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows&quot;). By the end of 1963, however, Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk-protest movement. Accepting the &quot;[[Thomas Paine|Tom Paine]] Award&quot; from the [[National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee]] at a ceremony shortly after the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], a drunken, rambling Dylan questioned the role of the committee, insulted its members as old and balding, and claimed to see something of himself (and of every man) in assassin [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]. Perhaps inevitably then, his next album, the accurately but prosaically titled ''[[Another Side Of Bob Dylan]]'', recorded on a single June evening in [[1964 in music|1964]], had a lighter mood than its predecessor. The surreal Dylan reemerged on &quot;I Shall Be Free #10&quot; and &quot;Motorpsycho Nightmare&quot; employing a sense of humor which would persist throughout his career. &quot;Spanish Harlem Incident&quot; and &quot;To Ramona&quot; were touching love songs, &quot;I Don't Believe You&quot;, a prototypical rock and roll song played on acoustic guitar, and &quot;It Ain't Me Babe&quot;, a romping rejection of the role his reputation thrust at him. His newest direction was signaled by three songs: &quot;[[Chimes of Freedom]]&quot;, long and [[impressionism|impressionistic]], sets elements of social commentary against a denser metaphorical landscape in a style later characterized by [[Allen Ginsberg]] as &quot;chains of flashing images&quot;; &quot;[[My Back Pages]]&quot; even more personally attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs; and a musically undeveloped &quot;Mr. Tambourine Man&quot;, written before many songs included on ''Another Side'' but held back for Dylan's next release. In the early 1960s, Dylan had adopted a sort of [[Huckleberry Finn]] persona and told picaresque tales of knocking around, hopping freights, and working at folksy jobs. In that bohemian phase, lasting a few years, he sang and wrote somewhat like the Woody Guthrie of 25 or 30 years earlier. However, as he “brought it all back home” (Dylan’s point of view as a writer became at once more thoroughly contemporary and more surrealistic, and probably more honest. Throughout this time Dylan's artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind. His March [[1965 in music|1965]] album ''[[Bringing It All Back Home]]'' was a further stylistic leap. Influenced by [[The Beatles]] (whose artistic development had already been enhanced by Dylan's influence) and the rock and roll of his youth, the first side contained his first significant original up-tempo rock songs. Lyrically, however, the songs were pure Dylan, exhibiting his dry wit and inhabited by a sequence of grotesque, metaphorical characters. The raucous first single, &quot;[[Subterranean Homesick Blues]]&quot;, owed much to [[Chuck Berry]]'s &quot;Too Much Monkey Business&quot; and was provided with an early [[music video]] courtesy of [[D. A. Pennebaker]]'s [[cinéma vérité]] presentation of Dylan's 1965 tour, ''[[Dont Look Back]]''. Its lyrics drew references in large from the beat poetry of the time, its name possibly refering to [[The Subterraneans]]. Side 2 of the album was a different matter, including four lengthy acoustic songs whose undogmatic political, social and personal concerns are illuminated with the rich poetic imagery that would become another trademark. One of these songs, &quot;[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]&quot; had already been a hit for The Byrds, albeit in a truncated form, and would remain one of Dylan's most enduring compositions, while &quot;Gates Of Eden
for severely restricted contacts with [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] merchants at the [[artificial island]] of [[Dejima]], near [[Nagasaki]]. They also became more conscious of trade with China, especially after the [[Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Manchus subjugated Korea in 1637, and the Japanese feared an invasion. Thus, the country became more isolated than ever before. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the [[Edo period]], considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. ===Modern era=== [[Image:Japanese_Empire2.png|thumb|240px|The Empire of Japan encompassed most of East and Southeast Asia at its height, in 1942]] In 1854, [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry]] of the United States forced the opening of Japan to the West with the [[Convention of Kanagawa]]. The perceived weakness of the shogunate led many samurai to revolt, leading to the [[Boshin War]] of 1867 to 1868. Subsequently, the shogunate resigned, and the [[Meiji Restoration]] returned the emperor to power. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions during the [[Meiji period]], including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms helped transform the [[Empire of Japan]] into a world power, defeating [[China]] in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and [[Russia]] in the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. By 1910, Japan controlled [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and the southern half of [[Sakhalin]]. The early 20th century saw a brief period of &quot;[[Taisho democracy]]&quot; overshadowed by the rise of [[Japanese expansionism]]. [[World War I]] enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious [[Allies]], to expand its influence in [[Asia]], and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1936, however, Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], joining with Germany and Italy to form the [[Axis]] alliance. During this period, Japan invaded China, occupying [[Manchuria]] in 1931, and continued its expansion into [[China proper]] in 1937, starting the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], which lasted until the end of World War II. In 1941, after US [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] demanded that Japan withdraw its forces from China, Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor]] as well as [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], bringing itself and the [[United States]] into [[World War II]]. After a long campaign in the [[Pacific Ocean]], Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and American forces moved close enough to begin [[strategic bombing]] of [[Tokyo]], [[Osaka]], and other major cities, as well as the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing]]s of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. The Japanese eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on [[August 15]], [[1945]] ([[V-J Day]]). The [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East|Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal]] was convened on [[May 3]][[1946]] to prosecute [[Japanese war crimes]], including atrocities like the [[Nanking Massacre]]. Emperor [[Hirohito]], however, was given immunity and retained his title. The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in [[East Asia]], and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Official [[Occupied Japan|American occupation]] lasted until 1952, although [[United States Forces Japan|U.S. forces]] still retain important bases in Japan, especially in [[Okinawa]]. In 1947, Japan adopted a new [[pacifism|pacifist]] [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. After the occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become one of the largest economies in the world. Despite a major [[stock market crash]] in 1990, from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic power today and is now bidding for a permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]]. ==Government and politics== {{main|Government of Japan}} ===The Parliament=== [[Image:The Diet.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Parliament sits in joint session.]] The [[Constitution of Japan]] states that the nation's &quot;highest organ of state power&quot; is its bicameral [[parliament]], the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet]]. The Diet consists of a [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] (Lower House or ''Shūgi-in'') containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a [[House of Councillors]] &lt;!-- The official English Web page of the House of Councillors (see link in Diet of Japan article) spells the word with a double &quot;l&quot; --&gt;(Upper House or ''Sangi-in'') of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) [[suffrage]], with a [[secret ballot]] for all elective offices. The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]] is composed of a [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived [[coalition government]] formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist [[Democratic Party of Japan]]. ===The Imperial Household=== [[Image:JapanTokyoNijubashi.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]] in Tokyo is the primary residence of the emperor]] The [[Imperial Household of Japan]] is headed by the [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]]. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be &quot;the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people&quot;. He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency [[reserve power]]s. Sovereignty is vested in the [[Japanese people]] by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a [[head of state]]. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a [[constitutional monarchy]], based largely upon the British system. As of 2006 Japan is the only country in the world which is headed by an [[emperor]]. [[Akihito]] (明仁) is the current and 125th Emperor of Japan. He assumed the throne after the death of his father, [[Hirohito]], on [[January 7]], [[1989]]. His son, [[Crown Prince]] [[Naruhito]], married [[Princess Masako|Masako Owada]], who gave birth to a girl, [[Princess Aiko]], in 2001. The Imperial Household Law of [[1947]] limits succession to males, but there is ongoing and widespread public discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]. It seems likely that the law will be amended to permit women to ascend the throne (as eight have in Japan's recorded history). ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Japan}} Japan is a member state of the [[United Nations]], the [[G8]], and the [[G4 nations]], and is a major donor in [[international aid]] and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its [[Gross National Income]] in 2004. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/40/3/35389786.pdf] Japan has territorial disputes over islands that were controlled by Japan before [[World War II]]. They are the [[Kuril Island conflict|four southern islands]] of the [[Kuril Islands]], administered by [[Russia]], as well as the [[Liancourt Rocks]] (''Dokdo'' in Korean, ''Takeshima'' in Japanese), administered by [[South Korea]], and the [[Senkaku Islands]] (''Diaoyutai'' in Chinese), administered by Japan, but claimed by both the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Republic of China|the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]. The disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of [[crude oil]] and [[natural gas]]. Japan also has an ongoing dispute with [[North Korea]] over its [[North Korean abductions of Japanese|abduction]] of Japanese citizens and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons program]]. Japan has developed relations with [[ASEAN]] as a member of ''ASEAN Plus three'' and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS). ==Geography of Japan== [[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]] {{main|Geography of Japan}} Japan, a country of [[island]]s, extends along the eastern or [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. The main islands (sometimes referred to as the Home Islands), running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshū|Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]] on [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]], in the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]] archipelago, is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the [[archipelago]] that comprises greater Japan. *Area: 377,835 km&amp;sup2; (including 3,091 km&amp;sup2; of territorial water) *Major islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku *Coastline: 29,751 km *Highest peak: [[Mount Fuji]]: 3776&amp;nbsp;m (12,385&amp;nbsp;ft) *Lowest elevation: Hachinohe Mine -130&amp;nbsp;m (-426&amp;nbsp;ft) Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world (see also the [[list of countries by population density]]). About 73% of the country is [[mountain]]ous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are m
lf-dog high and a dog-and-a-half long,&quot; which is their main claim to fame. Dachshunds have an enormous range of coloration. Dominant colors and patterns are red and black &amp; tan, but also occurring are cream, blue, wild boar, chocolate brown, fawn, and a lighter &quot;boar&quot; red. Solid black and solid chocolate-brown Dachshunds occur and, even though quite handsome, their colors are nonstandard; that is, the dogs are disqualified from [[conformation show|conformance competitions]] in the U.S. and U.K. Older traditional patterns such as [[piebald]] and [[sable]] have recently been gaining popularity. Other color and pattern combinations have been developed; it is not uncommon to see Dachshunds with Brown &amp; Tan, Chocolate &amp; Tan, [[dapple]], double dapple, and even white coats. Unfortunately, some of these colors require extensive inbreeding to obtain; double dapples are often born eyeless or with severely underdeveloped eyes. For this reason, the double dapple coat is extremely disfavored among responsible breeders and owners. According to kennel club standards, the Miniature variety differs from the full-size only by size and weight. == Temperament == Dachshunds are loyal, playful fun dogs, known for their propensity to chase small animals and birds. According to the American Kennel Club's breed standards, &quot;the Dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed. Any display of shyness is a serious fault.&quot;[http://www.akc.org/breeds/dachshund/index.cfm] Individuals which are indulged may become snappy[http://www.burkesbackyard.com.au/1999/archives/25/roadtests/dog_breeds/dachshunds]. Coat type is often considered to be associated with characteristic temperaments; the long-haired variety, for instance, is considered to be less excitable than the other types because it was cross-bred with the [[Spaniel]] to obtain its characteristic long coat. Some who own long-haired Dachshunds might disagree with this statement, however. Because of the breed's characteristic barrel-like chest, the dachshund's lungs are unusually large, making for a sonorous bark. == Health == [[Image:DachshundEgypt.png|left|]] The breed is known to have spinal problems, due in part to an extremely long [[Spinal column|spinal column]] and short rib cage. The risk of injury can be worsened by [[Obesity|obesity]], which places greater strain on the [[Vertebra|vertebrae]]. In order to prevent injury, it is recommended that Dachshunds be discouraged from jumping and taking stairs. It has become increasingly apparent that the occurrence and severity of these problems is largely hereditary, and responsible breeders are working to eliminate this characteristic in the breed. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; == History == [[Image:Dachshund.jpg|thumb|left|Wire-haired Dachshund]] Some have theorized that the early roots of the Dachshund go back to [[Ancient Egypt]], where engravings were made featuring short-legged hunting dogs. But in its modern incarnation, the Dachshund is a creation of [[Europe]]an [[Dog breeding|breeders]], and includes elements of [[Germany|German]], [[France|French]] and [[England|English]] hounds and [[terrier]]s. Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who was particularly enamored of the breed. The first verifiable references to the Dachshund, originally named the &quot;Tachs Kriecher&quot; (badger crawler) or &quot;Tachs Krieger&quot; (badger catcher), come from books written in the early 1700s. Prior to that, there exist references to &quot;badger dogs&quot; and &quot;hole dogs&quot;, but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds. The original German Dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between 30 and 40 lb (14 to 18 kg), and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern Dachshund is descended from the latter). Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and [[badger-baiting]], Dachshunds were also commonly used for [[rabbit]] and [[fox]] hunting, for locating wounded [[deer]], and in packs were known to hunt game as large as [[wild boar]]. == Miscellaneous == ===Symbol of Germany=== Dachshunds have traditionally been viewed as a symbol of Germany, despite their pan-European heritage. During [[World War I]] the animals fell so far out of favor in [[England]] and the [[United States]] that dachshunds were stoned to death on the street [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0393320286]. Many Americans began referring to Dachshunds as &quot;liberty pups&quot;, and [[political cartoon|political cartoonists]] commonly used the image of the Dachshund to ridicule [[Germany]]. The stigma of the association was revived to a much reduced extent during [[World War II]], and it quickly faded away following the war's end. German Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel]] was also known for keeping Dachshunds. The Dachshund for this association with Germany was chosen to be the first official [[mascot]] for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] with the name &quot;Waldi&quot;. ===Sports=== Some people compete with their Dachsunds in [[Dachshund racing]]. Another favorite sport is [[earthdog trial]]s, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles, attempting to locate an artificial bait. Dachshunds, being true [[scent hound]]s, also compete in [[tracking trial|scent tracking events]] with [[Beagle]]s and [[Basset Hound]]s. ===Popularity=== Dachshunds are a popular pet in the United States, ranking somewhere between fourth and sixth most common dog breed over the last ten years. They are apparently the most popular dog among apartment dwellers, being the most common breed in New York City in 2004. ==See also== * [[Badger-baiting]] ==External links== *[http://www.drna.org/ Dachshund Rescue of North America] *[http://www.wienerdogrescue.com/ Canadian Dachshund Rescue] *[http://www.almosthomerescue.org/ Almost Home Dachshund Rescue] *[http://www.mayrakoiraliitto.fi/ Suomen Mäyräkoiraliitto (Finland)] *[http://www.dachsie.org/vbb/forums.php Dachsie's Bulletin Board] *[http://www.doxietown.com/phpBB2/index.php Doxietown] *[http://www.doxiechatter.com/forum/index.php? Doxie Chatter Community Forum] *[http://www.hotdogblog.com/modules/newbb/index.php The Hot Dog Blog! Forum] *[http://www.taxklubben.org/ Svenska Taxklubben (Sweden)] *[http://www.norskedachshundklubbersforbund.org/ Norske Dachshundklubbers Forbund (Norway)] *[http://www.dgk.dk/ Dansk Gravhundeklub (Denmark)] *[http://www.wienermania.com/ Wienermania--For the Dedicated Doxyphile] [[Category:Dog breeds]] [[Category:Scent hounds]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[Category:Badger baiting dog breeds]] [[da:Gravhund]] [[de:Dackel]] [[es:Dachshund]] [[eo:Melhundo]] [[fr:Teckel]] [[nl:Dashond]] [[ja:ダックスフント]] [[no:Dachshund]] [[pl:Jamnik]] [[pt:Dachshund]] [[sr:Јазавичар]] [[fi:Mäyräkoira]] [[sv:Tax]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Data structure</title> <id>8519</id> <revision> <id>41593436</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:31:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TuukkaH</username> <id>415989</id> </contributor> <comment>disambig reference</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:binary_tree.svg|right|192|thumb|A [[binary tree]], a simple type of branching linked data structure.]] In [[computer science]], a '''data structure''' is a way of storing [[data]] in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Often a carefully chosen data structure will allow a more [[algorithmic efficiency|efficient]] [[algorithm]] to be used. The choice of the data structure often begins from the choice of an [[abstract data structure]]. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be performed, using as little resources, both execution time and memory space, as possible. Data structures are implemented using the [[data type]]s, [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s and operations on them provided by a [[programming language]]. Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to certain tasks. For example, [[B-tree]]s are particularly well-suited for implementation of databases, while [[routing table]]s rely on networks of machines to function. In the design of many types of programs, the choice of data structures is a primary design consideration, as experience in building large systems has shown that the difficulty of implementation and the quality and performance of the final result depends heavily on choosing the best data structure. After the data structures are chosen, the [[algorithm]]s to be used often become relatively obvious. Sometimes things work in the opposite direction - data structures are chosen because certain key tasks have algorithms that work best with particular data structures. In either case, the choice of appropriate data structures is crucial. This insight has given rise to many formalised design methods and [[programming language]]s in which data structures, rather than algorithms, are the key organising factor. Most languages feature some sort of [[module system]], allowing data structures to be safely reused in different applications by hiding their verified implementation details behind controlled interfaces. [[Object-oriented]] programming languages such as [[C++]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] in particular use objects for this purpose. Since data structures are so crucial to professional programs, many of them enjoy extensive support in standard libraries of modern programming languages and environments, such as C++'s [[Standard Template Library]], the [[Java programming language|Java]] API, and the Microsoft [[.NET Framework]]
was adapted into comic format bringing it closer into line with the [[Buffyverse]] established by the TV series in [[The Origin (Buffy comic)|The Origin]]. ====Canonical issues==== The film is not considered [[Buffyverse canon]] built by the later television series. In fact, many of the details given in the film directly contradict canon that would later be established by Whedon's television series. For example, in the film, vampires do not have 'bumpy' faces whilst feeding, while they do in the series. ==References== *[[Janet Maslin]]. &quot;She's Hunting Vampires, And on a School Night.&quot; ''The [[New York Times]].'' [[July 31]], [[1992]]. C8. ==External links == * {{imdb title|id=0103893|title=Buffy the Vampire Slayer}} [[Category:1992 films]] [[Category:Teen comedy films]] [[Category:Teen films]] [[Category:Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] [[Category:20th Century Fox films|Buffy The Vampire Slayer]] [[de:Buffy, der Vampirkiller]] [[fr:Buffy, tueuse de vampires]] [[sv:Buffy vampyrdödaren (film)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barter</title> <id>4232</id> <revision> <id>41726474</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:55:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.189.158.121</ip> </contributor> <comment>removed subjective and prejudiced statements, many placing barter in a position of historical irrelevance. ammended to show barter as a contemporary issue.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border cellspacing=0 align=right |- ! bgcolor=yellow | Economies by type of trade |- | [[closed household economy]] |- | '''barter economy''' |- | [[monetary economy]] |} '''Barter''' is a type of [[trade]] where [[product (business)|goods]] or [[service]]s are exchanged for a certain amount of other goods or services, i.e. there is no [[money]] involved in the transaction. It can be bilateral or multilateral as [[trade]]. Barter trade is common among people with no access to a cash economy. Also, in societies where no monetary system exists, or in economies suffering from a very unstable [[currency]] (as when [[hyperinflation]] hits) or a lack of currency. A disadvantage of using bilateral barter is that it can depend apon a mutual coincidence of needs. Before any transaction can be undertaken, the needs of one person must mirror the needs of another person. To overcome this mutual coincidence problem, some communities have developed a system of intermediaries who can store, trade, and warehouse commodities. However, the intermediaries often suffer from financial risk. To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, many pre-[[capitalist]] or pre-market economies relied on [[tradition]], top-down [[command]], or community [[democracy]] instead of market exchange organized using barter. Relations of [[reciprocity]] and/or [[redistribution]] substituted for market exchange. Trade and barter were primarily reserved for trade between communities or countries. Barter becomes more and more difficult as people become dispossesed of the means of production to produce needed products, including their subsistence. For example, if money were to be severly devalued in the United States, most people would have very little of value to trade for food (since the farmer can only use so many cars, etc.) In [[finance]], the word &quot;barter&quot; is used when two corporations trade with each other using non-money financial assets (such as U.S. Treasury bills). Alternatively, the standard definitions of [[money]] could be seen as being too narrow and needing to be expanded to increase near-money assets. == See also == * [[Simple living]] * [[Private currency]] * [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|Reciprocity]] * [[Marketing]] * [[Local currency]] * [[Local Exchange Trading System]] * [[International trade]] * [[Hyperinflation]] * [[List of international trade topics]] * [[Business]] * [[Commerce]] * [[Hazel Henderson]] ==External links== * [http://www.irs.gov/businesses/small/article/0,,id=113437,00.html United States Internal Revenue Service] * [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&amp;ned=&amp;q=barter&amp;btnG=Search+News Google News - Barter] * [http://websearch.entrepreneur.com/cgi-bin/texis/webinator/newsearch/?pr=entrepreneur&amp;query=barter&amp;x=0&amp;y=0 Entrepreneur.com - Article Search - Barter] * [http://www.fortune.com/fortune/search?query=barter&amp;publication_id=6&amp;Search.x=0&amp;Search.y=0&amp;Search=Go Fortune.com - Article Search - Barter] * [http://www.irta.com/ International Reciprocal Trade Association] * [http://www.nate.org/ National Association of Trade Exchanges] * [http://www.ibabiz.com/ International Barter Alliance] * [http://www.barternews.com/ BarterNews] * [http://www.bizx.com/ BizXchange] * [http://www.atxbarter.com/ ATX The Barter Company] * [http://www.bartertrainer.com/ Barter Trainer] * [http://www.barterzilla.com/ New Concept in Barter] * [http://www.tbex.com/ TBEx The Business Exchange] * [http://www.wtex.org/ The World Travel Exchange] * [http://www.u-exchange.com/barter101.asp How to Barter] [[Category:Business]] [[Category:Commerce]] [[Category:Alternative economy]] [[category:Pricing]] [[Category:Community currencies]] [[bg:Бартер]] [[cs:Barterový obchod]] [[da:Byttehandel]] [[de:Tauschhandel]] [[es:Trueque]] [[fr:Troc]] [[it:Baratto]] [[he:סחר חליפין]] [[pl:Barter]] [[pt:Escambo]] [[sv:Byteshandel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Berthe Morisot</title> <id>4233</id> <revision> <id>39188958</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T09:18:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.127.196.250</ip> </contributor> <comment>[[eo:Berthe Morisot]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BertheMorisot.jpg|right|thumbnail|180px|Berthé Morisot in a portrait by [[Édouard Manet]], 1872]] '''Berthe Morisot''' ([[January 14]], [[1841]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1895]]) was an [[impressionist]] [[painter]]. Born in [[Bourges]], [[Cher (département)|Cher]], [[France]] into a successful bourgeois family who encouraged her and her sister [[Edma Morisot]] in their exploration of art, she demonstrated the possibilities for women artists in [[avant-garde]] art movements at the end of the [[19th century]]. Once Morisot settled on pursuing art, her family did not impede her career. By age 20, she met and befriended the important landscape painter of the [[Barbizon school]], [[Camille Corot]], who introduced her to other artists and teachers. She took up [[plein air]] techniques and painted small pieces outdoors either as finished works or as studies for larger works completed in the studio. Morisot's first acceptance in the [[Paris Salon|Salon de Paris]] came in [[1864]] with two landscape paintings, and she continued to show regularly in the Salon until [[1874]], the year of the first impressionist exhibition. She was acquainted with [[Édouard Manet]] from [[1868]], and in [[1874]] she married Eugene Manet, Édouard's younger brother. She convinced Manet to attempt [[plein air]] painting, and drew him into the circle of acquaintance of the painters who became known as the impressionists. However, he never considered himself an impressionist or agreed to show with the group. [[Image:BMorisot.JPG|left|thumbnail|256px|''L'Enfant au Tablier Rouge'']] Morisot, along with [[Camille Pissarro]], was one of only two artists whose work exhibited in all of the original impressionist shows. Like [[Mary Cassatt]], during her lifetime, Berthé Morisot was relegated to the category of &quot;feminine&quot; artists because of their usual subject matter &amp;mdash; women, children, and domestic scenes. However, as a doctrinaire impressionist, Morisot painted what she saw in her immediate, everyday life. As a woman securely in the &quot;haute bourgeoisie&quot; she saw domestic interiors, holiday spots, other women, and children. Without exception, her subject matter shows the equivalent of that of her impressionist colleagues. [[Edgar Degas]], the dandy male bourgeois, painted rehearsals of the ballet, horse races, and nude women in apartments (rather than studios). [[Claude Monet]] painted his garden, his children, and his neighbor's haystacks. Female impressionists painted their social milieu in a way consistent with the impressionist approach to subject matter. Berthé Morisot died on March 2, [[1895]] in [[Paris]] and was interred in the [[Cimetière de Passy]]. Today, her paintings can sell for more than [[United States dollar|$]]4 million. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt; == See also == * [[Women artists]] == External links == {{Commonscat|Berthe Morisot}} * [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/morisot/ Berthé Morisot] at the [[WebMuseum]] [[Category:1841 births|Morisot, Berthé]] [[Category:1895 deaths|Morisot, Berthé]] [[Category:French painters|Morisot, Berthé]] [[Category:Impressionist painters|Morisot, Berthé]] [[Category:Women in art|Morisot, Berthé]] [[Category:French women|Morisot, Berthé]] [[de:Berthe Morisot]] [[eo:Berthe Morisot]] [[fr:Berthe Morisot]] [[it:Berthe Morisot]] [[he:ברת' מוריזו]] [[nl:Berthe Morisot]] [[pl:Berthe Morisot]] [[pt:Berthe Morisot]] [[sv:Berthe Morisot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brand</title> <id>4234</id> <revision> <id>41914966</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:15:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jkatzen</username> <id>201916</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ new link isn't notable enough. also removed linkspam. list is still really long.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:McDonalds.png|thumb|100px|[[McDonald's]], represented by the [[Golden Arches]], is one of the world's most famous brands]] In ''[[marketing]]'', a '''brand''' is the [[symbolism|symbolic]] embodiment of all the information connected with a company, [[product (business)|product]] or [[se
egional versions of ''Big Brother''. All these follow the normal ''Big Brother'' rules with the exception that contestants come from different countries in the region where it airs: ** '''[[Africa]]''': [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Ghana]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]]. ** '''[[Central America]]''' (planned for the end of the year): [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Panama]]. ** '''[[Middle East]]''': [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Arabia]], [[Bahrein]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Oman]], [[Syria]], [[Somalia]] and [[Tunisia]]. ** '''[[Pacific]]''': [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. ** '''[[Scandinavia]]''': [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]]. * Also in different countries, there is a [[spin-off]] called '''Big Brother VIP''' ([[Mexico]], [[Hungary]], [[Argentina]], [[Bulgaria]] -''called VIP Brother''-, [[Spain]], [[Denmark]] and [[Portugal]]) / '''Celebrity Big Brother''' ([[UK]], [[South Africa]], [[Netherlands]], [[Philippines]], [[Belgium]] and [[Australia]]). ''Celebrity Big Brother'' does not attach the time length of the ''Big Brother VIP'' series (it only lasts a few days), which last even for months. In 2006 a new variant appeared in the Netherlands: &quot;Hotel Big Brother&quot;. Seven B-celebrity hoteliers and a Big Boss run a hotel, collecting money for charity. * Other special versions: **''[[Teen Big Brother]]'' ([[United Kingdom]], [[Philippines]] -planned- ). Teenage houseguests competing in a BB house for a few days. ** ''Big Brother, All Star'' ([[Belgium]]). Housemates from the different BB Belgium seasons living together. ** ''Big Brother, Reality All Star'' ([[Denmark]]). Contestants from different reality shows living together at the BB house. ** ''Big Brother, 100 Days Later'' ([[Norway]]). The BB1 Norway housemates living again together after 100 days since the contest's ending. They also welcome 4 new housemates. ==''Big Brother'' facts== * '''General''' ** Winners: 63 males and 40 females ** Country with most seasons: Spain, 7 finished seasons ** Country with most seasons in total: UK, 11 finished seasons (6 main, 4 Celebrity &amp; 1 Teen) ** Country with most VIP/Celebrity seasons: Mexico, 5 finished seasons ** Country with most days with BB on air: Germany, 1,142 days * '''1999''' ** First Big Brother: Netherlands ** First contestant to be evicted: Martin Jonkman, BB1 Netherlands ** First contestant to voluntarily leave: Tara van den Bergh, BB1 Netherlands ** First replacement housemate: Mona Rooth-de Leeuw, BB1 Netherlands ** First Big Brother winner: Bart Spring in 't Veld, BB1 Netherlands * '''2000''' ** First Big Brother ''VIP'': Netherlands ** First Big Brother in America: Big Brother USA ** Season with least contestants: 10, BB1 USA, BB1 Sweden and GF1 Italy ** First contestant to be ejected (eviction through punishment by BB): [[Nicholas Bateman]], [[Big Brother UK series 1|BB1 UK]] ** First Big Brother 2: Netherlands ** First female winner: Daniela Kanton, BB1 Switzerland ** First bisexual winner: Bianca Hagenbeek, BB2 Netherlands ** First evicted housemate voted back into the house: Marion, BB2 Germany * '''2001''' ** Most Big Brothers to start in a year: 21 ** First Big Brother 3: Germany ** First Celebrity/VIP winner: [[Jack Dee]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 1 (March 2001))|Celebrity BB1 UK]] ** First Big Brother in Oceania: BB1 Australia ** First replacement housemate to win Big Brother: Marcelo Corazza, GH1 Argentina ** First ''Loft Story'' season: LS1 France ** First Big Brother to have more than one winner: Christophe Mercy &amp; Loana Petrucciani, LS1 France ** First gay winner: [[Brian Dowling]], [[Big Brother UK series 2|BB2 UK]] ** Oldest Big Brother winner: Janusz Dzięcioł, 47, BB1 Poland ** First Big Brother with Head Of House: BB2 USA ** First Big Brother in Africa: BB1 South Africa ** Big Brother winner with the highest percentage: 90.03%, Ferdinand Rabie, BB1 South Africa ** First Big Brother ''100 Days Later'': Norway ** First Big Brother ''The Battle'': Netherlands ** Highest eviction percentage: Karolina, 95.82%, BB2 Poland * '''2002''' ** First housemates swap: GH3 Spain - BB1 Mexico ** First Big Brother to have BB nominating all housemates: BB2 Australia ** First Big Brother double eviction: Alex and Nathan, BB2 Australia ** First Big Brother with Power Of Veto: BB3 USA ** First pregnant housemate: Michelle, BB2 South Africa ** First Big Brother 4: Netherlands ** First Big Brother host to spend 24 hours in the house: Martijn Krabbé, BB4 Netherlands ** Least eviction difference: 0.08%, Alison 38.52% vs. Alex 38.44%, Alison evicted, BB2 UK * '''2003''' ** First Big Brother with a couple competing: Pasquale and Victoria, GF3 Italy ** Oldest Big Brother housemate: Mihalis Apostolides, 63 years old, BB3 Greece ** First international version: Big Brother Africa ** First black winner: Cherise Makubale, BB1 Africa ** First Big Brother with ex-couple housemates: [[Alison Irwin|Alison]] &amp; Justin, Amanda &amp; Scott, David &amp; Michelle, Erika &amp; Robert, Jee &amp; Jun, BB4 USA ** First winner of Asian descent: [[Jun Song]], BB4 USA ** First Big Brother Teen: UK ** First Big Brother All Stars: Belgium ** First Big Brother 5: Spain ** First contestant to become pregnant in the house: Sissal, BB3 Denmark * '''2004''' ** First blood related housemates: Domenico and Ilaria, father and daughter, GF4 Italy ** First Big Brother in Asia: Big Brother Arabia ** First Big Brother with a praying room: Big Brother Arabia ** First Big Brother suspended: Big Brother Arabia ** First Big Brother Reality All Stars: Denmark ** Only contestant to win 2 Big Brothers: Jill Liv Nielsen, BB1 &amp; BB Reality All Stars Denmark ** First ''Evil'' Big Brother: [[Big Brother UK series 5|BB5 UK]] ** First transsexual winner: [[Nadia Almada]], [[Big Brother UK series 5|BB5 UK]] ** First twins competing: Natalie and Adria, BB5 USA ** First incorrect eviction: Bree Amer instead of Wesely Denning, BB4 Australia ** First Big Brother 6: Spain * '''2005''' ** Longest Big Brother: 365 days, BB5 Germany ** Seasons with most contestants: 59, BB5 Germany &amp; BB6 Germany ** Longest time in Big Brother house: Sascha Sirtl and Franziska Lewandrowski, 365 days, BB5 Germany ** Shortest gap between 2 Big Brother seasons: 0 minutes, BB5 &gt; BB6 Germany ** First Big Brother village: BB6 Germany ** Shortest Big Brother: 60 days, BB3 Mexico ** Youngest Big Brother winner: Anastacia Yagalova, 19 years old, BB1 Russia ** First Big Brother with twins winning: Greg and David Matthews, BB5 Australia ** First Big brother house to have an altar: BB1 Philippines ** First ''Big Brother ~ Big Mother'' season: BB4 Greece ** First Big Brother 7: Spain ** Longest gap between 2 BB seasons: 966 days, BB4 &gt; BB5 Netherlands ** Lowest eviction percentage with positive voting: 1.06%, Martin, BB6 Germany ** First Big Brother birth: Tanja Slangenberg gave birth to Joscelyn Savanna, BB5 Netherlands * '''2006''' ** First non-celebrity on Big Brother VIP/Celebrity: [[Chantelle Houghton]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]] ** First non-celebrity winning Big Brother VIP/Celebrity: [[Chantelle Houghton]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]] ** Most housemates left on the final night: 6, [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]] &amp; BB6 Germany ** First HIV-infected contestant: Kenny van Quickelberghe, BB5 Belgium ==Near copies of ''Big Brother''== There are three specially important formats around the globe that attach to rules kind of similar with ''Big Brother'': '''[[The Farm (television)|The Farm]]''', created by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] producer house [[Strix]], creators of [[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]. It's the third biggest 'people-living-together' [[reality show]] on Earth, only defeated by ''[[Star Academy]]/[[Operación Triunfo]]'' (France/Spain, 2001, [[Endemol]]) broadcasted in 50 countries and ''Big Brother'' (Holland, 1999, Endemol) emitted or planned to be emitted in 68. * ''Countries: [[Algeria]], [[Bahrein]], [[Belgium]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros Islands]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lithuania]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sudan]], [[Sweden]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[UAE]], [[UK]], [[Yemen]].'' '''The Bar''', another format from [[Strix (TV production company)|Strix]]. * ''Countries: [[Argentina]], [[Croatia]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovenia]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]]'' '''[[Protagonistas|Protagonistas...]]''', a format from the Spanish producer house GloboMedia, developed by its subsidiary in America, Promofilm. It's a mixture among ''Big Brother'' and ''[[Star Academy]]'' and has had a huge success in different latin countries, as [[Chile]], [[Spain]], [[Brazil]] (formerly known as ''Casa dos Artistas''), [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]] or [[Mexico]]. It also had its own version in [[USA]] for the latin market airing in [[Telemundo]]. There are also some local formats that in one or other way are pretty similar with ''[[Endemol]]'s Big Brother'': * [[Albania]], ''[[Kafazi i Arte]]'' * [[Albania]], ''[[Syri Magjik]]'' * [[Albania]], ''[[To Sam Ja]] '' * [[Austria]], ''[[Taxi Orange]]'' * [[Bolivia]], ''[[Uno Busca]]'' * [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]],
s (including Congressional committees that oversee the CIA) through the agency's own efforts as well as cooperation with foreign intelligence services. Priest's story continues: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The existence and locations of the facilities &amp;ndash; referred to as &quot;[[black site]]s&quot; in classified White House, CIA, Justice Department and congressional documents &amp;ndash; are known to only a handful of officials in the United States and, usually, only to the president and a few top intelligence officers in each host country... The secret facility is part of a covert prison system set up by the CIA nearly four years ago that at various times has included sites in eight countries, including Thailand, Afghanistan and several democracies in Eastern Europe, as well as a small center at the Guantanamo Bay prison in Cuba, according to current and former intelligence officials and diplomats from three continents.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; The [[BBC]] has followed up on these reports and ztates that there is credible [[evidence]] of covert prisons. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4088746.stm] [[Trent Lott]] also appears to have confirmed their existence. [http://rawstory.com/news/2005/Senator_tells_CNN_he_believes_Republican_1108.html] On [[November 8]] [[2005]] U.S. [[Senate Majority Leader]] [[Bill Frist]] and [[House Speaker]] [[Dennis Hastert]] called for a joint leak probe by the Senate and House intelligence committees into the disclosure of these alleged secret CIA facilities in a letter. In their letter (If the Post story is correct) &quot;such an egregious disclosure could have long-term and far-reaching damaging and dangerous consequences, and will imperil our efforts to protect the American people and our homeland from terrorist attacks.&quot;[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051108/ap_on_go_co/congress_media] The letter went on to ask: &quot;What is the actual and potential damage done to the national security of the United States and our partners in the global war on terror?&quot; Republican Senator [[Lindsey O. Graham]] accused the Senate Majority Leader [[Bill Frist]] and Speaker [[J. Dennis Hastert]] of shifting the focus of investigations from why these prisons exist to how information of them was leaked to the public. [[Spain]] is investigating allegations that the CIA used [[Palma]] airport for unauthorised prisoner transfers [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4439036.stm]. ===Torture=== In December 2005, [[ABC News]] reported that former agents claimed the CIA used [[waterboarding]], along with five other &quot;Enhanced Interrogation Techniques&quot;, against suspected members of [[al Qaeda]] held in the secret prisons. [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1375123] [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866&amp;page=1]. Waterboarding is widely regarded as a form of [[torture]], though there are reports that President Bush signed a secret &quot;finding&quot; that it is not and authorizing its use. On [[13 December]], 2005 [[Dick Marty]], investigating illegal CIA activity in Europe on behalf of the [[Council of Europe]], reported evidence that &quot;individuals had been abducted and transferred to other countries without respect for any legal standards&quot;. Marty at a news conference said he believed that the United States had moved its illegally detained from Europe to North Africa in early November as a reaction to the Washington Post report. Marty's investigation has found that no evidence exists establishing the existence of secret CIA prisons in Europe, but said there are enough &quot;indications&quot; to justify continuing the investigation. The report added, however, that it was &quot;highly unlikely&quot; that European governments were unaware of the American program of renditions. Marty's interim report, which was based largely on a compendium of press clippings, has been described by the British Government as &quot;clouded in myth&quot; and &quot;as full of holes as Swiss cheese,&quot; and has been harshly criticised by the governments of various EU member states.[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/25/international/europe/25cia.html] == Other == ''Other Government Agency'', or ''OGA'', is the standard military and governmental euphemism for the CIA. It is used when the CIA's presence is an open secret, but cannot be officially confirmed.[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/03236/214533.stm] [http://www.yuricareport.com/PrisonerTortureDirectory/JordanLinksAbuGhraibToWhiteHouse.html] Other colloquial names for the CIA are '''The Agency''' and '''The Company'''. A [[pejorative]] term for people who work for the CIA or other intelligence agencies is often &quot;spook&quot;; the phrase &quot;Virginia farmboys&quot; is also occasionally used in reference to the Langley, VA headquarters. One of the CIA's publications, the [[CIA World Factbook]], is unclassified and is indeed made freely available without [[copyright]] restrictions because it is a work of the United States federal government. The CIA publishes an in-house professional journal known as Studies in Intelligence. Unclassified articles are made available on a limited basis through Internet and other publishing mechanisms. A recent compilation of unclassified and declassified articles from the Journal was made available through the [[Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis]]. A further annotated collection of articles was published through Yale University Press under the title Inside CIA's Private World. The CIA budget is a well kept government secret, although [[The Washington Post]] claimed that it was $30 billion in 1998 [http://www.cato.org/dailys/7-28-97.html] [http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/1999/11/wp112999.html]. ==Further reading== * [[Lindsay Moran]], ''Blowing My Cover: My Life as a CIA Spy'' ([[Berkley Books]], 2005) ISBN 0425205622 * [[Christopher Andrew]], ''For the President's Eyes Only'' ([[HarperCollins]], 1996) ISBN 0006380719 * [[Robert Baer]], ''See No Evil: The True Story of a Ground Soldier in the CIA's War on Terrorism'' ([[Three Rivers Press]], 2003) ISBN 140004684X * [[Robert Baer]], ''Sleeping with the Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude'' ([[Crown]], 2003) ISBN 1400050219 * [[Antonio J. Mendez]], ''Master of Disguise: My Secret Life in the CIA'' ([[William Morrow and Company, Inc]], 1999) ISBN 0060957913 * [[Milton Bearden]] and [[James Risen]], ''The Main Enemy: The Inside Story of the CIA's Final Showdown With the KGB'', ([[Random House]], 2003) ISBN 067946309 * [[William Blum]], ''Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II'' ([[Common Courage Press]], 2003) ISBN 1567512526 [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/KillingHope_page.html] * [[Noam Chomsky]], ''Hegemony or Survival'' (Henry Holt &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 0805076883, also ''Deterring Democracy'', also ''9/11'' * [[Loch K. Johnson]], ''America's Secret Power: The CIA in a Democratic Society'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1991) * [[Ronald Kessler]], ''Inside the CIA'' (1992, [[Pocket Books]] reissue 1994) ISBN 067173458X * [[L. Fletcher Prouty]], ''Secret Team: The CIA and Its Allies in Control of the United States and the World'', Prentice Hall; (April 1973), ISBN 0137981732 * [[W. Thomas Smith, Jr.]], ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency'' ([[Facts on File]], 2003) ISBN 0816046670 * [[Frances Stonor Saunders]], ''The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters'' ([[New Press]], 1999) ISBN 1565846648 (aka, ''Who Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War'' 1999 Granta [UK edition]) * [[Bob Woodward]], ''Veil'', ([[Pocket Books]], 1988) ISBN 0-671-66159-0 * [[H. Bradford Westerfield]], ed., ''Inside CIA's Private World: Declassified Articles from the Agency's Internal Journal, 1955-1992'' ([[Yale University Press]], 1997) ISBN 0300072643 ==See also== *[[List of proven conspiracies]] *[[American Terrorism]] * [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] * [[The Agency]]- A CBS TV Series about The CIA * [[Blowback (intelligence)|Blowback]] * [[Church Committee]] - 1976 committee investigating intelligence gathering by the CIA and [[FBI]] * [[CIA cryptonym]] * [[CIA leak grand jury investigation]] * [[conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theories]] * [[Extraordinary rendition]] * [[Gary Webb]] - American journalist, author of series on the Contra-crack cocaine connection * [[In-Q-Tel]] - venture capital arm of the CIA * [[Kennedy assassination theories]] * [[List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945]] * [[Nonofficial cover]] - NOC * [[Numbers station]] * [[National Security Agency]] * [[Technical Services Staff]] * [[Helge Boes]] * [[Robertson Panel]] - CIA program allegedly designed to make all who see/encounter UFOs/Aliens appear to be fools and idiots/mentally defective. {{seealso|UFO conspiracy theory}} * [[Kryptos]] ===CIA insiders and &quot;whistleblowers&quot;=== * [[A.B. &quot;Buzzy&quot; Krongard]] * [[John Stockwell]] * [[L. Fletcher Prouty]] * [[Philip Agee]] * [[William Blum]] * [[Robert Baer]] * [[Ralph McGehee]] ===Other Countries=== {{main|List of intelligence agencies}} ====[[Australia]]==== *[[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (ASIS) *[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (ASIO) ====[[New Zealand]]==== *[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service]] *[[Government Communications Security Bureau]] ====[[Canada]]==== *[[Canadian Foreign Intelligence Agency]] *[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS) *[[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE) *[[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) ====[[Russia]]==== *[[Foreign Intelligence Service]] (SVR) ====[[Israel]]==== *[[Mossad|Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks]] (Mossad) ====[[India]]==== *[[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW) ====[[United Kingdom]]==== *[[MI6]] *[[MI5]] ====[[Philippines]]==== *[[National Intelligence Coordinating Agency]] (NICA) *[[National Bureau of Investigation]] (NBI) ==External links== {{Commons|{{PAGENAME}}}} ==
e United Kingdom. Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic [[underdevelopment]], and in mid-[[1979]], political discontent led to the formation of an interim government. It was replaced after the [[1980]] elections by a government led by the [[Dominica Freedom Party]] under Prime Minister [[Eugenia Charles]], the Caribbean's first female prime minister. On [[April 27]], [[1981]], [[Ku Klux Klan]] Grand Wizards [[Don Black (nationalist)|Don Black]] and [[Wolfgang Droege]], [[Larry Lloyd Jacklin]] and seven other men were arrested by [[United States|U.S.]] federal agents in [[New Orleans]] as they prepared to board a boat with guns and dynamite for an invasion of Dominica. The invasion (dubbed &quot;[[Operation Red Dog]]&quot; by its organizers) was meant to restore [[Patrick John]] to power and to transform the island into a white supremacist nation. The incident was later dubbed the &quot;Bayou of Pigs.&quot; Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980. By the end of the 1980s, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices. In 1995 the government was defeated in elections by the United Workers Party of [[Edison James]]. James became prime minister, serving until the February 2000 elections, when the [[Dominica United Workers Party]] (DUWP) was defeated by the [[Dominica Labour Party]] (DLP), led by [[Rosie Douglas]]. He was a former [[socialist]] [[radical]], and many feared that his approach to politics might be impractical. However, these were somewhat quieted when he formed a coalition with the more conservative Dominica Freedom Party. Douglas died suddenly after only a few months in office, on October 1, 2000, and was replaced by [[Pierre Charles]], also of the DLP. In 2003, [[Nicholas Liverpool]] was elected and sworn in as president, succeeding [[Vernon Shaw]].. On January 6, 2004, Prime Minister Pierre Charles, who had been suffering from heart problems since 2003, died. He became the second consecutive prime minister of Dominica to die in office of a heart attack. The foreign minister, [[Osborne Riviere]] immediately became prime minister, but the education minister, [[Roosevelt Skerrit]] succeeded him as prime minister and became the new leader of the Dominica Labour Party. Election were held on [[May 5]] [[2005]] with the ruling coalition maintaining power. [[Category:Dominica]] [[Category:History by country|Dominica]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Dominica</title> <id>8052</id> <revision> <id>30058507</id> <timestamp>2005-12-03T23:24:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gruepig</username> <id>164113</id> </contributor> <comment>Added more detailed map of Dominica</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DominicaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Map of Dominica]] [[Dominica]] is an [[island]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], located about halfway between [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. Its coordinates are 15 25 N, 61 20 W. The island is roughly four times the size of [[Washington, DC]] (in area, not population). There are no significant lakes on the island. The island's [[climate]] is tropical, moderated by northeast [[trade wind]]s and heavy [[rain]]fall. The interior features rugged [[mountain]]s of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin. Volcanism is still quite evident on the island, the most popular examples being Dominica's boiling lake and &quot;valley of desolation.&quot; The boiling lake (the world's second largest) is within a crater and is fed by a waterfall - the boiling is believed to be caused by the heat of a magma chamber beneath the lake. The valley of desolation is a sulfurous valley of volcanic vents and hot springs that inhibits significant plant growth - in stark contrast to the surrounding rain forest. The lowest point in the country is at [[sea level]] along the coast, and the highest is [[Morne Diablotins]] (1,447 m). The extreme southwestern coast of the island includes a large collapsed submarine caldera. Portions of the exposed rim of this caldera form the southwestern tip of the island at Scott's Head. Natural resources include [[farming]], [[hydropower]] and [[timber]]. Geographically, Dominica is distinctive in many ways. The country has one of the most rugged landscapes in the Caribbean, covered by a largely unexploited, multi-layered rain forest. It is also among the earth's most rain-drenched lands, and the water runoff forms cascading rivers and natural pools. The island, home to rare species of wildlife, is considered by many as a beautiful, unspoiled tropical preserve. According to a popular West Indian belief, Dominica is the only New World territory that Columbus would still recognize. Dominica is the largest and most northerly of the Windward Islands. The island faces the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Caribbean Sea to the west. Its nearest neighbors are the French islands of Guadeloupe, some forty-eight kilometers north, and Martinique, about forty kilometers south. Oblong-shaped and slightly smaller than New York City, Dominica is 750 square kilometers in area, 47 kilometers in length, and 29 kilometers in width. Roseau, the nation's capital and major port, is favorably situated on the sheltered, southwestern coast. Geologically, Dominica is part of the rugged Lesser Antilles volcanic arc. The country's central spine, a northwest-southeast axis of steep volcanic slopes and deep gorges, generally varies in elevation from 300 meters to 1,400 meters above sea level. Several east-west trending mountain spurs extend to the narrow coastal plain, which is studded with sea cliffs and has level stretches no wider than 2,000 meters. The highest peak is Morne Diablatins, at 1,447 meters; Morne Trois Pitons, with an elevation of 1,423 meters, lies farther south and is the site of the national park. Dominica's rugged surface is marked by its volcanic past. Rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases. The light- to dark-hued clayey and sandy soils, derived from the rocks and decomposed vegetation, are generally fertile and porous. Only a few interior valleys and coastal strips are flat enough for soil accumulations of consequence, however. Although scores of mostly mild seismic shocks were recorded in 1986, volcanic eruptions ceased thousands of years ago. Sulfuric springs and steam vents, largely concentrated in the central and southern parts of the island, remain active, however. One of the largest springs, Boiling Lake, is located in the national park. Dominica is water-rich with swift-flowing highland streams, which cascade into deep gorges and form natural pools and crater lakes. The streams are not navigable, but many are sources of hydroelectric power. Trafalgar Falls, located near the national park, is one of the most spectacular sites on the island. The principal rivers flowing westward into the Caribbean are the Layou and the Roseau, and the major one emptying eastward into the Atlantic is the Toulaman. The largest crater lake, called Boeri, is located in the national park. Dominica has a tropical wet climate with characteristically warm temperatures and heavy rainfall. Excessive heat and humidity are tempered somewhat by a steady flow of the northeast trade winds, which periodically develop into hurricanes. The steep interior slopes also alter temperatures and winds. Temperature ranges are slight. Average daytime temperatures generally vary from 26°C in January to 32°C in June. Diurnal ranges are usually no greater than 3°C in most places, but temperatures dipping to 13°C on the highest peaks are not uncommon. Most of the island's ample supply of water is brought by the trade winds. Although amounts vary with the location, rain is possible throughout the year, with the greatest monthly totals recorded from June through October. Average yearly rainfall along the windward east coast frequently exceeds 500 centimeters, and exposed mountainsides receive up to 900 centimeters, among the highest accumulations in the world. Totals on the leeward west coast, however, are only about 180 centimeters per year. Humidities are closely tied to rainfall patterns, with the highest values occurring on windward slopes and the lowest in sheltered areas. Relative humidity readings between 70 percent and 90 percent have been recorded in Roseau. Hurricanes and severe winds, most likely to occur during the wettest months, occasionally are devastating. The most recent hurricanes of note were David and Frederick in August 1979 and Allen in August l980. The 1979 hurricanes caused over 40 deaths, 2,500 injuries, and extensive destruction of housing and crops. Many agricultural commodities were destroyed during the 1980 storm, and about 25 percent of the banana crop was demolished by strong winds in 1984. '''Map references:''' Central America and the Caribbean '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' [[1 E8 m²|754 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 754 km&amp;sup2; '''Coastline:''' 148 km '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 24 nm &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nm &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nm '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 9% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 13% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 3% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 67% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 8% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' NA km&amp;sup2; '''Natural hazards:''' Flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months '''Environment - current issues:''' NA '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt; ''Party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Whali
Tuek Face Dancer - its copying is so perfect it has forgotten it is actually a Face Dancer. Taraza uses the moment to confirm her alliance with the Bene Tleilax. By this time Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safe house to discover it has been taken over by Honored Matres. Luckily, the young Honored Matre, [[Murbella]], stationed at the safe house is fooled by Lucilla's stolen Honored Matres robe, and accepts her as an observer. Murbella proceeds to seduce the captured Duncan Idaho. However, as she starts the seduction procedure, hidden Tleilaxu conditioning kicks into action and Duncan responds with an equal technique, one that overwhelms Murbella in sexual pleasure, draining her energy. Overwhelmed with a desire to feel such euphoria again, Murbella finds herself unable to kill Duncan, though she recognizes the danger he poses to the Matres. Taking advantage of Murbella's post-coital exhaustion, Lucilla knocks her unconscious. The Honored Matres finally attack Arrakis. Taraza is killed with the first attack, cut down by [[lasgun]]s. Odrade has time to merge minds with her, becoming temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, before escaping with Sheeana into the desert on a worm. Eluding capture for a while Teg finally goes to a supposed safe house, only to discover that it has been taken over by the Honored Matres. Meeting them in person Teg is disgusted by their corruption and complete lack of human decency. The Honored Matres have assessed Teg's value to their order and decide to 'mark' him, binding him to their designs. Teg, aware of his new abilities, waits for the chosen Honored Matre to come to collect him, and then unleashes himself upon the complex. Teg must seek his own allies in order to escape Gammu. He finds a groups of ex-soldiers who have formed a resistance group to the Honored Matres. He brings them together and attacks a no-ship, and captures it. He locates Duncan and Lucilla, and with the captured Honored Matre, takes them to Rakis. Teg arrives at this time and with his new vision finds Odrade and Sheeana and their giant worm. He loads them all up in his no-ship, finally leading his troops out on a last suicidal defence of Rakis, designed to attract the rage of the Honored Matres. Fulfilling Taraza's designs, the Honored Matres attack Rakis in full force, decimating the planet and the sandworms. With this attack, the Matres hoped only to destroy Teg, whose abilities they had witnessed through his escape from their Gammu complex. The giant worms are destroyed bar the one the Bene Gesserit escape with. They drown the worm in a mixture of spice and water killing the worm and turning it into sandtrout which will turn Chapterhouse into another Dune. Taraza's camp is proved right: the God Emperor did wish to be freed from his existence, and he did not prevent them from destroying Dune. As we leave the book Odrade is the precarious temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, by virtue of being at the right place at the right time having inherited Taraza's memories . [[Category:1984 books]] [[Category:Science fiction novels]] [[Category:Frank Herbert novels]] [[Category:Dune universe media]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Highways of Michigan</title> <id>13872</id> <revision> <id>15911459</id> <timestamp>2004-04-19T12:31:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bkonrad</username> <id>44062</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rd --&gt; List of highways in Michigan</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of highways in Michigan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Halakha</title> <id>13873</id> <revision> <id>41734056</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:37:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fintor</username> <id>69488</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Codes of Jewish law */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}} '''Halakha''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;; also [[Hebrew transliteration|transliterated]] as ''Halakhah'', ''Halacha'', and ''Halachah'') is the collective corpus of [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[religious law]], including biblical law (the [[613 mitzvot|613 ''mitzvot'']]) and later [[talmud]]ic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. Like the religious laws in many other cultures, Judaism classically drew no distinction in its laws between religious and non-religious life. Hence, Halakha guides not only religious practices and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day life. Historically, Halakha served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of civil and religious law. In the modern era, Jewish citizens may be bound to Halakhah only by their voluntary consent. In Israel, though, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are governed by rabbinic interpretations of Halakha. Reflecting the diversity of Jewish communities, somewhat different approaches to Halakha are found among [[Ashkenazi]], [[Mizrahi]], and [[Sefardi]] Jews. Among Ashkenazi Jews, disagreements over Halakha have played a pivotal role in the emergence of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] streams of Judaism. ==Terminology== The name ''Halakha'' derives from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] '''halach''' '''&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1498;''' meaning &quot;going&quot; or the &quot;[correct] way&quot;; thus a literal translation does not yield &quot;law&quot;, rather &quot;the way to go.&quot; The term Halakha may refer to a single rule, to the literary corpus of rabbinic legal texts, as well as to the overall system of religious law. The ''Halakha'' is often contrasted with the ''[[Aggadah]]'', the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical and other &quot;non-legal&quot; literatures. At the same time, since writers of ''Halakha'' may draw upon the aggada literature, there is a dynamic interchange between the two genres. Halakha constitutes the practical application of the 613 [[613 mitzvot|mitzvot]] (&quot;commandments&quot;) (singular: [[mitzvah]]) in the [[Torah]], (the five books of [[Moses]], the &quot;Written Law&quot;) as developed through discussion and debate in the classical [[rabbinic literature]], especially the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] (the &quot;[[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]]&quot;) and codified in the [[Shulkhan Arukh]] (the Jewish &quot;Code of Law&quot;.) ==Scope== The Halakha is a comprehensive guide to numerous aspects of human life, both corporeal and spiritual. Its laws, guidelines, and opinions cover a vast range of situations and principles, in the attempt to comprehend what is implied by the repeated commandment to &quot;be holy as I your God am holy&quot; of the [[Torah]]. They cover what are better ways for a Jew to live, when commandments conflict how one may choose righteously, what is implicit and understood but not stated explicitly, and what has been deduced by implication though not visible on the surface. Halakha is shaped and contested by a variety of rabbis (and other Jews), rather than one sole &quot;official voice&quot;, so different individuals and communities may well have different answers to Halakhic questions. Controversies lend rabbinic literature much of its creative and intellectual appeal. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because Judaism lacks a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for Halakha. Instead, Jews interested in observing Halakha may choose to follow specific rabbis or affiliate with a more tightly-structured community. Halakha has been developed and pored over throughout the generations since before 500 BCE, in a constantly expanding collection of [[Rabbinic literature|religious literature]] consolidated in the [[Talmud]]. First and foremost it forms a body of intricate judicial opinions, legislation, customs, and recommendations, many of them passed down over the centuries, and an assortment of ingrained behaviors, relayed to successive generations from the moment a child begins to speak. It is also the subject of intense study in ''[[yeshiva]]s''; see [[Torah study]]. As a practical matter, early modern rabbis interpreted Halakha so as to recognize the jurisdiction and enforceability of state law for Jewish citizens. As a result, Jews today need not feel restricted to traditional Halakha for much of their commercial, civil and (especially) criminal law. ==Laws of the Torah== :''See also [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]]; [[Mishnah#Relation between the Bible and the Mishnah|Relationship between the Bible and the Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]]''. Broadly, the Halakha comprises the practical application of the [[613 mitzvot|commandments]] (each one known as a [[mitzvah]]) in the [[Torah]], as developed in subsequent [[rabbinic literature]]; see [[Mitzvah#The Mitzvot and Jewish Law|The Mitzvot and Jewish Law]]. According to the Talmud (Tractate Makot), there are [[613 mitzvot]] (&quot;commandments&quot;) in the Torah; in Hebrew these are known as the ''Taryag mitzvot'' &amp;#1514;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&quot;&amp;#1490; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;. There are 248 positive mitzvot and 365 negative mitzvot given in the Torah, supplemented by seven mitzvot legislated by the rabbis of antiquity; see [[Mitzvah#Biblical and Rabbinical commandments|Rabbinical commandments]]. ===Categories=== Judaism divides the laws into two basic categories: *Laws in relation to God (''bein adam le-Makom''), and *Laws about relations with other people (''bein adam le-chavero''). Violations of the latter are considered to be more severe, as one must obtain forgiveness both from the offended person ''and'' from God. Rabbinic authorities divide Halakh
were then commonly called, and he was constrained to admit that the Turks were by no means so black as they had been painted. He did not, however, scandalize the believers by any public expression of his opinions, and did not indeed make himself conspicuous in any way during the campaign. Never consulted on political questions, he confined himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached [[Constantinople]] and the treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the congress of [[Berlin]]. Prince [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] failed to do what was confidently expected of him. In return for the Russian support, which had enabled him to create the German empire, it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of St. Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of &quot;honest broker&quot; at the congress, and shortly afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with [[Austria]] for the express purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe. The tsarevich could point to these results as confirming the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War, and he drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced. ==Anti-reforms== [[Image:Aleximpressio.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Paolo Troubetzkoy]]'s equestrian monument to Alexander III (1900-06) brilliantly conveys the impression of brutal power that the tsar was said to emanate.]] During the campaign in Bulgaria he had found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption existed in the military administration, and after his return to St. Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed in the naval department. For these abuses, several high-placed personages&amp;mdash;among others two of the grand-dukes&amp;mdash;were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention to the subject. His representations were not favourably received. Alexander II had lost much of the reforming zeal which distinguished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to him. The consequence was that the relations between father and son became more strained. The latter must have felt that there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of affairs. That change was much nearer at hand than was commonly supposed. On the [[13 March]] [[1881]] Alexander II was assassinated by a band of [[Nihilist]]s, [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will), and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son. In the last years of his reign, Alexander II had been much exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasing number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he had hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive and making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of the educated classes. Finally he decided in favour of the latter course, and on the very day of his death he signed an ukaz, creating a number of consultative commissions which might have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables. Following advice of his political mentor [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], Alexander III determined to adopt the opposite policy. He at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited from his ancestors. Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to change his mind. All the internal reforms which he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type. In his opinion Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolutionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three principles which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically recommended&amp;mdash;nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy. His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, one language, one religion and one form of administration; and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools on his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by fostering Eastern Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting the [[Jew]]s and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. [[Image:Siberianbarber.jpg|thumb|[[Nikita Mikhalkov]] as Tsar Alexander III in his movie ''The Barber of Siberia'' (1998).]] In the other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered the excessive liberalism of his father's reign. For this purpose he removed what little power had by zemstvo, an elective local administration resembling the county and parish councils in [[England]], had and placed the autonomous administration of the peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors appointed by the government. At the same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the imperial administration, and to bring it more under his personal control. In foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it. Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance. It was only in the last years of his reign, when [[Mikhail Katkov]] had acquired a certain influence over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet of [[Berlin]] a more hostile attitude, and even then he confined himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation, but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms. In [[1887]], once again the Peoples Will planned the murder of Tsar Alexander III. Among the conspirators captured were one [[Aleksandr Ulyanov]]. Ulyanov was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 5]] [[1887]]. Alexander Ulyanov was the brother of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who would later take the pseudonym [[Vladimir Lenin|V.I. Lenin]]. In [[Central Asia]]n affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking a conflict with the [[United Kingdom]], and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made considerable progress. He died at [[Livadiya]] on the [[November 1|1st of November]] [[1894]] and was buried at the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. Alexander III was succeeded by his eldest son [[Nicholas II of Russia]]. ==Children== Alexander III had six children of his marriage with [[Dagmar of Denmark|Princess Dagmar of Denmark]], later known as Marie Feodorovna: *[[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nikolai II]] ([[May 6]], [[1868]] - [[July 17]], [[1918]]). *[[Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[June 7]], [[1869]] - [[May 2]], [[1870]]). *[[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[May 6]], [[1871]] - [[August 9]], [[1899]]). *[[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[April 6]], [[1875]] - [[April 20]], [[1960]]). *[[Michael II of Russia|Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[November 22]], [[1878]] - c. [[June 12]], [[1918]]). *[[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[June 13]], [[1882]] - [[November 24]], [[1960]]). {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Russian rulers|Emperor of Russia]]|after=[[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]|before=[[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]|years='''[[March 14]][[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[November 1]][[1894]]'''}} {{end box}} {{Commons|Alexander III of Russia}} ==References== *{{1911}} == External links == *[http://www2.sptimes.com/treasures/TC.2.3.18.html A short biography] *[http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html Another biography] *[http://www.macgregorishistory.com/ibsvenska/alexanderiiishortpaper.htmpobedon Policies of Alexander III] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=7033272&amp;pt=Alexander%20III%20Romanov FindAGrave] 'Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov' [[Category:1845 births|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:1894 deaths|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]] [[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]] [[Category:House of Glücksburg]] [[Category:Russian emperors]] [[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[ca:Alexandre III de Rússia]] [[de:Alexander III. (Russland)]] [[et:Aleksander III]] [[es:Alejandro III de Rusia]] [[eo:Aleksandro la 3-a (Rusio)]] [[fr:Alexandre III de Russie]] [[gl:Alexandre III de Rusia]] [[io:Aleksandr 3ma]] [[it:Alessandro III di Russia]] [[he:אלכסנדר השלישי קיסר רוסיה]] [[nl:Alexander III van Rusland]] [[ja:アレクサンドル3世]] [[pl:Aleksand
ers' movie [[Cecil B. DeMented]] (and of its main character). In that movie, Cecil B. DeMented is an anarchic film director, shooting in one cut. *Cecil B. DeMille designed the uniforms for cadets at the [[United States Air Force Academy]]. *Cecil B. DeMille is mentioned in the [[Bob Dylan]] song 'Tombstone Blues,' as well as in the [[Hoodoo Gurus]] song 'On My Street' *A lesser known fact, regarding DeMille's date of death, is that Cecil DeMille died on exactly the same day as [[Carl Switzer]] who had played &quot;Alfalfa&quot; in the 1930s &quot;[[Our Gang]]&quot; shorts. Many of Switzer's associates would later claim that this was bad timing and slightly unfair, since Cecil DeMille's [[obituary]] was so lengthy that Switzer's death was allocated very little attention in the media. Coincidentally, Switzer appeared, unbilled, in DeMille's 1956 ''The Ten Commandments.'' *DeMille's niece, [[Agnes de Mille]], was a dancer and choreographer, best known for choreographing the &quot;dream ballet&quot; in ''[[Oklahoma!]]''. ==Legacy Honor== The film school at [[Chapman University]] in Orange, CA is named in honor of DeMille. ==Filmography (As Director)== *''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1914) *''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1914) *''[[The Master Mind]]'' (1914) *''[[The Only Son]]'' (1914) *''[[The Man on the Box]]'' (1914) *''[[The Call of the North]]'' (1914) *''[[The Virginian]]'' (1914) *''[[What's His Name]]'' (1914) *''[[The Man from Home]]'' (1914) *''[[Rose of the Rancho]]'' (1914) *''[[The Ghost Breaker]]'' (1914) *''[[The Girl of the Golden West]]'' (1915) *''[[After Five]]'' (1915) *''[[The Warrens of Virginia]]'' (1915) *''[[The Unafraid]]'' (1915) *''[[The Captive (film)]]'' (1915) *''[[The Wild Goose Chase]]'' (1915) *''[[The Arab]]'' (1915) *''[[Chimmie Fadden]]'' (1915) *''[[Kindling (movie)|Kindling]]'' (1915) *''[[Carmen]]'' (1915) *''[[Chimmie Fadden Out West]]'' (1915) *''[[The Cheat (film)|The Cheat]]'' (1915) *''[[Temptation (movie)|Temptation]]'' (1915) *''[[The Golden Chance]]'' (1915) *''[[The Trail of the Lonesome Pine]]'' (1916) *''[[The Heart of Nora Flynn]]'' (1916) *''[[Maria Rosa]]'' (1916) *''[[The Dream Girl]]'' (1916) *''[[Joan the Woman]]'' (1917) *''[[Lost and Won]]'' (1917) *''[[A Romance of the Redwoods]]'' (1917) *''[[The Little American]]'' (1917) *''[[The Woman God Forgot]]'' (1917) *''[[The Devil-Stone]]'' (1917) *''[[You Can't Have Everything]]'' (1918) *''[[The Whispering Chorus]]'' (1918) *''[[Old Wives for New]]'' (1918) *''[[We Can't Have Everything]]'' (1918) *''[[Till I Come Back to You]]'' (1918) *''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1918) *''[[Don't Change Your Hussband]]'' (1919) *''[[For Better, for Worse]]'' (1919) *''[[Male and Female]]'' (1919) *''[[Why Change Your Wife?]]'' (1920) *''[[Something to Think About]]'' (1920) *''[[Forbidden Fruit]]'' (1921) *''[[The Affairs of Anatol]]'' (1921) *''[[Fool's Paradise]]'' (1921) *''[[Saturday Night (movie)|Saturday Night]]'' (1922) *''[[Manslaughter (movie)|Manslaughter]]'' (1922) *''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1923) *''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1923) *''[[Triumph (movie)|Triumph]]'' (1924) *''[[Feet of Clay (movie)|Feet of Clay]]'' (1924) *''[[The Golden Bed]]'' (1925) *''[[The Road to Yesterday]]'' (1925) *''[[The Volga Boatman]]'' (1926) *''[[The King of Kings]]'' (1927) *''[[The Godless Girl]]'' (1929) *''[[Dynamite (movie)|Dynamite]]'' (1929) *''[[Madam Satan]]'' (1930) *''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1931) *''[[The Sign of the Cross (movie)|The Sign of the Cross]]'' (1932) *''[[This Day and Age]]'' (1933) *''[[Four Frightened People]]'' (1934) *''[[Cleopatra (1934 movie)|Cleopatra]]'' (1934) *''[[The Crusades (movie)|The Crusades]]'' (1935) *''[[The Plainsman]]'' (1937) *''[[The Buccaneer]]'' (1938) *''[[Union Pacific (movie)|Union Pacific]]'' (1939) *''[[North West Mounted Police (movie)|North West Mounted Police]]'' (1940) *''[[Reap the Wild Wind]]'' (1942) *''[[The Story of Dr. Wassell]]'' (1944) *''[[Unconquered]]'' (1947) *''[[California's Golden Beginning]]'' (1948) (short subject) *''[[Samson and Delilah (movie)|Samson and Delilah]]'' (1949) *''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' (1952) *''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1956) ==Bibliographies== [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/demillebib.html Cecil B. DeMille bibliography] (via UC Berkeley) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0001124|name=Cecil B. DeMille}} *[http://www.cecilbdemille.com/ Official Cecil B. Demille Site] [[Category:1881 births|DeMille, Cecil B.]] [[Category:1959 deaths|DeMille, Cecil B.]] [[Category:Dutch Americans|DeMille]] [[Category:Episcopalians|DeMille]] [[Category:Jewish American directors|DeMille]] [[Category:People from Massachusetts|DeMille]] [[Category:American film producers|DeMille]] [[Category:American film directors|Demille, Cecil B.]] [[de:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[es:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[fr:Cecil Blount DeMille]] [[hr:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[it:Cecil B. De Mille]] [[hu:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[ja:セシル・B・デミル]] [[pl:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[pt:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[sv:Cecil B. DeMille]] [[he:ססיל ב. דה-מיל]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cardinals</title> <id>6178</id> <revision> <id>15904337</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cardinal]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chinese buddhist cuisine</title> <id>6179</id> <revision> <id>15904338</id> <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:24:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RedWolf</username> <id>27822</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>-&gt; Buddhist cuisine</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhist cuisine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chinese Islamic cuisine</title> <id>6181</id> <revision> <id>40412289</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T10:07:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mpatel</username> <id>172616</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}} '''Chinese Islamic cuisine''' is cuisine of the [[Hui people|Hui]] (ethnic Chinese Muslims) and other Muslims living in China. Due to the majority [[Muslim]] population in western [[China]], many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims. A Chinese Islamic restaurant (&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;&amp;#33756;&amp;#39208; mandarin: qing1 zhen1 cai4 guan3) can sometimes be similar to a [[Mandarin cuisine|Mandarin restaurant]] with the exception that there is no [[pork]] in the menu. The Chinese word for [[halal]] is &quot;pure truth&quot; (&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;, [[pinyin]]: [[qīngzhēn]]) food (菜, cài), so a Chinese Islamic restaurant is a &quot;qingzhen restaurant&quot; that serves &quot;qingzhen&quot; food. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants typicially run by migrants from Western China (e.g., [[Uyghur]]s), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. These restaurants are typically decorated with Islamic motifs such as pictures of Islamic [[rug]]s and Arabic writing. Another difference is that [[lamb]] and [[mutton]] dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. Many cafeterias (canteens) at Chinese universities have separate sections or dining areas for Muslim students (Hui or western Chinese minorities), typically labeled &quot;qingzhen.&quot; Student ID cards sometimes indicate whether a student is Muslim, and will allow access to these dining areas, or will allow access to special occasions such as the [[Eid]] feast following [[Ramadan]]. Common dishes: *''la mian'' 辣面 (Spicy noodle soup), or clear-broth stewed [[beef noodle soup]] (&amp;#28165;&amp;#22697;&amp;#29275;&amp;#32905;&amp;#28271;&amp;#40629;) *''nang'' 馕 (Round unleavened breads, topped with sesame - similar to South and Central Asia [[naan]]) *''yang rou [[chuanr]]'' 羊肉串 (Barbecued mutton skewers) In the US, Chinese Islamic restaurants are frequented by non-Chinese as well. Pakistanis, Arabs and Iranians are among the regular clientele. ==External links== [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/07/09/PNGTF7H0QS1.DTL A San Francisco Chronicle article on a Chinese Islamic restaurant in the US] ==See also== * [[cuisine]] * [[cooking]] * [[Lanzhou]] * [[Gansu]] * [[Shaanxi]] * [[Xi'an]] * [[Islam in China]] [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:Islamic culture]] [[Category:Xinjiang]] [[zh:&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;&amp;#33756;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cantonese cuisine</title> <id>6182</id> <revision> <id>40361410</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:34:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}} '''Cantonese cuisine''' ({{zh-cp|c=&amp;#31925;&amp;#33756;|p=yu&amp;egrave; c&amp;agrave;i}}) originates from the region around [[Guangzhou|Canton]] in southern [[China]]'s [[Guangdong]] province. Of the various regional styles of Chinese cuisine, Cantonese is the best-known outside China; a &quot;Chinese restaurant&quot; in a Western country will usually serve mostly Cantonese food, or an adaptation thereof. The prominence of Cantonese cuisine outside China is likely due to the disproportionate emigration from this region, as well as the relative accessibility of some Cantonese dishes to foreign palates. Cantonese dishes rarely use &quot;hot&quot; spices like [[chile pepper|chilli]], unlike, for instance, [[Szechua
Residential elevators are required to conform to ASME A17.1 Platform and Wheelchair lifts are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US Jurisdictions. == Unique elevator systems == === Elevators at the Eiffel Tower === The Eiffel Tower has double-deck elevators built into the legs of the tower, serving the ground level to the first and second levels. Even though the shaft runs diagonally upwards with the contour of the tower, both the upper and lower cars remain horizontally level. The offset distance of the two cars changes throughout the journey. There are four elevator cars of the traditional design that run from the second level to the third level. The cars are connected to their opposite pairs (opposite in the elevator landing/hall) and use each other as the &quot;counterweight&quot;. As one car ascends from level 2, the other descends from level 3. The operations of these elevators are synchronized by a light signal in the car. === Taipei 101 Elevators === It is worth noting that Taipei 101 uses double deck elevators to service the main building tenants, although it is not the first of such implementations. The observation deck elevators ascend the tower at a top speed of 1,010 meters per minute. A ride from the 5th floor entrance to the 89th floor observation deck lasts a mere 37 seconds! It is equipped with cabin pressure control systems to alleviate pains that would result from sudden changes in pressure. The car and its counterweight are shaped like a bullet-train to minimize travelling noise. The cabin features a graphic display that shows current floor, altitude, vertical speed, a stopwatch timer, and an image of the main building, on which a red dot traces the car's relative position. === The Gateway Arch === [[Image:GatewayArchTramCar.jpg|thumb|200px|The interior of one of the Gateway Arch tramway cars]] {{main|Gateway Arch}} The Gateway Arch in [[Saint Louis, Missouri]] has a unique elevator system which carries passengers from the visitors center underneath the Arch to the observation deck at the top of the structure. Called a ''tram'' or ''tramway'', people enter this unique [[tramway]] much as one would enter an ordinary elevator, through double doors. Passing through the doors the passengers in small groups enter a horizontal cylindrical compartment containing seats on each side and a flat floor. A number of these compartments are linked to form a train. These compartments each individually retain an appropriate level orientation by tilting while the entire train follows curved tracks up one leg of the arch. There are two tramways within the Arch, one at the north end, and the other at the south end. The entry doors have windows, so people traveling within the Arch are able to see the interior structure of the Arch during the ride to and from the observation deck. [[Image:ElevatorShaftHannoverNewCityHallLookingUp.jpg|thumb|left|200px|View up the shaft of the elevator at the new city hall, Hannover, Germany.]] === New city hall, Hanover, Germany === [[Image:ElevatorHannoverNewCityHallSketch.png|thumb|right|100px|Sketch of the elevator at the new city hall, Hannover, Germany, showing the cabin both at the bottom and the top]] The elevator in the new city hall in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]] is a technical rarity, and unique in [[Europe]], as the elevator starts straight up but then changes its angle by 15 degrees to follow the contour of the dome of the hall. The cabin therefore tilts 15 degrees during the ride. The elevator travels a height of 43 meters. The new city hall was built in 1913. The elevator was destroyed in [[1943]] and rebuilt in [[1954]]. === Luxor Inclinator === In [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], at the Luxor [[Casino]], is the Inclinator. The shape of this casino is a [[pyramid]]. Therefore, the elevator travels up the side of the pyramid at a 39 degree angle. {{section-stub}} &lt;br clear=left&gt; === &quot;Top of the Rock&quot; elevators === Guests ascending to the 67th, 69th, and 70th level observation decks (dubbed &quot;Top of the Rock&quot;) atop the [[GE Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]] ride a high-speed glass-top elevator. When entering the cab, it appears to be any normal elevator ride. However, once the cab begins moving, the interior lights turn off and a special blue light above the cab turns on. This lights the entire shaft, so riders can see the moving cab through its glass ceiling as it rises and lowers through the shaft. Music plays and various animations are also displayed on the ceiling. The entire ride takes about 60 seconds. &lt;!-- The [[Fourth Street Elevator]] in Iowa, is not, despite its name, an elevator in the modern sense; it is a [[funicular]] railway. Please do not re-add it; there are many similar funicular railways in the world, and it is thus not &quot;unique&quot;. --&gt; ==Manufacturers of elevators== *[[American Elevator Co]] *[[AMTECH]] Elevator Services *[[Express Lifts]] [[Northampton]] *[[Fujitec]] *[[Kleemann]] *[[Kone Corporation|KONE]] *[[Mitsubishi]] Elevator/Escalator Division *[[North American Elevator Services]] *[[Otis Elevator Company|Otis]] *[[Schindler Group]] *[[The Elevator Contractors of America]] *[[Toshiba Elevator and Building Systems Corporation]] *[[ThyssenKrupp]] ==Test facilities== There are special towers for testing elevators as the [[Express Lift Tower]] in Northhampton, UK. ==See also== *[[Escalator]] *[[Grain elevator]] *[[Elevator music]] *[[Elevator paradox]] *[[Space elevator]] *[[Elevator surfing]] *[[Double-deck elevator]] ==References== *Manavalan, Theresa ([[30 October]] [[2005]]). &quot;Don't let them ride alone&quot;. ''[[New Straits Times]]'', p. F2. ==External links== {{commons|Category:Elevators}} *[http://www.elevatormoods.com Elevator Moods]-Fictional security films of elevator passengers. *[http://science.howstuffworks.com/elevator.htm Elevators] page from [[Howstuffworks.com]] *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=31,128.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/31,128&amp;RS=PN/31,128 US Patent 31,128: Improvement in Hoisting Apparatus] *[http://www.schindler.com/man/com/webmanen.nsf/pages/prod-elev-comp-miconic10-01 Schindler] Miconic 10 dispatch system [[Category:Elevators|*]] [[Category:Vertical transportation devices]] [[Category:Building engineering]] [[zh-min-nan:Liû-lông]] [[de:Aufzugsanlage]] [[es:Ascensor]] [[fr:Ascenseur]] [[ko:승강기]] [[id:Lift]] [[he:מעלית]] [[nl:Lift (transport)]] [[ja:エレベーター]] [[pl:Winda]] [[pt:Elevador]] [[ru:Лифт]] [[sk:Výťah]] [[sv:Hiss]] [[zh:電梯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eurostar</title> <id>10093</id> <revision> <id>41978209</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:28:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Canderra</username> <id>487453</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Additional information */ moved links to first occurance and added mph conversion in brackets</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Rail companies | bgcolor=333333| image_filename=Eurostar_at_Vauxhall.jpg| widthpx=300px| franchise=Eurostar| logo_filename=Eurostar logo.gif| nameforarea=Route| regions=[[London]]-[[Lille]]-[[Brussels]],&lt;br&gt;[[London]]-[[Paris]]| secregions=[[Lille]]-[[Disneyland Paris]]-[[Avignon]],&lt;br&gt;[[Lille]]-[[Bourg-St-Maurice]]| fleet=27| stations=11| parent_company=Eurostar Group| website=www.eurostar.com| websitename=www.eurostar.com| }} :''This article is about high-speed trains between London and Brussels / Paris. For Italian trains called'' Eurostar'', see'' [[Eurostar Italia]]. '''Eurostar''' is a train service that connects [[London]] ([[Waterloo station]]) with [[Paris]] ([[Gare du Nord]]) and [[Brussels]] ([[South station (Brussels)|South station]]). Trains cross the [[English Channel]] via the [[Channel Tunnel]]. The French and Belgian sections of the route use the same [[high-speed rail]] lines as the [[TGV]] and [[Thalys]], and in England a new line is being built to the same standard. This is a two-phase project known as the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] project (CTRL). The first revenue-earning Eurostar trains ran in November [[1994]]. Eurostar has established a dominant share of the market on the routes it serves - 68% for London-Paris and 63% for London-Brussels, as of [[November 2004]]. The company points out that these passenger figures represent a saving of 393,000 [[carbon dioxide]]-producing short-haul flights. The journey time from [[London]] to [[Paris]] is currently 2 hours 35 minutes; London to Brussels is 2 hours 20 minutes. These times will be cut by 20 minutes in [[2007]] when the construction of the second phase of CTRL is completed, bringing the [[United Kingdom|British]] portion of the route up to the same standards as the [[France|French]] and [[Belgian]] sections. Completion of the CTRL will also allow a significant increase in the number of Eurostar trains serving London. After phase two is completed, up to 8 trains per hour in each direction could travel the route from London to the continent, as timetabling would be unaffected by peak hour restrictions at [[Waterloo station|London Waterloo]] and conflicts between Waterloo and [[Fawkham Junction]]. In addition to the three destination cities, some Eurostar services currently stop en route at [[Ashford International railway station|Ashford International]] in [[Ashford, Kent]] and at [[Calais|Calais Frethun]] and [[Lille]] in northern France. From 2007 all Eurostar trains will be routed through the CTRL to a new London terminus at [[St. Pancras Station|St Pancras]]. The company had intended to retain some services to the existing [[Waterloo Station|Waterloo]] terminal, but this was ruled out on cost grounds. Some trains will additionally serve new stations at [[Ebbsfleet]] near [[Dartford]] in north-west Kent and [[Stratford International stat
above [[Naraka]] ([[Hell]]), one of the three [[Lokas]] (worlds, dimensions of existence). The Patala loka exists below Bhu(r)loka (which includes [[Earth]] where humans live). The asuras are often ugly creatures. [[Purana]]s describe many cosmic battles between asuras and devas for supremacy. Originally, the word '''Asura''' in the earliest hymns of the [[Rig Veda]] (the holy book of the Indo-Aryans) meant any supernatural spirit—good or bad. Hence even some of the devas (demigods), especially [[Varuna]], have the epithet of Asura. In fact, since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word Asura, representing a category of celestial beings, became the word '''Ahura (Mazda)''', the Supreme God of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]]. But very soon, among the Indo-Aryans, Asura came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthromorphic but hideous demons. All words such as Asura, '''Daitya''' (lit., sons of the demon-mother &quot;Diti&quot;), Rakshasa (lit. from &quot;harm to be guarded against&quot;) are translated into English as '''demon'''. These demons are inherently evil are in a constant battle against the demigods. Hence in Hindu iconography, the gods / demigods are shown to carry weapons to kill the asuras. However, unlike Christianity, the demons are not the cause of the evil and unhappiness in present mankind (which occurs on the account of ignorance from recognizing one's true self). In later Puranic mythology, exceptions do occur in the demonic race to produce god-fearing Asuras like '''Prahalada'''. Also, many Asuras are said to have been granted boons from one of the members of the Hindu [[trinity]], viz., [[Prajapati]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] when the latter had been appeased from penances. All Asuras, unlike the devas, are said to be mortals (though they vehemently wish to become immortal). Many people metaphorically interpret these demons as manifestations of the ignoble passions in human mind. On the account of the Hindu theory of reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's [[Karma]], other kinds of demons can also be enlisted. If a human does extremely horrible and sinful karmas in his life, his soul ([[Atman]]) will, upon his death, directly turn into an evil ghostly spirit, many kinds of which are recognized in the later Hindu texts. These demons could be vampire-like beings (pishacha or nar-pishacha), animate corpses (vetala), ghosts (pretatma), etc, which can &quot;possess&quot; human beings. See a [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm Tour of Vedic universe]. ==Demons in other cultures and religions== Demons are found in many [[religion]]s, and many cultures have developed a rich mythology of demons. The study of demons is called [[demonology]], while the worship of demons is known as [[demonolatry]]. In [[Buddhism]] the word '''demon''' can refer to [[sentient]] being in either [[Hell realm]] or [[Asura realm]] depending on the tradition. In [[Japanese folklore]], demons ([[Yokai]]), are not necessarily evil or even anthropomorphic, but range from the evil [[Oni (Japanese folklore)|oni]] (devils) to the erotic [[meinaishujin]] (unseen or [[invisible master]]s), and to the mischievous [[kitsune]] (fox-spirits). The word demon is often specifically chosen by the Japanese producers of [[anime]] and [[computer games]] as a translation of some other Japanese concepts as well. ==Demons in Hellenistic Neopaganism== In modern Hellenistic [[Neopaganism|Neopaganism]] (particularly in self-described Hellenistic [[sect]]s in the [[United States]]), a demon can be a variety of things. Sometimes Titan gods imprisoned in [[Tartarus]] are considered demons. Typically associated with demons in Hellenistic Neopagan sects are [[Erinyes|Furies]], [[Cyclops]] and [[Hecatonchires]]. Other entities from Hellenistic mythology may also be associated with demons and demonology. ==In art, literature, and television== [[Image:Vrubel_Demon.jpg|thumb|right|300px|]]In [[Mikhail Lermontov]]'s long poem (1840), the Demon makes love to the virgin Tamara in a scenic setting of the [[Causcaus mountains.]] Many classic books and plays feature demons, such as the [[The Divine Comedy|Divine Comedy]], [[Paradise Lost]] and [[Faust]]. [[Anton Rubinstein]]'s lushly chromatic [[opera]] ''The Demon'' (1875), based on the poem &quot;The Demon&quot; by [[Michail Lermontov|Lermontov]], was delayed in its production because the censor attached to the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] felt that the libretto was sacrilegious [http://www.opera.lv/demons/default_E.htm]. In [[C. S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' a senior demon in Hell's hierarchy writes a series of letters to his subordinate trainee, Wormwood, offering advice in the techniques of temptation of humans. Though fictional, it offers a plausible contemporary Christian viewpoint of the relationship of humans and demons. Demons have permeated the culture of children's cartoons and [[anime]]; they are used in [[comic book]]s as powerful adversaries in the [[Horror fiction|horror]], [[fantasy]] and [[superhero]] stories. There are a handful of demons who fight for good for their own reasons like [[DC Comics]]' [[The Demon (comics)|The Demon]] and [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Ghost Rider]]. Similarly, [[Hellboy]] is a demon raised by humans and has vowed to protect them. In [[Philip Pullman]]'s [[His Dark Materials]] trilogy, ''[[Daemon (His Dark Materials)|dæmons]]'' are the physical incarnation of a person's soul. Although they bear almost no resemblance to Christian demons, the word is pronounced the same. The works of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] feature demons called [[Balrog]]s, terrible spirits of flame with humanoid bodies. In Tolkien's works, [[Melkor]], a.k.a [[Morgoth]], is analogous to Satan and [[Sauron]] is the chief demon in Morgoth's service. [[Cenobite]]s are demons which feature in the works of [[Clive Barker]], such as the novel ''[[The Hellbound Heart]]'' on which the film ''[[Hellraiser]]'' is based. In the novel ''[[Good Omens]]'', by [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Terry Pratchett]], demons are described as essentially angels working for a different employer. The demon [[Anthony Crowley]] is said not to have Fallen so much as 'sauntered vaguely downward.' In recent times, Fr. [[Gabriele Amorth]], chief exorcist at the Vatican, has published two books on his experiences with Satan and demons entitled ''An Exorcist Tells His Story'', and ''An Exorcist: More Stories'' published by Ignatius Press. In the various books of Skeeve and Aahz by [[Robert Asprin]] a Demon is short for Dimension Traveller. In world A you would see beings from world B as demons, however, should you leave world A and go to world B, you would be the demon to the locals. ==In science== Scientists occasionally invent hypothetical entities with special abilities as part of a [[thought experiment]]. These &quot;demons&quot; have abilities that are nearly limitless, but they are still subject to the [[physical law]]s being theorized about. For example, in Descartes' Second Meditation, it is argued, as a thought experiment, that it is at least possible that there is an all-powerful evil demon who is deceiving me, such that this demon causes me to have false beliefs, including the belief that there is an object before me and the belief that two plus three equals five. Note that the power of such a demon would be two-fold: both empirical and rational thinking can be completely compromised. This leads to a worrisome argument: 1. One knows some fact or other only when one can rule out that there is such a demon. 2. But one can never be in a position rule out that there is such a being, since we can never be sure that the demon isn't merely toying with our epistemic situation. 3. Thus, we can never know any facts at all! {{seealso2|Maxwell's demon|Laplace's demon}} ==In games== The earliest connection of the word with games is that the British call a form of [[solitaire]] &quot;Demon&quot;, from at least the [[nineteenth century]]. The selection of this word comes from the observance of a player by others. Formerly, adults nearly always bet on card games. As the player is turned from interaction with others and is forced to move cards around without feeling, the player is metaphorically considered possessed by a demon. It has been asserted by conservative religious groups that demons communicate with humans through the use of a [[Ouija]] board and that demonic [[possession]] is possible in this way. The most common explanation is that the Ouija board's users move the game's [[planchette]] with their hands (consciously or unconsciously) and only appear to be communicating with spirits. The resulting possession appears to be purely [[psychosomatic]]. The original idea for the use of spirit boards was to contact [[ghost]]s of dead humans and not evil spirits or demons. Many [[fantasy]]-themed [[role-playing game|role-playing]], [[computer game|computer]] and [[Computer and video games|video games]] feature demons as enemies. Some allow [[player character]]s to summon or control demons, and others feature a main character that is a demon or part demon. Such games are sometimes accused of trying to draw children into the [[occult]], although this is a minority viewpoint. See [[Fiend (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]] for further information on this topic. Some recent Japanese video games feature demons stylized as a race of beings who are not necessarily irredeemably evil. ''[[Disgaea: Hour of Darkness]]'', in particular, is remarkable for having a young demon king as its main character. ID Software's [[Doom 3]] contains Demons in the 22nd century on Mars, the lone marine has to fight his way though hords of demons and zombies, as well as evil spirits. ==See also== *[[Archdemon]] *[[Ars Goetia]] *[[Demonolatry]] *[[Demonology]] *[[Lilith]] *[[List of specific demons and types of demons]] *[[Names of the demons]
rmy]] and [[bradymetabolism]]). Thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types (see [[#In between cold and warm blooded|In between cold and warm blooded]]). ==Mechanisms== Endotherms include [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. The advantages of [[endothermy]] are increased [[enzyme]] activity and a constant body temperature, allowing these animals to be active in cold temperatures. On the other hand, the disadvantage is the need to maintain [[thermoregulation]], even during inactivity, otherwise the organism will die. &lt;br /&gt; Other living creatures such as fish and reptiles are called ectothermic or [[cold blooded]], meaning that they cannot control their internal temperature and so were assumed to have the same temperature as their surroundings. In [[winter]], there may not be enough food to enable an endotherm to keep its metabolic rate stable all day, so some organisms go into a controlled state of [[hypothermia]] called [[hibernation]], or [[torpor]]. This deliberately lowers the body temperature to conserve energy. In hot weather, endotherms expend considerable energy to avoid overheating: they may pant, [[sweat]], lick, or seek shelter or water. Diverse mechanisms can come into play to regulate body temperature such as shivering (to generate heat from [[muscle]] contractions), blanching (circulatory changes to direct less heat to the skin), flushing (circulatory changes to radiate more heat from the skin), panting or [[Perspiration|sweating]] (to increase heat loss through [[evaporation]]). ==Warm-blooded versus [[cold-blooded]]== Biochemical processes are heat dependent. The rule of thumb is that they go faster when they are warm and slower when they are cold. The advantage of being homeothermic is that you can always maintain yourself near one optimum temperature and all your internal chemical reactions will function at an optimum level. This means that you can think, move, digest, etc. with your best possible speed and efficiency. Warm blooded animals warm themselves by digesting food. The disadvantage of being warm blooded is that you must always consume large amounts of [[food energy]]. When the core temperature of a warm blooded animal does change, even by a few degrees, the animal will rapidly lose its ability to function. The advantage of being cold blooded is that an organism needs much less food. This means that it can survive famine, long ocean voyages, and shortage of prey when warm blooded organisms would surely die. The disadvantage of being cold blooded is that an organism needs to have multiple chemical pathways available to it, some of them for cooler temperature functioning, others for warm. Such an organism may also find itself moving or thinking more slowly than normal, simply because the temperature is colder. ==Between cold and warm blooded== It has been a while since the original distinction was made between warm and cold blooded animals. Time has passed, science has advanced, the warm cold business has been studied in closer detail. It turns out that the cold blooded animals all use behavioral means to adjust their temperatures, sometimes quite effectively. There are also creatures that do not properly fall into either category. Some examples of in between creatures include: *[[Tuna]] and [[Swordfish]]. Fish have long been thought to be cold blooded. Tuna and swordfish dive deep into the ocean to where the water is quite cold. Swordfish are able to raise the temperature of their brains and eyes in cold water, allowing for faster eye movements when hunting. Tuna are able to warm their entire bodies through a heat exchange mechanism called the [[rete mirabile]], which helps keep heat inside the body, and prevents the loss of heat through the fish's gills into the cold water. As well as having their active muscles for swimming near the center of their body instead of closer to the cold surface. *[[Bee]]s. An individual bee is perfectly cold blooded. Bees, however, do not live by themselves. In summer if the nest starts to overheat they will go to the entrances to the nest and fan air in and out of the nest to cool it. In winter if the nest becomes too cold, they will shiver their wing muscles until they grow warm from their efforts. Any one bee doing this by itself would just get tired for no reason. Done collectively, this will raise the temperature of the nest. *[[Skunk Cabbage]]. Plants are normally thought of as having the exact same temperature as their surroundings. The skunk cabbage uses chemical means to warm itself at the end of winter. The warming is modest by animal standards, but is enough to enable them to get an early start in the spring. This permits them to start growing while all their predators and competition are still asleep because of the cold. ==References== * Mark Blumberg (2002), , Harvard University Press ==External links== * [http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/warm.html www.earthlife.net] *[http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/blood.htm Dinosauria.com: What is Warm-bloodedness anyway?] *[http://reptilis.net/cold-blood.html The Reptipage: What is cold-blooded?] [[Category:animal physiology]] [[de:Homoiothermie]] [[es:Sangre caliente]] [[fr:Homéotherme]] [[it:Omeotermia]] [[he:הומותרמיות]] [[nl:Warmbloedig]] [[ja:恒温動物]] [[pl:Zwierzę stałocieplne]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hephaestus</title> <id>14388</id> <revision> <id>41508924</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:10:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Veledan</username> <id>306701</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Greek god. For other uses of the name, see [[Hephaestus (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Hephaestus (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|Hephaestus, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god of forging, riding an [[Donkey|ass]]; Greek drinking cup ([[skyphos]]) made in the 5th century B.C.]] '''Hephaestus''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«hih FEHS tuhs»'') ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ἡφαιστος ''Hêphaistos'') is the [[Greek mythology|Greek god]] whose approximate Roman equivalent is [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]]; he is the god of [[blacksmith]]s, craftsmen, [[art]]isans, [[sculpture|sculptors]], [[metal]]s and [[metallurgy]], and [[fire]]. He was worshipped in all the manufacturing and industrial centers of [[Greece]], especially [[Athens, Greece|Athens]]. Though his forge lay in the volcanic heart of [[Lemnos]], Hephaestus became associated with [[Mount Etna]] by Greek colonists in [[Sicily]]. Hephaestus and his brother [[Ares]] are sons of [[Hera]], with or without the cooperation of Zeus. In classic and late interpretations, Hera bore him alone, in jealousy for Zeus's solo birth of [[Athena]], but as Hera is older than Zeus in terms of human history, the myth may be an inversion. Indeed, in some versions of Athena's birth, the goddess only enters the world after Zeus' head is split open by a hammer-wielding Hephaestus. Either way, in Greek thought, the fates of the goddess of wisdom and war (Athena) and the god of the forge that makes the weapons of war were linked. In Attica, Hephaestus and [[Athena|Athena Ergane]] (Athena as patroness of craftsman and artisans), were honored at a festival called [[Chalceia]] on the thirtieth day of [[Pyanepsion]]. Hephaestus crafted much of Athena's weaponry, along with those of the rest of the gods and even of a few mortals who received their special favor. [[Image:ac.hephaestus2.jpg|thumb|155px|thumb|right|The [[Doric order|Doric]] Temple of Hephaestus, [[Athens]]: western face.]] An Athenian founding myth tells that Athena refused a union with Hephaestus, and that when he tried to force her she disappeared from the bed, and Hephaestus ejaculated on the earth, impregnating [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], who subsequently gave birth to [[Erichthonius of Athens]]; then the surrogate mother gave the child to Athena to foster, guarded by a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]]. [[Hyginus]] made an etymology, of strife between Athena and Hephaestus (''&quot;Eri-&quot;'') and the Earth-child (''&quot;chthonios&quot;''). Some readers may have the sense that an earlier, not-virginal Athene is disguised in a convolutated re-making of the myth-element. At any rate, there is a [[Temple of Hephaestus]] (Hephaesteum or the so-called &quot;Theseum&quot;), located at near the Athens agora, or marketplace. (''illustration, below left''). Hephaestus also crafted much of the other magnficent equipage of the gods, and almost any finely-wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus: [[Hermes]]'s [[wing]]ed [[helmet]] and [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], the [[Aegis]] [[breastplate]], [[Aphrodite]]'s famed [[girdle]], [[Achilles]]'s [[armor]], [[Heracles]]'s [[bronze]] clappers, [[Helios]]'s [[chariot]], the shoulder of [[Pelops]], [[Eros (god)|Eros]]'s [[bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]]s and [[Hades]]'s helmet of invisibility. Hephaestus worked with the help of the [[chthonic]] [[Cyclopes]], his assistants in the forge. He also built [[automaton]]s of metal to work for him. He gave to blinded [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] his apprentice [[Cedalion]] as a guide. {{Greek myth (Olympian)}} [[Prometheus]] stole the [[fire]] that he gave to man from Hephaestus' forge. Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave man, the woman [[Pandora]] and her famous [[Pandora's box|box]]. [[Image:Rubens - Vulcano forjando los rayos de Júpiter.jpg|thumb|right|155px|In [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]]' gritty ''[[Vulcan_(mythology)|Vulcan]] [Hephaestus] forging the thunderbolts of Jove'', only the title is mythic in an essay in realism illuminated by the firelight of the forg
|Andy_Warhol}} * {{imdbname|id=0912238|name=Andy Warhol}} * [http://www.visite-virtuelle-france.com/perso/andy_warhol/andy_warhol.htm Virtual visit] in Musée d'Art Contemporain de Lyon. * [http://www.warholfoundation.org/ Warhol Foundation] in New York, New York. * [http://www.warhol.org/ The Andy Warhol Museum] in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania * [http://www.artquotes.net/masters/warhol-andy.htm Andy Warhol Profile] Includes a biography, selection of images, famous quotes, and links to the artist. * [http://x-traonline.org/vol5_1/warhol_responses.html Two short articles about Warhol's 2002 museum retrospective from the art magazine &quot;X-Tra&quot;] * [http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/artistInfo/artist/328 Actual exhibitions with Andy Warhol on Artfacts] ''Andy Warhol's works are still widely at present in various shows and permanent collections in museums or galleries throughout the world.'' * [http://www.geocities.com/joopbersee/andy3.html Andy Warhol Poetry Tribute] * [http://www.the3graces.info/random_warhol.htm http://www.the3graces.info] A warholesque biography of Andy Warhol. *[http://www.accuracyproject.org/cbe-Warhol,Andy.html Internet Accuracy Project - Andy Warhol] * [http://www.doubletakeart.com/cgi-bin/dtg/dtg.psearch?a1=00594 Doubletake Gallery] Online Catalog of Limited Editions * [http://www.malarze.walhalla.pl/galeria.php5?art=70 Art Gallery - Andy Warhol] * [http://www.gagosian.com/artists/andywarhol/ Andy Warhol] at Gagosian Gallery * [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=66 Biography and Pictures] ===Listening=== *[http://www.wnyc.org/studio360/show121005.html &quot;Warhol, Soup Cans, Cowboys&quot;] (''Studio 360'' radio program, December 10, 2005) &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[Category:1928 births|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:1987 deaths|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American film directors|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American experimental filmmakers|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American artists|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Gay artists|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Warhol, Andy]] [[bg:Анди Уорхол]] [[ca:Andy Warhol]] [[cs:Andy Warhol]] [[cy:Andy Warhol]] [[da:Andy Warhol]] [[de:Andy Warhol]] [[es:Andy Warhol]] [[eo:Andy WARHOL]] [[fr:Andy Warhol]] [[gl:Andy Warhol]] [[ko:앤디 워홀]] [[hr:Andy Warhol]] [[it:Andy Warhol]] [[he:אנדי וורהול]] [[jv:Andy Warhol]] [[lt:Andy Warhol]] [[li:Andy Warhol]] [[lmo:Andy Warhol]] [[hu:Andy Warhol]] [[mk:Енди Ворхол]] [[nl:Andy Warhol]] [[ja:アンディー・ウォーホル]] [[no:Andy Warhol]] [[pl:Andy Warhol]] [[pt:Andy Warhol]] [[ro:Andy Warhol]] [[ru:Уорхол, Энди]] [[sh:Andy Warhol]] [[simple:Andy Warhol]] [[sk:Andy Warhol]] [[sr:Енди Ворхол]] [[fi:Andy Warhol]] [[sv:Andy Warhol]] [[zh:安迪·沃荷]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted</title> <id>865</id> <revision> <id>41619114</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:40:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.178.165.137</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox | Name = AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted | Type = [[Album (music)|Album]] | Artist = [[Ice Cube]] | Cover = AmeriKKKa.jpg | Background = Orange | Released = [[May 16]], [[1990]] | Recorded = [[1989]] | Genre = [[Gangsta rap]] | Length = 49:36 | Label = [[Priority Records|Priority]] | Producer = [[Ice Cube]], [[Hank Shocklee]], [[Chuck D]], [[Sir Jinx]], [[Yo-Yo]] | Reviews = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; *''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:5 out of 5.png|5 out of 5 stars]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:fvh1z8hajyv2 link] | | Last album = | This album = '''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'''''&lt;br /&gt;(1990) | Next album = ''[[Kill At Will]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1990) }} '''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted''''' was [[Ice Cube]]'s debut solo album after his acrimonious split from [[N.W.A.]]. It was originally released [[May 16]], [[1990]] (see [[1990 in music]]). The title of the album is controversial. It is a spoof of a television show called &quot;[[America's Most Wanted]]&quot;, wherein real-life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in if they have seen the alleged perpetrators. The show has taken some criticism for the reenactments, which critics claim perpetuate beliefs in the criminality of [[African-American]] men and other minorities. The [[alternative political spellings|political spelling]] of &quot;America&quot; with &quot;KKK&quot; equates both the show and the status quo of society in the [[United States]] with the [[Ku Klux Klan]], a [[white supremacy|white-supremacist]] organization. ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' is a [[gangsta rap]] album, and the songs are tales of a young black man living in the [[ghetto]] and dealing with such issues as [[drug addiction]], [[racism]] and [[poverty]]. To understand the album's statement, it is important to note the environment of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in the early 1990s. Riots would rack the city following the [[Rodney King]] verdict, seen by many (including Ice Cube) as an example of the racism inherent in the judicial and law enforcement systems. Also, the [[O. J. Simpson]] trial would provoke further racial tension in the country, especially Los Angeles. Unlike many other albums from the same period, Cube did not allow the subject matter to infuse the album with inherent negativity. He attacks perceived racist social structures, far more than many gangsta rappers were doing at the time and since. Though he describes with detail the conditions of the ghetto, he does so in order to condemn those that allow ghetto despair to occur, instead of glorifying it. Cube takes some controversial stands, referring to certain types of African-Americans as &quot;Oreo cookies&quot;, implying that they appear to be black but are actually willing participants in the racial hierarchy that keeps the majority of African-Americans living in poverty-stricken and drug-riddled ghettos; specifically, this is aimed at soft-pop-R&amp;B radio stations broadcasting a watered-down sound. [[Arsenio Hall]] is specifically mentioned as being such a &quot;sell-out&quot;. The titular song on the album directly parodies the television show, &quot;America's Most Wanted&quot;, exposing the perceived racism inherent in watching largely African-American men being arrested for entertainment. :&quot;I think back to when I was robbin' my own kind, :the police didn't pay it no mind. :But when I start robbin the white folks? :Now I'm in the pen with the soap on a rope&quot; A later song (&quot;Get Off My Dick Nigga, and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here&quot;) returns to the same theme at the end, with newscaster [[Peter Jennings]] reporting on rioting: &quot;Outside the [[South Los Angeles|south central]] area, few cared about the violence because it didn't affect them.&quot; Also of interest is &quot;It's a Man's World&quot;, a rap-conversation with [[Yo-Yo]]; the two verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth; outside of this song, the album received criticism for alleged [[sexism]], as in &quot;You Can't Fade Me&quot;, a humorous track where Cube fantasizes about kicking a former one-night stand in the stomach because she is pregnant with his baby. &quot;Nigga You Love To Hate&quot; is also notable for a chorus chanting &quot;Fuck you, Ice Cube&quot;, setting the tone for the album and introducing a pattern of obscenity and profanity. Produced by [[the Bomb Squad]] ([[Public Enemy]]) and [[Da Lench Mob]], ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' received accolades for innovation in production upon release. However, many critics do not feel that the beats in the album have aged very well. Since this time, West Coast rap has largely taken a different direction from Ice Cube's style, heading more towards the smooth drawl of [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Dogg]]; this album sounds dated as a result. Before striking out on his own, Ice Cube was a member of the legendary West Coast rap group [[N.W.A.]] (''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' - [[1989]]). Thus, Ice Cube's lyrical style is descended from West Coast rappers like [[Ice T]] (''[[Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say]]'' - [[1989]]) and [[Too Short|Too $hort]] (''[[Life Is Too Short|Life Is...Too $hort]]''). Musically, [[Public Enemy]] (''[[Yo! Bum Rush the Show]]'' - [[1987]])'s spare, hollow beats, [[old school rap]]pers like [[Eric B. &amp; Rakim]] (''[[Paid in Full]]'' - [[1987]]) and [[Kurtis Blow]] (''[[Kurtis Blow (album)|Kurtis Blow]]'' - [[1980]]) and 1970s [[funk]] ([[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] - ''[[Motor Booty Affair]]'' - [[1978]]; [[Gap Band]] - ''[[The Gap Band II]]'') and [[soul music|soul]] ([[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]] - ''[[There's a Riot Goin' On]]'' - [[1971]]; [[Curtis Mayfield]] - ''[[Let's Do It Again]]'' - [[1975]]) influenced Ice Cube's sound, partially through his producers, [[the Bomb Squad]]. Ice Cube influenced later West Coast rappers, including the stoned drawl of [[Cypress Hill]] (''[[Cypress Hill (album)|Cypress Hill]]'' - [[1991]]) and [[The Pharcyde]] (''[[Bizarre Ride II to the Pharcyde]]'' - [[1992]]), as well as later [[G Funk]] rappers like [[Dr. Dre]] (''[[The Chronic]]'' - [[1992]]) and [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] (''[[Doggystyle]]'' - [[1993]]). Though Ice Cube's popularity among mainstream listeners has not continued into the late 1990s, and his sound is distinctively [[old school rap|old school]] to modern ears, many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques. Rappers like [[Eminem]] (''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' - [[1999]]), [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'' - [[1994]]) and [[Tupac Shakur]] (''[[2Pacalypse Now]]'' - [[1992]]) similarly use cartoonish and unrealistic images of thug violence to protest the conditions of the poor and working class. While Ice Cube most often described true circumstance
t;''Bulletin of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation'', Elizabeth, NJ. January 1951&lt;/ref&gt; This forced the foundation to close its doors, causing the proceedings to be vacated. Perhaps as a result of this lawsuit, the Foundation's creditors began to demand settlement of its outstanding debts, worsening its financial plight. ===Dianetics in Kansas=== A temporary respite was provided in April 1951 by Don Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from [[Wichita, Kansas]]. A Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation was established at Wichita with Purcell's financial backing. Purcell also funded the printing of a new edition of ''Dianetics'' and several new Dianetics books - ''[[Self Analysis]]'', ''[[Science of Survival]]'', ''[[Notes on the Lectures of L. Ron Hubbard]]'', ''[[Advanced Procedure and Axioms]]'' and ''[[Child Dianetics]]'' - as well as a range of other Dianetics pamphlets and publications. However, the Wichita Foundation soon ran into problems. The other Foundations collapsed under the weight of unpaid debts and creditors pursued the new Foundation, which was &quot;consistently and continually hit by slopovers from the old Foundations, where the bookkeeping is bad&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; The income of the Wichita Foundation was far more modest than the earlier Foundations had enjoyed, illustrating how public interest in Dianetics had waned by this time. According to Helen O'Brien, who worked with Hubbard in Wichita, only 112 people attended the first major conference held at Wichita and only 51 students attended a subsequent lecture series in October 1951. &lt;ref&gt;O'Brien, Helen. ''Dianetics in Limbo''. Whitmore, Philadelphia (1966)&lt;/ref&gt; Writing at the time, the science writer [[Martin Gardner]] observed that &quot;the dianetics craze seems to have burned itself out as quickly as it caught fire&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Gardner, Martin. ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science''. 1952&lt;/ref&gt; The creditors caught up with the Wichita Foundation in early 1952 and forced it into bankruptcy. Hubbard sold his holdings to Purcell for a nominal sum and established a &quot;Hubbard College&quot; on the other side of Wichita, leaving Purcell to sort out the bankruptcy proceedings. The Purcell-run Foundation sent its members a set of accounts showing that it had earned $141,821 but was overspent by $63,222. &lt;ref&gt;Purcell circular letter of [[May 21]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard responded angrily, accusing Purcell of having been paid $500,000 by the American Medical Association to wreck Dianetics. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Anatomy of the Theta Body&quot;, lecture of March 1952&lt;/ref&gt; He later claimed that Purcell had been funded by the Communist Party of America &quot;to do in a Central Organization.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;E-meter&quot;, lecture of [[May 19]] [[1961]]&lt;/ref&gt; With the collapse of the Wichita Foundation, the remaining assets of the Foundation were put up for auction. They largely comprised of the copyright of all the tapes, books, techniques, processes and paraphernalia of Dianetics, including the name. Purcell bought the assets outright, but Hubbard's financial straits were not improved. One of his staff, James Elliot, sent out an appeal on his behalf: &quot;Dianetics and Mr. Hubbard have been dealt a blow from which they cannot recover .... Somehow Mr. Hubbard must get funds to keep Dianetics from being closed down everywhere .... He is penniless.&quot; Elliot wrote of Hubbard's wish to establish a &quot;free school in Phoenix for the rehabilitation of auditors.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Elliot, James. Circular letter of [[April 21]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; This was launched around April 1952 as the Hubbard Association of Scientologists; he could no longer use the name &quot;Dianetics&quot; as it no longer belonged to him. However, he was unable to escape entirely the problems of the bankrupt Wichita Foundation; on [[December 16]] [[1952]], he was arrested in the middle of a lecture for failing to return $9,000 withdrawn from the Wichita Foundation. He eventually settled the debt by paying $1,000 and returning a car that had been loaned by Purcell. &lt;ref&gt;Atack, Jon. &quot;A Piece of Blue Sky&quot;, p. 135. Lyle Stuart, London (1988)&lt;/ref&gt; Purcell finally tired of pursuing Hubbard over the bankruptcy and handed back the Dianetics copyrights in 1954. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dianetics and Scientology Organizations United Again&quot;, ''The Journal of Scientology'', issue 36-G, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; ===From Dianetics to Scientology=== Dianetics provided the seed from which the philosophical framework of [[Scientology]] grew. Scientologists refer to the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' as &quot;Book One&quot;. Hubbard himself regarded its publication as such an important event that he created his own calendar based on the publication date of ''Dianetics'', dating his Scientology writings from that time. For instance, Hubbard uses &quot;A.D. 13&quot; to mean 1963 &amp;ndash; literally &quot;year 13 After Dianetics&quot;. In 1952, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as &quot;Scientology, a [[religious philosophy]]&quot;. Scientology did not replace Dianetics but extended it to cover new areas. The stated goal of Scientology is to fully rehabilitate the spiritual nature of an individual, including rehabilitating all abilities and realizing one's full potential. By contrast, the goal of Dianetics is to rid the individual of his reactive mind and become [[Clear (Scientology)|&quot;Clear&quot;]]. In 1978, Hubbard revised and to some extent relaunched Dianetics as &quot;New Era Dianetics&quot;. This was supposed to achieve better results than the original Dianetics, and much more quickly; &quot;Preclears who might have needed over 2,000 hours of auditing to achieve the highest results obtainable from 1950 technology might now achieve comparable gains in a tenth of that time with modern Dianetics and Scientology auditing.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.neweradianetics.org.uk/page03.htm &quot;About New Era Dianetics Auditing&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Church of Scientology]] practices and disseminates both the original Dianetics and New Era Dianetics, and views Dianetics as an introduction to Scientology. As of 2001, the Church of Scientology continued to run [[television]] [[advertising | advertisements]] promoting ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''. [[Time Magazine]], in 1991, alleged that the Church asked its members to purchase large quantities of the book with their own money, or with money supplied by the Church, for the sole purpose of keeping the book on the [[New York Times Best Seller list]]. &lt;ref&gt;Behar, Richard. [http://www.xenu.net/archive/media/time910605.html &quot;The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power&quot;], ''Time'', [[May 6]] [[1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; ==Notes== &lt;references/&gt; ==References== * Atack, Jon: ''A Piece of Blue Sky'', Lyle Stuart, London, 1988 * Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results'', Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951 * Breuer J, Freud S, &quot;Studies in Hysteria&quot;, Vol II of the ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'' (Hogarth Press, London, 1955). * Carroll, Robert T: 'Dianetics', Skepdics Dictionary [http://skepdic.com/dianetic.html] * Fischer, Harvey Jay: &quot;Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. &quot; Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fischer/ ] * Fox, Jack et al: ''An Experimental Investigation of Hubbard's Engram Hypothesis (Dianetics)'' in Psychological Newsletter, 1959, 10 131-134 [http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/essays/engrams.html] * Freeman, Lucy: &quot;Psychologists act against Dianetics&quot;, ''[[New York Times]]'', [[September 9]] [[1950]] * Gardner, Martin: &quot;Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'', 1957, Chapter 22, ''Dianetics'' [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e520000.htm] * Hayakawa, S. I.: &quot;From Science-Fiction to Fiction-Science,&quot; in ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', Vol. VIII, No. 4. Summer, 1951 [http://learn-gs.org/library/etc/8-4-sih.pdf] * Hubbard, L. Ron: :* &quot;Anatomy of the Theta Body&quot;, lecture of March 1952 :* &quot;The Anatomy of Thought&quot;. Hubbard Communication Office Policy Letter [[26 April]] [[1970]]R, revised [[15 March]] [[1975]] :* &quot;Auditor attitude and the bank&quot;, lecture of [[October 10]] [[1969]] :* ''Child Dianetics'', p. 178. Publications Organization Worldwide, Edinburgh (1968 edition) :* &quot;Dianetics&quot;, ''Astounding Science Fiction'', May 1950 :* &quot;Dianetics: its background&quot;. HCO Bulletin of [[May 22]] [[1969]]. :* ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' (New Era Publications, 1988) :* ''Dianetics Today'', Church of Scientology of California (1975 ed.) :* &quot;E-meter&quot;, lecture of [[May 19]] [[1961]] :* &quot;Final Lecture&quot;, lecture of [[November 8]] [[1959]] :* &quot;How we have addressed the problem of the mind&quot;, lecture of [[July 4]] [[1957]] :* [http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page75.htm &quot;My Only Defense For Having Lived&quot;], 1966. :* &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]] :* &quot;Ron's Journal 67&quot;, taped message of [[September 20]] [[1967]] :* ''Science of Survival'', Hubbard College of Scientology (1967 ed.) :* &quot;SOP 5 long form step III - spacation&quot;, lecture of [[January 19]] [[1953]] :* &quot;The Story of Dianetics &amp; Scientology&quot;, 1958 :* [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ &quot;Terra Incog
m programming language|Occam]], [[SPARK programming language|SPARK]], ANSI [[SQL]], and [[VHDL]]: **&lt;code&gt;--''comment''&lt;/code&gt; * [[Algol 60|ALGOL 60]]: **&lt;code&gt;comment ''comment'';&lt;/code&gt; * [[Algol 68|ALGOL 68]]: **&lt;code&gt;¢ ''comment'' ¢&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;comment&lt;/u&gt; ''comment'' &lt;u&gt;comment&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;co&lt;/u&gt; ''comment'' &lt;u&gt;co&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' #&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;£ ''comment'' £&lt;/code&gt; *[[AppleScript]]: **&lt;code&gt;(*''comment''*)&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;--''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Assembly language]]: (varies) **&lt;code&gt;; ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; one example (most assembly languages use line comments only) *[[BASIC programming language|BASIC (various dialects)]]: **&lt;code&gt;&amp;#39;''comment''&lt;/code&gt; (not all dialects) &lt;!-- note that &amp;#39; is ' but doesn't mess up the parser, now or in the future --&gt; **&lt;code&gt;REM ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[C programming language|C (K&amp;R, ANSI/C89/C90)]], [[CHILL programming language|CHILL]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[PL/I]], and [[REXX]]: **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; *[[C programming language#C99|C (C99)]], [[C++]], [[C Sharp|C#]], and [[JavaScript]]: **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[D programming language|D]]: **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;/+ ''comment'' +/&lt;/code&gt; *[[Delphi programming language|Delphi (Object Pascal)]]: **&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;{&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''comment''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;}&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[DIGITAL Command Language|DCL]]: **&lt;code&gt;$! ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[FORTH]]: **&lt;code&gt;( ''comment'' )&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;\ ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Fortran]]: **&lt;code&gt;C&lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''comment''&lt;/code&gt; (exactly 6 columns between &lt;code&gt;C&lt;/code&gt; character and ''comment'') *[[Fortran 90]]: **&lt;code&gt;! ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; &lt;!-- looking for HTML? look under SGML, as HTML is an SGML application. --&gt; *[[HTML]] (''see'' SGML below) *[[Java programming language|Java]]: **&lt;code&gt;/** ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (Javadoc documentation comment) **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] **&lt;code&gt;; ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[ToolBook OpenScript]]: **&lt;code&gt;-- ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2]], [[Modula-3]], [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]], and [[ML programming language|ML]]: **&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt; *[[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[C shell]], [[Bash]], [[Bourne shell]], [[Tcl]], [[AWK programming language|AWK]], and [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]]: **&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' &lt;/code&gt; *[[PHP]]: **&lt;code&gt;#&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; *[[PILOT]]: **&lt;code&gt;R:''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[PL/SQL]] and [[TSQL]]: **&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;-- ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[REALbasic]]: **&lt;code&gt;' ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;rem ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]: **&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' &lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;=begin&lt;br/&gt;''comment''&lt;br/&gt;=end&lt;/code&gt; *[[Seed7]]: **&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;# ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[SGML]], including [[HTML]], and [[MediaWiki]] *:A comment declaration starts with &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!&lt;/code&gt;, followed by zero or more comments, followed by &lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;. A comment starts and ends with &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt;, and does not contain any occurrence of &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt;. Valid examples are: **&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!-- ''comment'' -- -- ''comment'' --&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, **&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!------ ''comment'' --&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, or **&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;. *[[TeX]], [[LaTeX]], [[PostScript]], and [[Erlang programming language|Erlang]]: **&lt;code&gt;% ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[Texinfo]]: **&lt;code&gt;@c ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;@comment ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[TUTOR programming language|TUTOR]] **&lt;code&gt;* ''comment'' **&lt;code&gt;''command'' $$ ''comment'' *[[Visual Basic]]: **&lt;code&gt;'''comment''&lt;/code&gt; **&lt;code&gt;Rem ''comment''&lt;/code&gt; *[[XML]], including [[XHTML]] **&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!--''comment''--&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; (comment must not contain &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt; or start or end with &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;) If there are two markers delimiting the word &lt;code&gt;comment&lt;/code&gt;, then they should be included at the beginning and end of the comment. If there is one, it begins at the start of the comment character(s) and ends at the end of the line. An exception to this is [[PILOT]], where a new &quot;command letter&quot; may begin right after a comment, on the same line. Also note that line continuation may apply. ===In-context=== ====C==== &lt;pre&gt; /* * Check if we are over our maximum process limit, but be sure to * exclude root. This is needed to make it possible for login and * friends to set the per-user process limit to something lower * than the amount of processes root is running. -- Rik */ if (atomic_read(&amp;p-&gt;user-&gt;processes) &gt;= p-&gt;rlim[RLIMIT_NPROC].rlim_cur &amp;&amp; !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN) &amp;&amp; !capable(CAP_SYS_RESOURCE)) goto bad_fork_free; &lt;/pre&gt; (This is from the &lt;code&gt;fork.c&lt;/code&gt; file from the [[Linux kernel]] source) ====Java==== &lt;pre&gt; /** * Registers the text to display in a tool tip. The text * displays when the cursor lingers over the component. * * @param text the string to display. If the text is null, * the tool tip is turned off for this component. */ public void setToolTipText(String text) { &lt;/pre&gt; (from the [[Sun Microsystems]] [[javadoc]] documentation; the comment is designed to be read by the javadoc processor) ====Perl==== &lt;pre&gt; &amp;#35; a strange way to check whether any significant editing &amp;#35; have been done: check whether any new non-empty lines &amp;#35; have been added. Yes, the below code ignores *any* space &amp;#35; in *any* line. while (&lt;REP&gt;) { s/\s+//g; $unseen++ if $_ ne '' and not exists $REP{$_}; } &lt;/pre&gt; (from perlbug.PL in the standard perl distribution) ====PHP==== &lt;pre&gt; /* * Scan forwards to find beginning of another run of changes. * Also keep track of the corresponding point in the other file. * * Throughout this code, $i and $j are adjusted together so that * the first $i elements of $changed and the first $j elements * of $other_changed both contain the same number of zeros * (unchanged lines). * Furthermore, $j is always kept so that $j == $other_len or * $other_changed[$j] == false. */ while ($j &lt; $other_len &amp;&amp; $other_changed[$j]) $j++; &lt;/pre&gt; (from [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]], the software which powers [[Wikipedia]], an on-line collaborative encyclopedia) ====Visual Basic==== ' ' Cut off HKEY_USERS\ if present. ' This makes interoperating with regedit easier. ' If Len(SIDstring) &gt; 11 Then If Left(SIDstring, 11) = &quot;HKEY_USERS\&quot; Then SIDstring = Mid(SIDstring, 12) End If End If ' ' Open the WMI Service and retrieve the SID ' On Error Resume Next Set SIDobject = GetObject( _ &quot;winmgmts:{impersonationLevel=Impersonate}&quot; _ ).Get(&quot;Win32_SID.SID='&quot; &amp; SIDstring &amp; &quot;'&quot;) If Err Then MsgBox &quot;Could not retrieve the SID.&quot;, vbOkOnly, &quot;Sorry&quot; Exit Do End If (Adapted from an example illustrating ways to create system administration tools.) ==External links== * [http://dkrukovsky.blogspot.com/2005/07/how-to-write-comments.html How to Write Comments] [[Category:Source code]] [[da:Kommentar]] [[de:Kommentar (Programmierung)]] [[fr:Commentaire (informatique)]] [[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12488; (&amp;#12467;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12500;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12479;)]] [[pl:Komentarz (informatyka)]] [[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1080; (&amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Century</title> <id>5881</id> <revision> <id>40283131</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T14:20:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pasky</username> <id>215748</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>iw: cs</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}} ''This page is about centuries as units of time. For other meanings of the term, see [[Century (disambiguation)]]. For a list of centuries, see [[Centuries]].'' A '''century''' (From the [[Latin]] ''cent'', one hundred) is [[one hundred]] consecutive [[year]]s. *In all dating systems, centuries are essentially numbered ordinally, as time is a purely relative notion (its physical existence, though indispensable for our understanding of reality, still remains unproven in theory). Thus, the first century of a time frame is &quot;The First Century&quot; and not &quot
an ever-increasing number of alternative information sources. The articles in the ''Britannica'' are commonly considered accurate, reliable, and well-written, and it continues to be widely consulted as a work of general reference. ==History== A product of the [[Scottish enlightenment]], the ''Britannica'' was originally published in [[Edinburgh]] in the second-half of the 18th century. The first ''Britannica'' was the brainchild of [[Colin Macfarquhar]], a bookseller and printer, and [[Andrew Bell]], an engraver, who published the reference work pseudonymously as a &quot;Society of Gentlemen.&quot; The editor was scholar [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]], then twenty-eight years old, who was offered [[Pound sterling|£]]200 to produce the Encyclopaedia in 100 parts and three volumes. The first part appeared in December 1768, priced six [[pence]]. By [[1771]], the Encyclopedia was complete with 2,391 pages and 160 engraved illustrations, and an estimated 3,000 copies were sold. &lt;blockquote&gt; It was compiled, as the title-page says, on a new plan. The different sciences and arts were &quot;digested into distinct treatises or systems,&quot; of which there are 45 with cross headings, that is, titles printed across the page, and about 30 other articles more than three pages long. The longest are &quot;Anatomy,&quot; 166 pages, and &quot;Surgery,&quot; 238 pages. &quot;The various technical terms, etc., are explained as they occur in the order of the alphabet.&quot; &quot;Instead of dismembering the sciences, by attempting to treat them intelligibly under a multitude of technical terms, they have digested the principles of every science in the form of systems or distinct treatises, and explained the terms as they occur in the order of the alphabet, with references to the sciences to which they belong.&quot; This plan, as the compilers say, differs from that of all the previous dictionaries of arts and sciences. Its merit and novelty consist in… on the one hand keeping important subjects together, and on the other facilitating reference by numerous separate articles.&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;&gt;Quoted from: [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/EMS_EUD/ENCYCLOPAEDIA.html Online Encyclopedia article on encyclopaedia]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt; Owing to the success of the first edition, a more ambitious second edition followed. This time Smellie declined as editor, and Macfarquhar took over the role himself, aided by [[James Tytler]]. The second edition was eventually published [[1777]]–[[1784]] in ten volumes with 8,595 pages. &lt;blockquote&gt; The plan of the work was enlarged by the addition of history and biography, which encyclopaedias in general had long omitted. &quot;From the time of the second edition of this work, every cyclopaedia of note, in England and elsewhere, has been a cyclopaedia, not solely of arts and sciences, but of the whole wide circle of general learning and miscellaneous information &quot; (Quarterly Review, cxiii. 362).&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;/&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt; However, it was the third edition, published 1788&amp;ndash;1797 and edited by Macfarquhar and after his death by [[George Gleig]], which finally realized the encyclopedic vision. Not only broader in scope, with 18 volumes plus a two volume supplement totalling over 16,000 pages, the third edition was also the first to include articles written specifically for the ''Britannica'' by experts and academics, many recruited by Gleig. The third edition established the foundation of the ''Britannica'' as an important, and in many cases the definitive, reference on many topics for much of the next century. In general, the major articles in the editions through the tenth edition were far longer and more scholarly than the articles in modern encyclopedias. For an example, see ELIOHS' online version of the article History from the third edition (in the [[#External links|external links]] section below). Nineteenth century editions of the ''Britannica'' regularly included notable new or major works from its authors. The extraordinary [[France|French]] ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' is widely considered to have inspired the publication of the ''Britannica.'' But unlike the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' the ''Britannica'' was an extremely conservative publication. Later editions were usually dedicated to the reigning [[monarch]]. In dedicating the supplement to the third edition to the King, Gleig wrote, &lt;blockquote&gt; The French Encyclopédie had been accused, and justly accused, of having disseminated far and wide the seeds of anarchy and atheism. If the Encyclopaedia Britannica shall in any degree counteract the tendency of that pestiferous work, even these two volumes will not be wholly unworthy of your Majesty's attention.&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;/&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt; [[Archibald Constable]] was involved in the publication to varying degrees from 1788 and after Macfarquhar's death in 1793. In 1812 he acquired the ''Britannica'' from its trustees, and published the ''Britannica'' through 1826. The fourth through sixth editions, and the supplement to them, included works by a number of highly-regarded Scottish and English authors and scientists: [[William Hazlitt]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Thomas Malthus]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Walter Scott]], and [[Thomas Young]], whose article on Egypt included the translation of the [[hieroglyphics]] on the [[Rosetta Stone]]. In the late 1820s, rights to the ''Britannica'' were acquired by the [[Edinburgh]] publishing firm of [[Adam Black|Adam]] &amp; Charles Black, who published the seventh and eighth editions, and included new chapters, such as 'Architecture' by [[William Hosking]]. The landmark ninth edition, often called the Scholar's edition, was published from 1875 to 1889. The ninth edition included numerous in-depth, scholarly articles by pre-eminent authors, and therefore is considered by some to mark the high point in the history of English-language encyclopedias. A &amp; C Black moved to [[London]] in 1895. The ''Britannica'' later became associated with ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper, and was sold in [[1901]]. The tenth edition of eleven volumes including map and index volumes was issued in effect as a large supplement to the ninth edition. The [[United States|American]] [[Horace Everett Hooper]] was publisher from [[1897]] to [[1922]]. From [[1909]], and for the eleventh edition, the publication became associated with the [[University of Cambridge]], in [[England]]. The substantially rewritten eleventh edition of [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]] is also a classic edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, but reflected the new goals of its new owners. The edition balances scholarly accuracy and scope with a readability intended to gain a wider audience and increased sales, using less lengthy but still thorough articles. Sometimes called the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], this edition is available in the [[public domain]]. The 11th edition was the first edition to be published substantially at one time, instead of volume by volume. The complete text is [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ online free] and has been used as the basis for many historical articles in Wikipedia. The [[trademark]] and publication rights were sold after the 11th edition to [[Sears Roebuck]] and it moved to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[United States]]. The 12th and 13th editions each took the form of a three volume supplement or update, meant to be used in conjunction with the 11th edition. The 14th edition of 1929 marked a major shift, with fewer volumes and shorter articles, meant to be more accessible as a reference to a wider range of readers. Sears Roebuck offered the rights to the ''Britannica'' as a gift to the [[University of Chicago]] in 1941. [[William Benton]] figured as publisher from [[1943]] to his death in [[1973]], followed by his widow [[Helen Hemingway Benton]] until her own death in [[1974]]. In [[January 1996|January]] [[1996]], the ''Britannica'' was purchased by billionaire [[Switzerland|Swiss]] financier [[Jacob Safra]]. In [[October 2002|October]] [[2002]], ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' editor [[A.J. Jacobs]] set out to read all 33,000 pages of the ''Britannica''. He chronicled this quest for knowledge in the [[2004]] book ''The Know-It-All'' (see References below for full citation). ==CD-ROM edition and Britannica Online== [[Image:Britannica.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Encyclopaedia Britannica 2005 Deluxe Edition [[CD-ROM]]]] In the [[1980s]], [[Microsoft]] approached Britannica to collaborate on a [[CD-ROM]] encyclopedia. Britannica, feeling that they had control of the market and showing strong profits (sales of the complete ''Britannica'' were priced between US$1,500 and US$2,200), turned Microsoft down. Britannica's senior management viewed their product as a luxury brand with an impeccable reputation handed down from generation to generation. They did not believe that a CD-ROM could adequately compete or supplement their business. In turn, Microsoft used content from ''[[Funk &amp; Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia]]'' to create what is now known as ''[[Encarta]]''. In [[1990]], Britannica's sales reached all-time high of US$650 million. But ''Encarta'', released in [[1993]], became a staple software with every computer purchase and Britannica's market share plummeted. Britannica countered by offering a [[CD-ROM]] version of their product, although a CD-ROM could not generate US$500 to US$600 in sales commissions as the print version did. Britannica decided on charging $995 for customers looking to purchase only the CD-ROM while at the same time bundling a free disc with the print version. Britannica hoped that including the CD-ROM would entice buyers to stay with the brand. In [[1994]], Britannica launched an online version with subscriptions for sale for US$2000. By [[1996]], th
[Claude Autant-Lara]] *[[Daniel Auteuil]] *[[Charles Aznavour]] ===B-C=== *[[Brigitte Bardot]] *[[Emmanuelle Béart]] *[[Jean-Paul Belmondo]] *[[Charles Berling]] *[[Sarah Bernhardt]] *[[Suzanne Bianchetti]] *[[Juliette Binoche]] *[[Bernard Blier]] *[[Sandrine Bonnaire]] *[[Élodie Bouchez]] *[[Bourvil]] *[[Charles Boyer]] *[[Blandine Buriey]] *[[Guillaume Canet]] *[[Capucine]] *[[Martine Carol]] *[[Leslie Caron]] *[[Vincent Cassel]] *[[Maurice Chevalier]] *[[Aurore Clément]] *[[Claudette Colbert]] *[[Clotilde Courau]] ===D-L=== *[[Béatrice Dalle]] *[[Lili Damita]] *[[Danielle Darrieux]] *[[Alain Delon]] *[[Danièle Delorme]] *[[Julie Delpy]] *[[Catherine Deneuve]] *[[Gérard Depardieu]] *[[Patrick Dewaere]] *[[Arielle Dombasle]] *[[Anny Dupérey]] *[[Elisa-Rachel Félix]] (Rachel) *[[Fernandel]] *[[Brigitte Fossey]] *[[Louis de Funès]] *[[Félicité Du Jeu]] *[[Jean Gabin]] *[[Annie Girardot]] *[[Judith Godrèche]] *[[Eva Green]] *[[Sacha Guitry]] *[[Isabelle Huppert]] *[[Irène Jacob]] *[[Valérie Kaprisky]] *[[Virginie Ledoyen]] *[[Max Linder]] ===M-V=== *[[Marcel Marceau]] *[[Sophie Marceau]] *[[Jean Marais]] *[[Miou-Miou]] *[[Mistinguett]] *[[Yves Montand]] *[[Jeanne Moreau]] *[[Michèle Morgan]] *[[Musidora]] *[[Gérard Philipe]] *[[Michel Piccoli]] *[[Alexia Portal]] *[[Yvonne Printemps]] *[[Pérette Pradier]] *[[Gabrielle Réjane]] *[[Jean Reno]] *[[Pierre Richard]] *[[Jean Rochefort]] *[[Beatrice Romand]] *[[Philippine de Rothschild]] *[[Nathalie Roussel]] *[[Cheril Sanchez]] *[[Emmanuelle Seigner]] *[[Delphine Seyrig]] *[[Simone Signoret]] *[[Audrey Tautou]] *[[Jean-Louis Trintignant]] *[[Marie Trintignant]] *[[Michael Vartan]] *[[Hervé Villechaize]] ==Architects== *[[Étienne-Louis Boullée]] *[[Le Corbusier]] ''pseudonym for [[Charles Edouard Jeanneret]]'' (Swiss-born) *[[Philibert Delorme]] *[[Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine]] *[[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]] *[[Tony Garnier (architect)|Tony Garnier]] *[[Hector Guimard]] *[[Pierre Jeanneret]] (Swiss-born) *[[Henri Labrouste]] *[[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]] *[[Pierre Lescot]] *[[Francois Mansart]] *[[Jules Hardouin Mansart]] *[[Jean Nouvel]] *[[Charles Percier]] *[[Claude Perrault]] *[[Auguste Perret]] *[[Jacques Germain Soufflot]] *[[Louis Le Vau]] *[[Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc]] ==Authors== See also: [[List of French language authors|French language authors]], [[List of French language poets|French language poets]], [[List of French novelists|French novelists]] ===A=== *[[Marcel Achard]] -- playwright and scriptwriter *[[Alain-Fournier]] *[[Jean Anouilh]] -- 20th century dramatist *[[Guillaume Apollinaire]] -- (born Russian) poet *[[Antonin Artaud]] ===B=== *[[Honoré de Balzac]] -- [[realist]] author *[[Henri Barbusse]] *[[Charles-Pierre Baudelaire|Charles Baudelaire]], 19th century poet *[[Pierre Beaumarchais]], comedy playwright *[[Simone de Beauvoir]] -- 20th century author *[[Cyrano de Bergerac]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Tristan Bernard]] *[[Maurice Blanchot]] *[[Antoine Blondin]] *[[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux|Nicolas Boileau]] *[[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]] *[[Pierre Boulle]] *[[Fernand Braudel]] *[[André Breton]] *[[Restif de la Bretonne]] *[[Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin]] *[[Michel Butor]] ===C-E=== *[[Albert Camus]] -- [[existentialist]] author *[[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]] -- 20th century author *[[Blaise Cendrars]] *[[Aimé Césaire]]-- 20th century author *[[Nicolas Chamfort]] *[[René Char]], 20th century poet *[[François-René de Chateaubriand]] *[[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]] *[[Emil Cioran]] *[[Paul Claudel]] *[[Jean Cocteau]] -- 20th century poet and playwright *[[Colette]]-- 20th century author *[[Benjamin Constant]] *[[Pierre Corneille]] -- [[classicism|classicist]] playwright *[[Darry Cowl]] *[[Marquis de Custine]] -- travel writer *[[Robert Desnos]] -- 20th century poet *[[Denis Diderot]] *[[Alexandre Dumas, père]], Author *[[Alexandre Dumas, fils]] -- Playwright/author *[[Marguerite Duras]] - 20th century novelist *[[Vanessa Duriès]] *[[Mircea Eliade]] *[[Paul Eluard]] ===F-J=== *[[Frantz Fanon]] -- 20th century author, psychiatrist *[[Léon-Paul Fargue]] *[[Georges Feydeau]] *[[Marc Ferro]] *[[Alain Finkielkraut]] - essayist *[[Gustave Flaubert]] -- [[realist]] author *[[Anatole France]] *[[Marie de France]] -- poet *[[Romain Gary]] *[[Jean Genet]] *[[André Gide]], [[Nobel Prize]] Winner *[[Jean Giono]] *[[Jean Giraudoux]] *[[Françoise Giroud]] *[[Julien Gracq]] *[[Julien Green]] *[[Pierre Guyotat]] *[[Auguste Himly]], historian *[[Victor Hugo]] -- novelist, poet, and playwright *[[Joris-Karl Huysmans]] *[[Eugène Ionesco]] *[[Jules-Gabriel Janin]] --author and theatre critic ===L=== *[[Jean de La Bruyère]] *[[Jean de La Fontaine]] *[[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]] *[[Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse)]] *[[Villiers de L'Isle-Adam]] *[[Leconte de Lisle]] -- [[parnassian]] poet *[[Alphonse de Lamartine]] *[[Jacques Lacan]] - psychoanalyst *[[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]] - historian *[[Paul Lafargue]] *[[Jules Laforgue]] *[[Jennifer Lamiraqui]] *[[Valéry Larbaud]] *[[Maurice Leblanc]], created [[Arsène Lupin]] *[[Gaston Leroux]]- journalist and author, credited with creating the locked room puzzle mystery novel ''[[Le Mystère de la chambre jaune]]'' ''(The Mystery of the Yellow Room)'' and author of ''[[Le Fantôme de l'Opéra]]'' ''(The Phantom of the Opera)'' ===M-N=== *[[Stéphane Mallarmé]] -- poet *[[Hector Malot]] -- 19th century author *[[André Malraux]] *[[Matthieu Marais]] — 18th century lawyer and writer *[[Marcel Marceau]] — 20th century mime (and member of the [[French Resistance]] in [[World War II]]) *[[Pierre de Marivaux]] - playwright *[[Clément Marot]] -- poet *[[Guy de Maupassant]] novelist *[[François Mauriac]] - [[Roman Catholic]] writer *[[Prosper Mérimée]] - 19th century novelist *[[Henri Michaux]] *[[Catherine Millet]] - art expert, editor and erotic memoirist *[[Patrick Modiano]] *[[Molière|Jean Baptiste Poquelin dit Molière]] -- 17th century comedic playwright and actor *[[Alfred de Musset]] -- 19th century poet *[[Anaïs Nin]] ===P-R=== *[[Marcel Pagnol]] *[[Charles Péguy]] -- 20th century poet *[[Charles Perrault]] -- ''Mother Goose Tales'' *[[Georges Perec]] *[[Saint-John Perse]] *[[Roger Peyrefitte]] *[[Jean Piaget]] - psychologist *[[Christine de Pizan]], historian, poet, philosopher *[[Jacques Prévert]] -- 20th century poet *[[Abbé Prévost]] *[[Marcel Prevost]] *[[Marcel Proust]] -- novelist *[[Raymond Queneau]] *[[François Rabelais]] -- Renaissance writer *[[Raymond Radiguet]] *[[Jean Racine]] -- [[classicism|classicist]] playwright *[[Pauline Réage]], novelist *[[Arthur Rimbaud]] -- [[symbolist]] poet *[[Alain Robbe-Grillet]] *[[Pierre de Ronsard]] *[[Edmond Rostand]] -- [[neo-romantic]] playwright *[[Raymond Roussel]] *[[Maximilien Rubel]] ===S-Z=== *[[Marquis de Sade]] -- erotic and philosophic author *[[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]] *[[George Sand]] -- [[feminist]] author *[[Jean Paul Sartre]] -- 20th century existentialist philosopher *[[Nathalie Sarraute]] *[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author *[[Victor Segalen]] *[[Madame de Sévigné]] *[[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Madame de Staël]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry|Antoine de Saint-Exupery ]], [[humanist]] author and aviators. *[[Claude Simon]] *[[Stendhal]] -- novelist (born Henry Beyle) *[[François Truffaut]] -- 20th century filmaker *[[Paul Valéry]] -- 20th century poet *[[Vercors]] *[[Paul Verlaine]] -- [[symbolist]] poet *[[Jules Verne]] -- novelist *[[Boris Vian]] -- 20th century author *[[Alfred de Vigny]] -- 19th century poet *[[François Villon]] *[[Marguerite Yourcenar]] *[[Émile Zola]] -- [[natural history|naturalist]] author ==Aviators== *[[Clément Ader]] *[[Jacqueline Auriol]] *[[Louis Blériot]] *[[Henry Farman]] *[[Georges Guynemer]] *[[Jean Mermoz]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], [[humanist]] author and aviators. *[[Roland Garros]], First to cross the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. [[French Open]] is named after him. ==Business== *[[Bernard Arnault]] (born 1949), entrepreneur *[[Liliane Bettencourt]], cosmetics, richest person in France *[[Marcel Bich]], (1914-1994), Bic pens *[[Vincent Bolloré]] (born 1952), transportation and engineering *[[Marcel Boussac]], textiles, fashion, newspapers, race horse breeding *[[Bugatti|Ettore Bugatti]] (1881-1947), automobile manufacturer *[[André Citroën]] (1878-1935), automobile manufacturer *[[Marcel Dassault]] (1892-1986), aviation *[[Alexandre Darracq]] (1855-1931), automotive pioneer *[[Louis Delâge]] (1874-1947) automotive pioneer *[[Emile Delahaye]] (1843-1905), automotive pioneer *[[Philippe Camus]] Former [[EADS]] co-CEO *[[Gerard Louis-Dreyfus]] (born 1932), agricultural commodities *[[Eleuthère Irénée du Pont|Eleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours]] (1771-1834), founder of [[DuPont]] *[[Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours]] (1739-1817), entrepreneur *[[Jacques Foccart]] (19..-1997), import-export *[[Léon Gaumont]], pioneer film inventor *[[Paul-Louis Halley]] (1934-2004), supermarket tycoon *[[Max Hymans]] (1900-1961), aviation *[[Jean-Marie Messier]] (born 1957), former Vivendi CEO *[[Gérard Mestrallet]] (born 1949), Chairman and CEO of [[SUEZ]] *[[Charles Pathé]], pioneer of film industry *[[François Pinault]] (born 1936), entrepreneur *[[Jacques-Donatien Le Ray]] (1726-1803), shipping magnate and a &quot;Father of the [[American Revolution]]&quot; *[[Marcel Renault]] (1872-1903), automobile manufacturer *[[James Mayer Rothschild]] (1792-1868), banker *[[Philippe de Rothschild]] (1902-1988), wine maker *[[Eugene Schueller]] (1881-1954), founder of L'Oreal *[[Bernard Tapie]] (born 1943), entrepreneur ==Chefs== *[[Raymond Blanc]] *[[Paul Bocuse]] *[[Marie-Antoine Carême]] *[[Chiboust]] *[[Alain Ducasse]] *[[Adolf Dugléré]] *[[Urbain Dubois]] *[[Auguste Escoffier]] *[[Pierre Gagnaire]] *[[Victor Hirtzler]] *[[Laguipière]] *[[Lionel Poilâne]] *[[Charles Ranhofer]] *[[Albert Roux]] *[[Michel Roux]] *[[Vatel]] ==Colonial administrators== *[[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazz
r Dougal protesting outside the cinema in ''The Passion Of St Tibulus'']] # '''Good Luck, Father Ted''' - A film crew offers to interview Ted. He goes to extreme lengths to ensure the other members of the clergy on the island cannot be seen # '''Entertaining Father Stone''' - An unbearably boring, yet inoffensive, priest - Father Stone, pays his annual visit to Craggy Island. The title is a pun on [[Entertaining Mr Sloane]]. # '''The Passion Of St Tibulus''' - Bishop Brennan orders the priests to ensure a blasphemous sexually explicit film being shown on the island is a failure. # '''Competition Time''' - Ted, Dougal and Jack all plan to appear, as Elvis, in the ''All-priests [[Stars in Their Eyes]] [[lookalike]] contest''. Ted is particularly keen to beat his arch-enemy, Father Dick Byrne of Rugged Island. # '''And God Created Woman''' - Ted finds himself falling for a steamy novelist. The title is taken from ''[[And God Created Woman]]''. # '''Grant Unto Him Eternal Rest''' - Father Jack dies after consuming a bottle of floor cleaner. However, he comes back to life. === Series 2 (1996) === # '''Hell''' - Ted, Dougal and Jack take their annual holiday and encounter Father Noel Furlong (played by [[Graham Norton]]). # '''Think Fast, Father Ted''' - When Ted holds a raffle, he destroys the prize - a new car. # '''Tentacles Of Doom''' - Three bishops visit the island. A worried Ted gives Jack elocution lessons beforehand. # '''The Old Grey Whistle Theft''' - Dougal starts hanging around with a rebelious priest, Father Damo Lennon. Meanwhile a valuable whistle is stolen. The title is a pun on the [[BBC]] music show [[The Old Grey Whistle Test]]. # '''Song For Europe''' - Ted is goaded by Father Dick Byrne into attempting to write a song for &quot;Eurosong '96&quot; ( spoof of the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]). Despite having a song with only one note, Ireland's fear of winning again (and having to fund it) plays into Ted and Dougal's hands. Arguably the most famous episode. # '''The Plague''' - The parochial house is infested by rabbits, just as the very rabbit-phobic Bishop Brennan plans a visit. # '''Rock-a-Hula Ted''' - A [[feminism|feminist]] singer visits the island just when Ted is judging the annual ''lovely girls'' competition. # '''Cigarettes And Alcohol And Rollerblading''' - In a game of one-upmanship with Dick Byrne, Ted decides the three priests must give something up for [[Lent]]. The title is taken from that of an [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] song, 'Cigarettes and Alcohol'. # '''New Jack City''' - Jack's hairy hands get him sent to an old priests' home. Unfortunately his replacement, played by Irish comedian [[Brendan Grace]] is much worse. The title is taken from the movie ''[[New Jack City]]''. # '''Flight Into Terror''' - A flight back from a pilgrimage runs out of fuel and there are only two parachutes. Only one man can save the passengers... === Christmas special (1996) === * '''A Christmassy Ted''' - Ted's quick thinking whilst lost in a [[department store]]'s [[lingerie]] department earns him the coveted ''Golden Cleric'' award. So why doesn't he feel happy? At the time this hour-long episode was first shown, it attracted the then highest non-film audience viewing figures for Channel 4. === Series 3 (1998) === # '''Are You Right There, Father Ted?''' - Ted's &quot;Chinaman&quot; impression goes down badly with Craggy Island's newly-arrived Chinese community and he is branded a racist. # '''Chirpy Burpy Cheap Sheep''' - Ted makes a large bet on the ''King of the Sheep'' competition. Unfortunately, Chris, his chosen sheep, has heard rumours about a sheep-eating beast and isn't feeling at all himself. The title is a parody of the [[1970s]] song &quot;Chirpy Chirpy Cheep Cheep&quot; by [[Middle Of The Road (band)|Middle Of The Road]]. There is a hidden pun in the show's plot — it's all about ''sheep worrying.'' # '''Speed 3''' - When Ted and Dougal expose a philandering [[milkman]], Pat Mustard, he takes revenge on his replacement, Dougal, by putting a bomb on the [[milk float]]. If Dougal's speed drops below 4 mph... This show was dreamed up by the creators when they decided to &quot;see if you could make a worse sequel than [[Speed 2]]&quot;. # '''The Mainland''' - Ted wins some money on the horses and must travel to the mainland to claim it. This is a very bad idea. Even [[Richard Wilson]] doesn't believe it. # '''Escape From Victory''' - Ted takes great steps to ensure he wins a bet with Dick Byrne on the outcome of the ''All-Priests Over-75's Five-a-Side Football championship''. The title is a pun on the football movie ''[[Escape to Victory]]'', originally titled ''Victory'', about a football game played between [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] and their guards in [[World War II]]. # '''Kicking Bishop Brennan Up The Arse''' - the only episode to follow on directly from the previous one. Exposed as a cheat, Ted waits in terror for Dick to inform him of his forfeit... can you tell what it is yet? # '''Night Of The Nearly Dead''' - The visit of a young daytime TV presenter, Eoin McLove, causes excitement for the island's aging females. The title is a pun on the movie ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]''. Eoin McLove is a parody of [[Daniel O'Donnell (Irish singer)|Daniel O'Donnell]], an Irish crooner particularly popular among elderly women. # '''Going To America''' - Ted gets the opportunity of a lifetime, but can't bring himself to break it to the others that they're not invited. The title is a pun on the movie ''[[Coming to America]]''. The last scene of this episode was going to show Ted climbing onto a window ledge along with another priest to commit suicide. This was then replaced out of respect at the last minute with a montage containing one clip from every previous episode, in reverse order, as Father Ted actor, Dermot Morgan died just soon after making this final episode. However, the writers have said that the joke didn't really work and would have been replaced anyway. [[Pauline McLynn]] reprised her role as Mrs Doyle in [[2001]] for a small set of adverts for the [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Inland Revenue]], reminding people to get their taxes in on time by uttering her catchphrase ('Go on, go, on') over and over again. Not surprisingly, it was voted the most irritating ad campaign of that year, beating off competition from the now-infamous [[Ferrero Rocher]] advert. Ironically, Mrs Doyle was also involved in a spoof of this confectionery-related advert in the episode ''Tentacles of Doom''. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{imdb title|id=0111958|title=Father Ted}} * [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Father_Ted Father Ted] at [[EPisodeWorld.com]] * [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0111958/quotes Memorable quotations] at the Internet Movie Database * [http://www.gazmac.freeserve.co.uk/ted1.html Father Ted Zone] * [http://www.feck.net/splange/ftfaq.html ''Father Ted'' FAQ] * [http://www.deadlyphoto.com/photoblog/2005/09/father_teds_hou.html Photograph of the Craggy Island Parochial House] [[Category:Channel 4 television programmes]] [[Category:British television sitcoms]] &lt;!--- Note NOT an Irish TV programme - it was made by a UK production company for a UK TV channel ---&gt; [[fr:Father Ted]] [[ja:テッド神父]] [[sv:Jösses]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foster's Lager</title> <id>11314</id> <revision> <id>41500459</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:07:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.141.101.127</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Foster's.jpg|thumb|200px|A stand selling Foster's beer at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]] '''Foster's Lager''' is an internationally-distributed, [[Australia]]n brand of [[beer]] produced by [[Foster's Group]]. It is brewed in [[Canada]] for import to the [[United States]], contrary to the belief that it is brewed in Australia. Foster's Lager uses the slogan &quot;The Amber Nectar&quot; in Australia and the UK and &quot;Australian for Beer&quot; elsewhere overseas. The overseas advertising of the product often milks the Australian connotations of the beer, often with stereotypical Australian imagery such as [[kangaroo]]s, exaggerated accents, and hats with corks on strings. While popular in many countries, where it is often brewed under license, Foster's Lager can be difficult to find in Australia. It competes with a large number of other &quot;local beers&quot; (low-cost and mass-produced varieties) usually depending on [[States and territories of Australia|state]], for example [[XXXX]], [[Tooheys]], [[Coopers]], West End, Swan, Emu Bitter or [[Victoria Bitter]]. Many Australians are aware of Foster's international status, and it has become somewhat of a cult joke in Australia as being a very poor tasting beer that was only good enough to sell to other countries. Among those who have some exposure to foreign advertising, the brand may be even less popular, because it is promoted overseas by advertising making use of stereotypes of Australians as unsophisticated bush-dwellers. Many Australians have never drunk Foster's Lager, met anyone who has, or even seen the product. The Foster's brand is also used in Australia on several other beers, notably [[Foster's Light Ice]], a low-alcohol [[lager]]. The distinctive &quot;Oil Can&quot; design was the brainchild of [[Foster's Group]] Marketing VP Jack McKimm. Other company higher-ups proposed a jumbo glass bottle, but a spirited demonstration involving an old-timey oil can spout sold them on the idea. The distinctive can design has become synonymous with Foster's Lager. A popular [[Internet joke]] appeared in the late [[1990s]] that it was possible to make [[LSD]] from 8 cans of Foster's beer. Various recipies still exist on the net, and the joke is sometimes taken seriously today. It is completely impossible to create LSD from Foster's beer. In the past few years in the UK Foster's has stereotypically
and quays aboard small barges called [[lighter]]s) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore. Some of the workers were highly skilled - the lightermen had their own [[livery company]] or guild, while the [[deal porters]] (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills. Most, however, were unskilled and worked as casual labourers. They had to assemble at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, from where they would be selected more or less at random by foremen. For these workers, it was effectively a lottery as to whether they would get work - and pay, and food - on any particular day. This arrangement continued until as late as [[1965]], although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the [[National Dock Labour Scheme]] in [[1947]]. The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and only lightly populated. With the establishment of the docks, the dockyard workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang. Poor communications meant that they were quite remote from other parts of London and so tended to develop in some isolation. The Isle of Dogs, for instance, had only two roads in and out. Local sentiment was so strong that in 1920 residents blocked the roads and declared independence! === The docks in the 20th century === [[Image:Museum_in_Docklands_at_night_2005-01-10.JPG|thumb|right|[[Museum in Docklands]], near [[Canary Wharf]]]] The docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private companies. From [[1909]], they were managed by the [[Port of London Authority]], or PLA, which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve [[labour relations]]. The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks. [[Germany|German]] bombing during the [[World War II|Second World War]] caused massive damage to the docks, with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night. Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the [[1950s]]. The end came suddenly, between approximately [[1960]] and [[1970]], when the shipping industry adopted the newly invented container system of cargo transportation. London's docks were unable to accommodate the much larger vessels needed by [[containerization]] and the shipping industry moved to deep-water ports such as [[Tilbury]] and [[Felixstowe]]. Between [[1960]] and [[1980]], all of London's docks were closed, leaving around eight square miles (21&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of derelict land in East London. Unemployment was high, and poverty and other social problems were rife. === Redevelopment === [[Image:Canary Wharf at Sunset.jpg|thumb|right|Canary Wharf at sunset]] Efforts to redevelop the docks began almost as soon as they were closed, although it took a decade for most plans to move beyond the drawing board and another decade for redevelopment to take full effect. The situation was greatly complicated by the large number of landowners involved: the PLA, the [[Greater London Council]] (GLC), the British Gas Corporation, five borough councils, [[British Rail]] and the [[Central Electricity Generating Board]]. To address this problem, in [[1981]] the [[Secretary of State for the Environment]], [[Michael Heseltine]], formed the '''[[London Docklands Development Corporation]]''' (LDDC) to redevelop the area. This was a statutory body appointed and funded by central government (a [[quango]]), with wide powers to acquire and dispose of land in the Docklands. It also served as the development planning authority for the area. Another important government intervention was the designation in [[1982]] of an [[enterprise zone]], an area in which businesses were exempt from property taxes and had other incentives, including simplified planning and capital allowances. This made investing in the Docklands a significantly more attractive proposition and was instrumental in starting a property boom in the area. LDDC was controversial - it was accused of favouring elitist luxury developments rather than affordable housing, and it was unpopular with the local communities, who felt that their needs were not being addressed. Nonetheless, the LDDC was central to a remarkable transformation in the area, although how far it was in control of events is debatable. It was wound up in [[1998]] when control of the Docklands area was handed back to the respective local authorities. The massive development programme managed by the LDDC during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] saw a huge area of the Docklands converted into a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial space. The clearest symbol of the whole effort was the ambitious [[Canary Wharf]] project that constructed Britain's tallest building and established a second major financial centre in London. However, there is no evidence that LDDC foresaw this scale of development and nearby [[Heron Quays]] has already been developed as low density offices when Canary Wharf was proposed, with similar development already underway on Canary Wharf itself, Limehouse Studios being the most famous occupant. Canary Wharf was far from trouble free (''See main article [[Canary Wharf]]''), and the property slump of the early 1990s halted all development in Docklands for several years. Developers similarly found themselves saddled with property which they were unable to sell or let. [[Image:docks-transport.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Transport in the Docklands today]] The Docklands historically had poor transport connections. This was addressed by the LDDC with the construction of the [[Docklands Light Railway]] (DLR), which connected the Docklands with the City. It was a remarkably cheap development, costing only £77m in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length (LDDC originally requested a fully specified [[London Underground|Tube]] line, but the Government refused to fund it). LDDC also built [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] a [[cut and cover]] road tunnel linking the [[Isle of Dogs]] to [[The Highway]] (the [[A13 road]]) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built. The LDDC also contributed to the development of [[London City Airport]] ([[IATA airport code]] LCY), opened in October [[1987]] on the spine of the Royal Docks. === The Docklands today === [[image:Docklands.jpg|thumb|256px|Tall commercial buildings now cluster around Canary Wharf tube station.]] Over the past 20 years, the population of the Docklands has more than doubled and the area has become both a major business centre and an increasingly acceptable area to live. Transport links have improved significantly, with the [[Isle of Dogs]] gaining a [[London Underground|Tube]] connection via the [[Jubilee Line Extension]] (opened [[1999]]) and the DLR being extended to [[Beckton]], [[Lewisham]], [[London City Airport]], [[North Woolwich]] and [[Stratford]]. Canary Wharf has become one of Europe's biggest clusters of skyscrapers and direct challenge to the financial dominance of the City. Further east, the [[Royal Docks]] are finally being regenerated most prominently symbolised the [[ExCeL Exhibition Centre]]. Although most of the old Dockland wharves and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats. Most of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres (the major exception being the [[Surrey Commercial Docks]], now largely filled in). Although large ships can - and occasionally still do - visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved down-river to [[Tilbury]]. The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in run-down surrounding areas. [[Greenwich]] and [[Deptford, London|Deptford]] are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters. The Docklands' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects. The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out. It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates. The Docklands' status as a symbol of [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]]'s Britain has also made it a target for terrorists. After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf, on [[February 10]] [[1996]], a huge [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb exploded at South Quay. Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150m of damage was caused&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;. In a [[1998]] trial James McArdle was imprisoned for 25 years after a trial at [[Woolwich]] [[Crown Court]] that ended on [[June 24]]. Under the terms of the [[Good Friday Agreement]], McArdle was released on [[June 28]] [[2000]]. (1) ''The parlous state of the Docklands property market at the time of the blast, combined with a lengthy delay in implementing redevelopment, means a true estimate of the financial cost is difficult to reach.'' == Future developments == The continued success of the Docklands redevelopment has prompted a number of further development schemes, including: * Extensions of the Docklands Light Railway to [[Woolwich]] and possibly [[Dagenham]]. * [[Crossrail]] mainline link between Canary Wharf, central London and north [[Kent]]. * Further development of [[Canada Water]]. * Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and [[Wood Wharf]], east of Canary Wharf. * Further development of the Royal Docks area, including the [[Silvertown Quays]] project. In the early 21st century redevelopment
rews as well as for German shipping, especially for the transport of the vital [[Swedish iron ore during World War II|iron ore from northern Sweden]], and [[Nickel deposits of Finland|nickel and rare metals]] needed in steel processing from the Petsamo area. The Finnish front secured the northern flank of the German [[Army Group North]] in the Baltic states. The sixteen Finnish divisions tied down numerous Soviet troops, put pressure on [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] &amp;mdash; although Mannerheim refused to attack &amp;mdash; and threatened the Murmansk Railroad. Additionally, Sweden was further isolated and was increasingly pressured to comply with German and Finnish wishes, though with limited success. Despite Finland's contributions to the German cause, the Western Allies had ambivalent feelings, torn between residual goodwill for Finland and the need to accommodate their vital ally, the Soviet Union. As a result, Britain declared war against Finland, but the United States did not. There was no combat between these countries and Finland, but Finnish sailors were interned overseas. In the United States, Finland was highly regarded, partly due to having continued to make payments on its World War I debt faithfully throughout the [[interbellum|inter-war period]]. The Allies often characterize Finland as one of the Axis Powers, although the term used in Finland is &quot;[[co-belligerence]] with Germany&quot;. Finland later also earned respect in the West for the strength of its democracy and its refusal to allow extension of Nazi [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] practices in Finland. Finnish Jews served in the Finnish army, and Jews were not only tolerated in Finland[http://www.finemb.org.il/Historia.htm], but most Jewish refugees were granted asylum (only 8 of the more than 500 refugees were handed over to the Nazis). The field [[synagogue]] in [[Eastern Karelia]] was probably unique on the Axis side during the war. However, in the few cases Jewish officers from Finland's defence forces were awarded the German [[Iron Cross]], they declined. About 2,600&amp;ndash;2,800 Soviet prisoners of war were handed over to the Germans. Most of them (around 2,000) joined the [[Russian Liberation Army]]. The rest were mainly army officers and [[Political officer|political officers]] (and a handful of Jewish refugees), most of them dying in Nazi [[concentration camps]], while some were given to the [[Gestapo]] for interrogation. Sometimes these handovers were demanded in return of arms or food, and sometimes the Finns received Soviet prisoners of war in return. These were mainly Estonians and Karelians willing to join the Finnish army. These, as well as some volunteers from the occupied Eastern Karelia, formed the Kin Battalion (Finnish: ''&quot;Heimopataljoona&quot;''). At the end of the war, the USSR required that the members of the Tribe Battalion were to be handed over to the Soviet Union. Some managed to escape before or during the transport, but most of them were either sent to the [[Gulag]] camps or executed. In 1941, even before the Continuation War, one battalion of Finnish volunteers joined the German [[Waffen-SS]] with silent approval of the Finnish government. It has been concluded that the battalion served as a token of Finnish commitment to cooperation with Nazi Germany. This battalion, named the ''[[Finnisches Freiwilligen Bataillon]]'' fought as part of [[SS Division Wiking|SS Division ''Wiking'']] in the [[Ukraine]] and [[Caucasus]]. The battalion was pulled back from the front in May 1943 and was transported to [[Tallinn]] where it was disbanded on [[July 11]]. The soldiers were then transferred into different units of the Finnish army. == The end of the war == [[Image:Finnish areas ceded in 1944.png|thumb|300px|right|Areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union]] Finland began to actively seek a way out of the war after the disastrous German defeat at [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] in January&amp;ndash;February [[1943]]. [[Edwin Linkomies]] formed a new cabinet with the peace process as the top priority. Negotiations were conducted intermittently in 1943&amp;ndash;44 between Finland and its representative [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi]] on the one side, and the Western Allies and the Soviet Union on the other, but no agreement was reached. Instead, on [[June 9]], [[1944]], the Soviet Union opened a major offensive against Finnish positions on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Lake Ladoga area (it was timed to accompany [[D-Day]]). On the second day of the offensive, the Soviet forces broke through the Finnish lines, and in the succeeding days they made advances that appeared to threaten the survival of Finland. Soviet troops occupied [[Petrozavodsk]] on [[June 28]] [[1944]]. Before they retreated, Finns delivered food to people for two weeks. This is rare or even unequaled act in the war history. Finland especially lacked modern anti-tank weaponry, which could stop heavy Soviet tanks, and German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] offered them in exchange for a guarantee that Finland would not again seek a separate peace. On [[June 26]] President [[Risto Ryti]] gave [[Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement|this guarantee as a personal undertaking]], which he intended to last for the remainder of his presidency. In addition to material deliveries, Hitler sent some assault gun brigades and a [[Luftwaffe]] fighter-bomber unit to temporarily support the most threatened defence sectors. With new supplies from Germany, the Finns were now equal to the crisis, and halted the Russians in early July 1944, after a retreat of about one hundred kilometres that brought them to approximately the same line of defence they had held at the end of Winter War, the VKT-line (for ''&quot;Viipuri&amp;ndash;Kuparsaari&amp;ndash;Taipale&quot;'' running from Vyborg to [[River Vuoksi]], and along the river to Lake Ladoga at [[Taipale]]), where the Soviet offensive was stopped in the [[Battle of Tali-Ihantala]], in spite of nearly a third of their military machine being concentrated against the Finns. Finland had already become a sideshow for the Soviet leadership, who now turned their attention to Poland and southeastern Europe. The Allies had already succeeded in their landing in France and were pushing towards Germany, and the Soviet leadership did not want to give them a free hand in Central Europe. Although the Finnish front was once again stabilized, the Finns were exhausted and wanted to get out of the war. Mannerheim had repeatedly reminded the Germans that in case their troops in Estonia retreated, Finland would be forced to make peace even at very unfavourable terms. Soviet-occupied Estonia would have provided the enemy a favourable base for amphibious invasions and air attacks against Helsinki and other cities, and would have strangled Finnish access to the sea. When the Germans indeed withdrew, the Finnish desire to end the war increased. Perhaps realizing the validity of this point, initial German reaction to Finland's announcement of ambitions for a separate peace was limited to only verbal opposition. President Ryti resigned, and Finland's military leader and national hero, [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]], was extraordinarily appointed president by the parliament, accepting responsibility for ending the war. On [[September 4]] the cease-fire ended military actions on the Finnish side. The Soviet Union ended hostilities exactly 24 hours after the Finns. An [[armistice]] was signed in Moscow on [[September 19]] between the Soviet Union and Finland. Finland had to make many limiting concessions: the Soviet Union regained the borders of 1940, with the addition of the [[Petsamo]] area; the [[Porkkala]] Peninsula (adjacent to Finland's capital [[Helsinki]]) was leased to the USSR as a naval base for fifty years (but returned in [[1956]]), and transit rights were granted; Finland's army was to demobilize in haste, and Finland was required to expel all German troops from its territory. As the Germans refused to leave Finland voluntarily, the Finns had no choice but to fight their former supporters in the [[Lapland War]]. ==Conclusion== In retrospect the Continuation War can be seen as the result of a series of political miscalculations by the Finnish leadership in which Finland's martial abilities clearly outshone her diplomatic skills. However, many commentators also hold that Finland was a victim of bad luck in addition to any failings on its own part, being forced to make a choice in a situation when any of the available alternatives would result in being attacked by either side. It has been claimed that not joining the war with Germany against Soviet Union would almost certainly have lead to occupation attempts by either side of that great conflict, and thus Finland's involvement anyway. It is also claimed that after the fall of the Soviet Union, it has become clear that Finland, maybe more by luck than by skill, happened to make the right choice after the Winter War by fervently seeking to reverse the German disinterest. This claim rests on the idea that Soviet occupation, and a fate surely worse than that of the other [[Border States]], would otherwise have been unavoidable. The aged Field Marshal Mannerheim might have been responsible for a couple of misjudgements, for instance the [[Sword scabbard declaration]] in the Order of the Day of July 10, 1941, but at the end of the war he had earned a remarkable reputation among former foes and allies, in Finland as well as abroad, which to a considerable degree eased Finland's extrication from a potentially disastrous undertaking. In any event, Finland's fate was no worse than any other country struck by the World War &amp;mdash; quite the contrary. Only 2,000 Finnish civilians were killed during World War II, and only relatively narrow border regions had been conquered by force. For nearly three years until [[June 20]], [[1944]], when Vyborg fell, not one major Finni
t; ''AANA J'', 1998 '''66'''(6):575-82. Review. PMID 10488264 # Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. &quot;Clinical trials of homoeopathy.&quot; ''BMJ'', 1991; '''302''':316-23. Erratum in: ''BMJ'', 1991;'''302''':818. PMID 1825800 # Larkin M. &quot;Whose article is it anyway?&quot; ''Lancet'', 1999; '''354''':136. [http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol354/iss9173/full/llan.354.9173.news.3708.1 Editorial] # Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G. &quot;Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials.&quot; ''Lancet'', 1997; '''350''': 834-43. Erratum in: Lancet 1998 Jan 17;351(9097):220. PMID 9310601 # Michalsen A, Ludtke R, Buhring M. &quot;Thermal hydrotherapy improves quality of life and hemodynamic function in patients with chronic heart failure.&quot; ''Am Heart J'', 2003; '''146'''(4):E11. PMID 14564334 # Saxon DW, Tunnicliff G, Brokaw JJ, Raess BU. &quot;Status of complementary and alternative medicine in the osteopathic medical school curriculum.&quot; ''J Am Osteopath Assoc'' 2004; '''104'''(3):121-6. PMID 15083987 # Snyderman R, Weil AT. &quot;Integrative medicine: bringing medicine back to its roots.&quot; ''Arch Intern Med'' 2002; '''162''':395&amp;#8211;397. # Tonelli MR. &quot;The limits of evidence-based medicine.&quot; ''Respir Care'', 2001; '''46'''(12): 1435-40; discussion 1440-1. Review. PMID 11728302 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11863470 PMID: 11863470] # Vickers A. &quot;Alternative Cancer Cures: &quot;Unproven&quot; or &quot;Disproven&quot;?&quot; ''CA Cancer J Clin'' 2004; '''54''': 110-118. [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/54/2/110 Online] # Wetzel MS, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ. &quot;Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools.&quot; ''JAMA'' 1998; '''280'''(9):784 -787. PMID 9729989 # Zalewski Z. &quot;Importance of Philosophy of Science to the History of Medical Thinking.&quot; ''CMJ'' 1999; '''40''': 8-13. [http://www.bsb.mefst.hr/cmj/1999/4001/400102.htm CMJ online] === Other works that discuss alternative medicine === * Diamond, J. ''Snake Oil and Other Preoccupations'' 2001 (ISBN 0099428334), foreword by Richard Dawkins reprinted in Dawkins, R. ''A Devil's Chaplain'' 2003 (ISBN 0753817500). * [http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Sources_of_Healthcare.htm WHERE DO AMERICANS GO FOR HEALTHCARE?] by Anna Rosenfeld, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. *Planer, Felix E. 1988 ''Superstition'' Revised ed. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books *Hand, Wayland D. 1980 ''Folk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West'' in ''Magical Medicine'' Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 305-319. *Phillips Stevens Jr. Nov./Dec. 2001 ''Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' Skeptical Inquirer Magazine, Nov.Dec/2001 * Illich I. Limits to Medicine. Medical Nemesis: The expropriation of Health. Penguin Books, 1976. * Dillard, James and Terra Ziporyn. ''Alternative Medicine for Dummies''. Foster City, CA: IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1998. ==External links== ===General information=== * [http://nccam.nih.gov/ The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine] - US National Institutes of Health * [http://www.i-c-m.org.uk/ Institute for Complementary Medicine (ICM), UK] - includes article &quot;What is Complementary Medicine?&quot; *[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html Complementary and Alternative Medicine on PubMed] - Alternative Medicine Research Database * Web pages for [http://www.open2.net/alternativemedicine/index.html new BBC/Open University television series &quot;Alternative Medicine&quot;] that examines the evidence scientifically. ===Advocacy=== *[http://www.noah-health.org/en/alternative/ Consumer focused alternative medicine information] - in English and Spanish *[http://www.rosenthal.hs.columbia.edu/ Complementary and alternative medicine information] - Columbia University supported and ad-free *[http://www.wholehealthmd.com/ WholeHealth Networks' CAM education website] - created by practicing MD's *[http://goldbamboo.com/ Traditional and Alternative Medicine] - both clinical and alternative health perspectives *[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine.html Alternative Medicine: Chinese medicine] *[http://www.hands-on-london.com Alternative Medicine: Osteopathy] *[http://circleofhealers.com Circle of Healers] - Alternative Medicine News and Resources *[http://tutorials.naturalhealthperspective.com/history.html A History of Western Natural Healing Practices] *[http://autopenhosting.org/whatismedicine/ What is Medicine?] - Historical perspective of various modes of medicine *[http://www.dailystar.com/dailystar/printDS/6529.php &quot;Weil's integrative medicine gathering steam&quot;], by Carla McClain, ''Arizona Daily Star'', Published: 01-20-2004 *[http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001181/31/ Alternative Medicine Becoming Mainstream] *[http://www.alternativehealth.co.uk/ Alternative Health &amp;amp; Complementary Medicine UK Directory] *[http://www.althealthinfo.com/ Alternative Medicine and Natural Health] Information and news on alternative medicine *[http://www.clickabove.com/alternative.htm Comprehensive list of Alternative Medicine Websites] ===Critiques=== *[http://www.skepdic.com/tialtmed.html Skeptic's Dictionary: Alternative Medicine] *[http://www.canoe.ca/HealthAlternative/home.html Alternative medicine: A Skeptical Look] *[http://www.quackwatch.org/index.html Quackwatch: Your Guide to Health Fraud, Quackery, and Intelligent Decisions] *[http://podbazaar.com/object/program/read/126100789566373908?k=29E23E6803DC7B878CFD8141B78AD53C Shreekant Gokhale's Podcasts Challenging Alternative Medicine.] &lt;!-- Categorization --&gt; [[Category:Alternative medicine|*0]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]] [[Category:Protoscience]] &lt;!-- Localization --&gt; [[ar:طب بديل]] [[da:Naturmedicin]] [[de:Alternativmedizin]] [[et:Alternatiivmeditsiin]] [[es:Medicina alternativa]] [[fr:Médecine parallèle]] [[ko:대체의학]] [[it:Medicina alternativa]] [[he:רפואה אלטרנטיבית]] [[nl:Alternatieve geneeswijze]] [[ja:代替医療]] [[no:Alternativ medisin]] [[pl:Medycyna niekonwencjonalna]] [[pt:Medicina alternativa]] [[ru:Альтернативная медицина]] [[fi:Vaihtoehtoinen hoitomuoto]] [[sv:Alternativmedicin]] [[uk:Альтернативна медицина]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archimedean solid</title> <id>1847</id> <revision> <id>38475065</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:09:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joseolgon</username> <id>577139</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[geometry]] an '''Archimedean solid''' or [[semiregular polyhedra|'''semi-regular solid''']] is a semi-regular [[convex]] [[polyhedron]] composed of two or more types of [[polygon|regular polygon]] meeting in identical [[vertex|vertices]]. They are distinct from the [[Platonic solid]]s, which are composed of only one type of polygon meeting in identical vertices, and from the [[Johnson solid]]s, whose regular polygonal faces do not meet in identical vertices. ==Origin of name== The Archimedean solids take their name from [[Archimedes]], who discussed them in a now-lost work. During the [[Renaissance]], [[artist]]s and [[mathematician]]s valued ''pure forms'' and rediscovered all of these forms. This search was completed around [[1619]] by [[Johannes Kepler]], who defined prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s. ==Classification== There are 13 Archimedean solids (15 if the [[mirror image]]s of two [[chirality (mathematics)|enantiomorph]]s, see below, are counted separately). Here the ''vertex configuration'' refers to the type of regular polygons that meet at any given vertex. For example, a vertex configuration of (4,6,8) means that a square, hexagon, and octagon meet at a vertex (with the order taken to be clockwise around the vertex). The number of vertices is 720° divided by the vertex [[Defect (geometry)|angle defect]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; |- ! Name ! picture ! colspan=2|Faces ! Edges ! Vertices ! [[Vertex configuration]] ! [[Symmetry group]] |- | [[truncated tetrahedron]] | [[image:truncatedtetrahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated tetrahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedtetrahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 8 || 4 triangles&lt;br&gt;4 [[hexagon]]s || 18 | 12 | 3.6.6 || T&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[cuboctahedron]] | [[image:cuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:cuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | &amp;nbsp;14&amp;nbsp; || 8 [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s&lt;br&gt;6 [[square (geometry)|square]]s | 24 || 12 || 3.4.3.4 | O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated cube]]&lt;br /&gt;or truncated hexahedron | [[image:truncatedhexahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated hexahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedhexahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 14 || 8 triangles&lt;br&gt;6 [[octagon]]s || 36 | 24 | 3.8.8 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated octahedron]] | [[image:truncatedoctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated octahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedoctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 14 || 6 squares&lt;br&gt;8 hexagons || 36 || 24 | 4.6.6 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[rhombicuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or small rhombicuboctahedron | [[image:rhombicuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:rhombicuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 26 ||8 triangles&lt;br&gt;18 squares || 48 || 24 | 3.4.4.4 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or great rhombicuboctahedron | [[image:truncatedcuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedcuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 26 || 12 squares&lt;br&gt;8 hexa
Republika Srpska National Assembly; each constituent nation has eight delegates, &quot;others&quot; have four delegates. === House of Representatives === The [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Representatives]] is comprised of 42 Members, two-thirds elected to serve four-year terms from the Federation (14 Croats and 14 Bosniaks) and one-third elected from the RS (14 Serbs). Federation members come from the Federation House of Representatives with 98 seats whose members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. RS members come from the RS National Assembly, which has 83 seats and whose members are elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms. == Political parties and elections == {{elect|List of political parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina}} {{Bosnian presidium election, 2002}} {{Bosnian legislative election, 2002}} === Election history === National House of Representatives: * elections held 12-[[13 September]] [[1998]]: ** seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1 * elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]]: ** percent of vote by party/coalition - SDA 21.9%, SDS 14.0%, SBiH 10.5%, SDP 10.4%, SNSD 9.8%, HDZ 9.5%, PDP 4.6%, others 19.3% ** seats by party/coalition - SDA 10, SDS 5, SBiH 6, SDP 4, SNSD 3, HDZ 5, PDP 2, others 7 House of Peoples: * constituted [[4 December]] [[1998]] * constituted in fall 2000 * constituted in January 2003 * next to be constituted in 2007 Federation House of Representatives: * elections held fall 1998: ** seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1 * elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]]: ** seats by party/coalition - SDA 32, HDZ-BiH 16, SDP 15, SBiH 15, other 20 Federation House of Peoples: * constituted November 1998 * constituted December 2002 Republika Srpska National Assembly: * elections held fall 1998 ** seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1 * elections held fall 2000 * elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]] ** seats by party/coalition - SDS 26, SNSD 19, PDP 9, SDA 6, SRS 4, SPRS 3, DNZ 3, SBiH 4, SDP 3, others 6 == Judicial branch == === Constitutional Court === The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the RS, and three by the President of the [[European Court of Human Rights]] after consultation with the Presidency. Terms of initial appointees are 5 years, unless they resign or are removed for cause by consensus of the other judges. Once appointed, judges are not eligible for reappointment. Judges subsequently appointed will serve until the age of 70, unless they resign or are removed for cause. Appointments made 5 years after the initial appointments may be governed by a different law of selection, to be determined by the Parliamentary Assembly. Proceedings of the Court are public, and decisions will be published. Rules of court are adopted by a majority of the Court, and decisions are final and binding. The Constitutional Court's original jurisdiction lies in deciding any constitutional dispute that arises between the Entities or between Bosnia and Herzegovina and an Entity or Entities. Such disputes may be referred only by a member of the Presidency, by the Chair of the Council of Ministers, by the Chair or Deputy Chair of either chamber of the Parliamentary Assembly, or by one-fourth of the legislature of either Entity. The Court also has appellate jurisdiction within the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. === State Court === The [[State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] consists of nine judges and three divisions - Administrative, Appellate and Criminal - having jurisdiction over cases related to state-level law and appellate jurisdiction over cases initiated in the entities. Note - a War Crimes Chamber may be added at a future date. === Entities === The entities each have a Supreme Court. Each entity also has a number of lower courts. There are 10 cantonal courts in the Federation, plus a number of municipal courts. The Republika Srpska has five municipal courts. == External links == * [http://www.ohr.int/ Office of the High Representative] * [http://www.izbori.ba/ Election Commission of Bosnia and Herzegovina] * [http://www.vladars.net/ Government of the Republic of Srpska] * [http://www.fbihvlada.gov.ba/ Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina] * [http://www.brcko.ba/ Government of the Brčko District of Bosnia and Herzegovina] {{CIA}} [[Category:Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]] [[pt:Política da Bósnia-Herzegovina]] [[pl:Ustrój polityczny Bośni i Hercegowiny]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title> <id>3607</id> <revision> <id>40705204</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T12:54:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' since Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 and the declaration of independence from the former Yugoslavia on [[3 March]] [[1992]]. ==Overview== For the most part, [[agriculture]] has been in private hands, but farms have been small and inefficient, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic. The [[centrally planned economy]] has resulted in some legacies in the economy. [[Industry]] is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under [[Josip Broz Tito]], military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defence plants for military reasons. Bosnia was in the center of former Yugoslavia. People throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have much interest in those military installations because that was property of the JNA and all taxes and profits from those companies went to Belgrade. Two major export civilian companies in former Yugoslavia had their headquarters in a very dynamic town in that country in those times, the capital Sarajevo; 'UNIS' holding and 'Energoinvest' holding. In the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many huge projects in other former Yugoslav republics. For example, the highway 'Bratstvo i jedinstvo', Ljubljana (Slovenia) - Zagreb (Croatia) - Belgrade (Serbia) - Skoplje (Macedonia). Not one single kilometer of that highway were planned or constructed in Bosnia and Herzegovina; construction of the town in Belgrade (Serbia) so-called 'New Belgrade'; Kosovo financing; the railway Belgrade - Bar in Serbia and Montenegro are all examples. Of course during the former Yugoslavia economy was [[communist]] and was a centrally planned economy from Belgrade, without free market laws. So Bosnia and Herzegovina was mostly a donor republic in former Yugoslavia in money and other ways. The money during former Yugoslavia times went in one direction, out of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to Belgrade or sometimes to Zagreb and Ljubljana. In 1984 Bosnia and Herzegovina and the capital Sarajevo were host of the XIV Winter Olympic Games or first Olympic Games in history which were finished with profit. [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina#19th and 20th century|Three years of War]] (1992-1995) destroyed the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia, causing [[unemployment]] to soar, as well as causing the death of about 100,000 people and displacing half of the population. Bosnia has been facing a dual challenge: not only must the nation recover from the war, but it also has to finish the transition from [[socialism]] to [[capitalism]]. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although [[Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina|both entities]] issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the [[black market]]. The [[Grey market]] is a notable source of income for Bosnian traders. A Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina was established in late 1997, successful debt negotiations were held with the [[London Club]] in December 1997 and with the [[Paris Club]] in October 1998, and a new currency, the [[Convertible Mark]], was introduced in mid-1998. In 1999, the Convertible Mark gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Due to Bosnia's strict currency board regime, [[inflation]] has remained low in the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Federation]] and [[Republika Srpska|RS]]. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and [[humanitarian aid]] from the international community. Support for Eastern European Democracy (SEED) assistance accounts for 20%-25% of [[economic growth]] in Bosnia. However, growth has been uneven throughout the post-war period, with the Federation outpacing the RS. According to World Bank estimates, GDP growth was 62% in the Federation and 25% in the RS in 1996, 35% in the Federation and flat in the RS in 1997, and continued growth in the Federation in 1998. After the last Serbian aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995), Bosnia and Herzegovina received smaller international aid than for example Serbia and Montenegro. Sarajevo city, received also smaller international aid than Belgrade even though Sarajevo was under siege for three years. Most international aid was spend on mostly corrupt international force
[World War II|war]] years, but the [[Dommel]] still runs through it. Neighbouring cities and towns include [[Son en Breugel]], [[Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten|Nuenen]], [[Geldrop-Mierlo|Geldrop]], [[Valkenswaard]], [[Waalre]], [[Veldhoven]], [[Oirschot]] and [[Best]]. ==The city of Eindhoven== [[Image:WapenEindhoven.png|thumb|right|Coat of arms of the Municipality of Eindhoven]] ===History=== The written history of Eindhoven started in [[1232]], when Duke [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Hendrik I of Brabant ]] granted [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]] to ''Endehoven'', then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. The city's name translates literally as &quot;End Yards&quot;, reflecting its position at the southern end of Woensel. At the time of granting of its [[royal charter|charter]], Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a [[rampart]]. Just outside of the city walls stood a small castle. The city was also granted the right to organize a weekly market and the farmers in nearby villages were obliged to come to Eindhoven to sell their produce. Another factor in its establishment was its location on the trade route from Holland to [[Liège (city)|Liège]]. Around [[1388]] the city's fortifications were strengthened further. And between [[1413]] and [[1420]], a new castle was built within the city walls. In [[1486]], Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from [[Gelderland]]. The reconstruction was finished in [[1502]], with a stronger rampart and a new castle. However, in [[1543]] Eindhoven falls again: its defense works were neglected due to poverty. A big fire in [[1554]] destroyed 75% of the houses but by [[1560]] these had been rebuilt with the help of [[William I of Orange]]. During the [[Dutch Revolt]], Eindhoven changed hands between the Dutch and the [[Spain|Spanish]] several times, until finally in [[1583]] it was captured by Spanish troops and its city walls demolished. Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until [[1629]]. The [[industrial revolution]] of the [[Nineteenth Century]] provided a major growth impulse. Canals, roads and railroads were constructed. Eindhoven was connected to the major [[Zuid-Willemsvaart]] canal through the [[Eindhovens Kanaal]] branch in [[1843]] and was connected by rail to [[Tilburg]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Venlo]] and [[Belgium]] between [[1866]] and [[1870]]. Industrial activities initially centred around [[tobacco]] and [[textile]] and boomed with the rise of [[lighting]] and [[electronics]] giant [[Philips]], which was founded as a [[light bulb]] manufacturing company in Eindhoven in [[1891]]. The explosive growth of industry in the region and the subsequent housing needs of workers called for radical changes in administration, as the City of Eindhoven was still confined to its [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[moat]] city limits. In [[1920]], the five neighbouring [[municipality|municipalities]] of Woensel (to the north), [[Tongelre]] (northeast and east), Stratum (southeast), Gestel en Blaarthem (southwest) and Strijp (west), which already bore the brunt of the housing needs and related problems, were incorporated into the new Groot-Eindhoven (&quot;Greater Eindhoven&quot;) municipality. The prefix &quot;Groot-&quot; was later dropped. The early [[twentieth Century]] saw additions in technical industry with the advent of [[car]] and [[truck]] manufacturing company [[DAF Trucks|Van Doorne's Automobiel Fabriek]] (DAF) and the subsequent shift towards electronics and engineering, with the traditional tobacco and textile industries waning and finally disappearing in the [[Seventies]]. Large-scale [[air raid]]s in [[World War II]] (Eindhoven was a target in [[Operation Market Garden]] because of its industrial importance) destroyed large parts of the city. The reconstruction that followed left very little historical remains and the post-war reconstruction period saw drastic renovation plans in [[highrise]] style, some of which were implemented. At the time, there was little regard for historical [[Cultural heritage|heritage]]; in the [[Sixties]], a new [[city hall]] was built and its medieval predecessor demolished to make way for a planned [[arterial road]] that never materialised. The Seventies, [[Eighties]] and [[Nineties]] saw large-scale housing developments in the districts of Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord, making Eindhoven the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands. ===Geography=== The villages and city that make up modern Eindhoven have originally been built on sandy elevations between the Dommel, Gender and [[Tongelreep]] streams. Starting from the Nineteenth Century, the [[basin]]s of the streams themselves have also been used as housing grounds, leading to occasional floodings in the city centre. Partly to reduce flooding, the Gender stream, which flowed straight through the city centre, was dammed off and filled up after the War, and the course of the Dommel was regulated. New [[ecology|ecologial]] and [[socio-historical]] insights have led to parts of the Dommel's course being restored to their original states, and plans to have the Gender flow through the centre once again ([http://www.cognito.nl/stadsdeelkantoren/centrum/item.asp?newsid=2238 link to article in Dutch]). The large-scale housing developments of the Twentieth Century saw residential areas being built on former [[agriculture|agricultural lands]] and [[forest|woods]], former [[heath (habitat)|heaths]] that had been turned into cultivable lands in the Nineteenth Century. ===Industry=== Eindhoven has grown from a little village in 1232 to the fifth largest city in the [[Netherlands]] with well over 200,000 inhabitants in 2005. Much of its growth is due to [[Philips]] and [[DAF Trucks]]. In [[1891]], brothers Gerard and [[Anton Philips]] founded the small light bulb factory that would grow into one of the largest electronics firms in the world. Philips' presence is probably the largest single contributing factor to the major growth of Eindhoven in the 20th century. It attracted and spun off many hi-tech companies, making Eindhoven a major technology and industrial hub. In [[2005]], a full third of the total amount of money spent on research in the Netherlands was spent in or around Eindhoven. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in [[technology]] and [[ICT]], with companies such as [[ASML]], [[Toolex]], [[Simac]], [[Neways]], [[Atos Origin]] and the aforementioned Philips and DAF. Prime examples of industrial heritage in Eindhoven are the renovated Witte Dame (&quot;White Lady&quot;) complex, a former Philips lamp factory; and the Admirant building (informally known as Bruine Heer or &quot;Brown Gentleman&quot; in reference to the Witte Dame across the street), the former Philips main offices. The Witte Dame currently houses the municipal [[library]], the [[Design Academy]] and a selection of shops. The Admirant is has been renovated into an office building for small companies. Across the street from the Witte Dame and next to the Admirant is Philips' first light bulb factory. The small building now houses the Philips company museum. ===Administration and population=== After the incorporation of 1920, the five former municipalities became districts of the Municipality of Eindhoven, with Eindhoven-Centrum (the City proper) forming the sixth. Since then, an additional seventh district has been formed by dividing the largest district, that of Woensel, into Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord. At the turn of the century, a whole new housing development called [[Meerhoven]] was constructed at the site of the old [[airport]] of Welschap, west of Eindhoven. The airport itself, now called [[Eindhoven Airport]], had moved earlier to a new location, paving the way for much needed new houses. Meerhoven is part of the Strijp district and partially lies on lands annexed from the municipality of [[Veldhoven]]. Of all Eindhoven districts, the historical centre is by far the smallest in size and population, numbering only 4,769 in [[2004]]. Population figures for all districts, as of [[January 1]] [[2004]], sorted by size: # Woensel-Noord (66,126) # Woensel-Zuid (35,010) # Stratum (31,652) # Gestel (27,261) # Strijp (23,424) # Tongelre (19,658) # Eindhoven-Centrum (4,769) ===Culture=== [[Image:vanabbemuseum2.jpg|thumb|270px|Modern part of Van Abbemuseum]] The students from the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]] and a number of undergraduate schools give Eindhoven a young population. Eindhoven has a lively cultural scene. For going out, there are numerous bars on the Market square, the Stratumseind, the Dommelstraat, the Wilhelmina square and throughout the rest of the city. During spring and summer, Eindhoven houses the Fiesta del Sol and the Virus Festival. The [[Van Abbemuseum]] has a collection of modern and contemporary art, including works by [[Picasso]] and [[Chagall]]. Eindhoven was home to the [[Evoluon]] [[science museum]], sponsored by [[Philips]]. The Evoluon building is currently used as a conference centre. During [[Carnival]], Eindhoven is rechristened Lampegat (Lamp Hole). ===Transportation=== Eindhoven is a [[rail transport]] node with connections in the directions of: *[[Tilburg]] - [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]] - [[Dordrecht]] - [[Rotterdam]] - [[Delft]] - [[Den Haag]] (1900, 2500, 5200) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv4.pdf] *[['s Hertogenbosch]] - [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] - [[Amsterdam]] (800, 900, 3500, 9600) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv2.pdf] *[[Helmond]] - [[Venlo]] (1900, 5200, 6500) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv1.pdf] *[[Weert]] - [[Roermond]] - [[Sittard]] - [[Maastricht]]/[[Heerlen]] (800, 2500, 6400) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv3.pdf] The numbers in parentheses are the number series, see [[Train routes in the Netherlands]]; the links refer to departure schedules. Up until [[World War II]], a train servi
raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor. *[[2008]] - The opening ceremony of the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] is scheduled to begin at 8 o'clock (08-08-08-08) ==Births== *[[1079]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (d. [[1107]]) *[[1602]] - [[Gilles de Roberval]], French mathematician (d. [[1675]]) *[[1605]] - [[Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore]], colonial Governor of Maryland (d. [[1675]]) *[[1646]] - [[Godfrey Kneller]], German-born painter (d. [[1723]]) *[[1673]] - [[John Ker]], Scottish spy (d. [[1726]]) *[[1693]] - [[Laurent Belissen]], French composer (d. [[1762]]) *[[1694]] - [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], Irish philosopher (d. [[1746]]) *[[1720]] - [[Carl Fredrik Pechlin]], Swedish politician (d. [[1796]]) *[[1814]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and the first U. S. woman judge (d. [[1902]]) *[[1839]] - [[Nelson Miles]], U.S. general (d. [[1925]]) *[[1866]] - [[Matthew Henson]], Arctic explorer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1875]] - [[Artur da Silva Bernardes]], President of Brazil (d. [[1955]]) *[[1879]] - [[Emiliano Zapata]], Mexican revolutionary (d. [[1919]]) *[[1880]] - [[Earle Page]], eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1961]]) *[[1891]] - [[Adolf Busch]], German violinist (d. [[1952]]) *[[1892]] - [[Rafael Moreno Aranzadi]], Spanish footballer (d. [[1922]]) *[[1896]] - [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]], American author (d. [[1953]]) *[[1901]] - [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]]) *[[1902]] - [[Paul Dirac]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]]) *[[1905]] - [[André Jolivet]], French composer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1907]] - [[Benny Carter]], American musician and arranger (d. [[2003]]) *[[1908]] - [[Arthur Goldberg]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1980]]) *[[1910]] - [[Sylvia Sidney]], American actress (d. [[1999]]) *[[1911]] - [[Rosetta LeNoire]], American actress (d. [[2002]]) *[[1915]] - [[Jumbo Elliott|James &quot;Jumbo&quot; Elliott]], American track coach (d. [[1981]]) *[[1919]] - [[Dino De Laurentiis]], Italian film producer *[[1920]] - [[Leo Chiosso]], Italian lyricist *[[1921]] - [[William Asher]], American film producer *1921 - [[John Herbert Chapman]], British physicist *1921 - [[Webb Pierce]], American singer (d. [[1991]]) *1921 - [[Vulimiri Ramalingaswami]], Indian medical scientist *1921 - [[Esther Williams]], American actress and swimmer *[[1922]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (d. [[1999]]) *1922 - [[Rudi Gernreich]], Austrian-born fashion designer (d. [[1985]]) *[[1925]] - [[Alija Izetbegovic]], President of Bosnia-Herzegovina (d. [[2003]]) *[[1927]] - [[Johnny Temple]], baseball player (d. [[1994]]) *[[1928]] - [[Don Burrows]], Australian jazz musician *[[1929]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (d. [[2004]]) *1929 - [[Ronald Biggs]], British criminal *[[1931]] - Sir [[Roger Penrose]], British physicist *[[1932]] - [[Mel Tillis]], American singer *[[1035]] - [[John Laws]], Australia radio personality *[[1936]] - [[Donald P. Bellisario]], American television producer *[[1936]] - [[Keith Barron]], English actor *[[1937]] - [[Dustin Hoffman]], American actor *[[1938]] - [[Connie Stevens]], American singer and actress *[[1939]] - [[Alexander Watson]], American ambassador and diplomat *[[1944]] - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director *1944 - [[Uli Derickson]], Czech-born flight attendant *1944 - [[Brooke Bundy]], American actress *[[1949]] - [[Keith Carradine]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Mamoru Oshii]], Japanese film director *[[1952]] -[[Jostein Gaarder]], Norwegian author *1952 - [[Robin Quivers]], American radio personality *[[1953]] - [[Don Most]] American actor *[[1954]] - [[Nigel Mansell]], English race car driver *[[1955]] - [[Herbert Prohaska]], Austrian footballer *[[1956]] - [[Branscombe Richmond]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Deborah Norville]], American reporter and television host *[[1961]] - [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]], Irish guitarist ([[U2]]) *[[1966]] - [[Chris Eubank]], English boxer *[[1973]] - [[Scott Stapp]], American singer ([[Creed (band)|Creed]]) *[[1974]] - [[Ulises De la Cruz]], Ecuadoran footballer *[[1976]] - [[J.C. Chasez]], American singer ([[*NSYNC]]) *1976 - [[Drew Lachey]], American singer *[[1978]] - [[Louis Saha]], French footballer *[[1979]] - [[Richard Harwood]], British cellist *[[1980]] - [[Sabine Klaschka]], German tennis player *1980 - [[Pat Noonan]], American soccer player *[[1981]] - [[Vanessa Amorosi]], Australian singer and songwriter *1981 - [[Roger Federer]], Swiss tennis player *[[1988]] - [[Princess Beatrice of York]] *[[1989]] - [[Sesil Karatantcheva]], Bulgarian tennis player &lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[869]] - [[Lothair II of Lotharingia]] (b. [[825]]) *[[1445]] - [[Oswald von Wolkenstein]], Austrian composer *[[1553]] - [[Girolamo Fracastoro]], Italian physician (b. [[1478]]) *[[1588]] - [[Alonso Sánchez Coello]], Spanish painter *[[1604]] - [[Horio Tadauji]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1578]]) *[[1684]] - [[George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer]] (b. [[1622]]) *[[1694]] - [[Antoine Arnauld]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1612]]) *[[1759]] - [[Carl Heinrich Graun]], German composer *[[1828]] - [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], Swedish naturalist (b. [[1743]]) *[[1879]] - [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]], German philosopher (b. [[1797]]) *[[1887]] - [[Alexander William Doniphan]], American lawyer and soldier (b. [[1808]]) *[[1898]] - [[Eugène Boudin]], French painter (b. [[1824]]) *[[1902]] - [[James Tissot]], French artist (b. [[1836]]) *[[1911]] - [[William P. Frye]], American politician (b. [[1830]]) *[[1933]] - [[Adolf Loos]], Austrian architect (b. [[1870]]) *[[1940]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American musician (b. [[1892]]) *[[1944]] - [[Chaim Soutine]], Russian painter (b. [[1894]]) *[[1965]] - [[Shirley Jackson]], American author (b. [[1916]]) *[[1972]] - [[Andrea Feldman]], American actor (b. [[1948]]) *[[1975]] - [[Julian &quot;Cannonball&quot; Adderley]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1928]]) *[[1985]] - [[Louise Brooks]], American actress (b. [[1906]]) *[[1987]] - [[Danilo Blanuša]], Croatian mathematician (b. [[1903]]) *[[1991]] - [[James Irwin]], astronaut (b. [[1930]]) *[[1996]] - [[Nevill Mott]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (b. [[1905]]) *[[2004]] - [[Fay Wray]], American actress (b. [[1907]]) *[[2005]] - [[Barbara Bel Geddes]], American actress (b. [[1922]]) *2005 - [[John H. Johnson]], African-American publisher; billionaire (b. [[1918]]) *2005 - [[Gene Mauch]], American athlete and manager (b. [[1925]]) *2005 - [[Monica Sjoo]], Swedish artist (cancer) (b. [[1938]]) *2005 - [[Ilse Werner]], German actress (b. [[1921]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Republic of China|Taiwan]]: [[Father's Day]]. (In [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], Ba Ba means father and 8-8, or August 8). *[[Sweden]] - Namesday of Queen [[Silvia Sommerlath|Silvia]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|Official Flag Day]]. ==Religious observances== *[[Roman Catholic Church]]: Memorial of [[St Dominic de Guzman]], priest, (1170-1221). ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/8 BBC: On This Day] *[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050808.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&amp;day=08 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[August 7]] - [[August 9]] - [[July 8]] - [[September 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:8 Augustus]] [[ar:8 أغسطس]] [[an:8 d'agosto]] [[ast:8 d'agostu]] [[bg:8 август]] [[be:8 жніўня]] [[bs:8. august]] [[ca:8 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 8]] [[cv:Çурла, 8]] [[co:8 d'aostu]] [[cs:8. srpen]] [[cy:8 Awst]] [[da:8. august]] [[de:8. August]] [[et:8. august]] [[el:8 Αυγούστου]] [[es:8 de agosto]] [[eo:8-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 8]] [[fo:8. august]] [[fr:8 août]] [[fy:8 augustus]] [[ga:8 Lúnasa]] [[gl:8 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 8일]] [[hr:8. kolovoza]] [[io:8 di agosto]] [[ilo:Agosto 8]] [[id:8 Agustus]] [[ia:8 de augusto]] [[ie:8 august]] [[is:8. ágúst]] [[it:8 agosto]] [[he:8 באוגוסט]] [[jv:8 Agustus]] [[ka:8 აგვისტო]] [[csb:8 zélnika]] [[ku:8'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:8 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 8]] [[lb:8. August]] [[li:8 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 8]] [[mk:8 август]] [[ms:8 Ogos]] [[nap:8 'e aùsto]] [[nl:8 augustus]] [[ja:8月8日]] [[no:8. august]] [[nn:8. august]] [[oc:8 d'agost]] [[pl:8 sierpnia]] [[pt:8 de Agosto]] [[ro:8 august]] [[ru:8 августа]] [[sq:8 Gusht]] [[scn:8 di austu]] [[simple:August 8]] [[sk:8. august]] [[sl:8. avgust]] [[sr:8. август]] [[fi:8. elokuuta]] [[sv:8 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 8]] [[tt:8. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 8]] [[th:8 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:8 tháng 8]] [[tr:8 Ağustos]] [[uk:8 серпня]] [[wa:8 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 8]] [[zh:8月8日]] [[pam:Agostu 8]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 16</title> <id>1334</id> <revision> <id>42092785</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.48.151.33</ip> </contributor> <comment>(m) interwiki br</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=16}} |} [[April 16]] is the 106th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (107th in [[leap year]]s). There are 259 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1178 BC]] - A [[solar eclipse]] may mark the return of [[Odysseus]], legendary King of [[Ithaca]], to his kingdom after the [[Trojan War]]. *[[1071]] - [[Bari]] falls to [[Robert Guiscard]], ending [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule in [[Italy]]. *[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther|Martin Luther's]] first appearance before the [[Diet of Worms]] to be examined by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] and the rest of the estates of the empire. *[[1746]] - [[Second Jacobite Reb
''[[Football World Cup 1950|Details]]'' |[[Brazil]] |{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]''' |'''n/a'''&lt;sup&gt;('''[[#2|2]]''')&lt;/sup&gt; |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] |{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] |'''n/a'''&lt;sup&gt;('''[[#2|2]]''')&lt;/sup&gt; |{{flagicon|ESP}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Spain national football team|Spain]] |- |1954 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1954|Details]]'' |[[Switzerland]] |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' |'''3 - 2''' |{{flagicon|HUN}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] |{{flagicon|AUT}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Austria national football team|Austria]] |'''3 - 1''' |{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1958 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1958|Details]]'' |[[Sweden]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' |'''5 - 2''' |{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] |{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] |'''6 - 3''' |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] |- |1962 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1962|Details]]'' |[[Chile]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' |'''3 - 1''' |{{flagicon|TCH}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] |{{flagicon|CHL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Chile national football team|Chile]] |'''1 - 0''' |{{flagicon|YUG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1966 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1966|Details]]'' |[[England]] |{{flagicon|ENG}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[England national football team|England]]''' |'''4 - 2''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|after extra time]] |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] |{{flagicon|PRT}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] |'''2 - 1''' |{{flagicon|URS}} &lt;br /&gt; [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]] |- |1970 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1970|Details]]'' |[[Mexico]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' |'''4 - 1''' |{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] |'''1 - 0''' |{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1974 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1974|Details]]'' |[[West Germany]] |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' |'''2 - 1''' |{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] |{{flagicon|POL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Poland national football team|Poland]] |'''1 - 0''' |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] |- |1978 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1978|Details]]'' |[[Argentina]] |[[Image:Old_Flag_of_Argentina.png|20px]] &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Argentina national football team|Argentina]]''' |'''3 - 1''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|after extra time]] |{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] |'''2 - 1''' |{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1982 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1982|Details]]'' |[[Spain]] |{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Italy national football team|Italy]]''' |'''3 - 1''' |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] |{{flagicon|POL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Poland national football team|Poland]] |'''3 - 2''' |{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] |- |1986 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1986|Details]]'' |[[Mexico]] |{{flagicon|ARG}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Argentina national football team|Argentina]]''' |'''3 - 2''' |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] |{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] |'''4 - 2''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|aet]] |{{flagicon|BEL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1990 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1990|Details]]'' |[[Italy]] |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' |'''1 - 0''' |{{flagicon|ARG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] |{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] |'''2 - 1''' |{{flagicon|ENG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[England national football team|England]] |- |1994 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1994|Details]]'' |[[United States|USA]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' |'''0 - 0''' &lt;br /&gt; '''(3 - 2)''' &lt;br&gt; [[penalty shootout (football)|on penalties]] |{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] |{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] |'''4 - 0''' |{{flagicon|BGR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |1998 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1998|Details]]'' |[[France]] |{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[France national football team|France]]''' |'''3 - 0''' |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] |{{flagicon|HRV}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Croatia national football team|Croatia]] |'''2 - 1''' |{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] |- |2002 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2002|Details]]'' |[[South Korea]] &lt;br /&gt; &amp; [[Japan]] |{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' |'''2 - 0''' |{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|Germany]] |{{flagicon|TUR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] |'''3 - 2''' |{{flagicon|KOR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]] |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |2006 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2006|Details]]'' |[[Germany]] | | | | | | |- |2010 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2010|Details]]'' |[[South Africa]] | | | | | | |- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot; |2014 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2014|Details]]'' |''[[South America]]'' | | | | | | |} {{see|#Selection of hosts}} &lt;div id=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''1'''&lt;/sup&gt; There was no official World Cup Third Place match in 1930; [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] and [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] lost in the semi-finals.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''2'''&lt;/sup&gt; There was no official World Cup final match in 1950. The tournament was decided in a final group contested by four teams. However, Uruguay's 2-1 victory over Brazil (match known as [[Maracanazo]]), was the decisive match which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions.&lt;/div&gt; ===Successful national teams=== {{seealso|National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup}} [[Image:World cup countries best results and hosts.PNG|thumb|Map of countries' best results]] In all, 207 teams have competed to qualify for the World Cup Finals (see [[National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup]]), but only eleven have made it to the final match. Of those, only seven have won. This exclusivity inspires much enthusiasm and national pride amongst the tournament's fans. With five victories out of its seven appearances in the final, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team. It is also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup Finals so far. At the contintental level, South America edges out Europe with nine titles to eight. Brazil and Germany are tied for most appearances in the final at 7(Brazil won 5 while Germany won 3). Brazil and Italy were finalists each up for their 3rd cup in [[1970 Football World Cup|1970]] and for their 4th cup in 1994. In both matches, Brazil won close victories. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Team !Titles !Winning years (* as hosts) !Runners-up (* as hosts) |- |{{BRAf}} |5 |[[Football World Cup 1958|1958]], [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]], [[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] |2 ([[Football World Cup 1950|1950]]*, [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]]) |- |{{GERf}} |3 |[[Football World Cup 1954|1954]], [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]*, [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]]&lt;br&gt;(all as [[West Germany]]) |4 ([[Football World Cup 1966|1966]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]], [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])&lt;br&gt;(all but latest as [[West Germany]]) |- |{{ITAf}} |3 |[[Football World Cup 1934|1934]]*, [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]] |2 ([[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]) |- |{{ARGf}} |2 |[[Football World Cup 1978|1978]]*, [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]] |2 ([[Football World Cup 1930|1930]], [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]]) |- |{{URUf}} |2 |[[Football World Cup 1930|1930]]*, [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]] | - |- |{{ENGf}} |1 |[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]]* | - |- |{{FRAf}} |1 |[[Football World Cup 1998|1998]]* | - |- |{{TCHf}} | - | - |2 ([[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]]) |- |{{HUNf}} | - | - |2 ([[Football World Cup 1938|1938]], [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]]) |- |{{NEDf}} | - | - |2 ([[Football World Cup 1974|1974]], [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]]) |
on who provided the most initial impetus for Sapir's study of American languages. He arranged Sapir's employment in 1907-08 researching the nearly extinct [[Yahi|Yana]] language of northern California, to which he returned briefly in 1911 to work with [[Ishi]], the monolingual last surviving speaker of [[Yahi]] (southern Yana). In the years 1910-1925 he built and directed the Anthropological Division in the Geological Survey of Canada, in Ottawa. Among the many accomplishments of this very productive period are a substantial series of publications on Nootka and other languages, and his seminal book ''Language'' (1921), still important today and eminently readable. As he was leaving for a teaching position at the [[University of Chicago]], one of very few research universities then in the United States, he enabled [[Leonard Bloomfield]] to obtain support from Ottawa to do fieldwork on Cree, essential to his project of historical reconstruction in Algonkian. Bloomfield moved to Chicago in 1927 to teach Germanic languages. It appears (Darnell 268-272) that they were congenial but not close. From 1931 to his death Sapir was at [[Yale University]], where he became the head of the Department of Anthropology. He was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology. His students include [[Li Fanggui|Fang-kuei Li]], [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Mary Haas]], and [[Harry Hoijer]], but it was one not formally his student who he came to regard as his intellectual heir, a young [[Semitic Languages|Semiticist]] named [[Zellig Harris]] (who for a time dated his daughter). Some suggestions of Sapir about the influence of language on the ways in which people think were adopted and developed by Whorf, initially while he was substitute teaching in the classroom during Sapir's illness. It was felt that stimulating and challenging ideas would attract students to this fledgling field. During the 1940s and later this became known as the [[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]. Some support may be found in late work of Harris. Sapir died of heart problems in 1939, at age 55. His special focus among American languages was in the [[Athabaskan]] languages. Among the languages and cultures studied by Sapir are [[Chinookan|Wishram Chinook]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Nootka]], [[Paiute]], [[Takelma language|Takelma]], and [[Yahi|Yana]]. Although noted for his work on American linguistics, he was also prolific in linguistics in general, as depicted by his book ''Language'', which provides everything from a grammar-typological classification of languages (with examples ranging from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] to [[Nuu-chah-nulth language|Nootka]]) to speculation on the phenomenon on language drift and the arbitrariness of associations between language, race, and culture. He was also at least a minor participant in the [[international auxiliary language]] movement; in his paper [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html ''The Function of an International Auxiliary Language''], Sapir argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language unbiased by the idiosyncracies of national languages in the choice of an international auxiliary language. ==Books== *''Wishram Texts'' (1909) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12629 ''Language: An introduction to the study of speech''] (1921) ISBN 0-15-648233-9 ([http://www.bartleby.com/186/ another link]) *''Nootka Texts'' (1939) ==Essays and articles== *[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html ''The Function of an International Auxiliary Language''] (First published in ''Romanic Review'', July 1925. Also published in H. N. Shenton, E. Sapir and [[Otto Jespersen|O. Jespersen]], ''International Communication: A Symposium on the Language Problem'', London 1931, pp. 65-94.) *''The problem of noun incorporation in American languages''. Am. Anthropol. 13:250-82. (1911) *[http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Sapir/Sapir_1916.html ''Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture: A Study in Method'']. Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Memoir 90. Anthropological Series, No. 13. (1916) ==Bibliography== *''Edward Sapir: Appraisals of His Life and Work''. Ed. Konrad Koerner. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1984. A collection of obituaries, bibliographic sketches, and critiques (mostly positive) of Sapir's work by his colleagues, students, and others affected by his work. *''The Collected Works of Edward Sapir''. Ed. William Bright. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990. Volume IV presents more of his anthropological work, and makes reference to his work with Fang-Kuei Li. Volumes V and VI contain his work on American Indian languages. *''Edward Sapir: Linguist, Anthropologist, Humanist.'' Regna Darnell. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990. Darnell's book is the best source on Sapir's life and his work as an anthropologist. *''Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis'' (Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language, No. 12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. The most comprehensive overview of research into linguistic relativity. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/esapir.html National Academy of Sciences biography] *http://www.bartleby.com/people/Sapir-Ed.html *http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Sapir/Documents.html *http://www.yale.edu/linguist/Sapir.html *http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/sapir_edward.html * {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Sapir | name=Edward Sapir}} [[Category:1884 births|Sapir, Edward]] [[Category:1939 deaths|Sapir, Edward]] [[Category:American anthropologists|Sapir, Edward]] [[Category:American linguists|Sapir, Edward]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Sapir, Edward]] [[be:Эдуард Сэпір]] [[bg:Едуард Сапир]] [[ca:Edward Sapir]] [[da:Edward Sapir]] [[de:Edward Sapir]] [[es:Edward Sapir]] [[eo:Edward SAPIR]] [[ja:エドワード・サピア]] [[lb:Edward Sapir]] [[mt:Edward Sapir]] [[pl:Edward Sapir]] [[pt:Edward Sapir]] [[ru:Сепир, Эдуард]] [[sk:Edward Sapir]] [[zh:萨丕尔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>English</title> <id>9322</id> <revision> <id>41860007</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:59:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kuru</username> <id>764407</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>finished vandal cleanup</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|English|english}} '''English''' can refer to: *The [[English language]] *The [[English people]] *Anything from [[England]] *A technique in [[Billiards#Glossary_of_pool_and_billiards_terms|billiards]] and related games It is also the name given to: *[[English, Indiana]] a city in the United States *[[English studies]], an academic discipline *[[English programming language]], derived from SQL *''[[Johnny English]]'', a comic movie starring Rowan Atkinson *[[English (font)]], a typeface *''[[The English]]'', a book written by Jeremy Paxman {{disambig}} [[ang:Englisc]] [[cy:Annales Cambriae]] [[da:Engelsk (flertydig)]] [[de:Englisch]] [[it:Inglese]] [[simple:English]] [[tl:Ingles]] [[th:อังกฤษ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Easter Sunday</title> <id>9323</id> <revision> <id>15907221</id> <timestamp>2002-05-27T00:44:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Easter]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Easter egg</title> <id>9324</id> <revision> <id>41950756</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:04:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Astrokey44</username> <id>413045</id> </contributor> <comment>add picture from commons</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the hidden features included in computer programs, DVDs, books, CDs, etc., see [[Easter egg (virtual)]]. '' '''Easter eggs''' are specially decorated [[egg (food)|egg]]s given out to celebrate the [[Easter]] holiday. The oldest [[tradition]] is to use dyed and painted [[chicken]] eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute eggs made from [[chocolate]], or plastic eggs filled with [[candy]] such as [[jellybean]]s. [[Image:Eggs.jpg|thumb|210px|Ukrainian Easter eggs, or ''[[pysanky]]''.]] [[Image:Easter-Eggs-1.jpg|thumb|Chocolate Easter eggs]] Candy Easter eggs can be any form of [[confectionery]] such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in brightly-colored [[aluminium foil|foil]]. Some are delicately constructed of spun [[sugar]] and [[pastry]] [[decoration]] techniques. The ubiquitous jelly egg or jellybean is made from sugar-coated [[pectin]] candy. These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter Bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning. Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are age-old [[fertility]] [[symbol]]s. The [[Passover]] [[Seder]] service uses a hard-cooked egg flavored with salt water as a symbol both of new life and the Temple service in [[Jerusalem]]. The Jewish tradition may have come from earlier Roman [[Spring (season)|Spring]] feasts. Easter egg origin stories abound &amp;mdash; one has an [[emperor]] claiming that the [[Resurrection of Jesus |Resurrection]] was as likely as eggs turning red (see [[Mary Magdalene]]); more prosaically the Easter egg tradition may have celebrated the end of the privations of [[Lent]]. In the West, eggs were seen as &quot;meat&quot;, which would have been forbidden during [[Lent]]. Likewise, in [[Eastern Christianity]], both meat and dairy were prohibited during the fast, and eggs were seen as &quot;dairy&quot; (a foodstuff that could be taken from an animal without shedding its blood). One would have been forced to hard boil the [[Boiled egg
ept as the current content. [[Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)|Make findable from page via ''What links here'']] [[Category:Obsolete list of encyclopedia topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)/E</title> <id>6403</id> <revision> <id>15904545</id> <timestamp>2005-05-16T07:20:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pearle</username> <id>112114</id> </contributor> <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete. Please consult the ''Page history'' link for the actual old content - to prevent this obsolete page from showing up in ''What links here'' lists, the old revision is '''not''' kept as the current content. 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[[Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)|Make findable from page via ''What links here'']] [[Category:Obsolete list of encyclopedia topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)/C</title> <id>6405</id> <revision> <id>15904547</id> <timestamp>2005-05-16T07:20:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pearle</username> <id>112114</id> </contributor> <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete. Please consult the ''Page history'' link for the actual old content - to prevent this obsolete page from showing up in ''What links here'' lists, the old revision is '''not''' kept as the current content. 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[[Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)|Make findable from page via ''What links here'']] [[Category:Obsolete list of encyclopedia topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)/A</title> <id>6407</id> <revision> <id>15904549</id> <timestamp>2005-05-16T07:19:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pearle</username> <id>112114</id> </contributor> <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete. Please consult the ''Page history'' link for the actual old content - to prevent this obsolete page from showing up in ''What links here'' lists, the old revision is '''not''' kept as the current content. 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ten called the &quot;pseudo-Philip,&quot; a fuller of Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]], last king of [[Macedon]]ia. He occupied the throne for a year ([[149 BC]]-[[148 BC]].) Unable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius Soter of Syria]], who handed him over to the Romans. He contrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a large body of [[Thracians]]; and, having completely defeated the praetor [[Publius Juventius]] (149), he assumed the title of king. His conquest of [[Thessaly]] and alliance with [[Carthage]] made the situation dangerous. Eventually he was defeated by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus|Q. Caecilius Metellus]] (148), and fled to [[Thrace]], whose prince gave him up to [[Rome]]. He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146), who received the title of &quot;Macedonicus&quot; for his victory. Andriscus's brief reign was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was formally reduced to a province. [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius Paterculus]] i. 11; [[Florus]] ii. 14; [[Livy]], ''Epit.'' 49, 50, 52; [[Diodorus Siculus|Diod. Sic.]] xxxii. 9. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[fi:Andriskos]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andronicus III</title> <id>1760</id> <revision> <id>42042677</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus III Palaeologus''' (c. [[1296]] - [[June 15]], [[1341]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the son of [[Michael IX Palaeologus]] and Princess [[Rita of Armenia]]. His conduct during his youth was so violent that, after the death of his father Michael in [[1320]], his grandfather [[Andronicus II]] resolved to deprive him of his right to the crown. Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being crowned and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, [[1325]]. The quarrel broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the [[Bulgaria]]ns, the older emperor was compelled to abdicate in [[1328]]. His chief minister during this period was John Cantacuzenus, later Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus|John VI]]. During his reign Andronicus III was engaged in constant war, chiefly with the [[Ottoman Turks]], who greatly extended their territory, conquering almost all of [[Asia Minor]] before his coming to power. Under Andronicus's rule, [[Nicaea]] fell to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[emir]] [[Orhan I]] in 1331, with [[Nicomedia]] following in 1337. After that, in Asia Minor only Philadelphia and a handful of ports remained under Byzantine control. He annexed large regions in [[Thessaly]] and [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], but they were lost few years after his death in period of new civil war to the rising power of [[Serbia]] under [[Stefan Dusan]]. Andronicus worked on the reorganization of the navy, and recovered [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], [[Phocaea]], and [[Chios]] from the [[Genoa|Genoese]]. He died in [[1341]], and was succeeded by his son, [[John V Palaeologus|John V]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Andronicus II]] | title=[[Byzantine Emperor]] | years=1325&amp;ndash;1341 &lt;br /&gt;''with [[Andronicus II]] in 1325-1328'' | after=[[John V Palaeologus]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1290s births]] [[Category:1341 deaths]] [[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[de:Andronikos III.]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος Γ']] [[es:Andrónico III Paleólogo]] [[fr:Andronic III Paléologue]] [[hu:III. Andronikosz]] [[ja:アンドロニコス3世パレオロゴス]] [[pl:Andronik III Paleolog]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andronicus II</title> <id>1761</id> <revision> <id>42042664</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus II Palaeologus''' ([[1260]] &amp;ndash; [[February 13]], [[1332]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the elder son of [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]], whom he succeeded in [[1282]]. He ruled until 1328. He allowed the fleet, which his father had organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]]. During his reign the [[Ottoman Turks]] under [[Osman I|Osman]] conquered nearly the whole of [[Bithynia]]; and to resist them the emperor called in the aid of the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Roger de Flor]], who commanded a body of [[Aragon]]ese and [[Catalonia|Catalan]] adventurers known as [[Almogavars]]. The Turks were defeated, but Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the imperial power. He was [[assassination|assassinated]] by Andronicus's son and colleague (sometimes referred to as emperor Michael IX, though he never ruled in his own name), in [[1305]]. His adventurers (known as the [[Catalan Grand Company]] or ''Companyia Catalana'' in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]) declared war upon Andronicus, and, after devastating [[Thrace]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], conquered the [[Duchy of Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. From [[1320]] onwards the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson [[Andronicus III|Andronicus]]. He abdicated in [[1328]] and died in [[1332]]. In [[1274]] he married Anne of Hungary, a daughter of King [[Stephen V of Hungary|Stephen V]], with whom he had two sons: # [[Michael IX Palaeologus]] # Constantine After she died in [[1281]] Andronicus married a daughter of Wilhelm IX of Montferrat, Yolande, who took the name of Irene and bore him: # John (c. 1286 - 1308) # [[Theodore I of Montferrat|Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat]] (1291-1338) # Demetrius (d. after 1343) # Simonis (1294 - after 1336) (married King of [[Serbia]] [[Stefan Milutin|Stephen II Urosh Milutin]]) He also had at least two illegitimate daughters: # Irene, wife of John II despot of [[Thessaly]] # Maria, wife of [[Tokhta]] Khan of the [[Golden Horde]] {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] | CoEmperor=with [[Michael IX Palaeologus]]| Next=[[Andronicus III]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:1260 births]] [[Category:1332 deaths]] [[de:Andronikos II.]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος Β']] [[es:Andrónico II Paleólogo]] [[fr:Andronic II Paléologue]] [[hu:II. Andronikosz]] [[ja:アンドロニコス2世パレオロゴス]] [[pl:Andronik II Paleolog]] [[zh:安德洛尼卡二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andronicus I Comnenus</title> <id>1762</id> <revision> <id>42042654</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ByzantineBillonTrachy.jpg|frame|Billon trachy (a cup-shaped coin) of Andronicus I Comnenus (1183-1185)]] '''Andronicus I Comnenus''' (c.1118 - September 12th 1185), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], son of prince [[Isaac Comnenus (d. 1152)|Isaac Comnenus]], and grandson of [[Alexius I Comnenus|Alexius I Comnenus]], was born about the beginning of the [[12th century]]. His birth has been estimated to c. [[1118]]. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician. Andronicus' early years were spent in alternate pleasure and military service. In [[1141]] he was taken captive by the [[Seljuk Turks]] and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to [[Constantinople]], where was held the court of his cousin, the emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus|Manuel]], with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, the princess Eudoxia, attracted him. She became his mistress, while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the emperor Manuel. In [[1152]], accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in [[Cilicia]]. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon [[Mopsuestia]], he returned, but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in [[Constantinople]], and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time ([[1153]]) a conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated, was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he remained for about twelve years, during which time he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. At last, in [[1165]], he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers, reached the court of [[Yaroslav]], grand prince of [[Ruthenia]], at [[Kyiv]]. While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel, and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian army he joined Manuel in the invasion of [[Hungary]] and assisted at the siege of [[Semlin]]. After a successful campaign Manuel and Andronicus returned together to Constantinople ([[1168]]); but a year after, Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. He was removed from court, but received the province of [[Cilicia]]. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, Andronicus fled to the court of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymond]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]]. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the princ
y== Irenaeus is thought to have been a [[Greek people|Greek]] from [[Polycarp]]'s own hometown of [[Smyrna]] in [[Asia Minor]], now [[Izmir]], [[Turkey]]. He was raised in a Christian family, rather than converting as an adult, and this may help explain his rigid adherence to [[orthodoxy]]. Irenaeus was one of the first Christian writers to use the principle of [[apostolic succession]] to refute his opponents. Irenaeus is remembered as the second bishop of [[Lyons]], although there is no clear evidence that he ever officially assumed the episcopal duties there. The first bishop, [[Pothinus (Bishop)|Pothinus]], was [[martyr|martyred]] around [[177]] [[Common Era|CE]], during persecutions under [[Marcus Aurelius]], while Irenaeus was visiting [[Rome]]. Irenaeus is also remembered as a [[martyr]], although there is no evidence indicating how he died; presumably, he did so shortly after the turn of the [[third century]]. He was buried under the church of Saint John's in Lyons, which was later renamed St. Irenaeus in his honour; the tomb and his remains were destroyed in [[1562]] by the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] [[Huguenots]]. The remains of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], among others, also were lost in the religious wars of those times. ==Writings== Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the most important that survives is the five-volume ''On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called [[Gnosis]]'', normally referred to by the [[Latin language|Latin]] title ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' (&quot;Against Heresies&quot;). Only fragments of the original [[Greek language|Greek]] text exist, but a complete copy exists in a wooden Latin translation, made shortly after its publication in Greek, and Books IV and V are also present in a literal [[Armenian language|Armenian]] translation. The purpose of ''Against Heresies'' was to refute the teachings of various [[gnosticism|Gnostic]] groups; apparently, several Greek merchants had begun a oratorial campaign praising the pursuit of &quot;''[[gnosis]]''&quot; in Irenaeus' bishopric. Until the discovery of the [[Nag Hammadi library|Library of Nag Hammadi]] in [[1945]], ''Against Heresies'' was the best surviving description of [[Gnosticism]]. In Book II, chapter 22 of his treatise, Irenaeus asserts that the ministry of [[Jesus]] lasted from when he was [[baptism|baptized]] at the age of 30 until at least until the age of 50, and that he remained among his [[disciple|disciples]] until the reign of [[Trajan]], that is, until at least the year [[98]] [[Common Era|CE]]. It is not clear from the context whether Irenaeus believed Jesus was crucified in his old age, or was crucified at around the age 50 and then remained on earth long after his resurrection: &lt;blockquote&gt;[F]rom the fortieth and fiftieth year a man begins to decline towards old age, which our Lord possessed while He still fulfilled the office of a Teacher, even as the [[Gospel]] and all the elders testify; those who were conversant in [[Near East|Asia]] with [[St._John_the_Apostle|John]], the disciple of the [[God|Lord]], [affirming] that John conveyed to them that information. And he remained among them up to the times of Trajan. Some of them, moreover, saw not only John, but the other [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] also, and heard the very same account from them, and bear testimony as to the [validity of] the statement.''&lt;/blockquote&gt; Elsewhere, Irenaeus asserts that: &lt;blockquote&gt;they have [[apostasy|apostatized]] in their opinions from Him who is God, and imagined that they have themselves discovered more than the apostles, by finding out another god; and [maintained] that the apostles preached the [[Gospel]] still somewhat under the influence of Jewish opinions, but that they themselves are purer [in doctrine], and more intelligent, than the apostles. (Book III, ch. 12, par. 12)&lt;/blockquote&gt; Irenaeus cites from most of [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon|canon]], as well as the noncanonical works the [[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]] and [[The Shepherd of Hermas]]; however, he makes no references to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], [[2 Peter]], [[3 John]] or the [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]. Irenaeus was the first Christian writer to list all four of the now canonical [[Gospel]]s as divinely-inspired, possibly in reaction to [[Marcion]]'s edited version of the [[Gospel of Luke]], which he (Marcion) asserted was the one and only true gospel. Irenaeus' works were published in [[English language|English]] in [[1885]] in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] collection. ==Irenaeus' Theology== The central point of Irenaeus' [[theology]] is the unity of [[God]], in opposition to the Gnostics' division of God into a number of divine &quot;[[Aeon]]s&quot;, and their distinction between the utterly transcendent &quot;High God&quot; and the inferior &quot;[[Demiurge]]&quot; who created the world. Irenaeus uses the [[Logos]] theology he inherited from [[Justin Martyr]], but prefers to speak of the Son and the Spirit as the &quot;hands of God&quot;. [[Christ]], according to him, is the invisible Father made visible. His emphasis on the unity of God is reflected in his corresponding emphasis on the unity of [[salvation]] [[history]]. Irenaeus repeatedly insists that God began the world and has been overseeing it ever since this creative act; everything that has happened is part of his plan for [[humanity]]. The essence of this plan is a process of [[maturation]]: Irenaeus believes that humanity was created immature, and God intended his creatures to take a long time to grow into or assume the divine likeness. Thus, [[Adam and Eve]] were created as children. Their [[fall (religion)|Fall]] was thus not a full-blown rebellion but a childish spat, a desire to grow up before their time and have everything with immediacy. Everything that has happened since has therefore been planned by God to help humanity overcome this initial mishap and achieve spiritual maturity. The world has been intentionally designed by God as a difficult place, where human beings are forced to make [[moral]] decisions, as only in this way can they mature as moral agents. Irenaeus likens [[death]] to the [[whale]] that swallowed [[Jonah]]: it was only in the depths of the whale's belly that Jonah could turn to God and act according to the divine will. Similarly, death and [[suffering]] appear as [[evil|evils]], but without them we could never come to know God. {{mergefrom|Recapitulation (Irenaeus)}} According to Irenaeus, the high point in salvation history is the advent of [[Jesus]]. Irenaeus believes that [[Christ]] would always have been sent, even if humanity had never sinned; but the fact that they ''did'' [[sin]] determines his role as a [[savior]]. He sees Christ as the new Adam, who systematically ''undoes'' what Adam did: thus, where Adam was disobedient concerning God's edict concerning the fruit of the [[Tree of Knowledge]], Christ was obedient even to death on the wood of a tree. Irenaeus is the first to draw comparisons between Eve and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], contrasting the faithlessness of the former with the faithfulness of the latter. In addition to reversing the wrongs done by Adam, Irenaeus thinks of Christ as &quot;recapitulating&quot; or &quot;summing up&quot; human life. This means that Christ goes through every stage of human life, from [[infancy]] to [[old age]], and simply by living it, sanctifies it with his [[divinity]]. As a consequence, Irenaeus is therefore forced to argue that Christ did not die until he was quite old (see [[#Writings|above]]). Irenaeus conceives of our salvation as essentially coming about through the [[incarnation]] of God as a man. He characterises the penalty for sin as death and [[corruption (philosophical concept)|corruption]]. God, however, is [[immortal]] and [[incorruptible]], and simply by becoming united to [[human nature]] in Christ he conveys those qualities to us: they spread, as it were, like a benign infection. Irenaeus therefore understands the [[atonement]] of Christ as happening through his incarnation rather than his [[crucifixion]], although the latter event is an integral part of the former. == External links == *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html Early Christian Writings Irenaeus] *[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/TOC.htm A nineteenth-century translation of Irenaeus' work] **[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-59.htm#P7011_1802900 Book II, ch. 22], where Irenaeus argues his unconventional views about the age of Jesus and the length of his ministry. *[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/irenaeus.htm Excerpts from Irenaeus] *[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/irenaeus.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography. [[Category:130 births]] [[Category:202 deaths]] [[category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Gnosticism]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Theologians]] [[cs:Irenej z Lyonu]] [[de:Irenäus von Lyon]] [[es:Ireneo de Lyon]] [[eo:Sankta Ireneo]] [[fr:Irénée de Lyon]] [[it:Sant'Ireneo di Lione]] [[hu:Szent Ireneus]] [[nl:Irenaeus van Lyon]] [[ja:エイレナイオス]] [[no:Ireneus av Lyon]] [[pl:Ireneusz z Lyonu]] [[pt:Ireneu de Lyon]] [[sk:Irenej z Lyonu]] [[fi:Irenaeus]] [[sv:Irenaeus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Involuntary commitment</title> <id>15416</id> <revision> <id>41618390</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:34:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|involuntary treatment}} '''Involuntary commitment''' is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a [[mental health law]] to commit a person to a [[mental hospital]], insane asylum or [[psychiatric ward]] against their will or
ons. Its limited target area makes it difficult for the attacking fencer to score, so complicated attacks (or defenses against the same) must often be planned well in advance of the attack's actual delivery. Thus, many people compare foil fencing (or fencing generally) to a sort of physical [[chess]] match. === Épée === [[Image:epeefen.gif|frame|right|An Épée fencer. Valid target (the entire body) is in black.]] The modern [[épée]] is the closest weapon to an actual classical duelling weapon that is used in modern fencing, descended from the French [[duel|duelling]] sword of the [[19th Century|19th]] and [[20th Century|20th centuries]]. The épée is a long, straight and relatively heavy sword as compared to the foil, with a triangular or V-shaped, less flexible blade and a large, round, bell-shaped guard. Like the foil, the épée is a point weapon. The reason for the large guard is that the hand is a valid target, as is the rest of the body. Since double-touches are a possibility &amp;mdash; and, since there is no right-of-way (see below) &amp;mdash; épée fencing tends to be more conservative in style than the other weapons. In electric fencing, in order for a point to register, one must hit the opponent with the point, registering at least 7.35 newtons (750 grams-force) of force. Classical fencers sometimes use a ''point d'arret'', a three-pronged attachment that will actually catch the opponent's jacket. &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; === Sabre === [[Image:saberfen.gif|frame|right|A sabre fencer. Valid target (everything from the waist up, including the arms and head) is in black.]] The modern [[Sabre (fencing)|sabre]] is descended from the classical northern Italian duelling sabre, a far lighter weapon than the cavalry sabre. The method and practice of sabre fencing is somewhat different from the other weapons, in that the sabre is an edged weapon. In modern electric scoring, a touch with the sabre, point, flat or edge, to any part of the opponent's valid target (head, torso, or arm) will register a hit. Unlike foil and épée, in modern sport sabre, the crossover is not allowed. This rule change was made so that referees would not have to try to determine right of way when both fencers simply fleched, or ran at each other. However, recently some sabre fencers have been using a technique known as the &quot;flying lunge&quot;, or &quot;flunge&quot; for short. This attack starts like a fleche, but the fencer pushes off from the ground, and flies forward. The legs almost cross at the high point of the jump, but then the front leg is brought forward to catch the fencer. The target area originates from dueling sabre training. To attack the opponent's leg would allow him to &quot;slip&quot; that leg back and attack one's exposed arm or head given that the higher line attack will outreach the low line (there is a classic example of the leg slip in Angelo's ''Hungarian and Highland Broadsword'' of 1790). The target area is from the waist up excluding the hands. Right-of-way applies, much as it does to foil. A common misconception concerning the origin of sabre's target area is that the legs are removed as targets due to sabre's origin as a cavalry weapon. Essentially, this line of reasoning goes, the legs of a horseman were not a valid target in war, since cutting the leg of a man riding a horse would not stop that man from continuing his charge. This myth has largely been refuted and several older texts demonstrate low sabre parries to protect the mount's flanks and the fencer's legs. For more information on this topic consult Christoph Amberger's book &quot;A Secret History of the Sword&quot;. == Right of way == The &quot;right of way&quot; principle in foil and sabre is that the first person to properly execute an attack has priority. An &quot;attack&quot; is defined inconsistently by modern fencing directors: most use a newer definition which sees one fencer extending his or her arm as an attack, but a few still adhere to the classical principle that an attack is not established until the arm is fully extended. Either way, if one is attacked, one must defend oneself before counterattacking -- rather than attempting to hit one's opponent even at the risk of being hit oneself. This is the basic principle of right-of-way. Attacks can be made to fail either by bad luck, misjudgement or by action on the part of the defender. A properly executed [[parry (fencing)|parry]] (deflecting the incoming attack with one's own blade) causes priority to change and the defender has the opportunity to attack ([[riposte (fencing)|riposte]]). The original attacker must parry the defender's riposte before attacking again. However, if the parry is ineffectual ([[malparry]]), if the riposte misses, or the defender hesitates before riposting, the attacker can continue his attack (this can be called a [[remise (fencing)|remise]], a reprise or a [[redoublement (fencing)|redoublement]]) without himself parrying. None of these actions (remise, reprise or redoublment) has the right of way so if the defending fencer hesitates that will be called a counterattack and will receive the touch. For instance, if one fencer attacks, and the other immediately counter-attacks into the attack, and each hits the other, the first fencer's attack is considered successful, while the second is considered to have misjudged. If, however, the second fencer parried the first attack and then responded with an attack of his own (or if he had counter-attacked and managed to avoid being touched), they would have taken the right of way away from the first fencer. It would then be incumbent on the first fencer to defend him - or her - self. When electrical scoring equipment is used in the modern sports of foil and sabre, (there is electrical epee scoring as well) both fencers will register a hit if they contact within a certain time of each other. Then the referee must decide who had right of way at the time of the hits, and therefore who gets a point. If the referee cannot tell, then he will declare the touches null, and restart the bout from where it stopped. Double hits are possible in épée as well, but only if both fencers contact within a very short timeframe (40 milliseconds, or 1/25th of a second). In this case, both fencers will receive a point. Right-of-way in foil and sabre exists to force the fencers to fence in a manner consistent with sharp-weapon fencing. A fencer being attacked with a sharp weapon would not be very likely to simply launch a simultaneous attack in hopes of splitting the &quot;point&quot; (thus killing both fencers). Instead, fencers attacked with a sharp weapon would be likely to ensure their own safety with a good defense before counterattacking. == Protective clothing == [[Image:Fencing equipment.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Equipment of a right-handed épée fencer:&lt;br&gt; 1. Jacket&lt;br&gt; 2. Glove&lt;br&gt; 3. Body wire&lt;br&gt; 4. Épées&lt;br&gt; 5. Breeches&lt;br&gt; 6. Mask&lt;br&gt; 7. Plastron&lt;br&gt; Not pictured: socks and shoes]] The clothing which is worn in modern fencing is made of tough [[cotton]] or [[nylon]]. [[Kevlar]] was previously used but found insufficiently durable. The complete fencing kit includes the following items of clothing: * Form-fitting jacket, covering groin and with strap (''croissard'') which goes between the legs * Half jacket (plastron) which goes underneath the jacket and provides double protection on the sword arm side and upper arm. It is required to not have a seam in the armpit, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot. * Glove, with a cuff that prevents swords going up the sleeve and causing injury, as well as protecting the hand and providing a good grip * Breeches (knickers), which are a pair of pants. The legs are supposed to hold just below the knee. * Knee-length socks, which cover the rest of the leg. * Mask, including a bib which protects the neck * Plastic chest protector, mandatory for female fencers to provide protection for the breasts. While male versions are also available, they were until recently primarily worn by instructors, who are hit far more often during training than their students; since the change of the depression timing (see above), these are increasingly popular in foil and épée, for they protect the users chest better than the plastron. Plastrons are still mandatory, though. Traditionally, the uniform is white in colour. This is primarily to assist the judges in seeing touches scored (black being the traditional colour for masters), but rules against non-white uniforms may also have been intended to combat sponsorship and the commercialization of the sport. However, recently the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow coloured uniforms. The colour white might also be traced back to times before electronic scoring equipment, when the blades were sometimes covered in soot or coloured chalk to make a mark on the opponent's clothing. * Fencing Masters wear a heavier protective jacket, usually reinforced by plastic foam to endure the numerous hits an instructor has to endure. * Sometimes in practice, masters wear a protective sleeve or a leg leather for protection of their fencing arm or leg. == The practice of fencing == Fencing takes place on a strip, or ''[[Piste (fencing)|piste]]'', with two fencers facing one another. In modern fencing, the piste is between 1.5 and 2 meters wide, and 14 meters long. There are designated points on the fencing strip; there is the en-garde line (this is where the fencers start), the center line, the two meter warning lines and the end of the strip. Prior to starting a bout it is required for fencers to salute each other as well as the director. Fencers technically must also salute the audience, but this is often not enforced. Some fencers choose to salute various other things (e.g. God). The fencer's salute has traditionally consisted of the blade going vertically before the fen
re, however, widely thought to have been dramatized in an epilogue to his novel ''[[Dave Barry in Cyberspace]]'', but with names changed: Barry is cast as 'RayAdverb' (an [[anagram]] of 'Dave Barry'), and Michelle is represented as 'MsPtato'. Barry once picked up his son Rob from Junior High School while driving the Oscar Mayer [[Wienermobile]]. Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as ''Boating'', ''Home Office Computing'' and ''[[Reader's Digest]]'', in addition to the ''[[Chicken Soup for the Soul]]'' inspirational book series. One of his columns was used (without his permission or objections, or possibly even his knowledge) as the introduction to the book &quot;Pirattitude: So you wanna be a pirate? Here's how.&quot; When distinguishing fact from hyperbole, Barry frequently asserts: &quot;I swear I am not making this up.&quot; Among his favorite topics are exploding or flaming items (cows, whales, vacuum cleaners, toilets, [[pop tarts]], [[Barbie]] dolls, etc.), dogs lacking intelligence, and amusing government studies. Barry also has [[libertarianism|libertarian]] political leanings. He labels various posts on his blog with long abbreviations, such as OIYDWYMTTY(NY)G (&quot;''Or If You Don't Want Your Mother To Think You're (Not Your) Gay''&quot;) and wbagnfarb (&quot;''would be a great name for a rock band''&quot;, an observation Barry often applies to phrases which pop up in his writing, such as &quot;Italic Squirrels&quot;), no doubt poking fun at unnecessarily long internet abbreviations. Barry's website contains a fairly sizeable list of things &quot;which would be a great name for a rock band&quot;. Barry has defined a sense of humor as &quot;a measurement of the extent to which we realize that we are trapped in a world almost totally devoid of reason. Laughter is how we express the anxiety we feel at this knowledge.&quot; Barry helps organize the [[Tropic Hunt]], an annual [[puzzlehunt]] in Miami. On [[October 20]], [[2004]], Dave Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly humor column with the ''Herald'' in order to spend more time with his family. He said that he would continue writing humor and children's books and working on filming the screen adaptation of his book, ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys''. On [[December 28]], [[2005]], Barry said in an interview with &quot;Editor and Publisher&quot; that he will not be resuming his weekly column, though he will continue some features such as his yearly gift guide, year in review, his weblog, as well as an occasional column. [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001771322] ==Trivia== * Many Dave Barry quotations occur in the [[Fortune (program)|fortune]] cookie collections of [[Linux]] distributions; he is also often misattributed as the author of humorous material on the [[Internet]]. ==Works== ===Films=== *''[[Big Trouble (film)|Big Trouble]]'' (2001/2) *''[[Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys]]'' (2005) ===Fiction=== *''[[Big Trouble (novel)|Big Trouble]]'' (1999) *''[[Tricky Business]]'' (2002) *''[[Peter and the Starcatchers]]'' (2004, with [[Ridley Pearson]]) *''Peter and the Shadow Thieves'' ('''Forthcoming''', July 2006, with [[Ridley Pearson]], Greg Call) ISBN: 078683787X ===Non-fiction=== *''[[The Taming of the Screw]]'' (1983) *''[[Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home]]'' (1984) *''[[Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead]]'' (1985) *''[[Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week]]'' (1986) *''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex]]'' (1987) *''[[Homes and Other Black Holes]]'' (1988) *''[[Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States]]'' (1989) *''[[Dave Barry Turns 40]]'' (1990) *''[[Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need]]'' (1991) *''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Life]](1991) includes ''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex]], ''[[Claw Your Way to the Top]]'', ''[[Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead]]'' and ''[[Babies and Other Hazards of Sex]]'' *''[[Dave Barry Does Japan]]'' (1992) *''[[Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides]]'' (1994) *''[[Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys]]'' (1996) *''[[Dave Barry in Cyberspace]]'' (1996) *''[[Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs]]'' (1997) *''[[Dave Barry Turns 50]]'' (1998) *''[[Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions]]'' (2001) *''[[&quot;My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old&quot; and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry]]'' (2001) *''[[&quot;The Greatest Invention In The History Of Mankind Is Beer&quot; And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry]]'' (2001) *''[[Dave Barry's Money Secrets]]'' (2006) ===Collected columns=== *''[[Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book]]'' (1987) *''[[Dave Barry's Greatest Hits]]'' (1988) *''[[Dave Barry Talks Back]]'' (1991) *''[[The World According to Dave Barry]]'' (1994) includes ''[[Dave Barry Talks Back]]'' and ''[[Dave Barry's Greatest Hits]]'' *''[[Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up]]'' (1995) *''[[Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus]]'' (1997) *''[[Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down]]'' (2000) *''[[Boogers Are My Beat|Dave Barry: Boogers Are My Beat]]'' (2003) ===Collaborations=== *''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude'' (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris *''Naked Came the Manatee'' (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, [[John Dufresne]], Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson ===Audio recordings=== *''A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry'' (1992) ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} *[http://www.davebarry.com/ The Official Dave Barry Website] *[http://blogs.herald.com/dave_barrys_blog/ The Official Dave Barry Blog] *[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/living/columnists/dave_barry/ Dave Barry, The Miami Herald] *{{imdb title|id=0246464|title=Big Trouble}} *{{imdb title|id=0407680|title=Complete Guide to Guys}} *[http://www.guidetoguys.com/ Complete Guide to Guys official website] *[http://www.dqydj.com/rbr.htm Rock Bottom Remainders, &quot;Don't Quit Your Day Job&quot; Records] *[http://www.blu5.net/talk/showthread.php?s=b49dfb17d549c933dc03271e088af245&amp;postid=511068, &quot;final column: 'The last word, for now; humorist gives jokes a rest'&quot;] *[http://www.slate.com/id/2112218/ Dave Barry: Elegy for the humorist.] * See also Usenet Group alt.fan.dave_barry [[Category:1947 births|Barry, Dave]] [[Category:Living people|Barry, Dave]] [[Category:Dave Barry| ]] [[Category:Libertarians|Barry, Dave]] [[Category:Conscientious objectors|Barry, Dave]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Barry, Dave]] [[cs:Dave Barry]] [[he:דייב בארי]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dutch language</title> <id>8433</id> <revision> <id>41546000</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:47:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kelovy</username> <id>357014</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+sk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Dutch |nativename=Nederlands |states=[[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Suriname]], [[Aruba]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[Indonesia]], [[France]] |speakers=22 million (2005) |rank=48 |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] |fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] |fam4=[[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]] |fam5=[[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] |nation=[[Aruba]], [[Belgium]], [[European Union]], [[Netherlands]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[Suriname]] |agency=Nederlandse Taalunie&lt;br&gt;([[Dutch Language Union]]) |iso1=nl|iso2b=dut|iso2t=nld|iso3=nld}} '''Dutch''' (''{{Audio|nl-Nederlands.ogg|Nederlands}}''), sometimes referred to as ''Netherlandic'' in [[English language|English]], is a [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]] [[language]] spoken by around 22 million people, mainly in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] (2005 [http://taalunieversum.org/taal/vragen/antwoord/4/]). Dutch spoken in [[Flanders]] ''(Vlaanderen)'', the northern part of Belgium, is sometimes referred to as [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] ''(Vlaams)''. ==History== The [[West Germanic]] [[dialect]]s can be divided according to tribe ([[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Saxon people|Saxon]], [[Franconian]], [[Bavarian]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]]), and according to the extent of their participation in the [[High German consonant shift]] ([[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]] against [[High Germanic languages|High Germanic]]). The present Dutch [[standard language]] is largely derived from [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects spoken in the [[Low Countries]] that must have reached a separate identity no later than about AD 600. [[Image:Vogala.png|frame|right|The ''Hebban olla vogala'' fragment.]]An early Dutch recorded writing is: &quot;''Hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu, wat unbidan we nu''&quot; (&quot;All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for&quot;), dating around the year [[1100]], written by a Flemish [[monk]] in a [[convent]] in [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], [[England]]. For a long time this sentence was considered to be the earliest in Dutch, but since its discovery even older fragments were found, such as ''&quot;Visc flot aftar themo uuatare&quot;'' (&quot;A fish was swimming in the water&quot;) and ''&quot;Gelobistu in got alamehtigan fadaer&quot;'' (&quot;Do yo
cture. However, the nebulae were not universally accepted as distant separate galaxies until the matter was settled by [[Edwin Hubble]] in the early 1920s using a new telescope. He was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some [[Cepheid variable]]s, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way. In 1936, Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to this day, the [[Hubble sequence]]. The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by [[William Herschel]] in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. Using a refined approach, [[Jacobus Kapteyn|Kapteyn]] in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diameter ~15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center. A different method by [[Harlow Shapley]] based on the cataloging of [[globular cluster]]s lead to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diameter ~70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center. Both analyses failed to take into account the [[extinction (astronomy)|absorption of light]] by interstellar dust present in the [[galactic plane]]; once [[Robert Julius Trumpler]] had quantified this effect in 1930 by studying [[open cluster]]s, the present picture of our galaxy as described above emerged. In 1944, [[Hendrik van de Hulst]] predicted [[microwave]] radiation at a [[hydrogen line|wavelength of 21 cm]], resulting from interstellar atomic [[hydrogen]] gas; this radiation was observed in 1951. This radiation allowed for much improved study of the Galaxy, since it is not affected by dust absorption and its [[doppler shift]] can be used to map the motion of the gas in the Galaxy. These observations led to the postulation of a rotating [[barred spiral galaxy|bar structure]] in the center of the Galaxy. With improved radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. In the 1970s it was discovered in [[Vera Rubin]]'s study of the [[rotation curve|rotation speed]] of gas in galaxies that the total visible mass (from stars and gas) does not properly account for the speed of the rotating gas. This [[galaxy rotation problem]] is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen [[dark matter]]. Beginning in the 1990s, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] yielded improved observations. Among other things, it established that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars. The [[Hubble Deep Field]], an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion galaxies in the universe. Improved technology in detecting the non-visible spectrum ([[radio telescope]]s, [[infrared camera]]s, [[x-ray telescope]]s), allow detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the [[zone of avoidance]] (the region of the sky blocked by the Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies. ==Life in Galaxies== [[Life]] as we know it would seem to be a phenomenon found only around single, third-generation [[stellar classification|'''G'''-type]] stars in the middle regions of the spiral arms of [[spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]], like the [[sun]]. [[Elliptical galaxies]], produced as a result of many [[colliding galaxies|galactic collision]]s, quickly lose their clouds of [[interstellar medium|interstellar hydrogen gas]], and cannot make new generations of stars. [[Irregular galaxies]] have few elderly stars and thus seem to have low concentrations of the heavier elements on which life depends. Even within spiral galaxies life as we know it would appear to be limited to the middle reaches of the spiral arm, as in the [[galactic halo]] or outer spiral arms heavier elements are in short supply, whilst in the gas clouds around the galactic centre heavier elements are in concentrations too high, and inter-stellar interactions are too frequent to allow earth-sized planets to form in stable circular orbits around their stars. == See also == * [[Active galaxy]] * [[Barred spiral galaxy]] * [[Dwarf galaxy]] * [[Dwarf elliptical galaxy]] * [[Dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] * [[Elliptical galaxy]] * [[Galaxy classification]] * [[Galaxy formation and evolution]] * [[Groups and clusters of galaxies]] * [[Irregular galaxy]] * [[Lenticular galaxy]] * [[List of galaxies]] * [[List of nearest galaxies]] * [[Ring galaxy]] * [[Spiral galaxy]] * [[Starburst galaxy]] * [[Seyfert galaxy]] * [[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large scale structure]] == References == * James Binney: ''Galactic Astronomy'', Princeton University Press, 1998 * Terence Dickinson: ''The Universe and Beyond (Fourth Edition)'', Firefly Books Ltd. 2004, 2004 == External links == * [http://www.seds.org/messier/galaxy.html Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages] * [http://www.anzwers.org/free/universe/ An Atlas of The Universe] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies Galaxies - Information and amateur observations] * [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm The Oldest Star found in the Galaxy] [[Category:Astronomical objects]] [[Category:Galaxies| ]] [[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]] [[ar:مجرة]] [[ca:Galàxia]] [[cs:Galaxie]] [[da:Galakse]] [[de:Galaxie]] [[el:Γαλαξίες]] [[et:Galaktika]] [[es:Galaxia]] [[eo:Galaksio]] [[eu:Galaxia]] [[fa:کهکشان]] [[fr:Galaxie]] [[gl:Galaxia]] [[ko:은하]] [[io:Galaxio]] [[id:Galaksi]] [[it:Galassia]] [[he:גלקסיה]] [[la:Galaxias]] [[lv:Galaktika]] [[lt:Galaktika]] [[hu:Galaxis]] [[ms:Galaksi]] [[nl:Sterrenstelsel]] [[ja:銀河]] [[nn:galakse]] [[no:Galakse]] [[pl:Galaktyka]] [[pt:Galáxia]] [[ro:Galaxie]] [[ru:Галактика]] [[scn:Galassia]] [[simple:Galaxy]] [[sk:Galaxia]] [[sl:Galaksija]] [[sr:Галаксија]] [[fi:Galaksi]] [[sv:Galax]] [[th:กาแล็กซี]] [[vi:Thiên hà]] [[vec:Gałazsia]] [[zh:河外星系]] [[pam:Galaxy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gene Hackman</title> <id>12561</id> <revision> <id>41923105</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:21:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mllefifi</username> <id>382364</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Filmography */ +Zandy's Bride</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hackman.JPG|thumb|Gene Hackman]] '''Eugene Allen Hackman''' (born [[January 30]], [[1930]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] winning [[United States|American]] [[actor]]. ==Early life== Hackman was born in [[San Bernardino, California]] to Eugene Ezra Hackman (a newspaper pressman) and Lyda Gray. His parents divorced while he was a child, and he therefore moved from one place to another until he settled finally in [[Danville, Illinois]], where he lived with his [[England|English]]-born grandmother, Beatrice Gray. At 16 he left home to join the [[United States Marine Corps|United States Marine Corps]], where he served 3 years as a field radio operator. Having finished his service, he moved to [[New York]], where he worked in several minor jobs. He then studied television production and journalism at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]], taking advantage of the [[G.I. Bill]]. ==Career== Already over 30 years old, Hackman decided to become an actor, and joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California. It was in that school that Hackman forged a friendship with another aspiring actor named [[Dustin Hoffman]]. Already seen as outsiders by their classmates, Hackman and Hoffman were later voted &quot;The Least Likely To Succeed&quot;, which has proven famously untrue. Determined to prove them wrong, Hackman hopped on a bus bound for New York City with his wife, with Hoffman later following. A 2004 article in [[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] described how Hackman, Hoffman and [[Robert Duvall]] were all struggling actors and close friends, while living in New York City in the 1960s. As one of many odd jobs, Hackman was working as a doorman when he ran into an instructor whom he despised at the Beverly Hills Playhouse. Reinforcing the &quot;The Least Likely To Succeed&quot; vote, the man had said &quot;See Hackman, I told you you wouldn't amount to anything.&quot; (Some reports allege that it was in fact one of his former [[drill instructors]] from the [[Marines]] who saw him there and told him this.) Hackman began performing in several [[off-Broadway]] plays. Finally, in 1964, he had the offer to play on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], which opened the doors to the movies. His first role was in ''[[Lilith (film)|Lilith]]'', with [[Warren Beatty]] in the leading role. Another secondary role, Buck Barrow, in 1967's ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'', earned him an [[Academy Award]] nomination as [[Best Supporting Actor]]. In 1971, he was again nominated for the same award, this time for ''[[I Never Sang for My Father]]'', working alongside [[Melvyn Douglas]] and [[Estelle Parsons]]. The next year he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] award for his memorable performance as '''Popeye Doyle''' in ''[[The French Connection]]''. By the end of the 1980s Hackman was a deeply respected actor (during the decade he made at least seventeen movies - see list below), and alternated between leading and supporting roles, earning another [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] nomination for ''[[Mississippi Burning]].'' In 1990, he underwent heart surgery, which kept him away from work for a while. In 1992, he played the sadistic sheriff, Bill Daggett, in ''[[Unforgiven]]'', for which role he earned a second Oscar, this time for [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]. After so many years of acting, Hackman wanted to try another field of creativity, and wrote his first novel, w
e tooth</username> <id>652482</id> </contributor> <comment>RV</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaeological era, for the era in [[Classical mythology]] see [[Ages of Man]]'' :''For the comic book published by Image Comics, see [[Age of Bronze (comics)]]'' The '''Bronze Age''' is a period in a [[civilization]]'s development when the most advanced [[metalworking]] consisted of techniques for [[smelting]] [[copper]] and [[tin]] from naturally occurring outcroppings of ore, and then [[alloys|alloying]] those metals in order to cast [[bronze]]. The bronze age is part of the [[three-age system]] for [[prehistory|prehistoric societies]]. In that system, it follows the [[neolithic]] in some areas of the world. In most parts of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], the [[neolithic]] is directly followed by the '[[iron age]]'. ==Origins== The earliest evidence of bronze metalworking dates to the mid [[4th millennium]] [[Maykop culture]] in the [[Caucasus]]. From there, the technology spread rapidly to the Near East and after some time to the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (see [[Meluhha]]). ==Near Eastern Bronze Age== The Bronze Age in the Near East is divided into three main periods (the dates are very approximate): * EBA - Early Bronze Age (c.3500-2000 BC) * MBA - Middle Bronze Age (c.2000-1600 BC) * LBA - Late Bronze Age (c.1600-1200 BC) Each main period can be divided into shorter subcategories such as EB I, EB II, MB IIa etc. Metallurgy developed first in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. The mountains in the Anatolian highland possessed rich deposits of copper and tin. Copper was also mined in [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], the [[Negev]] desert, [[Iran]] and around the [[Persian Gulf]]. Copper was usually mixed with arsenic, yet the growing demand for tin resulted in the establishment of distant trade routes in and out of Anatolia. The precious copper was also imported by sea routes to the great kingdoms of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the [[Uruk period]] in the fourth millennium BC). In the Middle Bronze Age movements of people partially changed the political pattern of the Near East ([[Amorites]], [[Hittites]], [[Hurrians]], [[Hyksos]] and possibly the [[Israelites]]). The Late Bronze Age is characterized by competing powerful kingdoms and their vassal states ([[Ancient Egypt]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]], [[Hittites]], [[Mitanni]]). Extensive contacts were made with the [[Aegean civilization]] ([[Ahhiyawa]], [[Alashiya]]) in which the copper trade played an important role. Iron began to be worked already in Late Bronze Age Anatolia. The transition into the Iron Age c.1200 BC was more of a political change in the Near East rather than of new developments in metalworking. ==Asia== [[China]]'s bronze age began from around 2100? BC during the [[Xia dynasty]]. In [[Ban Chiang]], [[Thailand]], ([[Southeast Asia]]) bronze [[artefact]]s have been discovered dating to [[21st century BC|2100 BC]] [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/Asia/banchiang/bronzelab/index.shtml]. The [[Erlitou culture]], [[Shang Dynasty]] and [[Sanxingdui|Sanxingdui culture]] of early [[China]] used bronze vessels for rituals as well as farming implements and weapons [http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm]. The Middle [[Mumun pottery period]] culture of the southern [[Korean Peninsula]] gradually adopted bronze production circa [700-600?] BC after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artefacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula (circa 900-700 B.C.). Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary offerings until AD 100. ==Aegean Bronze Age== [[Image:Copper Ingot Crete.jpg|thumb|200px|Bronze Age copper ingot found in [[Crete]].]] The [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] bronze age civilisations established a far-ranging [[trade]] network. This network imported [[tin]] and charcoal to [[Cyprus]], where [[copper]] was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. [[Isotope|Isotopic]] analysis of the tin in some [[Mediterranean]] bronze objects indicates it came from as far away as [[Great Britain]].{{fact}} Knowledge of [[navigation]] was well developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded until a method was discovered (or perhaps rediscovered) to determine [[longitude]] around [[1750]]. The [[Minoan civilization]] appears to have coordinated and defended its bronze-age trade. One crucial lack in this period was that modern methods of accounting were not available. Numerous authorities believe that ancient empires were prone to misvalue [[staples]] in favor of [[luxury|luxuries]], and thereby perish by famines created by [[uneconomic trade|uneconomic trading]]. How the bronze age ended in this region is still being studied. There is evidence that [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy. Evidence also exists that supports the assumption that several Minoan [[client-states]] lost large portions of their respective populations to extreme famines and/or pestilence, which in turn would indicate that the trade network may have failed at some point, preventing the trade that would have previously relieved such famines and prevented some forms of illness (by nutrition). It is also known that the [[bread-basket]] of the Minoan empire, the area north of the [[Black Sea]], also suddenly lost significant portions of its population, and thus probably some degree of cultivation in this era. Recent research has discredited the theory that exhaustion of the [[Cyprus|Cypriot]] forests caused the end of the bronze trade. The Cypriot forests are known to have existed into later times, and experiments have shown that [[charcoal]] production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late bronze age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years. One theory says that as [[iron]] tools became more common, the main justification of the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as it once did. The individual colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of these three factors, and thus they had no access to the far-flung resources of an empire by which they could easily recover. Another family of theories looks to the volcanic explosion of [[Thera]], which occurred shortly before the end of the bronze age. Thera is about 40 miles north of [[Crete]], which was at the time the capital of the Minoan empire. Some authorities speculate that a [[tsunami]] from Thera destroyed Cretan cities. Others say that perhaps a tsunami destroyed the Cretan [[navy]] in its home harbor, which then lost crucial battles with the [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]] navy, so that a former [[colony]] took over the empire. Yet another theory looks to the possible loss of Cretan expertise in administering the Empire. If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, and simply became discredited by military failure, then the [[Mycenaean]]s may have made crucial political and commercial mistakes when administering their empire. All of these theories are persuasive, and aspects of all of them may have some validity in describing the end of the bronze age in this region. ==British Bronze Age== In [[Great Britain]], the bronze age is considered to have been the period from around [[21st century BC|2100]] to [[8th century BC|700 BC]]. [[Immigration]] brought new people to the islands from the continent, recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early bronze age graves around [[Stonehenge]] indicate that at least some of the immigrants came from the area of modern [[Switzerland]]. The [[Beaker people]] displayed different behaviours from the earlier [[Neolithic]] people and cultural change was significant although integration is thought to have been peaceful as many of the early [[henge]] sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. The rich [[Wessex culture]] developed in southern Britain at this time. Additionally, the climate was deteriorating, where once the weather was warm and dry it became much wetter as the bronze age continued, forcing the population away from easily-defended sites in the hills and into the fertile valleys. Large livestock ranches developed in the lowlands which appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances. The [[Deverel-Rimbury culture]] began to emerge in the second half of the 'Middle Bronze Age' (c. [[1400 BC|1400]]-[[1100 BC]]) to exploit these conditions. [[Cornwall]] was a major source of [[tin]] for much of western Europe and [[copper]] was extracted from sites such as the [[Great Orme]] mine in northern [[Wales]]. Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent. Also, the burial of dead (which until this period had usually been communal) became more individual. For example, whereas in the Neolithic a large [[chambered cairn]] or [[long barrow]] was used to house the dead, the 'Early Bronze Age' saw people buried in individual [[tumulus|barrow]]s (also commonly known and marked on modern British Ordnance Survey maps as Tumuli), or sometimes in [[cist]]s covered with [[cairn]]s. ==Central European Bronze Age== [[Image:Bronze age weapons Romania.jpg|thumb|right|Bronze age weaponry]] In [[Central Europe]], the early bronze age [[Unetice culture]] ([[18th century BC|1800]]-[[16th century BC|1600 BC]]) includes numerous smaller groups like the [[Straubingen culture|Straubingen]], [[Adlerberg culture|Adlerberg]] and [[Hatvan|Hatvan cultures]]. Some very rich burials, such as the one located at [[Leubingen]] with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an inc
thode is where the positive [[polarity|pole]] is connected to allow the circuit to be completed: as the anode of the galvanic cell gives off electrons, they return from the circuit into the cell through the cathode. === Electroplating metal cathode === When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution onto the cathode, they form a pure metal surface on the cathode. Items to be plated with pure metal are attached to and become part of the cathode in the electrolytic solution. == Electronics and physics cathode == In [[physics]] or [[electronics]], a '''cathode''' is an electrode that emits electrons into the device. === Vacuum tubes === In a [[vacuum tube]] or other electronic vacuum system, the cathode emits free electrons. Electrons are extracted from metal electrodes either by heating the electrode, causing [[thermionic emission]], or by applying a strong electric field and causing [[field emission]]. Electrons can also be emitted from the [[electrode]]s of certain metals when light of [[frequency]] greater than the threshold frequency falls on it. This is called [[photoelectric emission]]. === Cold cathodes and hot cathodes === Cathodes used for [[field emission]] in vacuum tubes are called '''[[cold cathode]]s'''. Heated electrodes or '''[[hot cathode]]s''', frequently called [[filaments]], are much more common. Most radios and television sets prior to the 1970s used filament-heated-cathode electron tubes for signal selection and processing; to this day, a hot cathode forms the source of the electron beam(s) in [[cathode ray tubes]] in many television sets and computer monitors. Hot electron emitters are also are used as the electrodes in [[fluorescent lamps]]. === Diodes === In a [[semiconductor device|semiconductor]] [[diode]], the cathode is the N–doped layer of the PN junction. Initially, the N-doped layer supplies 'holes' to flow into the junction. The holes given by the N-doped layer combine with [[electrons]] supplied from the P-doped layer. The electrons and holes combining creates a 'depleted' zone at the junction, leaving behind in the cathode a layer of negative ions which gives a base negative charge to the cathode side of device (N-doped for negative charge carrier ions). (The [[anode]] side has a base positive charge at this point, since it supplied electrons to the recombinant region and the doped ions are short of a full valence shell of electrons). As a negative charge is applied to the cathode from the circuit external to the diode, more N-doped ions are able to supply 'holes' to the recombinant region and the diode becomes conductive, which allows electrons to flow though the diode from the cathode to the anode (electrons flow from N-doped to P-doped when the bias is overcome). Unlike a typical diode, there is no fixed anode or cathode in a zener diode. == See also == *[[Anode]] *[[Electrolytic cell]] *[[Electrode]] *[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] *[[Cathode ray tube]] *[[Oxidation-reduction]] *[[Electron tube]] *[[Electrolysis]] [[Category:Electrochemistry]] [[Category:Electricity]] [[cy:Cathod]] [[da:Katode]] [[de:Kathode]] [[es:Cátodo]] [[eo:Katodo]] [[fr:Cathode]] [[io:Katodo]] [[it:Catodo]] [[nl:Kathode]] [[ja:カソード]] [[pl:Katoda]] [[pt:Cátodo]] [[ru:Катод]] [[sl:Katoda]] [[sr:Катода]] [[fi:Katodi]] [[sv:Katod]] ==External links== *[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19 The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chrominance</title> <id>6945</id> <revision> <id>40751049</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:00:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.125.11.60</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chrominance''' (''chroma'' for short) comprises the two components of a [[television]] signal that encode color information. It defines the difference between a color and a chosen reference color of the same luminous intensity. The idea of transmitting a color television signal as [[Luminance (video)|luminance]] and chrominance comes from [[Georges Valensi]], who patented it in [[1938]]. Previous color television systems tried to transmit [[RGB]] signals in different ways and were incompatible with monochrome receivers. In [[analog television]], chrominance is encoded into a [[video]] signal using a special &quot;[[subcarrier]]&quot; frequency, which, depending on the standard, can be either [[quadrature amplitude modulation|quadrature-amplitude]] ([[NTSC]] and [[PAL]]) or [[frequency modulation|frequency]] ([[SECAM]]) modulated. In the [[PAL]] system, the color subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier, while in the [[NTSC]] system it is 3.58 MHz above the video carrier. SECAM uses two different frequencies, 4.250 MHz and 4.40625 MHz above the video carrier. The presence of chrominance in a video signal is signalled by a &quot;[[color burst]]&quot; signal transmitted on the &quot;[[front porch]],&quot; just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were to be made visible on a television screen, it would look like a vertical strip of a very dark olive color. In NTSC and PAL hue is represented by a phase shift in the chrominance signal within each video line relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM (R-Y) and (B-Y) signals are transmitted alternatively and phase does not matter. Chrominance is represented by the [[YUV|U-V]] color plane in a PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the [[YIQ|I-Q]] color plane in NTSC. ==See also== *[[Luminance (video)]] [[Category:Video and movie technology]] [[de:Chrominanz]] [[es:Crominancia]] [[fr:Chrominance]] [[pl:Chrominancja]] [[sv:Krominans]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chirality</title> <id>6946</id> <revision> <id>40834993</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:34:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.194.8.73</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}} '''[[Chirality (manga)|Chirality]]''' is a [[manga]] by [[Satoshi Urushihara]] '''Chirality''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''handedness'', derived from the [[word stem]] ''&amp;#967;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;~, ch[e]ir~ - hand~'') is an asymmetry property important in several branches of science. An object or a system is called '''chiral''' if it differs from its [[mirror image]]. Such objects then come in two forms, which are mirror images of each other, and these pairs of mirror image objects are called '''enantiomorphs''' (Greek ''opposite forms'') or, when referring to molecules, '''enantiomers'''. A non-chiral object is called '''achiral''' (sometimes also '''amphichiral'''). Chirality is observed as: * the [[chirality (mathematics)]] of mathematical objects. * the [[chirality (physics)]] of some [[subatomic particle]]s. * the chirality or [[optical isomerism]] in some [[molecule]]s in the study of [[chemistry]]. * the chirality of certain crystalline solids. Of the 230 existing [[space group]]s 65 are chiral. [[Sodium chlorate]] is an [[achiral]] ionic compound but crystallizes in a chiral P2&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;3 space group. An example of an achiral organic compound forming chiral crystals is [[benzil]]. [[Racemic acid]] is the racemic form of tartaric acid forming a mixture of two enantiomorphic crystals each form consisting of one of the two enantiomers. * the chirality of surfaces. Materials with bulk chirality can be cleaved exposing a chiral surface. Many other methods exist ==See also== * [[Handedness]] * [[Rigid body]] * [[Symmetry]] [[Category: Symmetry]] [[de:Chiralität]] [[es:Quiralidad]] [[fr:Chiralité]] [[ja:&amp;#12461;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12523;]] [[pl:Chiralno&amp;#347;&amp;#263;]] [[ru:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Campus</title> <id>6947</id> <revision> <id>38307600</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:20:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tupsharru</username> <id>87321</id> </contributor> <comment>rm spamlink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vienna_Campus_II.JPG|thumb|350px|The [http://www.univie.ac.at/universitaetscampus/ Universitätscampus Wien], [[Austria]] ([[:Image:Vienna_Campus_II.JPG|details]])]] '''Campus''' (plural: ''campi'') is [[Latin]] for &quot;field&quot; or &quot;open space&quot;. [[English language|English]] gets the words &quot;camp&quot; and &quot;campus&quot; from this origin. In English, the plural form ''campuses'' is commonly used. The '''campus''' is the area in which a [[college]] or [[university]] and surrounding buildings are situated. Usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, student residential areas and park-like settings. The word first was adopted to describe a particular urban space at the College of New Jersey ([[Princeton University]]) during the early decades of the eighteenth century. Other colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, but ''campus'' did not yet describe the whole university property. A school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The meaning expanded to include the whole property during the twentieth century, with the old meaning persisting into the 1950s in some places. Sometimes the land on which company office buildings, with the buildings, are called campuses as well, e.g. the [[Microsoft Campus]] in [[Redmond, Washington]], as are also [[hospital]]s with similar usage. ==Sources== *&quot;[http://etcweb1.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/campus.html Campus]&quot;, from Alexander Leitch, ''A Princeton Companion'', Princeton University Press (1978). *[http://www.dartmo.com/index.php?p=213 Dartmo: The Buildings of Dartmouth College] ==See also== *[[Campus university]] *[[Campus novel]]
nd &quot;Mrs&quot; respectively, they are also frequently written, as in Canada and the U.S., as &quot;Dr.&quot;, &quot;Mr.&quot; and &quot;Mrs.&quot; &lt;!--British English does not have a single standard. See [[American and British English differences]]--&gt; * [[Acronym]]s that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since &quot;stood the test of time&quot; by entering the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' [[sonar]], [[radar]], [[ladar]], [[laser]], and [[scuba]]. * Whether to add an apostrophe for a plural where the plural is not formed by doubling up the last letter: should one write CDs or CD's? The apostrophe is not needed grammatically but sometimes is added to make it clear that the ''s'' is not part of the abbreviation. Because the apostrophe most often represents possession or a contraction, some style guides prefer that it not be used at all with abbreviations, but only with individual ''letters''&amp;mdash;&quot;Dot all your i's and cross all your t's!&quot; or &quot;Mind your p's and q's!&quot;&amp;mdash;or ''numbers''&amp;mdash;&quot;The dyslexic student mixes up his S's and 5's.&quot; Thus numbers, such as decades, that are understood to ''represent'' other concepts, are not written with apostrophes either&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' &quot;The U.S. enjoyed an economic boom in the 1990s and the Roaring ’20s&quot;, referring to decades, or &quot;I am going to the bank to exchange four 5's for two 10's&quot;, where the 5's and 10's refer to banknotes. Conventions followed by publications and newspapers: * Publications based in the United States tend to follow the style guides of the [[Chicago Manual of Style]] and the [[Associated Press]]. The [[U.S. Government]] follows a style guide published by the [[U.S. Government Printing Office]]. ** There is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, however, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like &quot;United Nations&quot;, are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like &quot;personal computer&quot; (PC) and &quot;compact disc&quot; (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating &quot;public relations&quot; (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. ** ''[[The New York Times]]'' is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to completely make do without periods for convenience. * Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation: ** For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the [[BBC]] and ''[[The Guardian]]'', have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include: *** Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would not have had full stops in any case &amp;mdash; see above) Capt, Prof, ''etc.;'' *** Two-letter abbreviations for countries (US, not U.S.); *** Words are seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (PR, instead of p.r., or pr) *** Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms); *** Names (''e.g.,'' FW de Klerk, GB Whiteley, Park JS). A notable exception is the ''Economist'' (''e.g.,'' Mr F. W. de Klerk) *** Scientific units. ** [[Acronym]]s are referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] can be abbreviated as Nato, and [[Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]] as Sars. [[Initialism]]s (which are similar to acronyms but which are not pronounced as words) are always written in capitals, for instance the British Broadcasting Corporation is abbreviated to BBC, never Bbc. ** When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (''e.g.,'' 100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10ºC). Miscellaneous and general rules * Plurals are often formed by doubling up the last letter of the abbreviation. Most of these deal with writing and publishing: MS=manuscript, MSS=manuscripts; l=line, ll=lines; p=page, pp=pages; s=section, ss=sections; op.=opus, opp.=opera). This form, derived from [[Latin]] is used in Europe in many places: dd=[[didot]]s. &quot;The following (lines or pages)&quot; is denoted by ff. One example that does not concern printing is hh=[[hand (unit)|hand]]s. * A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the double &quot;l&quot; is a separate sound: &quot;Ll. George&quot; for (British prime minister) [[Lloyd George]]. * Some titles, such as &quot;Reverend&quot; and &quot;Honourable&quot;, are spelt out when preceded by &quot;the&quot;, rather than as &quot;Rev.&quot; or &quot;Hon.&quot; respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States. * It is usually advised to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader (''e.g.,'' UNESCO in a magazine about ''music,'' because it more frequently refers to another entity in another context, the &lt;u&gt;U&lt;/u&gt;nited &lt;u&gt;N&lt;/u&gt;ations &lt;u&gt;E&lt;/u&gt;ducational, &lt;u&gt;S&lt;/u&gt;cientific and &lt;u&gt;C&lt;/u&gt;ultural &lt;u&gt;O&lt;/u&gt;rganization). ==History== After [[World War II]], the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept its use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the &quot;Special Operations, Executive&quot; &amp;ndash; &quot;S.O.,E.&quot; &amp;ndash; which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In [[French language|French]], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is ''not'' the last letter of its antecedent: &quot;M.&quot; is the abbreviation for &quot;''monsieur''&quot; while &quot;Mme&quot; is that for &quot;''Madame''&quot; and &quot;Mlle&quot; for &quot;''Mademoiselle''&quot;. Like many other cross-[[English Channel|channel]] linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but surprisingly, not personal computer (PC) or television (TV), which is a source of confusion. Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely. ==Examples== *[[List of classical abbreviations]] *[[List of mediaeval abbreviations]] *[[List of abbreviations in use in 1911]] *[[List of acronyms and initialisms]] *[[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Abbreviations in Webster|The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary]] ==See also== *[[List of syllabic abbreviations]] *[[Neologism]], word, term, or phrase which has been recently created *[[Internet slang]], [[list of computing and IT abbreviations]], [[list of medical abbreviations]], [[list of government and military acronyms]], [[Wikipedia:Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook|abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]], *[[ISO language code]], [[ISO country code]]. *[[Ditloid]] == External links == {{wiktionarypar|abbreviation}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbreviation}} * [http://www.abbreviationz.com/ AbbreviationZ] acronyms, abbreviations &amp; Initialisms directory. * [http://www.acronyma.com/ Acronyma]&amp;mdash;large database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 450,000 entries) * [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder]&amp;mdash;searchable acronyms and abbreviations site (over 470,000 entries) * [http://www.special-dictionary.com/acronyms/ Special Dictionary]&amp;mdash;large abbreviation, acronym and initialism database with lookup function. * [http://www.aresearchguide.com/comabb.html Common, Uncommon and Specialized Abbreviations] [[Category:Abbreviations]] [[cs:Zkratka]] [[da:Forkortelse]] [[de:Abkürzung]] [[es:Abreviatura]] [[eo:Mallongigo]] [[fr:Abréviation]] [[is:Skammstöfun]] [[la:Abbreviatio]] [[lb:Ofkierzung]] [[hu:Rövidítés]] [[nl:Afkorting]] [[ja:&amp;#30053;&amp;#35486;]] [[nds:Afk]] [[no:Forkortelse]] [[pl:Skrót]] [[ro:Abreviere]] [[ru:Аббревиатура]] [[simple:Abbreviation]] [[sl:Kratica]] [[sv:Förkortning]] [[th:อักษรย่อ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abstract algebra</title> <id>1173</id> <revision> <id>41063296</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:47:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Paul August</username> <id>87355</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>grammar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term &quot;algebra&quot; see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].'' '''Abstract algebra''' is the field of [[mathematics]] concerned with the study of [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]], [[vector space]]s, and [[algebra over a field|algebras]]. Many of these structures were defined formally in the nineteenth century, and, indeed, the study of ab
will not vibrate. The embouchure for single reed woodwinds like the [[clarinet]] and [[saxophone]] is formed by resting the reed upon the bottom lip, which is placed on top of the bottom [[teeth]]. The top teeth are then used to bite down on the mouthpiece, and the top lips are wrapped around them in order to create a seal. With the less common double-lip embouchure, the top lip is placed under (around) the top teeth. In both instances, the position of the tongue in the mouth plays a vital role in focusing and accelerating the air stream blown by the player. This results in a more mature and full sound, rich in [[overtone]]s. The [[double reed]] woodwinds, the [[oboe]] and [[bassoon]], have no mouthpiece. Instead the reed is two pieces of [[cane]] extending from a metal tube (oboe - staple) or placed on a [[bocal]] (bassoon, [[english horn]]). The reed is placed directly on the lips and the played not unlike the double-lip embouchure described above. Compared to the single reed woodwinds, the reed is very small and subtle changes in the embouchure can have a dramatic effect on [[tuning]], [[tone]] and control. ==See also== *[[Double buzz]] relating to the brass players embouchure == External links == * [http://www.larrykrantz.com/embpic.htm Flute Embouchure Photos]&lt;br&gt; * [http://www.super-chops.com/ Jerome Callet's Superchops Embouchure Clinic]&lt;br&gt; * [http://www.tce-studio.com/ Bahb Civiletti's TCE page]&lt;br&gt; [[nl:embouchure]] [[de:Ansatz (Blasinstrument)]] [[ru:Амбушюр]] [[Category:Musical instruments]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Elephant Six Collective</title> <id>10368</id> <revision> <id>40363363</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Elephant Six Collective''' were a group of American musicians who spawned some of the most notable independent bands of the [[1990s]], including the [[Olivia Tremor Control]], [[Neutral Milk Hotel]], [[The Apples in Stereo]] and [[Of Montreal]]. ==History== The collective was officially founded in [[Denver, Colorado]] (but figuratively in [[Athens, Georgia]]) by childhood friends [[Bill Doss]], [[Will Cullen Hart]], [[Jeff Mangum]], and [[Robert Schneider]]. The four grew up making [[music]] and sharing cassette tapes in [[Ruston, Louisiana]]. They all started their own bands and pet projects; Doss and Hart with Olivia Tremor Control (then called [[Synthetic Flying Machine]]), Mangum with Neutral Milk Hotel, and Schneider with the Apples in Stereo. Several Elephant Six projects began to find commercial success in the late [[1990s]], including [[Beulah (band)|Beulah]], [[Elf Power]], [[The Music Tapes]], and [[Of Montreal]], as well as the founding bands mentioned above. Schneider was the one who actually created the [[record label]] when he moved to [[Denver, Colorado]] in late [[1991]] and attended [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. He made friends and started up the Apples in Stereo. Their first EP was finished recording by April [[1993]], and it became the first release by the recording company. Back home, Doss had moved to [[Athens, Georgia|Athens]], and joined Hart and Mangum in [[Synthetic Flying Machine]]. The band became [[Olivia Tremor Control]], and they released ''[[California Demise]]'' as their first recording, and E6's second. From there on in, most of the bands were signed to major record labels and the recording company as an entity slowly deteoriated until the collective called it quits, due to difficulties in recording and lack of organization, in [[2002 in music|2002]]. The bands of the collective have since all moved on to various labels and projects of their own, though many are still friends and even tour together under various guises. Many even live together on the [[Orange Twin Conservation Community]] in [[Athens, Georgia|Athens]]. The Elephant Six mantra became a symbol for the circle of friends sharing like ideas and goals. ==Distinguishing characteristics== The most characteristic trait of an Elephant Six recording is the eclectic and exotic instrumentation: along with the guitars and drums you can hear, for example, the [[flugelhorn]], [[singing saw]], [[wandering genie]], and one-note [[piano]] on Neutral Milk Hotel's ''[[In the Aeroplane over the Sea]]''; the [[euphonium]], [[selemintan]], and [[magnus organ]] on Olivia Tremor Control's ''[[Black Foliage]]''; the [[sitar]], &quot;magic [[robot]] voice&quot;, and [[Nepalese copper shawm]] on Elf Power's ''[[When the Red King Comes]]''; and everything from [[sarangi]] to [[clarinet]] played by eighteen backup [[musician]]s on Beulah's ''[[When Your Heartstrings Break]]''. This was the ostensible nature of the Elephant Six collective: instruments, players, and space are divided among and shared among many projects. ==See also== *[[Indie rock]] *[[Psych folk]] ==External links== *[http://www.elephant6.com/ Elephant6.com] &amp;ndash; An unofficial site about the collective. {{E6}} [[Category:American musical groups|Elephant Six Collective, The]] [[Category:Psych folk record labels|Elephant Six Collective, The]] [[no:Elephant Six]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Echolocation</title> <id>10369</id> <revision> <id>35529651</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T11:45:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cavie78</username> <id>525418</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">See: * [[Animal echolocation]]: animals emitting [[sound]] waves and listening to the echo in order to locate objects or navigate. * [[Human echolocation]]: the use by [[blindness|blind]] people of sound to navigate. * [[Sonar]]: ('''so'''und '''n'''avigation '''a'''nd '''r'''anging) the use of sound to [[navigation|navigate]] or to locate other watercraft, usually by [[submarine]]s. * [[Echo sounding]]: listening to the echo of sound pulses to measure the distance to the bottom of the sea, a special case of Sonar. * [[Medical ultrasonography]]: the use of [[ultrasound]] echos to look inside the body See also: * [[Radar]]: locating objects by detecting the echo of emitted radio waves * [[Echolocation (album)]], an album by [[Fruit Bats]] {{disambig}} [[de:Echoortung]] [[es:Ecolocalización]] [[fr:Écholocation]] [[nl:Echolocatie]] [[pl:Echolokacja]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Evangelicalism</title> <id>10370</id> <revision> <id>42059981</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>134.226.1.194</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}} The word '''evangelicalism''' usually refers to a tendency in diverse branches of [[Protestantism]], typified by an emphasis on [[evangelism]], a personal experience of conversion, [[Bible|biblically-oriented]] faith, and a belief in the relevance of Christian faith to cultural issues. In the late [[20th century]] and early [[21st century]], Protestant people, churches and social movements were often called ''evangelical'' in contrast to [[Liberal Christianity|Protestant liberalism]]. The term 'evangelical', in a lexical but less-commonly-used sense, refers to anything implied in the belief that [[Jesus]] is the savior. The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for '[[Gospel]]' or 'good news': ''&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;gamma;&amp;epsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; evangelion'', from ''eu-'' &quot;good&quot; and ''angel'' &quot;message&quot;. To be ''evangelical'' would then mean to be merely [[Christianity|Christian]], that is, founded upon, motivated by, acting in agreement with, spreading ''the good news'' message of the New Testament. In Western cultural usage, the word ''' ''Evangelical'' ''' has usually referred to [[Protestantism]], in intended contrast to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. At different times, the name has developed nuances according to the controversies of the age: * In Europe since the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the [[16th century]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches have been called ''Evangelical'' churches, in contradistinction to the [[Reformed]] churches of [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and their associates. * In the [[17th century]] and onward, the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] party in the [[Church of England]] who sought to identify that church with the Reformed movement of the Reformation, who later withdrew from that Communion and became known by the derogatory names of &quot;Non-Conformists&quot; and &quot;Dissenters&quot;, were also called the ''evangelical'' party. *In the [[18th century]], the [[Wesleyan revival]] within the Church of England influenced the formation of a party of pietistic Anglicans, whose descendant movement is still called the &quot;Evangelical party&quot;. *In North American experience, particularly the [[United States of America]], in the &quot;[[Great Awakening]]s&quot;, the term distinguished the supporters of revivalism. As compared to those who emphasized conversion as a prolonged process, and a result of Christian nurture, evangelicals looked for a single experience to mark the starting point of the Christian life. The earliest meanings continue to be current, depending on the context. In the name ''[[Evangelical Orthodox Church]]'', for example, the word in the title of this [[Old Catholic]] group simply means &quot;Christian&quot;. The ''[[Union of Evangelical Churches]]'' is Germany's national Protestant church, formed by the state-mandated union of Lutheran and Reformed churches. Similarly several churches have ''Evangelical'' in their title, meaning evangelical in the sense of &quot;Protestant&quot;, but not necessarily part of the modern evangelical movement ''pe
tion of modern [[marketing]] designed to stimulate regional identity in the creation of a [[consumer]] [[niche]]; June Skinner Sawyers, for example, notes that &quot;Celtic music is a marketing term that I am using, for the purposes of this book, as a matter of convenience, knowing full well the cultural baggage that comes with it&quot;. == Forms == Identifying &quot;common characteristics&quot; of Celtic music is problematic. Most of the popular musical forms now thought of as characteristically &quot;Celtic&quot; were once common in many places in Western Europe. [[Jigs]] were adapted from Italian music, for example, and [[polka]]s have their origin in Czech and Polish tradition. On the other hand, there are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country, due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages. [[Strathspey|Strathspeys]] are specific to Highland Scotland, for example, and mimic the rhythms of the [[Scottish Gaelic]] language. == Festivals == The Celtic music scene involves a large number of [[music festival]]s. Some of the most prominent include [[Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira]] ([[Ortigueira]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]), [[Celtic Colours]] ([[Cape Breton, Nova Scotia]]), [[Celtic Connections]] ([[Glasgow]]) and [[Festival Interceltique]] ([[Lorient]], [[Brittany]]). == Modern Adaptations == Starting in 1982 with [[The Pogues]] invention of Celtic folk-punk, there has been a movement to incorporate [[Celt|Celtic]] influences into other genres of music. [[Marxman]], an Irish-Jamaican hip hop group that gained notoriety in Britain in the late 1980's and was banned from the [[BBC]] for including [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|I.R.A.]] slogans in their music, sampled traditional Celtic instruments in several of their songs as well. Seanaid O'Conner has also been active in the ;fusion' movement and incorporated a wide range of modern and traditional influences into her music. In Scotland [[Gaelic punk]] bands such as [[Oi Polloi]] and [[Mill a h-Uile Rud]] that write and perform in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]] have recently gained popularity as well. Today there are Celtic-influenced sub genres of virtually every type of popular music, from [[House]] to [[Trance music|Trance]], [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] to [[Punk Rock]]. Collectively these modern interpretations of Celtic music are sometimes referred to as [[Celtic Fusion]]. == Notes == # {{note|Stivellondivision}} translation by Steve Winick ==References== *[http://pobox.upenn.edu/~teachnet/Bretonjaf/bretonjaf1.html Steve Winick] *{{cite book|author=Sawyers, June Skinner|title=Celtic Music: A Complete Guide|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo Press|id=ISBN 0306810077}} ==External links== *[http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/masters.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics:] [[Canntaireachd]] *[http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/celtic.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics: Celtic Mouth Music] *[http://www.last.fm/tag/celtic Last.fm Celtic top artists] *[http://www.austincelts.org/ Austin Celtic Association and Austin Celtic Festival] [[Category:Celtic music]] [[Category:Musical genres]] [[es:Música celta]] [[he:מוזיקה קלטית]] [[it:Musica celtica]] [[pl:Muzyka celtycka]] [[pt:Música celta]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Constructed language</title> <id>5262</id> <revision> <id>41299752</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:56:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Roland2</username> <id>156887</id> </contributor> <comment>[[la:Lingua artificiosa]] Vicipaedia Latina</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Constructed languages}} An '''artificial''' or '''constructed language''' (known colloquially as a '''conlang''' among [[aficionado]]s), is a [[language]] whose [[phonology]], [[grammar]] and [[vocabulary]] are specifically devised by an individual or small group, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a [[culture]] the way [[natural language]]s do. Some are designed for use in human [[communication]] (usually to function as [[international auxiliary language]]s), but others are created for use in fiction, [[linguistics|linguistic]] experimentation, secrecy ([[code]]s), or for the experience of doing so ([[artistic language]]s, [[Language game (linguistics)|language games]]). These languages are sometimes associated with [[constructed world]]s. The synonym '''''planned language''''' is sometimes used when referring to [[international auxiliary language]]s, and by those who may object to the more common term &quot;artificial&quot;. Some speakers of [[Esperanto]] avoid the term &quot;artificial language&quot; because they deny that there is something &quot;unnatural&quot; in communicating in this language. However, outside the [[Esperanto community]] the term [[language planning]] refers to prescriptive measures taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, even &quot;natural languages&quot; may be submitted to a certain amount of artificiality, and in the case of [[prescriptive grammar]]s, the line is difficult to draw. ==Overview == Constructed languages are often divided into '''''[[a priori]]'' languages''', in which much of the grammar and vocabulary is created from scratch (using the author's imagination or automatic computational means), and '''''[[a posteriori]]'' languages''', where the grammar and vocabulary are derived from one or more natural languages. Fictional and experimental languages can also be naturalistic, in the sense that they are meant to sound natural and, if derived ''a posteriori'', they try to follow natural rules of [[phonology|phonological]], lexical and [[grammar|grammatical]] change. Since these languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication, a naturalistic fictional language tends to be more difficult and complex, not less (because it tries to mimic common behaviours of natural languages such as irregular verbs and nouns, complicated phonological rules, etc.). In light of the above, most constructed languages can broadly be divided as follows: * '''[[Engineered language]]s''' (''engelangs''), further subdivided into '''philosophical languages''' and '''logical languages''' (''loglangs'') - devised for the purpose of experimentation in [[logic]] or [[philosophy]] * '''[[Auxiliary language]]s''' (''auxlangs'') - devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language) * '''[[Artistic language]]s''' (''artlangs'') - devised to create aesthetic pleasure The boundaries between these categories, however, are by no means clear. For example, for some fictional auxiliary languages, and also some constructed languages, it is hard to decide whether they are &quot;artistic&quot; or &quot;engineered&quot;. A constructed language can have native speakers if children learn it at an early age from parents who have learned the language. [[Esperanto]] has a considerable number of [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]], variously estimated to be between 200 and 2000. A member of the [[Klingon Language Institute]], [[d'Armond Speers]], attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) [[Klingon language|Klingon]] speaker. Evan Robertson, the creator of [[Mosro]], successfully taught the language to his four youngest children. However, as soon as a constructed language ''does'' have a number of native speakers, it begins to evolve, and thereby loses its constructed status over time. For example [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]] was modelled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of [[Israel]] was founded in [[1948]]. Proponents of particular constructed languages often have many reasons for using them. Among these, the famous but disputed [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] is often cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way in which one thinks. Thus, a &quot;better&quot; language should allow the speaker to reach some elevated level of intelligence, or to encompass more diverse points of view. In the [[CONLANG]] Mailing List, a community of [[conlanger]]s has developed, which has its own customs, such as [[translation relay]]s. ==History== Grammatical speculation is documented from [[Classical Antiquity]], with [[Plato]]'s ''[[Cratylus]]''. However the suggested mechanisms of grammar were designed to explain existing languages ([[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]]), and not aiming at constructing new grammars. Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, [[Pāṇini]] constructed a meta-linguistic formalism, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language. The earliest non-natural languages were not so much considered &quot;constructed&quot; as &quot;super-natural&quot; or mystical. The [[Lingua Ignota]], recorded in the [[12th century]] by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] is an example of this, apparently it is a form of private mystical [[cant (language)|cant]] (see also [[language of angels]]). [[Kabbalistic]] grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by [[Adam and Eve]] in [[Paradise]], lost in the [[confusion of tongues]]. The first [[Christian]] project for an ideal language is outlined in [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'', where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature. [[Ramon Llull|Raymond Lull]]'s ''Ars magna'' was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basically an application of [[combinatorics]] on a given set of concepts. During the [[Renaissance]], Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were carried ''ad absurdum'' in a [[Magical thinking|magical]] context, resulting in [[cryptography|cryptographic]] applications. The [[Voynich
[[ang:Arizona]] [[ar:أريزونا]] [[ast:Arizona]] [[bg:Аризона]] [[zh-min-nan:Arizona]] [[bs:Arizona]] [[ca:Arizona]] [[cs:Arizona]] [[da:Arizona]] [[de:Arizona]] [[et:Arizona]] [[es:Arizona]] [[eo:Arizono]] [[eu:Arizona]] [[fr:Arizona]] [[ga:Arizona]] [[gd:Arizona]] [[gl:Arizona]] [[ko:애리조나 주]] [[haw:ʻAlikona]] [[id:Arizona]] [[is:Arizona]] [[it:Arizona]] [[he:אריזונה]] [[ka:არიზონა]] [[kw:Arizona]] [[la:Arizona]] [[lv:Arizona]] [[lt:Arizona]] [[lb:Arizona]] [[li:Arizona]] [[hu:Arizona]] [[ms:Arizona]] [[nl:Arizona]] [[ja:アリゾナ州]] [[no:Arizona]] [[nn:Arizona]] [[os:Аризонæ (штат)]] [[pl:Arizona]] [[pt:Arizona]] [[ro:Arizona]] [[ru:Аризона (штат)]] [[sq:Arizona]] [[simple:Arizona]] [[sk:Arizona]] [[sl:Arizona]] [[sr:Аризона]] [[fi:Arizona]] [[sv:Arizona]] [[tr:Arizona]] [[uk:Арізона]] [[zh:亞利桑那州]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apparent magnitude</title> <id>1962</id> <revision> <id>41562250</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:08:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username> <id>294180</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.201.244.197|68.201.244.197]] ([[User talk:68.201.244.197|talk]]) to last version by JYOuyang</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''apparent magnitude''' ('''''m''''') of a [[star]], [[planet]] or other celestial body is a [[measurement|measure]] of its apparent [[brightness]] as seen by an observer on Earth. The brighter the object appears, the lower the numerical value of its '''magnitude'''. The scale upon which magnitude is measured has its origin in the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] practice of dividing those stars visible to the naked eye into six ''magnitudes''. The brightest stars were said to be of first magnitude (''m'' = 1), while the faintest were of sixth magnitude (''m'' = 6), the limit of [[human]] [[visual perception]] (without the aid of a [[telescope]]). Each grade of magnitude was considered to be twice the brightness of the following grade. This somewhat crude method of indicating the brightness of stars was popularized by [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Almagest]]'', and is generally believed to have originated with [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]]. This original system did not measure the magnitude of the [[Sun]]. Because the response of the eye to light is logarithmic, the resulting scale is also logarithmic. In [[1856]], [[Norman Robert Pogson|Pogson]] formalized the system by defining a typical first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a typical sixth magnitude star; thus, a first magnitude star is about 2.512 times as bright as a second magnitude star. The fifth root of 100, an [[irrational number]] about (2.512) is known as ''Pogson's Ratio''. Pogson's scale was originally fixed by assigning [[Polaris]] a magnitude of 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they first switched to [[Vega]] as the standard reference star, and then switched to using tabulated zero points for the measured fluxes (see second Reference below). The magnitude depends on the wavelength band (see below). The modern system is no longer limited to 6 magnitudes or only to visible light. Very bright objects have ''negative'' magnitudes. For example, [[Sirius]], the brightest star of the [[celestial sphere]], has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;1.44 to &amp;minus;1.46. The modern scale includes the [[Moon]] and the [[Sun]]; the full Moon has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;12.6 and the Sun has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;26.8. [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]] has located stars with magnitudes of 30 at visible wavelengths and the [[Keck telescopes]] have located similarly faint stars in the infrared. {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;big&gt;'''Scale of apparent magnitudes'''&lt;/big&gt; |- ! App. Mag. ! Celestial object |- | &amp;minus;26.73 || [[Sun]] |- | &amp;minus;12.6 || full [[Moon]] |- | &amp;minus;8.0 | Maximum brightness of an [[Satellite flare|Iridium Flare]] |- | &amp;minus;4.4 | Maximum brightness of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] |- | &amp;minus;4.0 | Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye |- | &amp;minus;2.8 | Maximum brightness of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] |- | &amp;minus;1.5 || Brightest star at visible wavelengths: [[Sirius]] |- | &amp;minus;0.7 || Second brightest star: [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] |- | 0 | The zero point by definition: This used to be [[Vega]]&lt;/br&gt; (see [[Apparent magnitude#References|references]] for modern zero point) |- | ~3 | Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood |- | ~6 | Faintest [[star]]s observable with naked eye |- | 12.6 || Brightest [[quasar]] |- | 27 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with 8m ground-based telescopes |- | 30 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with [[Hubble Space Telescope]] |- |- | 38 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with planned [[Overwhelmingly_Large_Telescope|OWL]] (2020) |- | colspan=2 | (see also [[List of brightest stars]]) |} These are only approximate values at visible wavelengths (in reality the values depend on the precise bandpass used) &amp;mdash; see [[Airglow#How_to_calculate_the_effects_of_airglow|airglow]] for more details of telescope sensitivity. As the amount of light received actually depends on the thickness of the [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] in the line of sight to the object, the apparent magnitudes are normalized to the value it would have outside the atmosphere. The dimmer an object appears, the higher its apparent magnitude. Note that apparent brightness is not equal to actual brightness &amp;mdash; an extremely bright object may appear quite dim, if it is far away. The rate at which apparent brightness changes, as the distance from an object increases, is [[calculation|calculated]] by the [[inverse-square law]] (at cosmological distance scales, this is no longer quite true because of the [[curvature of space]]). The [[absolute magnitude]], ''M'', of a star or [[galaxy]] is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 [[parsec]]s (~ 32 [[lightyears]]) away; that of a planet (or other solar system body) is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 [[astronomical unit]] away from both the [[Sun]] and [[Earth]]. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (yellow) and 5.48 in the B band (blue). The apparent magnitude in the band x can be defined as :&lt;math&gt;m_{x}= -2.5 \log_{10} (F_x) + C\!\,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;F_x\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the observed [[flux]] in the band x, and &lt;math&gt;C\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is a constant that depends on the units of the flux and the band. The constant &lt;math&gt;C\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is defined in [[Apparent_magnitude#References|Aller et al 1982]] for the most commonly used system. The second thing to notice is that the scale is [[logarithm]]ic: the relative brightness of two objects is determined by the difference of their magnitudes. For example, a difference of 3.2 means that one object is about 19 times as bright as the other, because Pogson's ratio raised to the power 3.2 is 19.054607... The logarithmic nature of the scale is due to the fact of the human [[eye]] itself having a logarithmic response, see [[Weber-Fechner law]]. Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not [[monochromatic]]. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way in which it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured in order for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near [[ultraviolet]]), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the light-adapted human eye, and when an apparent magnitude is given without any further qualification, it is usually the V magnitude that is meant, more or less the same as '''visual magnitude'''. Since cooler stars, such as [[red giant]]s and [[red dwarf]]s, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some [[stellar classification|L and T class]] stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, since they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in [[infrared]]. Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th-century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) [[photographic film]], the relative brightnesses of the blue [[supergiant]] [[Rigel]] and the red supergiant [[Betelgeuse]] irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what our eyes see since this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as [[photographic magnitude]]s, and are now considered obsolete. For objects within our Galaxy with a given [[absolute magnitude]], 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. This relationship does not apply for objects at very great distances (far beyond our galaxy), since a correction for [[General Relativity]] must then be taken into account due to the non-Euclidean nature of space. ==See also== * [[Absolute magnitude]] * [[Brightest stars|List of Brightest stars]] * [[List of nearest bright stars]] * [[List of nearest stars]] == References == * [http://articles.adsabs.
hysiological changes and responses to environmental conditions - are conditioned based on social surroundings and non-human environmental factors. Thus it is not difficult to defend the position that emotion is, to a high degree, dependent on social phenomena, expectations, norms, and conditioned behavior of the group in which an individual lives. The influence of politics, religion, and socio-cultural customs can be sometimes traced or hypothesized. Among many pertinent examples: behaviors or activities considered highly cruel in some societies may in fact provoke responses of enjoyment in others; or, sexual acts considered highly desirable in some cultures would provoke shame or disgust in others. Contrary to this view, [[Paul Ekman]] has shown that at least some facial expressions and their corresponding emotions are universal across human cultures and are not culturally determined. These universal emotions include [[anger]], [[disgust]], [[fear]], [[happiness|joy]], [[sadness]] and [[surprise]]. ==Theoretical traditions== According to Cornelius (1996), four main theoretical traditions have dominated research in emotions starting in the 1800's with Darwin's observations of emotion in man and animals. These traditions are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work. *The Darwinian perspective First articulated in the late 19th century by [[Charles Darwin]], emotions evolved via natural expression and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Most research in this area has focused on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and facial expressions in humans. Paul Ekman's work on basic emotions is representative of the Darwinian tradition. *The Jamesian perspective [[William James]] in the 1800's believed that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. These changes might be visceral, postural, or facially expressive. *The cognitive perspective Many researchers believe that thought and in particular cognitive appraisal of the environment is an underlying causal explanation for emotional processes. *The social constructivist perspective Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). Much current research in emotion is based on the social constructivist view. *The neurological tradition (Plutchik, 1980) This tradition draws on recent work on neurophysiology and neuroanatomy to explain the nature of emotions. LeDoux (1986) reviews relatively current knowledge on the neurophysiology of emotion. ==Etymology== [[Etymology|Etymologically]], the word emotion is a composite formed from two [[Latin]] words. '''ex'''/out, outward + '''motio'''/movement, action, gesture. This [[classical]] formation refers to the immediate nature of emotion as experienced by humans and attributed in some cultures and ways of thinking to all living organisms, and by scientific community to any creature that exhibits complex response traits similar to what humans refer to as emotion. ==Physical responses to emotion== The body frequently responds to ''Shame'' by warmth in the upper chest and face, ''Fear'' by a heightened heartbeat, increased &quot;flinch&quot; response, and increased muscle tension. The sensations connected with ''anger'' are nearly indistinguishable from fear. ''Happiness'' is often felt as an expansive or swelling feeling in the chest and the sensation of lightness or buoyancy, as if standing underwater. ''Sadness'' by a feeling of tightness in the throat and eyes, and relaxation in the arms and legs. ''Desire'' can be accompanied by a dry throat and heavy breathing ==Computer models of emotion== A flurry of recent work in modeling emotional circuitry and recognition has come out of computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience (c.f. Fellous, Armony &amp; LeDoux, 2002). * See [[affective computing]] * Neural network models of emotion recognition == References and notes == # Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. # Damasio AR. (1994). &quot;Descartes' Error.&quot; Penguin Putnam, New York, New York. # Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. This was originally published in 1872. It has been reprinted many times thereafter. See, e.g., London: Julian Friedmann Publishers, 1979 (with an introduction by S.J. Rachman.) # {{note|Davidoff}} Davidoff, Linda. 1980, 2a. Introducción a la Psicología, McGraw-Hill. México. # Ekman P. (1999). &quot;Facial Expressions&quot; in ''Handbook of Cognition and Emotion.'' Dalgleish T &amp; Power M, ''Eds.'' John Wiley &amp; Sons Ltd. New York, New York. # Fellous, J.M., Armony, J.L., &amp; LeDoux, J.E. (2002). &quot;Emotional Circuits and Computational Neuroscience&quot; in 'The handbook of brain theory and neural networks' Second Edition. M.A. Arbib (editor), The MIT Press. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/fellous02emotional.html] # Frijda, Nico H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press. [http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521316006] # LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J E. LeDoux &amp; W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: diologues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge. # Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik &amp; H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3-33). New York: Academic.[http://www.123lasvegas.info] # {{note|Sloman}} Sloman, Aaron. 1981. Why Robots Will Have Emotions. University of Sussex. In proc.[http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/cogaff/Aaron.Sloman_why_robot_emotions.pdf] == Emotion researchers == * [[Wiliam James]] * [[Charles Darwin]] * [[Ivan Pavlov]] * [[James Papez]] * [[Paul D. MacLean]] * [[Sigmund Freud]] * [[Carl Jung]] * [[Carl Rogers]] * [[Paul Ekman]] * [[Antonio Damasio]] * [[Robert Plutchik]] * [[Aaron Ben-Ze'ev]] * [[Joseph LeDoux]] * [[Nico Frijda]] * [[Keith Oatley]] * [[Robert Zajonc]] * [[Alice Isen]] * [[Spinoza]] == See also == * [[Affective neuroscience]] * [[Affective science]] * [[List of emotions]] [[Category:Emotion| ]] [[Category:Psychology]] [[Category:Limbic system]] [[Category:Motivation]] [[cs:Cit]] [[da:Følelse]] [[de:Emotion]] [[es:Emociones]] [[eo:Emocio]] [[fr:Émotion]] [[gl:Emoción]] [[hr:Osjećaji]] [[io:Emoco]] [[he:רגש]] [[nl:Emotie]] [[ja:感情]] [[pl:Emocja]] [[pt:Sentimento]] [[ru:Эмоция]] [[sl:Čustvo]] [[sr:Страст]] [[ta:உணர்ச்சி]] [[tr:Duygu]] [[zh:情绪]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epictetus</title> <id>10407</id> <revision> <id>40984840</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:47:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.161.129.7</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Philosophy */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Epictetus''' (c.[[55]]&amp;ndash;c.[[135]]) was a Greek [[Stoic]] philosopher. He was probably born at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]], and lived most of his life in [[Rome]] until his exile to [[Nicopolis]] in northwestern [[Greece]], where he died. The name given by his parents, if one was given, is not known - the word ''epiktetos'' in Greek simply means &quot;acquired.&quot; ==Life== Epictetus spent his youth as a [[Slavery|slave]] in [[Rome]] to [[Epaphroditos]], a very wealthy freedman of [[Nero]]. Even as a slave, Epictetus used his time productively, studying [[Stoic]] [[Philosophy]] under [[Musonius Rufus]]. He was eventually freed and lived a relatively hard life in ill health in Rome. It is known that he became crippled, owing to cruel treatment by his master, Epaphroditus, according to most reports. He was exiled along with other philosophers by the emperor [[Domitian]] sometime between 89 and [[95]]. It was Epictetus' exile by [[Domitian]] that began what would later come to be the most celebrated part of his life. After his exile, Epictetus traveled to [[Nicopolis]], [[Greece]], where he founded a famed philosophical school. This school was even visited by [[Hadrian]], and its most famous student, [[Arrian]], became a great historian in his own right. True to [[Stoic]] form, Epictetus lived a life of great simplicity, marked by teaching and intellectual pursuits. Some claim that he married once, late in life, to help raise a child who would have otherwise been left to die. Others say that he did not marry, and that he had no children. Demonax supposedly rebuked Epictetus' exhortation to marry by sarcastically asking whether he could marry one of the philosopher's daughters. ==Philosophy== Epictetus' main work is ''The Discourses,'' four books of which have been preserved complete (out of an original eight). A popular digest, entitled the ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]''--or &quot;Handbook&quot;--also survives. These were not written by Epictetus himself, but were penned by his pupil [[Arrian]]. In a preface to the ''Discourses,'' addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that &quot;whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech.&quot; Epictetus focused on ethics to a greater extent than the early Stoics had. He held that our aim was to be masters of our own lives. The role of the Stoic teacher, according to Epictetus, was to encourage his students to live the philosophic life, whose end was ''[[eudaimonia]]'' (&amp;#8216;happiness&amp;#8217; or &amp;#8216;flourishing&amp;#8217;), to be secured by living the life of reason, which meant living virtuously and living &amp;#8216;according to the will of nature&amp;#8217;. Epictetus' doctrine recognized two categories of influences to life, distinguishing between those under human control and those
the common names for the four living genera in Hominidae. Please don't change it to include a mix of species and genera common names.--&gt; This classification has been [[ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|revised several times]] in the last few decades. Originally, the group was restricted to humans and their [[extinct]] relatives, with the other great apes being placed in a separate family, the '''Pongidae'''. This definition is still used by many [[anthropologist]]s and by [[laity|lay people]]. However, that definition makes Pongidae [[paraphyletic]], whereas most taxonomists nowadays encourage [[monophyletic]] groups. Thus many [[biologist]]s consider Hominidae to include the Pongidae as the subfamily [[Ponginae]], or restrict the latter to the orangutan and extinct relatives like ''[[Gigantopithecus]]''. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings. Especially close human relatives form a [[subfamily]], the [[Homininae]]. Some researchers go so far as to include chimpanzees and gorillas in the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' along with humans, but most genetic evidence suggests the relationships as shown here. Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include ''[[Gigantopithecus]]'', ''[[Orrorin]]'', ''[[Ardipithecus]]'', ''[[Kenyanthropus]]'', and the [[australopithecine]]s ''[[Australopithecus]]'' and ''[[Paranthropus]]''. The exact criteria for membership in the Homininae are not clear, but the family generally includes those [[species]] who share more than 97% of their [[DNA]] with the modern human [[genome]], and exhibit a capacity for [[language]] and for simple [[culture]]s beyond the family or band. The [[theory of mind]], providing the capacity to lie convincingly, is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity at about four and a half years of age, whereas the bonobo, gorilla and chimpanzee never seem to do so. However, without the ability to test whether early members of the Homininae (such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Despite an apparent lack of real culture and significant physiological differences, some say that the orangutan may also satisfy these criteria. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of [[Great Ape personhood]]. In [[2002]], a 6&amp;ndash;7 million year old [[fossil]] [[skull]] nicknamed &quot;Toumaï&quot; by its discoverers, and formally classified as ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', was discovered in [[Chad]] and is possibly the earliest hominid [[fossil]] ever found. In addition to its age, Toumaï, unlike the 3&amp;ndash;4 million year younger [[gracile australopithecine]] dubbed &quot;[[Australopithecus afarensis|Lucy]]&quot;, has a relatively flat face without the prominent snout seen on other pre-''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' hominids. Some researchers have made the suggestion that this previously unknown species may in fact be a direct ancestor of modern humans (or at least closely related to a direct ancestor). Others contend that one fossil is not enough to make such a claim because it would overturn the conclusions of over 100 years of [[anthropology|anthropological]] study. A report on this finding was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' on [[July 11]], [[2002]]. While some scientists claim that it is merely the skull of a female gorilla, others have called it the most important hominin fossil since ''Australopithecus''.&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt; == Classification == [[Image:Hominidae.PNG|300px|thumb|right|Hominoid family tree]] [[Image:Orang.gorilla.skulls.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Skulls of an orangutan and a gorilla]] * '''Family Hominidae''': humans and other great apes ** Subfamily [[Orangutan|Ponginae]] *** Genus ''[[Orangutan|Pongo]]'' **** [[Bornean Orangutan]], ''Pongo pygmaeus'' **** [[Sumatran Orangutan]], ''Pongo abelii'' ** Subfamily [[Homininae]] *** Tribe [[Gorilla|Gorillini]] **** Genus ''[[Gorilla]]'' ***** [[Western Gorilla]], ''Gorilla gorilla'' ***** [[Eastern Gorilla]], ''Gorilla beringei'' *** Tribe [[Hominini]] **** Genus ''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' ***** [[Common Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes'' ***** [[Bonobo]] or Pygmy Chimpanzee, ''Pan paniscus'' **** Genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' ***** [[Human]], ''Homo sapiens'' == See also == {{Commonscat|Hominidae}} {{3d commons}} {{Wikispecies|Hominidae}} {{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Hominidae}} * [[Ape extinction]] * [[Declaration on Great Apes]] * [[Evolution of Homo sapiens]] * [[Evolutionary neuroscience]] * [[Graphical timeline of human evolution]] * [[Great ape language]] * [[Great Ape Project]] * [[List of apes]] - notable individual apes * [[The Mind of an Ape]] * [[Great Ape research ban]] == External links == *[http://www.npr.org/programs/atc/features/2002/july/toumai/index.html NPR News: Toumaï the Human Ancestor] *[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html Hominid Species] at talkorigins.org *[http://www.modernhumanorigins.net/ For more details on Hominid species, including excellent photos of fossil hominids] *[http://free.hostdepartment.com/H/Hominids/Hominidae.htm A Classification] A more complete classification than the above, with a list of species, including extinct ones. Extensive, though still incomplete. [[Category:Apes]] [[ar:أسلاف الإنسان]] [[ca:Hominidae]] [[da:Menneskeabe (Hominidae)]] [[de:Menschenaffen]] [[es:Hominidae]] [[eo:Homedoj]] [[fr:Hominidae]] [[ko:사람과]] [[he:הומינידים]] [[la:Hominidae]] [[lt:Hominidai]] [[li:Minsape]] [[nl:Hominidae]] [[ja:ヒト科]] [[lb:Mënschenafen]] [[pl:Człowiekowate]] [[pt:Hominidae]] [[ru:Гоминиды]] [[sv:Människoapor]] [[zh:人科]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hussite</title> <id>14291</id> <revision> <id>41947880</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Durova</username> <id>521374</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The [[Hussite Wars]] */ minor copyedit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hussites''' comprised a proto-[[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] movement, followers of [[Jan Hus]]. This predominantly religious movement was also propelled by social issues and strengthened the [[Czechs|Czech]] national self-awareness. ==Effect in Bohemia of the Death of Hus== The arrest of Hus had excited considerable resentment in [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]. In both countries the estates appealed repeatedly and urgently to [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] to release Hus. On the arrival of the news of his death at the [[Council of Constance]] in [[1415]], disturbances broke out which were directed at first against the [[clergy]], especially against the monks. Even the archbishop saved himself with difficulty from the rage of the populace. In the country conditions were not much better. Everywhere the treatment of Hus was felt as a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country, and his death was looked upon as a criminal act. King [[Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor|Wenceslaus]], prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance; and his wife openly favored the friends of Hus. Pronounced Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates, and to obey the power of the bishops only in case their orders accorded with the injunctions of the [[Bible]]. In disputed points the decision of the university should be resorted to. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league, and if the king had entered it, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the Roman Catholic League of lords, which was now formed, the members pledging themselves to cling to the king, the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Church]], and the Council. Signs of the outbreak of a civil war began to show. [[Pope Martin V]], who, while still Cardinal Otto of [[Colonna]], had attacked Hus with relentless severity, energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He intended to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus. For this purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418 Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country, and Roman priests were reinstituted. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund. == Two Parties in Bohemia== Hussism had organized itself during the years 1415-1419. From the beginning two parties were found: the closer adherents of Hus clung to his standpoint, leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched; the radical party identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of [[John Wyclif]], shared his passionate hatred of the [[monasticism|monastic]] clergy, and, like him, attempted to lead the Church back to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles, which necessitated the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularization of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals among the Hussites sought to translate their theories into reality; they preached the ''sufficientia legis Christi''-- that only the divine law (i.e., the Bible) is the rule and canon for man, and that not only in ecclesiastical matters, but also in political and civil matters
t = Schmidt | authorlink = Matthias Schmidt | year = 1984 | title = Albert Speer: The End of a Myth | publisher = St Martins Press | id = ISBN 031201709X }} ==External links== {{Commons|Albert Speer}} *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/speera1.shtml BBC - BBC Four - Audio Interviews - Albert Speer] *[http://www.dataphone.se/~ms/speer/welcom2.htm A tribute to Speer's architecture] *[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/speer.html Testimony of Albert Speer at us-israel.org] *[http://www.speer-und-er.de/ ''Speer und Er''] German docudrama broadcast in May 2005, presenting new incriminating evidence of Speer's role, e.g. in the construction of Auschwitz. In German *[http://www.neue-reichskanzlei.de 3d animated Reich Chancellery] {{Bunker}} [[Category:1905 births|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:1981 deaths|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:German World War II people|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:Nazi leaders|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:German architects|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:Nazi architecture]] [[Category:Fascist/Nazi era scholars and writers|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:People convicted in the Nuremberg Trials|Speer, Albert]] [[br:Albert Speer]] [[da:Albert Speer]] [[de:Albert Speer]] [[el:Άλμπερτ Σπερ]] [[es:Albert Speer]] [[fr:Albert Speer (senior)]] [[it:Albert Speer]] [[he:אלברט שפאר]] [[ka:შპეერი, ალბერტ]] [[hu:Albert Speer]] [[nl:Albert Speer]] [[ja:アルベルト・シュペーア]] [[no:Albert Speer]] [[pl:Albert Speer (ojciec)]] [[pt:Albert Speer]] [[ru:Шпеер, Альберт]] [[sl:Albert Speer]] [[fi:Albert Speer]] [[sv:Albert Speer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alliaceae</title> <id>955</id> <revision> <id>39719977</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T10:36:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Espetkov</username> <id>52780</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Alliaceae | image = Ipheion uniflorum5.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Ipheion uniflorum'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = '''Alliaceae''' | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = See text. }} '''Alliaceae''' is a [[Family (biology)|family]] of herbaceous [[perennial]] plants. They are [[monocot]]s, part of [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Asparagales]]. Genus ''[[Allium]]'' includes several important food plants, including [[onion]]s (''Allium cepa''), [[chives]] (''A. schoenoprasum''), [[garlic]] (''A. sativum'' and ''A. scordoprasum''), and [[Leek (vegetable)|leek]]s (''A. porrum''). The Alliaceae are closely related to two other families in the order Asparagales, the amaryllis family ([[Amaryllidaceae]]) and the family [[Agapanthaceae]], which includes the single genus ''[[Agapanthus]]''. Based on the close relationship between the three families, the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] recognizes the alternative of including the Amaryllidaceae and the Agapanthaceae in family Alliaceae. == Genera == Several genera that were historically classified in the Alliaceae, including ''[[Androstephium]]'', ''[[Bessera]]'', ''[[Bloomeria]]'', ''[[Brodiaea]]'', ''[[Dandya]]'', ''[[Dichelostemma]]'', ''[[Milla]]'', ''[[Petronymphe]]'', ''[[Triteleia]]'', and ''[[Triteleiopsis]]'', are now increasingly thought to represent a separate family, [[Themidaceae]]. ''[[Allium]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Ancrumia]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Caloscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Erinna]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Garaventia]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Gethyum]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Gilliesia]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Ipheion]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Leucocoryne]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Miersia]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Milula]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Muilla]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Nectaroscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Nothoscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Solaria (genus)]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Speea]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Trichlora]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Tristagma]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Tulbhagia]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Zoelnerallium]]''&lt;br /&gt; [[Category:Plant families]] [[Category:Asparagales]] [[bg:Лукови]] [[da:Løg-familien]] [[de:Zwiebelgewächse]] [[fr:Alliaceae]] [[lt:Česnakiniai augalai]] [[nl:Uienfamilie]] [[pt:Alliaceae]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Asteraceae</title> <id>956</id> <revision> <id>41495585</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:27:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AshishG</username> <id>172488</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Uses */ ''nectar'' disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Sunflowers | image = Aster-alpinus.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Aster alpinus'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asterales]] | familia = '''Asteraceae''' | familia_authority = [[Martynov]], 1820 | synonyms = ''Compositae'' &lt;small&gt;[[Giseke]]&lt;/small&gt; | diversity = About 900 genera and 13,000 species | diversity_link = List of Asteraceae genera | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies | subdivision = [[Barnadesioideae]]&lt;br&gt; [[Cichorioideae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Arctotidae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Cardueae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Eremothamneae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Lactuceae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Liabeae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Mutisieae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Tarchonantheae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Vernonieae]]&lt;br&gt; [[Asteriodeae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Anthemideae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Astereae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Calenduleae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Eupatorieae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Gnaphalieae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Helenieae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Heliantheae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Inuleae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Plucheae]]&lt;br&gt; :Tribe [[Senecioneae]]&lt;br&gt; '''See also [[List of Asteraceae genera]]''' }} The family '''Asteraceae''' or, alternatively, family '''Compositae''', known as the '''aster''', '''daisy''' or '''sunflower family''', is a taxon of [[dicot|dicotyledonous]] [[flowering plant]]s. The family name is derived from the genus ''[[Aster (flower)|Aster]]'' and refers to the [[star]]-shaped flower head of its members, typified well by the [[daisy]]. The Asteraceae is the second largest family in the Division [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]], with some 1,100 genera and over 20,000 recognized species. Only the orchid family ([[Orchidaceae]]) is larger, with about 25,000 described species. Plants belonging to the Asteraceae must share ALL the following characteristics (Judd et al., 1999). None of these traits, taken separately, can be considered [[Synapomorphy|synapomorphic]]. * [[Inflorescence]]: a capitulum or flower head * Syngenesious [[anther]]s, i.e. with the stamens fused together at their edges by the anthers, forming a tube * [[Ovary]] with basal arrangement of the ovules * [[Ovule]]s one per ovary * Pappus (a tuft of hairs on a fruit) * The fruit is an [[achene]] * [[Terpene|Sesquiterpenes]] present in the essential oils, but iridoids lacking. [[Image:Bidens_flwr.jpg|thumb|left|A typical Asteraceae flower head (here ''[[Bidens torta]]'') showing the individual flowers]] The most common characteristic of all these plants, is that what in common parlance might be called a &quot;flower&quot;, is an inflorescence or '''flower head'''; a densely packed cluster of many small, individual [[flowers]], usually called '''florets''' (meaning &quot;small flowers&quot;). Plants in the family Asteraceae typically have one or both of two kinds of ''florets''. The outer perimeter of a flower head like that of a [[sunflower]] is composed of florets possessing a long strap-like [[petal]], termed a '''ligule'''; these are the '''ray florets'''. The inner portion of the flower head (or ''disc'') is composed of small flowers with tubular [[petal|corolla]]s; these are the '''disc florets'''. The composition of asteraceous inflorescences varies from all ray flowers (like [[dandelion]]s, genus ''Taraxacum'') to all disc flowers (like [[pineapple weed]]s). The composite nature of the inflorescences of these plants led early taxonomists to call this family the Compositae. Although the rules governing naming conventions for plant families state that the name should come from the [[biological type|type genus]], in this case ''Aster'' and thus Asteraceae. However, the long prevailing name Compositae is also authorized as an alternative family name ([[ICBN]] Art. 18.6). The numerous genera are divided into about 13 tribes. Only one of these, Lactuceae, is considered distinct enough to be a subfamily (subfamily Cichorioideae); the remainer, which are mostly overlapping, are put in the subfamily Asteroideae (Wagner, Herbst, and Sohmer, 1990). ==Uses== Commercially important plants in the Asteraceae include the food crops [[lettuce]], [[chicory]], [[globe artichoke]], [[sunflower]], and [[Jerusalem artichoke]]. [[Guayule]] is a source of [[hypoallergenic]] [[latex]]. Many members of Asteracae are copious [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] producers and are useful for evaluating [[pollinator]] populations during their bloom. ''Centaurea'' (knapweed), ''Helianthus annuus'' (domestic sunflower), and some species of ''Solidago'' (goldenrod) are major &quot;[[honey]] plants&quot; for [[beekeeper]]s. ''Solidago'' produces relatively high protein [[pollen]], which helps [[honeybee]]s overwinter. Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, e.g., [[chrysanthemums]] and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some Asteraceae are economically important in the sense that they are considered noxious [[weeds]], e.g., [[dandelions]]. &lt;br clear = all /&gt; [[Image:Ray.floret01.jpg|thumb|left|Ray floret : &lt;small&gt;A = ovary; B = pappus; C = theca; D = ligule; E = style with stigma &lt;/small&gt;]] [[Image:Disc floret01.jpg|left|thumb|Disc floret : &lt;small
d in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes, [[Rosina Bulwer Lytton|Rosina Doyle Wheeler]] ([[1802]]-[[1882]]). Upon their marriage, Bulwer's mother withdrew his allowance, and he was forced to set to work seriously. His writing and his efforts in the political arena took a toll upon his marriage to Rosina, and they were legally separated in 1836. Three years later, she published a novel called ''Cizeveley, or the Man of Honour'', in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured. In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the [[hustings]] and indignantly denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but liberated a few weeks later. This was chronicled in her book ''[[A Blighted Life]]''. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband's character; she would outlive him by nine years. According to [[Fulham Football Club]], he once resided in the original [[Craven Cottage]], which has since been destroyed by fire. Upon being rebuilt, the club started to play their games nearby it and eventually built a stadium on the land, which is still used today. ==Political career== Bulwer began his career as a follower of [[Jeremy Bentham]]. In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon, after which he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Bill]], and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His influence was perhaps most keenly felt when, on the Whigs' dismissal from office in 1834, he issued a pamphlet entitled ''A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis''. [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|Lord Melbourne]], then Prime Minister, offered him a lordship of the [[admiralty]], which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. In 1845, he left Parliament and spent some years in continental travel, reentering the political field in 1852; this time, having differed from the policy of [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]] over the [[Corn Laws]], he stood for Hertfordshire as a [[UK Conservative Party|Conservative]]. Bulwer held that seat till 1866, when he was raised to the [[peerage]] as '''Baron Lytton of Knebworth'''. In 1858 he entered [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]]'s [[Second Derby Ministry|government]] as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], thus serving alongside his old friend Disraeli. In the [[House of Lords]] he was comparatively inactive. He took a proprietary interest in the development of the Crown Colony of British Columbia and wrote with great passion to the Royal Engineers upon assigning them their duties there. The former [[Hudson's Bay Company|HBC]] Fort Dallas at [[Camchin]], the confluence of the [[Thompson River|Thompson]] and [[Fraser River]]s, was renamed in his honour as [[Lytton, British Columbia]]. ==Literary career== Bulwer-Lytton's literary career began in [[1820]], with the publication of his first book of poems, and spanned much of the [[nineteenth century]]. He wrote in a variety of genres, including [[historical fiction]], [[mystery]], [[Romance (genre)|romance]], the [[occult]] and [[science fiction]]. In [[1828]] he attracted general attention with ''Pelham'', an intimate study of the dandyism of the age that kept gossips busy in identifying the characters with the leading men of the time. By [[1833]], he had reached the height of his popularity with ''Godolphin'', followed by ''The Pilgrims of the Rhine'' (1834), ''[[The Last Days of Pompeii]]'' (1834), ''Rienzi'' (1835), and ''Last of the Saxon Kings'' (1848). &quot;[[The Last Days of Pompeii]]&quot; was inspired by the painting on the same subject by Russian painting Karl Briullov (Carlo Brullo) which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan. Pelham had been partly inspired by [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]]'s first novel ''[[Vivian Grey]]''. Bulwer-Lytton was an admirer of Benjamin's father [[Isaac D'Israeli]], himself a noted literary figure, and had corresponded with him. Bulwer-Lytton and Disraeli began corresponding themselves in the late 1820s, and met for the first time in March of [[1830]], when Disraeli dined at Bulwer-Lytton's house. Also present that evening were [[Charles Pelham Villiers]] and [[Sir Alexander Cockburn|Alexander Cockburn]]. Although young at the time, Villiers went on to an exceptionally long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became [[Lord Chief Justice of England]] in [[1859]]. &lt;!-- Blake, 59--&gt; He penned many other works, including ''[[The Coming Race|Vril: The Power of the Coming Race]]'', which drew heavily on his interest in the [[occult]] and contributed to the birth of the [[science fiction]] genre. Some believe the book helped to inspire [[Nazi mysticism]]. Unquestionably, its story of a subterranean race of men waiting to reclaim the surface is one of the first science fiction novels. ==Legacy== Although he was popular in his day (and was a fine [[Victorian era|Victorian]] stylist), Bulwer-Lytton's prose strikes many contemporary readers as anachronistic and overly embellished, though at least one of his works (''The Last Days of Pompeii'') is still regularly read. His name lives on in the annual [[Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest]], in which contestants have to supply the openings of terrible (imaginary) novels, inspired by his novel ''[[Paul Clifford]]'', which opens with the famous words:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;It was a [[dark and stormy night]]&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; or to give the sentence in its full glory:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents--except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; The shorter form of the opening sentence was popularized by the ''[[Peanuts]]'' comic strip, in which it usually began [[Snoopy]]'s sessions with the typewriter. It is also the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle's Newberry Medal novel ''A Wrinkle in Time.'' Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence. Bulwer-Lytton's most famous respected turn of phrase is &quot;the pen is mightier than the sword,&quot; although its original quote is led with the phrase &quot;Beneath the rule of men entirely great,&quot; in the play ''Richelieu''. He also gave the world the memorable phrase &quot;pursuit of the [[almighty dollar]].&quot; Finally, he is widely credited for &quot;the great unwashed.&quot; Unfortunately, many citations claim ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' as their source, but perusal of the original work indicates that this is not the case. However, the term &quot;the Unwashed&quot;, with the same meaning, appears in ''The Parisians'' - &quot;He says that Paris has grown so dirty since the 4th September, that it is only fit for the feet of the Unwashed.&quot; Several of his novels were made into [[opera]]s, one of which (''[[Rienzi]]'', by [[Richard Wagner]]) eventually became considerably more famous than the novel on which it was based. Another of Bulwer-Lytton's novels, ''[[The Lady of Lyons]]'', was made into an opera by [[William Henry Fry]] (''[[Leonora (opera)|Leonora]]''); this was the first opera composed in the United States. In [[1831]] Bulwer-Lytton undertook the editorship of the ''New Monthly'' but resigned the following year. In [[1841]], he started the ''Monthly Chronicle'', a semi-scientific magazine. During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was ''Kenelm Chillingly'', which was in course of publication in [[Blackwood's Magazine]] at the time of his death in [[1873]]. His works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including [[German language|German]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. ==Other== He also published an incomplete but perceptive work of history, ''Athens: Its Rise and Fall.'' ==Further reading== * T. H. S. Escott, ''Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth'' (1910). ==External links== *[http://www.edward-bulwer-lytton.org/ Edward Bulwer-Lytton Books] * {{gutenberg author|id=Edward_Bulwer-Lytton|name=Edward Bulwer-Lytton}} *[http://reverent.org/bulwer-dickens.html Dickens or Bulwer-Lytton?] Take this quiz to see if you can tell the difference between their prose. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby|The Lord Stanley]] | title=[[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] | years=1858&amp;ndash;1859 | after=[[Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle|The Duke of Newcastle]]}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box two to two | before=New Creation | title1=[[Earl of Lytton|Baron Lytton]] | title2=[[Earl of Lytton|Baronet]]&lt;br&gt;'''(of Knebworth) | after=[[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Robert Bulwer-Lytton]] | years1=1866&amp;ndash;1873 | years2='''1838&amp;ndash;1873}} {{end box}} [[Category:1803 births|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]] [[Category:1873 deaths|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]] [[Category:British Secretaries of State|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]] [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]] [[Category:English novelists|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st
objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator. [[Faustina]], the mother of the emperor [[Commodus]], was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator, but Commodus likely invented this story himself. Despite or because of the prohibition many rich women sought intimate contact with gladiators. They were the ancient [[Pop star]]s and the festivity before the fights gave the women an opportunity to meet them. Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles. Their oath (which [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (''infamia''). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: ''Nos morituri te salutamus'' (&quot;We who are about to die salute you&quot;). Some [[Roman Emperors|emperors]], among them [[Hadrian]], [[Caligula]], [[Titus]] and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor [[Trajan]] organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete. [[Gaius Marius]] had gladiators train the [[legionaries]] in single combat. [[Female gladiators]] also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in &quot;The Twelve Caesars&quot;. One of the most famous gladiators was [[Spartacus]] who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in [[73 BC]], was crushed by [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again. The Greek physician [[Galen]] worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in [[Pergamon]]. Gladiator fights were first outlawed by [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] in [[325]] but continued sporadically until about [[450]]. The last known gladiator competition in the city of [[Rome]] occurred on [[January 1]], [[404]]. ==Gladiators in modern popular culture== [[Image:2005-12-28_Berlin_Pergamon_museum_Gladiator_helmet.jpg|thumb|Gladiator helmet in the [[Pergamon Museum]], [[Berlin]].]] ===[[Sword and sandal|Epic film]]=== Naturally, gladiators feature frequently in movies and series set in this period - one might even say it was a compulsory requirement! These include obvious ones such as ''[[Spartacus (film)]]'', ''[[Gladiator (film)|Gladiator]]'' (2000) starring Russel Crowe and ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' in 1954, as well as ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)]]'' and ''[[Rome (TV series)]]''. ===Science fiction and fantasy=== Gladiators are sometimes mentioned in [[science fiction]], being depicted in the film ''[[The Running Man]]''; as well as the games ''[[Battletech]]'', ''[[Quake computer game|Quake]]'', and ''[[Unreal]]''. The Unreal Tournament series is especially notable as a futuristic gun slinging take on gladiators. Colosseum: Road to Freedom is a role-playing game where you take the role of a gladiator and fight in battles mimicking historical ones to gain your freedom. ===Reality entertainment=== For obvious [[human rights]] and [[liability]] reasons, it has been impossible to revive gladiator fights in the Ancient Roman sense (where the fight concludes with serious bodily injury or death). However, the controversial [[Bumfights]] videos have been described by some people as 'gladiator fights for the homeless'. In the U.S. during the 1990s, there was a game show called ''[[American Gladiators]]'', and around the same time, [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] popularized a rather wild style of wrestling which some compared to gladiator combat. However, the competitors on ''American Gladiators'' never directly attacked each other but did face the established stadium gladiators, and the WWE fights are openly acknowledged to be staged performances, as opposed to actual competition. In [[California]], [[California State Prison, Corcoran|Corcoran State Prison]] became infamous in 1997 when it was discovered that the guards were staging informal &quot;gladiator&quot; fights with the prisoners (some of which were videotaped). Such fights differ from true gladiator fights in that they were not state-sponsored or approved. Gladiatorial imagery is also associated with the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], whose opening credits in their broadcasts feature a gladiator preparing for battle. == References == #{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} #Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992 #James Grout: [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana] #[http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles] #[http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay. #Daniel P Mannix: &quot;Those About To Die&quot;, Ballantine Books, New York 1958 #Michael Grant: &quot;Gladiators&quot;, Penguin Books, London 1967, reprinted 2000, ISBN 0140299343 [[Category:Ancient Rome]] [[Category:Defunct occupations]] [[Category:Sports occupations]] [[Category:Roman slaves and freedmen]] [[Category:Gladiatorial combat]] [[bg:Гладиатор]] [[da:Gladiator]] [[de:Gladiator]] {{Link FA|de}} [[et:Gladiaator]] [[es:Gladiador]] [[fa:گلادیاتور]] [[fi:Gladiaattori]] [[fr:Gladiateur]] [[it:Gladiatore]] [[he:גלדיאטור]] [[la:Gladiator]] [[nl:Gladiator]] [[ja:剣闘士]] [[pl:Gladiator]] [[pt:Gladiador]] [[sr:Гладијатор]] [[sk:Gladiátor]] [[sv:Gladiator]] [[zh:角斗士]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gnucleus</title> <id>12337</id> <revision> <id>33581158</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T09:37:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FrYGuY</username> <id>48013</id> </contributor> <comment>Cleaning the article up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software | name = Gnucleus | screenshot = [[image:Gnucleus_-_Downloads_Screenshot.jpg|250px]] | caption = A screenshot of Gnucleus with its downloads window open | developer = John Marshall | latest_release_version = 2.2.0.0 | latest_release_date = [[June 17]]?, [[2005]] | operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]] | genre = [[peer to peer]] | license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] | website = [http://www.gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/ gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/] | }} '''Gnucleus''' is a popular [[Gnutella]] and [[Gnutella2]] [[servent]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], released under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license. The primary goals of the project are security and stability. The client is designed to be easy to use without reducing the number of options available. Gnucleus implements a number of features including ultrapeers (high capacity Gnutella nodes which aggregate [[child node]]s to prevent low capacity nodes from creating network bottlenecks), multisource swarming downloads, partial-file sharing, [[SHA1]] file hashing, [[Hash tree|Tiger tree hashing]], [[proxy server]] support, as well as support for the [[Gnutella2]] network. The network core, now dubbed [[GnucDNA]], has been separated from the main program and is being used by many other applications such as [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]]. ==See also== *[[Peer-to-peer]] - p2p protocols and clients ==Related Websites== * [http://www.gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/ Gnucleus Homepage] * [http://gnucleus.sourceforge.net Sourceforge Project Page for Gnucleus] [[Category:File sharing programs]] [[Category:Windows software]] [[hu:Gnucleus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GMO</title> <id>12338</id> <revision> <id>40369478</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:39:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ceyockey</username> <id>150564</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>edited for style</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''GMO''' is an abbreviation with several meanings: * [[Genetically modified organism]], an organism the genetic material of which has been altered using recombinant DNA technology * [[Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad]] (AAR reporting mark &quot;GMO&quot;), an American railroad carrier {{TLAdisambig}} [[ja:GMO]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genetically modified organism</title> <id>12339</id> <revision> <id>42098383</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:42:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bidabadi</username> <id>726723</id> </contributor> <comment>interwiki fa</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|A tobacco plant which has been genetically engineered to express a gene taken from fireflies.]] A '''genetically modified organism''' (GMO) is an [[organism]] whose [[gene]]tic material has been [[genetic engineering|altered]] using techniques in [[genetics]] generally known as [[recombinant DNA technology]]. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s from different sources into the one molecule in a [[test tube]]. Thus, the abilities or the [[phenotype]] of the organism, or the [[protein]]s it produces, can be modified through the modification of its' genes. The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup have been altered by conventional [[cross breeding]] or by &quot;mutagenesis&quot; breeding as these methods predate the discovery of the recombinant DNA techniques. Examples of GMOs are diverse, and include transgenic experimental [[animal]]s such as [[mus musculus|mice]], transgenic
aristocracy]]; * There is no one governing body that has final say over what &quot;the dance&quot; is or who is authorized to teach it. This also means that no one has the final say over the definition of folk dance or the minimum age for such dances. Folk dances are traditionally performed during [[social dance|social events]] by people with little or no professional training. New dancers often learn informally by observing others and/or receiving help from others. Folk dancing is viewed as more of a social activity rather than [[competitive dance|competetive]], although there are professional and semi-professional folk dance groups, and occassional folk dance competitions. ==Types of folk dance== Types of folk dance include [[Contradance]], [[English country dance]] (Although today's ECD is a revival), [[International folk dance]], [[Irish dance]], [[Maypole dance]], [[Morris dance]], [[Scottish country dance]] (Although the [[Royal Scottish Country Dance Society|RSCDS]] is a governing body, and country dancing in general was originally a pastime of the nobility),[[Square dance]], and [[Sword dance]]. Some [[choreographed]] dances such as [[Israeli folk dancing|Israeli folk dance]] are called folk dances, though they are not actually folk dances in the strictest sense. [[Country dance]] overlaps with contemporary folk dance and ballroom dance. Most country dances and ballroom dances originated from folk dances, with gradual refinement over the years. Folk dances are often part of the [[social fabric]] of the country, and often have common features. People familiar with folk dancing can often determine what country a dance is from even if they have not seen that particular dance before. Some countries' dances have features that are unique to that country, although neighoring countries sometimes have similar features. For example, the [[Germany|German]] and [[Austrian]] [[Schuhplattler|schuhplattling dance]] consists of slapping the body and shoes in a fixed pattern, a feature that few other countries' dances have. Folk dances sometimes evolved long before current political boundaries, so that certain dances are shared by several countries. For example, some Serbian, Bulgarian, and Croatian dances share the same or similar dances, and sometimes even use the same name and music for those dances. Although folk dancing was historically done by the common people of the local culture, [[International folk dance|international folk dance]] has received some popularity on college campuses and community centers within the [[United States]] and other countries. == Terminology == The term &quot;folk dance&quot; is sometimes applied to dances of historical European culture, typically originated before 20th century. For other cultures the terms ''[[ethnic dance]]'' or ''[[traditional dance]]'' are sometimes used, although the latter terms may encompass [[ceremonial dance]]s. Modern [[street dance]]s such as [[hip hop dance|hip hop]] are not generally considered folk dances because such dances are living and evolving dance forms, while folk dances are to a significant degree bound by tradition. [[Ballroom dance]], depending on the particular dance, can be considered folk dance. The terms ''ethnic'' and ''traditional'' are used when it is required to emphasize the cultural roots of the dance. It this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic ones. If some dances, such as [[polka]], cross ethnic boundaries (and even cross the boundary between ''Folk'' and ''[[Ballroom dance|Ballroom]]'' dance), ethnical differences are often considerable enough to speak of, e.g., &quot;Czech Polka&quot; vs. &quot;German Polka&quot;. However, not all ethnic dances are folk ones. The simplest example of these are [[ritual dances]] or dances of ritual origin. ==Folk dancing in the media== Richard Thompson wrote a song folk dancers titled ''Don't Sit On My Jimmy Shands'', a reference to Scottish musician [[Jimmy Shand]] that produced [[bagpipe]] music. In the 1960's this movement was supported by record labels such as ''Folk Dancer'' by Michael and Maryann Herman, and the ''[[Folkways]]'' label by [[Moses Asch]] which is currently under the [[Smithsonian Institute]]. ==See also== * [[List of folk dances sorted by origin]], a sorted list of specific ethnic, folk, traditional, and regional dances * [[Dance basic topics]], a list of general dance topics * [[International folk dance]] * [[Austrian folk dance]] * [[Igor Moiseyev]] * [[Contredanse|Contra dancing]] * [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian folk dancing]] * [[Israeli folk dancing]] * [[Square dancing]] * [[Country and Western dance]] * [[China National Ethnic Song and Dance]] * [[Ukrainian dance]] ==External links== *[http://come.to/folkdance General information about Scandinavian folkdance] *[http://www.recfd.com/ Additional folk dance information] *[http://www.travel-impressions.de/music/dichosa.htm Photos of Regional and Cultural Genres of Music and Dance] *[http://www.folkdancing.org/ Folk Dance Association] *[http://www.facone.org Folk Arts Center of New England] *[http://www.ConnectChina.com China National Ethnic Song &amp; Dance Ensemble] *[http://www.phantomranch.net/folkdanc/articles.htm International folk dance articles] [[Category:Dance]] [[Category:Folklore]] [[Category:Social dance]] [[Category:Folk dances|*]] [[da:Folkedans]] [[de:Volkstanz]] [[fr:Danse traditionnelle]] [[he:ריקוד עם]] [[ja:フォークダンス]] [[nl:Volksdans]] [[no:Folkedans]] [[pl:Taniec ludowy]] [[fi:Kansantanssi]] [[sv:Folkdans]] [[zh:民族舞蹈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fyodor Dostoevsky</title> <id>11625</id> <revision> <id>41935667</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:07:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.114.36.86</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dostoevsky 1872.jpg|framed|right|Fyodor Dostoevsky. Portrait by [[Vasily Perov]], 1872]] '''Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky''' (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes [[Transliteration of Russian into English|transliterated]] '''Dostoyevsky''' {{Audio|ru-Dostoevsky.ogg|listen}}) ({{OldStyleDate|November 11|1821|October 30}} &amp;ndash; {{OldStyleDate|February 9|1881|January 28}}) was one of the greatest of [[Russian literature|Russian writers]], whose works have had a profound and lasting effect on [[twentieth-century]] fiction. Often featuring characters with disparate and extreme states of the mind, his works exhibit both an uncanny grasp of human [[psychology]] as well as penetrating analyses in the [[political|politics]], [[social]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] state of Russia of his time. Many of his best-known works are prophetic as precursors of modern-day thought and preoccupations. He is sometimes said to be a founder of [[existentialism]], most notably in ''[[Notes from Underground]]'', which has been described by [[Walter Kaufmann]] as &quot;the best overture for existentialism ever written&quot;. == Biography == Fyodor was the second of seven children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoevsky. Shortly after his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1837]], he and his brother Mikhail were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at [[St. Petersburg]], and they lost their father, a retired military surgeon who served as a doctor at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in [[Moscow]], in [[1839]]. While not known for certain, it is believed that Mikhail Dostoevsky was murdered by his own [[serf]]s, who reportedly became enraged during one of Mikhail's drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured [[vodka]] into his mouth until he drowned. Another story was that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented this story of a peasant rebellion so he could buy the estate inexpensively. Dostoevsky was arrested and imprisoned on April 23rd of [[1849]] for engaging in revolutionary activity against [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nikolai I]]. On [[November 16]] that year he was [[death sentence|sentenced to death]] for anti-government activities linked to a liberal intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. After a [[mock execution]] in which he was blindfolded and ordered to stand outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a [[firing squad]], Dostoevsky's sentence was commuted to a number of years of [[exile]] performing hard labor at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. The incidence of [[epilepsy|epileptic]] seizures, to which he was predisposed, increased during this period. He was released from prison in [[1854]], and was required to serve in the [[Siberian Regiment]]. Dostoevsky spent the following five years as a corporal (and latterly lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion stationed at the fortress of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]] in [[Kazakhstan]]. This was a turning point in the author's life. Dostoevsky abandoned his earlier liberal sentiments and became deeply [[conservatism|conservative]] and extremely religious. He later formed a peculiar friendship with another archconservative, [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]]. He began an affair with, and later married, Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva, the widow of an acquaintance in Siberia. In [[1860]], he returned to St. Petersburg, where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals with his older brother Mikhail. Dostoevsky was devastated by his wife's death in [[1864]], followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts and the need to provide for his brother's widow and children. Dostoevsky sank into a deep [[clinical depression|depression]], frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables. Dostoevsky suffered from an acute gambling compulsion as well as from its consequences. By one account ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', possibly his best known novel, was completed in a mad hurry because Dostoevsky was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left pract
f|Examples of different kinds of needles used for body piercing, and a few examples of how to dispose of them]] * [[Media: Body_Piercing_Aftercare_and_Healing.pdf|Some healing related issues that relate to body piercing ]] * [[Media:How to Test Jewelry.pdf|A guide to testing jewelry]] --&gt; * [[Media:Gauge_Chart.pdf|A chart comparing wire gauges likely to be encountered when making jewelry]] ==External links== * [http://www.BodyMod.org/ BodyMod.org - Piercing Galleries and an online community of people from around the world with interest in Body Piercings.] * [http://www.safepiercing.org/ American Association of Professional Piercers' website] * [http://www.bmezine.com/ Body Modification E-Zine -A very extensive source of pictures ,convention etc'] * [http://www.piercing.com/ Piercing.com - an international body modification website] [[Category:Body modification]] [[Category:Body piercing|*]] [[Category:Body art]] [[Category:1990s fads]] [[da:Piercing]] [[de:Piercing]] [[es:Piercing]] [[eo:Korpa traborado]] [[fr:Piercing]] [[it:Piercing]] [[he:פירסינג]] [[nl:Piercing]] [[pl:Piercing]] [[pt:Piercing]] [[ru:Пирсинг]] [[sk:Piercing]] [[sr:Пирсинг]] [[fi:Lävistys]] [[sv:Piercing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burrhus Frederic Skinner</title> <id>4868</id> <revision> <id>42110646</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Where</username> <id>722151</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.124.185.23|70.124.185.23]] to last version by Skagedal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Skinner.jpg|thumb|right|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]] '''Burrhus Frederic Skinner''' ([[March 20]], [[1904]] &amp;ndash; [[August 18]], [[1990]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]] and author. He conducted pioneering work on [[experimental psychology]] and advocated [[behaviorism]], which seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcement. He also wrote a number of controversial works in which he proposed the widespread use of psychological [[behavior modification]] techniques, primarily [[operant conditioning]], in order to improve [[society]] and increase human [[happiness]], as a form of [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]]. ==Life== Skinner was born in rural [[Susquehanna]], [[Pennsylvania]]. He attended [[Hamilton College]] in [[New York]] with the intention of becoming a writer and received a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A]]. in English literature in [[1926]]. After graduation, he spent a year in [[Greenwich Village]] attempting to become a writer of fiction, but he soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and concluded that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write. During this time, which Skinner later called &quot;the dark year,&quot; he chanced upon a copy of [[Bertrand Russell]]'s Philosophy in which Russell discusses the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist [[John B. Watson]]. At the time, Skinner had begun to take more interest in the actions and behaviors of those around him, and some of his short stories had taken a &quot;psychological&quot; slant. He decided to abandon literature and seek admission as a graduate student in psychology at Harvard University (which at the time was not regarded as a leading institution in that field). Skinner received a Ph.D. from [[Harvard]] in 1931 and remained at that institution as a researcher until 1936. He then taught at the [[University of Minnesota]] at Minneapolis and later at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained there for the rest of his career. Skinner was granted numerous awards in his lifetime. In [[1968]], he received the [[National Medal of Science]] by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Three years later, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the [[American Psychological Foundation]], and in 1972, he was given the Humanist of the Year Award of the [[American Humanist Association]]. Just eight days before his death, he received the first Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology by the [[American Psychological Association]] (Epstein, 1997). ==Behaviorism== Skinner was mainly responsible for the development of the philosophy of [[neo behaviorism]] and for the further development of applied [[behavior analysis]], a branch of psychology which aims to develop a unified framework for animal and human behavior based on principles of [[learning]]. He conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative [[reinforcement]] and demonstrated [[operant conditioning]], a behavior modification technique which he developed in contrast with [[classical conditioning]]. Skinner did not advocate the use of [[punishment]]. His research suggested that punishment was an ineffective way of controlling behavior, leading generally to short-term behavior change, but resulting mostly in the subject attempting to avoid the punishing [[stimulus]] instead of avoiding the behavior that was causing punishment. A simple example of this is the failure of [[prison]] to eliminate criminal behavior. If prison (as a punishing stimulus) were effective at altering behavior, there would be no criminality, since the risk of imprisonment for criminal conduct is well established. However, individuals still commit offences, but attempt to avoid discovery and therefore punishment. The punishing stimulus does not stop criminal behaviour. The criminal simply becomes more sophisticated at avoiding the punishment. [[Reinforcement]], both positive and negative (the latter of which is often confused with punishment), proves to be more effective in bringing about lasting changes in behaviour. ==Superstition in the pigeon== One of Skinner's most famous and interesting experiments examined the formation of [[superstition]] in one of his favorite experimental animals, the [[pigeon]]. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon &quot;at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behaviour&quot;. Whatever chance actions each bird had been performing as food was delivered was strengthened, so the bird continued to perform the same actions: &lt;blockquote&gt;One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return.&lt;br /&gt;—{{cite journal|title='Superstition' in the Pigeon|author=B.F. Skinner|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=38|year=1947 |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/}}&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behaviour and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behaviour. Rituals for changing one's luck at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a ritual and favourable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behaviour in spite of many non-reinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if he were controlling it by twisting and turning his arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviours have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or, more strictly speaking, did something else.&lt;br /&gt;—''ibid''&lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Social engineering== Skinner is popularly known mainly for his controversial books ''[[Walden Two]]'' and ''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]''. ''[[Walden Two]]'' describes a visit to an imaginary [[utopian]] [[commune (intentional community)|commune]] in the [[1940s]] United States, where the productivity and happiness of the citizens is far in advance of that in the outside world due to their practice of scientific social planning and the use of operant conditioning in the raising of children. Walden Two, like [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]]'s [[Walden]], champions a lifestyle that doesn't foster competition and social strife and doesn't support war. It favors and encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure. ''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]'' advanced the thesis that obsolete social concepts, like [[free will]] and human dignity (by which Skinner meant belief in individual autonomy) stood in the way of greater human happiness and productivity. Skinner was just as opposed to inhumane treatment and bad government as many, and perhaps more than some, but he argued that the champions of freedom went so far as to deny causality in human action so they could champion the &quot;free person.&quot; So the champions of freedom were, in a sense, the enemies of a scientific way of knowing. There is a rough parallel here to the book &quot;[[Higher Superstition]]&quot; in the opposition to scientific knowledge, except Skinner here is being much more general. Dignity is the practice of giving individuals credit for their actions. To say &quot;Skinner is brilliant&quot; means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the
uages, and some [[Mesoamerican languages|Mesoamerican]] and native North American languages including [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], [[Huastec#Huastec language|Huastec]], and [[Salishan languages|Salish]]. In the past, most of the [[Ancient Near East]] and what is now [[Iran]] also spoke such languages, like [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], [[Urartian language|Urartian]], [[Hattic language|Hattic]], [[Gutian]], [[Lullubi]], [[Punjabi]] and [[Kassites#Kassite language|Kassite]]. An example of an agglutinative [[constructed language]] is [[Klingon (language)|Klingon]]. Agglutinative languages are not entirely grouped by the family (although [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are definitely related, as are, it is often posited, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]]). It is possible that [[convergent evolution]] had many separate languages develop this property, but there seems to exist a preferred evolutionary direction from agglutinative synthetic languages to fusional synthetic languages, and then to non-synthetic languages, which in their turn evolve again into agglutinative synthetic languages. == See also == * [[Agglutination]] ==References== {{unreferenced}} [[Category:Agglutinative languages| ]] [[Category:Synthetic languages]] [[ar:لغات اشتقاقية]] [[ast:Llingua aglutinante]] [[br:Yezh daspegel]] [[cs:Aglutinační jazyk]] [[de:Agglutinierender Sprachbau]] [[es:Lengua aglutinante]] [[eo:Aglutina lingvo]] [[fr:Langue agglutinante]] [[gl:Lingua aglutinante]] [[it:Lingua agglutinante]] [[hu:Agglutináló nyelv]] [[nl:Agglutinatie (taalkunde)]] [[ja:膠着語]] [[no:Agglutinerende språk]] [[ru:Агглютинативные языки]] [[zh:黏着语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Athanasius of Alexandria</title> <id>3225</id> <revision> <id>41798535</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:50:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Djordjes</username> <id>88876</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Athanasius of Alexandria''' (also spelled &quot;Athanasios&quot;) ([[298]]&amp;ndash;[[May 2]], [[373]]) was a [[Christianity|Christian]] bishop, the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], in the fourth century. He is revered as a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and regarded as a great leader and doctor of the Church by [[Protestantism|Protestants]]. Roman Catholics have declared him one of 33 [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]]. His feast day is [[January 18]]. ==Historical significance== ===Opposition to Arianism=== [[Image:Stathanasius.jpg|thumb|[[Copt|Coptic]] Icon of St Athanasius]] In about [[319]], when Athanasius was a [[deacon]], a [[presbyter]] named [[Arius]] began teaching that there was a time before [[God]] the Father begat [[Jesus]] when the latter did not exist. Athanasius accompanied [[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]] to the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]], which council produced the [[Nicene Creed]] and anathematized Arius and his followers. On [[May 9]], [[328]], he succeeded [[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]] as bishop of [[Alexandria]]. As a result of rises and falls in Arianism's influence, he was banished from Alexandria only to be later restored on at least five separate occasions, perhaps as many as seven. This gave rise to the expression &quot;Athanasius contra mundum&quot; or &quot;Athanasius against the world&quot;. During some of his exiles, he spent time with the [[Desert Father]]s, monks and hermits who lived in remote areas of Egypt. Despite his doctrinal firmness, he showed diplomatic flair in rallying the Orthodox at the Council of Alexandria in 362. ===Writings=== Possibly during his first exile at Trier in 335-7, although probably between 318 and 323, Athanasius wrote a double treatise entitled ''Against the Gentiles -- On the Incarnation'', affirming and explaining that [[Jesus]] was both God and Man. In his major theological opus, the ''Three Discourses Against the Arians'', Athanasius stressed that the Father's begetting of the Son, or uttering of the Word, was an eternal relationship between them, not an event that took place within time. He makes very sparing use of the key-word of Nicea, [[ousios|homoousios]] (consubstantial). These writings lay the foundation of catholic [[Christianity]]'s fight against the [[heresy]] of [[Arianism]], which Athanasius opposed all his life. He also wrote a defence of the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]] (''Letters to Serapion'') in the 360s, and wrote a polemic (''On the Holy Spirit'') against the [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonian heresy]]. Athanasius also wrote a biography of [[Anthony the Great]] entitled ''Vita Antonii'', or ''Life of Antony'', that later served as an inspiration to Christian [[monasticism|monastics]] in both the East and the West. The [[Athanasian Creed]] is traditionally ascribed to him. ===New Testament canon=== Athanasius is also the first person to identify the same 27 books of the [[New Testament]] that are in use today. Up until then, various similar lists of works to be read in churches were in use. A milestone in the evolution of the [[Biblical canon|canon of New Testament books]] is his Easter letter from Alexandria, written in [[367]], usually referred to as his ''39th Festal Letter''. [[Pope Damasus]], the [[Bishop of Rome]] in [[382]], promulgated a list of books which contained a New Testament canon identical to that of Athanasius. A synod in [[Hippone]] in [[393]] repeated Athansius' and Damasus' New Testament list (without the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]), and a synod in [[Carthage]] in [[397]] repeated Athanasius' and Damasus' complete New Testament list. Scholars have debated whether Athanasius' list in 367 was the basis for the later lists. Because Athanasius' canon is the closest canon of any of the Church Fathers to the canon used by Protestant churches today many Protestants point to Athanasius as the father of the canon. They are identical except that Athanasius excludes the [[Book of Esther]] which is placed in a [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanon]] along with the [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Ben Sira|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], the [[Didache]], and the [[The Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd of Hermas]]. On the other hand, Catholics tend to point to Damasus or the Council of Carthage, since these councils endorsed an Old Testament identical to that used by Catholics today. Regardless of this question, the New Testament canon endorsed by Athanasius has been used by almost all Christians since his day. ===Relics and veneration=== [[Image:StAthanasiusShrineinStMarkCathedralCairo.jpg|thumb|St. Athanasius Shrine (where the saint's relics are preserved) under St. Mark's Cathedral, Cairo]] The saint was originally buried in Alexandria. His holy body was later transferred to Italy. H.H. [[Pope]] [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|Shenouda III]] restored the relics of St. Athanasius back to Egypt on 15 May 1973 [http://www.avarewase.org/en/map/athanas.htm], after his historical visit to the Vatican and meeting with H.H. [[Pope Paul VI]]. The relics of St. Athanasius the Great of Alexandria are currently preserved under the new St. [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] [[Copt|Coptic]] Orthodox Cathedral in Deir El-Anba Rowais, Abbassiya, Cairo, Egypt. The following is a [[troparion]] (hymn) to St. Athanasius sung in some Orthodox churches. : ''O holy father Athanasius,'' : ''like a pillar of orthodoxy'' : ''you refuted the heretical nonsense of Arius'' : ''by insisting that the Father and the Son are equal in essence.'' : ''O venerable father, beg Christ our God to save our souls.'' ==Criticism of Athanasius== The tactics of Athanasius, while often downplayed by church historians, were a significant factor in his success. He did not hesitate to back up his theological views with the use of force. In Alexandria, he assembled an &quot;ecclesiastical mafia&quot; that could instigate a riot in the city if needed. It was an arrangement &quot;built up and perpetuated by violence.&quot; (Barnes, 230). Along with the standard method of excommunication he used beatings, intimidation, kidnapping and imprisonment to silence his theological opponents. Unsurprisingly, these tactics caused widespread distrust and led him to being tried many times for &quot;bribery, theft, extortion, [[sacrilege]], treason and murder. (Rubenstein, 6) While the charges rarely stuck, his reputation was a major factor in his multiple exiles from Alexandria. He justified these tactics with the argument that he was saving all future Christians from hell. Athanasius stubbornly refused to compromise his theological views by stating, &quot;What is at stake is not just a theological theory but people's salvation.&quot; (Olson, 172). In this assertion that violence was justified in defense of theology and the church, Athanasius, some hold, laid the foundation for theological concepts such as [[just war]] and [[inquisition|the inquisition]]. He played a clear role in making [[constantinian shift]] a part of the theology of the church. ==See also== *[[Nicene Creed]] ==External links== * [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/TOC.htm Background information, plus his actual writings] ==References== * Barnes, Timothy, 1981 ''Constantine and Eusebius'' * Brakke, David, 1995. ''Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism'' * Olson, Roger E., 1999 ''The Story of Christian Theology'' * Rubenstein, Richarde, 1999 ''When Jesus Became God: The Struggle to Define Christianity during the Last Days of Rome'' {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gregory of Cappadocia]]| title=[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Patriarch of Alexandria]]| years=[[328]]&amp;ndash;[[339]], [[346]]&amp